ENG Chapter 1 - Biodiversity Skills

1Learning objectivesAfter completing this part, you will have a betterunderstanding of the basic concepts and state ofknowledge about biodiversity and ecosystem services.You will understand the difference between habitatsand ecosystems and their role in supporting differentspecies. You will appreciate the interrelationshipsbetween biodiversity and ecosystem services, and learnan approach to considering ecosystems in policy andplanning. This section will enable you to have sufficientbackground technical knowledge of the subject tobetter understand how you can integrate planning forbiodiversity in your day to day work activities.

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceWhat is biodiversity?Biodiversity is the sum total of life on earth. It includes all animals, plants, fungi and viruses as wellas the places where they live. We are also part of biodiversity and together with nature in all itsforms we create the fabric of life that surrounds us.The building blocks of biodiversityBiodiversity has a number of different functions and of key interest to humans are the services thatnature provides. Just as a house has different building blocks to make a whole (bricks, cement andwindows) so as to provide us with shelter, there are basic building blocks of biodiversity which enableit to function. The basic building blocks of biodiversity are: species, habitats, ecosystems andgenes.SpeciesAround 1.75 million species have been describedworldwide and it has been estimated that thesemay represent only 13% of the total number thatmay currently exist on the Earth. The most importantand diverse groups, excluding micro-organisms,are the insects. Other diverse groups includefungi, plants, lichens and mosses. It is thereforeimportant to not just consider more charismaticspecies. All species have a part to play and providethe ‘fabric of life’ on which we depend.SpeciesEcosystemsHabitatsHabitatsDifferent species of plants and animals come togetherin varied combinations to form ecologicalcommunities or habitats. They are formed overGenesmany thousands of years in response to local environmentalconditions such as soil type, moistureavailability and climate. Human activities have alsoshaped and created habitats that are of high biodiversityvalue. It is not just individual species that are important, typical and non-typical combinations ofspecies within habitats are important biodiversity elements.Important habitats can occur anywhere; a relic forest in a strictly protected National Park, a herbrichmeadow or a railway siding on the edge of a city-centre.Habitats are classified so as to establish their value, importance, capture key differences and helpprovide more effective site management. Classification is based on data about the different speciesthat make up a habitat and/or its structural or chemical properties. In Europe, habitat classificationusually follows the European Union’s Eunis classification.Some of the most important areas for biodiversity are not altered or managed by humans e.g. wilderness.Conservation of these areas usually relies on minimising interference. However, in many16

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesareas, including much of Western Europe, there are few or nowildernesses. Instead a network of semi-natural habitats, suchas wood-pasture, fens and heaths has emerged alongside thegrowth and expansion of human activity.Semi-natural habitats usually need care from land managersto keep their biodiversity interest, but they can be damaged bythe wrong sort of management. For example, limestone grasslandneeds to be grazed at certain times of the year, but canbe damaged by year-round grazing or use of fertilisers.The EUNIS ClassificationThe European Nature Information Systemincludes a range of data on species, habitattypes and sites. It helps compliance withthe EU Habitats and Birds Directives andprovides specific data from internationalRed Lists.http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/How to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceIn practical terms it is easier to recognise (and manage) habitats with a focus on individual species.Once values have been established and priorities have been set it is possible to effectively managethem because important plant habitats can be readily identified (e.g. ‘white bark pine forest’), aswell as the key processes that need to be maintained, (e.g. ‘natural regeneration of forest trees’).Not all animals favour the same habitat and different species of the same animal may favour differenthabitats. The diagram below illustrates this with reference to three species of bat.EcosystemsAn ecosystem can include one or many different habitats.It is the sum total of the interactions betweenall species (i.e. plants, animals and micro-organisms)and their physical environment at a given location.Ecosystems can operate at any scale, from a singlerotting log in a forest to a whole river catchment oreven, in the case of migratory species, different continents.These interactions and physical processes helpto maintain species and habitats as well as critical‘goods and services’ to human beings. For example, ifnutrient cycles were disrupted around a lake, throughthe addition of too much artificial fertiliser, then thiscan lead to blooms of blue-green algae that not onlyreduce the biodiversity of the lake but also poison livestockand kill fish that might otherwise be harvestedfor food. This would mean the loss of goods, e.g. foodprovision, and services, e.g. clean water.Greater Horse Shoe BatHabitat: hedgerowsBenefits: linear foraging opportunitiesManagement: minimise cutting and do this in the winterPipistrelleHabitat: rivers and lakesBenefits: feed on aquatic larvae and nest on river banksManagement: minimise fluctuations in water levelsLeisler’s BatHabitat: beachesBenefits: foraging for insects amongst driftwoodManagement: avoid removing natural debris from beachesFor further information on bat habitats and their management see Entwhistle, Aet al (2001) Habitat Management for Bats: A Guide for land managers, land ownersand their advisors available at:http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/habitat_management_for_bats.pdfGenesAll forms of life on earth, whether microbes, plants, animals, or humans, contain genes. Genes ultimatelygovern the ability of species, habitats and eco-systems to adapt to environmental change.These are the basic building blocks of life. Even though a species may look the same, local racesmay have adapted to thrive in a particular environment. Genetic diversity is the sum of geneticinformation contained in the genes of individual plants, animals, and micro-organisms. Each speciesstores an immense amount of genetic information in the form of traits and characteristics. Thenumber of genes ranges from about 1000 in bacteria to more than 400 000 in many floweringplants. Each species consists of many organisms and virtually no two members of the same speciesare genetically identical.17

