Pigeonpea and Chickpea Insect Identification Handbook - Agropedia

Abstract 

R e e d , W., Lateef, S.S., S i t h a n a n t h a m , S., a n d P a w a r , C . S . 

1989. P i g e o n p e a a n d c h i c k p e a i n s e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h a n d - 

b o o k . I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n n o . 26. P a t a n c h e r u , A n d h r a 

P r a d e s h 5 0 2 3 2 4 : I n d i a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h 

I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 

P i g e o n p e a a n d c h i c k p e a a r e t h e t w o m a j o r p u l s e c r o p s 

t h a t are a t t a c k e d b y several i n s e c t p e s t s a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s 

o f p l a n t g r o w t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e m i - a r i d t r o p i c s . M a n y o f 

t h e m c a u s e s e v e r e y i e l d l o s s e s i n t h e s e c r o p s . T h i s b u l l e t i n 

p r o v i d e s a s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e i n s e c t s , t h e i r b i o l o g y , 

d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d d a m a g e s y m p t o m s . I t i n c l u d e s b r i e f 

i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e s e p e s t s , 

a s w e l l a s d e s c r i p t i o n a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f s e v e r a l b e n e f i c i a l 

i n s e c t s l i k e p a r a s i t e s , p r e d a t o r s , a n d p o l l i n a t o r s . T h e t e x t 

i s s u p p o r t e d b y s e v e r a l c o l o r p h o t o g r a p h s t o h e l p i d e n t i f y 

t h e p e s t s . 

T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e S e m i - 

A r i d T r o p i c s i s a n o n p r o f i t , s c i e n t i f i c , r e s e a r c h a n d t r a i n - 

i n g I n s t i t u t e r e c e i v i n g s u p p o r t f r o m d o n o r s t h r o u g h t h e 

C o n s u l t a t i v e G r o u p o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h . 

D o n o r s t o I C R I S A T i n c l u d e g o v e r n m e n t s a n d a g e n c i e s o f 

A u s t r a l i a , B e l g i u m , C a n a d a , F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r - 

m a n y , F i n l a n d , F r a n c e , I n d i a , Italy. J a p a n , N e t h e r l a n d s , 

N o r w a y , S w e d e n , S w i t z e r l a n d , U n i t e d K i n g d o m , U n i t e d 

S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d 

p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s : A s i a n D e v e l o p m e n t B a n k , D e u t s c h e 

G e s e l l s c h a f t f u r T e c h n i s c h e Z u s a m m e n a r b e i t ( G T Z ) , I n t e r - 

n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , I n t e r n a t i o n a l F u n d 

f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t , T h e E u r o p e a n E c o n o m i c 

C o m m u n i t y , T h e O p e c F u n d f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p - 

m e n t , T h e W o r l d B a n k , a n d U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t 

P r o g r a m m e . I n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o n c l u s i o n s i n t h i s p u b l i c a - 

t i o n d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a f o r e - 

m e n t i o n e d g o v e r n m e n t s , a g e n c i e s , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d 

p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . 

Cover: Helicoverpa armigera l a r v a damaging pigeonpea 

pods.

Pigeonpea and Chickpea 

Insect Identification Handbook 

W. Reed, S.S. Lateef, S. Sithanantham, 

and C.S. Pawar 

Entomologists, I C R I S A T 

I C R I S A T 

Information Bulletin no. 26 

International Crops Research Institute 

for t h e Semi-Arid Tropics 

Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh 5 0 2 324, India 

1989

Credits 

Editing: V. S a d h a n a 

Designing: S . M . S i n h a 

Photography: A . B . C h i t n i s ; H.S. D u g g a l ; D . G . Faris; 

I C A R D A ; I C R I S A T E l e c t r o n M i c r o s c o p y 

U n i t ; I C R I S A T P h o t o L i b r a r y ; S.S. Lateef; 

W . R e e d ; S . S i t h a n a n t h a m 

Artwork: P. S a t y a n a r a y a n a 

Typesetting: I C R I S A T C o m p o s i n g U n i t 

C o p y r i g h t © 1989 b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h 

I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s ( I C R I S A T ) . 

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . E x c e p t f o r q u o t a t i o n s o f s h o r t p a s - 

s a g e s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c r i t i c i s m a n d r e v i e w , n o p a r t o f 

t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , s t o r e d i n retrieval 

s y s t e m s , o r t r a n s m i t t e d , i n a n y f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , 

e l e c t r o n i c , m e c h a n i c a l , p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g , o r o t h e r - 

w i s e , w i t h o u t p r i o r p e r m i s s i o n o f I C R I S A T . T h e I n s t i t u t e 

d o e s n o t r e q u i r e p a y m e n t f o r t h e n o n c o m m e r c i a l u s e o f its 

p u b l i s h e d w o r k s , a n d h o p e s t h a t t h i s C o p y r i g h t d e c l a r a - 

t i o n w i l l n o t d i m i n i s h t h e b o n a f i d e u s e o f its r e s e a r c h 

f i n d i n g s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n o r f o r 

t h e s e m i - a r i d t r o p i c s . 

T h e o p i n i o n s i n t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n a r e t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r s 

a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h o s e o f I C R I S A T . W h e r e t r a d e n a m e s 

are u s e d t h i s d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e e n d o r s e m e n t o f o r d i s - 

c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t a n y p r o d u c t b y t h e I n s t i t u t e . 

I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 1 7 1 - 2

Pigeonpea 

Pests Attacking Roots 

C o n t e n t s 

N o d u l e - d a m a g i n g Fly 10 

T e r m i t e s 13 

Pests of Stem 

J e w e l Beetles 14 

S t e m W e e v i l s 17 

S t e m Flies 18 

C o w B u g s 2 1 

S c a l e I n s e c t s 22 

Pests of Foliage 

J a s s i d s 25 

A p h i d s 2 6 

E r i o p h y i d M i t e s 2 9 

R e d S p i d e r M i t e s 3 0 

W h i t e f l i e s 33 

B u d - s u c k i n g B u g s 3 4 

L e a f - c u t t e r Bees 37 

G r a s s h o p p e r s a n d L o c u s t s 3 8 

L e a f - d a m a g i n g Weevils 4 1 

O t h e r Leaf- a n d F l o w e r - d a m a g i n g Beetles 4 2 

L e p i d o p t e r a n D e f o l i a t o r s 4 5 

Leaf W e b b e r s 4 6 

O t h e r Leaf W e b b e r s a n d T i e r s 4 9 

Pests of Flowers and Pods 

T h r i p s 5 0 

Blister Beetles 53 

B u d W e e v i l s 5 4 

P o d W e e v i l s 5 7 

P o d - s u c k i n g B u g s 5 8 

P o d B o r e r s 6 2 

L a b t a b P o d B o r e r s 6 6 

B l u e B u t t e r f l i e s 6 9

L e g u m e ( C o w p e a ) P o d B o r e r 7 0 

P l u m e M o t h s 7 3 

L i m a B e a n P o d B o r e r 7 4 

P o d f l i e s 7 7 

P o d W a s p 7 8 

B r u c h i d s 8 1 

Chickpea 

Pests Attacking Roots/Stems 

N o d u l e - d a m a g i n g Flies 8 5 

S i t o n a W e e v i l s 8 6 

T e r m i t e s 8 9 

S o i l B e e t l e s 9 0 

C u t w o r m s 9 3 

Pests of Foliage and Pods 

A p h i d s 9 4 

L e a f m i n e r s 9 6 

A r m y w o r m 9 8 

P o d B o r e r s 101 

S e m i l o o p e r 105 

Pests of Stored Seeds 

B r u c h i d s 106 

Other Animal Pests of Pigeonpea a n d Chickpea 

B i r d s 1 0 9 

R o d e n t s 109 

Beneficial Insects 

P o l l i n a t o r s 110 

N a t u r a l E n e m i e s 113 

P r e d a t o r s 113 

P a r a s i t o i d s 116 

I n s e c t D i s e a s e s 119

Authors' Note 

T h i s h a n d b o o k h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d t o h e l p a g r i c u l t u r a l 

s c i e n t i s t s a n d s t u d e n t s t o i d e n t i f y t h e c o m m o n insect a n d 

o t h e r a n i m a l p e s t s o f p i g e o n p e a a n d c h i c k p e a . A n u m b e r 

o f i n s e c t s f o u n d o n t h e s e c r o p s a r e n o t p e s t s a n d m a n y are 

e v e n b e n e f i c i a l , b e c a u s e t h e y f e e d u p o n t h e p e s t s p e c i e s . 

I l l u s t r a t i o n s of a f e w of t h e s e b e n e f i c i a l i n s e c t s a r e g i v e n 

h e r e , t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o first d e t e r m i n e t h e 

r o l e o f i n s e c t s f o u n d o n o u r c r o p s r a t h e r t h a n a s s u m i n g 

t h a t all i n s e c t s a r e h a r m f u l a n d s o m u s t b e e l i m i n a t e d ! Brief 

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d b i o l o g y o f t h e p e s t s are 

g i v e n , t o g e t h e r w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s f o r c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s , 

w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e . C h e m i c a l c o n t r o l s h o u l d o n l y b e u s e d 

w h e r e e s s e n t i a l a n d p r e f e r a b l y w i t h t h e a d v i c e o f a p l a n t 

p r o t e c t i o n s p e c i a l i s t . I t i s n o t e a s y t o i d e n t i f y i n s e c t s , p a r - 

t i c u l a r l y f r o m p h o t o g r a p h s . O u r r e a d e r s a r e t h e r e f o r e 

r e c o m m e n d e d t o c o l l e c t a n d p r e s e r v e i n s e c t s f o u n d o n 

t h e i r c r o p s , a n d t o seek h e l p f r o m p r o f e s s i o n a l e n t o m o l o - 

g i s t s t o i d e n t i f y t h e m a n d t o m a i n t a i n s p e c i m e n c o l l e c t i o n s 

f o r f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e . 

Acknowledgement 

T h e a u t h o r s g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e 

f r o m s e v e r a l c o l l e a g u e s a t I C R I S A T a n d f r o m t h e C o m - 

m o n w e a l t h I n s t i t u t e o f E n t o m o l o g y , U K .

Pigeonpea 

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) is an erect, w o o d y , 

perennial s h r u b that is c o m m o n l y g r o w n as an a n n u a l . It is 

very i m p o r t a n t as a field c r o p in India, eastern A f r i c a , a n d 

in the C a r i b b e a n region, but it is also g r o w n as a b a c k y a r d 

or h e d g e c r o p in m o s t c o u n t r i e s in the t r o p i c s and 

subtropics. 

Its seed is harvested a n d eaten w h i l e green (mainly in 

A f r i c a and the C a r i b b e a n ) or w h e n m a t u r e ( m a i n l y in 

India). T h e plants are also used for fodder, as fuel w o o d , 

for b a s k e t - m a k i n g , and in c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e c r o p is well 

k n o w n as a soil improver, for its roots penetrate deep, its 

n o d u l e s ( c o n t a i n i n g rhizobia) fix n i t r o g e n , a n d the shed 

leaves add a c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t y of o r g a n i c matter to the 

soil. 

Pigeonpea is most c o m m o n l y g r o w n as an i n t e r c r o p , 

w i t h i n a w i d e variety of s h o r t - d u r a t i o n c o m p a n i o n c r o p s 

(Fig. 1). Pigeonpea g r o w s slowly d u r i n g t h e early vegetative 

stage and does not c o m p e t e w i t h the c o m p a n i o n c r o p s 

but after these are harvested, the p i g e o n p e a plants g r o w 

on to give a c o m p l e t e c a n o p y . L o n g - d u r a t i o n plants can 

g r o w to a height of 3 m or more. 

Pigeonpea is a host for many insects. Over 150 species 

have been reported to feed on it in India alone, and m o r e 

will be f o u n d . However, most of these h e r b i v o r o u s insects 

are relatively rare or s p o r a d i c in their d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d so 

are not regarded as pests. A small p u b l i c a t i o n s u c h as this 

c a n n o t deal w i t h all of t h e m , so o n l y the m o r e i m p o r t a n t 

insects are illustrated. 

A l t h o u g h m a n y insects feed u p o n p i g e o n p e a f r o m the 

seedling stage, most of the e c o n o m i c d a m a g e is caused by 

pests that feed u p o n f l o w e r s and p o d s . Insects may cause 

c o n s i d e r a b l e loss of leaves, but tests have s h o w n that the 

plant can adequately c o m p e n s a t e for d e f o l i a t i o n d u r i n g 

Figure 1. A pigeonpea/sorghum intercrop. 

Figure 2. It is difficult to spray tall crops. 

6 

Continued

7 

1 

2

3 

4 

8

the vegetative stage, so that there is little r e d u c t i o n in seed 

y i e l d . A t t h e f l o w e r i n g stage, w e l l - g r o w n , m e d i u m - and 

l o n g - d u r a t i o n p i g e o n p e a is generally t o o tall and dense to 

be treated effectively by insecticides applied manually 

(Fig. 2). M o r e a t t e n t i o n i s n o w being given t o s h o r t - 

d u r a t i o n , sole c r o p s of p i g e o n p e a , w h i c h flower w h e n 

a b o u t 1 m tall. S u c h c r o p s can be conveniently treated w i t h 

insecticides (Fig. 3). S h o r t - d u r a t i o n , determinate genot 

y p e s w i t h large, w h i t e seeds are p a rticularly popular, but 

these are susceptible to insect d a m a g e and must be adeq 

u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d . At I C R I S A T , efforts have been made to 

identify sources of resistance to the major pests, particularly 

to Helicoverpa armigera and Melanagromyza obtusa 

a n d to i n c o r p o r a t e these resistances into a g r o n o m i c a l l y 

suitable cultivars. Most of these developed lines (Fig. 4) 

will p r o d u c e greater yields in farmers' fields w i t h no or 

m i n i m a l pesticide a p p l i c a t i o n . 

