Abstracts

Conference 

Program 

Abstracts 

HOSTED BY: 

International Association 

of Hydrogeologists - 

Canadian National Chapter 

IAH-CNC 2015 WATERLOO 

October 27 - 30, 2015 

Platinum Sponsors:

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Organizing Committee.......................................... 2 

Greetings from the Chairs.......................................................................................... 3 

Greetings from the IAH-CNC.................................................................................... 4 

Greetings from the IAH................................................................................................. 5 

Platinum Sponsors........................................................................................................... 6 

Gold/Silver Sponsors...................................................................................................... 8 

Bronze/Other Sponsors ................................................................................................ 9 

Exhibitors............................................................................................................................. 10 

Hotel Floor Plans .............................................................................................................12 

Social Program..................................................................................................................14 

Wednesday Plenary Session ...................................................................................15 

Thursday Plenary Session .........................................................................................17 

Friday Plenary Sessions..............................................................................................19 

Conference Program & Timetable .......................................................................21 

Wednesday Program “At a Glance”....................................................................24 

Thursday Program “At a Glance”..........................................................................28 

Friday Program “At a Glance”................................................................................ 32 

Abstract Table of Contents ..................................................................................... 33 

Abstracts............................................................................................................................. 34 

Program accurate as of printing - October 14, 2015. 

IAH-CNC 2015 WATERLOO CONFERENCE 

1


ORGANIZING COMMITTEE 

Conference Co-chairs 

Tammy Middleton, Region of Waterloo 

Stephen Di Biase, Aquatech Dewatering Company Inc. 

Technical Co-chairs 

Christopher J. Neville, SS Papadopulos & Associates Inc. 

Richard E. Jackson, Geofirma Engineering Ltd. 

Organizing Committee 

Lesley Veale, Stantec Inc. 

Nataliya Tkach, SPL Consultants Ltd. 

Tiffany Svensson, Blumetric Environmental Inc. 

David Rudolph, University of Waterloo 

Cailin Hillier, Municipal Water Consortium at Canadian Water Network 

Peter Gray, MTE Consultants Inc. 

Conference Management 

Wayne Gibson, Gibson Group Management Inc. 

Lisa McJunkin, Gibson Group Management Inc. 

2 IAH-CNC 2015 WATERLOO CONFERENCE

GREETINGS FROM THE CHAIRS 

Welcome to Waterloo 2015! On behalf of the entire 

organizing committee we extend our thanks 

for joining us at the 2015 conference of the Canadian 

National Chapter of the International Association 

of Hydrogeologists. 

Hydrogeology is becoming a “mature science” in 

Canada and it is time to celebrate our Canadian, 

professional association for hydrogeologists. 

What better place to do so than Waterloo - for 

years the centre of hydrogeology education in Canada and which is the alma mater for 

many hydrogeologists. By joining us at this conference, you are taking an active part in 

your continuing education as professional hydrogeologists. And we also hope that you will 

continue on as active members of the IAH-CNC, and help us foster a thriving professional 

association for Canadian hydrogeologists. 

Supporting the IAH in Canada is only one of our conference objectives- other priorities 

are to provide a high-quality technical agenda and to have FUN. We hope you agree 

that we met all our objectives- our successes are due entirely to the excellent and talented 

volunteer organizing committee for this conference- who started work over two years ago. 

Many thanks to the organizing committee (led by Lesley Veale, Nataliya Tkach, Peter 

Gray, Tiffany Svensson, and Cailin Hillier), and to the technical co-chairs Chris Neville 

and Dick Jackson, and their team of session chairs. 

We are extremely grateful for the support of our sponsors and exhibitors. Please take the 

time to visit the sponsor and exhibitor booths (open throughout the conference) and show 

your appreciation for their participation. We could not hold the conference without them. 

The technical program includes three plenary sessions: on October 28th, Dr. Rainer Helmig 

will present the National Ground Water Association 2015 Darcy Lecture. Dr. John 

Cherry will present the plenary lecture on October 29. The morning of Friday, October 

30th opens with a plenary lecture by Dr. Ian Clark followed by a special plenary session 

chaired by Dr. Cathy Ryan and including presentations by Dr. Richard Jackson, Dr. Jim 

Barker, Dr. Emil Frind, Dr. Robert Gillham, Dr. William Alley, and Dr. Garth van der 

Kamp. And we hope all attendees will join us on the afternoon of October 30, for the 

annual Farvolden Day event at the University of Waterloo, featuring Dr. David Rudolph 

as the Farvolden Lecturer. 

The IAH-CNC has put priority on support for students and young professionals in hydrogeology. 

Our thanks go to the YP volunteers who have been working to create a welcoming 

environment for our early career colleagues. To those of us who are merely “young at 

heart”, we hope you take the chance to connect with the YP contingent at the conference. 

Please enjoy the conference! 

Tammy Middleton 

Region of Waterloo 

Stephen Di Biase 

Aquatech Dewatering Company Inc. 


3

GREETINGS FROM THE IAH CNC 

It is my pleasure to be able to welcome hydrogeologists from across 

Canada and beyond to IAH-CNC Waterloo 2015 on behalf the 

International Association of Hydrogeologists - Canadian National 

Chapter (IAH CNC). This is the first time in many decades that 

the IAH CNC held a meeting without other national or international 

partner organizations. This represents another step forward 

for our national chapter, following on our recent success with hosting 

the 39th International Congress. This congress is the result of 

a great deal of hard work from our local organizing committee in 

Waterloo and I hope that their work inspires other groups across Canada to organize more 

IAH events. 

This conference also represents a homecoming of sorts for many of us. For the last fifty 

years, The University of Waterloo has been a centre for groundwater research and education. 

I count myself among the many IAH CNC members who passed through the University 

of Waterloo as part of their adventure in hydrogeology. I am excited that the IAH 

CNC has the opportunity to return to Waterloo to participate in the Farvolden Day as part 

of the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences 50th anniversary. 

Grant Ferguson 

President, IAH CNC 


GREETINGS FROM THE IAH 

Welcome to Waterloo! 

I’d like to add my warm welcome to the 2015 Canadian Chapter 

Conference of the International Association of Hydrogeologists. 

The writer Mark Twain once quipped, “Go to heaven for the good 

climate, to hell for the good company.” Being from southern Nevada 

where our summertime temperatures often exceed 45 degrees C, 

I consider myself a connoisseur of good company. And there is very 

good company at this conference. Our good company includes many 

world-class and expert hydrogeologists, hydrologists, scientists, engineers, 

consultants, agency officials, and scholars lined up to give inspired and insightful 

presentations on groundwater. 

We live in remarkable times of important challenges. Going to heaven for the good climate 

as Twain suggested would be okay if the climate of paradise were not changing. The year 

2014 saw the highest temperatures averaged over land and sea since record keeping began 

in 1880 (excepting maybe 2015 so far) and the lowest water levels in some of our reservoirs 

in drought plagued areas. I can speak of these challenges first hand, coming from an area 

with falling water tables, subsiding land surfaces, and declining hopes for a sustainable 

groundwater supply. Canada has significant challenges and perhaps opportunities as well 

as it injects increasing amounts of wastewaters into deep subsurface systems, which may 

irrevocably alter their future use for fresh water resources. Throughout the world groundwater 

systems are increasingly stressed, with very real human and ecological consequences. 

But beyond a shadow of a drought, there is hope for continuing clean groundwater supply, 

and much of that hope lies with you, the dedicated members of IAH. Canada has been an 

undisputed world leader in groundwater research, innovation, and hydrophilanthropy, and 

this meeting brings together hydrogeologists on the forefront of fundamental advances in 

the field. The unparalleled level of original research and novel technological approaches 

which will be presented at the IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Conference will undoubtedly 

assist all those who attend. I’m excited, as I hope you are, to gain new perspectives and 

techniques to help improve the world’s human and ecological condition. 

Dave Kreamer 

North American Vice President 

International Association of Hydrogeologists 


5

PLATINUM SPONSORS 

MAXXAM - is the Canadian market leader in analytical services and solutions and a member 

of the Bureau Veritas Group of companies – a world leader in testing, inspection and 

certification services. 

Our customers come from a wide variety of industries, ranging from the oil & gas sector, 

to the environmental and food industries, to pharmaceutical and DNA. The thread that 

unites Maxxam’s lines of business is our relentless drive to create value for all customers and 

to help them be successful in their business. 

OUR SCIENCE 

We are a science company that is passionately committed to delivering good science 

through exceptional service. Maxxam’s scientists are leaders in the development of analytical 

methods and services to address the challenges of new and emerging compounds 

of concern. 

Our commitment to “Success through Science” is supported by three core initiatives: 

1. Contribute to the state of knowledge in our industries through continuous 

Research and Development efforts 

2. Provide advanced technical support to our customers through scientific 

and regulatory expertise 

3. Enhance the scientific knowledge of our customers and staff by offering 

training and education 

OUR PEOPLE 

Maxxam has one of the most stable, experienced teams in the industry and our success is 

built on the countless contributions of our employees. 

We support critical decisions made by our customers through the application of rigorous 

science and the knowledge and expertise of our over 2,500 employees. 


BGC - is an applied earth sciences and engineering consulting services company. It is a Canadian 

corporation registered in 1990 and 100% owned by its staff. The company was originally 

founded by Drs. Iain Bruce, P.Eng., P.Geo., and Wayne Savigny, P.Eng., P.Geo., both of 

whom believed that engineering geology principles could be better integrated into geotechnical 

engineering assessments. Currently, BGC has approximately 280 staff in nine offices, at the 

following locations; Vancouver and Kamloops, BC; Edmonton and Calgary, AB; Toronto, ON; 

Fredericton, NB; Halifax, NS; Golden (CO), USA; and Santiago, Chile. 

BGC provides specialist services in applied earth sciences with emphasis on the following disciplines: 

• Geotechnical engineering 

• Geoenvironmental engineering, 

(soil and rock mechanics) 

contaminated site management and 

• Permafrost and cold regions engineering remediation design and management 

• Terrain analysis, geohazard assessment • Mine closure planning, design and 

and engineering geology 

construction monitoring 

• Hydrogeology, hydrology and surface • Engineering risk assessment. 

water assessments 

BGC offers consulting services to private and publicly-traded companies and government 

agencies, as well as sub-consulting services to prime consultants, in the following industries: 

• Mining 

• Water resources 

• Oil sands 

• Waste management 

• Pipelines 

• Transportation (road and rail) 

• Forestry 

• Energy / Hydroelectric 

power 

BGC’s assignments vary from scoping and pre-feasibility level studies to detailed design, routing 

evaluations, construction inspection, contract management, and independent third-party 

review. BGC has also coordinated environmental impact statements, and prepared containment 

and control reports for regulatory authorities. 

BGC is first and foremost a specialist in applied earth sciences and numerous staff have both 

professional engineering and geology designations. BGC employs numerous geoscientists, 

geomorphologists and hydrologists to complement our engineering skill sets. As a result of 

our familiarity with geology and its implications for engineered structures, BGC has a sincere 

appreciation of the drivers of success (and failure) within mining projects, especially for mine 

design and scoping to feasibility studies. 

BGC is an employee-owned company with a flat management structure. All of BGC works 

together as one team, with no profit centers or technical divisions. This ‘One Team’ approach 

gives every client access to all of BGC’s resources, and allows us to assemble the best team of 

professional and support staff for each and every project, regardless of the project location. We 

are of sufficient size to offer a full range of services, while maintaining one-to-one contact between 

our senior consultants and the client. 


7

GOLD SPONSOR 

GHD - is a leading international professional services company operating in 

the global markets of water, energy and resources, environment, property and 

buildings, and transportation. We provide engineering, environmental and 

construction services to private and public sector clients. 

Established in 1928, GHD operates across five continents – Asia, Australia, 

Europe, North and South America – with 8500 people. Our employee-owned business is driven 

by a client-service led culture; we connect the knowledge, skill and experience of our people with 

innovative practices, technical capabilities and robust systems to create lasting community benefits. 

In July 2014, GHD merged with Conestoga-Rovers & Associates (CRA), bolstering our 

combined North America presence to more than 4000 employees (900+ in Ontario). Most 

important to us is our shared culture and values of teamwork, respect and integrity. We share 

an unrelenting commitment to maintaining an industry leadership position in safety and client 

service. For more information, visit www.ghd.com 

SILVER SPONSORS 

AGAT - AGAT Laboratories is a highly specialized Canadian-based 

company that provides full-service laboratory solutions to the Environmental, 

Agri-Food, Life Sciences, Energy, Mining, Industrial and 

Transportation sectors. AGAT Laboratories is proud to set the standard for the laboratory 

industry, with world-class facilities and state-of–the-art instrumentation ensuring validity 

and accuracy of methodologies through our extensive quality assurance and quality control 

programs. Our qualified personnel adhere to AGAT Laboratories’ mission statement, delivering 

“Service Beyond Analysis”. 

GOLDER - As a global, employee-owned organization, Golder Associates 

is driven by our purpose to engineer earth’s development 

while preserving earth’s integrity. We help our clients find sustainable 

solutions by providing a range of independent consulting, design and 

construction services in our specialist areas of earth, environment and energy. Our global 

network of physical and contaminant hydrogeologists, geochemists, numerical modellers, 

environmental scientists and engineers has been solving groundwater challenges for over 40 

years. More information at golder.com. 

STANTEC - The Stantec community unites more than 15,000 employees 

working in over 250 locations. We collaborate across disciplines and 

industries to bring buildings, energy and resource, and infrastructure 

projects to life. Our work—professional consulting in planning, engineering, architecture, interior 

design, landscape architecture, surveying, environmental sciences, project management, and 

project economics—begins at the intersection of community, creativity, and client relationships. 


BRONZE SPONSORS 

KEYNOTE SPONSOR 

LANYARD SPONSOR 

USB SPONSOR 

DELEGATE BAG SPONSOR 

IAH BANQUET SPONSOR 

SOCIAL NIGHT SPONSOR 

POSTER RECEPTION SPONSOR 

LUNCH SPONSOR 


9

EXHIBITORS 

AQUANTY INC. - a hydrological science and research spin-off 

company from the University of Waterloo, was founded in 2012 

by the key developers of HydroGeoSphere and provides cutting 

edge hydrogeological computer modelling software and services. 

AQUATECH DEWATERING COMPANY - has established 

itself as a leader in the dewatering and pumping industry. 

Built on the mandate to form a true and comprehensive provider 

of quality and environmentally conscious dewatering 

and pumping services in Ontario, Aquatech strives to meet 

the changing needs of the industry every day. 

AQUATIC LIFE - is a Canadian company based in Pinawa, 

Manitoba. Aquatic Life Ltd supports and services Canada, representing 

the highest quality suppliers of environmental monitoring 

instrumentation. We are committed to the development 

and design of remote real time water quality monitoring systems. 

DHI - is a research, development and consultancy organization dedicated 

to solving the world’s toughest challenges in water environments. 

For the past 30 years DHI has been making our research 

and expertise available via a comprehensive suite of water modelling 

software products including MIKE SHE and FEFLOW. 

EARTHFX - is a leading provider of advanced software and 

consulting services for integrated surface water/groundwater 

modelling, environmental data management, geologic and geophysical 

data analysis. 

HWB - is a registered Canadian charity that builds local capacity 

in emerging regions to provide safe, sustainable groundwater 

supplies by strengthening the role of hydrogeology within the 

water supply and sanitation sector. 

IAH-CNC - International Association of Hydrogeologists is a 

scientific and educational organization which exists to promote 

the study and knowledge of hydrogeological science and its 

application for common good throughout the world. 

ISOTOPE TRACER TECHNOLOGIES INC. - (IT 2 ) is a stateof-the-art 

facility that offers a large variety of isotopic analyses 

on different materials. IT 2 offers excellent services to government 

agencies and consulting companies as well as research institutions 

with high quality data and fast turn-around time (TAT). 


NGWA - is the leading worldwide advocate for professionals 

teaming to provide, protect, manage, and remediate groundwater, 

and delivers a range of resources contributing to member 

success through relationships, leading edge and emerging practices, 

and new ideas and solutions. 

ONTARIO GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - carries out field-based 

investigations to understand geological processes and map earth 

resources, such as groundwater. The OGS is the steward of Ontario’s 

public geoscience data and information, providing free 

access. 

RWDI’S ENVIRONMENTAL GROUP - has developed a strong 

reputation with clients in the provision of environmental services. 

Our Geoscience experts focus on water resources assessments, 

contaminant hydrogeology, and waste management for a 

wide array of market sectors. 

SiREM - was founded in 2001 to provide high quality products 

and services to the environmental remediation industry. SiREM 

is widely recognized as a leader in bioaugmentation and benchscale 

treatability testing for a wide range of contaminants and 

remediation technologies. 

SkyTEM - a Danish helicopter-borne geophysical system, is 

employed globally to map aquifers. SkyTEM data, from the 

near surface to depths of 500 m, are used to create detailed 3D 

geological representations and reliable hydrogeological models. 

SOLINST - In business for over 35 years, Solinst is dedicated to 

providing clients with high quality groundwater and surface water 

monitoring instrumentation, including Levelogger water level 

dataloggers, water level meters, groundwater samplers, and multilevel 

monitoring systems. 

UWEILAB - is a world class facility that develops and applies 

isotope technology to the environment using state of the art 

mass spectrometers specializing in environmental isotopes including 

H/C/N/O/S/Cl/Br/Sr. 

WATERLOO HYDROGEOLOGIC AND VAN ESSEN - provide 

the highly reliable and cost-effective tools for groundwater and 

environmental projects from data acquisition to data management 

and analysis. 


11

HOTEL FLOOR PLANS 


The Viennese Ballroom 

TO UPPER LOBBY 

(REGISTRATION) 

The Regent Room 

CONFERENCE LUNCHEONS & 

THURSDAY POSTER SESSION 

TRADE SHOW EXHIBITION, RECEPTIONS 

& WEDNESDAY/THURSDAY BREAKS 


13

SOCIAL PROGRAM 

In addition to the comprehensive technical program, IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo will provide 

numerous opportunities for delegates to meet, mingle and get to know their professional 

colleagues in a relaxed setting, outside of the technical and business streams. Partners 

and guests are welcome at all of these events – extra tickets are available online or at 

the registration desk. 

The program of IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo social events includes the following: 

Tuesday, October 27 

Opening “Icebreaker” and Exhibitor Reception 

Regent Room: 17:00 – 19:30 

Come and meet up with old acquaintances, or introduce yourself to new colleagues from 

across the country, as we gather for complimentary beverages and hors d’oeuvres in the 

Trade Show Hall. 

Wednesday, October 28 

IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Conference Banquet 

Regent Room (Cocktail Reception) 18:15 – 18:45 

Viennese Ballroom (Dinner): 19:00 – 21:30 

At the end of our first full conference day, come join us for a banquet 

dinner and continue to socialize with new and old friends. Our featured 

after-dinner speaker will be Kevin Callan who will regal us with stories 

on canoeing and the outdoors within Ontario’s Grand River Watershed. 

You may be familiar with Kevin as he is the author of “The Happy Camper” and is a regular 

guest speaker on radio and television. 

Thursday, October 29 

Oktoberfest Fun Night 

Concordia Club: 19:00 – 22:00 

(Shuttle buses from the Waterloo Inn begin at 18:30) 

Kitchener, Ontario is well known for its annual Oktoberfest, 

the largest Oktoberfest outside of Munich, and 

includes multiple festhalles throughout the city offering 

traditional Bavarian food, drink, music and dancing. In 

keeping with this theme, IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo has organized an Oktoberfest-inspired 

evening at the Concordia Club. Come and enjoy this social highlight with friends 

and colleagues and experience a taste of Oktoberfest – with your souvenir Oktoberfest hat, 

traditional food and local beverages, everyone is sure to have a good time. Transportation 

will be provided between the Waterloo Inn and the Concordia Club for your safe Oktoberfest 

enjoyment. 

Be sure to join us at these popular IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo social events! 


WEDNESDAY PLENARY SESSION 

NGWA Darcy Lecture 

Evaluating the Competitive Use of the 

Subsurface: The Influence of Energy Storage 

and Production in Groundwater 

Rainer H. Helmig, Ph.D. 

Department of Hydromechanics and Modelling of Hydrosystems 

- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 

University of Stuttgart, Germany 

Gain insight on how advanced numerical models may be used to analyze 

and predict the mutual influence of subsurface projects and their impact 

on groundwater reservoirs, and the increasing need to do so, during this 

presentation. 

The subsurface is being increasingly utilized both as a resource and as an 

energy and waste repository. With increasing exploitation, resource conflicts 

are becoming increasingly common and complex, such as thermal 

energy storage and the effects surrounding hydraulic fracturing in both 

geothermal and shale gas production. 

During this lecture you will learn about: 

• Possible utilization conflicts in subsurface systems and how the groundwater 

is affected 

• Fundamental properties and functions of a compositional multiphase system 

in a porous medium; basic multiscale and multiphysics concepts will 

be introduced and conser vation laws formulated 

• Large-scale simulation that shows the general applicability of the modeling 

concepts of such complicated natural systems, especially the impact 

on the groundwater of simultaneously using geothermal energy and storing 

chemical and thermal energy, and how such real large-scale systems 

provide a good environment for balancing the efficiency potential and 

possible weaknesses of the approaches discussed. 


15

HENRY DARCY 

DISTINGUISHED LECTURE SERIES IN GROUNDWATER SCIENCE 

Thank you for attending today’s Darcy Lecture in Groundwater Science presentation at 

________________________________ on __________________ made possible by the 

National Ground Water Research and Educational Foundation. To aid us in growing this 

series, please answer the following questions after the lecture. If you forget to give it to 

the lecture host, please fax your completed response to Rachel Geddes at 614.898.7786, 

or e-mail it to her at rgeddes@ngwa.org. 

I am (check one) 

❏ An undergraduate student 

❏ A graduate student (full-time) 

❏ A faculty and/or research scientist 

❏ Employed by a hydrogeologic or 

engineering consulting firm 

❏ Employed by a government agency 

other than an educational institution 

❏ Employed by a commercial business 

other than a consulting firm 

❏ Employed in some other way 

(please specify) 

_________________________________ 

_________________________________ 

I am 

❏ 20 to 25 years old 

❏ 26 to 30 

❏ 31 to 35 

❏ 36 to 45 

❏ 46 to 55 

❏ 56 or older 

I have been in the groundwater industry 

❏ Attending school ❏ 6 to 10 years 

❏ Less than 5 years ❏ 10 to 20 years 

❏ More than 20 years 

The lecture was useful in my future 

career preparation. 

❏ Agree ❏ Disagree ❏ No opinion 

The lecture was useful to my personal 

specific groundwater interests, research, 

or specialization. 


The lecture has inspired me to further 

my groundwater knowledge in general. 


The lecture has inspired me to further 

my groundwater knowledge relating to 

the lecture topic. 


I will recommend to a colleague that 

they attend the lecture. 


I would attend another Darcy Lecture 

presentation on a different topic. 


What one concept in the lecturer’s 

presentation did you find most valuable 

or intriguing? 

___________________________________ 

___________________________________ 

___________________________________ 

___________________________________ 

Do you have a suggestion for a future 

Darcy Lecture topic or person to be the 

Darcy Lecturer? 

___________________________________ 

___________________________________ 

___________________________________ 

May we contact you? If so, please provide the following information. 

Name __________________________________________________________________ 

Telephone ___________________________ E-mail _____________________________ 


THURSDAY PLENARY SESSION 

40 Years of Contaminant Hydrogeology 

John A. Cherry 

Distinguished Emeritus Professor, University of Waterloo, 

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Forty years have passed since the earth-science sub-discipline 

of ‘contaminant hydrogeology’ began to use this designation. 

The term “Contaminant hydrogeology” was introduced into the 

literature in an overview article published in Geoscience Canada 1 . 

Part 2 of this article on the relevant chemical processes was not 

completed until much later 2 . 

This presentation examines what was known and not known when 

this term was introduced and how our thinking has evolved with 

some confusion and muddled thinking along the way, the path to 

understanding of dispersion being a good example. It also examines the 

current state of understanding; some aspects of hydrogeologic science 

have matured while others are still in early stages. The initial article 

focused on the physical processes in contaminant transport and fate was 

based on the sparse groundwater contamination literature up to that time, 

which concerned field studies of radionuclides from experimental reactor 

accidents in the 1950’s, leachate from municipal landfills, sewage from 

septic systems, petroleum hydrocarbons and the early problems caused by 

the mobile versions of detergents. 

Groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents and the importance 

of DNAPLS for groundwater contamination was unknown until the early 

1980’s. The concept of contaminant plumes in groundwater was established 

by the mid-1960’s but the belief was widely held until the early 1980’s that 

the substantial groundwater contamination would remain minimal due to 

the robust assimilation capacity of the subsurface environment. This would 

have been correct if it were not for the widespread releases of many types of 

halogenated organic chemicals such as chlorinated solvents. These began 

entering groundwater in the 1950’s only to be discovered decades later. The 

warning signs of the potential for mobile recalcitrant organic chemicals 

of common use to cause substantial groundwater contamination occurred 

in the early 1960’s when detergents from septic systems were commonly 

found in shallow domestic wells in suburbs but this problem subsided with 

a change in the detergent formulation in 1963. The larger significance of 

this evidence concerning anthropogenic organic chemical in groundwater 

went unrecognized. 


17

Since the first big surprise on finding the common occurrence of 

chlorinated in groundwater in the 1980’s, a never ending series of 

‘surprises’ has unfolded concerning the new types of contaminants 

being found such as MTBE, perchlorate, 1,4 dioxane and most 

recently pharmaceuticals, food additives and flame retardants and 

the widespread occurrence of nitrate in many aquifers. In Canada the 

occurrence of pristine groundwater in aquifers used for domestic and 

municipal water supply is now rare. 

All of this does not mean that groundwater is a hazardous source of 

drinking water relative to the alternatives, but it does demonstrate that 

hydrogeologic science has only been used reactively and not proactively 

in the broader realm of water management and land use regulations 

and planning as a source of knowledge and expertise. This may be best 

for the employment of hydrogeologists but not for the well-being of 

the environment and society-at-large. 

1 

Cherry, J.A., Gillham, R.W. and Pickens, J.F., 1975, Contaminant Hydrogeology: 

Part 1: Physical Processes, Geoscience Canada 2(2): 76-84. 

2 

Cherry, J.A., Gillham, R.W., and Barker, J.F., 1984, Contaminants in 

Groundwater: Chemical Processes. In: Groundwater Contamination, Studies in 

Geophysics, US National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington 

DC, pp. 46-64. 


FRIDAY PLENARY SESSIONS 

The Future of Isotope Hydrogeology 

Ian D. Clark, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa 

In 1971, Peter Fritz carried the torch of isotope hydrology from 

the crucible of Professor Gonfiantini’s lab in Pisa to Waterloo via 

the University of Alberta. Those early days of hard-won isotope 

measurements on a fully manual dual inlet VG602 generated 

fundamental insights into the use of these tracers in hydrogeology. 

Half a century of technological developments has produced 

new instruments that provide orders of magnitude more data at 

unprecedented temporal and spatial resolution. 

What have we done with these new capabilities and what new questions 

are we addressing? Have our innovations and applications kept pace? 

We’ve seen advances on many fronts from questions of origin, age and 

renewability of groundwater resources to tracing contaminant transport 

and remediation. Our challenge in the coming decades will be to more fully 

engage industry and government in the routine use of isotopes to address 

a range of issues spawned by our improving stewardship of water and the 

environment. 

Insightful Moments in Hydrogeology – 

Hydrogeologists without Borders and 

the ‘GW2.0 Initiative’ 

This session celebrates the hydrogeology textbook 

initiative GW2.0 of Hydrogeologists without 

Borders (HWB) to provide an updated version of 

the 1979 Freeze and Cherry text Groundwater as a 

training tool that will be available worldwide and in 

multiple languages. 

HWB is a Canadian charity focused on linking hydrogeology to the water, 

sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector. Although much of the regions 

of critical need worldwide are increasingly groundwater dependent, and 

a significant part of the international aid sector drills water wells, projects 

are often lacking in their hydrogeological component especially sustainable 

well construction. Major efforts to provide improved water supply in 

developing countries are thwarted because of the inability to find and 

develop groundwater resources - often due to the lack of hydrogeological 

expertise. 


19

In this final plenary session, some of our favourite hydrogeology teachers 

will share their most memorable ‘moments of insight’ by means of short 

talks that may address: 

• an ‘aha!’ moment in teaching or research; 

• a concept that is particularly difficult that they have mastered the 

teaching of; 

• a concept or fact that they think every hydrogeology practitioner 

should understand; 

• bringing to light a little-known, but important manuscript; or 

• posing a challenging research question to the ‘next generation’. 