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicescombinations of genes or from mutations causing changes inthe DNA. Genetic diversity is usually mentioned with referenceto agriculture and maintaining food security. This is because geneticerosion of several crops has already occurred leading to “…the loss of biodiversity often reducesthe world’s dependence for food on just a few species. Currently,the productivity of ecosystems, therebya mere 100-odd species account for 90% of the supply of foodshrinking nature’s basket of goods andcrops, and three crops – rice, maize, and wheat – account for69% of the calories and 56% of the proteins that people derive services, from which we constantly draw.from plants.It destabilises ecosystems, and weakenstheir ability to deal with natural disasterssuch as floods, droughts, and hurricanes,Why does biodiversity matter?and with human-caused stresses, such aspollution and climate change. Already, weEurope’s natural environment matters to us all. The beautyare spending huge sums in response toof our landscapes and wildlife inspire and enrich our lives,and are an important part of our national and regional identities.But this way of looking at the environment is limited deforestation; such damage is expected toflood and storm damage exacerbated bybecause biodiversity forms the ‘fabric of life’ that surrounds increase due to global warming...”us, from the smallest bacteria in the soil, to the largest animalin the forest. Although we may not readily appreciate it,http://www.cbd.int/biodiversity provides us with many of the things that sustainour lives. In short, protecting our species and their habitats also improves our quality of lifeand our standard of living. Every living thing has a place in the ‘balance of nature’, and upsettingthat balance can have untold effects. The collapse of communities and whole civilisations,where environmental limits have been exceeded, has been well documented throughouthistory. Over the past 50 years, humans have altered ecosystems more rapidly and extensivelythan in any time in human history. We change ecosystems to meet growing demands forfood, fresh water, wood, materials for clothes and fuel. This has resulted in a massive andlargely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth. For example, agricultural intensificationhas been suspected as one of the causes of a major decline in pollinators throughout NorthWestern Europe. As nearly two thirds of all crops require pollination, if this trend continues itmay pose a significant threat to future food security.Floods, famines, crop failures and even shark attacks onpopular beaches can all be the result of ecosystem damageby human activity. This is why there is an increasing trendtowards placing a value on ecosystems and their services.It is easy to see ourselves as being somehow separate fromthe natural environment that surrounds us. In reality our fateis inextricably bound to biodiversity. It provides us with foodfor our tables, fuel for our fires, fibres for our clothes, pollinationof our crops and building materials for our houses. Whenused sustainably, biodiversity provides a renewable resourcethat will hopefully continue to be present long after otherfinite resources have been exhausted.More about the European andinternational importance of biodiversity2012 saw the establishment of theIntergovernmental science-policy Platformon Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.The IPBES builds on the EcosystemAssessment and its follow up processes.www.ipbes.netThe Biodiversity Information Systemfor Europe (BISE) is the EuropeanCommission’s official source ofinformation about biodiversity.http://biodiversity.europa.euHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practice19