Figure 3. Short-duration pigeonpea can be sprayed easily. 

Figure 4. Pigeonpea genotype bred for pod borer resis- 

tance. 

9

Pests Attacking Roots 

N o d u l e - d a m a g i n g F l y Rivellia angulata H e n d e l 

( D i p t e r a : P l a t y s t o m a t i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . In India, this species has been reported to 

attack p i g e o n p e a root n o d u l e s (Fig. 5), a n d t h e r e are s i m - 

ilar reports f r o m Africa. In t h e A m e r i c a s , A f r i c a , a n d A u s - 

tralasia, other species have been f o u n d to attack several 

legumes. 

S y m p t o m s . D a m a g e o c c u r s w h e n larvae a t t a c k r o o t 

n o d u l e s . T h e larvae penetrate the nodules, m a k i n g t h e m 

h o l l o w , a n d feed u p o n t h e active, n i t r o g e n - f i x i n g p o r t i o n s 

(Fig. 6) Heavy attacks, usually in Vertisols, have resulted in 

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f m o r e t h a n 9 0 % o f t h e n o d u l e s . T h e 

plants may s h o w y e l l o w i n g , i n d i c a t i n g n i t r o g e n d e f i c i e n c y 

and r e d u c e d g r o w t h . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e flies have black b a n d s o n 

their w i n g s (Fig. 7), a n d lay their eggs on plants a n d in the 

s o i l . T h e larvae disperse t o t h e root n o d u l e s w h e r e t h e y 

feed and g r o w . T h e f u l l y g r o w n , c r e a m - c o l o r e d larva is 10 

m m l o n g . P u p a t i o n o c c u r s i n the s o i l . O n e g e n e r a t i o n can 

be c o m p l e t e d in a b o u t 4 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . N o c o n t r o l measures can b e r e c o m m e n d e d . 

A p p l i c a t i o n of large doses of i n s e c t i c i d e s to the soil has 

not been s u c c e s s f u l a n d is also not e c o n o m i c . A d d i n g 

n i t r o g e n fertilizer to the soil m i g h t alleviate t h e nutrient 

d e f i c i e n c y c a u s e d b y n o d u l e d a m a g e . 

Figure 5. Nodules containing rhizobia fix nitrogen for the 

plant. 

Figure 6. Nodule damaged by Rivellia a n g u l a t a larva. 

Figure 7. R. a n g u l a t a adult. 

10

6 7 

11 

5

8 

9 

12

T e r m i t e s Odontotermes s p p 

Microtermes s p p 

( I s o p t e r a : T e r m i t i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Termites are c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r o p - 

ics and subtropics. 

S y m p t o m s . In y o u n g plants, wilting and death of plants 

can sometimes be associated w i t h a hole in the stem, just 

below the soil surface. When the stem and roots are split, 

small, white termites {Microtermes spp) are seen in tunnels. 

T h e stems of some large plants are coated or 

'sheeted' with earth, under which the termites (Odontotermes 

spp) feed u p o n the stem surface (Fig. 8). Termites 

often attack plants that are damaged or dying due to disease 

or mechanical injury. It is unusual for termites to 

attack healthy pigeonpea plants in most soils and areas. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Termites, c o m m o n l y known 

as white ants, are social insects that form colonies, usually 

in chambers below the soil surface. T h e 'workers' (Fig. 9), 

w h i c h are seen in and on plants, collect plant material and 

stock the 'fungus gardens' (food stores) in some of the 

chambers. T h e workers are small (4 mm) and have a soft, 

white body and a brown head. The 'soldiers', which protect 

the colonies, have a larger head and well-developed mandibles. 

T h e queen, which is cosseted in one of the underg 

r o u n d chambers, can g r o w to several centimeters in 

length, w i t h most of its body consisting of a distended 

a b d o m e n . 

C o n t r o l . Seed treatment with aldrin or H C H is recommended 

in some areas where plant damage is c o m m o n . 

Where termites form large mounds that hinder cultivation, 

nests can be poisoned by drenching them with solutions of 

these insecticides. In general, however, with adequate cultivation 

and rapid g r o w t h of healthy plants, termite damage 

seldom results in crop loss. 

Figure 8. Plant damaged by Odontotermes sp. 

Figure 9. Workers of Odontotermes sp. 

13

Pests of S tem 

Jewel Beetles 

Sphenoptera indica L a p o r t e & G o r y 

( C o l e o p t e r a : B u p r e s t i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . This insect is fairly c o m m o n , but in central 

and s o u t h e r n India it is sporadic. It feeds on several 

legumes i n c l u d i n g p i g e o n p e a and g r o u n d n u t . 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larva t u n n e l s in the stem above a n d 

below the g r o u n d level. A p r o m i n e n t gall m a y f o r m a r o u n d 

the stem at g r o u n d level (Fig. 10), but similar galls are 

f o u n d w h e n other insects, i n c l u d i n g weevil larvae, feed on 

t h e s t e m . W i l t i n g a n d d e a t h i s c a u s e d w h e n y o u n g plants 

are attacked, but older plants m a y survive w i t h little reduction 

in pod p r o d u c t i o n . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e w h i t e , a p p a r e n t l y legless 

larvae g r o w to a length of 20 mm or more, w i t h a characteristic 

bulb at the head and t h o r a x r e g i o n . P u p a t i o n takes 

place in the t u n n e l in the root or stem. T h e adult beetle is 

dark but iridescent, w i t h a j e w e l - l i k e shine w h i c h gives this 

beetle its c o m m o n name (Fig. 11). Little is k n o w n of its 

biology. 

C o n t r o l . N o c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s are s u g g e s t e d . W h e n 

d a m a g e is seen, it is t o o late to take remedial a c t i o n , but 

d e s t r u c t i o n by b u r n i n g o l d , infested stems may reduce 

attacks in the next season. 

14

Figure 10. Sphenoptera indica larva and stem damage. 

Figure 11. S. indica pupa and adult in split stem. 

15 

10 

11

12 

13 

Figure 12. Seedlings damaged by Alcidodes sp. 

Figure 13. Alcidodes fabricii (right) and A. collaris (left). 

16

S t e m Weevils Alcidodes fabricii ( F a b r i c i u s . ) 

Alcidodes collaris ( P a s c o e . ) 

( C o l e o p t e r a : C u r c u l i o n i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . C o m m o n in central and southern India. 

S y m p t o m s . Y o u n g plants are girdled by the adult so the 

upper p o r t i o n of the plant wilts and dries; stem breakage 

may also o c c u r (Fig. 12). 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e adult beetle (6 mm long) 

of A. fabricii is dark red or b r o w n w i t h w h i t e longitudinal 

stripes, and A. collaris is black w i t h w h i t e transverse bands 

on the elytra (Fig. 13). T h e eggs are laid on the stem, in 

w h i c h the white larvae develop. 

C o n t r o l . These pests seldom cause sufficient damage to 

merit any c o n t r o l measures. T h e y may kill a few y o u n g 

plants but n e i g h b o r i n g plants g r o w to fill the spaces. 

17

S t e m Flies Ophiomyia phaseoli ( T r y o . ) 

Ophiomyia centrosematis ( M e i j e r e ) 

( D i p t e r a : A g r o m y z i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Ophiomyia phaseoli is c o m m o n in Africa, 

Asia, a n d Australasia, f e e d i n g in t h e s t e m s of several 

legumes, i n c l u d i n g p i g e o n p e a ; O. centrosematis has been 

reared f r o m p i g e o n p e a stems at I C R I S A T Center, but may 

be rare on this c r o p . 

S y m p t o m s . T h e upper stems o f y o u n g plants wilt, and 

the plants may die. Close e x a m i n a t i o n of the stem at the 

base of the wilted p o r t i o n will reveal a larva or p u p a r i u m . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e s h i n y black fly, w h i c h is 2 

mm long (Fig. 14), lays its e g g s o n upper leaf surfaces. T h e 

w h i t e larva t u n n e l s d o w n a leaf vein into the stem w h e r e it 

feeds and pupates. 

C o n t r o l . This pest is s e l d o m f o u n d in large n u m b e r s in 

p i g e o n p e a to be of c o n c e r n but it is a major pest in other 

legumes, i n c l u d i n g beans. On t h o s e c r o p s , systemic soil 

insecticides s u c h as p h o r a t e have been r e c o m m e n d e d for 

c o n t r o l . 

18

Figure 14. O p h i o m y i a centrosematis adult and damage 

caused by it's larva. 

19 

14

15 

16 

17 

20

C o w B u g s Otinotus oneratus W. 

Oxyrachis tarandus F. 

( H e m i p t e r a : M e m b r a c i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . C o m m o n in central and southern India. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e bugs suck the green stems. Heavy infestations 

can result in the f o r m a t i o n of c o r k y calluses, wilting, 

and reduced plant vigor. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e g r e y - b r o w n adult bugs 

(7 mm l o n g ) , w h i c h have t h o r n - l i k e projections on the 

t h o r a x (Fig. 15), lay their eggs on the stems (Fig. 16). T h e 

n y m p h s e x u d e a s u g a r y ( h o n e y dew) l i q u i d w h i c h is used 

by ants (Fig. 17), w h i c h in return m a y help to protect the 

bugs f r o m natural enemies. T h e c o m m o n name of c o w bug 

is derived f r o m this habit of p r o v i d i n g 'milk' to the ants. 

C o n t r o l . No specific control measures are r e c o m m e n d e d . 

Insecticides used to c o n t r o l major pests, particularly 

d i m e t h o a t e , will reduce the p o p u l a t i o n s of this m i n o r pest. 

Figure 15. O x y r a c h i s tarandus adults. 

Figure 16. Cowbug eggs. 

Figure 17. Ants visiting areas infested by O t i n o t u s 

oneratus. 

21

Scale Insects Ceroplastodes cajani M a s k e l l 

Icerya purchasi M a s k e l I 

( H e m i p t e r a : C o c c i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Several species, genera, and families of 

scale insects are k n o w n to feed upon pigeonpea stems in 

Africa and Asia. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e scale-like insects can be seen on stems 

and sometimes on leaves. Generally, these insects are not 

major pests when pigeonpea is g r o w n as an annual, but 

they build up and attack perennials. One species, Laccifer 

lacca whose secretion provides us with lac, an important 

product, is sometimes cultivated on pigeonpea in Asia, but 

Acacia spp are more c o m m o n l y g r o w n as the host-plants 

of this insect. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Young nymphs are mobile 

and can be spread by w i n d . A d u l t females are sedentary 

and are usually f o u n d in colonies (Fig. 18). Scale insects 

are often protected from their numerous natural enemies 

by ants, which feed u p o n their secretions. Ceroplastodes 

cajani is the most c o m m o n scale insect on pigeonpea in 

India. Icerya purchasi (Fig. 19), a polyphagous widely 

spread species, is one of the more colorful scale insects 

found on this plant. 

C o n t r o l . Scale insects can be controlled directly by the 

use of systemic insecticides, especially d u r i n g the mobilecrawler 

stage. Alternatively, destruction of ant colonies 

will soon result in a buildup of the many natural enemies of 

the scale insects that will control them. 

Figure 18. Ceroplastodes cajani. 

Figure 19. Icerya purchasi. 

22

18 

19

20 

21 

24

Pests of Foliage 

Jassids Empoasca fabae ( H a r r i s ) 

Empoasca kerri P r u t h i 

Jacobiasca lybica ( d e B e r y e v e n ) 

( H e m i p t e r a : C i c a d e l l i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Jassids have been f o u n d on pigeonpea in 

most areas where the crop is g r o w n . They are not easily 

identified to the species level and assistance of specialists 

is usually needed. In India, Empoasca kerri is the species 

most c o m m o n l y r e p o r t e d f r o m p i g e o n p e a and other 

l e g u m e s . Jacobiasca lybica has been r e p o r t e d f r o m 

pigeonpea in Africa, and Empoasca fabae from the Americas 

and the Caribbean. 

S y m p t o m s . The attacked leaflets become cup shaped 

and yellow at the edges (Fig. 20). Heavy attacks result in 

the leaflets turning red-brown, with subsequent defoliation 

and stunting. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . These small green insects 

(2.5 mm) feed by sucking on the leaflets. They are found on 

both upper and lower leaf surfaces. The adults fly when 

disturbed. T h e n y m p h s (Fig. 21) resemble the adults, but 

have no wings and run sideways w h e n disturbed. The eggs 

are inserted in the veins on the underside of leaflets. One 

generation can be c o m p l e t e d in 2 weeks under o p t i m u m 

conditions. 

C o n t r o l . Heavy infestations, sufficient to cause yield 

loss, have been seen in n o r t h e r n India a n d in Kenya. Several 

insecticides, including dimethoate and endosulfan 

have been found to adequately control this pest. 

Figure 20. Jassid-damaged leaves. 

Figure 21. Empoasca kerri nymph. 