Our speakers will include: 

• M. Cathryn Ryan, Geoscience, University of Calgary 

• Richard E. Jackson, Geofirma Engineering Ltd 

• William M. Alley, National Ground Water Association, 

• Robert W. Gillham, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 

University of Waterloo 

• James Barker, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, 

University of Waterloo 

• Emil Frind, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University 

of Waterloo 

• Garth van der Kamp, Water Science and Technology, Environment 

Canada 


CONFERENCE PROGRAM & TIMETABLE 

All events will take place at the Waterloo Inn unless otherwise noted 

Tuesday, October 27, 2015 

AM Short Courses: 8:30 - 12:00 

• Advanced Construction Dewatering (Rosedale) 

• Aquitard Characterization and Monitoring: From Source Water Protection to 

Remediation (Bloomingdale) 

Technical Tour: 10:00 - 16:00 (Meet in the Waterloo Inn lobby at 9:45) 

• The Waterloo Moraine and Waterloo Region 

PM Short Courses: 13:30 - 17:00 

• Contaminated Groundwater: Innovative Remediation Techniques and Case 

Studies (Rosedale) 

• Integrated Watershed Hydrology Modelling – An Introduction for Hydrogeologists 

(St. Jacobs) 

• Contaminant Behaviour in Fractured Sedimentary Rock: New Techniques for 

Improved Site Conceptual Models (Bloomingdale) 

Delegate Registration: 12:00 - 19:30 (Upper Lobby – Viennese Ballroom pre-function) 

Opening Reception in the Trade Exhibition Hall: 17:00 - 19:30 (Regent Room) 

Wednesday, October 28, 2015 

Delegate Registration: 7:00 - 19:00 (Upper Lobby – Viennese Ballroom Pre-function) 

Wednesday Speakers’ Breakfast: 7:15 - 7:45 (Lower Regent) 

Opening Plenary Session: 8:00 - 9:30 (Viennese Ballroom) 

• Opening and Welcoming Remarks 

• NGWA Darcy Lecture, Dr. Rainer Helmig - Evaluating the Competitive Use of the 

Subsurface: The Influence of Energy Storage and Production in Groundwater 

Trade Exhibition: 9:30 - 18:45 (Regent) 

Wednesday AM Technical Sessions: 10:10 - 11:50 

• Groundwater/Surface Water Interaction 1 (Strauss) 

• Road Salt Impacts on Groundwater (Wagner) 

• Innovation in the Remediation of Contaminated Sites 1 (Schubert) 

• Groundwater Aspects of Deep Geological Repositories (Heritage) 

Conference Luncheon: 11:50 - 13:00 (Regent Room) 

Wednesday PM1 Technical Sessions: 13:00 - 14:40 


• Regional Groundwater Systems 1 (Wagner) 


• Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario (Heritage) 


21

Wednesday PM2 Technical Sessions: 15:20 - 17:00 

• Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater 1 (Strauss) 


• Flow and Transport in Fractured Rock (Schubert) 

• Vadose Zone Hydrogeology (Heritage) 

IAH-CNC Annual General Meeting: 17:15 - 18:15 (Heritage) 

IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Banquet: 18:30 - 21:30 

• Cocktail Reception: 18:30 - 19:00 (Trade Show – Regent Room) 

• Dinner and Presentations: 19:00 - 21:30 (Viennese Ballroom) 

Thursday, October 29, 2015 


Thursday Speakers’ Breakfast: 7:45 - 8:15 (Lower Regent) 

Thursday Plenary Session: 8:30 - 9:40 (Viennese Ballroom) 

• Dr. John Cherry - 40 Years of Contaminant Hydrogeology 

Trade Exhibition: 9:40 - 18:45 (Regent Room) 

Thursday AM Technical Sessions: 10:10 - 11:50 


• Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 1 (Wagner) 

• Groundwater Issues from Oil and Gas Exploration & Production 1 (Schubert) 

• Advanced Techniques for Site Characterization (Heritage) 

Conference Luncheon: 11:50 - 13:00 (Regent Room) 

Thursday PM1 Technical Sessions: 13:00 - 14:40 


• Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 2 (Wagner) 


• Groundwater Issues from Mining & Aggregates (Heritage) 

• Workshop on Groundwater Policy 1 (Bloomingdale) 

Thursday PM2 Technical Sessions: 15:00 - 16:40 

• Groundwater Issues from Oil and Gas Exploration & Production 2 (Strauss) 


• Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater 2 (Schubert) 

• Workshop on Groundwater Policy 2 (Bloomingdale) 

IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Poster Session: 16:40 - 18:30 (Regent) 

Oktoberfest Night at the Concordia Club (429 Ottawa St S, Kitchener): 18:30 - 22:00 

(Shuttle bus service from the Waterloo Inn begins at 18:30) 


Friday, October 30, 2015 


Conference Breakfast: 7:15 - 8:00 (Viennese Ballroom) 

Friday Plenary Session: 8:00 - 9:05 (Viennese Ballroom) 

• Dr Ian Clark - The Future of Isotope Hydrogeology 

Special Plenary Session - Insightful Moments in Hydrogeology: 9:05 - 11:45 

(Viennese Ballroom) 

Closing Ceremonies 11:45 - 12:00 (Viennese Ballroom) 

Shuttle Service to Farvolden Days at University of Waterloo 12:30 - 13:30 (from outside 

hotel lobby) 


23

WEDNESDAY PROGRAM AT A GLANCE 


8:00 - 8:30 

Opening Ceremony 

8:30 - 9:30 

Opening Plenary: NGWA Lecturer, Dr. Rainer Helmig - Evaluating the Competitive Use of the Subsurface: 

The Influence of Energy Storage and Production in Groundwater 

9:30 - 10:10 

AM Break - Trade Show Hall (Regent) 

Strauss Wagner Schubert Heritage 

10:10 - 11:50 

Groundwater/Surface Water 

Interaction 1 

Road Salt Impacts on 

Groundwater 

Innovation in the Remediation 

of Contaminated Sites 1 

Groundwater Aspects of Deep 

Geological Repositories 

11:50 - 13:00 

Conference Luncheon - Regent Room 


13:00 - 14:40 


Interaction 2 

Regional Groundwater 

Systems 1 



Surficial Geology of Southern 

Ontario 

14:40 - 15:20 

PM Break - Trade Show Hall (Regent) 


15:20 - 17:00 

Agricultural Impacts of 

Groundwater 1 


Systems 2 

Flow and Transport in 

Fractured Rock 

Vadose Zone Hydrogeology 

17:15 - 18:15 

IAH-CNC Annual General Meeting - Heritage Room 

18:30 - 19:00 

Banquet Reception - Trade Show Hall (Regent) 

19:00 - 22:00 IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Banquet - Viennese Ballroom 



Time/Heure 

10:10 - 10:15 

10:15 - 10:34 

10:34 - 10:53 

10:53 - 11:12 

11:12 - 11:31 

11:31 - 11:50 




Interaction 1 

pp 34-37 

Road Salt Impacts on 

Groundwater 

pp 38-41 



pp 42-45 

Groundwater Aspects of Deep 

Geological Repositories 

pp 46-50 

Introduction and 

poster program overview 

201 - A Physically-Based Modelling 

Approach to Assess the Impact of 

Climate Change on Surface and 

Groundwater Resources within the 

Grand River Watershed 

224 - Strategies for Integrated Model 

Calibration 



211 - Recent field data confirm previous 

predictions that Toronto’s groundwater 

faces a serious decline in water quality 

due to road salt 

181 - Halton Region's Salt Management 

Strategy 



132 - Electrokinetically-Enhanced 

Remediation: An Innovative Solution to 

Vexing Challenges for Source Area 

Remediation 

190 - Integrating Risk Management into 

Redevelopment of an Urban Brownfield 

Site 



228 - Deep Geologic Repositories: 

Developing a Geoscientific Basis for 

Long-Term Safety 

154 - Hydrogeochemical 

Characterization of Porewater in Low- 

Permeability Sediments 

227 - Deep-Seated Aquiclude 

Groundwater Systems: Advances in In 

Situ Hydraulic Testing 

199 - Importance of Incorporating 

Peatlands and Winter Processes into 

Integrated Surface-subsurface Models of 

the Athabasca River Basin 

244 - Quantifying the impact of road salt 

management practices on water quality 

in public supply wells within the Region 

of Waterloo 

214 - Treatment of manufactured gas 

plant residuals using alkaline activated 

persulfate: A pilot-scale trial 

170 - Pore Fluid Pressures in the 

Ordovician Sediments at the Bruce site 

near Kincardine, Ontario: Potential 

Causes and Analysis 

225 - Integrated surface 

water/groundwater modelling to simulate 

drought and climate change impacts from 

the reach to the watershed scale 

122 - Assessment of Road Salt Impacts 

to Four Priority Well Fields in the Region 

of Waterloo 

116 - The Effect of Injection Methods on 

the Distribution of Remedial Compounds 

350 - Diffusion research in support of the 

Canadian nuclear waste management 

program 

272 - Balancing Near-Surface Water 121 - Salt Assessment of a low Demand, 

Rural Well Field 

249 - Enhanced in situ Bioremediation of 

Chlorinated Solvents in Canada 

273 - Coupled groundwater flow and 

reactive transport simulations of the 

evolution of groundwater chemistry for a 

deep geologic repository in shield rocks 


25


Time/Heure 

13:00 - 13:05 

13:05 - 13:24 

13:24 - 13:43 

13:43 - 14:02 

14:02 - 14:21 

14:21 - 14:40 




Interaction 2 

pp 51-54 


Systems 1 

pp 54-58 



pp 59-62 

Surficial Geology of Southern 

Ontario 

pp 63-67 



135 - Pressure pulses as an indication of 

recharge to a buried esker-aquifer 

Eastern Ontario 



140 - Groundwater Residence Times in 

Chaudière-Appalaches, Québec: Closing 

the Loop Between Flow and Regional 

Geochemistry 



203 - Dissolution of Light Non-Aqueous 

Phase Liquid from Smear Zones 

Containing Trapped Air 



231 - Regional buried bedrock valleys, 

infill sediments and stratigraphy in 

southern Ontario: a review 

247 - Subsurface water flow from 

wetlands to the riparian zone induced by 

evapotranspiration 

189 - Uniform-density, ‘full-matrix’ 

hydrogeochemical mapping of southern 

Ontario 

156 - Nature, Nurture and Sustainable 

Remediation: Case Study From a Major 

Hydrocarbon Release in a Sensitive 

Urban Riverine Environment 

230 - The pre-Late Wisconsin 

stratigraphy of Simcoe County, southern 

Ontario 

139 - Detecting hyporheic exchange 

using electrical resistivity tomography 

along a fractured sedimentary bedrock 

river: Eramosa River, Guelph, Ontario 

207 - A study of flow system dynamics 

utilizing a diverse set of isotopic and 

geochemical methods; Oak Ridges 

Moraine, Ontario 

178 - Simulation of Persulfate Oxidation 

Coupled with Enhanced Bioremediation 

as an Emerging Remediation Strategy for 

Petroleum Impacted Sites 

288 - Geological and hydrogeological 

models of the ‘Yonge Street’ aquifer, 

south-central Ontario 

246 - A method for utilizing data from 

extreme hydrological events to trigger 

enhanced monitoring and sampling in 

watersheds 

185 - Groundwater Resources and Use 

in York Region – Lessons Learned from 

Source Water Protection 

200 - A Comprehensive Environmental 

Assessment Tool for Estimating the 

Design and Performance of Permeable 

Reactive Barriers 

177 - Hydrostratigraphy of the Interlobate 

Orangeville Moraine, Southwestern 

Ontario, Canada 

255 - Estimating depression-focussed 

recharge in the Prairies using a onedimensional 

model 

179 - Operational Experiences of 

Implementing ASR System in the Region 

of Waterloo 

305 - In Situ Remediation of Coal Tar by 

STAR: Self-Sustaining Propagation 

Across Clean Sand Gaps 

308 - Origin and Sedimentological 

Context of Large Sand and Gravel 

Aquifers – Belleville, Trenton and 

Brighton Areas 



Time/Heure 

15:20 - 15:25 

15:25 - 15:44 

15:44 - 16:03 

16:03 - 16:22 

16:22 - 16:41 

16:41 - 17:00 



Agricultural Impacts of 

Groundwater 1 

pp 68-71 


Systems 2 

pp 72-76 

Flow and Transport in 


pp 77-80 


pp 81-84 



155 - Addressing groundwater nitrate 

contamination associated with intensive 

agricultural production systems: The 

Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer case study 



176 - A Continental-Scale Groundwater 

Flow Model Calibrated to Groundwater 

Age 



300 - Hydrogeology and sequence 

stratigraphy correlations 



307 - Implications of thick vadose zone 

infiltration and a falling water table for 

recharge estimations beneath an 

irrigated field 

241 - Predicting the impact of surface 

sources on an aquifer: The role of 

dispersion 

229 - Investigating Deep Basalt 

Groundwater Supplies in the Interior 

Plateau Region of British Columbia 

292 - Parameter Estimation in a Regional 

Groundwater Flow Model 

258 - Applicability of the chloride mass 

balance method for an evaluation of the 

depression-focussed recharge in the 

Canadian prairies 

206 - Trends of nitrate concentrations in 

groundwater for variable geological 

settings in agricultural watersheds 

245 - Regional groundwater flow in the 

inter-till and buried-valley aquifers, 

southwestern Manitoba 

286 - Advances in the Application of 

Thermal Logging Techniques 

283 - Simulated mechanical compression 

of regenerated Sphagnum moss 

potentially accelerates the return of 

hydrological functionality in restored 

bogs 

112 - Implementing Source Water 

Protection – Developing a Tool to 

Support Site-Specific Risk Management 

Planning 

318 - Glacial retreat effects and transport 

in the Milk River Transboundary Aquifer 

210 - Palaeo-hydrogeological evolution 

of a fractured-rock aquifer 

277 - Assessing soil water content & 

temperature under conventional tillage & 

no-tillage for drought adaptation 

188 - Long term assessment of BMPs 

impact on nitrate load at the Thornton 

Well Field using RZWQM 

219 - Current results and outcomes of 

the regional groundwater knowledge 

acquisition program in Québec 

213 - Nano-scale Colloid Particles 

Transport in Variable-aperture Sandstone 

Rock Fracture 

205 - Modelling nitrate concentrations in 

the shallow subsurface for variable 

hydrogeological settings in agricultural 

watersheds 


27

THURSDAY PROGRAM AT A GLANCE 

8:30 - 9:40 

9:40 - 10:10 

10:10 - 11:50 

11:50 - 13:00 

13:00 - 14:40 

14:40 - 15:00 

15:00 - 16:40 

16:40 - 18:30 

18:30 - 19:00 

19:00 - 22:00 


Thursday Plenary Session: Dr. John Cherry - 40 Years of Contaminant Hydrogeology 

AM Break - Trade Show Hall (Regent) 

Strauss Wagner Schubert Heritage Bloomingdale 


Interaction 3 

Sustainability of Groundwater 

Resources 1 

Groundwater Issues from Oil 

and Gas E&P 1 

Advanced Techniques for Site 

Characterization 

Conference Luncheon - Regent Room 



Interaction 4 

Sustainability of Groundwater 

Resources 2 



Groundwater Issues from 

Mining & Aggregates 

Workshop on Groundwater 

Policy 1 

PM Break - Trade Show Hall (Regent) 



and Gas E&P 2 


Systems 3 

Agricultural Impacts on 

Groundwater 2 


Policy 2 

Poster Session - Lower Regent Room and Trade Show Hall 

Shuttle Buses Depart 

Oktoberfest Fun Night - Concordia Club 



Time/Heure 

10:10 - 10:15 

10:15 - 10:34 

10:34 - 10:53 

10:53 - 11:12 

11:12 - 11:31 

11:31 - 11:50 




Interaction 3 

pp 85-88 

Sustainability of 

Groundwater Resources 1 

pp 89-93 


and Gas E&P 1 

pp 94-98 



pp 98-102 



223 - Integrated groundwater/surface 

water modelling to assess urban 

development and detailed stormwater 

design – Babcock Ranch Community 

Development, Lee County, Florida 

209 - The Influence of storm sewers on 

groundwater-surface water interaction 



163 - Using numerical groundwater 

models as a land use planning tool – 

Town of Torbay, NL 

234 - Occurrence of viruses, other 

pathogens, and organic wastewater 

indicators, in seven First Nation 

Communities in Southern BC 



275 - Lessons learned in a case study of 

water well interference by CBM fracking 

138 - Local study of the environmental 

risk of hydrocarbon exploration 



136 - Definition of granular aquifer 

heterogeneity for large sites 

204 - Comparison of hydraulic tests used 

to charaterize aquifer heterogeneity 

240 - Enhanced Field Methodologies for 

Quantifying the Vulnerability of Public 

Supply Wells to Surface Contamination 

238 - Groundwater: A sustainable water 

source for Waterloo Region 

160 - A study of potential links between 

the Utica Shale and shallow aquifers in 

St-Édouard, southern Quebec, Canada 

262 - Real-Time High-Resolution Site 

Characterization of the Subsurface Using 

and MIP, LIF and HPT 

198 - Monitoring of event-based, 

depression focussed recharge to a 

shallow unconfined aquifer near a 

municipal well in the Alder Creek 

Subwatershed, SW Ontario 

191 - Assessment of the Long-term 

Sustainability of Groundwater Aquifers in 

the Waterloo Moraine and Surrounding 

Areas 

182 - Three-dimensional Reactive 

Transport Simulations of Methane Gas 

and Brine Migration from 

Decommissioned Shale Gas Wells into 

Shallow Aquifers 

266 - Estimating specific storage of an 

aquifer using borehole geophysics, 

barometric efficiency, and laboratory core 

testing 

281 - Cumulative impacts of groundwater 

extraction on seasonal flows of a 

regulated stream, Cowichan River, BC 

172 - Region of Waterloo Tier Three 

Water Budget - Now What? 

319 - Baseline Water Well Testing in Oil 

and Gas Development Areas of Alberta 

301 - Versatile Monitoring Completions 

for Bedrock Vadose Zone VOC Gas 

Sampling 


29


Time/Heure 

13:00 - 13:05 

13:05 - 13:24 

13:24 - 13:43 

13:43 - 14:02 

14:02 - 14:21 

14:21 - 14:40 




Interaction 4 

pp 103-107 

Sustainability of 

Groundwater Resources 2 

pp 107-111 



pp 111-115 

Groundwater Issues from 

Mining & Aggregates 

pp 115-119 


Policy 1 

pp 120-123 



239 - Artificial sweeteners track septic 

system effluent in rural Ontario 

groundwater 



202 - The global volume, distribution, and 

lifespan of young and old groundwater 



212 - Full Scale Application of In Situ 

STAR to Treat Residual Coal Tar 



134 - Protecting water resources with a 

groundwater recharge well system at the 

Dufferin Aggregates Milton Quarry 



144 - Whither Groundwater Policy - 

Challenges and Opportunities of a 

Paradigm Shift? 

217 - Hydrogeological characterization of 

a waste site at Chalk River, Ontario 

166 - Sustainable Groundwater 

Management for Municipal Water Supply 

in the Township of Langley, Canada 

284 - Two-Dimensional Numerical 

Modelling of STAR to Optimize 

Smouldering Combustion for NAPL 

Remediation 

282 - Evaluating mining impacts on 

groundwater quality in Lake Poopó basin, 

Bolivia using geochemical and isotope 

tracers 

187 - Assessing the Impacts of 

Contaminated Groundwater Discharges 

to the Surface Waters of the Canadian 

Great Lakes Basin: Science Needs and 

Data Gaps 

235 - Evaluating the influence of regional 

stratigraphic architecture on hydraulic 

conductivity variability in Early Silurian 

carbonate rock aquifers, Guelph Region, 

southern Ontario 

164 - Feasibility of liquid phase metal 

catalyzed reductive dechlorination of 

1,2DCA by sodium borohydride 

171 - Evaluating the Effects of Increased 

Lithium Brine Extraction from the Salar 

de Atacama: Conceptual and Numerical 

Groundwater Models 

124 - Implementing Source Protection in 

York Region 

158 - Factors influencing the 

accumulation and transport of E. coli 

near the shoreline at freshwater beaches 

153 - Arkell Spring Grounds Adaptive 

Management Program and Operational 

Testing Program in Support of Increased 

Water Taking 

296 - In-Situ Subsurface Remediation of 

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Using Soil 

Mixing Technology with Zero-Valent Iron 

(ZVI) and Clay 

131 - A Conceptual Model for Pore Water 

Release from Coal Waste Rock Piles in 

the Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada 

216 - Application of Source Water 

Protection Models and Policy 

Implementation 

149 - Using Sea Water/Groundwater 

Interaction for Calibration of Variable- 

Density Groundwater Flow Model 

294 - The impact of climate change on 

the sustainability of municipal water 

supplies and groundwater / surface water 

interactions 

173 - Field trials of subsurface chaotic 

advection 

110 - Characterisation of physical mass 

transport through oil sands fluid fine 

tailings in an end pit lake: a multi-tracer 

study 

183 - Development of a Risk Reduction 

Process to address Groundwater Safety 

in Northern Canada 



Time/Heure 

15:00 - 15:05 

15:05 - 15:24 

15:24 - 15:43 

15:43 - 16:02 

16:02 - 16:21 

16:21 - 16:40 


Strauss Wagner Schubert Bloomingdale 


and Gas E&P 2 

pp 124-126 


Systems 3 

pp 127-131 

Agricultural Impacts on 

Groundwater 2 

pp 132-136 


Policy 2 

pp 136-140 



220 - Injection Wells in the Western 

Canada Sedimentary Basin 



313 - Sequence Stratigraphic and Karstic 

controls of Regional Groundwater Flow 

Zones - Early Silurian Lockport Group of 

Niagara Escarpment, Ontario 



221 - Matrix diffusion effects on nitrate 

transport and fate in a sedimentary 

bedrock aquifer 



147 - Groundwater and Aboriginal 

People: Should the Winters Doctrine 

apply in Canada, and if so, what would it 

look like? 

267 - Assessing water quality of shallow 

groundwater near a tailings pond in the 

Athabasca oil sands region 

180 - The Use of Mass Balance 

Modelling to Assess Production Well 

Capture Zones 

194 - Decadal scale groundwater nitrate 

concentrations in Western Prince Edward 

Island 

242 - Water Sustainability Act: 

development of legislation related to the 

diversion and use of groundwater in 

British Columbia, Canada 

128 - Considerations for Deep Saline 

Aquifer Management in Northeast British 

Columbia 

168 - Deep groundwater systems in 

southern Ontario: Base of fresh water, 

water types, and flow directions 

304 - Simulating Integrated Water 

Management for Irrigation in the Lower 

Republican River Basin, Kansas 

127 - BC Oil and Gas Commission 

Regulatory Framework, Groundwater 

Initiatives, and Key Groundwater 

Research Topics 

259 - Assessment of Non-saline water 

Use in Alberta’s Upstream Oil and Gas 

Sector between 2004 and 2013: 

Implications on Forecasted Water Use 

117 - Stable Isotope Contents of the 

Carbonate and Sandstone Aquifers in 

Winnipeg, Manitoba – A 40 Year Review 

of Changing Water Supply Development 

Conditions 

130 - Evaluating innovative techniques 

for in situ, real-time remote monitoring of 

nitrate in groundwater 

320 - Development of Groundwater 

Policy for Alberta’s Oil Sands Region 

303 - Creation of a comprehensive 

database to characterize surface and 

groundwater quality in the Peace River 

Regional District, North East BC, 

Canada 

256 - Geostatistical Characterization of 

Hydrofacies in a Heterogeneous Aquifer 

Considering Uncertainty in Hard Data 

114 - Validating effects of spring plowing 

forages on nitrate leaching reduction 

250 - Groundwater Monitoring for policy 

support under AEMERA 


31

FRIDAY PROGRAM AT A GLANCE 

7:15 - 8:00 

8:00 - 9:05 

9:05 - 11:45 

11:45 - 12:00 

12:30 - 13:30 

14:30 - 17:00 

Friday, October 30, 2015 

Continental Breakfast - Viennese Ballroom Pre-function 

Friday Plenary 1: Dr. Ian D. Clark - The Future of Isotope Hydrogeology 

9:05 - 9:20 9:20 - 9:35 9:35 - 9:50 

274 - M. Cathryn Ryan 

Hydrogeologists without Borders 

and the “GW2.0 Initiative” 

Friday Plenary 2: M.C. Ryan, R.E. Jackson, W.M. Alley, R.W. Gillham, 

J. Barker, E. Frind, G. van der Kamp - Insightful Moments in Hydrogeology 

126 - R.E. Jackson 

Groundwater redox processes: 

incorporating chemical 

thermodynamics into 

hydrogeology in the 1970s 

115 - W.M. Alley 

Temporal Scales in Groundwater 

Science: The Challenge to 

Hydrogeologists 

Coffee Break - Viennese Ballroom Pre-function (9:50 - 10:20) 

10:20 - 10:35 10:35 - 10:50 10:50 - 11:05 11:05 - 11:45 

248 - R.W. Gillham 

Laboratory demonstration of 

confined and unconfined aquifer 

storage characteristics 

159 - J. Barker 

Training the Next Generation of 

Hydrogeologists 

237 - E. Frind 

Groundwater Flownets: “This is 

where I first understood 

groundwater flow systems” 

311 - G. van der Kamp 

Unstated assumptions – a 

challenge for students and hidden 

traps for the unwary 

IAH-CNC 2015 Waterloo Closing Remarks 

Shuttle Buses to University of Waterloo - Farvolden Days 

Farvolden Lecture @ 2:30pm (University of Waterloo) 

Dr. David Rudolph - A Renaissance in Regional Hydrogeology: In the Footsteps of Farvolden 


ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Groundwater/Surface Water Interaction 1....................................................................34 

Road Salt Impacts on Groundwater..............................................................................38 

Innovation in the Remediation of Contaminated Sites 1...............................................42 

Groundwater Aspects of Deep Geological Repositories................................................46 


Regional Groundwater Systems 1................................................................................54 

Innovation in the Remediation of Contaminated Sites 2...............................................59 

Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario..........................................................................63 

Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater 1........................................................................68 

Regional Groundwater Systems 2................................................................................72 

Flow and Transport in Fractured Rock.........................................................................77 

Vadose Zone Hydrogeology..........................................................................................81 


Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 1..................................................................89 

Groundwater Issues From Oil and Gas Exploration & Production 1...............................94 

Advanced Techniques for Site Characterization ..........................................................98 

Groundwater/Surface Water Interaction 4 .................................................................103 

Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 2 ...............................................................107 

Innovation in the Remediation of Contaminated Sites 3 ............................................ 111 

Groundwater Issues from Mining & Aggregates ........................................................ 115 

Workshop on Groundwater Policy 1 ..........................................................................120 

Groundwater Issues From Oil and Gas Exploration & Production 2.............................124 

Regional Groundwater Systems 3 .............................................................................127 

Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater 2 .....................................................................132 

Workshop on Groundwater Policy 2 ..........................................................................136 

POSTER SESSION: Advanced Techniques for Site Characterization...........................141 

POSTER SESSION: Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater..........................................144 

POSTER SESSION: Flow and Transport in Fractured Rock.........................................148 

POSTER SESSION: Groundwater Issues from Mining & Aggregates...........................152 

POSTER SESSION: Groundwater Issues from Oil and Gas Exploration & Production..154 

POSTER SESSION: Groundwater/Surface Water Interaction......................................156 

POSTER SESSION: Innovation in the Remediation of Contaminated Sites..................164 

POSTER SESSION: Regional Groundwater Systems...................................................168 

POSTER SESSION: Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario..........................................176 

POSTER SESSION: Sustainability of Groundwater Resources....................................180 

POSTER SESSION: Vadose Zone Hydrogeolgy...........................................................183 

POSTER SESSION: Workshop on Groundwater Policy................................................188 

Moments of Insight in Hydrogeology..........................................................................189 


33

ABSTRACTS 

Groundwater/Surface Water Interaction 1 

Wednesday, October 28, 10:10 – 11:50 

Chair: Colby Steelman 

Room: Strauss 

201 - A Physically-Based Modelling Approach to Assess the 

Impact of Climate Change on Surface and Groundwater Resources 

within the Grand River Watershed, Ontario, Canada 

E.A. Sudicky, S.K. Frey, H.-T. Hwang & Y.-J. Park 

Aquanty, Inc., Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Climate change will greatly impact the availability and quality of Earth’s water resources 

over the next century. The expected increase in mean temperature may have a severe impact 

on the water cycle, not only through changing precipitation patterns and amounts, 

but also through an increase in the severity and frequency of extreme events. Unforeseen 

changes in rainfall patterns and shifting temperatures will exacerbate water management 

in the Grand River watershed, thus affecting the programs and operations of the Grand 

River Conservation Authority (GRCA). The main objective of this study is to analyze the 

impact of climate change forecasts on the surface and subsurface water resources within 

the Grand River Watershed, which is one of the more heavily populated water basins in 

Canada. A high-resolution 3D integrated surface-subsurface hydrological model, Hydro- 

GeoSphere (HGS), is first calibrated against the extensive surface and subsurface hydrologic 

data collected within the watershed over the past decades. Next using dynamically 

downscaled climate projections to drive HGS, the calibrated integrated hydrologic model 

is used to assess the impacts of climate change on both the surface and subsurface flow 

regimes within the Grand River Watershed over the next century. 

224 - Strategies for Integrated Model Calibration 

J.D.C. Kassenaar, E.J. Wexler, P.J. Thompson & M.G.S. Takeda 

Earthfx Incorporated, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

Integrated modelling has emerged as the preferred approach to address complex watershed 

management, cumulative impact and engineering-scale problems such as mine or 

quarry development. As groundwater scientists, using an integrated model requires us to 

re-evaluate our assumptions and simplifying approaches previously used for surface water 

analysis and shallow sub-surface interactions. In a related initiative, the surface water 

community recently completed a 10 year effort to assess strategies and approaches for 

predictions in ungauged basins (PUB). In a summary of this initiative, Hrachowitz et. al. 

(2014) noted the need for “a major paradigm shift in scientific hydrology, traditionally rooted 

in empiricism and…data- and calibration focused methods to methods that are more strongly 

based on theoretical insights into physical processes and system understanding”. Our experience, 


ased on the construction of more than 10 integrated GSFLOW models, is consistent 

with these PUB recommendations and their emphasis on basin “form and function”. For 

example, in a groundwater-only modelling study, model layer geometry is rarely adjusted 

during calibration. Our experience with GSFLOW, however, indicates that shallow system 

representation, including layering, soil zones, surficial geology, weathering, unsaturated 

zone, perched and water table feedback require that the geologist, hydrogeologist and 

hydrologist work closely to refine and even re-conceptualization all aspects of the shallow 

subsurface system during calibration. This is illustrated through examples, including a GS- 

FLOW simulation of the interconnection between a managed reservoir and a municipal 

wellfield. Shallow system process complexity means that estimates of average recharge, 

developed without groundwater feedback, may need to be discarded once integrated calibration 

has begun. Steady-state groundwater sub-models, constructed as an initial step 

during integrated model construction, may become obsolete once integrated model development 

is complete, particularly in wet season/dry season environments, fluctuating water 

table, or locations with significant winter processes. While integrated model development 

requires a larger and more diversely skilled modelling team, one of the significant benefits 

is that measured fluxes such as precipitation and total measured streamflow can be used 

as direct inputs and model calibration targets. This approach is consistent with the PUB 

recommendation to de-emphasize empirical flow partitioning methods such as baseflow 

separation, and more importantly, provide a common and consistent set of measured flow 

targets for both the surface water and groundwater modellers. To conclude, we feel that 

integrated models are more than ready to provide the key insights into basin form and 

function that the PUB scientists have identified. 

199 - Importance of Incorporating Peatlands and Winter 

Processes into Integrated Surface-subsurface Models of the 

Athabasca River Basin 

H.-T. Hwang, Y.-J. Park & E.A. Sudicky 




Anthropogenic water stresses including climate and land-use change, agriculture and 

mining activities in the Athabasca River Basin (ARB) can have significant impacts on 

the capacity and sustainability of the existing surface and groundwater resources within 

the Basin. An appropriate representation of the key surface and subsurface hydrological 

processes, including those relevant to peatlands and winter processes (snow accumulation 

and melting) is critical to improve the calibration and predictive ability of models to compute 

stream flow, groundwater levels and recharge rates throughout the seasons. The main 

objective of this study is to demonstrate the importance of the inclusion of peatland and 

cold-season hydrologic processes in integrated surface/subsurface models, with particular 

emphasis on the ARB. HydroGeoSphere (HGS), a fully-integrated surface-subsurface 

flow and solute transport simulator, is used here for this purpose. The high-resolution 3D 

HGS model of the ARB is constructed based on data from the Geological Atlas of the 


35

Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (Alberta Geological Survey) and the University of 

Maryland (UMD) global land cover classification dataset. Historical climate data maintained 

by the Climate Research Unit of the University of East Anglia was used to drive 

HGS for calibration against long-term average and transient surface flow and groundwater 

levels during the historic instrumental period. Based on the simulation results, it is shown 

that the peatland distributions and the seasonality of climatic conditions exhibit strong 

controls on the behaviour of the hydrologic system. In particular, the peatlands in the ARB 

exhibit a large influence on temporal groundwater storage and releases and evapotranspiration 

rates, and accounting for cold-season hydrologic processes improves the representation 

of the timing of peak stream flows. 

225 - Integrated Surface Water/Groundwater Modelling to 

Simulate Drought and Climate Change Impacts from the Reach to 

the Watershed Scale 

P.J. Thompson, E.J. Wexler, M.G.S. Takeda & J.D.C. Kassenaar 


Earthfx has developed multiple integrated surface water-groundwater models for assessing 

the watersheds that drain into Lake Simcoe, Ontario, Canada. The models were developed 

with the U.S. Geological Survey’s open-source GSFLOW code and cover a wide range 

of geological settings and land usage including moraine complexes, low-relief alvar plains, 

urban areas, and agricultural lowlands. Detailed topography and land-use data, distributed 

NEXRAD radar precipitation data, and a locally calibrated snowpack model allow processes 

to be simulated at a high spatial resolution. Model resolution varies from 100 m to 

200 m in the groundwater submodel and from 50 m to 100 m in the hydrologic submodel 

allowing for a detailed representation of the study watersheds. The study areas feature 

competing water uses from municipal drinking water systems, industrial and agricultural 

takers, quarries, gravel pits, and navigation canals which were all represented in the models. 

The models are run on a continuous basis and have been calibrated over multiple years to 

capture a wide range of climatic conditions. 

These projects have demonstrated the value of undertaking detailed drought assessments 

at the watershed scale. By considering the hydrologic and hydrogeologic systems together 

through an integrated modelling exercise, the overall watershed response to stress can be 

analyzed. The role of groundwater aquifers in mitigating extreme drought can be clearly 

identified and the resilience of key ecologically significant surface water features can be 

evaluated. Results show that drought sensitive features are often not in good contact with 

groundwater storage during extreme drought conditions. 