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem services© Thierry Degen, METL-MEDDEHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceGardens flooded by the River Clain at Poitiers (France)The Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentThe Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)was called in 2000, by the then United NationsSecretary-General Kofi Annan in his report to theUN General Assembly, We the Peoples: The Roleof the United Nations in the 21st Century. Carriedout from 2001 to 2005, the MA assessed theconsequences of ecosystem change for humanwell-being. It comprehensively demonstrated theimportance of ecosystems and the services thatthey provide to human well-being, and foundthat, at a global scale, many of these services arebeing degraded or lost.This conclusion is underpinned by state-of-the artscientific assessment of the condition and trendsin the world’s ecosystems and the services theyprovide (such as clean water, food, flood controland recreation). The MA also explored the optionsto restore, conserve or enhance the sustainableuse of ecosystems.One of the key conclusions of the MA is that a significantchange in policy is needed to reverse thedegradation of ecosystems and enable them toprovide us with the services we currently need andwhich future generations will also rely upon.Key pointsThe following points should be remembered whenconsidering the importance of biodiversity:• Biodiversity includes all forms of life: geneticdiversity - of a population or individuals,within a same species; species diversity -between species in an ecosystem; ecosystemdiversity - the variety of ecosystems on Earth.• Humans are part of the ‘web of life’• Current rates of extinction are the highestrecorded• Loss of key species may cause ecological collapse• Unsustainable growth has destroyedcivilisations• Biodiversity provides critical ‘goods andservices’• Biodiversity occurs at different spatial levels• You need to understand the importance ofyour biodiversity assets• Your future depends on a healthy environment• Make biodiversity relevant to people• Your plans can help to conserve species,habitats, ecosystems and genes21

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceInteractions both between organismsand with their physicalenvironment result in ecologicalprocesses that operate at differentscales and deliver ecosystemservices that have value tosociety.The Millennium EcosystemAssessment grouped these ecosystemservices into four broadcategories with “supporting”services underpinning the otherservice categories.Case: Promoting themultiple (social, economicand ecological) benefits ofgreen roofs in DüsseldorfGreen roofs are increasingly recognised asproviding good contributions to climatechange adaptation, water management andpublic health in urban areas: they providecheap isolation from summer heat (andwinter cold), they intercept precipitation andabsorb peak flow as a sponge releasing itslowly to the urban drainage system, andthey filter small particles from the air. Besidesthese ‘hard’ socio-economic benefits, theyalso increase quality of living by providing attractivegreen scenery to urban dwellers andoffer pockets of suitable habitat to a rangeof plants and animals. The city of Düsseldorfhas recognised these benefits of green roofsand has started an active promotion campaignfor citizens and companies to installsuch roofs on their houses and buildings. Notonly does the municipality provide subsidiesto support the investment, as green roofsserve a shared public benefit, but it has alsoincluded the incorporation of green roofs inits building ordinance for new constructions,and is studying the possibility to incorporatesewage tax exemptions for owners of greenroofed buildings.Main Findings of UN Ecosystem Assessment:• Over the past 50 years, humans havechanged ecosystems more rapidly andextensively than in any comparable periodof time in human history• The changes have contributed to substantialnet gains in human well-being andeconomic development, but have beenachieved at growing costs in the form of thedegradation of many ecosystem services,increased risks of non-linear changes, andthe exacerbation of poverty for some groupsof people.• These problems, unless addressed, willsubstantially diminish the benefits thatfuture generations obtain for ecosystems.• The degradation of ecosystem services couldgrow significantly worse during the next 50years.• The challenge of reversing the degradationof ecosystems while meeting increasingdemands for their services can be partiallymet under some scenarios that the MA hasconsidered, but these involve significantchanges in policies, institutions andpractices that are not currently under way.22