25

A p h i d s Aphis craccivora K o c h 

Aphis fabae S c o p o l i 

Myzus persicae ( S u l z e r ) 

Macrosiphum s p p 

( H e m i p t e r a : A p h i d i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Several species of aphids have been reported 

from pigeonpea, but A. craccivora is t h e most 

c o m m o n , both in Asia and Africa. 

S y m p t o m s . A p h i d s colonies are seen on y o u n g stems, 

leaflets, and pods. Y o u n g leaves of seedlings b e c o m e 

twisted (Fig. 22) and the heavy infestation can cause 

wilting. 

Description and biology. A. craccivora is c o m m o n on several 

legume c r o p s i n c l u d i n g p i g e o n p e a (Fig. 23). T h e 

adults are black and shiny, up to 2 mm long and some are 

w i n g e d . T h e n y m p h s are similar to the adults but are 

smaller, w i t h a light wax c o v e r i n g that makes t h e m look 

grey and dull. A. fabae is similar, but the adults are less 

shiny and are a c o m b i n a t i o n of dark b r o w n and green 

rather than black. M. persicae and Macrosiphum spp on 

pigeonpea are usually green. All these aphids p r o d u c e a 

new generation in a week, and infestations build up very 

quickly. 

C o n t r o l . A p h i d colonies on pigeonpea seldom thrive for 

l o n g , p r o b a b l y because of the natural e n e m y activity. Rain 

also results in a large r e d u c t i o n in infestation. Several 

systemic insecticides, i n c l u d i n g d i m e t h o a t e adequately 

control aphids and can be used if needed. 

Figure 22. Seedling affected by aphids and ladybird 

predator. 

Figure 23. Aphids on pigeonpea. 

26

27 

22 

23

24 

25 

28

E r i o p h y i d M i t e s 

Aceria cajani C h a n n a b a s a v a n n a 

( A c a r i n a : E r i o p h y i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s m i t e has been identified o n l y in India, 

w h e r e it is w i d e s p r e a d a n d c o m m o n . It is the vector of the 

p i g e o n p e a sterility mosaic disease, the most d a m a g i n g 

disease of this c r o p in India. However, disease s y m p t o m s 

t h a t m a y i n d i c a t e the p r e s e n c e of this mite have been 

reported f r o m other c o u n t r i e s also. 

S y m p t o m s . As a result of the t r a n s m i s s i o n of the sterility 

m o s a i c disease, infected plants develop light green or 

c h l o r o t i c leaves w h i c h have m o s a i c patterns (Fig. 24). 

Most infected plants do not bear f l o w e r s , h e n c e the name 

of the disease. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e mites (Fig. 25) are d i f f i - 

cult to see w i t h the naked eye. T h e y are 0.2 mm l o n g , light 

pink, s p i n d l e s h a p e d , a n d are n o r m a l l y f o u n d feeding o n 

t h e u n d e r s i d e of leaflets. T h e eggs, w h i c h are milky white, 

are f o u n d on vegetative t e r m i n a l s . Many n y m p h s are f o u n d 

o n y o u n g f o l d e d leaflets. P l a n t - t o - p l a n t infestation o c c u r s 

by the w i n d dispersal of infective mites. 

C o n t r o l . It is best to prevent this mite, a n d the sterility 

m o s a i c disease by the use of resistant p i g e o n p e a varieties. 

Several insecticides i n c l u d i n g d i m e t h o a t e a n d p h o r a t e , 

a n d a c a r i c i d e s s u c h as d i c o f o l , help c o n t r o l these mites 

effectively. 

Figure 24. Symptoms of sterility mosaic disease on pi- 

geonpea plant and inset, close up of disease symptoms. 

Figure 25. Electron micrograph of A c e r i a cajani. 

29

R e d Spider Mites 

Schizotetranychus cajani G u p t a 

Tetranychus s p p 

( A c a r i n a : T e t r a n y c h i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Red spider mites are f o u n d on p i g e o n p e a 

t h r o u g h o u t India and eastern A f r i c a . In India, S. cajani is 

the most c o m m o n l y reported species. 

S y m p t o m s . Y e l l o w o r w h i t e s p o t s a p p e a r o n t h e upper 

surface of t h e a t t a c k e d leaflets (Fig. 26). Heavy i n f e s t a t i o n 

results in partial d e f o l i a t i o n . T h e mites c a n be seen w i t h 

t h e n a k e d eye. M o s t are f o u n d o n t h e l o w e r s u r f a c e o f t h e 

leaflets. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e a d u l t m i t e s (0.5 m m ) are 

oval a n d velvety red ( F i g . 27). T h e y e l l o w e g g s are laid on 

the u n d e r s u r f a c e of the leaflet a n d t h e n y m p h s are active, 

f e e d i n g o n t h e u n d e r s u r f a c e , w i t h i n t h e silk w e b b i n g that 

t h e y p r o d u c e . O n e g e n e r a t i o n is c o m p l e t e d in less t h a n 

t w o w e e k s u n d e r ideal c o n d i t i o n s . D i s p e r s i o n m a y b e 

t h r o u g h w i n d - c a r r i e d individuals. 

C o n t r o l . Red spider mite attacks on p i g e o n p e a are sel- 

d o m severe e n o u g h t o merit c o n t r o l , e x c e p t o n p l a n t s 

g r o w n i n g r e e n h o u s e s . M o s t w i d e l y used cultivars appear 

to be relatively resistant to t h e s e mites. Several insecti- 

cides i n c l u d i n g d i m e t h o a t e and m o s t a c a r i c i d e s are n o r - 

mally effective in c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s e mites. H o w e v e r , s o m e 

Tetranychus spp have d e v e l o p e d c o n s i d e r a b l e resistance 

t o pesticides, p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r g r e e n h o u s e c o n d i t i o n s . 

30

Figure 26. Pigeon pea lea ves damaged by red spider mites 

and inset, closeup of damaged leaf. 

Figure 27. Schizotetranychus cajani. 

31 

26 

27

28 

Figure 28. Symptoms of yellow mosaic disease. 

32

Whiteflies Bemisia tabaci ( G e n n . ) 

( H e m i p t e r a : A l e y r o d i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . These insects are c o m m o n across the 

A m e r i c a s , Europe, Africa, Australia, and Asia on many 

species of wild and domesticated host plants. 

S y m p t o m s . Whitefly is important as the vector of a virus 

that causes the yellow mosaic disease (Fig. 28) on p i g e o n - 

pea in India. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e adults are small insects 

(1 mm) w i t h white, w a x - p o w d e r e d wings. Eggs are laid on 

the undersurface of leaflets. T h e first instar n y m p h crawls 

about on the leaflet surface until it finds a suitable site for 

feeding. It then remains at that site, feeding by sucking and 

g r o w i n g into a flat, oval shaped, scale-like 'puparium' 

fringed by wax filaments. One g e n e r a t i o n can be c o m - 

pleted in less than 30 days. 

C o n t r o l . Whiteflies have not been recorded as being of 

sufficient pest status on p i g e o n p e a to merit any control 

measures, even t h o u g h the yellow mosaic disease is fairly 

c o m m o n in postrainy-season pigeonpea in India. Several 

insecticides including d i m e t h o a t e and m o n o c r o t o p h o s 

are reported to control this insect. 

33

B u d - s u c k i n g Bugs Campylomma s p p 

Creontiades pallidus ( R a m b i r ) 

Eurystylus s p p 

Taylorilygus vosseleri ( P o p p i u s . ) 

( H e m i p t e r a : M i r i d a e ) 

Distribution. Several species of bugs have been recorded 

on pigeonpea. Taylorilygus vosseleri has been reported to 

feed on pigeonpea in eastern Africa, but this species is 

more d a m a g i n g on c o t t o n . Several other mirid species, 

i n c l u d i n g Campylomma spp, Creontiades pallidus, and 

Eurystylus spp, are c o m m o n on pigeonpea in India. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e bugs suck the vegetative and f l o w e r i n g 

buds and may cause d e f o r m a t i o n of the leaves and abor- 

tion of flower buds. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Campylomma s p p are small, 

green, elongate, and ovoid bugs. T h e adults are about 2 

mm l o n g . Creontiades pallidus adults are about 8 mm long 

and pale green (Fig. 29). Eurystylus s p p and T. vosseleri 

are mottled b r o w n bugs, a b o u t 4 mm l o n g . T h e eggs are 

inserted into the soft tissue of the plants. One generation 

of these bugs can generally be c o m p l e t e d in as short a t i m e 

as 2 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . As most plants p r o d u c e far m o r e buds than are 

required, yield is rarely reduced by these insects. Specific 

control measures are not likely to be required for these 

bugs, but they can be c o n t r o l l e d by most of the insecticides 

that are used to control major pests. 

34

Figure 29. Creontiades pallidus. 

35 

29

30 

31 

Figure 30. Leaflets damaged by M e g a c h i l e sp. 

Figure 31. M e g a c h i l e sp bee. 

36

Leaf-cutter Bees Megachile s p p 

( H y m e n o p t e r a : M e g a c h i l i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Widely distributed throughout the tropics. 

S y m p t o m s . Neat, semi-circular portions are cut from the 

leaflets of pigeonpea (Fig. 30) by several species of 

Megachile. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Female bees carry pieces of 

leaf to their nests w h i c h are f o r m e d in the soil, in rotten 

w o o d , or in crevices. T h e adult bees, w h i c h are of a range 

of colors and sizes, are a m o n g the more important pollinators 

of pigeonpea (Fig. 31). Megachile is not a social insect 

like the honey bee, but is 'solitary' for each female forms its 

o w n nest filling it with a paste of honey and pollen in which 

eggs are laid. 

C o n t r o l . Damage has never been reported to be extensive 

enough to merit control measures. 

37

G r a s s h o p p e r s a n d L o c u s t s 

Catantops erubescens W a l k . 

Colemania sphenerioides ( B o l i v a r ) 

Cyrtacanthacris tatarica (L.) 

Patanga succincta (L.) 

Schistocerca gregaria F o r s k . 

( O r t h o p t e r a : A c r i d i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Many genera and species of g r a s s h o p p e r s 

and locusts have been reported to feed on p i g e o n p e a in 

Africa ( P h y m a t e u s spp, Zonocerus spp, and Schistocerca 

spp) a n d in India, but few are of sufficient density a n d 

regular incidence to cause major c o n c e r n . In India, several 

species i n c l u d i n g C. tatarica (Fig. 32) and t h e Deccan 

wingless grasshopper, C. sphenerioides (Fig. 33), feed on 

the leaflets, but the d a m a g e s e l d o m results in noticeable 

yield r e d u c t i o n , except in locust outbreaks, w h e r e most 

plants i n c l u d i n g pigeonpea are defoliated. 

S y m p t o m s . Defoliation, in case of locust o u t b r e a k s as 

mentioned above. O n e grasshopper that causes unusual 

damage to p i g e o n p e a is Catantops erubescens (Fig. 34a). 

It girdles branches of the p i g e o n p e a plant w h i c h t h e n 

wither and die (Fig. 34b). 

C o n t r o l . No c o n t r o l measures are n o r m a l l y required, as 

the densities of these insects s e l d o m reach e c o n o m i c 

thresholds. 

38

32 

34a 

Figure 32. Cyrtacanthacris tatarica. 

Figure 33. Colemania sphenerioides. 

Figure 34a. Catantops erubescens. 

Figure 34b. Pigeonpea branches damaged by C. erubescens. 

39 

33 

34b

35 

36 

40

L e a f - d a m a g i n g Weevils 

Myllocerus undecimpustulatus F a u s t 

Nematocerus s p p 

Phyllobius s p p 

Systates s p p 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Myllocerus spp and Phyllobius s p p are 

widespread in India on pigeonpea and several other host 

plants. Nematocerus spp and Systates spp have been 

f o u n d on pigeonpea in Africa. Other genera and species of 

weevils are also reported to feed on pigeonpea leaves. 

S y m p t o m s . Adult weevils chew the leaflets, generally at 

the margins, causing a ragged effect (Fig. 35). Larvae live 

in the soil, where they feed mainly on roots. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e adults of M. undecimpustulatus, 

w h i c h are 5 mm long have 11 small black spots on 

their ash-grey bodies (Fig. 36), w h i c h gives them the 

c o m m o n name ash weevil. The grubs are white, apodous, 

and stout. They pupate in the soil. 

C o n t r o l . T h e adults and larvae do not cause sufficient 

damage to pigeonpea to merit separate control measures. 

However, on other crops, particularly on some varieties of 

c o t t o n , M. undecimpustulatus is a major pest in some 

localities, and insecticides, including monocrotophos, 

have been recommended for its control. 

Figure 35. Leaf damaged by Myllocerus sp. 

Figure 36. Myllocerus undecimpustulatus. 

41

O t h e r Leaf- a n d F l o w e r - d a m a g i n g Beetles 

Cheilomenes s p p Luperus s p p 

Epilachna s p p Monolepta s p p 

( C o I e o p t e r a : Podagrica s p p 

C o c c i n e l l i d a e ) ( C o l e o p t e r a : 

C h r y s o m e l i d a e ) 

Oxycetonia versicolor F. Holotrichia s p p 

( C o l e o p t e r a : C e t o n i d a e ) Adoretus s p p 

( C o l e o p t e r a : 

S c a r a b a e i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . A d u l t beetles of several genera o t h e r t h a n 

weevils, also feed on p i g e o n p e a leaves in India and in 

Africa. A few of these have been listed above. 