The assessment of the study watersheds under a changed climate was conducted using a 

“change field” method. Climate data for a 30-year period (2030-2060) obtained as output 

from a range of Global Climate Models (GCMs) were used to modify the actual observed 

(baseline) 30-year (1970-2000) time series. Results showed that drought sensitive areas 

were also stressed under future conditions where a warmer climate is predicted to reduce 

the amount of water stored during the summer. 


Integrated modelling exercises can help explain the linkages between the groundwater 

system and surface water features. Understanding the role that geology plays in controlling 

both the flow and storage of water is an important exercise that can be undertaken in any 

sensitive watershed. This functional, hydrologic knowledge can provide the insight necessary 

to develop both drought and climate change adaptation strategies. 

272 - Balancing Near-Surface Water 

Eric Soulis, James Craig, Bryan Tolson, Amin Haghnegahdar & Mateusz Tinel 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


The importance of lateral near-surface flow through weathered bedrock layers in hillslopes 

or active layers in permafrost regions requires that, to be complete, a hydrologic model, 

or a land surface scheme must have an interflow algorithm. Conceptual power law 

extensions of a vertical drainage equation, such as Campbell or Brooks-Corey, generally 

poorly parameterised interflow. The equations require several parameters that are difficult 

to calibrate. At the opposite extreme of the complexity spectrum, are numerical solutions 

of Richards Equation that are too cumbersome for meso-scale modelling. 

This presentation will demonstrate a cleaner, easier approach: a power law expression using 

effective saturation approximates the modeled outflow from a sloping confined aquifer. 

The solution is a weighted combination of an expression for pure saturated and pure unsaturated 

flow from the seepage base of the aquifer. The weighting coefficient is determined 

from the soil pore-size distribution. The result is a Weibull-like expression that requires 

only the SCS sand and clay fractions, along with valley slope and length. These parameters 

are available in most models. 

The method, called the Tilted Landscape Element (TILE) approach is suitable for surface 

element in groundwater models or land-surface schemes. TILE has been implemented in 

StandAlone— Modélisation Environmentale–Surface et Hydrologie (SA-MESH). The 

method will be illustrated with examples from its use in SA-MESH. 


37

Road Salt Impacts on Groundwater 


Chair: Rachel Vaillancourt 

Room: Wagner 

211 - Recent Field Data Confirm Previous Predictions That 

Toronto’s Groundwater Faces a Serious Decline in Water Quality 

due to Road Salt 

Ken W.F. Howard & Max Stone 

University of Toronto Scarborough, Ontario, Canada 

Nader Mansour 

ENSTA ParisTech, Paris, France 

Research undertaken in Toronto during the mid- to late-1980s drew attention to the serious 

impacts of road salt on groundwater quality. Shallow springs sampled along the Lake 

Ontario shoreline showed chloride concentrations as high as 2800 mg/L, while a water 

sample collected several metres below surface, close to an urban highway, revealed chloride 

as high as 14000 mg/L. A subsequent salt balance study conducted in the Highland Creek 

catchment in the eastern suburbs of Toronto suggested that over 50% of salt applied each 

year to urban catchments is released to groundwater and thus takes many decades to leave 

the basin. Based on estimated groundwater travel times, it was forecast that chloride in 

groundwater discharging as baseflow in the Highland Creek Catchment would increase 

from its existing value of around 140 mg/L, to over 400 mg/L within a 20 year time frame. 

Recent follow-up studies in the basin have largely confirmed the earlier predictions. Salt 

balance studies conducted between 2005 and 2008 demonstrate that baseflow concentrations 

of chloride now vary from around 500 mg/L in the late spring to around 250-300 

mg/L in the early fall, a summer season trend that is interpreted to represent a gradual 

draining of the “urban karst”. Over the three-year period, end of season chloride concentrations 

showed a significant annual increase. A recent re-sampling of springs along the 

Lake Ontario shoreline also confirms the long-term decline of urban groundwater quality 

that was predicted in the 1980’s. In 1985, 39 spring samples collected as they emerged 

from eastern Toronto’s deeper aquifer system showed an average chloride concentration of 

88 mg/L, with nearly two thirds containing

Road salt is impacting surface and groundwater drinking water sources, vegetative and 

aquatic biota, soil matrices and infrastructure life cycles. The Ministry of the Environment 

and Climate Change (MOECC) has prescribed application, handling and storage 

of road salt as a significant threat to municipal drinking water under the Clean Water Act, 

2006 (CWA). In response to the CWA, Source Protection Committees have conducted 

technical studies that determined that the application, handling, and storage of road salt is 

deteriorating sources of municipal drinking water. 

Halton Region completed a review of all municipal drinking water threat activities and 

estimated their respective potential contributions to salt loading within their Cedarvale 

Wellhead Protection Area. This study concluded that 85% of total salt loading within 

their Wellhead Protection Area is attributed to the application of road salt on private parking 

lots. Further research concluded that there are no Minimum Maintenance Standards 

contractor’s responsible for winter maintenance on private lots, most winter maintenance 

contracts are based on amount of salt applied and there are no parking lot design standards 

that optimize road salt application within Ontario. 

Halton Region is collaborating with their lower tier municipalities to develop a Salt Management 

Strategy (SMS) in response to both Regional Council and the MOECC’s direction 

to protect municipal drinking water sources from the application, handling, and 

storage of road salt within vulnerable areas throughout Halton Region. While maintaining 

public safety, the SMS provides salt optimization parking lot design guidelines to municipal 

staff responsible for approval new large parking lots within vulnerable areas, and 

provides awareness through education and outreach materials the impacts of road salt to 

municipal drinking water sources. 

244 - Quantifying the Impact of Road Salt Management Practices 

on Water Quality in Public Supply Wells within the Region of 

Waterloo 

D. L. Rudolph 1 , J. Melchin 2 , M. Stone 1 & G. Sarwar 1 

1 

University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

2 

Matrix Solutions Inc, Breslau, Ontario, Canada 

Long-term road salt application has increased sodium and chloride concentrations in 

drinking water wells in many cold climate communities. The Regional Municipality of 

Waterloo (RMOW) implemented various road salt best management practices (BMPs) 

designed to reduce the impact of the winter deicers on public supply wells. During the 

winter 2004-2005, the RMOW set a 25% reduction target in the amount of NaCl applied 

to city streets in wellhead protection areas and a 10% reduction target for all other city 

streets within the vicinity of the Greenbrook Well Field where elevated levels of sodium 

and chloride had been observed. Prior to the implementation of these reductions, in 2001- 

2002, pre-BMP estimates of road salt loading to the water table were made by quantifying 

the mass loading along various representative road types by tracking the salt mass flux 

through the vadose zone. Salt transport was evaluated through the analysis of replicate core 

samples collected along curbs at selected field sites over several annual cycles. Post-BMP 


39

estimates of road salt loading to the water table were made by repeating the earlier field 

program from 2008 to 2010. The data indicate that the average pore water Cl concentration 

had reduced by approximately 65% and the average cumulative stored chloride mass in 

the vadose zone had reduced by approximately 30%. The average mass loading to the water 

table was estimated to have reduced by over 40% following the reduction in the road salt 

application rates. Water table monitoring wells installed at each of the field locations confirmed 

a progressive reduction in chloride concentration over time. To our knowledge, this 

is the first study of its kind to quantitatively assess the effects of best management practices 

to reduce the impacts of road salt to ground water by directly comparing pre-BMP and 

post-BMP chloride levels. The results suggest that the road salt management practices 

involving the reduction in the application rate of the deicers implemented by the RMOW 

can significantly reduce the loading to the water table and subsequently result in a progressive 

decrease in groundwater chloride concentrations ultimately leading to improved water 

quality in the public supply wells. 

122 - Assessment of Road Salt Impacts to Four Priority Well Fields 

in the Region of Waterloo 

Michael L. Duchene, Tiffany Svensson & Ian Macdonald 

BluMetric Environmental Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 

Rachel Vaillancourt & Geoff Moroz 

Hydrogeology and Source Water, Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Kitchener, Ontario, 

Canada 

The Regional Municipality of Waterloo obtains approximately 75% of its drinking water 

supply from 122 groundwater supply wells. The on-going assessment of the water quality 

has shown that sodium and chloride concentrations are close to or have exceeded the 

drinking water objectives at four priority well fields, William Street, Greenbrook, Parkway 

and Middleton Street. Assessments on the issue of elevated chloride and sodium levels in 

these well fields have been ongoing since the 1990s. This assessment was an update and 

expansion of previous assessments. 

The primary assessment tool used was a mass balance model developed by the Region. 

The model predicts the mass loading in the extracted groundwater by integrating the chloride 

loading (portion of road salt that infiltrates to the groundwater) and factoring in the 

advective travel time to the production well based on the capture zone delineation. Salt 

application on both roadways and parking lots was input into the model. The mass of salt 

applied to roads was reported by the cities. The mass of road salt applied to parking lots 

was estimated by determining the total area of parking lots in each wellhead protection 

area and estimating the application rate. 

Currently there are no guidelines and little published data for the application of salt on 

parking lots. Two surveys completed by others were obtained and a survey was completed 

as part of this assessment to quantify the salt applications used on parking lots. The results 

indicate that the general range of salt application on parking lots is between 50 g/m 2 and 

75 g/m 2 . 


It was estimated that between 50% and 80% of the salt applied in the WHPAs was applied 

on the roads with the remainder applied to parking lots. The inclusion of the loading from 

parking lots resulted in the estimation of the portion of salt applied to the surface that 

infiltrates being about one half of previous estimates completed considering only the salt 

applied to roads. 

The model was calibrated to historical data and used to predict salt concentrations in the 

supply wells using current application rates of road salt. The concentrations of sodium and 

chloride in two of the well fields are predicted to continue to meet the drinking water objectives. 

Reduction in salt loadings of 25% and 40% are required to achieve drinking water 

objectives in the other two well fields. 

121 - Salt Assessment of a Low Demand, Rural Well Field IAH-CNC 

2015 Waterloo Conference 

M.J. Fraser, R. Byer-Coward & R. Freymond 

Stantec Consulting Ltd., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 

R. Vaillancourt & E. Hodgins 

Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 

The Regional Municipality of Waterloo (RMOW) was alerted by elevated chloride concentrations 

at one of their rural well fields and recognized that work was required to evaluate 

potential sources and future chloride trends. The source of chloride was not as clearly 

understood as in the urban environment where road salt is generally the primary contributor. 

The rural well field supplied a small community where waste water was treated using 

residential septic systems. The water supplied by the bedrock aquifer was hard, meaning 

many residents were using water softeners. In addition, supply from this well field was minor, 

about 14,000 m 3 /year, resulting in a limited well field capture zone. The low pumping 

rate and small capture zone meant that a relatively small amount of salt could result in 

increased concentrations of chloride at the production wells. 

A salt assessment was undertaken to assess the current extent of chloride within the aquifer 

system, evaluate future trends in chloride concentrations, and evaluate potential BMPs 

and/or well field operation and monitoring strategies with the objective of reducing chloride 

concentrations at the wells. Preliminary calculations indicated that chloride loading 

from water softeners and road salt may both be significant sources of chloride at the production 

wells. 


41

Innovation in the Remediation of 

Contaminated Sites 1 


Chair: Jason Gerhard 

Room: Schubert 

132 - Electrokinetically-Enhanced Remediation: An Innovative 

Solution to Vexing Challenges for Source Area Remediation 

Evan Cox 1 , David Reynolds 2 & James Wang 3 

1 

Geosyntec Consultant, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

2 

Geosyntec Consultant, Kingston, Ontario, Canada 

3 

Geosyntec Consultant, Columbia, Maryland, USA 

Charlotte Riis & Martin Bymose 

NIRAS A/S, Alleroed, Denmark 

David Gent 

US Army Engineer R&D Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA 

Mads Terkelsen 

Capital Region, Hilleroed, Denmark 

Contaminants in clays and silts are long-term sources of pollutants to groundwater, requiring 

costly remediation and monitoring over many decades. Significant advances have been 

made in the past few years in the area of electrokinetically (EK) enhanced amendment 

delivery to treat contaminant source areas in low permeability (low K) and highly heterogeneous 

subsurface materials. EK is an innovative approach that uses electrokinetic mechanisms 

to promote migration of amendments through clays/silts through electromigration, 

electroosmosis and/or electrophoresis. EK approaches are not dependent on hydraulic conductivity, 

and can therefore achieve uniform and rapid distribution of amendments in clays 

and silts. Amendments can include electron donors (e.g., lactate), electron acceptors (e.g., 

nitrate), and/or bacteria (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter) for in situ bioremediation 

(EK-BIO), or oxidants such as permanganate for in situ chemical oxidation (EK-ISCO). 

A recent novel addition to the EK toolbox is EK-thermally activated persulfate (EK-TAP) 

which uses the same infrastructure to both deliver persulfate through clays and silts (using 

DC current), followed by heating of the soils (using AC current, which is the basis for electrical 

resistance heating), to heat the soils to ~40 o C to activate the persulfate and destroy 

contaminants in situ. 

This presentation will discuss how and where each of these EK remediation technologies 

works, and will present results from multiple field applications, including a large full-scale EK- 

BIO application at a site in Denmark, a second EK-BIO field application at a United States 

Navy site in Florida, and several field applications of EK-TAP, EK-ISCO, and EK-ZVI at 

chlorinated solvent sites in the United States and Canada. The results of these field applications 

show that EK enhanced amendment delivery can be a cost-effective and sustainable means of 

accelerating remediation of source areas in low K and heterogeneous materials. 


190 - Integrating Risk Management into Redevelopment of an 

Urban Brownfield Site 

Bradley Carew & Sandra Pilgrim 

City of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

J. David Miller 

Department of Chemistry – Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Kevin Hicks 

AMEC Foster Wheeler, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Stuart Bailey 

AMEC Foster Wheeler, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada 

Lansdowne Park is owned by the City of Ottawa. The 16 ha site has been used since 

1888 as a fairground and for sports events. The lands were also used as staging areas for 

the military during the Boer War and WWI and WWII. The redevelopment plan included 

a new underground parking garage, residential, retail, a stadium, and recreational 

areas. Bounded on one side by the historic Rideau Canal, the site is surrounded by mature 

residential housing, shops and restaurants. As portions of the site were being changed to 

a more sensitive land use, Records of Site Condition (RSC) under Ontario Regulation 

153/04 were required. 

During the early development of the site, portions of inlets adjacent to the Rideau Canal 

were filled with landfill waste. Coal heating was used to heat some of the buildings dating 

back to 1896. Unsurprisingly, the environmental investigations identified soil contaminated 

by PAHs and metals. To minimize the environmental impact, all contaminated soils 

were kept on-site and appropriate risk management measures developed to ensure no impacts 

to human health or the environment. 

To facilitate the redevelopment, the site was split into three distinct zones. Zone A consisted 

of the new parking garage, retail and residential buildings. Zone B consisted of the existing 

hockey arena and football stadium and two existing buildings. Zone C encompassed 

a new municipal park including an orchard, large open greenspace, skating rink, public art 

pieces and pathways. 

In total, 30,000 m 3 of contaminated soils were excavated from the new parking structure and 

used construct an earthen berm. This strategy eliminated the environmental costs and public 

nuisance of transporting the contaminated soil off site. To address community concerns, air 

monitoring was conducted to document the management of dusts during the remedial work. 

The future parkland portion of the site (Zone C) contained the historic landfill which was 

approximately 50,000 m 3 in size. Park features were designed to allow this to remain in 

place and also accommodate the relocated contaminated soils from Zone A. This resulted 

in savings of >$8 million. Innovative risk management strategies for the future park included 

selection of shallow rooting tree species and hard and soft caps above the contaminated 

soils. In 2014, a risk-based RSC was filed for the parkland portion of the site (Zone C). 

The innovative soil management strategy, risk assessment and staged development were 

keys factors that lead to a successful brownfield redevelopment project. 


43

214 - Treatment of Manufactured Gas Plant Residuals Using 

Alkaline Activated Persulfate: A Pilot-Scale Trial 

Felipe Solano 1 , Neil R. Thomson 1 & Ramon Aravena 2 

1 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


2 



Remediation of dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) in subsurface environments 

is a significant challenge. The presence of tars associated with former manufactured gas 

plants (MGPs) magnifies this challenge due to their complex chemical composition. 

In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) has emerged as an effective remediation method for 

groundwater contaminated with compounds associated with MGP residuals; however, the 

science-base to support the treatment of MGP residuals is lacking. In addition, the interpretation 

of aqueous concentration data alone is often insufficient to quantify remediation 

efficiency. The use of compound specific stable isotope analysis to complement concentration 

data can be very helpful in distinguishing between chemical oxidation and non-oxidation 

processes, and therefore in appropriately quantifying the efficiency of chemical 

oxidation. 

The aim of this research effort is to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of using alkaline 

activated persulfate to treat MGP residuals present at a former MGP site, and to 

assess the potential application of compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) as a tool to 

monitor the treatment performance. This is a multi-year research effort involving source 

area characterization, bench-scale experiments, push-pull tests, installation of oxidant delivery 

infrastructure, and a pilot-scale trial followed by a long-term monitoring program. 

Based on the results of the site characterization, bench-scale experiments and push-pull 

tests, this pilot-scale trial focuses on a portion of the identified source zone (target treatment 

zone – TTZ) in which shallow (4.5 m bgs) MGP residuals 

have been observed. Two injection episodes to satisfy oxidant dosing requirements are prescribed. 

Twelve permanent wells were used to ensure complete sweep of the TTZ was possible. 

To supplement the extensive monitoring network already present, seven multi-level 

monitoring wells were installed within and slightly downgradient of the TTZ to capture 

oxidant distribution and downgradient concentration changes. A resistivity probe network 

was used to provide real-time changes in the electrical conductivity within the TTZ. To 

assess treatment performance, dissolved phase concentrations, contaminant mass in the 

TTZ, and mass discharge across a downgradient transect are being used in conjunction 

with CSIA, residual persulfate, sulfate, and sulfide data. Results from this un-biased performance 

assessment will be used to generate a comprehensive data set that will demonstrate 

the capabilities of alkaline activated persulfate to treat MGP residuals in situ. 


116 - The Effect of Injection Methods on the Distribution of 

Remedial Compounds 

Rick McGregor 

InSitu Remediation Services Ltd, St. George, Ontario, Canada 

The application of in situ methods for treating contaminants within groundwater and soil 

has increased over the past decade. The understanding of how contaminants are remediated 

using a variety of compounds is fairly well understood and demonstrated. However, 

numerous studies/project using in situ remediation have resulted in incomplete realization 

of the remedial objectives. In order for in situ methods to be effective, the injected compounds 

must interact directly or indirectly with the contaminant. Site specific factors such 

as geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry, contaminant distribution, etc. play an important 

role in controlling the design of any in situ program, as does understanding the role of 

advection and diffusion in the delivery and transport of the compounds to the contaminant. 

Unfortunately very few studies have been completed in the field to look at the actual 

distribution of compounds. 

A field study was conducted in an unconsolidated, unconfined aquifer to evaluate various 

injection and delivery methods for a variety of oxidants and reductants including persulfate, 

percarbonate, hydrogen peroxide and emulsified vegetable oil. Delivery methods examined 

for each oxidant included injection through vertical wells, injection by direct push technology 

using drop point and side tool technologies. The results of the study indicated that the 

delivery method has a significant impact on the distribution of the compound within the 

subsurface whereas the type of compound also impacted the distribution geometry within 

the aquifer tested. Direct push technology offered superior distribution compared to injection 

of the compounds into vertical wells with injection through side tools showing better 

vertical and lateral distribution than drop point methodology. These results suggest that 

the choice of delivery method is a key design parameter for any in situ remedial program 

and that the delivery method needs to be customized based on site-specific factors to the 

choice of remedial compound being used. 

249 - Enhanced in situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents in 

Canada 

Jeff Roberts, Phil Dennis, Sandra Dworatzek & Peter Dollar 

SiREM, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Bioremediation of chlorinated solvents, including perchloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethene 

(TCE), in groundwater is a proven and cost effective remedial approach. KB-1 ® , a 

bioaugmentation culture that promotes the complete dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes 

to ethene has been used extensively for bioremediation projects around the world. KB- 

1® is the only anaerobic bioaugmentation culture to receive Federal regulatory acceptance 

through the New Substance Notification (NSN) regulation process and was added to the 

Domestic Substances List in 2008. Since then KB-1 ® has been applied successfully at 

several sites in Canada. 


45

Geological and geochemical conditions commonly found in Canada that should be considered 

when implementing a bioremediation approach include: low groundwater temperatures, 

low permeability matrices and fractured rock. Recent experience implementing 

bioremediation remedies under these conditions have provided insights and lessons 

learned for optimizing bioremediation of chlorinated solvents in Canada. 

Groundwater temperatures defined as cold (i.e., below 10 º C) are commonly found north 

of 45 degrees latitude. Understanding the feasibility of bioremediation of chlorinated solvents 

and the practical limits of bioremediation under cold conditions is important in 

remedy selection and expectation management for high latitude bioremediation projects. 

Examples of successful bioremediation at sites in Alaska, Denmark and Canada, will be 

presented with a focus on degradation half-lives, concentrations of dechlorinating bacteria 

(Dehalococcoides [Dhc]) and remediation outcomes. 

Low permeability strata are common in some of the most highly industrialized areas of 

Canada; notably in Southern Ontario and Quebec. Originally conceived as an oil and 

gas extraction technology, hydraulic fracturing can also be used to improve distribution of 

bioremediation amendments thereby improving bioremediation outcomes. Examples of 

successful implementation of hydraulic fracturing and other approaches for bioremediation 

in clay strata and fractured rock environments will be discussed. One such site, in the 

Toronto area, with groundwater concentrations of PCE, TCE and cis-1,2-dichloroethene 

(cDCE) above regulatory limits will be presented. A high pressure grout pump was used 

to inject EHCTM electron donor and KB-1 ® . After KB-1 ® application, a 10,000-fold 

increase in Dhc abundance was observed from pre to post bioaugmentation in less than 

one year. cDCE concentrations declined concurrently to below detection limits, reaching 

Ontario regulatory standards (Table 3) and site remedial objectives in the target monitoring 

wells for all chlorinated compounds within 1.5 years of bioaugmentation. 

Groundwater Aspects of Deep Geological 

Repositories 


Chair: Mark Jensen 

Room: Heritage 

228 - Deep Geologic Repositories: Developing a Geoscientific 

Basis for Long-Term Safety 

M.R. Jensen & M. Hobbs 

Nuclear Waste Management Organization, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

The Nuclear Waste Management Organization (NWMO) is responsible for implementing 

the Adaptive Phased Management (APM) Program, Canada’s approach for the longterm 

management of its nuclear used fuel. The APM program, approved by the federal 

government in June 2007, envisions that nuclear used fuel would be placed within a 


multi-barrier Deep Geologic Repository (DGR) in a suitable crystalline or sedimentary 

bedrock formation at a nominal depth of 400 to 700 m. As part of APM, a technical 

program is directed by the NWMO to advance the understanding of fractured crystalline 

and sedimentary groundwater systems as they related to assessing site-specific suitability 

for implementation of the DGR concept and, ultimately, the passive safety of a selected 

site on timescales of 1 Ma (NWMO 2015). The Geoscience program is multi-disciplinary 

with a focus on geology, geochronology, structural geology, seismicity, hydrogeochemistry, 

isotope hydrology, physical hydrogeology, numerical groundwater system analysis, reactive 

transport simulation, sorption, microbiology, paleohydrogeology, geomechanics and glaciation. 

A motivation for the work is the characterisation of deep-seated aquitard/aquiclude 

systems typified by low permeability (

227 - Deep-Seated Aquiclude Groundwater Systems: Advances in 

In Situ Hydraulic Testing 

Richard L. Beauheim 

Consulting Hydrogeologist, Grand Junction, Colorado, USA 

Randall M. Roberts 

HydroResolutions LLC, Parshall, North Dakota, USA 

John D. Avis 

Geofirma Engineering Ltd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Mark Jensen 


A key aspect of groundwater studies in deep-seated aquiclude systems relates to the estimation 

of formation-scale physical hydrogeological properties. Within such extremely 

low permeability (>10 -20 m 2 ), low storage (S s 

≈10 -6 m -1 ), and typically saline groundwater 

systems, this presents unique challenges. As part of site-characterization activities for a 

proposed Deep Geologic Repository (DGR) for low- and intermediate-level radioactive 

waste at the Bruce nuclear site, 90+ straddle-packer (30-m interval) tests were performed 

in Silurian- and Ordovician-age shale and carbonate sediments intersected by 6, 

150-mm-diameter vertical or dipping (60-65° from horizontal) boreholes separated by 

approximately 1200 m. Estimates of in situ horizontal rock mass hydraulic conductivity 

(K) within these Paleozoic-age sediments ranged between 2x10 -16 and 4x10 -8 m/s. The 

tests were performed with a purpose-built straddle-packer assembly that included a surface-actuated 

downhole valve and a fixed-volume downhole pulse generator. A typical test 

sequence in the lower permeability sediments required a 3-day cycle involving multiple 

pulses with real-time analysis to assess adequacy of data for detailed analysis. In addition 

to hydraulic conductivity, estimates of static formation hydraulic heads were obtained that 

indicated the presence of abnormal formation underpressure (≈250 m+) conditions within 

the Ordovician sediments, since confirmed by Westbay multi-packer installations in the 

boreholes. Estimates of K derived from the field tests of the low-permeability Cobourg 

Formation compare favorably to estimates from laboratory tests on core samples (≈10 cm) 

and to natural analogue formation-scale (≈100+ m) data. This presentation will describe 

the borehole testing methodology and a comparison of test results to complementary measurements 

in establishing a basis to assess aquiclude hydraulic properties. 

170 - Pore Fluid Pressures in the Ordovician Sediments at 

the Bruce site near Kincardine, Ontario: Potential Causes and 

Analysis 

Stefano D. Normani, Yong Yin & Jonathan F. Sykes 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Site-specific analogues provide a unique means to assess groundwater system properties 

and behaviour at time and space scales not otherwise achievable. Formation pressure head 

measurements within low permeability Silurian to Cambrian age sediments on the east- 


ern flank of the Michigan basin have revealed abnormal vertical head distributions and 

gradients inconsistent with hydrostatic conditions. Westbay pressure data from the DGR 

boreholes at the Bruce site indicate that the Cambrian sandstone and the Silurian Guelph 

Formation are significantly over-pressured relative to fluid density corrected hydrostatic 

levels while within the intervening 360 m sequence of Ordovician limestone and shale, 

heads are significantly under-pressured. This study investigates various physical processes 

in the interpretation of the pressures as relevant to understanding formation scale hydraulic 

properties on geologic timescales. Three physically based numerical models were developed 

to investigate the evolution of pore fluid pressures: glacial loading without crustal 

flexure, exhumation of post Devonian sediments, and the presence of a non-wetting gas 

phase in the rock. Using the computational models FRAC3DVS-OPG and TOUGH2- 

MP, the parameter estimation model PEST, and a one-dimensional conceptual model, all 

models could describe the under-pressures. A fourth physically based numerical model was 

developed to assess the effect of crustal flexure on the generation of in-situ pore fluid pressures 

at the Bruce site. Both flexural stresses and vertical stresses, imposed by the weight of 

an ice-sheet, affect the formation of in-situ pore fluid pressures through hydro-mechanical 

coupling. A two-dimensional finite element poroelastic simulator was written to support 

this analysis; verification to analytical solutions yielded an excellent match. Multiple lines 

of evidence, including in-situ hydraulic testing (Beauheim, 2014), geochemical analyses 

(Al et al., 2015; Clark et al., 2013), and numerical modelling (Sykes et al., 2011), support 

the conclusion that the Cobourg Formation and the shales of the Ordovician age sediments 

are of very low permeability and have sustained their very low permeabilities over 

geologic time. 

350 - Diffusion research in support of the Canadian nuclear waste 

management program 

Tom Al 1 , Mark Jensen 2 , & Ian Clark 1 

1 

Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

2 


The requirement to understand the diffusive properties of rocks is fundamental to site 

characterization for geologic repositories. Recent research in this area has resulted in the 

development of new magnetic-resonance imaging (MRI) and radiation-imaging (RI) 

methods for measurement of diffusion and reaction properties including pore- and effective- 

diffusion coefficients (D p 

and D e 

), tracer-accessible porosity (φ tr 

), cation-exchange 

capacity (CEC) and ion selectivity coefficients (e.g. logK Cs_Na 

). The RI techniques are rapid 

and versatile, involving either an X-ray or a gamma source ( 241 Am) source. The experiments 

are conducted principally with iodide as a conservative tracer and weakly sorbed 

cesium for reactive transport experiments. Site investigations for the DGR proposed by 

OPG for low- and intermediate-level waste at the Bruce nuclear site in Ontario provided 

opportunity to apply the new measurement methods, and to investigate effects of specific 

tracers, anisotropy, confining pressure and scale. One hundred and thirteen measurements 

were conducted across 700 m of Paleozoic stratigraphy by a combination of X-ray radiography 

and the conventional through-diffusion technique. With the exception of a few 


49

samples from the Upper Silurian, the D e 

values (iodide tracer) are 10 -12 m 2 /s or lower. The 

D e 

values obtained with tritiated water (HTO) tracer are on average 1.9 times greater 

(range 0.8 to 4.9) than measured with iodide due to anion exclusion. The sample-scale 

anisotropy ratios (D e 

parallel versus D e 

normal to bedding) are 0.9 to 4.9 for iodide and 

1.1 to 7.0 for HTO. Diffusion measurements were conducted with confining pressure up 

to 17.4 MPa. For measurements with HTO tracer, increasing confining pressure results 

in decreases in D e 

up to -34%, and with iodide tracer the decreases were as large as -44%. 

Comparison of numerical simulations to measured depth profiles for naturally occurring 

porewater tracers allowed for assessment of diffusion coefficients at the formation scale. 

Using best available estimates for boundary and initial conditions, simulated tracer profiles 

do not match the measured profiles unless the diffusion coefficients are decreased relative 

to the laboratory-measured values by a factor between five and ten for chloride, and between 

one and three for 18 O. Future efforts will focus on measurement of diffusion coefficients 

for dissolved gases (e.g. CH 4 

, CO 2 

and He) and refinement of the RI methods to 

improve tracer detection so that the method can be applied to rocks with very low porosity, 

and to expand the range of tracers for both conservative and reactive transport. 

273 - Coupled Groundwater Flow and Reactive Transport 

Simulations of the Evolution of Groundwater Chemistry for a Deep 

Geologic Repository in Shield Rocks 

Lee Hartley, Steve Joyce, & Hannah Woollard 

Amec Foster Wheeler, Harwell Oxford, Didcot, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom 

Niko Marsic, & Magnus Sidborn 

Kemakta Konsult AB, Stockholm, Sweden 

Björn Gylling & Ignasi Puigdomenech 

Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB, Stockholm, Sweden 

Lasse Koskinen 

Posiva Oy, Olkiluoto, Eurajoki, Finland 

SKB, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company, has submitted a license 

application for a spent nuclear fuel repository at Forsmark sited in crystalline rocks of the 

Fennoscandian shield. In support of this application various quantitative assessments were 

made to demonstrate the long-term safety of the proposed repository. One such assessment 

involved simulation of the long-term evolution of groundwater chemistry as a factor 

affecting performance of the disposal system, since this requires geochemical conditions 

are maintained within specified limits, specifically relating to salinity, pH and redox conditions. 