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesgeneration & renewal of soilfertilityoxygene productionSupportingProvisioningpolinationfond fibre fuel waterdetoxification & decompositionof wasteshelter = buildingmaterialsHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceRegulatingstabilisation &moderation of climateair & waterpurificationflood, wind & droughtmitigationtemperature extremescontrol of pests &diseasesCulturaleducation recreation aestetics well-beingThe figure below shows the strength oflinkages between categories of ecosystemservices and components of human wellbeing.The figure shows the extent to whichit is possible for socioeconomic factors tomediate the linkage e.g. if it is possible topurchase a substitute for a degraded ecosystemservice, then there is a high potentialfor mediation. The strength of the linkagesand the potential for mediation differin different ecosystems and areas. In additionto the influence of ecosystem serviceson human well-being depicted here, otherfactors—including other environmentalfactors as well as economic, social, technological,and cultural factors—influence humanwell-being, and ecosystems are in turnaffected by changes in human well-being.Case: Flood risk protection is anopportunity for strengthening the NationalEcological Network (Netherlands)Specific water management challenges in the Dutch Rivers District(Rivierengebied) arose as a result of more frequent and heavyrainfall and longer periods of drought due to climate change. Thisleads to an increased likelihood of flooding. Therefore, prospectivefuture temporary water peaks require the identification ofoptions for increased storage capacity. The Water Board decidedmake a thorough study of water storage options and then selectthe best option through an interactive process with stakeholders.The multifunctional solution to the water management challengeresulted in a strengthening of the regional ecological networkalongside the connecting waterways. In addition, the waterwayswith large banks can buffer water in periods of drought. Measuresthat are meant for water storage also need to serve a better qualityof water as much as possible. These co-benefits (and their savingsin terms of use of space and expenditure) were very interestingfor the decision makers: enough available storage for water aswell as a contribution to biodiversity. The process shows that goodresults can be achieved in local planning for nature if scientificallybased solutions for spatial challenges are discussed with groupsof stakeholders.23

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceMillenium Ecosystem Assessment (http://www.maweb.org)The link between biodiversity and ecosystemservicesChanges in biodiversity affect the ability of ecosystems to supply services and to recover from disturbances.When a species is lost from a particular location (even if it does not become extinct globally)or introduced to a new location, the various ecosystem services associated with that speciesare changed. More generally, when a habitat is converted, an array of ecosystem services associatedwith the species present in that location is changed, often with direct and immediate impactson human activity.Changes in biodiversity also have numerous indirect impacts on ecosystem services over longertime periods, including influencing the capacity of ecosystems to adjust to changing environments(medium certainty), causing disproportionately large and sometimes irreversible changes in ecosystemprocesses, influencing the potential for infectious disease transmission, and, in agriculturalsystems, influencing the risk of crop failure in a variable environment and altering the potentialimpacts of pests and pathogens (medium to high certainty).24

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesThe ecosystem approachOne of the main findings of the UN EcosystemsAssessment is that there must be a shift inthe attitude of policy makers and practitionersto the way in which ecosystems are considered.Ecosystems provide a unifying themefor biodiversity action planning. They not onlyset the context for more effective biodiversityconservation but also provide a way of integratinghuman society through the goods and servicesparadigm. The Convention on BiologicalDiversity has developed an ecosystem approachto help with this and it is directly related to theactivities of local authorities and planners. Theecosystem approach is a strategy for the integratedmanagement of land, water and livingresources that promotes conservation and sustainableuse in an equitable way. It is made upof 12 complementary and interlinked principles(CBD, 2012):Principle 1:Principle 2:The objectives of managementof land, water and living resourcesare a matter of societalchoices.Management should be decentralizedto the lowest appropriatelevel.Case: Parc du chemin de l’ile (France)Located in a degraded brownfield site, the Parc du Cheminde I’lle is part of a big rehabilitation intervention on the urbanspace linking La Defense (Paris business district) andNanterre. In development of the park, all materials usedwas found and recycled on site and then used to build thefacilities. The entrance of the park has been converted intoartificial wetlands. The water of the Seine is taken upstreamby an Archimedes screw then purified by passing throughseven types of basins arranged in cascade. The plants thatadorn the ponds were selected according to changes inwater quality. These ponds filter the pollution from the waterpumped from the Seine. It is then used in the park andthe community gardens. While in input water of the Seineis loaded organic compounds, nitrogen, phosphorus andgerms and has a water quality class 3, it achieves a quality“bathing water” type quality fish Class 1B output. Thepark is full of scenic places to sit and enjoy the surroundingand several contemporary sculptures were placed all overthe park. To facilitate public access, many auxiliary facilitieshave been planned, including a dog park, informationpoint, tavern, gardens, and playgrounds.Laurent Mignaux, METL-MEDDEHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practicePrinciple 3:Ecosystem managers shouldconsider the effects (actualor potential) of their activitieson adjacent and otherecosystems.Native marsh vegetation in the basins filters the pollutants fromthe Seine waterPrinciple 4: Recognizing potential gainsfrom management, there is usually a need to understand and manage theecosystem in an economic context.Principle 5:Principle 6:Principle 7:Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintainecosystem services, should be a priority target of the ecosystem approach.Ecosystems must be managed within the limits of their functioning.The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial andtemporal scales.25