S y m p t o m s . Leaves are eaten. S o m e of the beetles are 

not seen on the leaves because they feed o n l y at night and 

hide during the day. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e c o c c i n e l l i d s , c o m m o n l y 

referred to as ladybird beetles, are small and usually 

b r i g h t l y c o l o r e d w i t h dark spots. T h e Epilachna spp are 

herbivorous, but Cheilomenes spp n y m p h s and adults are 

p r e d a t o r y on small insects i n c l u d i n g a phids. However, in 

the absence of their prey, Cheilomenes spp adults c h e w 

holes in leaves, possibly to o b t a i n moisture. T h e c h r y s o - 

melids are generally shiny, metallic beetles; Podagricaspp 

are flea beetles, so called because they j u m p . Oxycetonia 

versicolor (Fig. 37), a brilliantly c o l o r e d and dorsally flattened 

beetle w i t h a large s c u t e l l u m feeds on p o l l e n . H o l o - 

trichia (Lachnosterna) s p p are larger beetles, a n d are 

i m p o r t a n t because their larvae (white g r u b s ) c o n s i d e r a b l y 

damage a range of c r o p s by feeding on their roots. A d o r e - 

tus spp are brightly c o l o r e d , shiny beetles, w h o s e larvae 

feed on roots. 

C o n t r o l . These beetles are s e l d o m present in p o p u l a - 

tions large e n o u g h t o cause extensive d a m a g e t o p i g e o n - 

pea and so do not merit specific c o n t r o l measures. 

42

Figure 37. Oxycetonia versicolor. 

43 

37

38 

39 40 

41 

Figure 38. Moths of (L to R): Amsacta albistriga, Amsacta 

collaris, Spilosoma obliqua, Acanthoplusia orichalcea, 

Chrysodeixis chalcites, Euproctis lunata, and Euproctis 

subnotata. 

Figure 39. Amsacta albistriga larva. 

Figure 40. Chrysodeixis chalcites larva. 

Figure 41. Euproctis subnotata larvae. 

44

L e p i d o p t e r a n D e f o l i a t o r s Amsacta s p p . 

Spilosoma (Diacrisia) obliqua ( W a l k e r . ) 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : A r c t i i d a e ) 

Chrysodeixis chalcites E s p e r 

Acanthoplusia (Trichoplusia) orichalcea (F.) 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : N o c t u i d a e ) 

Euproctis s p p 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : L y m a n t r i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e s e p o l y p h a g o u s L e p i d o p t e r a (Fig. 38) 

are w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d in Asia and A f r i c a . T h e y feed u p o n 

the leaves, b u d s , and f l o w e r s of many plants. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e d a m a g e c a u s e d i s o b v i o u s o n p i g e o n - 

pea, w h e r e t h e larvae feed u p o n leaves a n d inflorescence. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e Amsactaspp and S. obliqua 

are c o m m o n l y k n o w n as 'hairy caterpillars' for they are 

d e n s e l y c o v e r e d w i t h l o n g hair (Fig. 39). Chrysodeixis 

chalcites (Fig. 40) a n d Acanthoplusia orichalceaare s e m i - 

l o o p e r s . T h e f o r m e r is green and the latter is also green but 

w i t h w h i t e lateral lines a n d black spines. Euproctisspp are 

'tussock caterpillars' so c a l l e d b e c a u s e they have p r o m i - 

nent, c o m p a c t tufts of short hair (Fig. 41). 

T h e hair of these a n d o t h e r caterpillars cause skin 

rashes a n d irritation so care m u s t be taken w h i l e h a n d l i n g 

t h e m . 

C o n t r o l . P o p u l a t i o n s of these larvae on p i g e o n p e a are 

s e l d o m large e n o u g h to merit pesticide use. However, 

t h e r e are o c c a s i o n a l r e p o r t s of severe d e f o l i a t i o n , particu- 

larly by Amsactaspp. Several insecticides i n c l u d i n g e n d o - 

sulfan n o r m a l l y give a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l . 

45

Leaf W e b b e r s Grapholita (Cydia) critica M e y r . 

Leguminivora ptychora ( M e y r . ) 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : T o r t r i c i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Grapholita critica ( f o r m e r l y k n o w n as 

Eucosma critica) is c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p i g e o n p e a - 

g r o w i n g areas of India a n d Leguminivora ptychora is 

c o m m o n o n several l e g u m e s , i n c l u d i n g p i g e o n p e a , i n 

eastern A f r i c a . 

S y m p t o m s . Leaflets are w e b b e d t o g e t h e r w i t h silk (Fig. 

42a) a n d t h e larva f e e d s w i t h i n t h e w e b . A s t h e w e b o f t e n 

i n c l u d e s t h e t e r m i n a l b u d , f u r t h e r g r o w t h o f t h a t s h o o t is 

p r e v e n t e d . I n f e s t a t i o n s start a t t h e s e e d l i n g s t a g e a n d m a y 

persist t o t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e s t a g e w h e n t h e larvae f e e d 

inside f l o w e r b u d s (Fig. 42b) a n d i n y o u n g p o d s . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . G. critica is a s m a l l b r o w n 

m o t h (Fig. 43) t h a t lays its e g g s on t h e leaf b u d s a n d y o u n g 

leaves. T h e c r e a m - y e l l o w larva ties leaflets t o g e t h e r a n d 

feeds inside t h e w e b , r e a c h i n g a l e n g t h of a b o u t 10 mm 

before p u p a t i n g in t h e w e b . 

C o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h leaf w e b b e r s m a k e y o u n g p i g e o n p e a 

c r o p s look u n t i d y , t h e y a p p a r e n t l y c a u s e n o y i e l d loss. T h e 

p l a n t s p r o d u c e side s h o o t s t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e loss o f 

t e r m i n a l b u d s . If i n s e c t i c i d e s are not used, t h e m a n y par- 

asites a n d p r e d a t o r s s o o n b r i n g t h i s pest u n d e r c o n t r o l . 

T h e larvae i n s i d e the w e b s are w e l l p r o t e c t e d f r o m c o n t a c t 

i n s e c t i c i d e s . H o w e v e r , w h e r e n e c e s s a r y , s y s t e m i c insecti- 

c i d e s s u c h a s m o n o c r o t o p h o s o r o n e w i t h s o m e f u m i g a n t 

a c t i o n s u c h a s d i c h l o r v o s c a n b e a p p l i e d . 

Figure 42a. G r a p h o l i t a c r i t i c a larva on webbed leaves. 

Figure 42b. Pigeonpea bud damaged by G. c r i t i c a larva. 

Figure 43. G. c r i t i c a moth. 

46

43 

47 

42a 

42b

44 

Figure 44. Caloptilia soyella larva and a rolled-up leaflet. 

Figure 45. Damage caused by A p r o a e r e m a modicella. 

48 

45

Other Leaf Webbers and Tiers 

O t h e r leaf w e b b e r s a n d tiers t h a t feed o n p i g e o n p e a 

i n c l u d e Maruca testulalis (see page 70); the leaf tier Anarsia 

ephippias (Meyr.) ( L e p i d o p t e r a : G e l e c h i i d a e ) — a small 

b r o w n larva t h a t folds i ndividual leaflets; the leaf roller 

Caloptilia soyella Van Dev. ( L e p i d o p t e r a : G r a c i l l a r i d a e ) — 

a g r e e n larva t h a t rolls the leaflets f r o m the tips (Fig. 44); 

a n d the g r o u n d n u t leaf miner Aproaerema modicella Dev. 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : Gelechiidae), w h o s e feeding p r o d u c e s white 

or light b r o w n patches on the f o l d e d leaflets (Fig. 45). With 

the e x c e p t i o n of M. testulalis, these larvae s e l d o m , if ever, 

c a u s e s u f f i c i e n t d a m a g e o n p i g e o n p e a t o merit c o n t r o l 

measures. 

49

Pests of Flowers and Pods 

T h r i p s Megalurothrips usitatus ( B a g n a l l ) 

( T h y s a n o p t e r a : T h r i p i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Several genera and species of t h r i p s have 

been recorded on p i g e o n p e a . In India, the m o s t c o m m o n 

species appears to be Megalurothrips usitatus, w h i c h 

feeds on f l o w e r s (Figs. 46 a n d 47). In eastern A f r i c a , o t h e r 

Megalurothrips species are c o m m o n on p i g e o n p e a and 

are considered i m p o r t a n t . 

S y m p t o m s . Heavy infestation of thrips can lead to shed- 

d i n g o f b u d s a n d f l o w e r s . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e black adults ( 1 m m ) and 

n y m p h s are easily seen w i t h the n a k e d eye, p a r t i c u l a r l y 

w h e n they are o n y e l l o w f l o w e r petals. O n e g e n e r a t i o n c a n 

be c o m p l e t e d w i t h i n 3 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . In India, the p o p u l a t i o n b u i l d up of t h r i p s on 

p i g e o n p e a is generally not large e n o u g h to cause substan- 

tial d a m a g e and do not, t h e r e f o r e , merit specific c o n t r o l 

measures. In most cases, insecticides used to c o n t r o l 

major pests s u c h as e n d o s u l f a n or d i m e t h o a t e also reduce 

thrips p o p u l a t i o n s . 

50

Figure 46. M e g a l u r o t h r i p s usitatus. 

Figure 47. Electron micrograph of M. usitatus. 

51 

46 

47

48a 

48c 

52 

48b

Blister Beetles Mylabris pustulata Thunberg 

Mylabris s p p 

Coryna s p p 

( C o l e o p t e r a : M e l o i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Mylabris pustulata and other Mylabris spp 

are w i d e s p r e a d and c o m m o n in India. Several species of 

Mylabris and Coryna have been recorded f r o m p i g e o n p e a 

in Africa. 

S y m p t o m s . A d u l t beetles feed on the flowers and greatly 

reduce the n u m b e r s of pods that are set. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Mylabris pustulata (25 mm) is 

o n e of the larger species, the adults having very o b v i o u s 

black and red c o l o r a t i o n (Fig. 48a). Other genera and species 

are of varying sizes but most are c o n s p i c u o u s l y 

c o l o r e d . T h e i r name is derived f r o m the blisters on h u m a n 

s k i n c a u s e d by the e x u d a t e ( c o n t a i n i n g cantharidine), 

w h i c h is p r o d u c e d by the beetles w h e n they are d i s t u r b e d . 

Eggs are usually laid in the soil. T h e larvae of most species 

are generally beneficial because they feed u p o n insects in 

the soil. 

C o n t r o l . In locations w h e r e p i g e o n p e a is g r o w n over 

large areas, blister beetles cause little d a m a g e because 

they are spread across the c r o p . However, in small pigeonpea 

plots that are in the f l o w e r i n g stage d u r i n g the period 

of peak adult activity ( A u g u s t - O c t o b e r in s o u t h e r n India), 

most of the flowers may be eaten by this pest and c r o p loss 

may be substantial. T h e beetles can be c o n t r o l l e d m a n u - 

ally by p i c k i n g t h e m by hand (Fig. 48b) or collecting t h e m 

w i t h an insect net (Fig. 48c) and c r u s h i n g t h e m , since they 

are slow m o v i n g , but care s h o u l d be taken to protect the 

s k i n . Most insecticides are not very effective against these 

beetles, but synthetic p y r e t h r o i d s w o r k reasonably well. 

Figure 48a. Mylabris pustulata. 

Figure 48b. Handpicking of beetles. 

Figure 48c. Collection of beetles using an insect net. 

53

B u d Weevils Indozocladius ( C e u t o r h y n c h u s ) 

asperulus ( F a u s t ) 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Widely distributed in peninsular India. 

S y m p t o m s . Larve feed and pupate inside the f l o w e r 

buds, m a k i n g t h e m hollow. In severe attacks, the n u m b e r 

of flowers is reduced substantially. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e small ( 2 m m ) b r o w n i s h 

weevil (Fig. 49) lays its eggs on t h e b u d s a n d t h e w h i t e 

larvae develop singly inside the buds. 

C o n t r o l . T h i s is generally a m i n o r pest a n d so does not 

merit specific control measures. 

Figure 49. I n d o z o c l a d i u s asperulus. 

54

55 

49

50 

Figure 50. A p i o n b e n i g n u m . 

56

P o d Weevils Apion clavipes G e r s t a e c k e r 

Apion benignum ( F a u s t ) 

( C o l e o p t e r a : A p i o n i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Apion clavipes is regarded as a major pigeonpea 

pest in some areas ot northwest India and in East Africa. 

A. benignum is o c c a s i o n a l l y f o u n d in s o u t h e r n India. In 

other areas, these weevils are relatively u n c o m m o n . 

S y m p t o m s . Larvae d a m a g e the green seeds in pods but 

t h e d a m a g e is usually noticed only after adults emerge, 

c u t t i n g their w a y out of t h e p o d . T h e beetles also c h e w 

small holes in leaflets and flowers. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . A d u l t s are small black w e e - 

vils (Fig. 50), larvae are creamy white, There does not seem 

to be any p u b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the b i o l o g y of 

these pests. 

C o n t r o l . There are no p u b l i s h e d reports of c o n t r o l measures 

but several pesticides i n c l u d i n g d i m e t h o a t e , m o n o - 

c r o t o p h o s , and the synthetic p y r e t h r o i d s can control these 

pests effectively. 