In the reference case the current temperate period lasts until 12,000 AD. A case of 

prolonged meteoric infiltration to 60,000 AD is also considered resulting from e.g. global 

warming. This is to fulfil a regulatory request to assess whether extended dilute water 

infiltration might lead to a rise in redox potential and also to an increase in erosion of the 

bentonite barrier due to formation of colloids. In order to simulate long-term transient 

groundwater flow and solute transport with water-solute-rock interactions in 3D regional 

equivalent porous medium models, new tools have been developed to closely couple 

geochemical, groundwater flow and transport calculations, and perform these efficiently 


using parallel computing techniques. In assessing this case, sensitivities are tested to the 

geochemical reaction schemes appropriate to the site. The results of this work predict the 

chemical environment at repository depth stabilises at around 20,000 AD and shows little 

change beyond that. The salinity of the groundwater is governed by the low permeability 

(ca. 10 -19 m 2 ) of the bedrock and rock matrix diffusion, resulting in relatively shallow and 

slow circulation of groundwater. The chemical reactions influence concentrations of reactive 

species, including pH and redox potential. In particular, the redox reactions thought 

to be relevant for the Forsmark site maintain reducing conditions at depth favourable to 

repository performance, even with infiltration at the ground surface of meteoric water with 

relatively high redox potential. 



Chair: Steven Berg 

Room: Strauss 

135 - Pressure Pulses as an Indication of Recharge to a Buried 

Esker-Aquifer Eastern Ontario 

Jacques Sauriol 

Stantec Consulting Ltd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Recharge pressure pulses from significant rainfall events were correlated to near-synchronous 

hydraulic head responses in both the overlying muds and the buried Vars-Winchester 

esker aquifer in Eastern Ontario. These correlations were analyzed to gain a better understanding 

of the recharge processes in this paired-system. Although causation was only 

suggested, a correlation was nonetheless established between rainfall events and aquifer 

head response suggesting that there is a hydraulic connection between the mud and the 

esker units. Strong cross-correlations with short lag times were calculated (0.9 at lag times 

of between 0 and 3 hours). Furthermore, response sequencing for the radar precipitation 

events generated at the study site showed that the pressure pulses arrived in the overlying 

muds slightly before the underlying buried esker, indicating a downward migration of the 

pressure pulses. Mud layering deformation in seismic surveys had previously been observed 

in the over-esker muds. These disturbed stratigraphic elements provide an avenue for migrating 

water to transit through the muds. This paper hypothesizes that recharge pressure 

pulses can rapidly reach the buried esker across the over-esker unit transiting through 

preferential flow paths in deformed mud sediments. This revised model of understanding 

challenges the natural safeguard allegations of marine muds and defies the widespread acceptance 

of the mode of recharge of buried aquifer limited at esker outcrop. These findings 

have implications for Source Water Protection Strategies. 


51

247 - Subsurface Water Flow from Wetlands to the Riparian Zone 

Induced by Evapotranspiration 

Masaki Hayashi 1 & Garth van der Kamp 2 

1 

Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

2 

Environment Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada 

Subsurface interaction between wetlands and the surrounding riparian zone has significant 

effects on water balance and dissolved mass balance of wetlands. This is particularly important 

for relatively small wetlands that are not dominated by inflow and outflow streams, 

such as prairie wetlands. Summer water loss from prairie wetlands is strongly dependent 

on the ratio of the shoreline length to the area of water surface, suggesting that significant 

portion of water loss from the wetlands is due to evapotranspiration in the marginal area, 

where the water table within or is close to the root zones of riparian plants. The present 

study will examine the factors that control the subsurface flow of water from wetlands to the 

riparian zone using a simple numerical model and compare the results to the distribution 

of soil types in and around wetlands. The subsurface water flow consists of two processes. 

The first is the mostly horizontal flow from the surface water body to the saturated zone 

underlying the riparian vegetation. The hydraulic conductivity of saturated sediments is 

dominated by fractures and other macropores and is orders of magnitude higher than that 

of unsaturated sediments. Therefore, much of horizontal flow takes place in the saturated 

region below the water table. The second is the mostly vertical flow from the water table 

to plant roots, which is strongly dependent on soil water retention characteristics. The 

effective width of the riparian zone is determined by the hydraulic properties of sediments 

that control the two processes. In the prairie region, which is covered by clay-rich glacial 

tills, the effective width is expected to be in the order of 10 m, which is consistent with field 

observation of vegetation zones (i.e. willow ring) and soil type distribution. These results 

are quite general and may be used to study, for example, the interaction between streams 

and the riparian vegetation in most dry climates. 

139 - Detecting Hyporheic Exchange Using Electrical Resistivity 

Tomography along a Fractured Sedimentary Bedrock River: 

Eramosa River, Guelph, Ontario 

Colby M. Steelman 1 , Celia S. Kennedy 2 , Donovan Capes 1 & Beth L. Parker 1,2 

1 

School of Engineering – University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

2 

School of Environmental Sciences – University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

The Eramosa River located within the Grand River Watershed in Ontario, Canada, resides 

upon a densely fractured dolostone aquifer with abundant dissolution-enhanced 

channel features. While the bedrock aquifer represents a major component of the total water 

supply for the surrounding region, potential effects of increased groundwater extraction 

on surface water and surrounding ecosystems are not yet fully understood. In general, 

little is known about the nature of the interaction between surface water and groundwater 

along densely fractured sedimentary bedrock riverbeds. For instance, the timing and magnitude 

of groundwater - surface water exchange in a fractured carbonate rock environment 


is expected to differ significantly from its alluvial channel analogs due to the presence 

of highly transmissive, planar and strongly orientated discrete fracture features that control 

flow. Non-invasive geophysical methods represent an opportunity to evaluate shallow 

groundwater dynamics with minimal environmental risk to biota and, ultimately enhance 

the interpretation of direct hydrogeologic data. A spatial electrical conductivity survey 

completed along a 200 m reach of the Eramosa River indicated a seasonally dynamic hyporheic 

response over a riffle-pool sequence. Subsequent time-lapse electrical resistivity 

measurements collected at a 2-3 week interval from July 2013 through June 2014 along 

two 50 m transects perpendicular to the river flow indicates a spatially dynamic response. 

The first transect was positioned over a section of intact bedrock with exposed vertical and 

horizontal fractures, while the second transect was positioned across a section of weathered 

bedrock with a thin layer of course sediment. These data provided snapshots of electrical 

resistivity distribution across the riverbed to a maximum depth of 6-8 m. Surface water, 

sub-riverbed (hyporheic zone), groundwater temperature and electrical conductivity were 

continuously monitored over the annual cycle. The apparent geoelectrical response will 

be examined in terms of hyporheic exchange as indicated by temperature and electrical 

conductivity variations. 

246 - A Method for Utilizing Data from Extreme Hydrological 

Events to Trigger Enhanced Monitoring and Sampling in 

Watersheds 

Andrew J. Wiebe 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences - University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Gabriele Perotti 

Department of Earth Sciences - Università degli studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy 

David Rudolph & Ramon Aravena 



Water quality changes due to hydrological events may be difficult to capture given the 

dynamic nature of groundwater-surface water interactions. It is challenging to schedule 

manual sampling in order to capture peak flow rates or the first flush of event water (which 

could potentially carry anomalously high or low contaminant concentrations) to a stream 

or an aquifer. There is a need for automatic sampling at specific times of interest, and for 

near real-time data transmission to inform watershed managers that collected samples 

need to be picked up for analysis. It is hypothesized here that a characteristic “slope” in a 

given data set (e.g., a change in water level per unit time) could be used to detect events 

in incoming data at remote field stations, and to trigger automatic water sampling and in 

situ geochemical measurements. An advanced datalogging platform governing a system of 

sensors can be programmed to recognize different patterns during the year (e.g., recharge 

from snowmelt vs. a summer rainstorm), and to assess whether concentrations of certain 

chemical constituents or their indicators are increasing along with water levels. This 

method may be useful when compound triggers based on historical data are desired for 


53

advanced, event-based sampling. Example data streams collected through the Southern 

Ontario Water Consortium’s Alder Creek Watershed facility will be used to demonstrate 

this approach and to illustrate the utility of adopting near real-time watershed monitoring 

for groundwater and surface water applications. 

255 - Estimating Depression-Focussed Recharge in The Prairies 

Using a One-Dimensional Model 

Saskia L Noorduijn, Masaki Hayashi & Laurence R. Bentley 


The contribution of small topographic depressions to groundwater recharge in the northern 

prairie landscape has proven challenging to estimate. However, the aggregate recharge 

contributions of these small topographic depressions to the underlying aquifers may be 

considerable. Thus, accurately quantifying depression-focused recharge will aid in the development 

of sustainable groundwater management practice. Previous research has primarily 

focused on determining the hydrological fluxes at the scale of individual depressions. 

There has been a recent move towards increasing the scale of interest to investigate 

depression hydrological processes at scales ranging from 10’s of km up to the size of the 

entire watershed. At these larger scales, applicable models are subject to a trade-off between 

accuracy of the recharge estimate and computational demand. The least computationally 

demanding approach would be the use of a one-dimensional (1D) model for each 

grid cell. However, invoking the 1D assumption will likely produce considerable error in 

the estimated recharge when multiple topographic depressions are represented in one grid 

cell. An alternative approach is to categorize topographic depressions based on their surface 

area and density within one grid cell. The 1D model can then be applied to estimate 

recharge from each of these categories. The total estimated recharge for that grid cell is 

obtained as the summation of estimated recharge contributions from each category within 

that grid cell. This approach implemented within a 1D model is hypothesized to produce 

more realistic recharge estimation whilst limiting computational demand. 

Regional Groundwater Systems 1 


Chair: Tom Gleeson 

Room: Wagner 

140 - Groundwater Residence Times in Chaudière-Appalaches, 

Québec: Closing the Loop between Flow and Regional 

Geochemistry 

Debora Janos 1 , John Molson 1 , & René Lefebvre 2 

1 

Département de géologie et génie géologique – Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, 

Canada 

2 

Centre Eau Terre Environnement – INRS, Québec City, Québec, Canada 


The regional basin-scale PACES projects in Québec, Canada, are comprehensive hydrogeological 

characterisation studies aiming to further the understanding of regional-scale 

groundwater flow dynamics and natural geochemical processes. As part of the PACES 

III project in the Chaudière-Appalaches region, south of Quebec City, the study herein 

presents insights into the extent to which regional groundwater quality is shaped by flow 

dynamics. In this context, several different numerical modelling approaches are applied 

including 2D and 3D regional flow modelling, geochemical evolution, density-dependent 

salt (brine) transport and groundwater age. 

The first of a three-step modelling approach consists of a vertical two-dimensional model 

along an assumed regional flow path. This 70-km section extends from the Appalachians 

highlands (Internal Humber Zone), to the south, to the St. Lawrence River, to the 

north. The model is calibrated using water levels from the extensive MDELCCC boring 

log database, and simulated residence times are compared with sampled 14 C water ages. 

Although some evidence for deeper regional flow exists, the area appears dominated by 

sub-regional flow systems on maximum scales of about 10-20 km, with significant flow 

through the shallow fractured sedimentary rock aquifer. This regional scale model is also 

used to help constrain the subsequent geochemical model, by providing indications regarding 

regional flow dynamics, including the maximum depth of active flow, the effects 

of water density and the extent to which deep basinal brines contribute to the regional 

flow. The second modelling step entails identifying dominant geochemical processes by 

performing mass balance analyses on characteristic water types found from recharge to 

discharge zones in the study area. Several important processes have been identified, including 

carbonate dissolution, Ca 2+ - Na + cation exchange and mixing with marine water 

and perhaps basinal brines. In the final step, PHREEQC is used to model the geochemical 

evolution of groundwater along a representative regional flow line identified in the first 

modeling step. Residence times derived from the flow model are also used to constrain the 

one-dimensional transport model. The use of residence times as the common parameter 

between flow dynamics and geochemical evolution helps verify the spacio-temporal coherence 

of the previously recognized geochemical processes by bounding them to a time-scale. 

189 - Uniform-density, ‘full-matrix’ hydrogeochemical mapping of 


Stewart Hamilton 

Ontario Geological Survey, Ontario, Canada 

Groundwater geochemical data are often collected and treated as ‘water quality data’ and 

compared against the benchmark of regulatory standards. This is not unreasonable since 

regional groundwater sampling programs are usually justified on a public health basis. 

However, this approach ignores the predictive value of appropriately collected aqueous 

geochemical data. Many groundwater processes, including those that affect public heath, 

can be revealed by studying the full geochemical matrix of water samples, irrespective of 

actual concentrations of individual parameters. Dissolved constituents never exist in isolation 

of each other, or of the host formation, and characterizing the geochemical matrix 

provides insights into factors such as solubility of hazardous constituents, flow history, 


55

natural or anthropogenic hazards and water quality risk prediction. A minimum suite of 

parameters including the 7 major ions, pH, redox and certain dissolved gases, in addition 

to any health-related parameters of interest, provides much more information than the 

sum of their individual contributions. 

A full-matrix groundwater geochemical sampling program has been completed in southern 

Ontario at an unmatched scale, density and degree of analytical completeness. 2300 

samples collected at 1850 stations at a uniform sample density across the 96,000 km 2 area 

allows the mapping of groundwater geochemical regimes in most of southern Ontario for 

the first time. Dozens of phenomena and processes have been identified at all scales, many 

of which were previously unknown. A few examples of the processes Identified include: (1) 

wide regions of biogenic shale gas, (2) a 1400 km 2 breathing well zone expelling hypoxic 

gases, (3) stagnant flow zones, (4) provincial-scale patterns in the distribution of tritium in 

groundwater, (5) regions where iodine in potable water exceeds seawater by many times, 

(6) decadal-scale trends in aquifer recovery and depletion, (7) the replacement of ancient 

water in aquifers with modern water due to pumping, (8) provincial-scale regions of natural 

fluoride hazard (9) areas of systemic bacterial occurrence in aquifers, and (10) widespread, 

discreet zones of karstic groundwater flow. Most of these discoveries could not have 

been anticipated when the program began 8 years ago, which demonstrates the efficacy of 

primary data collection and geological mapping in the support of groundwater studies. 

207 - A study of flow system dynamics utilizing a diverse set of 

isotopic and geochemical methods; Oak Ridges Moraine, Ontario 

Lori Labelle & Shaun Frape 

Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, 

Canada 

Rick Gerber 

Oak Ridges Moraine Hydrogeology Program, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

The Oak Ridges Moraine (ORM) is a 160-km long ridge a mixture of sand, silt and gravel 

deposits north of Lake Ontario, and extends west to east from the Niagara Escarpment to 

Peterborough and the Trent River. Understanding the complex flow system is complicated by 

the regional geology, which includes aquifers in the bedrock valleys, till aquifers, and eroded 

tunnel channels separated by aquitards. The Oak Ridges Moraine is recognized as a regionally 

significant groundwater recharge area and is an important source of domestic water for 

the Greater Toronto Region, along with providing base flow to hundreds of local streams. 

This regional study examines a diverse moraine complex, consisting of sediments ranging 

from earlier glaciations (~130k) to considerably younger materials from recent glacial 

events (~20k) (Barnett et al. 1998). This results in a very complex flow system within 

the Oak Ridges Moraine, consisting of multiple aquifer/aquitard units and end members 

causing multiple potential mixing scenarios. To assess this complicated hydrostratigraphy 

a diverse range of age dating and isotopic methods have been used in the study. Naturally 

occurring stable isotopes can be used to trace groundwater flow paths and provide direct 

evidence of the vulnerability of an aquifer; as well as provide insight into flow systems at 


various scales within the moraine complex. Historically studies use environmental age tracers 

to examine flow and mixing in aquifers (Solomon et al. 1995), though on the scale of 

the Oak Ridges Moraine there have been few studies that have attempted to integrate such 

a diverse set of environmental isotopic and geochemical tracers to constrain groundwater 

pathways and ages. 

Stable isotopic results from this study have defined three distinct groundwater types; 

post-glacially recharged waters with no tritium and depleted oxygen isotopic signatures, 

a minority of samples are recharged from waters having undergone evaporative processes 

and represent monitoring wells with a direct connection to surface waters and finally the 

majority of samples have measurable tritium (up to 183.5 TU), suggesting a large component 

of recently recharged meteoric water. As with Fritz et al 1987 these samples show 

isotopic change with geographical distribution across the study region. Mixing between 

these groundwater groups is prevalent as a result of usage. Rare gas data combined with 

stable isotopes and environmental tracers will help to understand the different flow systems 

within the ORM, mean residence time, temperature at the time of recharge and mixing. 

185 - Groundwater Resources and Use in York Region – Lessons 

Learned from Source Water Protection 

Donald Ford 

Toronto and Region Conservation, Downsview, Ontario, Canada 

Tom Bradley 

Regional Municipality of York, Newmarket, Ontario, Canada 

The Clean Water Act, 2006 was created to ensure the protection of drinking water in Ontario 

through the development of watershed-based source protection plans. These plans 

are the first step in a multi-barrier approach to ensure safe drinking water for the residents 

of Ontario. The plans are based on technical assessments of the many different sources 

of drinking water and the potential quality and quantity threats to those sources. Part of 

these assessments is a comprehensive analysis of groundwater and surface water resources 

available as compared to the ecological and human uses of those resources. 

Water budgets show each part of a watershed’s hydrologic system, and use data to describe 

how much water enters a watershed, how much water is stored within it, and how 

much water leaves it through both natural and human processes. This information helps 

determine how much water is available for human use while ensuring sufficient water 

for key natural heritage features and functions. Groundwater forms a critical part of any 

water budget. Recharge in headwater areas or even outside of the surface catchment of a 

watershed, may support critical ecological functions and human abstraction in the middle 

and lower reaches. 

The Regional Municipality of York (York) and the Toronto and Region Conservation 

Authority (TRCA) have been working together with respect to water budget modeling 

since 2005. These efforts began with the development of a conceptual water budget for 

the entire TRCA jurisdiction and culminated in an integrated surface water/groundwater 


57

numeric model that covered 80% of the TRCA jurisdiction plus a significant portion of 

York Region. The York Tier 3 project facilitated a review of all of the conceptual geologic 

models that have been developed in this geographic area, extending from Lake Simcoe 

to Lake Ontario. This paper documents how this integration of data and interpretation 

facilitated new ideas and stratigraphic interpretations and the lessons learned within the 

jurisdiction of the TRCA. 

179 - Challenges Implementing ASR in the Region of Waterloo 

Don Corbett, Tim Walton, Matt Bender & Joe Pereira 

Region of Waterloo, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 

The Region of Waterloo (Region) is located in southern Ontario, Canada and provides 

drinking water to both urban and rural municipalities with a combined population of approximately 

560,000 people. The Region is the largest municipal user of groundwater in 

Canada with an average daily production of over 145 million litres and approximately 75% 

of the supply provided by ground water. 

The Region operates an Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) system as part of its Integrated 

Urban Water Supply System. Like many fast growing communities in Canada, 

the Region has been assessing its sustainable long-term water supply options. The ASR 

program is an integral part of the Region’s long term water supply strategy. 

The concept underlying the ASR program is to store or “bank” treated surface water in 

the semi-confined sand and gravel aquifer formations below the Mannheim Water Treatment 

Plant (MWTP). During periods of low consumption, excess treated water from the 

MWTP is stored in the aquifer. Inversely, this water is recovered and enters the MWTP 

process when consumption is highest. With this in mind, a feasibility assessment and pilot 

study were completed in the 1990’s and justified moving forward with a full-scale Stage 1 

program in 2004. 

Currently, the capacity of the Region’s ASR system is approximately 20 million litres per 

day (6,000 acre-feet). Based on performance of Stage 1, the Region has developed plans 

for a Stage 2 program with another 20 million litres per day as part of the Region’s overall 

Long Term Water Supply Strategy. 

The hydrogeologic setting at the MWTP presents some unique challenges for ASR. The 

relatively thin saturated thickness of the Mannheim Aquifer, coupled with high aquifer 

transmissivities, means injected water flows to the surrounding aquifer relatively quickly 

making it difficult to store and completely recover the injected water within a limited 

timeframe. This is further compounded by pumping constraints imposed on the system by 

the regulatory Permit to Take Water. 

In terms of water quality, there are some unique challenges associated with the formation 

of disinfection by-products (DPBs) and maintaining acceptable water quality in the 

Mannheim Aquifer. The operational strategy for the ASR system has changed since inception 

and differs significantly from the original concept. Notwithstanding this change, 


the ASR System provides much-needed stability and flexibility during periods of peak 

water demand. 

This paper will expand on the lessons learned with the Stage 1 ASR program over the last 

decade and how the Region will move forward with its Stage 2 program. 






203 - Dissolution of Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid from Smear 

Zones Containing Trapped Air 

M.H. Shojib & K.G. Mumford 

Department of Civil Engineering – Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada 

Understanding the dissolution of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) at contaminated sites 

is important for designing effective remediation and monitoring schemes. Smear zones of 

lighter-than-water NAPL (LNAPL) are created by fluctuations of the water table, which 

can trap both residual LNAPL and gas (atmospheric air) below the water table. NAPL 

is expected to distribute differently in the presence of water and gas than in the presence 

of water only, resulting in lower NAPL saturations and higher interfacial areas per unit 

volume available for NAPL dissolution. In this study, a series of one-dimensional (1D) 

column experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of trapped gas on the dissolution 

of residual LNAPL. The columns contained either toluene and water or air, toluene, 

and water, emplaced by sequential drainage and imbibition representative of a water table 

oscillation. Each column was flushed continuously with water, and aqueous samples of the 

column effluent were collected and analyzed during dissolution of the emplaced sources. 

Results showed that toluene dissolution was faster in the NAPL-water-gas experiments 

than in the NAPL-water experiments, with higher effluent concentrations being observed 

during early-stage dissolution followed by long tailing concentrations. Effluent toluene 

concentrations in the NAPL-water-gas experiments were higher than in the NAPL-water 

experiments even during the dissolution of similar toluene NAPL saturations, suggesting 

that the interfacial area-to-volume ratios in the NAPL-water-gas sources were higher 

due to the presence of the trapped air. Analysis of the results using existing empirical 

correlation models developed using NAPL-water experiments showed that these models 

over-predicted early toluene concentrations, and under-predicted later concentrations, 

when applied to the NAPL-water-gas experiments. These models also under-predicted 

the time required for dissolution of the NAPL source. The results of this study show that 

the dissolution of NAPL in the presence of trapped gas is substantially different than 

dissolution that occurs in the absence of gas and that predictions of natural attenuation 


59

and remediation performance in smear zones containing trapped air that are made using 

existing two-phase correlation models could be misleading. 

156 - Nature, Nurture and Sustainable Remediation: Case Study 

From a Major Hydrocarbon Release in a Sensitive Urban Riverine 

Environment 

K.J. O’Shea, Tiana Robinson, Nathaniel Novosad, Karen Wright, Tereza Dan & 

Ulysses Klee 

Stantec Consulting Limited, Stoney Creek, Ontario, Canada 

Long-term, sustainable remedial solutions are often overlooked following a high-profile 

spill. Instead, there is a drive to fix the issue immediately, and remedial plans are often put 

into place without a sufficient understanding of subsurface conditions or consideration 

of other natural features. The rush to a solution can cause significant additional harm to 

the environment during implementation. This talk presents a case study of a hydrocarbon 

spill in a sensitive riverine environment, and describes how nurturing naturally occurring 

processes utilizing the physical characteristics of the site can result in an elegant and sustainable 

solution to a complex remedial problem. 

In 2010 a pipeline release of approximately 90,000 litres of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHC) 

occurred in a creek valley outside a major urban center in Ontario. The affected area was 

nearly 3.5 acres. The site is classified as an area of natural and scientific interest, is part of 

provincially significant wetland complex, is considered environmentally sensitive, and has a 

well-developed tree canopy. The site is home to wildlife such as by wild turkey, deer, beaver, 

and snapping turtles, and the creek is a popular recreational fishing area. 

From the time of the release, there was significant pressure from various interested parties to 

implement a full scale “dig and dump” strategy to manage the impacts at the site. If implemented, 

this would have resulted in complete removal of the vegetation at the site, as well as 

all overburden materials and shallow bedrock in the excavated area. The complete devastation 

of the biota, plus the slow recovery of the sensitive environment to current conditions would 

takes years. During the yearlong excavation program, significant construction traffic to local 

neighborhoods, and considerable costs, would be incurred. All stakeholders eventually recognized 

that while the dig and dump approach was viscerally satisfying, it was not practical or 

appropriate, given the relative health of the vegetation and wildlife in the affected area. Stantec 

completed additional site investigation and characterization activities, and developed a more 

sustainable remedial strategy for the site that was still protective of human health and the environment 

that also considered the social, economic, and environmental benefits of the approach. 

Stantec’s proposed solution to address remaining impacts at the site is currently being 

implemented, and was developed in consultation with the regulators and stakeholders. In 

the end, a multi-prong approach was selected that included risk assessment, phytoremediation, 

enhanced bioremediation and groundwater recovery. This solution will ultimately 

minimize the impacts to neighbourhood residents, recreational site users, and vegetative 

and wildlife communities. 


178 - Simulation of Persulfate Oxidation Coupled with Enhanced 

Bioremediation as an Emerging Remediation Strategy for 

Petroleum Impacted Sites 

Mahsa Shayan, Neil R. Thomson & James F. Barker 


John Molson 

Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, 

Canada 

Groundwater contamination by petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) compounds, including 

the high impact, toxic and persistent monoaromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene, 

ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) poses a serious risk to human health and the environment. 

Innovative and efficient remediation strategies are required to mitigate such risks in 

a smart, and cost and time effective manner. The coupling or sequential use of different 

remediation technologies, also referred to as a “treatment train”, is an emerging remediation 

strategy that combines the strengths of each individual remediation technology to 

improve the overall treatment efficiency and minimize clean-up cost and time. Coupling 

in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) and enhanced bioremediation (EBR) is an example of a 

plausible treatment train for the application at PHC-contaminated sites. 

Persulfate (S 2 

O 8 

2- 

) is a persistent but yet aggressive oxidant that has been successfully applied 

for the treatment of PHC-contaminated sites, and it also has a significant inherent 

advantage in the context of being an integral part in an ISCO/EBR treatment train. The 

reaction of persulfate with organic compounds leads to the production of sulfate, which 

along with the breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler and more bioavailable 

organic substrates, can lead to enhanced biodegradation activity of a group of 

microorganisms known as sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). Subsequently, the enhanced 

bioremediation under sulfate reducing conditions is expected to dominate the removal of 

the remaining contaminant mass following persulfate treatment. 

The effectiveness of a persulfate/EBR treatment train is dependent on the delivery and mixing 

of persulfate and sulfate in situ. Application of a modelling tool capable of simulating the intertwined 

physical, chemical and biological processes involved in a persulfate/EBR treatment train 

is useful to understand the influence of the key processes (e.g., flow and transport, reaction kinetics, 

design parameters) on treatment effectiveness. To date, there has been no reported effort 

made to simulate a persulfate-based ISCO treatment system or an ISCO/EBR treatment train. 

In this study, a modelling tool (BIONAPL/PS) was developed to simulate the coupled 

processes involved in a persulfate/EBR treatment train and to quantify the impact of various 

parameters on the performance of this treatment system. The key processes captured 

in this model include transient groundwater flow, multi-component advective-dispersive 

transport, persulfate decomposition, chemical oxidation of dissolved PHCs, and biodegradation 

under various redox conditions. The model also simulates the inhibitory impact 

of persulfate on subsequent sulfate reduction. The formulation of BIONAPL/PS was validated 

against an analytical solution, and observations from a series of laboratory column 


61

experiments designed to mimic a persulfate/EBR treatment train. Data from a pilot-scale 

experiment conducted at the University of Waterloo Groundwater Research Facility at 

the Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Borden were used in a model benchmarking effort. The 

modelling tool was also used to evaluate opportunities for performance optimization of the 

combined remedy system. 

This presentation focuses on the development and application of the BIONAPL/PS model, 

and a discussion of the simulation results. 

200 - A Comprehensive Environmental Assessment Tool for 

Estimating the Design and Performance of Permeable Reactive 

Barriers 

H.-T. Hwang 1, 2 , S.-W. Jeen 3 , E.A. Sudicky 1, 2 & W.A. Illman 2 

1 


2 



3 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences & The Earth and Environmental Science 

System Research Center, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju-si, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea 

The applicability of a multispecies chain-decay transport model (CMM; Sudicky et al., 

2013) is examined by estimating the kinetic rate constants and branching ratios along 

the abiotic degradation pathways for trichloroethene (TCE) reduction by zero-valent iron 

(ZVI). The model is calibrated using multispecies concentration data obtained from longterm 

laboratory column experiments performed under different geochemical conditions, 

with the estimated reaction parameters being estimated using a Levenberg-Marquardt 

inversion procedure. Compared to the column receiving deionized water containing TCE, 

the column receiving TCE in a CaCO 3 

solution showed higher mean degradation rates 

for TCE and all of its degradation products. From the calculated branching ratios, it was 

found that TCE and cis-dichloroethene (cis-DCE) were dominantly dechlorinated to 

chloroacetylene and acetylene, respectively, through reductive elimination in both columns. 

In order to assess the long-term performance ZVI PRB’s, Monte Carlo probabilistic 

simulations were performed using the mean reaction parameter values and their uncertainties 

estimated from the inverse algorithm. Using a large number of realizations, the average 

concentrations of the six chlorinated ethenes were shown to decrease dramatically within 

a relatively short distance within the iron wall barrier. The probability of the contaminant 

concentrations exceeding drinking-water limits at the effluent end of the PRB also decreased 

dramatically as the flow path length through the PRB was increased. 

305 - In Situ Remediation of Coal Tar by STAR: Self-Sustaining 

Propagation across Clean Sand Gaps 

Joshua K. Brown, Jason I. Gerhard, Jose L. Torero & Gavin Grant 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering – University of Western Ontario, 

London, Ontario, Canada 


Self-sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR) is an emerging remediation 

technique which utilizes a subsurface smouldering reaction to destroy non-aqueous phase 

liquids (NAPL) in situ. The reaction is self-sustaining in that, once started for a local ignition 

point (e.g., well), the destructive front will propagate outwards using only the energy 

embedded in the contaminant as long as there is sufficient contamination and delivery of 

air. Recent interest from industry has prompted research into lab-scale investigations of 

the efficacy of STAR for site specific conditions. Efforts to characterize the subsurface 

contamination at numerous former manufactured gas plants (MGPs) have shown that 

the coal tar can occur as both a continuous pool as well as in distinct seams separated by 

clean layers of varying thickness. STAR should be able to ‘jump’ across clean sand gaps and 

propagate a self-sustaining reaction in the contaminated region beyond if enough energy 

to reignite is transmitted across the gap. This experimental study evaluates the ability of 

STAR to cross clean sand gaps in coal tar contaminated porous media in both one- and 

two-dimensional systems. Sensitivity to various in situ and engineering control parameters 

are explored including: coal tar layer thickness, soil permeability, moisture content, NAPL 

saturation, and air injection flowrate. High resolution thermocouples reveal the progress 

of the reaction, continuous gas emissions analysis reveals when the reaction is active and 

dormant, and careful excavation map the extent of remediation and whether gaps were 

successfully jumped. This is coupled with thermal imaging videos which map the progress 

of the front across the gaps. The work has demonstrated that substantial gaps, much larger 

than previously anticipated, can indeed be jumped by the reaction (e.g., more than 35 cm, 

reaching the limit that can be measured in the laboratory). Also observed was the mobilization 

of pre-heated coal tar into some clean gaps and the reaction’s ability to propagate 

through and destroy coal tar beside and within the gaps. This work provides new insights 

into the robust nature of the technology for in situ applications, and explores the degree of 

heterogeneity required before the reaction is impeded and a new ignition location would 

be required. 

Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario 


Chair: David Sharpe 


231 - Regional buried bedrock valleys, infill sediments and 

stratigraphy in southern Ontario: a review 

Cunhai Gao 

Ontario Geological Survey, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada 

Large buried bedrock valleys and depressions in the Great Lakes region have been studied 

since the late 19th century. In southern Ontario, they include, notably, broad bedrock 

troughs and gorge-like bedrock valleys, e.g., the Laurentian bedrock trough, Erigan valley, 

Milverton and Wingham bedrock gorges, and the Dundas valley among many other 


63

e-entrant bedrock valleys on the Niagara Escarpment. Spencer’s pioneer work in the late 

19th century on buried bedrock valleys has had profound influence on the subsequent 

studies on these geologic features as to their origins and age. A commonly held view is that 

these bedrock valleys and depressions were carved by the Tertiary rivers and subject only to 

limited glacial modification in the Pleistocene. Many adopted this concept in subsurface 

mapping and their interpretation of such features in southern Ontario and elsewhere in 

the Great Lakes region. Consequently, the bedrock valleys and depressions are often interpreted 

as relic river channels with a dendritic planview and any deep bedrock depressions 

encountered locally in geotechnic and groundwater drilling are thought to be segments 

of such fluvial features. With the availability of large datasets of borehole records, advent 

of computer-aided contouring technology, and the advances in our understanding of the 

subglacial processes and hydrology, the regional buried bedrock valleys and depressions 

can be mapped and studied in a much detailed way. Recent bedrock topography mapping 

has shed new light onto these geologic features as to their orientation, planviews, spatial 

relationship, and internal geometry, e.g., longitudinal profiles. This work has also revealed 

for the first time, below Lake Erie, a glacially-scoured large bedrock valley named Long 

Point trench along the lake basin. The newly acquired information does not confirm the 

previously assumed relic river channels and drainage connections. Instead, it suggests that 

the bedrock valleys can best be explained in the context of glacial and subglacial meltwater 

erosion. To be specific, the deep bedrock gorges are likely of subglacial meltwater tunnel 

valley origin and those broad ones such as Laurentian and Ipperwash troughs are created 

through erosion by multiple glaciers over the Pleistocene. The glacial and subglacial meltwater 

processes have generated extensive clayey to gravelly deposits that fill the bedrock 

valleys and depressions with great thickness. Many of the gorge-like bedrock valleys likely 

developed during the Late Wisconsinan and they contain concentration of glaciofluvial 

sand and gravel deposits which are important regional aquifers. 

230 - The pre-Late Wisconsin stratigraphy of Simcoe County, 


Riley P.M. Mulligan & Andy F. Bajc 

Ontario Geological Survey, Sudbury Ontario, Canada 

Sediment drilling investigations by the Ontario Geological Survey in Simcoe County have 

identified thick sediment successions (>140 m) underlying Late Wisconsin glacial deposits. 

These sediments record environmental conditions that existed prior to and during the 

last build-up of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Pre-Late Wisconsin sediments are subdivided 

into 5 stratigraphic units (SU’s). A lowermost glacial package directly overlies Paleozoic 

bedrock. It is composed of two distinct tills, a lower sandy till (SU1) and an upper silt-rich 

till (SU3), rarely separated by fine-grained glaciolacustrine deposits (SU2). The upper surface 

of the silt till is extensively weathered and, in places, leached of carbonate. This weathering 

records base levels up to 30 m below modern Lake Huron and represents a regional 

unconformity in the subsurface. Overlying the weathering surface are alluvial sand, silt and 

gravel deposits (SU4) rich in organic material. Preliminary analysis of pollen and plant 

macrofossils suggests a cold, dry, sub-arctic climate. A possible interglacial assemblage 


was encountered in a single borehole. Multiple radiocarbon age determinations yield ages 

range between >52 801 and 37 850 14 C yr BP. Distal bioturbated glaciolacustrine silt and 

clay rhythmites passing upward into glacier-influenced rhythmites with interbedded sand 

packages (SU5) drape the underlying deposits. This unit is composed of up to 3, possibly 

correlatable, coarsening-upward successions up to 120 m thick. In places, there is abundant 

ice-rafted debris and sedimentary structures are intensely deformed by subaquatic 

slumping. Radiocarbon age determinations bracket SU5 between 37 850 and less than 28 

060 14 C yr BP. The stratigraphy is erosively overlain by Late Wisconsin Newmarket Till. 

The aforementioned succession is interpreted to record glacial advance during or prior 

to the Illinois Episode (SU 1-3) followed by lengthy non-glacial conditions (Sangamon- 

Early Wisconsin; SU4). The sharp transition from SU4 to SU5 records dramatic rises in 

regional base levels to accommodate deposition of SU5 prior to overriding by glacier ice 

during the Late Wisconsin. This succession is comparable to classic ‘type sections’ of Wisconsin 

deposits exposed along the Scarborough bluffs. 

Sands in SU5 represent significant local to sub-regional aquifers for domestic water supply. 

SU4 deposits host significant amounts of groundwater, but commonly contain high levels 

of methane and display poor overall water quality. Local coarse-grained units within the 

lower glacial complex (SU1-3) host water suitable for domestic supply. Thick regional 

aquitard units confine these water-bearing units except along the flanks of large surface 

valley features where these strata are exposed. 

288 - Geological and hydrogeological models of the ‘Yonge Street’ 

aquifer, south-central Ontario. 

R. Gerber & S. Holysh 

Oak Ridges Moraine Hydrogeology Program, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

H.A.J. Russell & D.R Sharpe 

Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

In the Aurora, Newmarket and Queensville areas of the Greater Toronto Area, south-central 

Ontario, municipal water supply is obtained from the ‘Yonge Street aquifer’ (YSA), an informal 

name long used to describe relatively deep sand and gravel deposits. These deposits were 

previously described as discontinuous, perhaps channelized and possibly associated with buried 

bedrock valleys, largely interpreted from data at a few municipal well fields. Despite much 

historical and recent geological and hydrogeological work, including numerical groundwater 

flow modelling, the fundamental geological and hydrogeological framework (i.e. conceptual 

model) for the YSA has not been clearly developed and documented. 

Based on high-quality geophysical and geological data (seismic profiles, continuously– 

cored, sedimentologically-logged boreholes, downhole geophysics, geological mapping 

and 3-D modeling) revised conceptual geological and hydrogeological models of the area 

are presented. The data reveal a sedimentary succession (e.g., ~140 m thickness at Aurora) 

that is truncated by a number of erosional unconformities characterized by deeply incised 

channels, locally extending to bedrock, with a ~NS to NE-SW orientation, both beneath 


65

and above the regional Newmarket Till stratigraphic marker. Channels may occur stratigraphically 

stacked and nested with Newmarket Till locally filling depressions. Core and 

seismic data permit identification of channelized Thorncliffe Fm. eroded into older sand 

and mud Scarborough Fm. equivalents. The Thorncliffe Fm. consists of fining upward 

transitions from coarse gravel, to sand, to rhythmically bedded mud interpreted to be deposited 

within a channel-esker-subaqueous fan complex. The YSA aquifer is one component 

of a system of similar deposits recognized across the region beneath drumlinized 

Newmarket Till. 

The accompanying hydrogeological model benefits from a strong conceptual understanding 

of vertical and lateral facies changes (and connection to older aquifers) in the Thorncliffe 

Fm. depositional model. The subaqueous fan gravel-sand-mud, fining-upward facies 

succession provides a capping aquitard to YSA, in addition to the overlying Newmarket 

Till aquitard. Lateral coarse to fine facies transitions are very rapid perpendicular to paleoflow 

and explain relatively low-yield wells drilled near YSA municipal wells. Facies transitions 

are much longer along paleoflow, as supported by pumping tests in a similar aquifer 

system north of Markham which have high-yield hydraulic connections of ~1-10 kms. 

The conceptual models documented in this paper are critical to guiding groundwater exploration 

and management. Paramount to improved knowledge is collection of high-quality 

subsurface data (including hydraulic data) that aids in developing a geological framework 

that represents the sedimentary system of the basin and its internal flow system. 

177 - Hydrostratigraphy of the Interlobate Orangeville Moraine, 

Southwestern Ontario, Canada 

A.K. Burt 


The Ontario Geological Survey is undertaking regional scale 3-D hydrostratigraphic mapping 

of glacial sediments in select areas of Southern Ontario to provide geoscience information for 

the identification, protection and sustainable use of the provincial groundwater resource. The 

Orangeville moraine 3-D project area, encompassing 1550 km 2 extending from north of the 

Waterloo moraine to the Niagara Escarpment, is centred on the Late Wisconsinan interlobate 

zone. A series of 43 continuously cored boreholes, ground gravity surveys and legacy datasets 

have been used to map the bedrock surface and overlying Quaternary sediments. 

The southwest-dipping Paleozoic bedrock surface is characterized by deep re-entrant buried-bedrock 

valleys that extend from the Niagara Escarpment and a series of shallower 

generally northward trending buried-bedrock valleys best delineated in the data-rich 

southern portion of the area. Bedrock and contact aquifers consisting of stratified sediments 

and highly weathered bedrock are primary targets for municipal and domestic wells 

within this region. 

Pre-Canning tills, Canning drift and localized coarse-textured stratified sediments, likely 

deposited during ice retreat, are concentrated in the western and central portions of the 

area and in protected locations such as buried-bedrock valleys. The uppermost stratified 


deposits form a locally significant aquifer in the west central part of the region and an 

associated organic-rich alluvial deposit was dated at >50 ka BP. 

The main Late Wisconsinan Nissouri Phase Catfish Creek Till forms a key aquitard across 

the region. The till is an important stratigraphic marker in the northwestern and central 

portions of the area, but is not easily distinguished from later deposits in the southeast. Erie 

Phase aquifers, including Orangeville moraine glaciofluvial and subaquatic fan sediments, 

and fine-textured glaciolacustrine and diamicton aquitards were deposited during and following 

the break-up of Catfish Creek ice. Port Bruce Phase Tavistock, upper Maryhill 

and Port Stanley and upper sandy tills, deposited during lobate ice advances from the 

northwest, southeast and northeast, respectively form the upper aquitards across much of 

the region. Although aquifers within coarse-textured Orangeville moraine sediments and 

surface outwash deposits are exploited locally, their key role is for groundwater recharge. 

In the far southeast of the region, Mackinaw Phase Wentworth Till and debris flows form 

the Paris moraine and define the maximum extent of the Erie–Ontario ice lobe during this 

ice advance. Closed depressions within the granular deposits of the Paris moraine facilitates 

recharge ensuring a healthy groundwater flow system at the head of three watersheds. 

308 - Origin and Sedimentological Context of Large Sand and 

Gravel Aquifers – Belleville, Trenton and Brighton Areas 

George Gorrell 

BGC Engineering Inc. 

Numerous large, underfit valleys, which are oriented northeast to southwest and east to west, 

traverse the area from Belleville to Brighton. Large to moderately sized glaciofluvial deposits 

are found within some of these valleys. Geological mapping and site investigations in the 

last 10 years have determined that the thickness and lateral extent of the gravel deposits are 

significantly larger than was previously believed. Drilling and other site investigations which 

include seismic studies have found that the deposits, in many cases, are on the order of 60 m 

or more thick, rather than the 10 to 20 m previously believed, and that the sand and gravel is 

frequently buried and/or extends laterally to the uplands adjacent to the valleys. The deposits 

have been found to either encompass the majority of the upland and are buried by a veneer 

of till or are buried in wide deep channels that dissect the upland. 

The deposits have significant value for both the groundwater and the aggregate resource. 

The underlying Lindsay and Verulam bedrock formations in the area are notoriously poor 

aquifers, both for their low to negligible yield and their natural water quality. By contrast the 

surficial aquifers can yield quantities capable of supporting whole communities. Furthermore, 

since the Oak Ridges Moraine was designated an ecologically important geological landform, 

development upon the moraine has been severely restricted. Commercial interests such 

as bottled water companies, and public interests such as communities seeking a communal 

water supply, compete with aggregate operators for access to the resource. This has resulted in 

increased concern over conflicting land-use issues, particularly in the Belleville, Trenton and 

Brighton areas which are some of the more intensive development areas. 


67

Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater 1 


Chair: Cathy Ryan 

Room: Strauss 

155 - Addressing groundwater nitrate contamination associated 

with intensive agricultural production systems: The Abbotsford- 

Sumas Aquifer case study 

Bernie J. Zebarth 

Potato Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Fredericton, New Brunswick, 

Canada 

M. Cathryn Ryan 

Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

Gwyn Graham 

Pacific & Yukon Region, Environment Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 

Tom A. Forge & Denise Neilsen 

Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Summerland, 


The Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer is arguably the most studied case in Canada of groundwater 

nitrate contamination associated with agricultural production. Underlying some of the 

most productive agricultural land in Canada, this highly vulnerable trans-boundary aquifer 

provides a unique case study on the opportunities and challenges of addressing water quality 

issues. A groundwater monitoring program initiated in the early 1990s has been important 

in tracking spatial and temporal variation in groundwater nitrate concentration. However, 

small land parcels with spatially and temporally variable land use and management practices, 

and sub-horizontal flow in this highly permeable sand and gravel aquifer, make it difficult 

to relate groundwater monitoring results to specific agricultural practices. Isotopic and nitrogen 

budget approaches pointed to the historical over-application of N relative to crop 

requirement (primarily as manure used to increase soil organic matter during replanting but 

also as a nutrient source during production). Despite changes in agricultural practices, and 

programs aimed at raising grower awareness, no appreciable change in average groundwater 

nitrate concentration has occurred over the monitoring period. On individual land parcels, 

nitrate contamination may be reduced through development and adoption of an integrated 

suite of BMPs to improve N fertilization, irrigation and alley vegetation management, and 

in particular to eliminate application of any organic soil amendment such as untreated manure 

in which the N has not been stabilized (e.g., by composting). However, the substantial 

N imbalance on a regional scale, and the lack of an effective on-going consultative process 

among stakeholders, remain major barriers to the development, demonstration and adoption 

of BMPs. The lack of an on-going consultative process among stakeholders, the lack of a 

concerted research and development effort conducted in collaboration with growers, and the 

lack of objective metrics of the efficacy and adoption of BMPs, remains a major barrier to the 

development, demonstration and adoption of BMPs. 


241 - Predicting the impact of surface sources on an aquifer: The 

role of dispersion 

Michael Frind 1 , Marcelo Sousa 1 , John Molson 2 , Emil Frind 1 & David Rudolph 1 

1 


2 

Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada 

Predicting the impact of contamination sources or BMPs (Beneficial Management 

Practices) on aquifer systems in agricultural areas frequently involves three-dimensional 

groundwater flow/transport modelling. Most transport models are based on the standard 

advection-dispersion equation, with controlling parameters being one longitudinal 

and two transverse dispersivities, horizontal and vertical. The longitudinal dispersivity is 

generally chosen in relation to the aquifer length scale on the assumptions that dispersion 

is related to travel distance and that flow is predominantly horizontal. This poses a 

problem if the system includes a vadose zone where flow is predominantly vertical and 

highly transient, and where aquifer-scale dispersivities would not be appropriate. Thus, 

a dilemma can arise in the choice of the appropriate longitudinal dispersivity under the 

standard dispersion formulation. A better way is to apply a new dispersion formulation 

that is based on two longitudinal dispersivities, horizontal and vertical, in addition to two 

transverse dispersivities, also horizontal and vertical. This approach was first proposed by 

Lichtner et al. (2002) but has not seen much use since first publication. We show that for 

multilayer systems, the alternative approach will give more realistic results compared to 

the conventional approach with a single aquifer-scale longitudinal dispersivity, which can 

under certain conditions lead to a significant underestimation of travel time. The practical 

significance of this phenomenon in an agricultural context lies in the predictive accuracy 

of BMP impact assessments for agricultural areas. It is therefore imperative in predictive 

modelling to use an appropriate dispersion model with reasonable dispersivity values. 

206 - Trends of nitrate concentrations in groundwater for variable 

geological settings in agricultural watersheds 

Nishant Mistry, Jana Levison & Beth Parker 


Ralph C. Martin 

Plant Agriculture – University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Ramon Aravena 

Earth and Environmental Sciences – University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Shoaib Saleem, Elisha Persaud & Scott Gardener 


Groundwater is the main source of drinking water for rural communities and many urban 

cities surrounded by agricultural fields in Ontario. Intensification of agriculture in recent 

years combined with climatic changes (including extreme weather events) pose threats to 

groundwater quality. Over application of fertilizers can result in leaching of excess nutrients 

below the root zone to aquifers. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of evolving 

cropping systems and their potential impacts on groundwater quality in various geological 


69

conditions is necessary to ensure rural water supplies are protected for agricultural and 

potable water uses. Groundwater quality was investigated bimonthly (every two months) 

starting in June 2014 in different hydrogeological settings (fractured sedimentary bedrock 

aquifers with thin overburden, sedimentary bedrock aquifers with thicker overburden, and 

sandy aquifers) under different agricultural land-uses. The field data were collected from 

over twenty groundwater monitoring locations in southern Ontario (Region of Halton, 

City of Guelph, and Norfolk County). The collected groundwater samples were analyzed 

for various field parameters (pH, conductivity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, redox potential) 

and nitrate, nitrite, chloride, alkalinity, sulfate, dissolved organic carbon, dissolved 

elements, total iodine, iodide and isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (N). 

Observed nitrate concentrations at the three sites range from 0.1 to 24 mg/L. Time series 

of nitrate concentrations are used to examine the nitrate response in various aquifer units 

over time. Isotopic fingerprinting of nitrate was used to determine source of nitrogen in 

groundwater (that is, manure/septic or synthetic fertilizer). Other geochemistry data was 

used to interpret the age of groundwater, and to understand various mechanisms affecting 

the various transport mechanisms of nitrate in groundwater. Of the three studied locations, 

the preliminary results indicate that overburden wells located in Guelph are most vulnerable 

to nitrate contamination. Certain wells in sandy plain aquifers in Norfolk County displayed 

heterogeneous geochemical characteristics, within the same aquifer unit. Local flow 

systems and land use patterns can influence the nitrate behaviour in groundwater. The data 

will be collected bimonthly until April 2016 to examine temporal term trends of nitrate in 

groundwater in the three diverse hydrogeological settings. The field data will feed into a 

numerical groundwater modelling effort that will be conducted to examine the impacts of 

variable land use and climate stressors on groundwater quality. The results of this research 

can be applied by relevant provincial ministries (MOECC, OMAFRA) and local water 

managers for improved source water protection in rural locations. 

112 - Implementing Source Water Protection – Developing a Tool 

to Support Site-Specific Risk Management Planning 

Hugh C. Simpson 

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Guelph, Ontario, Canada & School 

of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

& Water Policy and Governance Group, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

John Fitzgibbon 

School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph, Ontario, 

Canada & Ontario Farm Environmental Coalition, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Charles Lalonde 

CJ Agren Consulting Inc., Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

James P. Myslik 

JPM Consulting, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Source water protection is the first of a five-part multi-barrier approach for municipal 

drinking water supplies. Source Protection Planning is an approach to source water pro- 


tection that is being implemented in Ontario under the authority of the Clean Water Act, 

2006. Central to this approach is the management of water quality and quantity threats 

posed by land use activities adjacent to municipal drinking water sources. One policy option 

being advanced is the negotiation of site-specific Risk Management Plans (RMPS) 

between local Risk Management Officials (RMO) and individual landowners that will 

stipulate measures that must be implemented to mitigate identified threats. 

A critical problem associated with the negotiation of RMPs is what approach will be used 

when determining their format and content. One option is the traditional expert-driven 

approach, where the regulator determines risk management requirements and then informs 

the landowner how and when they will be implemented. Unfortunately, this approach 

is ill-suited for addressing complex environmental problems such as protecting and 

managing groundwater resources. 

An alternative are collaborative approaches to decision-making, where the regulator is part 

of a risk management process in which outcomes are discussed and requirements are negotiated. 

Collaborative approaches can provide a forum for integrating different types of expert 

science, local knowledge, and community beliefs and values. This can assist regulators 

who may have little or no knowledge of the science concerning a complex environmental 

problem, and the effectiveness and relative cost or operational considerations associated 

with risk management alternatives. As a result, collaborative approaches are well suited for 

helping RMOs to negotiate RMPs that will protect and manage groundwater resources. 

The agricultural community has had substantial involvement with collaborative approaches 

to protecting and managing groundwater resources that are critical for environmentally 

and economically sustainable farm operations. A key role has been educating regulators 

concerning the complexities of environmental management concerning activities that 

operate in an open environment and must respond to the changing conditions of that 

environment. This paper describes the development of a Farm Source Water Protection 

Plan (FSWPP) framework and workbook developed by the Ontario Farm Environmental 

Coalition. The FSWPP provides a tool to help farmers to identify on-farm risk management 

measures, and serve as the basis for negotiating RMPs. Conversely, the FSWPP can 

provide the RMO with an inventory of risk reduction measures that could be considered 

for the RMP and guidance concerning appropriate levels of risk management for a particular 

farm operation. 

188 - Long term assessment of BMPs impact on nitrate load at 

the Thornton Well Field using RZWQM 

Sara Esmaeili & Neil R. Thomson 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


David L. Rudolph 




71

Faced with increasing nitrate concentration in the Woodstock municipal supply wells (located 

in Ontario, Canada), mandatory agricultural best management practices (BMPs) were 

implemented in a farmland located within the capture zone in 2003 to reduce nitrate leaching. 

Early field investigations suggest that the impact of the BMPs on nitrate leaching was 

gradual and not consistent across the capture zone as a result of the different soil stratigraphy, 

and current and historical agricultural management practices. In this study, the long-term 

(i.e., over 10 years) reduction of nitrate load to the groundwater as a result of BMP implementation 

was simulated for different locations within the capture zone. These locations 

represent the most dominant cropping practices within the farmland, and each has distinctive 

geologic characteristics. To adapt the model to the field conditions, selected soil hydraulic, 

organic matter and crop growth parameters were calibrated using a heuristic optimization algorithm. 

The simulation results indicated that the long-term impact of the BMPs on nitrate 

leaching was different at various locations and ranged from a 54% reduction to a 9% increase 

over the 10-year period. Post-BMP annual nitrate leaching, in some years, was shown to 

be similar or even greater than the loading prior to the implementation of the BMPs. This 

finding was consistent with field observations and implies that BMP effectiveness needs to 

be averaged over a long period of time and single field measurements can be misleading. No 

relationship was found between soil nitrate content and nitrate leaching, suggesting that soil 

nitrate content should not be used as a BMP effectiveness index. The anticipated effects of 

two alternative BMP scenarios on nitrogen balance (yield, loss and storage) from a farmland 

under conventional agricultural practice will also be discussed. 




Room: Wagner 

176 - A Continental-Scale Groundwater Flow Model Calibrated to 

Groundwater Age 

Mark Ranjram 

Department of Civil Engineering – McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada 

Tom Gleeson 

Department of Civil Engineering – University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada 

Throughout its distinguished history, the science of hydrogeology has developed elegant 

models of site- and local-scale groundwater flow. Although the work of Tóth and others 

provide an elegant theoretical framework for regional-scale groundwater flow, more complex 

methods are needed to account for regional heterogeneities and limited observational 

data at regional scales. These problems are further exacerbated when considering groundwater 

flow at continental scales. In this study, we develop a groundwater flow and transport 

model beneath the continental United States and relate our current continental-scale 

permeability, porosity, dispersion, and recharge estimates to observed values of water table 


depth and, for the first time, tracer-based estimates of groundwater age. The results of this 

study provide higher quality input data for future continental-scale research, while also 

demonstrating the feasibility of groundwater age data as a model calibration parameter. 

229 - Investigating deep basalt groundwater supplies in the 

Interior Plateau region of British Columbia – District of 100 Mile 

House, B.C. 

Douglas Geller & Ryan Rhodes 

Western Water Associates Ltd. Vernon, British Columbia, Canada 

David Underwood 

TRUE Consulting Group, Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada 

Philip Strain 

District of 100 Mile House, 100 Mile House, British Columbia, Canada 

Located in the Interior Plateau region of British Columbia along the historic Cariboo 

Gold Rush trail, the District of 100 Mile House (pop. Approximately 2,500) presently obtains 

the majority of its water supply needs from Bridge Creek, augmented by groundwater 

from a single 175 metre deep well installed in 2004. In 2013, grant funding was awarded 

to complete comprehensive studies to guide long term water system planning. In light of 

evolving water treatment requirements and concerns over the security of the Bridge Creek 

source driven by land use and climate changes, increasing reliance on groundwater resources 

was identified as the preferred long-term water supply option. Before moving forward 

with this plan to make groundwater a primary water source for the community, detailed 

hydrogeological investigations were carried out. These included: completing a source water 

assessment, confirming aquifer and well capacity, assessing pathogen risks, assessing 

groundwater quality, Aquifer Storage and Recovery feasibility, and determining feasibility 

of securing additional groundwater supplies from the deep regional basalt aquifer system. 

The aquifer sourced by the District of 100 Mile House is somewhat unique in B.C.. Analogous 

to the prolific Columbia River Basalts of the Northwestern United States, the aquifer 

forms in layered lava flows and is highly productive and characterized by good water 

quality. The aquifer is also secure: deep, confined and thus isolated from the effects of land 

use at the surface, the groundwater resource is not at risk of containing pathogens or under 

influence from surface water. Although the aquifer is regional in extent, underlying thousands 

of square kilometres, evidence from the few wells that penetrate deeply into the basalt 

section suggest highly variable aquifer properties, the explanation for which is provided in 

the hydrogeological conceptual model developed for this project. The hydrogeological conceptual 

model borrows from the more extensively studied Columbia River Basalt Group of 

the northwestern United States. Technical topics addressed in the presentation include the 

relatively elevated total organic carbon present in the deep aquifer, the implications of high 

aquifer transmissivity and relatively low well specific capacity on well field designs, regional 

groundwater recharge mechanisms, and the potential for expanded use of the resource for 

municipal, industrial and agricultural supply including the potential application of Aquifer 

Storage and Recovery. 


73

This paper outlines the District’s plan for transition to increased reliance on groundwater, 

including the implementation of microbiological manganese removal, additional source development, 

and water treatment requirements in the context of the recently released Drinking 

Water Treatment Objectives for Groundwater Supplies in B.C. The deep basalt aquifer will also 

be discussed in the context of basalt hydrogeology fundamentals, as it is a little known but 

regionally extensive aquifer system that is not heavily developed in Interior of B.C. 

245 - Regional groundwater flow in the inter-till and buried-valley 

aquifers, southwestern Manitoba 

Hinton, M.J., Logan, C.E., Oldenborger, G.A. & Pugin, A.J.-M. 

Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Inter-till and buried-valley aquifers are among the main sources of groundwater in the 

Prairies. The Spiritwood buried-valley aquifer system extends from Manitoba and across 

North Dakota where it has been a significant source for groundwater supply for decades 

yet its resource potential in Manitoba has not been evaluated. The Geological Survey of 

Canada (GSC) has been studying the regional geology and hydrogeology of the Spiritwood 

buried-valley aquifer in southwestern Manitoba. Helicopter time domain electromagnetic 

(HTEM) and high resolution seismic reflection (HRSR) surveys permitted 

detailed mapping of inter-till and buried-valley aquifers within the study area. The main 

buried valley is a broad 10-15 km wide and 60-70 m deep valley cut into Cretaceous Pierre 

shale. A series of nested channels of different age, origin, dimensions and orientations 

are cut into bedrock and within the sand/silt till. Where these channels are filled with 

coarse sediment, they form aquifers: deep buried-valley aquifers (60-100 mbgs) incised 

into shale below the base of the broad buried valley, and inter-till aquifers within the till. 

A 3D numerical geological model of the regional bedrock surface and sediments was developed, 

using Leapfrog Hydro geological modelling software. A significant feature of 

the geological model is that the nested channels and fans that form inter-till aquifers together 

with the fractured bedrock surface may provide more permeable pathways to deep 

buried-valley aquifers. Another significant finding is the discovery that the buried-valley 

aquifer outcrops in incised surface valleys where sustained baseflow was measured during 

a period of extended drought. 

Regional groundwater flow generally follows topography but is perpendicular to the orientation 

of the main buried valley. However, flow also occurs along the deep buried valley 

which acts as a regional drain towards the incised surface valleys. Both hydraulic and 

HTEM results suggest that there are no transverse hydraulic boundaries within the deep 

buried-valley aquifer. A steady state finite element numerical groundwater model has been 

developed from the geological model to: i) assess the different flow pathways within the 

inter-till and deep buried-valley aquifers, and ii) constrain the estimates of groundwater 

flow. The numerical flow model replicates the regional flow patterns, discharge zones and 

the groundwater divide in the deep buried-valley aquifer. Results to date suggest that, 

despite the presence of preferred hydraulic pathways, natural replenishment of the deep 

buried-valley aquifer is small. © Her Majesty the Queen in right of Canada 2015. 


318 - Glacial retreat effects and transport in the Milk River 

Transboundary Aquifer 

Alfonso Rivera 1 , André Guy Tranquille Temgoua 1 & Marie-Amélie Pétré 1, 2 

1 

Geological Survey of Canada, Québec City, Québec, Canada 

2 

INRS-ETE, Québec City, Québec, Canada 

René Lefebvre 

INRS-ETE, Québec, Canada 

Many hypotheses have been formulated regarding the study of the Milk River Transboundary 

Aquifer (MRTA) straddling the international Canada-USA border (Province 

of Alberta – State of Montana). These include groundwater flow across aquifers and 

aquitards, groundwater ages, GW/SW interactions, recharge zones, transboundary fluxes, 

discharge mechanisms, erosional rebound, sub-hydrostatic pressures, vertical macroscopic 

dispersion across layers, and others. 

This presentation tries to clarify two of the adopted assumptions in what is a more complete 

and unified three-dimensional ongoing study of the MRTA (Pétré et al., 2015a, 

2015b). Based on one-dimensional solutions of the hydraulic diffusivity and dispersion 

equations, we analyze scenarios on the effect of pore pressure dissipation from the weight 

of glaciers and the potential dispersive flow between the aquifer (MRTA) layer and aquitards 

located above and below the aquifer. 

Scoping calculations to evaluate pressure release as a function of time, after the last glaciation 

in the Milk River region, are performed using the hydrostatic rebound formulation 

of Terzaghi in 1D. Conceptually, the presence of glaciers can induce fluid pressure changes 

in the rock matrix attributed to geomechanical factors due to glacial retreat. Furthermore, 

stress-induced pressure changes may cause modifications in Darcy fluxes during the loading 

and unloading of glaciers generating a long-term transient flow occurring in the low 

permeable layers above and below the MRTA. 

By observing the enrichment in δD, δ 18 O, and Cl - concentration down-gradient in the 

Milk River aquifer, some researchers have proposed that dispersion would be the controlling 

process because the spatial distribution of several chemical parameters is controlled 

by aquifer transmissivity. They call it megascopic (or macroscopic) dispersion. They argue 

that this is caused by large formational heterogeneities: The Milk River aquifer receives 

inflow of more saline, isotopically heavier water from the shale unit immediately below 

the aquifer (Colorado formation). In order for this 1D vertical transport to take place, 

two conditions must be met: a) a hydraulic vertical gradient between the MR aquifer and 

the aquitard must exist; and b) a concentration gradient between the aquitard and the 

MR aquifer must exist so that concentration is higher in the aquitards and lower in the 

aquifer. In this partial study, we consider a simple 1-D vertical case where C(z,t) is to be 

determined. We analyzed two cases: 1) vertical transport between the Milk River aquifer 

and the Colorado aquitard; and 2) vertical transport between the Milk River aquifer and 

the Pakowki aquitard. 