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practicePrinciple 8:Principle 9:Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects that characterizeecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem management should be set forthe long term.Management must recognize the change is inevitable.Principle 10: The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance between, andintegration of, conservation and use of biological diversity.Principle 11:The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of relevant information,including scientific and indigenous and local knowledge, innovations andpractices.Principle 12: The ecosystem approach should involve all relevant sectors of society and scientificdisciplines.The 12 principles are also accompanied by ‘operational guidance’ that is intended to provide moredetailed advice. A number of points have been made which can provide an ecosystem approachchecklist for planners:1. Focus on the functional relationships and processes within ecosystems, e.g. bigger areascontain more species and provide a wider range of economic benefits.2. Make sure that those who improve functions get direct benefits, e.g. payments for citizenswho help maintain flood prevention on their land.3. Remove ‘perverse incentives’ that lead to a loss of biodiversity and degradation of ecosystemservices, e.g. subsidies to drain wetlands.4. Use adaptive management practices to ensure that biodiversity and critical ecosystem servicesare maintained, i.e. change management if the desired biodiversity and ecosystemgoals are not being achieved.5. Carry out management actions at the scale appropriate for the issue, e.g. a single farmholding, an entire mountain, a municipality or a whole country.6. Ensure cross-sectoral cooperation, e.g. integrate the Ecosystem Approach into agriculture,fisheries, forestry and other production systems that have an effect on biodiversity.These principles and operational guidance are underpinned by a range of competencies thatshould already be a part of a planner’s toolkit.Capacity BuildingInformation & ResearchMonitoring & ReviewGovernanceStakeholder engagementUp to date GISAdaptable frameworksPolicy frameworkCommunity partnershipsIdentified gapsPerformanceResponsivenessPolitical supportTransparencyOutcomesLeadership provides the final component in the ecosystem approach. It is vital that officers of publicbodies or non-governmental organisations that are in charge of managing the process direct26

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicespeople’s activities so that they remain focussed and achieve the established goals. Leading also involvescreating an environment that encourages people to be self-motivated and empowers themto make decisions in matters that affect them.For more details on the ecosystems approach see http://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/sourcebook/beginner-guide/ where you will find a beginners and an advanced users guide.Tree lines and hedges in an intensive agricultural area are part of thegreen infrastructure and provide additional connectivity betweenremaining areas of nature© Laurent Mignaux/METL-MEDDEGreenInfrastructureGreen infrastructure is ameans of securing high qualityenvironmental futures byensuring the efficient use ofland through a multifunctionalapproach to land useplanning. The concept of GIseeks to support functioningecosystems and natural systemsfor the managementof basic ecosystem servicessuch as water, clean air, soil,and the maintenance of biodiversity.The developmentand delivery of GI providesopportunities to create newareas of semi-natural habitatwhich can be particularlyimportant in an urbancontext where habitats areoften fragmented, degradedand neglected. GI can alsohelp enhance and providefor larger habitat benefits ata strategic scale especiallyin rural areas. It can alsoprovide the tools for an integratedapproach to land useplanning that includes socialand economic factors.How to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceWhere GI is planned strategically it can help to reduce habitat fragmentation by reconnectingexisting habitat patches through creation of new habitat features or by enhancing existingwildlife corridors such as river corridors, and can be particularly important where these connectwith the wider ecological network at a landscape scale. These new and improved ecologicalconnections allow wildlife to move through the landscape and utilise all of the available habitatspots or stepping stones, also increasing genetic exchange between populations.27