57

P o d - s u c k i n g B u g s Anoplocnemis s p p 

Clavigralla gibbosa S p i n o l a 

Clavigralla scutellaris ( W e s t w o o d ) 

Clavigralia tomentosicollis S t a l . 

Riptortus s p p 

( H e m i p t e r a : C o r e i d a e ) 

Piezodorus sp 

Dolicoris indicus (Stal.) 

Nezara viridula (L.) 

( H e m i p t e r a : P e n t a t o m i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Anoplocnemis spp and Riptortus spp are 

f o u n d on several hosts in Africa and Asia. Clavigralla gibbosa 

is the most i m p o r t a n t p o d - s u c k i n g bug on p i g e o n p e a 

in India; C. (Acanthomia) tomentosicollis is the most 

i m p o r t a n t in Africa; and C. scutellaris is c o m m o n in Africa 

and Asia. Nezara viridula is f o u n d on many legumes and 

other hosts t h r o u g h o u t the tropics and s u b t r o p i c s ; D. indicus 

is c o m m o n in India; and Piezodorus sp in southeast 

Asia and in Australia. Several other genera and species of 

Coreidae and Pentatomidae are also o c c a s i o n a l l y f o u n d 

on this c r o p . 

S y m p t o m s . A l l t h e s e b u g s , s u c k d e v e l o p i n g seeds 

t h r o u g h the pod wall. T h e seeds b e c o m e shrivelled w i t h 

dark patches (Fig. 51). S u c h seed does not g e r m i n a t e and 

is not acceptable as h u m a n f o o d . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e adults of Anoplocnemis 

spp, w h i c h are usually black or b r o w n (Fig. 52), are the 

largest (30 m m ) of these b u g s . Riptortus spp (18 mm) are 

mainly b r o w n a n d are smaller (Fig. 53). Clavigralla bugs 

are b r o w n - g r e y ; C. scutellaris (12 m m ) is the largest a n d is 

broader than both C. gibbosa (Fig. 54a) and C. tomentosi- 

58 

Continued

51 52 

53 54a 

Figure 51. Bug-damaged (left) and healthy seed (right). 

Figure 52. A n o p l o c n e m i s sp. 

Figure 53. Riptortus sp. 

Figure 54. Clavigralla g i b b o s a : (a) adult and (b) eggs. 

59 

54b

55 56 

57 

60

collis, both of w h i c h are a b o u t 10 mm l o n g . Nezara viridula 

(15 m m ) is n o r m a l l y green (Fig. 55), but can be c o m p l e t e l y 

y e l l o w or green and yellow and D. indicus is b r o w n with 

light m o t t l i n g (Fig. 56). These bugs lay their eggs in 

c l u m p s on the leaf and p o d surfaces (Fig. 54b, 57). T h e 

y o u n g n y m p h s that feed by s u c k i n g the green tissue are 

usually f o u n d in g r o u p s . T h e large n y m p h s and adults can 

feed on seed t h r o u g h pod walls. O n e generation takes 4 

weeks or more d e p e n d i n g on the temperature. 

C o n t r o l . Insecticides, particularly those with some systemic 

action such as d i m e t h o a t e and m o n o c r o t o p h o s , are 

usually effective in c o n t r o l l i n g these pests. In eastern 

A f r i c a some pigeonpea g e n o t y p e s have been reported to 

have c o n s i d e r a b l e resistance to the s u c k i n g bugs, so 

s c r e e n i n g for resistance may be a useful strategy for the 

m a n a g e m e n t of these pests. 

Figure 55. Nezara viridula adult. 

Figure 56. Dolicoris indicus. 

Figure 57. Close up of N. viridula eggs. 

61

P o d Borers 

Helicoverpa (Heliothis) armigera ( H u b n e r ) 

Helicoverpa zea ( B o d d i e ) 

Helicoverpa punctigera ( W a l l e n g r e n ) 

Heliothis virescens (F.) 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Helicoverpa armigera (Fig. 58) is widely 

d i s t r i b u t e d on many host plants t h r o u g h o u t the t r o p i c s 

and s u b t r o p i c s but not in the A m e r i c a s w h e r e it is replaced 

by H. zea and Heliothis virescens. In Australia, both Helicoverpa 

punctigera and H. armigera attack p i g e o n p e a . 

S y m p t o m s . Helicoverpa s p p d e s t r o y buds, flowers, and 

pods. If f l o w e r s and p o d s are not available, t h e y feed u p o n 

leaflets (Fig. 59), leaving the veins. On p o d s , c o n s p i c u o u s 

holes are m a d e by the entry of larvae. Usually d e v e l o p i n g 

and partly m a t u r e d seeds are eaten c o m p l e t e l y . At times a 

p o r t i o n of the seed and testa remain. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Helicoverpa spp lay their 

small w h i t e eggs (Figs. 60 and 61), usually singly, on the 

upper and o u t e r surfaces of leaves, f l o w e r s , pods, and 

stems. T h e y o u n g larvae feed by scraping green tissue and 

Continued 

Figure 58. Male (left) and female (right) moths of H e l i c o - 

verpa armigera. 

Figure 59. H. armigera damaging pigeonpea leaves. 

Figure 60. H. a r m i g e r a egg. 

Figure 61. Electron micrograph of H. a r m i g e r a egg. 

62

60 

63 

58 

59 

61

62 

63 

64 

Figure 62. H. armigera damaging pods. 

Figure 63. Color range of H. armigera larvae. 

Figure 64. H. armigera pupa. 

64

the older larvae c h e w voraciously into buds, flowers, and 

p o d s , leaving characteristic r o u n d holes (Fig. 62). T h e 

large larvae (27 mm long) are y e l l o w , g r e e n , pink, orange, 

b r o w n , or black (Fig. 63), but all have characteristic light 

and dark stripes along each side. Pupation is normally in 

the soil or in plant debris (Fig. 64). One generation can be 

c o m p l e t e d in just over 4 weeks u n d e r favorable c onditions. 

C o n t r o l . Several insecticides, i n c l u d i n g endosulfan and 

s y n t h e t i c p y r e t h r o i d s , give g o o d c o n t r o l , particularly if 

applied s o o n after the eggs hatch. However, considerable 

resistance to many insecticides has been reported in these 

insects in areas where c r o p s have been sprayed intensively. 

Helicoverpa spp have many parasites and predators. 

In some areas these give adequate control and pesticide 

use may lead to an increase in Helicoverpa populations 

t h r o u g h the reduction of these natural enemies. S o m e 

p i g e o n p e a genotypes have considerable tolerance to these 

pests, so host-plant resistance can be a useful method of 

avoiding d a m a g e . 

65

L a b l a b P o d Borers Adisura atkinsoni ( M o o r e ) 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . A. atkinsoni is w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d in s o u t h - 

ern India. It is a m a j o r pest of Dolichos lablab, a n d is often 

f o u n d i n low n u m b e r s o n p i g e o n p e a . T w o o t h e r species, 

Adisura marginalis Wlk. and Adisura stigmatica Warr. are 

also o c c a s i o n a l l y f o u n d o n p i g e o n p e a . 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larvae b o r e into b u d s , flowers, and 

green pods. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e green larva, 1 5 m m l o n g , 

is very similar to Helicoverpa armigera, and is often c o n - 

fused w i t h this pest in the field (Fig. 65). It can be distin- 

g u i s h e d by its b r o w n lateral stripes. P u p a t i o n takes place 

in the s o i l ; the m o t h has y e l l o w i s h b r o w n f o r e w i n g s and 

w h i t e h i n d w i n g s (Fig. 66). O n e g e n e r a t i o n is c o m p l e t e d in 

about 4 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . C o n t r o l is rarely needed because this pest is 

o n l y f o u n d in low n u m b e r s on p i g e o n p e a . However, insec- 

ticides used to c o n t r o l other major pests s u c h as e n d o s u l - 

fan can also c o n t r o l this insect. 

66

Figure 65. Larva of Adisura sp. 

Figure 66. Adisura marginalis moths. 

67 

65 

66

67 

68a 68b 

Figure 67. Lampides boeticus butterfly larva, pupa, and 

butterfly, and inset, butterfly in action. 

Figure 68. L. boeticus; (a) eggs and (b) larva. 

68

Blue Butterflies Lampides boeticus (L.) 

Catochrysops strabo ( F a b r i c i u s ) 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : L y c a e n i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Both these species are widely distributed 

in Asia and L. boeticus (Fig. 67) is c o m m o n in eastern 

Africa. Larvae are found on several cultivated and wild 

legumes. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larvae chew leaves, buds, flowers, and 

pods. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Small, blue, beautifully sculpted 

eggs are laid singly on buds (Fig. 68a). The larvae, 

w h i c h are 12 mm long, are green, oval, and flat (Fig. 68b). 

Pupation occurs in soil or in plant debris. One generation 

is completed in about 5 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h these butterflies are c o m m o n and lay 

many eggs on the pigeonpea plants, relatively few larvae 

are f o u n d on the crop, probably because natural enemies 

reduce their numbers. Specific control for these insects is 

rarely required but endosulfan or other pesticides that 

control major pests can be used. 

69

L e g u m e ( c o w p e a ) P o d B o r e r 

Maruca testutalis ( G e y e r ) 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : P y r a l i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . C o m m o n o n many legume species t h r o u g h - 

out the tropics and subtropics. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larva w e b s t o g e t h e r leaves, b u d s , a n d 

pods and feeds inside these w e b s (Fig. 69, 70a). 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e m o t h (Fig. 71) lays yellow, 

oval eggs in small batches, c o m m o n l y on t e r m i n a l s . 

T h e larva, 14 mm l o n g , is w h i t i s h - g r e e n w i t h rows of c o n - 

s p i c u o u s black spots on t h e dorsal surface (Fig. 70a, b). 

However, t h e s p o t s are not clearly seen o n t h e y e l l o w - 

green p r e p u p a e . P u p a t i o n takes place in the w e b or on the 

soil surface in a silk c o c o o n . In o p t i m u m c o n d i t i o n s , o n e 

generation can be c o m p l e t e d in less than 3 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . This is a major pest of p i g e o n p e a and other 

grain l e g u m e s in many areas of Africa and central India. 

Several insecticides i n c l u d i n g e n d o s u l f a n kill t h e larvae 

but as the w e b s protect t h e m f r o m c o n t a c t insecticides, 

careful application is r e q u i r e d . T h i s pest is particularly 

destructive to d e t e r m i n a t e - t y p e p i g e o n p e a . As there are 

differences in g e n o t y p e susceptibility, it may be possible 

to develop cultivars resistant to this insect. 

Figure 69. M a r u c a testulalis larva in a web of leaves and 

flowers, and inset, prepupa in silk cocoon. 

Figure 70a. M. testulalis larva on webbed flowers and 

pods. 

Figure 70b. Close up of M. testulalis larva damaging a 

flower. 

Figure 71. M. testulalis moth. 

70

70a 71 

70b 

71 

69

72 

73 

Figure 72. Larva (green) and pupa (red) of Exelastis 

a t o m o s a . 

Figure 73. E. a t o m o s a moth. 

72

P l u m e M o t h s Exelastis atomosa ( W a l s i n g h a m ) 

Sphenarches anisodactylus Wlk. 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : P t e r o p h o r i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Both these species are w i d e l y distributed 

in Asia and eastern A f r i c a , but E. atomosa is generally 

m o r e c o m m o n on p i g e o n p e a and is a major pest in several 

areas of India. S. anisodactylus is m o r e c o m m o n on lablab 

bean. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larvae c h e w into the b u d s , flowers, a n d 

p o d s , and small holes are seen in the buds and tender 

pods. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e p l u m e m o t h caterpillars 

are particularly n u m e r o u s on postrainy-season pigeonpea 

and are generally c o n s i d e r e d as i m p o r t a n t pests. T h e 

green oval eggs of E. atomosa are laid singly on buds and 

pods. T h e larvae 14 mm l o n g , are green or b r o w n , spindle 

s h a p e d , and covered w i t h short spines and larger hair. T h e 

pupae, w h i c h look like the larvae, are usually f o u n d atta 

c h e d to the p o d surface or on the pedicel (Fig. 72). T h e 

adults have b r o w n , plume-like wings (Fig. 73). One generation 

can be c o m p l e t e d in about 4 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . E. atomosa can be easily c o n t r o l l e d by several 

insecticides, i n c l u d i n g e n d o s u l f a n . Its many natural enemies 

prevent it f r o m b u i l d i n g up into large populations. 

73

Lima B e a n P o d Borer 

Etiella zinckenella T r e i t s c h k e 

( L e p i d o p t e r a : P y r a l i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . This species is widely d i s t ributed on several 

legumes in the tropics and semitropics. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larva is generally f o u n d in m a t u r i n g and 

dried pods. Infestations build up at the end of the p i g e o n - 

pea season, particularly w h e n temperatures are high. Faecal 

granules are f o u n d inside the d a m a g e d pods. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . White elliptical eggs are laid 

in small g r o u p s on the developing pods. T h e y o u n g larvae 

are green, but t u r n red later (Fig. 74). T h e y feed inside t h e 

p o d , reaching a length of 14 m m . Pupation takes place in 

the soil. T h e m o t h has grey f o r e w i n g s but w i t h a white 

costal m a r g i n and the hind wings are pearly and translucent 

(Fig. 75). One generation can be c o m p l e t e d in 4 

weeks under favorable c o n d i t i o n s . 