75

219 - Current results and outcomes of the regional groundwater 

knowledge acquisition program in Québec 

Alain Rouleau 1 , Thomas Buffin-Bélanger 2 , Stéphane Campeau 3 , Gwénaëlle 

Chaillou 2 , Romain Chesnaux 1 , Vincent Cloutier 4 , Marie Larocque 5 , René Lefebvre 6 , 

John Molson 7 & Éric Rosa 4 

1 

Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Saguenay, Québec, Canada 

2 

Université du Québec à Rimouski (UQAR), Rimouski, Québec, Canada 

3 

Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR), Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada 

4 

Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT), Amos, Québec, Canada 

5 

Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montréal, Québec, Canada 

6 

Institut national de la recherche scientifique, centre Eau, Terre et Environnement 

(INRS-ETE), Québec City, Québec, Canada 

7 


We present a summary of the current results and outcomes of the Groundwater Knowledge 

Acquisition Program (Programme d’acquisition des connaissances sur les eaux souterraines 

– PACES) in Quebec, initiated in 2008 by the Quebec Ministry of the Environment 

(Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements 

climatiques – MDDELCC), in order to provide a sound basis for groundwater protection 

and management over the entire municipal territory of the Province. PACES projects are 

carried out by universities in collaboration with regional authorities and stakeholders, such 

as Regional Conferences of Elected Officials (Conférences régionale des élus – CRÉ), Regional 

County Municipalities (Municipalités régionales de comté – MRC), and Regional 

Watershed Organizations (Organismes de bassin versant - OBV). PACES projects involve 

an exhaustive inventory of preexisting data and the acquisition of complementary field and 

laboratory data. Deliverable products include a large number of maps (1:100 000), reports 

and important databases. Thirteen regional PACES projects have been completed between 

2009 and 2015, with a total funding of 13 M$ from MDDELCC and over 3.5 M$ from a 

number of regional partners, including 9 CRÉs and 34 MRCs. These projects cover a total 

area of approximately 87 000 km 2 , with a population of over 3 M people. Numerous highly 

qualified persons have been trained as part of the PACES projects, conducting research, 

including laboratory and field activities, related to data acquisition and to specific regional 

groundwater problems. Thematic research projects were also carried out as part of a targeted 

research partnership program on groundwater from the Fonds de recherche du Québec 

(FRQ). After six years the PACES program has covered approximately 70% of the municipal 

territory of Quebec with sound data on groundwater and aquifer systems. Important 

outcomes include a significant increase in knowledge and data availability on groundwater, 

strengthening of inter-university research activities through the Réseau québecois sur les eaux 

souterraines (RQES), development of partnerships with many stakeholders on groundwater, 

and impetus for further research projects. A number of related challenges have surfaced 

during the PACES projects, particularly on the efficient transfer and the proper use of 

hydrogeological data in land use planning, for a better protection and sustainable management 

of groundwater. 


Flow and Transport in Fractured Rock 


Chair: Kent Novakowski 


300 - Hydrogeology and sequence stratigraphy correlations 

used to inform a regional scale groundwater flow model for 

sedimentary rock 

J.R. Meyer & B.L. Parker 

G360 Centre for Applied Groundwater Research, School of Engineering, University of 

Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

E. Arnaud 

School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

A.C. Runkel 

Minnesota Geological Survey, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA 

L. Weaver, S.G. Shikaze & D.G. Abbey 

Matrix Solutions Inc., Breslau, Ontario, Canada 

Hydrogeologic units (HGUs) represent our understanding of the 3-D distribution of hydraulic 

conductivity contrasts; and therefore, accurate delineation of these units is foundational 

to conceptual and numerical models of groundwater flow. In standard practice, 

existing lithostratigraphic units are often assumed to be HGUs and are used to guide the 

length and position of well screens used to collect hydraulic data. This study describes a 

unique approach to HGU delineation that relies on depth discrete and detailed (i.e., high 

resolution) profiles of vertical gradient to delineate HGUs for a numerical model needed to 

support decision making for a contaminated sedimentary rock site in southern Wisconsin. 

Seven hydraulic head profiles obtained from high resolution multilevel systems (average of 

3.4 monitoring zones per 10 m) monitoring to depths between 90 and 146 m were used to 

determine the three-dimensional distribution, magnitude, and direction of vertical gradients. 

When examined along 2 cross sections, each spanning 4 km, these vertical gradient 

profiles indicated 11 laterally extensive contrasts in the vertical component of hydraulic 

conductivity (K v 

); the boundaries of which did not coincide with lithostratigraphic units. 

Further investigations revealed that the K v 

contrasts were strongly associated with regionally 

extensive sequence stratigraphic units (maximum flooding intervals and unconformities) 

and this relationship was used to delineate 3-D HGUs for the site scale (16 km 2 ). 

Development of the 3-D numerical groundwater flow model required expanding the study 

area to 300 km 2 in order to incorporate physically based boundary conditions. There were 

over 400 additional boreholes in the model domain, but the data sets for most only included 

lithostratigraphic picks. Therefore, the association between the high resolution vertical 

gradients and sequence stratigraphic units developed on site were used to create guidelines 

regarding the position of the HGUs relative to lithostratigraphic units and HGUs 

were picked for the additional boreholes. All HGU picks were then examined along > 30 


77

cross-sections to look for consistency with regional sequence stratigraphy and other bedrock 

mapping studies. Continuous surfaces were then generated from the HGU picks and 

used as the framework for the numerical model. This study provides an example of how 

high resolution site scale characterization provides the data necessary to calibrate hydraulics 

to geologic features resulting in a robust HGU framework and confidence in extending 

that framework to the full flow system scale. 

292 - Parameter Estimation in a Regional Groundwater Flow 

Model to Represent Site-Specific High Resolution Head Profiles 

Steven G. Shikaze, Beiyan Zhang & Daron G. Abbey 


Jessi R. Meyer & Beth L. Parker 


Guelph, , Ontario, Canada 

In the 1950s and 60s, over 70,000 L of dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) was 

released into the subsurface at a site in Wisconsin. In the 1980s, contamination (chlorinated 

solvents, BTEX, ketones) was discovered in the bedrock. Groundwater flow through 

the source zone has resulted in a dissolved-phase plume that has migrated approximately 

3 km downgradient. Remediation activities in the 1990s and 2000s included air sparging, 

DNAPL pumping, and hydraulic barrier wells. Over the past 11 years, researchers from 

the University of Guelph (UG) have been studying the site. This has included extensive 

field operations to understand of the groundwater flow system at the site. UG has collected 

high-resolution vertical hydraulic head data at various locations across the site, and this 

information has been used to inform an evolving site conceptual model. 

Groundwater modelling studies began in 2010 to aid in the understanding of the groundwater 

flow regime. A regional scale, three-dimensional groundwater flow model was constructed 

in FEFLOW. This model covers an area of approximately 300 km 2 and includes 

nearby communities that rely on groundwater water. The model is refined in the area of 

interest, which encompasses the plume area (approximately 16 km 2 ). Using the detailed 

on-site data as well as the sparser off-site data, the FEFLOW model was constructed 

from a site conceptual model that includes 21 model layers (6 overburden and 15 bedrock). 

Initial estimates for the hydraulic properties of these layers were based on UG’s hydraulic 

testing and detailed examination of borehole logs. 

Parameter estimation (PEST) software (Doherty, 2010) has been used in conjunction with 

the steady-state groundwater flow model in FEFLOW. PEST was used to adjust the 

input parameters (i.e., hydraulic conductivity (K), anisotropy (K h 

/K v 

), recharge) to obtain a 

good match with observed hydraulic heads. Emphasis has been placed on matching UG’s 

high-resolution vertical head data on site. Preliminary results suggest that the initial estimates 

for the range in K for most model layers need to be wider than the initial estimates. 

By expanding the K range in PEST, a better match with the vertical head measurements 

was attained. The results from this numerical analysis can be used to inform the site conceptual 

model. 


286 - Advances in the Application of Thermal Logging Techniques 

for Hydro-physical Characterization of Flow through Fractured 

Rock 

Peter Pehme, Beth Parker, John Cherry & Jessica Meyer 

G360 Centre for Applied Groundwater Research, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Detlef Blohm 

Instruments for Geophysics, Brampton, Ontario, Canada 

The nuances of changes in the thermal field within the subsurface (i.e. magnitude and orientation 

of thermal gradients, irregularities in temperature patterns etc.) are primarily controlled 

by groundwater flow. The use of thermal hydro-physical techniques for identifying 

groundwater flow in fractured rock is experiencing revitalization as a consequence of both 

advances in sensors and synergistic developments of other technologies. Flexible impermeable 

liners can be used to restore the ambient groundwater flow conditions that would 

have existed without the borehole being present eliminating the distortion of temperature 

logs caused by cross-connected flow between fractures and hydrologic units in open boreholes. 

The active line source (ALS) technique, wherein the entire length of the static water 

column in the lined-hole is heated and high resolution, temperature profiles are repeatedly 

measured to observe the dissipation of thermal energy, overcomes the depth limitations 

created by homothermic conditions while standardizing the basis for comparison of flow 

zones thereby improving characterization of both major and subtle flow zones critical to 

understanding contaminant migration and attenuation. More recently four sensors with 

resolution approaching 0.001C have been incorporated in the magnetically orientated 

thermal vector probe (TVP) to measure the vector components (magnitude and direction) 

of the temperature field. 

Examples of combining these techniques in sandstone and dolostone environments are 

presented. The interpretations identify numerous hydraulically active fractures under both 

ambient flow conditions and in response to pumping without a depth related bias. The 

broad scale changes in the thermal regime are shown to provide an improved basis for 

assessing the relative magnitude and direction of groundwater flow and variations akin 

to subdivision into hydrogeologic units (HGUs) based on other data sets such as detailed 

head profiles from multi-level systems. 

210 - Palaeo-hydrogeological evolution of a fractured-rock aquifer 

following the Champlain Sea Transgression in the St. Lawrence 

Valley (Québec) 

Marc Laurencelle 1 , René Lefebvre 1 , Michel Parent 2 , John Molson 3 & Christine 

Rivard 2 

1 

Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec City, 

Québec, Canada 

2 

Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), Québec City, Québec, Canada 

3 

Université Laval, Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Québec City, 

Québec, Canada 


79

Surface conditions have changed thoroughly over North America during the last glacial-deglacial 

cycle and postglacial time (80-5 ka BP). Our study area, Montérégie Est (~9 000 km 2 ), 

was covered by the Laurentide Ice Sheet during ~20 ka, until the isostatically depressed St. 

Lawrence Valley became ice-free, by about 13 ka BP. These lowlands were briefly occupied by 

Glacial Lake Candona, a large freshwater body that preceded the incursion of marine waters 

from the Atlantic Ocean. During the early part of this incursion, known as the Champlain 

Sea, the deep water body was strongly stratified, with light meltwater-rich surface waters 

overlying dense polyhaline seawater. However, the salinity of Champlain Sea water decreased 

rapidly, due to the combined effects of sustained meltwater production and isostatic rebound, 

which progressively prevented Atlantic seawater from entering the valley upstream of Quebec 

City. As the seawater influx had decreased to a minimum, a lacustrine successor basin, 

known as Lake Lampsilis, persisted in the central valley. Subsequently, the drainage system 

in the lowlands evolved towards its present-day configuration through continued isostatic 

adjustment. Along with those spatio-temporal variations in water level and salinity, silts and 

clays had deposited during the glaciolacustrine and glaciomarine episodes. These sediments 

formed thick low permeability units that retarded the transfer of salt between the marine water 

body and the underlying rock aquifer, but also impeded the later flushing of brackish water 

from the aquifer, which still contains salty groundwater of marine origin over 2 200 km 2 . 

The main objective of this research is to develop a quantitative reconstitution scenario for 

the evolution of groundwater salinity within the Montérégie Est regional aquifer system 

following deglaciation. To do so, the palaeo-hydrogeological problem was conceptualized 

using time-dependent boundary conditions and material properties, while the regional 

fractured-rock aquifer system was idealized as a double-porosity equivalent porous medium 

with permeability decreasing with depth. A fully coupled 2D density-dependent flow 

and mass transport numerical model was set up to simulate the post-marine migration of 

salt along a vertical cross-section within the study area. Modeling first assessed the relative 

influence of processes and model parameters. Notably, the impacts of transient storage of 

salt and fluid in dead-end fractures, on both solute and age mass transport, were investigated. 

Overall, results show that salinization of the aquifer below the Champlain Sea was a 

density-driven process, with subsequent desalinization being more efficient where silts and 

clays had not formed thick confining units. 

213 - Nano-scale Colloid Particles Transport in Variable-aperture 

Sandstone Rock Fracture 

Ertiana Rrokaj, Pulin K. Mondal & Brent E. Sleep 

Department of Civil Engineering – University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

In Canada, many communities and over thirty percent of the population rely exclusively on 

groundwater for meeting their water demand. These groundwater resources are prone to contamination 

by leaking septic tanks, gasoline storage tanks, and municipal landfills. Fractured 

rock aquifers are particularly vulnerable to contamination due to the high conductivity pathways 

associated with rock fractures. Previous studies have investigated the transport of contaminants 

through volcanic rock aquifers, porous shale saprolite, and clay-rich till bedrock, but very 

few studies have investigated colloid particles transport through sandstone fractures. 


An experimental investigation is currently being carried out to identity the effect of the physical 

and chemical characteristics of a sandstone fracture, such as aperture distribution and 

mineral composition, on the transport of virus-sized colloid particles. Transport tests are 

being conducted in an artificially fractured sandstone block with negatively charged carboxylate-modified 

latex particles of three sizes (20 nm, 100 nm, 500 nm diameter), positively 

charged amine-modified particles (50 nm diameter), and a conservative solute (bromide). 

The tests are also being performed at two specific discharges (0.35 mm.s-1, and 0.95 mm.s- 

1), with solutions of two different total ionic strengths (5 mM, 15 mM), and ionic compositions 

(sodium and calcium cations). In addition to the laboratory component, this study 

will include the application of a one-dimensional advection-dispersion transport model that 

incorporates colloid filtration processes to analyze the experimental results. 

The outcome of this study will be the identification of the physical and chemical parameters, 

characteristic of sandstone fractures that affect the transport of solute and virus-sized colloid 

particles in fractured sandstone. In particular, the study will quantify the effects of matrix diffusion, 

and determine the importance of the electrostatic interactions between colloid particles 

and the rock surface by performing colloid transport tests under favourable and unfavourable 

attachment conditions. 



Co-chairs: Ed Cey, Mike Callaghan 


307 - Implications of thick vadose zone infiltration and a falling 

water table for recharge estimations beneath an irrigated field 

Randy L. Stotler & Britney S. Katz 

Department of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA 

Donald O. Whittemore, James J. Butler, Jr., Greg A. Ludvigson & Jon J. Smith 

Kansas Geological Survey, Lawrence, Kansas, USA 

Daniel R. Hirmas 

Department of Geography, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA 

The Ogallala-High Plains aquifer (HPA) is one of the largest aquifers in the world and is 

critical for agricultural production. Irrigation has large-scale impacts on the water resources 

throughout the HPA, causing steep declines in groundwater levels that are expected 

to continue due to extensive groundwater mining. Water-level monitoring and analysis 

revealed unexpected increases in water levels for some years in the northwestern Kansas 

HPA. This indicated a previously unknown source of recharge to the aquifer, in an area 

where water level declines from pre-development exceed 30 m. 


81

The goal of this research was to obtain a better understanding of the sources and rates of 

recharge by investigating the storage and transit time of chemicals through the 65 m thick 

unsaturated zone. Water fluxes and chemical transit times were estimated using a chloride 

mass balance approach. These data provide evidence that flow through the unsaturated 

zone to the aquifer is influenced by many factors including lithology, climate, land conversion, 

and irrigation. Climate, and the conversion from grassland to cropland and then 

to irrigated agriculture changed vadose zone chemical movement. A thick layer of loess 

near the surface significantly restricted downward chemical and fluid movement, impeding 

irrigation return flow. 

The major geochemical signature of fluid in the portion of the vadose zone below the predevelopment 

water level (between 35 and 65 m below ground surface) was virtually identical 

to groundwater sampled from nearby wells. This indicates incomplete drainage after 

substantial groundwater declines since widespread irrigation began in this region in the 

1960s. This was not entirely unexpected given estimates for fluid flux through the upper 

35 m of the unsaturated zone were on the order of 500 years. Water-level data indicated a 

source of recharge to the aquifer; however, it clearly was not through irrigation return flow. 

Although assumptions for common chemical-based techniques for recharge estimation, 

such as chloride mass balance, are invalid in the partially dewatered zone, there is an opportunity 

to learn more about recharge to the aquifer by further investigating fluid in this 

zone. This is because the system has clearly not reached steady state, and groundwater age 

estimates collected from below the water table today are originally from deeper flow paths. 

Finally, other sources of recharge, such as through depressions, ephemeral stream beds, and 

playas need to be studied further. 

258 - Applicability of the chloride mass balance method for an 

evaluation of the depression-focussed recharge in the Canadian 

prairies 

Igor Pavlovskii & Masaki Hayashi 

Department of Geoscience – University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

The chloride mass balance is a well-established tool for an estimation of the local groundwater 

recharge rates in the arid and semi-arid settings. However, some hydrological processes associated 

with depression-focussed recharge introduce significant bias into recharge estimates 

obtained through the application of this method. Such processes as surface runoff and blowing 

snow redistribution alter water and chloride inputs in different topographical positions. The 

internally drained depressions are on a receiving end of the lateral water fluxes. In contrast, 

uplands are losing water through these processes. As a result, the local groundwater recharge 

rate starts to deviate from the apparent recharge rate - one calculated using precipitation and 

atmospheric deposition rates as an input function in the chloride mass balance method. 

Using simple mass balance model, we will show the magnitude of the under- and overestimation 

of the local recharge rates within depressions and on the uplands in the idealised 

prairie setting. Additionally, the sensitivity of the apparent and real recharge rate to a variation 

in the intensity of the lateral water fluxes is investigated. 


The chloride mass balance method is then applied to data collected at three sites in southern 

Alberta. All three sites are situated in the north-western fringe of the prairie belt 

with two sites falling within the boundaries of the parkland ecoregion and third site being 

situated in the grassland ecoregion The instruments deployed on the sites permitted to 

quantify intensity of the lateral water fluxes. The chloride concentration data were obtained 

from the till samples obtained during groundwater well installation in 2014. As 

a result, chloride concentrations in the till coupled with information on the lateral water 

fluxes allowed us to estimate recharge rate and to compare it with an apparent recharge rate 

to demonstrate the magnitude of the bias in a real setting. 

283 - Simulated mechanical compression of regenerated 

Sphagnum moss potentially accelerates the return of hydrological 

functionality in restored bogs 

Colin McCarter & Jonathan Price 


Returning the ecohydrological function to harvested bog peatlands is critical to restoration; 

however, after 10 years the current restoration approach does not achieve this milestone, due 

to the capillary barrier formed between the regenerated Sphagnum moss and relatively dense 

remnant cutover peat. A greater proportion of large pores was observed in the regenerated 

Sphagnum that limited capillary draw from the remnant peat. Increasing the density of small 

pores in the regenerated Sphagnum would increase its capillarity and allow greater connection 

to the water table, which is situated within the remnant cutover peat. This paper aims to assess 

the theoretical implications of compression through modelling increases in volumetric soil 

moisture content (θ) and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K unsat 

), representing an increase 

in the abundance of smaller pores. Hydrus-1D, utilizing the van Geuchten-Mualem or Durner 

dual porosity equation, was used to simulate the current vadose hydrology of regenerated 

Sphagnum, along with an undisturbed analogue as reference simulations. Both K unsat 

and θ 

were increased by 50 % of the difference between the restored and undisturbed Sphagnum 

(~1 order of magnitude in K unsat 

and 2 – 5 % in θ) and the Sphagnum height decreased by 

50 % to 10 cm to simulate compression. Unlike the undisturbed analogue, the regenerated 

Sphagnum had highly non-linear soil water pressure distribution, resulting in limited upward 

transfer of water to the surface and meeting the evaporative demand ~28 % of the time (~60 % 

for undisturbed). Compression achieved linear soil water pressure distributions, similar to undisturbed, 

and a large increase in its ability to meet the evaporative demand (57 %). A 2 order 

of magnitude increase in average Sphagnum K unsat 

(6.2·10 -5 to 1.8·10 -3 cm hr -1 ) was observed 

between the regenerated and compressed models, but was still lower than the Sphagnum 

K unsat 

of the undisturbed (1.5·10 -1 cm hr -1 ). Furthermore, the simulated compression allowed 

the water table (minimum -0.82 m bgs) to be influenced by the Sphagnum moss, unlike the 

regenerated Sphagnum that had no influence on water table position. These results indicate 

that it is possible to have direct connection from the water table to the surface by decreasing 

the average pore size and increasing θ and K unsat 

, even when the water table resides within the 

remnant cutover peat. Mechanical compression of living Sphagnum moss may be a practical 

remedial restoration measure to improve hydrological function. 


83

277 - Assessing soil water content & temperature under 

conventional tillage & no-tillage for drought adaptation 

G.Y. Suarez 1 , P. von Bertoldi 2 , D. Rudolph 1 & G. Parkin 2 

1 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


2 

School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Pre-growing season weather forecasts are relatively unreliable and farmers must seek an 

alternative measure to inform their land management options in order to reduce the potential 

impact of drought on crop yield. A potential approach to minimizing drought impacts 

is to use measured or modelled soil water storage and temperature in late spring as 

a predictor of future dry soil conditions. This information can then be used to modify the 

planting date to reduce the impacts of a subsequent dry growing season and to ensure 

optimal temperature conditions for crop growth. Both parameters may be influenced by 

the tillage methods adopted on the fields. High resolution (hourly) soil water content and 

temperature data collected at a research farm for 11 years within the 0–100 cm depth profiles 

under no-till (NT) and conventional fall tillage (CT) practices were used to test the 

hypothesis that no-tillage reduces the impact of drought on crop yield by conserving soil 

water storage while maintaining optimum soil temperature during the growing season in 

comparison to conventional tillage. The field data sets were used in a time series analysis 

with a forecasting model to understand field data behaviour and predict the ideal planting 

date to avoid potential impacts of drought on crop yield. The results indicate that adopting 

a no-till management system may be one strategy of reducing the impact of drought by 

conserving more soil moisture and temperature than tilled soil. Also the soil temperature 

autoregression forecasting model using precipitation and air temperature as correlated data 

shows high certainty and accuracy for predicting soil temperature. The forecast model can 

be useful for predicting optimum planting date. 

205 - Modelling nitrate concentrations in the shallow subsurface 

for variable hydrogeological settings in agricultural watersheds 

Shoaib Saleem, Jana Levison, Beth Parker, Nishant Mistry & Scott Gardner 


Ralph Martin 

Plant Agriculture – University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Groundwater is the principle source of water for about 30% of population in Ontario 

and most families living in rural areas entirely depend on it for their water supply. Advancements 

in agricultural technologies have increased farm productivity and profitability. 

However, associated intensive nitrogen application in agricultural fields has also resulted in 

leaching of excess nitrogen to aquifers in a variety of settings. Elevated nitrate in drinking 

water is a concern since it can lead to various health issues such as methemoglobinemia 

(blue-baby syndrome). The maximum allowable limit for nitrate in Canadian drinking 

water is 10 mg L -1 nitrate-N. Therefore, it is very important to have a comprehensive 

understanding of evolving cropping systems and their potential impact on groundwater 


quality in various hydrogeological conditions in order to protect water at the source. As 

part of a broader nitrate study considering climate change impacts and sensitive aquifers, 

the objective of this specific research is to quantify the movement of nitrate through the 

root zone to the groundwater under different crop types using process-based modelling 

software. Research sites are selected in Ontario overlying different geological settings that 

are potentially sensitive to contamination from land-applied substances (fractured sedimentary 

bedrock aquifers and sandy aquifers). Nine different sites in Halton Region, 

Arkell Research Station (Guelph), and Norfolk County were selected to install twenty 

seven suction lysimeters at a depth of 40 cm below soil surface. The selection criteria for 

installation of the lysimeters are based on different crop types and proximity to groundwater 

wells in the vicinity of the fields. The shallow subsurface samples will be collected 

monthly from April to August 2015 and analyzed for nitrate nitrogen and ammonium 

nitrogen. DRAINMOD-N, a process-based model that simulates both hydrology (1-D 

flow) and nitrogen losses in the shallow subsurface on daily, monthly, yearly bases, is used 

to quantify nutrient transport below the root zone from different crop types and variable 

weather scenarios. Functional relationships are used in DRAINMOD-N to quantify fertilizer 

dissolution, plant uptake, denitrification, net mineralization, runoff and drainage 

losses to groundwater. The results of this surface-to-root zone transport study will be used 

as the input for groundwater models that will simulate nitrogen transport under a variety 

of crop and climate conditions. The research results can be applied specifically to nutrient 

management and farm source water protection initiatives. 


Thursday October 29, 10:10 – 11:50 

Chair: Saskia Noorrduijn 

Room: Strauss 

223 - Integrated groundwater/surface water modelling to assess 

urban development and detailed stormwater design – Babcock 

Ranch Community Development, Lee County, Florida 

E.J. Wexler 1 , G.F. Rawl 2 , P.J. Thompson 1 , & J.D.C. Kassenaar 1 

1 


2 

Greg F. Rawl, P.G., Fort Myers, Florida, USA 

Integrated groundwater/surface water models are typically thought of as research tools, 

yet they can be applied in a practical manner to study impacts of land development and to 

assess the effectiveness of engineered mitigation measures. An integrated model was applied 

to predict change to shallow groundwater and surface water at the proposed Babcock 

Ranch Community (BRC) development in Lee County, FL. The BRC will have 19,500 

homes in concentrated “development pods”, with the remaining acreage left as wetland 

preserves and natural areas. 


85

An integrated model was determined to be most appropriate tool for simulating groundwater 

and hydrologic response. There is considerable groundwater/surface water interaction 

across the site due to the shallow water-table and numerous streams and wetlands. 

The system is highly transient due to large rainfall events in the wet season. The area has 

been subject to severe drought and extreme wet years during the last decade. 

The integrated model was built using the USGS GSFLOW code. The hydrologic model 

(PRMS) was fully distributed with the soil water balance solved on the same 300 x 300 

foot grid used by the groundwater model. Over 600 wetlands and lakes were represented in 

the Current Conditions model along with all mapped streams and agricultural drains. The 

model was calibrated for WY2007 to WY2010 to flow at 10 gauges, wetland stage data, 

and heads at 165 observation wells. 

To represent Natural Conditions, the calibrated model was modified by removing all anthropogenic 

features such as roads, ditches, berms and water control structures that affected 

drainage and overland flow. Vegetative cover was also converted from agricultural to 

pre-settlement cover type and density. For Post-development Conditions, 142 stormwater 

ponds and with control structures and connections were added to the model. The ponds 

were designed to capture a portion of urban runoff. Leakage from the ponds is intended to 

raise groundwater levels and to hydrate nearby wetlands. 

Model simulations predicted streamflow, wetland stage, and groundwater heads on a 

daily basis for the three scenarios. Hydrographs and maps of net change in groundwater 

recharge and wetland hydroperiod were produced. Model comparisons showed that the 

stormwater management ponds helped mitigate changes due to increased imperviousness 

(up to 58% in the development pods) and confirmed that the changes would moderate 

stream flows, increase wetland hydroperiod, and generally restore “natural” conditions for 

the groundwater and surface water systems. 

209 - The Influence of storm sewers on groundwater-surface 

water interaction 

Martin Shepley & Nick Schmidt 

Amec Foster Wheeler, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada 

Ron Scheckenberger & Matt Senior 

Amec Foster Wheeler, Burlington, Ontario, Canada 

Urbanization of watersheds and increase in impermeable surfaces can strongly affect 

groundwater discharge, both in terms of quantity and recession characteristics. Storm sewers 

are generally not considered to affect groundwater discharge greatly as they are primarily 

seen as conveyances of runoff water. However, storm sewers leak and this leakage may 

increase over time as infrastructure ages. 

This paper presents results of a long-term monitoring program from an urbanised till plain 

setting that has collected detailed water level data from storm sewers, storm sewer trenches 

and the shallow groundwater system adjacent to creek. Storm sewer leakage tests have also 

been undertaken that allow the assessment of the interaction between the storm sewer 


and the groundwater system independent of precipitation events and water level changes 

in the creek. These tests show that the water level in the storm sewer can be a dominant 

influence on groundwater level rise and recession. When the storm sewers fill, flow into the 

groundwater system occurs, which reverses when the storm sewer water level drops generating 

baseflow to the creek through the storm sewer trench and storm sewer. It is argued 

that under certain conditions, dependent on grading of the storm-sewer system and the 

hydraulic conductivity of the soils, the storm sewer system may account for the majority of 

groundwater-surface water interaction in urbanized watersheds. 

240 - Enhanced Field Methodologies for Quantifying the 

Vulnerability of Public Supply Wells to Surface Contamination 

C.E. Hillier, D.L. Rudolph & A. Wiebe 



Groundwater vulnerability assessment is crucial to ensuring that a municipal drinking 

water supply is safe for consumption. In evaluating the vulnerability of a public supply 

well, assessment metrics often rely on generalized or assumed hydrogeologic parameters 

combined with various modeling tools to categorize the vulnerability. This approach is 

often associated with a significant level of uncertainty, which influences the confidence of 

decision makers. This study examines the utility of detailed field site evaluation to enhance 

well vulnerability assessment for public supply wells. The value of adopting an integrated 

monitoring approach that incorporates hydrogeologic, hydrologic, and climatic data is addressed. 

A 60-day pumping test was conducted on a public supply well located within the 

Regional Municipality of Waterloo adjacent to a perennial stream. A network of groundwater 

monitoring wells was installed and instrumented in the vicinity of the well. Hydraulic 

head, temperature, geochemistry, isotopes, electrical conductivity, turbidity, and climatic 

data were monitored during the pumping test. Several of the data sets will be presented to 

illustrate their relevance to assessing the vulnerability of a supply well. Contrasting water 

quality data collected from the deep and shallow environments provided insight into the 

groundwater flow system. The dilution of calcium and hardness at the pumping well was 

attributed to the shallow groundwater contributions, whereas increasing concentrations of 

iron and sulfate indicated deeper groundwater contributions. Shallow groundwater temperature 

data indicated the downward movement of warmer, near-surface waters during 

the course of the pumping test. The temperature in the pumping well and nearby observation 

wells decreased as a result of pumping indicating deep colder groundwater was being 

drawn upward into the well over time. The combined geochemistry and temperature data 

provide evidence of mixing between the shallow and deep groundwater systems, information 

critical to understanding the vulnerability of public supply wells to surface contamination. 

The evidence presented here demonstrates that data collected from detailed field 

investigations during extended pumping tests provides added insight in the assessment of 

well vulnerability. The length of the test required will rely on local conditions. 


87

198 - Monitoring of event-based, depression focussed recharge 

to a shallow unconfined aquifer near a municipal well in the Alder 

Creek Subwatershed, SW Ontario 

Paul G. Menkveld, Andrew J. Wiebe, & David L. Rudolph 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Groundwater is a critical resource that is dependent on recharge processes. Contrary to 

some conventional modelling practices that rely on annual and aerially averaged recharge 

rates, the natural recharge process is often discrete in time and space, which may significantly 

influence the dynamics of the groundwater flow system. Events such as snow melts 

and major rainfall periods may result in large amounts of infiltration over short time spans. 

In addition, depression-focused recharge may lead to anomalously large rates of recharge 

in small, local areas. To quantify these localized recharge phenomena, a dense monitoring 

network was established in a small (200 m 2 ) depression-focused recharge site, located 

within the Alder Creek sub-watershed, in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. The 

site is located on the heavily managed Waterloo Moraine, with a shallow screened public 

supply well located within 40 m of the study site. Soil moisture (using TDR and a neutron 

probe), soil water tension, temperature, hydraulic head, resistivity, isotopes and pore-water 

geochemistry were measured in vertical profiles in the unsaturated zone and shallow 

saturated zone by electronic and manual instruments beneath an ephemeral pond formed 

during a snow melt event. Photo surveys were used to capture the formation, extents, and 

evolution of the pond. Continuous and time sparse (manually collected) data sets were 

constructed and compared to assess the value and accuracy of the different instruments. 

The combined data sets provide insight into the depression-focused recharge process and 

support estimates of recharge rates based on analytical and numerical modeling techniques. 