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceCase: Assessing andpromoting the benefits ofGreen Infrastructure (UK)Green Infrastructure (GI) work in the northwestof England evolved from the work of the region’stwo Community Forests – Red Rose andThe Mersey Forest. This involved adapting workthat was being developed in southeast Englandto suit the needs of the Liverpool and ManchesterCity Regions. The Community Forests havea role to implement change in line with theirForest Plans (e.g. www.merseyforest.org.uk/forest_plan) to shape policy as well as developopportunities to enable the long-term deliveryof the Forests. A key issue was how to bestcoordinate activity so that there was a joint approachto environmental issues. Changing thebasis of discussion with the non-environmentalsector was also a priority. GI provided an opportunityto develop an approach that was betterunderstood by non-environmentalists andoffered potential solutions to some of society’smost difficult and expensive long-term issues,such as adapting to projected climate change,tackling poor health, and improving qualityof life and place. The GI agenda developed anumber of “resources” that supported the workto promote GI in the region.This ecological connectivity is vital to support resilient wildlifepopulations for the future, and is particularly important inlight of both the on-going impacts of habitat fragmentationand new challenges faced by our wildlife as a result of climatechange.In Europe, many of our towns and cities are endowed with ahaphazard lattice of trees, parks, gardens, allotments, cemeteries,woodlands, green corridors, railway sidings and riversand waterways. Set within, between and beyond urban areas,these green assets are often neglected and poorly connected.Much of the problem is that GI is seen more often asa liability and burden rather than a means to deliver criticalecosystems services. In order to achieve the integrated approachthat green infrastructure offers it is usually necessaryto involve key stakeholders and decision makers in a participativeprocess.Ecosystem functioningIn order to better plan the management and use of ecosystemservices, it is necessary to understand the ecologicalprocesses underpinning ecosystem services. There is a growingbody of scientific evidence demonstrating that loss ofbiodiversity is affecting ecosystem functioning as much asclimate change, pollution and other major forms of environmentalstress.The link between biodiversity and resilience has been shown for alimited number of ecosystems, but is difficult to demonstrate for© Laurent Mignaux/METL-MEDDEBocage in Normandy (France) an example of multifunctional landscape28

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesLaurent Mignaux, METL-MEDDEothers, especially for largerinterlinked ecosystems andtheir services. In WesternEurope, all ecosystems areshaped by people, directlyor indirectly and all people,rich or poor, rural or urban,depend on the capacity ofecosystems to generate essentialecosystem services.In this sense, people and ecosystemsare interdependentsocial-ecological systems.How to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceThe ecosystem concept describesthe interrelationshipsbetween living organisms(people included) and thenon-living environment andprovides a holistic approachto understanding the generationof services from anenvironment that both deliversbenefits to and imposescosts on people.Variation in biological diversityrelates to the operationsof ecosystems in atA semi-natural stream in Bretagne (France)least three ways:1. increase in diversity often leads to an increase in productivity due to complementary traitsamong species for resource use, and productivity itself underpins many ecosystem services,2. increased diversity leads to an increase in response diversity (range of traits related to howspecies within the same functional group respond to environmental drivers) resulting in lessvariability in functioning over time as environment changes,3. idiosyncratic effects due to keystone species properties and unique trait-combinationswhich may result in a disproportional effect of losing one particular species compared tothe effect of losing individual species at random.Ecosystems produce multiple services and these interact in complex ways, different services beinginterlinked, both negatively and positively. Delivery of many services will therefore vary in a correlatedmanner, but when an ecosystem is managed principally for the delivery of a single service(e.g. food production), other services are nearly always affected negatively.Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems, which move between states over different time frames.In response to different types of disturbance, such as species loss, fire, changes in nutrients, droughtor harvesting, ecosystems can shift to an alternative state, such as from forest to grassland. Theshift can occur abruptly or gradually in response to increasing pressures over long periods e.g.29