C o n t r o l . In India, it is generally a minor pest on p i g e o n - 

pea and will seldom merit specific c o n t r o l , but in southeast 

Asia, it is of some c o n c e r n and can be c o n t r o l l e d by 

systemic insecticides. 

74

Figure 74. Etiella zinckenella larvae in damaged pods. 

Figure 75. E. zinckenella moth. 

75 

74 

75

76 

77 

78 79 

80 

Figure 76. Female fly of Melanagromyza obtusa. 

Figure 77. M. obtusa eggs inside the pod and inset, closeup 

of egg. 

Figure 78. M. obtusa larva. 

Figure 79. M. chalcosoma puparia. 

Figure 80. M. obtusa larva, puparia, and seed damage. 

76

Podflies Melanagromyza obtusa M a l l o c h 

Melanagromyza chalcosoma S p e n c e r 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Melanagromyza obtusa is a widespread 

and major pest of p i g e o n p e a in Asia, and extends to A u s - 

tralasia. Reports of this species in Africa are probably 

e r r o n e o u s because the species usually f o u n d there is 

M. chalcosoma, a c o m m o n pest in the pods of several 

legumes including pigeonpea. 

S y m p t o m s . There are no obvious external s y m p t o m s of 

podfly attack till the fully g r o w n larvae c h e w holes in the 

pod walls leaving a " w i n d o w " t h r o u g h w h i c h the flies 

e m e r g e after p u p a t i o n in the p o d . D a m a g e d seeds are of 

no value. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e small black fly (Fig. 76) 

lays eggs (Fig. 77) t h r o u g h the wall of the developing pod 

and the w h i t e legless larva, 3 mm long (Fig. 78), feeds 

inside the green seed. In the case of M. chalcosoma, t w o o r 

more larvae often develop and pupate in one seed (Fig. 79) 

but in M. obtusa, generally only one larva develops in one 

seed (Fig. 80). T h e b r o w n p u p a r i u m is f o r m e d inside the 

p o d but outside the seed. One generation takes about 3 

week under o p t i m u m conditions. 

C o n t r o l . As all stages of d e v e l o p m e n t take place inside 

the p o d , only systemic insecticides such as dimethoate 

and m o n o c r o t o p h o s are effective, but nonsystemic insecticides 

like endosulfan help in killing the adults. A closed 

season d u r i n g w h i c h no pigeonpea pods are available 

s h o u l d reduce infestation. It is best to avoid g r o w i n g a 

m i x t u r e of cultivars of differing durations in an area 

because this will provide pods over a long period and allow 

several generations to develop. S o m e pigeonpea genot 

y p e s are m u c h m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to egg laying than 

others, so it may be possible to select resistant cultivars. 

77

P o d W a s p Tanaostigmodes cajaninae L a S a l l e 

( H y m e n o p t e r a : T a n a o s t i g m a t i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . This pest is w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d on p i g e o n - 

pea in India. It is c o m m o n on research stations but it is rare 

in farmers' fields. 

S y m p t o m s . Y o u n g pods are a t t a c k e d and either do not 

g r o w at all, or the l o c u l e s that are not a t t a c k e d m a y 

develop normally, w h i l e the attacked locules remain undeveloped 

(Fig. 81). T h e exit hole m a d e by the e m e r g i n g 

wasp is smaller than that of podfly. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e small wasp ( 2 m m long) 

lays translucent, flat, oval eggs on the f l o w e r and on the 

y o u n g p o d . T h e w h i t e , a p p a r e n t l y legless larva (2 mm 

long) feeds on the y o u n g seed a n d inner p o d wall (Fig. 82). 

P u p a t i o n o c c u r s in the same locules. O n e g e n e r a t i o n is 

c o m p l e t e d in less than 3 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . This insect is promoted to pest status on research 

stations w h e r e a range of cultivars are g r o w n , w h i c h p r o - 

vide p o d s over long p e r i o d s , a l l o w i n g t h e pest to b u i l d up 

over m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s in every year. T h e pest can be 

c o n t r o l l e d by restricting the range of d u r a t i o n of cultivars 

g r o w i n g in an area. T h e use of pesticides s u c h as e n d o s u l - 

fan appears to kill s o m e of the natural e n e m i e s but not the 

pest itself. Systemic pesticides s u c h as d i m e t h o a t e , will 

reduce p o p u l a t i o n densities since it is an internal feeder. 

78

Figure 81. Symptoms of damage caused by T a n a o s t i g - 

m o d e s cajaninae. On the left is an undamaged pod. 

Figure 82. Larva, pupa, and adult of T. cajaninae. 

79 

81 

82

83 

84 

Figure 83. C a l l o s o b r u c h u s sp eggs and exit holes on 

pods. 

Figure 84. C a l l o s o b r u c h u s sp in and on damaged seeds. 

80

B r u c h i d s Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) 

Callosobruchus analis (F.) 

Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) 

( C o l e o p t e r a : B r u c h i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e b r u c h i d , Callosobruchus maculatus is 

c o m m o n o n p i g e o n p e a and s o m e other grain legumes 

w o r l d w i d e , both in pods in the field a n d in stored seed. 

O t h e r species i n c l u d i n g C. analis (F.) and C. chinensis (L.) 

are also f o u n d in the stored seed, but are less c o m m o n . 

S y m p t o m s . T h e pests attack nearly mature and dried 

pods. T h e r o u n d exit hole and the w h i t e eggs on the pod 

wall are c o n s p i c u o u s (Fig. 83). Infested stored seed can be 

r e c o g n i z e d by the eggs on the seed surface a n d the r o u n d 

exit holes w i t h the 'flap' of seed coat. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e mottled b r o w n beetle, 

3 mm l o n g , lays its eggs on pods or seeds. T h e white larva 

b u r r o w s into the p o d or seed t h r o u g h the base of the egg 

a n d then feeds and develops into a pupa inside the seed, 

f r o m w h i c h the adult emerges t h r o u g h a neat cylindrical 

hole (Fig. 84). One g e n e r a t i o n takes 4-weeks or more, 

d e p e n d i n g on the t e m p e r a t u r e and h u m i d i t y . This pest can 

be destructive to stored seed. 

C o n t r o l . Pods s h o u l d be harvested as soon as they 

mature and the seed sun dried before it is placed in a clean, 

beetle-proof storage container (metal, w o o d , earthenware, 

or plastic). F u m i g a t i o n w i t h a range of chemicals has been 

reported to control infestations in stored seed. A coating of 

edible oils or of inert clays can prevent further development 

of b r u c h i d s in the stored seeds. 

81

Chickpea 

C h i c k p e a (Cicer arietinum L.) (Fig. 85), also k n o w n as 

B e n g a l g r a m (and has 30 other c o m m o n names), has far 

f e w e r pests than p i g e o n p e a . T h e relatively low o c c u r r e n c e 

o f pests a n d o t h e r insects o n t h i s c r o p i s p r o b a b l y c a u s e d 

by t w o major factors: 

1. C h i c k p e a is a 'cool season' l e g u m e c o m m o n l y g r o w n in 

temperate climates, s o w n i m m e d i a t e l y before or after 

winter. Its vegetative g r o w t h o c c u r s d u r i n g , or just after 

winter, w h e n insect p o p u l a t i o n s are generally low. 

2. C h i c k p e a is c o v e r e d w i t h g l a n d u l a r t r i c h o m e s ( c l u b - 

s h a p e d hair) that e x u d e an acidic liquid (mainly malic 

acid) w h i c h evidently deters m a n y potential herbivores 

f r o m f e e d i n g o n this c r o p (Fig. 86). 

T w o main t y p e s o f c h i c k p e a are c o m m o n l y g r o w n (Fig. 

87). T h e ' k a b u l i ' t y p e has large w h i t e seeds and is a p o p u l a r 

h u m a n f o o d in m a n y c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the Mediterranean 

area. T h e 'desi' t y p e generally has smaller, c o l o r e d 

seeds (yellow, b r o w n , green, or black) and is m o s t c o m - 

m o n i n t h e Indian s u b c o n t i n e n t a n d i n M e x i c o . T h i s t y p e i s 

used b o t h as f o o d by h u m a n beings a n d as feed for 

animals. 

In general, the kabuli plants and seeds are m u c h m o r e 

susceptible to insect attack t h a n t h e desi t y p e . 

82

86 

Figure 85. Chickpea plant, Cicer arietinum L. 

Figure 86. Acid exudate drops on leaflets. 

Figure 87. K a b u l i (light) and desi (dark) chickpea seeds. 

83 

85 

87

88 

89 

Figure 88. Nodules containing rhizobia on chickpea roots. 

Figure 89. Larvae of Metopina sp damaging nodules. 

84

Pests Attacking R o o t s / S t e m s 

N o d u l e - d a m a g i n g Flies Metopina ciceri D i s n e y 

( D i p t e r a : P h o r i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Recorded only f r o m peninsular India. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e r e are plenty o f nodules c o n t a i n i n g r h i - 

z o b i a on c h i c k p e a roots (Fig. 88), w h i c h help fix nitrogen 

in the soil. At times small holes are seen in these nodules 

w h i c h w h e n cut o p e n are f o u n d to be extensively t u n n e l e d 

w i t h varying degrees of d e c o m p o s i t i o n . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e small w h i t e larvae (

Sitona Weevils Sitona macularius ( M a r s h a m ) 


Distribution. This pest is c o m m o n in countries s u r r o u n d - 

ing the Mediterranean. 

S y m p t o m s . The larvae feed mainly on roots and nodules 

of legumes, including chickpea. Heavy attacks lead to 

stunted, yellow plants. The adults feed u p o n leaves, cutting 

typical U-shaped notches f r o m the edge of the 

leaflets. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e b r o w n and white adults 

(4 mm long) (Fig. 90) emerge in winter and lay eggs in the 

soil. The cream-colored larvae feed mainly on nodules. 

There is only one generation per year. 

Control. This weevil prefers lentil and seldom, if ever, 

damages more than 5% of chickpea plants or nodules in 

any field. Consequently, the damage to chickpea does not 

merit specific c o n t rol measures. 

86

Figure 90. S i t o n a macularius. 

87 

90

91 

Figure 91. Damage caused by Microtermes sp. 

88

T e r m i t e s Odontotermes s p p 

Microtermes s p p 

( I s o p t e r a : T e r m i t i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . A l t h o u g h these termites are w i d e s p r e a d , 

t h e y g e n e r a l l y cause little d a m a g e to this c r o p but are 

i m p o r t a n t in s o m e locations and soil types. 

S y m p t o m s . Plants attacked by Microtermes s p p are 

w i l t e d or dead and have a small e n t r a n c e hole at or b e l o w 

the g r o u n d level (Fig. 91). T h e roots a n d stem are t u n n e l e d 

and the t e r m i t e s are f o u n d inside. Odontotermes s p p cover 

the stems w i t h earth sheeting under w h i c h they feed. T e r - 

mite attacks are often associated w i t h plants that have 

been w e a k e n e d by disease or d a m a g e d mechanically. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e w h i t e , b r o w n - h e a d e d , 

a n t - l i k e insects f o u n d in a n d a r o u n d the plants are the 

'worker' adults. T h e y c o l l e c t plant material and carry it to 

u n d e r g r o u n d c h a m b e r s w h e r e it is i n c o r p o r a t e d in 'fungus 

gardens', w h i c h provide f o o d for the t e r m i t e larvae. 

C o n t r o l . D a m a g e is rarely s e r i o u s e n o u g h to merit spe- 

cific c o n t r o l measures, but dressing the seed w i t h aldrin 

has been f o u n d to reduce attacks in s o m e trials in n o r t h e r n 

India. W h e r e t e r m i t e m o u n d s o b s t r u c t cultivation and 

o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s s u c h as i r r i g a t i o n , nests can be killed by 

d r e n c h i n g w i t h insecticides, before or after levelling. 

89

Soil Beetles Gonocephalum s p p 

( F a l s e w i r e w o r m s ) ( C o l e o p t e r a : T e n e b r i o n i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . W i d e s p r e a d in India and Africa. 

S y m p t o m s . A t t a c k e d s e e d l i n g s wilt or, s o m e t i m e s are 

cut at g r o u n d level. E x a m i n a t i o n s h o w s d a m a g e by feeding 

by the adult beetle, on t h e stem at or b e l o w g r o u n d 

level (Fig. 92). A search of the soil a r o u n d t h e plants 

reveals the insects. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e beetles, 1 0 m m i n l e n g t h , 

are black and flat. Very little is k n o w n of the b i o l o g y of 

these beetles. 

C o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h seedlings are killed by this insect, 

there has not been a report of infestations that kill m o r e 

than a small p e r c e n t a g e of plants in t h e f i e l d . If a d e q u a t e 

seed rates are used, n e i g h b o r i n g plants usually c o m p e n - 

sate for the loss of seedlings and no specific c o n t r o l measures 

are required. 

90

Figure 92. G o n o c e p h a l u m sp adult damaging a seedling. 

91 

92

93 

94 

95 

Figure 93. Seedling damaged by cutworm. 

Figure 94. Agrotis ipsilon moth. 

Figure 95. Cutworm larva. 

92

C u t w o r m s Agrotis ipsilon ( H u f n a g e l ) 

Agrotis s p p 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Agrotis ipsilon is w i d e s p r e a d and p o l y p h a - 

g o u s t h r o u g h o u t the t r o p i c s a n d s u b t r o p i c s . Other species 

of Agrotis are of localized i m p o r t a n c e . 