The effectiveness of the different data sets in understanding and quantifying the recharge 

process will also be discussed. Considering the close proximity of the public supply well 

to this recharge site, the study has implications for water supply security (GUDI) as hydrologic 

event-based analysis of the well’s capture zone will affect the well’s vulnerability 

to surface water. 

281 - Cumulative impacts of groundwater extraction on seasonal 

flows of a regulated stream, Cowichan River, BC 

Sylvia Barroso, Neil Goeller, & Pat Lapcevic 

BC Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, Nanaimo, BC, Canada 

Cowichan River is an important resource for the Vancouver Island region and North 

America’s west coast, providing critical spawning and rearing habitat for salmonid species, 

in addition to being a key source of industrial and municipal water supply, effluent dilution, 

a destination for recreation and tourism, and possessing cultural and economic significance 

to the Coast Salish First Nation. River flows in the lower reaches are linked to the underlying 

fluvial and glaciofluvial aquifer complex. Groundwater demands on this aquifer are 

substantial, including municipal and aquaculture well fields proximal to the river which 


extract an estimated 27 Mm 3 of water annually. During the spring and summer periods, 

flows within Cowichan River are moderated by releases from a weir at Cowichan Lake, to 

ensure minimum instream flows are maintained and to provide for a major surface water 

extraction (50 to 60 Mm 3 /year) in the lower watershed. A three year, multi-disciplinary 

study was conducted to evaluate the interaction between groundwater withdrawals and 

surface water flows in Cowichan River. River stage above, within and below the primary 

well field reach was monitored on a continuous basis, using in-stream data loggers, coincident 

with groundwater level monitoring within a network of off-channel piezometers 

and observation wells. The median stream-bed conductivity estimated from in-stream 

mini-piezometers and seepage meters was in the range of 2x10 -4 m/s, and losing conditions 

were observed consistently within the well field reach. During the summer season, 

river flow within the well field reach was measurably reduced as a result of cumulative 

groundwater extractions and may impact sensitive aquatic habitat. Stable water isotopes 

and geochemistry were utilized to evaluate the relative contribution of groundwater and 

surface water inputs to production well withdrawals, and to characterize the quality of 

water sources throughout the basin. The complex interactions between consumptive and 

non-consumptive water use, competing water demands, and changing precipitation inputs 

and snowpacks resulting from climate variability present a challenge for long-term management 

and sustainability of an integrated water resource for this region. 

Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 1 


Chair: Garth van der Kamp 

Room: Wagner 

163 - Using numerical groundwater models as a land use planning 

tool – Town of Torbay, NL 

John Kozuskanich 

Stantec Consulting Ltd, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada 

Jonathan Keizer 

Stantec Consulting Ltd, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada 

Carolyn Anstey-Moore & Robert MacLeod 

Stantec Consulting Ltd, St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada 

The Town of Torbay, NL has grown quickly over the last two decades as a bedroom community 

for the neighbouring cities of St. John’s and Mount Pearl. Growth has been primarily 

focused in three developments around the periphery of the town in the form of halfto 

one-acre lots with private servicing. Approximately 30% of the residents in the older 

portions of Torbay rely on municipal servicing for their drinking water which is sourced 

from one of the many surface water ponds that dominate the landscape. This study is the 

first of its kind in NL to go beyond the scale of individual unserviced developments and 

evaluate the cumulative effects of development on the community’s groundwater resources. 


89

A steady-state equivalent porous media groundwater flow model was developed as a tool to 

assist in planning the growth and sustainability of their community. Well log information 

was utilized in an effort to incorporate some of the attributes of the discretely-fractured 

bedrock groundwater system into the definition of adverse condition drawdown targets. 

The model was used to assess water availability under different future commercial and 

residential development schemes, rank development options, identify areas to be left undeveloped, 

define sustainable pumping rates, and evaluate the potential for municipal well 

fields. The results highlight the need for larger-scale hydrogeological assessment as part 

of the land use planning decision making process for semi-urban greenfield development. 

234 - Occurrence of viruses, other pathogens, and organic 

wastewater indicators, in seven First Nation Communities in 

Southern BC 

Marta Green 

Summit Environmental 

Ted Molyneux 

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada 

Pierre Bérubé 

University of British Columbia Civil Engineering, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada 

The BC region of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada requires that all 

community water supply sources be disinfected at the source. This includes all groundwater 

supply wells that supply connections of five homes of more. Many first nation communities 

are located in remote areas, with low housing density. Moreover, well systems with 

chlorine treatment cause iron and manganese to precipitate, leading to a low aesthetic 

value of the water. The overall project goal is to develop screening methods for assessing 

groundwater that is at risk of containing waterborne pathogens (GARP) including using 

indicators/surrogates or newly available genetic testing methods such as quantitative polychain 

reaction (qPCR) testing for viruses. This is part of AANDC’s larger goal to assist 

First Nations in providing safe water to their members, and in providing understanding of 

the inherent safety of, or risk posed by, their water sources. 

The specific objectives of this study were to (1) develop and test a methodology to test for 

viruses in groundwater at First Nations’ wells in BC using dead end ultra-filtration techniques; 

(2) assess if surrogates or other indicators can be used to assess presence of viruses; 

and (3) determine if viruses, other pathogens, and/or organic wastewater compounds are 

present in a select number of First Nation communities in Southern BC at one snap shot 

in time. Samples were collected from confined and unconfined wells located near surface 

water, near septic fields and sanitary lines, and away from potential sources of pathogens. 

For pathogen testing, water was pumped through a dead-end ultrafilter, and filters were 

submitted to Tetratech laboratory in Vermont, USA. The work at Tetratech determined 

the presence and abundance of: (1) adenovirus types A, B, C, D, adenovirus-F, enterovirus, 

human polyoma virus, norovirus type GIA, norovirus type GII, and rotavirus using qPCR 

and real-time PCR (rtPCR) genetic testing (2) Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia 


cysts by a modified Method USEPA 623 procedure; and (3) pathogenic bacteria E. coli 

O157:H7 and thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. by qPCR. 

UBC Vancouver conducted analysis of several organic wastewater compounds including 

ammonia, chloride, bisphenol A (BPA), bromide, caffeine, cholesterol, coprostanol, cotinine, 

methylene blue active substances (MBAS), nitrate, optical brighteners, residual 

chlorine, tinopal CBS-X , triclosan, and tri (2-chloroethyl)phosphate. 

Viruses were present in three of fifteen samples collected. Comparison of the results 

showed no link between presence or absence of organic wastewater indicators and presence 

or absence of viruses when virus sampling is conducted only once. Viruses were observed 

to be present in all types of sources except confined wells, while organic wastewater compounds 

were observed in all types of sources, even confined wells, indicating that a pathway 

for potential contamination exists even for confined wells. The study was successful in 

developing and testing a methodology to test for viruses in groundwater at First Nations’ 

wells in BC using dead end ultra-filtration techniques. This methodology can be applied 

to future groundwater supply projects where communities wish to know their risk to water 

borne pathogens including viruses. 

238 - Groundwater: A sustainable water source for Waterloo 

Region 

Emil Frind 


Sustainable use of water is a challenge in many parts of the world, and extreme climate 

events due to climate change may aggravate this challenge in the future. The persistent 

drought in the American Southwest is just one example. Water sustainability is also a 

serious issue in Waterloo Region. The Region, having been designated as a main growth 

centre by the Province of Ontario, is expected to grow by 50% over the next 30 years, 

while its main water source, groundwater, remains limited. Can groundwater be a sustainable 

source for a rapidly growing Region? The Regional Municipality of Waterloo has 

addressed this question by developing a comprehensive water supply strategy balancing 

source water management and demand. 

The scientific basis and policy approach to the Region’s source water management are 

discussed in the Summer 2014 Special Issue “Water, Science and Policy” of the Canadian 

Water Resources Journal. The volume shows how collaboration among different disciplines 

of science, policy-making, and sociology has provided a comprehensive management 

framework. The science starts with a 3D hydrostratigraphic model of the Waterloo 

Moraine based on geological and geophysical data. Integration with existing hydrogeological 

data then creates a detailed picture of the complex moraine aquifer/aquitard system and 

its linkages to recharge areas and sensitive environmental features. Geochemical studies 

provide insight into the impact of human activities in urban and rural areas. Mathematical 

models play an important role as practical tools for resource management, and water 

budget calculations show how long the projected municipal water demand can be met 


91

with the existing well system without affecting sensitive ecosystems. The broader role of 

the Moraine’s groundwater within the Grand River watershed is also examined. Threats 

to the quantity and quality of the Region’s groundwater are examined, and a framework 

for threats assessment for different types and scales of threats is developed. Finally, the 

science is translated into science-based policy satisfying the objectives of both environmental 

protection and source water protection. As an alternative for rural areas, collaborative 

decision-making integrating expert science, local knowledge, and community beliefs/values 

is explored. Finally, the issue of knowledge management, important in the context of 

complex problems, is discussed. 

This work has provided the Region with a solid basis for managing its groundwater source. 

The source is sustainable for at least the next forty years, and external water sources will 

not be needed. Beyond that, sustainability will depend on maintaining the balance between 

supply and demand. 

191 - Assessment of the Long-term Sustainability of Groundwater 

Aquifers in the Waterloo Moraine and Surrounding Areas 

Patricia Meyer, Paul Martin, & Martinus Brouwers 

Matrix Solutions Inc., Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Richard Wootton & Eric Hodgins 

Region of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

A Tier Three Water Budget and Local Area Risk Assessment (Tier Three Assessment) 

was recently completed within the Region of Waterloo. The study evaluated whether the 

municipality’s drinking water wells would be able to meet future demand without negatively 

impacting other water uses including sensitive coldwater streams, rivers and wetlands. 

Two groundwater flow models were used in the Tier Three Assessment; one was used to 

evaluate the well fields within the Kitchener-Waterloo area (the Regional Model), and the 

second was used to evaluate the well fields within the Cambridge area (the Cambridge 

Model). A GAWSER watershed-based flow generation model was also used to evaluate 

surface water conditions and partition precipitation into overland flow, evapotranspiration 

and groundwater recharge. 

Following a detailed calibration at the well field scale (to long-term and time varying conditions), 

the two groundwater flow models were used to conduct a series of Risk Assessment 

scenarios to evaluate potential changes in groundwater elevations at the municipal 

wells and groundwater discharge to sensitive surface water features under various conditions. 

The scenarios included evaluation of current and future municipal pumping, current 

and future land development (as specified in the Region’s Official Plan), and long-term 

drought. Results of these scenarios were used to assign risk levels to the Local Areas, an 

area defined as the cone of influence of the municipal wells, as well as land areas where reductions 

in recharge had the potential to have a measurable impact on the municipal wells. 

All four Local Areas within the Region were assigned a Low Risk Level. Within the 

Kitchener-Waterloo area, the integrated system of municipal groundwater supply wells are 


completed in productive overburden aquifers within and beneath the Waterloo Moraine. 

The wells are capable of supplying water at rates that meet the Region’s projected 2031 

water demands without causing negative impacts on other water uses. Similarly, the wells 

in Cambridge are completed in productive overburden and bedrock aquifers that are able 

to meet the 2031 demands without negatively impacting other water uses. If the Region 

continues to proactively manage the quantity and quality of their groundwater supplies, the 

groundwater resources will be available for residents of the Region for generations to come. 

172 - Region of Waterloo Tier Three Water Budget - Now What? 

Richard Wootton 

Region of Waterloo, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 

Paul Martin & Patricia Meyer 


The Region of Waterloo’s Tier Three Water Budget and Local Area Risk Assessment has 

recently been completed. The Risk Levels applied to the four delineated Local Areas were 

identified as “Low” suggesting the Region has sufficient water resources to meet current 

and future (2031) water demands. Despite the Low Risk Level, a number of knowledge 

and data gaps were noted in the Tier Three Assessment. The most significant knowledge 

and data gaps, from a water supply and risk management measures perspective, included 

interaction between the municipal groundwater aquifers and urban streams/creeks and 

wetlands, and interaction between municipal well fields through the deep overburden or 

shallow bedrock aquifers within the Local Areas. 

Going forward the Region plans to develop an integrated groundwater and surface water 

monitoring program. The insights gained from the Tier Three groundwater flow model 

will be used to guide program implementation. The program will target collection of 

groundwater and surface water data in areas where there is potential for streams, creeks 

and wetlands to be influenced by municipal groundwater pumping, but knowledge and 

data gaps prevent conclusive analyses. 

The program will be designed to augment existing groundwater and surface water monitoring 

programs and focus on collecting data to integrate understanding of groundwater 

and surface water systems. It specifically will incorporate Tier Three recommendations for 

drilling boreholes and constructing new monitoring wells at strategic locations, installing 

stream flow gauges and streambed mini-piezometers, expanding and/or collecting more 

frequent groundwater level measurements in existing monitoring wells, and utilizing readily 

available spatial data (e.g., landsat imagery, historical airphotos).The data collected could 

be used to support permit to take water applications and where necessary, help establish 

adaptive management plans for water takings within the Region. 


93

Groundwater Issues From Oil and Gas 

Exploration & Production 1 


Chair: Dick Jackson 


275 - A case study of water well interference by CBM fracking: 

Lessons learned 

M. Cathryn Ryan & Per Pedersen 

Geoescience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

Tiago A. Morais 

Geology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, City, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, 

Brazil 

A 2004 case study of perceived water well interference by ‘stimulation’ of a coal bed methane 

well with ~9 MPa N 2 

stimulation about 1200 meters away was reviewed. Although an 

official complaint was never filed with the regulator, the energy company contracted an 

environmental consultant to review the homeowner’s concerns. These reports, water well 

records, baseline water well testing, and energy well activities in the region were reviewed, 

and discussions with various individuals involved were held. 

The timeline of water well events and details surrounding the CBM well activity during 

and after the N 2 

stimulation suggest the water well could have been affected by the stimulation. 

The energy well perforations were unusually shallow for the region, and similar in 

elevation to the domestic water well screen. The shallowest energy well perforations were 

cement-¬squeezed on two subsequent occasions to mitigate groundwater flow into the 

CBM well, which was abandoned about seven months after the initial stimulation. 

Although the evidence suggests that the energy well stimulation may have been related 

to the perceived domestic water well interference, subsequent stimulation in energy wells 

located even closer to the rural residence (but perforated at greater depth) did not cause 

observed interference in a replaced domestic water well on the same property. 

This case study highlights water well complaint challenges for both the energy industry 

and domestic well owners that are relevant to the ‘social license to operate’. Dedicated 

groundwater monitoring systems are seldom used to evaluate impacts in the shallow 

groundwater zone. Rather energy and water wells are often the only source of subsurface 

data available. The industry deals with a large fraction of apparently invalid water well 

complaints, making it difficult to focus on complaints that may be valid. In part in an effort 

to minimize invalid water well complaints, the industry i) has not historically disclosed 

details about confirmed water well complaints that are appropriately addressed and ii) do 

not provide any notification of energy activities in a given region. The latter can prevent the 

timely collection of appropriate information, with subsequent the difficulties in conducting 

a ‘post--mortem’ analysis and perceived water. 


160 - A study of potential links between the Utica Shale and 

shallow aquifers in St-Édouard, southern Québec, Canada 

Rivard, C., Bordeleau, G., Lavoie, D., Ladevèze, P., Duchesne, M., Pinet, N., & 

Ahad, J. 


Lefebvre, R. & Aznar, J.-C. 

Institut national de la Recherche scientifique – Centre Eau Terre Environnement (INRS- 

ETE), Québec City, Québec, Canada 

Pugin, A. & Crow, H. 


Séjourné, S. 

Consulting geologist, Montréal, Québec, Canada 

Labrie, D. 

CanmetMINING, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Potential links between a deep gas shale formation and shallow aquifers are being investigated 

in southern Quebec (Canada), near a shale gas well drilled and fracked in 2009-2010. 

A large set of data has been collected to detect potential natural fluid migration pathways. 

Acquired data include hydrogeological, geophysical, geochemical, as well as geomechanical 

data. Hydrogeological work involved drilling, permeability tests and structural surveys 

of outcrops. Geophysical surveys comprised shallow high-resolution seismic, borehole logging 

in the newly drilled shallow wells, as well as airborne Transient-Electro-Magnetic and 

magnetic surveys. Groundwater from 44 wells was sampled and analyzed for a wide range 

of compounds, and 6 of these wells were chosen for continued monitoring of dissolved 

alkane concentration and isotopes (every 3 months). Soil and core samples were also collected 

to determine their hydrocarbon content. Geomechanical properties of deep shale 

formations were studied using both acoustic geophysical logs and core samples. 

Geochemical data show that methane is present throughout the study area, but in highly 

variable concentrations (from nearly 0 to 40 mg/L), while ethane and propane are only 

found in a few wells. Preliminary results indicate that alkane concentrations are strongly 

correlated to the water type, well depth and groundwater age. They also show that all 

samples would contain bacteriogenic methane, and from 20 to 40% would also have a thermogenic 

component. Additional analyses on groundwater and core samples are ongoing 

to better identify the methane source. The geophysical interpretation, including deep and 

shallow data, suggests that possible pathways could be present. However, hydraulic tests 

have not indicated different permeabilities close to known faults. Permeabilities in the 

shallow and naturally fractured shale rock aquifers vary from moderate where sandstone 

beds occur (10 -6 – 10 -7 m/s) to low when mostly black shale is present (10 -9 -10 -8 m/s). 

Borehole logging showed that most of the permeable fractures occur in the upper 40 m 

and that permeability usually rapidly decreases with depth. Brackish water in one well 

was encountered at about 140 m deep, confirming that active groundwater flow is very 

shallow. Geomechanical data further indicate that the caprock geological units above the 

gas shale act as a good protection against potential contamination from deep fluids. This 

study integrates data from multiple sources in order to acquire the necessary knowledge to 


95

support provincial regulations and water management to insure that aquifers would not be 

adversely affected by shale gas development, at least from a geological point of view. 

138 - Local study of the environmental risk of hydrocarbon 

exploration 

Mélanie Raynauld 1 , Morgan Peel 1 , René Lefebvre 1 , Michel Ouellet 2 , John Molson 3 , 

Heather Crow 4 , Jason Ahad 5 , & Luc Aquilina 6 

1 

INRS, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec City, Québec, Canada 

2 

Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les 

changements climatiques, Québec City, Québec, Canada 

3 

Laval University, Geology and Geological Engineering Department, Québec City, Québec, 

Canada 

4 

Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

5 

Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Québec City, Québec, Canada 

6 

Université de Rennes 1, Géosciences Rennes, Rennes, France 

Horizontal drilling is planned to further assess a tight sandstone petroleum reservoir in 

the Haldimand sector of Gaspé, Québec, Canada. Petroleum exploration is taking place 

in this area within the forested core of a hilly 40 km 2 peninsula by the sea (up to 200 

m amsl) and water supply wells are located on its periphery. Our study aimed to assess 

the local risk to groundwater related to oil and gas (O&G) industry upstream activities. 

Such assessment involves the identification of potential fluid migration paths between 

the petroleum reservoir and the shallow fractured rock aquifer system. This study 

also served as a test case for a new Quebec regulatory framework for O&G operations, 

which requires the hydrogeological characterization of all new drill sites. The study was 

based on the compilation of existing hydrogeological, geological and petroleum exploration 

data and on field characterization. The field work involved 1) the installation of 

17 observation wells and related hydraulic testing, including two fully-cored wells, 2) 

groundwater sampling in observation wells and more than 70 residential wells, as well 

as surface water sampling, mostly within a 2 km radius of the proposed new drill pad, 

and 3) geophysical logging of the open-hole observation wells. Fracturing was found to 

be more intense in the upper 20 m of the rock aquifer and it controls groundwater flow. 

Recharge occurs on topographic highs where the rock is not covered by a low permeability 

glacial till, which is found almost everywhere. Significant variations in groundwater 

geochemistry were found, with evolved groundwaters affected by cation exchange or 

mixing with a marine water component. Groundwater residence times can thus be quite 

long, which may be due to the relatively high porosity (5-10%) of the rock. Methane 

is associated with evolved water types and is mostly biogenic, but with a thermogenic 

fraction. SALTFLOW, a variable-density flow and mass transport simulator, was used 

to represent the peninsula and the adjacent highlands in a 2D vertical section model. 

The interaction of the highland and peninsula recharge leads to nested flow systems 

with converging-diverging flow conditions, and a relatively shallow active flow zone. Assessment 

of the risk for groundwater considered regulatory requirements, contaminant 

emission mechanisms and their expected effects. A surface spill is the most probable 


contaminant release mechanism. There are no indications of active natural preferential 

fluid migration pathways, but old O&G exploration wells cut through the reservoir and 

their integrity should be verified. 

182 - Three-dimensional Reactive Transport Simulations of 

Methane Gas and Brine Migration from Decommissioned Shale 

Gas Wells into Shallow Aquifers 

N. Roy 1 , J. Molson 1 , D. van Stempvoort 2 , A. Nowamooz 1 , & J.-M. Lemieux 1 

1 

Département de géologie et de génie géologique, Université Laval, Québec, Canada 

2 

National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada 

Three-dimensional numerical simulations are presented for methane gas and gas-saturated 

brine leaking from a decommissioned shale gas well into a shallow aquifer. The 

main objective is to assess the efficiency of natural bacterially-driven processes to mitigate 

dissolved gas contamination in both confined and unconfined aquifers. The basecase 

conceptual model, based on an Alberta field site, includes a shallow sandy confined 

aquifer intersected by a vertical well which is leaking gas-phase and dissolved-phase 

methane from a faulty cement seal. We couple the DuMux multi-phase simulator with 

the BIONAPL/3D flow and reactive transport code to simulate biodegradation of dissolved 

methane under oxygen and sulfate-reducing conditions. The methane degradation 

rate is calibrated for the field case while a range of literature values are applied in 

a sensitivity analysis. Methane behavior in the aquifer is simulated for different leakage 

rates, background geochemistry and hydraulic gradients. The confined aquifer simulation 

shows that, unlike the buoyant gas phase that migrates upward towards the confining 

layer, the gas-saturated brine flows at the base of the aquifer following the hydraulic 

gradient. The upper gas-phase pool acts as a longer-term source which dissolves into the 

flowing groundwater. Methane concentrations in both confined and unconfined aquifers 

are mainly influenced by the gas/brine leakage duration, background oxygen and/or 

sulfate concentration and the methane oxidation rate. At the Alberta site, considering 

a continuous methane gas phase leakage rate of 0.40 kg/day, a threshold of 7 mg/L (ex. 

as stipulated by the Québec Ministry of Environment for identifying wells at possible 

risk) is reached 55 m downgradient after 2 years. Moreover, if the leak stops after 2 years, 

under natural background SO 4 

concentrations of 400 mg/L, it would take between 7 and 

8 years for dissolved methane concentrations to decrease to acceptable levels. In confined 

aquifers, methane tends to persist longer than in unconfined aquifers from which 

the buoyant gas phase will more readily escape and in which oxygen concentrations are 

likely higher. Aquifers with a naturally high background sulfate concentration can significantly 

attenuate methane migration but sulfide by-products may become a concern. 

The modelling approach can be extended to other contaminants emerging from deep 

decommissioned or abandoned wells or from natural faults and fractures such as brines, 

or fracking fluids. 


97

319 - Baseline Water Well Testing in Oil and Gas Development 

Areas of Alberta 

Steve Wallace 

Alberta Environment and Parks, Government of Alberta, Alberta, Canada 

The Standard for Baseline Water Well Testing (BWWT) for Coalbed Methane Operations 

was implemented in 2006 in response to concerns amongst Albertans about the 

potential for CBM activities to adversely affect water well supplies. The baseline water 

well testing requires operators to test all active water wells within the vicinity of a proposed 

CBM well to be completed above the Base of Groundwater Protection. The testing includes 

a well capacity test, water quality sampling and testing for dissolved gases. The latter 

includes stable carbon isotopic analyses on hydrocarbon gas components. Over 15,000 

baseline water well tests have been completed to date. An overview of the BWWT program 

and the results gathered is provided. 

Expansion of the BWWT program to unconventional oil and gas development areas, including 

shale gas and tight oil, is currently being considered. Alberta Environment and 

Parks is working closely with the Alberta Energy Regulator on potential revision/expansion 

of the BWWT program, using knowledge gained through the CBM experience and 

taking into consideration modifications to reflect the unique aspects of unconventional oil 

and gas development. 




Chair: Walter Illman 


136 - Definition of granular aquifer heterogeneity for large sites 

René Lefebvre 1 , Erwan Gloaguen 1 , Daniel Paradis 2 , Laurie Tremblay 1 , Patrick 

Brunet 1 , John Molson 3 , & Gabriel Fabien-Ouellet 1 

1 


2 


3 

Laval University, Geology and Geological Engineering Department, Québec City, Québec, 

Canada 

Contaminated site management requires the predictive capabilities of hydrogeological numerical 

models. Such models have to encompass source zones and receptors over several 

square kilometers. To be representative, these models have to represent the heterogeneous 

distribution of hydraulic conductivity (K). Hydrogeophysics has generally been used to image 

relatively restricted areas of the subsurface (small fractions of km 2 ), but there remains a 

need for approaches defining heterogeneity at larger scales. This communication describes 

a workflow defining aquifer heterogeneity that was applied over a 12 km 2 sub-watershed 


surrounding a decommissioned landfill emitting landfill leachate. The aquifer is a shallow, 

10 to 20 m thick, highly heterogeneous and anisotropic assemblage of littoral sand and 

silt. Field work involved the acquisition of a broad range of data: geological, hydraulic, 

geophysical, and geochemical. The emphasis was put on high resolution and continuous 

hydrogeophysical data, the use of direct-push fully-screened wells, and the acquisition of 

targeted high-resolution hydraulic data covering all aquifer materials. The main methods 

used were: 1) surface geophysics (ground-penetrating radar and electrical resistivity); 2) 

direct-push operations with a geotechnical drilling rig (cone penetration tests with soil 

moisture resistivity CPT/SMR; full-screen well installation); and 3) borehole operations, 

including high-resolution hydraulic tests and geochemical sampling. New methods were 

developed to acquire high vertical resolution hydraulic data in direct-push wells, including 

both vertical and horizontal K (Kv and Kh). Various data integration approaches were used 

to represent aquifer properties in 1D, 2D and 3D. Using relevant vector machines (RVM), 

the mechanical and geophysical CPT/SMR measurements were used to recognize hydrofacies 

(HF) and obtain high-resolution 1D vertical profiles of hydraulic properties. All 

1D vertical profiles of K derived from the CPT/SMR soundings were integrated with 

available 2D geo-electrical profiles to obtain the 3D distribution of K over the study area. 

Numerical models were developed to understand flow and mass transport and assess how 

indicators could constrain model results and their K distributions. A 2D vertical section 

model was first developed based on a conceptual representation of heterogeneity, which 

showed a significant effect of layering on flow and transport. The model demonstrated 

that solute and age tracers provide key model constraints. Additional 2D vertical section 

models with synthetic representations of low and high K hydrofacies were also developed 

on the basis of CPT/SMR soundings. These models showed that high-resolution profiles 

of hydraulic head could help constrain geostatistical simulations of the spatial distribution 

and continuity of hydrofacies. 

204 - Comparison of hydraulic tests used to charaterize aquifer 

heterogeneity 

Daniel Paradis 


René Lefebvre 

Institut national de la recherche scientifique – Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec 

City, Québec, Canada 

Hydraulic properties of aquifers, especially hydraulic conductivity (K), have to be known to 

understand groundwater flow and solute transport. Indirect characterization methods (hydrogeophysics) 

and geostatistical simulations are now accepted approaches to define aquifer 

heterogeneity. However, these approaches actually put higher requirements on direct measurements 

of hydraulic properties to calibrate indirect methods and constrain geostatistical 

simulations. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the ability of diverse hydraulic tests to 

define the spatial distribution of hydraulic properties, including commonly used (grain size 

analysis, lab permeameter, multilevel slug tests and flowmeter tests) and recently developed 

(vertical interference slug tests and tomographic slug tests) methods. This study was carried 


99

out in heterogeneous and anisotropic littoral silts and sands. A field site was instrumented 

with five direct-push wells arranged in a diamond pattern using about 10-m spacing. Direct-push 

wells were installed with long screens placed in direct contact with natural sediments, 

thus allowing flexibility in the design of high-resolution hydraulic tests using packers. 

In these wells, horizontal K (Kh) was estimated at a 15-cm spacing using an electromagnetic 

flowmeter and multilevel slug tests, while Kh, K anisotropy (Kv/Kh) and specific storage (Ss) 

were characterized at 60-cm vertical intervals using vertical interference slug tests within a 

well and tomographic slug tests across wells. Furthermore, sediment samples were collected 

near the wells to assess Kh and Kv using grain size analyses and laboratory permeameter tests, 

respectively. The hydraulic property fields obtained from the different measurement methods 

were then quantitatively evaluated by predicting transient head responses from independent 

hydraulic tests using a forward numerical model. Results show that independent hydraulic 

tests are fairly well reproduced with vertical interference slug tests. So, even though this approach 

requires more complex numerical inverse analysis than conventional hydraulic tests 

with analytical solutions, it proves to be relatively time efficient considering that Kh, Kv/Kh 

and Ss can be estimated together. Tomographic slug tests are also shown to better represent 

transient hydraulic responses between wells, but the additional instrumentation costs and 

data burden involved compared to vertical interference slug tests should be carefully considered 

for practical field studies. Finally, this study shows that the strong Kv/Kh anisotropy 

at the scale of test measurements can make K characterization challenging. The study also 

highlights the need for hydraulic methods that can reliably estimate Kv/Kh, since groundwater 

flow is strongly influenced by K anisotropy. 

262 - Advanced techniques for site characterization: Real-Time 

High-Resolution Site Characterization of the Subsurface Using 

and MIP, LIF and HPT 

Patrick O’Neill 

Vertex Environmental Inc, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada 

In-situ site characterization can be a key component of site delineation and remediation. 

In-situ site characterization allows for large amounts of detailed data to be collected quickly 

and cost-effectively compared to traditional techniques. These data, combined with traditional 

Phase II Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) methods, greatly enhance the understanding 

of the presence, concentration and distribution of contaminants in the subsurface, 

which can lead to more efficient and focused monitoring and remediation programs. 

Three high-resolution characterization technologies have recently been introduced to 

Canada. These include, the Membrane Interface Probe (MIP) for dissolved phase contamination, 

the Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF) probe for free-phase petroleum hydrocarbon 

(PHC) contamination, and the Hydraulic Profiling Tool (HPT) for measuring 

the subsurface permeability and ultimately estimating the hydraulic conductivity of the 

subsurface. All three probes are advanced to depth by direct push methods (Geoprobe). 

The MIP is a heated probe that is used to volatilize dissolved and sorbed contaminants. 

The contaminants diffuse through a semi-permeable membrane on the probe and are sub- 


sequently transported to the surface for analysis. The LIF probe consists of a fiber optic 

cable that emits an ultraviolet light through a window during probe advancement. The 

PAHs in PHCs fluoresce and the response is measured by instrumentation at the surface in 

real-time. The HPT probe injects a constant flow of clean water from surface and utilizes 

a downhole pressure transducer to measure subsurface permeability above and below the 

water table. Hydraulic conductivity can be estimated in the saturated zone at the conclusion 

of each push. 

Using these technologies and Phase II ESA data, subsurface plumes can be rendered in 

3D to visualize the interpreted area of impact requiring remediation. Aerial photographs, 

building CAD models or GIS terrain data can also be added to provide a more detailed 

visualization of the site for conceptual models and presentation purposes. This visualization 

tool can be used to optimize remedial system designs or supplemental data collection 

programs and offers superior communication potential to clients and other stakeholders. 