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practiceCase: Restoring abiodiversity rich culturallandscape (Germany)The steep south and southeast-facingvineyards with dry stone walls and stonestairs, which were constructed by the hardphysical work of winegrowers and craftspeople,present a valuable heritage that is bothnatural and cultural. Through the effects ofweathering, approximately one third of thedry stone walls and all three flights of stairsare damaged and, in many areas, unstable.In parts, the cultivation of the steepvineyard slopes is acutely endangered. Onthe initiative of the working group ‘Natureand the Environment’ and the municipalityof Ballrechten-Dottingen (Germany), therestoration of this vineyard was implementedin cooperation with the winegrowers, thestate of Baden-Württemberg (regionalcouncil of Freiburg and Stuttgart), the districtBreisgau-Hochschwarzwald and the Institutefor Landscape Management of the Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg. The structuralconditions of the vineyard were restoredand preserved (paths, dry stone walls andstairs), in order for cultivation to be sustained.The vineyard’s importance as a habitat forvarious endangered animal and plant species(among them many FFH-species) wasconserved. Additionally, the general public’sview of environmental conservation and thepreservation of historical monuments werestrengthened, through external communicationand public participation (this was particularlyimportant with children). The mostimportant influence on local decision makerswas the conclusion that large projects can berealised if all participants focus on the biggerpicture, rather than on their own interests.desertification. The point at which a shiftoccurs is known as an ecosystem thresholdor limit, at which point changes inecological processes may affect ecosystemservice provision such as food production(Parliamentary Office of Scienceand Technology 2007).The magnitude of a particular type ofdisturbance that can be absorbed by anecosystem is referred to as ecosystemresilience. It has been suggested thatecosystem resilience can be reduced bygradual modifications, making them lessable to absorb disturbance events andincreasing the likelihood of abrupt shifts.However, although ecosystem resiliencecan be derived from simple theoreticalmathematical models it is not yet possibleto apply it to all ecosystems as apractical predictive tool to determineactual ecosystem thresholds or limits.Ecosystems cannot be referred to as stable,healthy or resilient in a quantifiedway at present and there is little agreementover the scientific definition ofthese terms.Ecosystems vary in their ability to bufferand adapt to both natural and anthropogenicchanges as well as recover afterchanges (i.e. resilience). When subjectedto severe change, ecosystems may crossthresholds and move into different andoften less desirable ecological states ortrajectories. A major challenge is howto design ecosystem managementin ways that maintain resilience andavoids passing undesirable thresholds.There is clear evidence for a central roleof biodiversity in the delivery of some –but not all - services, viewed individually.However, ecosystems need to be managedto deliver multiple services to sustain human well-being and also managed at the level oflandscapes and seascapes in ways that avoid the passing of dangerous tipping-points. We canstate with high certainty that maintaining functioning ecosystems capable of delivering multipleservices requires a general approach to sustaining biodiversity, in the long-term also when a singleservice is the focus.30

Understanding biodiversity and ecosystem servicesKey learning points• Biodiversity includes all forms and variation of life on Earth• Its building blocks are: genes, species, habitats, and ecosystems• It includes all interactions between these building blocks and with the non-living environment• Biodiversity occurs at different levels of organisation• Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of ecosystems, making them more resistant to external impacts• It provides a wide range of ecosystem services and goodsHow to plan for NatureAction planning skills in practice• These services underpin the life support system upon which humanity ultimately relies for basic needs such as cleanair, clean water, food, fibre and (climate) regulation• These services and goods represent a huge economic value (material and immaterial)• Understand the importance of your biodiversity assets• Plans must conserve genes, species, habitats and ecosystems• The ecosystem approach and green infrastructure provide frameworks for the delivery of an environmentally ledapproach that can integrate biodiversity, ecosystem services and social and economic considerations• Stakeholder participation is often a critical success factor in delivering a fully integrated ecosystem approachReferences and further readingJones-Walters, Lawrence, Roger Catchpole, Aleksandra Mladenovic, Aysegul Cil, Mark Snethlage, KristijanCivic, Andrew Schrauwen, Srdjan Susic, and Sasa Solujic. 2010. Local Biodiversity Action Planningfor Southeastern Europe. Tilburg: ECNC-European Centre for Nature Conservation. http://www.ecnc.org/publications/technicalreports/local-biodiversity-action-planning.Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. 2007. Ecosystem Services. Postnote. London: ParliamentaryOffice of Science and Technology. http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/postpn281.pdf.Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. About Biodiversity. http://www.cbd.int/2010/biodiversity/#tab=0.TEEB. 2010. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for Local and Regional Policy Makers. http://www.teebweb.org/ForLocalandRegionalPolicy/LocalandRegionalPolicyMakersChapterDrafts/tabid/29433/Default.aspx.UNEP. 2005. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.html.31