S y m p t o m s . Seedlings are cut t h r o u g h at or below g r o u n d 

level (Fig. 93). A search in the soil a r o u n d such seedlings 

will reveal the larvae. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e large m o t h s (25 m m 

l o n g ) of A. ipsilon have b r o w n f o r e w i n g s and pearly h i n d - 

w i n g s w i t h a b r o w n m a r g i n (Fig. 94). T h e c r e a m - c o l o r e d 

eggs are laid singly on the plants or soil surface. Larvae 

feed o n t h e foliage. T h e large larvae, 4 5 m m l o n g , w h i c h 

are g r e y - b l a c k (Fig. 95), hide b e n e a t h the soil surface 

d u r i n g t h e day and feed at night. P u p a t i o n takes place in 

the soil. O n e generation can be c o m p l e t e d in 6 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h c u t w o r m s are not o f w i d e s p r e a d 

i m p o r t a n c e as pests of c h i c k p e a , they can be very damagi 

n g i n s o m e localities, k i l l i n g m o r e t h a n 3 0 % o f t h e seedlings 

in s o m e fields. Sprays of e n d o s u l f a n , heptachlor, or 

a l d r i n have been r e p o r t e d to give a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l , and 

p o i s o n e d bran baits have also been r e c o m m e n d e d for use 

in e n d e m i c areas. However, p o p u l a t i o n s of these insects 

are usually heavily parasitized and so c o n t r o l is seldom 

n e e d e d . W h e n d a m a g e is n o t i c e d it is usually t o o late to 

use insecticides e c o n o m i c a l l y . 

93

Pests of Foliage and Pods 

A p h i d s Aphis craccivora ( K o c h ) 

Acyrthosiphon pisum ( H a r r i s ) 

( H e m i p t e r a : A p h i d i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Both these species are w i d e l y d i stributed 

and f o u n d on a wide range of l e g u m e s in all regions where 

chickpeas are cultivated. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e aphids feed on stems, leaflets (Fig. 96), 

and pods (Fig. 97). T h e plants wilt w h e n large colonies 

build up on t h e m . However, stunt disease causes the most 

damage in c h i c k p e a (Fig. 98). This is caused by bean 

leaf-roll virus w h i c h is transmitted by these aphids. Stunt 

disease limits plant g r o w t h , and leaflets are small and 

reddish b r o w n (yellow in kabuli types). S c r a p i n g the lower 

part of the stem reveals b r o w n phloem w h i c h is characteristic 

of this disease. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . Aphis craccivora (1.6 mm 

long) is a black shiny a p h i d while A. pisum (2 mm long) is 

grey-green. Winged p a r t h e n o g e n e t i c females are carried 

by the w i n d . Many that land on c h i c k p e a m a y be deterred 

and fly off or be killed by the acid exudate. Plants w i t h 

colonies have little or no exudate. It is not k n o w n whether 

this is because the aphids feed on the exudate or whether 

colonies develop on plants that p r o d u c e little exudate. T h e 

n y m p h s resemble the adults and one g e n e r a t i o n can be 

completed in less than 2 weeks. 

C o n t r o l . A p h i d s are seldom n u m e r o u s e n o u g h on chickpea 

to merit c o n t rol measures but stunt disease causes 

substantial losses in s o m e years in some areas. Several 

chickpea genotypes are k n o w n to be resistant to this disease 

so the best means of c o m b a t i n g it is by the use of 

resistant cultivars. 

Figure 96. Aphis craccivora on leaves. 

Figure 97. A. craccivora on pods. 

Figure 98. Symptoms of stunt disease. 

94

95 

96 

97 

98

99 

L e a f m i n e r s Liriomyza cicerina ( R o n d a n i ) 

Chromatomyia horticola ( G o u r e a u ) 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Liriomyza cicerina is c o m m o n and causes 

d a m a g e in t h e c h i c k p e a - g r o w i n g areas s u r r o u n d i n g the 

M e d i t e r r a n e a n . However, recent w o r k has s h o w n that 

many of the leaf mines o c c u r r i n g early in t h e season in 

these areas are caused by an unidentified species of 

Agromyza. Liriomyza sp has been reported to cause d a m - 

age in M e x i c o . In India, leaf mines are o c c a s i o n a l l y seen 

on c h i c k p e a leaflets but these are reported to be caused by 

C. horticola. 

Figure 99. Damage caused by L i r i o m y z a cicerina. 

96

S y m p t o m s . T h e pale, serpentine mines in w h i c h t h e larvae 

f e e d c a n be clearly seen on t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e of the 

leaflets (Fig. 99). Heavy attacks lead to defoliation. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e adult flies (1.5 m m long) 

w h i c h are black and yellow, p u n c t u r e the upper surface of 

t h e leaflets w i t h their o v i p o s i t o r and feed on the plant 

juices. T h i s results in a stippled pattern on s o m e leaflets. 

S m a l l , w h i t e eggs are laid in s o m e of t h e s e p u n c t u r e s . T h e 

e g g hatches w i t h i n 4 days and the yellow, m a g g o t - l i k e 

larvae t u n n e l s t h r o u g h t h e p a r e n c h y m a , f o r m i n g a m i n e . 

T h e larva reaches full size (3 mm long) in a b o u t a week and 

pupates either in the leaf or, m o r e c o m m o n l y , in the soil. 

T h e life c y c l e is c o m p l e t e d in a b o u t 3 weeks. It is suspected 

that the p u p a e survive the s u m m e r and winter in 

diapause. 

C o n t r o l . Heavy attacks by leaf miners can cause substantial 

d e f o l i a t i o n and yield loss so c o n t r o l measures may be 

r e q u i r e d in s o m e areas. L o w d o s a g e s of m o n o c r o t o p h o s 

(0.025 kg a.i. ha - 1 ) have been f o u n d to give g o o d c o n t r o l 

and s h o u l d be applied d u r i n g the vegetative stage to prevent 

b u i l d u p of infestations. Late-sown c r o p s suffer most 

d a m a g e , so early s o w i n g helps reduce losses. Deep plowing 

to reduce e m e r g e n c e f r o m puparia has been suggested 

as a c o n t r o l m e a s u r e . In s o m e areas, parasites give 

a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l of the leafminers, e.g., heavy parasitism 

of the first generation larvae has been reported f r o m Spain. 

Differences in susceptibility to d a m a g e a m o n g g e n o t y p e s 

has been reported, so s c r e e n i n g and breeding for plant 

resistance m a y be profitable. 

97

A r m y w o r m Spodoptera exigua ( H i i b n e r ) 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Spodoptera exigua is a widely distributed 

p o l y p h a g o u s pest t h r o u g h o u t most of the t r o p i c s and s u b - 

tropics, but it is not reported f r o m South America. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e green larvae feed mainly u p o n leaflets 

and occasionally on pods. Heavy infestations can defoliate 

plants. 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e m o t h s (13 m m ) have 

g r e y i s h - b r o w n f o r e w i n g s and opalescent h i n d w i n g s w i t h a 

dark edge (Fig. 100). Pinkish-white, oval eggs (0.5 mm 

long) are laid in c l u m p s (of up to 150 eggs in each c l u m p ) 

on leaves of m a n y plants, but rarely on c h i c k p e a . T h e 

larvae w h i c h feed on c h i c k p e a are generally f o u n d to have 

dispersed f r o m egg masses laid on the weeds nearby. T h e 

g r e e n larvae h a t c h after t w o o r m o r e d a y s a n d disperse 

(Fig. 101). T h e y generally hide d u r i n g the day but feed 

actively at night. T h e fully g r o w n larva (25 mm long) buries 

itself in the soil w h e r e it pupates. O n e g e n e r a t i o n can be 

c o m p l e t e d in less than 4 weeks under ideal c o n d i t i o n s . 

W h e n large p o p u l a t i o n s of larvae are present in an area, 

they crawl across fields and destroy most green plants in 

their path. 

C o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h these larvae are c o m m o n o n c h i c k p e a 

in m a n y parts of Asia, they seldom reach p o p u l a t i o n s large 

e n o u g h to cause substantial d a m a g e and yield loss. T h i s 

may be because they have a w i d e range of natural enemies. 

T h e y are reported to be a major pest of c h i c k p e a in 

M e x i c o and have b e c o m e resistant to several insecticides 

in that c o u n t r y . S y n t h e t i c p y r e t h r o i d s m a y be most effective 

in c o n t r o l l i n g these insects. 

98

Figure 100. S p o d o p t e r a exigua moths. 

Figure 101. S. exigua larvae. 

99 

100 

101

Figure 102. Species of Helicoverpa and Heliothis moths 

recorded from chickpea. 

100

Pod Borers 

Helicoverpa (Heliothis) armigera ( H u b n e r ) 

Helicoverpa zea ( B o d d i e ) 

Helicoverpa punctigera ( W a l l e n g r e n ) 

Helicoverpa assulta ( G u e n e e ) 


Heliothis virescens ( F a b r i c i u s ) 

Heliothis viriplaca ( H u f n a g e l ) 

Heliothis peltigera ( D e n i s & S c h i f f e r m u l l e r ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . Helicoverpa armigera is p o l y p h a g o u s and 

is w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d in t h e t r o p i c s a n d s u b t r o p i c s , but in 

the A m e r i c a s , H. zea and Heliothis virescens are f o u n d . In 

A u s t r a l i a , b o t h H. armigera a n d H. punctigera attack 

c h i c k p e a . In West Asia, H. viriplaca a n d H. peltigera (Fig. 

102) are also f o u n d on the c r o p ; H. assulta is o c c a s i o n a l l y 

reported f r o m c h i c k p e a in India. 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larvae feed o n all green parts a n d defol- 

iate y o u n g c r o p s in s o u t h e r n India (Fig. 103). Most d a m a g e 

is c a u s e d to the p o d s in w h i c h the large larvae cut r o u n d 

holes in t h e p o d wall a n d d e v o u r the seed inside (Fig. 104). 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . H. armigera is a large b r o w n 

m o t h (20 mm long) w h i c h is active at night. It lays eggs, 

u s u a l l y singly, m o s t l y on the u n d e r s i d e s of leaflets (Fig. 

105). Y o u n g larvae feed by s c r a p i n g the surface of leaflets 

a n d t h e o l d e r larvae c h e w into leaflets, b u d s , f l o w e r s , and 

pods. T h e f u l l y g r o w n larva (40 mm long) m a y be of several 

s h a d e s of y e l l o w , p i n k , r e d , b r o w n , or black, but m o s t of 

t h o s e f o u n d on c h i c k p e a are g r e e n . All larvae have characteristic 

a n d d i s t i n c t light a n d dark b a n d s a l o n g their sides. 

T h e f u l l y g r o w n larvae b u r y t h e m s e l v e s in the soil or 

a m o n g plant d e b r i s t o p u p a t e . O n e g e n e r a t i o n can b e 

Continued 

101

c o m p l e t e d in as little as 4 weeks u n d e r o p t i m u m c o n d i - 

tions. Other species have similar life histories. 

C o n t r o l . S o m e c h i c k p e a g e n o t y p e s have considerable 

resistance to Helicoverpa s p p and it is h o p e d that resistant 

cultivars will soon b e c o m e available to farmers. Several 

insecticides, i n c l u d i n g e n d o s u l f a n a n d s y n t h e t i c p y r e - 

t h r o i d s give g o o d c o n t r o l , p articularly if a p p l i e d w h e n the 

larvae are small. However, considerable resistance to several 

insecticides has been r e p o r t e d in t h i s species in areas 

where intensive insecticide use is c o m m o n . As these pests 

have m a n y natural enemies, pesticide use m a y lead to an 

increase in Helicoverpa and Heliothis p o p u l a t i o n s t h r o u g h 

a reduction of the natural enemies. Insecticides s h o u l d be 

used o n l y o n w e l l - g r o w n c r o p s and o n l y w h e n the p o p u l a - 

tions of larvae reach the ' e c o n o m i c t h r e s h o l d ' . At I C R I - 

SAT, insecticide use appears to be profitable on g o o d 

c r o p s w h e n t w o o r m o r e small larvae are f o u n d per plant. 

Insecticide dusts can be c o n v e n i e n t l y used on this c r o p , 

because the dust adheres to the e x u d a t e - c o v e r e d plants. 

Figure 103. Helicoverpa a r m i g e r a feeding on leaves. 

Figure 104. Pod damage caused by H. a r m i g e r a . 

Figure 105. H. armigera eggs. 

102

103 

103 

104 

105

106 

Figure 106. Semilooper damage to pods. 

104

S e m i l o o p e r Autographs nigrisigna ( W a l k e r ) 


D i s t r i b u t i o n . Several s e m i l o o p e r s have been reported to 

f e e d on c h i c k p e a , b u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t appears to be A. 

nigrisigna w h i c h is of s o m e i m p o r t a n c e in n o r t h e r n India, 

particularly o n Kabuli t y p e c h i c k p e a . 

S y m p t o m s . T h e larvae feed u p o n leaflets and pods. 

W h e n p o d s are a t t a c k e d , m u c h o f t h e p o d wall i s eaten 

(Fig. 106). T h i s is in c o n t r a s t w i t h the neat, r o u n d hole, 

characteristic of Helicoverpa d a m a g e . 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e large, t y p i c a l l y patterned 

m o t h s lay t h e i r e g g s i n c l u m p s (of 4 0 e g g s o r m o r e i n e a c h 

c l u m p ) on the leaflets. T h e larvae, w h i c h are green semil 

o o p e r s , feed u p o n leaflets a n d on p o d s , r e a c h i n g a length 

of 15 m m . P u p a t i o n takes place in the s o i l . 

C o n t r o l . M a n a g e m e n t o f t h i s pest i s not very different 

f r o m t h a t of H. armigera, for t h e t w o species tend to o c c u r 

in m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n s . E n d o s u l f a n has been reported to 

give a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l . 

105

Pests of Stored Seeds 

Bruchids Callosobruchus analis ( F a b r i c i u s ) 

Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) 

Callosobruchus maculatus ( F a b r i c i u s ) 

( C o l e o p t e r a : B r u c h i d a e ) 

D i s t r i b u t i o n . These pests are w i d e s p r e a d , a n d are f o u n d 

in the stored seeds of several legumes, i n c l u d i n g chickpea, 

in most areas of t h e t r o p i c s and subtropics. 

S y m p t o m s . B r u c h i d s are seldom f o u n d in c h i c k p e a pods 

in the fields, but they m a y infest t h e p o d s if they are left on 

the plants for several weeks after m a t u r i t y . T h e w h i t e eggs 

are seen on the pods and the pod wall has a neat circular 

hole f r o m w h e r e the adult w o u l d have e m e r g e d . These 

bruchids are very c o m m o n in stored seed, w h e r e the eggs 

a n d the c y l i n d r i c a l e m e r g e n c e holes are o b v i o u s s y m p - 

toms of infestation (Fig. 107). 

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d b i o l o g y . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f these 

b r u c h i d s to the species level needs m u c h expertise. A d u l t s 

are small (3.0 mm long) b r o w n beetles w h i c h lay their eggs 

on t h e seed surface (and rarely on m a t u r e pods in t h e 

field). T h e y o u n g larva hatches t h r o u g h the base of the egg 

and bores straight t h r o u g h the seed coat. T h e h a t c h e d 

eggs, therefore, seem to be intact. T h e w h i t e larva develops 

and pupates inside the seed. Populations b u i l d up 

q u i c k l y in stored seed because o n e g e n e r a t i o n is c o m - 

pleted in 4-5 weeks and because each female lays more 

than 100 eggs. 

C o n t r o l . S t o r e d seed can be protected f r o m b r u c h i d s by 

keeping clean seed in p e s t - p r o o f containers. Fortunately, 

c h i c k p e a g r o w i n g in t h e field is rarely a t t a c k e d , so freshly 

harvested grain is usually free f r o m b r u c h i d s . S u n d r y i n g 

before placing the grain in a clean store s h o u l d ensure that 

storage losses are m i n i m a l . It is possible to protect seed 

chemically, either by f u m i g a t i o n or by the a d m i x t u r e of 

insecticides, i n c l u d i n g m a l a t h i o n . Where small quantities 

of seed are to be used for s o w i n g , as on research stations, 

m o t h balls (naphthalene) can be m i x e d w i t h the seed to 

106

prevent infestation. A n o t h e r method of protecting seeds is 

to coat t h e m w i t h small quantities of vegetable oil or mix 

neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves or seeds in the stored 

g r a i n . S o m e chickpea seeds are more susceptible to b r u - 

c h i d attack than others, kabuli types being particularly 

susceptible. In general, smaller seeds w i t h rough seed 

coats are less susceptible, but as these characteristics are 

u n d e s i r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n s u m e r v i e w p o i n t , b r e e d i n g 

appears to offer little scope, except where the seeds are 

used as animal feed or c o n s u m e d after removing the seed 

coat. 

Figure 107. C a l l o s o b r u c h u s sp damage in stored seeds. 

107 

107

108 109 

110 

Figure 108. Bird (parakeet)-damaged pigeonpea pod. 

Figure 109. Bird (parakeet)-damaged chickpea pod. 

Figure 110. Sown pigeonpea seed damaged by rats. 

108

O t h e r A n i m a l Pests of P i g e o n p e a 

a n d C h i c k p e a 

Birds 

Several species of birds attack both p i g e o n p e a and chickpea, 

s o m e at s o w i n g a n d in t h e seedling stage, and others 

at the m a t u r e pod stage. In Syria, it has been reported that 

c h i c k p e a plants are d a m a g e d by birds p e c k i n g out the 

s o w n seed and the y o u n g seedlings. In many areas in 

India, parakeets particularly cause substantial damage to 

pods of both p i g e o n p e a a n d c h i c k p e a (Figs. 108 and 109). 

C o n t r o l . Scaring a w a y birds f r o m fields at the seedling 

a n d m a t u r i t y stages will reduce losses. However, several 

birds are insectivorous and are k n o w n to be i m p o r t a n t 

predators of Helicoverpa on c h i c k p e a , so bird-scaring will 

b e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e d u r i n g t h e green p o d stage w h e n 

Helicoverpa infestations are present. 

Rodents 

Rats and o t h e r rodents d a m a g e c h i c k p e a s and p i g e o n - 

peas, b o t h in t h e field a n d in the stores. Seeds are d u g up 

and eaten by rats s o o n after s o w i n g (Fig. 110). Green 

c h i c k p e a p o d s are taken f r o m plants to the rats' burrows, 

the o p e n i n g s of w h i c h are often s u r r o u n d e d by discarded 

p o d husks. R o d e n t s also eat stored seeds, so rat proof 

s t o r a g e is needed if t h e grain is to be stored for a considerable 

d u r a t i o n . F u m i g a t i o n of rat b u r r o w s using zinc p h o s - 

p h i d e or other c h e m i c a l s , and the use of baits c o n t a i n i n g 

r o d e n t i c i d e s help reduce rat p o p u l a t i o n s . However, care 

must be taken to ensure that other m a m m a l s , i n c l u d i n g 

m a n , are not h a r m e d . 

109

Beneficial Insects 

Pollinators 

Many insects i n c l u d i n g H y m e n o p t e r a , Diptera, a n d L e p i - 

doptera visit p i g e o n p e a f l o w e r s to feed on nectar and 

pollen (Figs. 111 and 112). Several of t h e s e carry pollen on 

their bodies and are likely to be involved in cross pollinat 

i o n . 

T h e major p o l l i n a t o r s are bees; b o t h t h e social ( A p i s 

spp) and solitary bees (e.g., Megachile spp, Fig. 31). 

In c h i c k p e a , relatively f e w insects visit t h e f l o w e r s a n d 

there is very little cross p o l l i n a t i o n . 

Figure 111. A p i s dorsata pollinating pigeonpea. 

Figure 112. X y l o c o p a sp pollinating pigeonpea. 

110

111 

111 

112

113a 113b 

114 115 

116 117 

112

Natural Enemies 

M a n y insect a n d a n i m a l species feed u p o n the insect pests 

o n p i g e o n p e a , a n d t h e r e are s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r s o n 

c h i c k p e a also. 

I n s e c t s a n d o t h e r a n i m a l s t h a t c a t c h a n d eat t h e s e pests 

p a r t l y or w h o l l y are k n o w n as p r e d a t o r s . A n i m a l s that feed 

a n d d e v e l o p on or in t h e b o d i e s of o t h e r insects are k n o w n 

as parasites a n d t h o s e that kill their hosts are referred to as 

p a r a s i t o i d s . T h e s e natural e n e m i e s can be so a b u n d a n t 

t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o f insect p e s t s are r e d u c e d t o levels 

t h a t c a u s e little c r o p d a m a g e . In s u c h cases, insecticides 

need not be a p p l i e d . 

It is not p o s s i b l e to illustrate all t h e natural e n e m i e s of 

t h e s e pests in a small p u b l i c a t i o n like t h i s , so a f e w repre- 

sentative e x a m p l e s have been g i v e n . It is essential t h a t 

a n y o n e a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n d u c t research o n pest m a n a g e - 

m e n t or a n y o n e involved in e x t e n s i o n activities s h o u l d be 

able to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n pests and the beneficial 

insects f o u n d on these c r o p s . A c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e c o r d of 

d i f f e r e n t parasites a n d p r e d a t o r s of these pests will be 

p u b l i s h e d in t h e near f u t u r e . 

Predators 

M a n y p r e d a t o r s (Figs. 113-122) feed on insect pests t h a t 

attack p i g e o n p e a a n d c h i c k p e a . For e x a m p l e , o n I C R I S A T 

f a r m we o b s e r v e d m o r e t h a n 20 species of insects that prey 

on H. armigera eggs a n d larvae. In a d d i t i o n to the p r e d a - 

t o r y insects, several species of s p i d e r s , lizards, and birds 

have been observed to feed on H. armigera larvae. 

Figure 113a. Ootheca, an egg case, of praying mantis. 

Figure 113b. A praying mantis predator on pigeonpea. 

Figure 114. Robber fly, a H e l i c o v e r p a predator. 

Figure 115. Dragon fly, a H e l i c o v e r p a predator. 

Figure 116. A spider predator on pigeonpea. 

Figure 117. The king crow or drongo, a H e l i c o v e r p a 

predator. 

113

118 119 

120a 

Figure 118. Chrysopa sp., a predator on pigeonpea. 

Figure 119. A reduviid feeding on Helicoverpa larva. 

Figure 120. Cheilomenes sexmaculatus, an aphid predator; 

(a) grub and (b) adult. 

114 

120b

Figure 121. A mud wasp carrying a Helicoverpa larva. 

Figure 122. A mud wasp's nest packed with Helicoverpa 

larvae. 

115

Parasitoids 

Several parasitoids have been r e c o r d e d f r o m a m o n g the 

p i g e o n p e a a n d c h i c k p e a pests. F o r e x a m p l e , m o r e t h a n 2 5 

species of insects have been r e c o r d e d as being parasitic 

on H. armigera in s o u t h c e n t r a l India. All these are h y m e - 

nopteran and d i p t e r a n ; s o m e e x a m p l e s are illustrated here 

(Figs. 123-125). 

N e m a t o d e s also parasitize H. armigera larvae, especially 

d u r i n g the rainy s e a s o n . T h e s e n e m a t o d e s , Ovomermis 

albicans (Fig. 126) g r o w to 10 cm or m o r e . T h e y coil up 

inside H. armigera larvae, a n d kill t h e m b e f o r e p u p a t i o n by 

c o n s u m i n g a n d d i s r u p t i n g the internal o r g a n s of the host. 

Figure 123. Life stages of Eucelatoria bryani, a Helicoverpa 

parasite. 

Figure 124. Pupae of A p a n t e l e s (wasp) parasite on 

pigeonpea. 

Figure 125. Pupa of C o m p o l e t i s c h l o r i d e a e parasite, a 

major enemy of H e l i c o v e r p a . 

Figure 126. O v o m e r m i s a l b i c a n s , a nematode parasite on 

Helicoverpa larvae. 

116

123 

124 125 

126 

117

127a 

128 

Figure 127a. H. a r m i g e r a larva infected by nuclear poly- 

hedrosis virus on pigeonpea. 

Figure 127b. H. a r m i g e r a cadaver full of brown liquid 

containing virus particles. 

Figure 128. H. armigera larva killed by nuclear polyhedro- 

sis virus on chickpea. 

118 

127b

Insect Diseases 

T h e r e are several d i s e a s e - c a u s i n g o r g a n i s m s i n c l u d i n g 

f u n g i , b a c t e r i a , a n d v i r u s e s , t h a t i n f e c t a n d kill insects. 

H o w e v e r , s u c h diseases are beneficial w h e n t h e y infect t h e 

insect pests. 

An e x a m p l e of a b e n e f i c i a l viral disease t h a t causes 

c o n s i d e r a b l e m o r t a l i t y to a m a j o r pest is the N u c l e a r 

P o l y h e d r o s i s Virus (NPV) t h a t infects H. armigera. T h i s 

v i r u s a p p e a r s t o b e f a i r l y c o m m o n a n d w i d e s p r e a d , for i t 

has b e e n r e p o r t e d to infect this pest in A f r i c a , Asia, a n d 

A u s t r a l a s i a . Infected larvae b e c o m e s l u g g i s h , s t o p f e e d i n g , 

a n d e v e n t u a l l y die. T h e i n f e c t e d larvae are often f o u n d 

h a n g i n g head d o w n w a r d f r o m t w i g s (Figs. 127a, b, a n d 

128). T h e cadavers are full o f b r o w n l i q u i d w h i c h c o n t a i n s 

t h e v i r u s p a r t i c l e s (Fig. 127b). If s u c h d e a d larvae are 

c r u s h e d a n d m i x e d w i t h water, t h e m i x t u r e can be used as 

a c h e a p i n s e c t i c i d e . T h i s infects larvae that feed u p o n 

f o l i a g e or p o d s c o n t a m i n a t e d by t h e virus particles and 

t h u s c o n t r o l s t h e pest. H o w e v e r , infected larvae take a 

w e e k o r m o r e t o die a n d can c a u s e substantial d a m a g e 

d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d . A l s o , t h e v i r u s i s i n a c t i v a t e d b y s u n - 

l i g h t , s o s u c h s p r a y s are not p e r s i s t e n t unless m i x e d w i t h 

s o m e stabilizers. 

119

120 

Notes

Pigeonpea and Chickpea Insect Identification Handbook - Agropedia

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