The LIF employs a laser light to excite florescent molecules contained in major LNAPLs 

including gasoline, diesel fuel, hydraulic oil, jet fuel, kerosene, etc. Major benefits of the 

LIF include high data density collection, speed and daily production for logging NAPL 

in the subsurface. The LIF is rapidly deployed using direct push technologies to delineate 

large areas efficiently. The LIF transmits pulses of laser light down fiber optic cables 

located in probe rods (advanced through the soil column steadily at ~2 cm/second). The 

light pulses exit a sapphire window, located on the probe, onto the face of the passing soil 

without penetrating into the formation. Any resulting fluorescence laser light that comes 

back into the window is brought up hole to the surface by a second fiber, where the light is 

processed, analyzed and displayed versus depth in real time. 

The MIP employs an inert carrier gas, a semi-permeable membrane in conjunction with 

a heater block on a down hole probe used to log the relative concentrations of volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs) in the subsurface. Major benefits of the MIP include high data 

density collection, speed and daily production for logging dissolved phase impacts in the 

subsurface. The MIP is rapidly deployed using direct push technologies to delineate large 

areas of dissolved phase VOCs on Site. The MIP heats probe up the subsurface, volatilizing 

the VOCs in the immediate area before carrying the VOCs up hole to a gas chromatograph 

(GC) at the surface. The VOCs are then analyzed in using a photoionization 

detector (PID), flame ionization detector (FID) and a halogen specific detector (XSD). 

The VOCs are analyzed and displayed versus depth in real time up hole. 

The HPT employs a an up hole pump with a down hole pressure transducer to measure 

the down hole back pressure from the formation and calculate hydraulic conductivity in 

the saturated zone. Major benefits of the HPT include high data density collection, speed 

and daily production for logging formation permeability and hydraulic conductivity in the 

subsurface. The HPT is rapidly deployed using direct push technologies to delineate large 

areas efficiently. The HPT pumps a flow of clean water into the subsurface at a constant 

rate and the down hole pressure transducer measures the back pressure on the flow of water 

from formation. The HPT can also be used to measure hydrostatic pressure under zero 

flow conditions. This allows for down hole prediction of the water table depth. The data 


101

collected can then be used to calculate hydraulic conductivity in the saturated zone. The 

data collected is analyzed and displayed versus depth in real time up hole. 

Each technology will be briefly discussed, and a case study will be presented where both 

the MIP and the LIF were used prior to and during in situ remediation of PHCs. The 

case study demonstrates how the site characterization tools were utilized to intelligently 

alter the approach to work at the site. The 3D modeled renderings of the plumes will be 

presented to show how the results were used to alter future remedial designs. 

266 - Estimating specific storage of an aquifer using borehole 

geophysics, barometric efficiency, and laboratory core testing 

Polina Abdrakhimova, Laurence R. Bentley & Masaki Hayashi 


A crucial parameter for groundwater management is specific storage, which relates changes 

in hydraulic head to changes in the volume of water stored in a confined aquifer. In-situ 

values of specific storage are conventionally estimated by analysing pumping test data based 

on the idealized aquifer theory. However, in case of heterogeneous aquifers, this method 

can result in unreliable estimates due to the violation of the ideal aquifer assumptions. An 

example of heterogeneous aquifer is the Paskapoo Formation, which is characterized by 

sandstone channels embedded in lower permeability mudstone and siltstone. Being the 

most significant groundwater supply source in Alberta, its management requires reliable 

characterization of hydrogeological properties. 

An alternative approach to the estimation of specific storage is to use its relationship with 

the formation’s elastic parameters, in particular the aquifer matrix compressibility. Aquifer 

compressibility can be evaluated using Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, which can be 

derived from laboratory core testing or in-situ geophysical methods. It can also be estimated 

by analysing water-level fluctuations due to the barometric effect. In-situ geophysical 

methods include borehole vertical seismic profiling (VSP) and sonic logging. Continuous 

borehole logs of compressional and shear wave velocity are used to calculate the distribution 

of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio along the profile, and estimate specific storage 

distribution. The three methods produce estimates of specific storage at a variety of spatial 

sampling scales. The comparison of these methods and their performance gives insights 

into the characterization of complex fluvial aquifer systems. 

301 - Versatile Monitoring Completions for Bedrock Vadose Zone 

VOC Gas Sampling 

Beth L. Parker & Amanda A. Pierce 


Murray Einarson 

Haley & Aldrich, Oakland, California, USA 


Robert Ingleton & Tadeusz Gorecki 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Michael O. Bower 

The Boeing Company, Canoga Park, California, USA 

Eric VanderVelde 

MWH Americas, Arcadia, California, USA 

The Shaw Portable Core Drill was used to install bedrock vadose zone monitoring probes at 

an industrial facility in southern California where in the 1950s-1960s an estimated 2 million 

litres of immiscible phase trichloroethene (TCE) was released into the subsurface. The subsurface 

is composed of faulted Late Cretaceous age turbidite sandstones with shale interbeds. 

TCE, as dense non-aqueous phase liquid, entered the fractures at many locations decades ago 

where it was dissolved and subsequently diffused into the rock matrix. Sampling and analysis 

of rock core (COREDFN) indicates contaminants present in the vadose zone rock matrix at 

contaminant input locations. The Shaw drill was used to drill 51 millimeter diameter holes 

to shallow depths (2 to 4.5 metres) in the vadose zone at three locations in the central portion 

of the site. Two design types were tested; the first type consisted of a modified ‘grout-liner’ 

design, where a seal is created in the small diameter hole by injecting grout into a flexible 

cylindrical impervious fabric liner and the second type consisted of a modified packer. Both 

designs incorporate high integrity seals to allow for the versatility of active vapour sampling, 

as well as passive sampling using the Waterloo Membrane Sampler TM . Measurements of volatile 

organic contaminant (VOC) vapour concentrations in the vadose zone can be used for 

assessing the transport of contaminants in the fractures and the flux of contaminant concentrations 

from the vadose zone to ground surface. The efficiency of these small portable drills 

has allowed them to become a valuable tool to quickly install monitoring probes in bedrock 

for assessing VOC transport in fractured rock vadose zones. 



Chair: Steven Berg 

Room: Strauss 

239 - Artificial sweeteners track septic system effluent in rural 

Ontario groundwater 

John Spoelstra 

Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada & Department of Earth and 

Environmental Sciences - University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Natalie D. Senger & Sherry L. Schiff 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences - University of Waterloo, Ontario, 

Canada 

Susan J. Brown 

Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada 


103

Artificial sweeteners (AS) are commonly used in food, beverage and medicinal products, 

largely to reduce sugar consumption. Several of these artificial sweeteners are not completely 

broken down during wastewater treatment and are increasingly being found in 

lakes, rivers, and groundwater around the world. In urban areas, municipal wastewater 

treatment plants and leaky sewer systems can be a source of artificial sweeteners to local 

groundwater and surface water. In rural areas, private septic systems treat domestic wastewater 

and discharge effluent to the sub-surface, making them a primary source of AS in 

rural groundwater. Landfill leachate may also be a source of AS in both settings. 

To investigate the prevalence of artificial sweeteners in rural groundwater, we sampled 

private domestic wells and groundwater springs in the Nottawasaga River Watershed 

(NRW), located about 50 km north of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Domestic groundwater 

in the southern NRW is typically supplied by the Lake Algonquin Sand Aquifer (LASA), 

a sandy surficial aquifer known to have nitrate concentrations of up to ten times the drinking 

water limit. The LASA is exposed along the incised banks of the southern Nottawasaga 

River and groundwater discharge was sampled from these seeps. 

Four AS, acesulfame (ACE), cyclamate (CYC), saccharin (SAC), and sucralose (SUC) 

were analyzed using ion chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry operated 

in negative electrospray ionization mode, with minimum detection limits ranging from 

2 to 20 ng/L for the individual AS. ACE was the most frequently detected AS in groundwater 

and had the highest measured concentration (>26,400 ng/L). Artificial sweeteners 

were detected in 31% and 37% of the domestic wells and groundwater seeps, respectively, 

indicating a contribution of water derived from septic system effluents. No clear relationships 

were found between the presence of artificial sweeteners and the concentrations of 

other groundwater contaminants potentially derived from septic systems, including nitrate, 

ammonium, and soluble reactive phosphorus. 

The persistence, mobility, and relatively high concentrations of AS in the environment, 

particularly ACE, means that these compounds may still be detectable in groundwater 

long after other wastewater constituents (e.g. nutrients, pharmaceuticals, pathogens) have 

been removed or diluted to levels below detection limits. Artificial sweeteners have the 

potential to be a powerful groundwater screening tool for identifying wells or aquifers that 

have a septic effluent component to recharge and where testing for additional contaminants 

may be warranted, especially where the groundwater is used for potable water supply 

or discharges to environmentally sensitive surface waters. 

217 - Hydrogeological characterization of a waste site at Chalk 

River, Ontario 

Colleen Steele, Grant Ferguson & Andrew Ireson 

Department of Civil and Geological Engineering – University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 

Saskatchewan, Canada 

Geological storage of low level radioactive waste presents a substantial challenge. Waste at 

these sites can remain radioactive for hundreds of years. These sites frequently contain other 


metals and metalloids that may persist for even longer time periods. In order to protect water 

quality and manage contaminated sites effectively, the drivers and controls on groundwater 

flow and solute transport need to be understood. The purpose of this research project assess 

the risk to the environment posed by storage of low level radioactive waste at the Canadian 

National Laboratories’ (CNL) Chalk River, Waste Management Area F (WMAF) site. 

The larger project includes an investigation of geochemical, vadose zone and saturated zone 

processes. The focus is on the potential for transport once solutes reach the water table. This 

has yet to happen in appreciable levels at this site. As a result, this study has concentrated on 

hydraulic testing and instrumentation of piezometers at WMAF and adjacent areas. During 

August 2014, over 20 slug tests were performed at WMAF. Transducers were installed to 

measure hydraulic head. Up until this time, hydraulic head measurements were taken sporadically 

by CNL staff. Results of the field program have been used to create a probabilistic 

groundwater flow model. Results provide a range of travel times between the water table 

beneath the waste and the wetland to the east. These travel times provide a framework to 

guide future investigations that will reduce the uncertainty and risk. 

187 - Assessing the Impacts of Contaminated Groundwater 

Discharges to the Surface Waters of the Canadian Great Lakes 

Basin: Science Needs and Data Gaps 

Brewster Conant Jr. 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences - University of Waterloo, Ontario, 

Canada 

A review was undertaken regarding the current state of knowledge with respect to chemical 

contaminants in groundwater discharging to the surface waters of the Canadian Great 

Lakes Basin (GLB) as part of Canada’s reporting obligations required by the Great Lakes 

Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) Annex 8 regarding groundwater. The purpose of 

the work was to identify groundwater impacts on the integrity and quality of the waters of 

the Great Lakes, evaluate the risk posed by different types of groundwater contaminants, 

and identify information gaps and science needs. Surprisingly little information was found 

in the peer review literature or government databases regarding direct discharges of contaminated 

or uncontaminated groundwater to the Great Lakes. Additional information 

regarding contaminated groundwater discharges may exist in consultant reports submitted 

to governmental agencies but they are not publically available. Even if all sources of 

contaminated groundwater flowing to surface waters of the GLB were known, determining 

how much of the contaminants actually pass through the groundwater-surface water 

transition zone and into surface water is problematic. Understanding the role and ecological 

importance of transition zones was identified as being a crucial part of evaluating 

the actual impact of contaminated groundwater discharges. Transition zones can modify 

the composition and concentration of groundwater plumes prior to discharging to surface 

water but they also can be where adverse ecological exposures occur because they provide 

valuable habitat for benthic and interstitial organisms, areas for fish spawning, and thermal 

refuge for aquatic life. Overall, road salt, nutrients, urban contaminants and petroleum 

products were of greatest ecological concern because of the large quantities released into 


105

the environment and (in the few studies available) concentrations observed in transition 

zones were often higher than fresh water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic life. 

Approximately 40 science needs and data gaps were identified, which indicates overall 

impacts of contaminated groundwater discharges cannot be precisely determined at this 

time. Priorities for future work to help support science-based decision making include: 1) 

developing rapid inexpensive site characterization tools that can identify contaminated 

groundwater discharges and collect data on the scale needed to accurately predict ecological 

and human exposures, 2) determining the ecological value and connectivity of the 

transition zone to the overall aquatic ecosystem and its sensitivity to contamination for 

use in cost benefit analyses, and 3) integrating contaminant hydrogeology, ecological, and 

ecotoxicological studies from the beginning of investigations to ensure critical relationships 

and problems are identified. 

158 - Factors influencing the accumulation and transport of E. 

coli near the shoreline at freshwater beaches 

Ming Zhi Wu, Denis M. O’Carroll, Laura J. Vogel, & Clare E. Robinson 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western University, London, 


Greater understanding of the fate and transport of microbial pollutants at the sediment-water 

interface of lakes is required to inform beach water quality policy and management programs. 

Studies have indicated that foreshore sands at beaches can act as a reservoir of fecal 

indicator bacteria (FIB) such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) and subsequently be an important 

non-point source of FIB to lake water (e.g. Beversdorf et al., 2007; Ge et al., 2010). This 

can result in a beach being posted with a water quality advisory. While prior research has 

focused on the mechanisms by which FIB is released to surface water (e.g. Halliday et al., 

2014; Phillips et al., 2014), factors controlling the accumulation of E. coli (and also other 

bacteria and colloids) in the foreshore sand is not well understood. 

This study focuses on developing a mechanistic understanding of the role of groundwater-lake 

interactions (i.e., low-energy lapping waves) in the accumulation and transport of 

E. coli in the saturated foreshore sand reservoir of freshwater beaches. Numerical modelling 

was conducted utilising the finite element solver COMSOL, and incorporated 

groundwater transport, attachment of the bacteria to sand grains (using colloid filtration 

theory (Yao et al., 1971)), and microbial die-off. The influence of bacterial, beach and wave 

parameters (e.g. beach slope, inland groundwater flow, wave height, bacterial attachment 

efficiency) on E. coli deposition is assessed. Sensitivity analyses were conducted under both 

steady-state and varying wave conditions. The findings from this study are important in 

understanding the impact of groundwater and surface water interactions in the transport 

of bacteria, using E. coli as an example, at the sediment-water interface of freshwater lakes. 


149 - Using Sea Water/Groundwater Interaction for Calibration of 

Variable-Density Groundwater Flow Model 

Steven M. Harris 

Conestoga-Rovers & Associates, a GHD Company, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

A variable-density groundwater flow model was developed using SEAWAT_V4 for a confidential 

peninsula site in Puget Sound off of the Pacific Northwest Coast. The model will 

aid in evaluating remedial design alternatives to address co-mingled chlorinated solvent 

and pH plumes. Salt water bodies surround the peninsula. Salt water, being denser than 

fresh groundwater, created naturally occurring sea water distributions in the groundwater 

flow system beneath the peninsula. Superimposed on this is a high density plume (HDP) 

caused by site releases of high density fluids. The HDP was delineated based on where 

specific gravity measurements in groundwater samples were greater than that of typical 

sea water. The geochemical composition of groundwater was evaluated to determine the 

degree of sea water and groundwater interaction beneath the peninsula and estimate the 

natural sea water extent present in groundwater excluding the HDP. The sea water density 

distribution was used as a model calibration target, in addition to measured groundwater 

elevations beneath the peninsula converted freshwater equivalent heads (FEHs). Calibration 

proceeded with initially fresh groundwater throughout the model domain and transient 

simulation of inland sea water migration from the salt water bodies to a steady-state 

condition. Transient coupled flow and transport was simulated using TDS as the density 

solute. Boundary condition inflows and aquifer properties were adjusted so the simulated 

density distribution reflected the natural sea water distribution in the absence of the HDP. 

The simulated sea water density distribution was then merged with the HDP, and further 

model adjustments were made to match the observed hydraulic conditions reflected by 

FEHs, groundwater flow directions, and horizontal/vertical hydraulic gradients. Model 

calibration involved iterating between the natural sea water distribution as one calibration 

target set and the observed hydraulic conditions as a second calibration target set. Matching 

both sets of targets improved uniqueness and confidence in the calibrated model. 

Sustainability of Groundwater Resources 2 


Chair: Garth van der Kamp 

Room: Wagner 

202 - The global volume, distribution, and lifespan of young and 

old groundwater 

Tom Gleeson 1,2 , Kevin M. Befus 3 , Scott Jasechko 4 , Elco Luijendijk 2,5 , 

& M. Bayani Cardenas 3 


107

1 

Civil Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada 

2 

Department of Civil Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Québec, Canada 

3 

Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA 

4 

Department of Geography, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

5 

Geoscience Centre, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany 

Groundwater is important for energy and food security, human health, and ecosystems. 

Unfortunately, groundwater is being depleted globally impacting agriculture and the environment, 

and even causing regional crustal deformation. Groundwater is also part of diverse 

earth processes from chemical weathering to ocean eutrophication but groundwater 

dynamics are not part of most earth system models. The time since groundwater recharge, 

or groundwater age, ranges hugely from days to millions of years, which is important for 

groundwater management and the role of groundwater in various earth processes. Yet, 

the volume, distribution and lifespan of young groundwater remain unknown. Here we 

show that only ~6% of global volume of groundwater is less than fifty years old (0.26 - 4.2 

million km 3 ) and that current pumping rates can deplete this young groundwater in less 

than fifty years in half the areas heavily irrigated with groundwater. We combine extensive 

geochemical, geological, hydrologic and geospatial datasets with numerical groundwater 

simulations to derive two consistent and independent estimates of the young groundwater 

volume as well as provide the first data-driven estimate of total groundwater volume 

(~22.6 million km 3 in the upper 2 km of the crust). Most young groundwater is found in 

the first 250 meters underground but is very unevenly distributed across the Earth. The 

regions with heavy groundwater irrigation and a

al groundwater model has been developed for the Township aquifer system using MOD- 

FLOW modelling code based on a rigorous data gathering and review exercise, and the 

model is being used by the Township as a groundwater management tool. The model was 

initially developed in 2003 and has been recently updated to incorporate changes to groundwater 

extraction, and land development as well as additional hydrogeologic information that 

have been gathered since the initial model development. The updated model is now being 

used by the Township to determine the long-term availability of groundwater to support 

future demand and aquatic needs by evaluating the effects of future municipal extraction 

and land use development scenarios on water levels in aquifers, and base flows to aquatic 

habitats. These results will be incorporated in landuse planning, and to identify groundwater 

management options that will ensure the viability of groundwater as a sustainable long term 

water-supply source for the Township in the decades to come. 

235 - Evaluating the influence of regional stratigraphic 

architecture on hydraulic conductivity variability in Early Silurian 

carbonate rock aquifers, Guelph Region, southern Ontario 

Elizabeth Priebe 1 , Christopher Neville 2 & Frank Brunton 1 

1 

Earth Resources and Geoscience Mapping Section, Ontario Geological Survey, Sudbury, 


2 

S.S. Papadopulos & Associates, Inc., Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

The City of Guelph (City) relies on the underlying Early Silurian carbonate bedrock aquifers 

for an average water taking of more than 40 million litres per day. Since 2005, the City 

and the Ontario Geological Survey (OGS) have collaborated to improve the local understanding 

of the bedrock sequence stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and rock/water geochemistry, 

with the motivation that such characterization can provide valuable insight into the 

distribution and quality of groundwater resources. The collaboration was initiated at a time 

when the City was conducting a 50-year water supply master plan, and future projections 

of population growth and water demands indicated that additional or alternative water 

sources would be needed. The City has recently updated its water supply master plan, and 

future projections once again indicate that additional water supply will be needed. 

The main objective of this study is the integration of geological and physical hydrogeological 

results from the various collaborative studies. This is being accomplished with the 

creation of two separate datasets: the stratigraphic logs for the wells in which hydraulic 

tests have been conducted and the associated discrete Kh estimates from those tests. For 

the creation of the Kh dataset, the raw displacement data for more than 130 hydraulic tests 

have been re-analyzed. Analyses have been conducted using a consistent interpretation 

approach to enable a reliable comparison between parameter estimates. Three types of single-hole 

hydraulic tests have been analyzed, i) single-hole pumping tests; ii) slug tests; and 

iii) packer tests. The packer tests comprise either slug tests or short-term pumping tests 

conducted within an interval isolated by straddle packers. The spatial density of hydraulic 

testing locations is excellent, as is the vertical distribution of test intervals at the formation, 

and at many locations, the member scale. The integration of this large set of high quality 


109

Kh estimates within the context of the stratigraphic architecture will elucidate the geologic 

controls on groundwater resource potential, and assist the City in finding new groundwater 

resources in a cost effective manner. 

153 - Arkell Spring Grounds Adaptive Management Program and 

Operational Testing Program in Support of Increased Water Taking 

R. Freymond & M. Fraser 


D. Belanger 

City of Guelph, Guelph Water Services, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

The Arkell Spring Grounds, located east of the City of Guelph in the Township of 

Puslinch, is the largest producing well field for the City. The spring grounds consist of 

shallow spring collectors, one overburden and five bedrock production wells. Subject to 

the conditions of the Arkell Class Environmental Assessment and the existing Permit 

To Take Water, the water taking from the bedrock aquifer was proposed to increase from 

19,584 m 3 /day to a maximum of 28,800 m 3 /day. The conditions of approval for increasing 

the water taking required the City to complete a detailed hydrogeologic study of the Arkell 

Spring Grounds and to develop an Adaptive Management Plan (AMP), both of which 

were approved by the Ministry of the Environment in 2009. 

The AMP is an iterative decision making process that includes assessing the problem, designing 

a management plan, implementing the plan and monitoring, followed by evaluating 

and adjusting the plan based on the results. The Arkell AMP focuses on the ecosystem health 

of Blue Springs Creek, a coldwater stream situated about 2 km to the northeast of the Arkell 

Spring Grounds. The AMP was intended to confirm the conclusion of the initial studies: 

Blue Springs Creek will not be impacted by the proposed increase in water taking from the 

bedrock aquifer system. The AMP included detailed ecosystem monitoring of Blue Springs 

Creek as well as groundwater monitoring conducted over 42 months starting in January 

2011. The 42 month monitoring period included 6 months of baseline data collection followed 

by 3 years of an Operational Testing Program (OTP) where the bedrock production 

wells are pumped at rates as high as 28,800 m 3 /day for extended periods of time. 

The use of the AMP allowed continuous re-evaluation of the monitoring program 

throughout the regulatory process in an effort to optimize the program by allocating resources 

to areas that were most informative. The results of the first two years of the OTP 

indicated no impact to the Blue Springs Creek Ecosystem as a result of pumping at the 

conditional testing rate of 26,957 m 3 /day. Through the AMP process, the testing program 

was re-evaluated resulting in the removal of a pumping rate limiting condition in 

the PTTW so that the full permitted pumping rate (28,800 m 3 /day) could be tested, thus 

accelerating project implementation. 

The talk will focus on the results of the Arkell Spring Grounds AMP and OTP while 

highlighting the use of the AMP to accelerate project implementation while avoiding unneeded 

study. 


294 - The impact of climate change on the sustainability of 

municipal water supplies and groundwater / surface water 

interactions 

Paul Y.S. Chin 


Dave Belanger 

City of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

The City of Guelph is one of the largest municipalities in Canada to rely almost entirely 

on groundwater for its potable water supply. The municipal supply system currently includes 

21 operational groundwater wells and the Arkell Spring Grounds “Glen Collector” 

system, which collects shallow groundwater through a series of underground perforated 

pipes. To enhance the supply of water into this collection system, the City operates the 

Eramosa River intake and an artificial recharge system at the Spring Grounds. Water is 

pumped from the Eramosa River into an infiltration pond and trench where it replenishes 

groundwater supplies. 

The City has recently completed a Tier Three Water Quantity Risk Assessment that assessed 

source water sustainability under future water demand, future land use development, 

and drought conditions. A watershed-scale hydrologic model (GAWSER) and a regional-scale 

groundwater flow model (FEFLOW) were developed for the study and used to 

evaluate water budgets under 45 years of historical climate conditions. The drought assessment 

used historical conditions as a surrogate to simulate future drought risk. 

The impact of potential climate change on the sustainability of municipal supplies has 

been assessed using the Tier Three models. Changing flow conditions in the Eramosa 

River, and the subsequent impact on the artificial recharge system’s ability to supply 

groundwater to the Glen Collector were examined. Groundwater recharge under changing 

climate conditions and the effect on groundwater / surface water interactions were also 

evaluated. This study provides insights that will assist in the operation and management 

of the municipal supplies. 






212 - Full Scale Application of In Situ STAR to Treat Residual Coal Tar 

Michaye McMaster, Len DeVlaming, Danielle Thorson & Gary Wealthall 

Geosyntec Consultants, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Grant Scholes, Dave Major, & Gavin Grant 

Savron Solutions, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 


111

This presentation will provide an overview of the on-going full scale application of 

Self-Sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR) to treat soils at a former 

cresol manufacturing facility in New Jersey. The remedy objective is to remove residual 

free product to the extent practicable. Non aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) smoldering is 

different from existing thermal remediation techniques. NAPL smoldering aims to create 

a combustion front that (i) initiates at a single location with the NAPL-occupied porous 

medium, (ii) is initiated with a one-time, short-duration energy input and not continuous 

application of energy, and (iii) destroys the NAPL wherever the front passes. Two successful 

pilot tests were previously conducted. These pilot tests were conducted to evaluate 

key design parameters such as: contaminant mass destruction rates; treatment radius of 

influence (ROI); and, vapor emissions levels. A feasibility and sustainability evaluation 

was conducted and STAR was selected as the remedy for on-site soils. A detailed high 

resolution site characterization program was completed to confirm the treatment area and 

to more accurately delineate the areas for treatment (i.e., NAPL). In 2014 site preparations 

were completed and the first treatment train was designed and built. TarGOST® 

and confirmatory borings indicate that upwards of 900 tons of residual NAPL exist at the 

site. STAR treatment began in late 2014 and is estimated to require 2 years to treat the 

free product NAPL. The presentation will provide an overview of the STAR process, the 

NAPL estimation methodology and discuss the activities to date in this multiyear remediation 

program. Advanced site characterization tools are vital for evaluating and refining 

the total treatment area and focusing innovative remediation technologies to where success 

can be achieved. 

284 - Two-Dimensional Numerical Modelling of STAR to Optimize 

Smouldering Combustion for NAPL Remediation 

Rebecca L. Solinger, & Jason I. Gerhard 

Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering – The University of Western Ontario, 


Gavin Grant 

Savron, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

“Self-sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation” (STAR) is an emerging technology 

for the remediation of soils impacted with non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). STAR 

uses energy generated from an exothermic combustion reaction to propagate a self-sustaining 

smouldering front through contaminated soil, leaving soil behind the front effectively 

remediated. The approach is being applied in pilot tests and at full scale for both in situ and 

ex situ applications. A two-dimensional in situ smouldering model (ISSM) was developed 

by MacPhee et. al (2012) to simulate the propagation of the smouldering front during 

STAR. Hassan (2013) then calibrated the ISSM to data from bench-scale experiments, 

providing confidence that the model predicted both the spreading pattern and ultimate 

extinction of the front in two dimensions. The model uniquely combines a multiphase 

flow simulator, which predicts the evolving air velocity field as remediation occurs, with 

an analytical combustion spread model that tracks the complex smouldering front while 

accounting for soil and contaminant heterogeneity. This work is applying the ISSM to 


study the sensitivity of large scale, commercial applications of STAR to site conditions 

and system design parameters. One study, focused on in situ applications, is calibrating the 

model to a field pilot test which will then be used for sensitivity simulations that are exploring 

permeability, coal tar saturation, injected air pressure, and location of the air injection 

well screen to study the effect on the speed and ultimate extent of remediation. A second 

study, focused on ex situ applications, is evaluating the influence of reactor design and soil 

mixing heterogeneity on the success of batch treatment of excavated soils by STAR. In 

partnering with Savron, the company that is commercializing the STAR technology, the 

findings of this work will enhance the optimization of STAR for rapid and cost effective 

soil remediation, as well as help identify limits to its application. 

164 - Feasibility of Liquid Phase Metallic Catalyzed Reductive 

Hydrodechlorination of 1,2-DCA by Sodium Borohydride as 

Hydrogen Donor 

Omneya El-Sharnouby 1 , Denis M. O’Carroll 1, 2 , Jose Herrera 1 , & Hardiljeet Boparai 1 

1 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering- Western University, London, 


2 

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Manly 

Vale, New South Wales, Australia 

1,2-Dichloroethane (1,2-DCA, C 2 

H 4 

Cl 2 

), a probable human carcinogen, is a chlorinated 

organic compound (COC) used for the synthesis of vinyl chloride. Due to improper handling, 

storage and/or disposal, it has caused widespread subsurface contamination. Chemical 

reduction by nano zero valent iron or bimetallic particles systems has been reported 

to be capable of degrading many COCs. However, although thermodynamically feasible, 

to date metal based reduction of 1,2-DCA has not been shown. Gas phase catalyzed reductive 

hydrodechlorination is reported to effectively dechlorinate a wide variety of COCs 

including 1,2-DCA using hydrogen gas as reductant, and catalysts for hydrogen activation 

and reaction surface. However, the process is carried out at high temperatures (+200 º C), 

making it impractical for contaminated field sites applications. Recently, liquid phase catalyzed 

reductive hydrodechlorination has emerged as a field applicable technology showing 

promising results in reducing COCs. Nonetheless, bench scale studies lack information on 

liquid phase catalyzed hydrodechlorination of 1,2-DCA. Therefore, in this study the feasibility 

of liquid phase catalyzed reductive hydrodechlorination of 1,2-DCA using sodium 

borohydride as a hydrogen source over different catalysts is investigated. Using the gas 

phase hydrodechlorination process as an example, Pd, Cu, Cu/Pd, and Ni, were the chosen 

catalysts. For the first time, effective liquid phase hydrodechlorination of 1,2-DCA on Pd 

and Ni is achieved. 1,2-DCA degradation profiles, and reaction kinetics are explained. 

Mechanisms and products are discussed along with likely degradation pathways. Effect of 

the different catalysts on the degradation efficiency as well as the different loadings, and 

formulations are also presented. 


113

296 - In-Situ Subsurface Remediation of Tetrachloroethylene 

(PCE) Using Soil Mixing Technology with Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI) 

and Clay 

Sarah Cicchini 

Golder Associates Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 

David Smyth 

Golder Associates Ltd., Mississauga, Ontario, Canada 

Michelle Gray 

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 

This paper describes the use of soil mixing technology with bentonite clay and zero-valent 

iron (clay/ZVI) technology for the in situ remediation of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) contamination 

in a subsurface setting of fractured silty clay overlying weathered shale bedrock. 

The subsurface contamination was present beneath a former municipal wastewater treatment 

lagoon at the Whitefish Lake First Nation #128 in northern Alberta. The lagoon, 

which was situated in close proximity to a shallow lake, had received much of an accidental 

release of PCE from a local dry cleaning operation in the early 1980s. As part of the 

decommissioning of the municipal wastewater treatment plant, which was completed in 

2010, subsurface investigation was undertaken in the vicinity of the lagoon between 2008 

and 2011. 

PCE and its related degradation compounds were present at high concentrations in soil 

and groundwater beneath and in the vicinity of the lagoon. The maximum concentrations 

of PCE were 8,900 mg/kg in soil and 170 mg/L in groundwater. The depths of contamination 

ranged from the base of the lagoon to as much as 9 metres below ground surface 

(mbgs) beneath the former lagoon, and between depths of approximately 2 and 5 mbgs 

beyond the limits of the former lagoon. 

The selection of remedial actions was influenced by distance to secure landfill facilities and 

the intent to return the site of the lagoon to vacant green space. Bench-scale treatability 

tests at the Colorado State University using a 2 % ZVI and 1 % bentonite mixture by mass 

in site soil indicated PCE removal of between 87 and 93 % after six months. The full-scale 

soil mixing program was implemented in 2012. It consisted of the advancement of 306 

overlapping mixed soil columns (~2.4 m diameter) to depths between 5 to 9 mbgs, and the 

mixing of approximately 7,450 m 3 of soil. To accommodate the swelling of the mixed soils, 

a perimeter containment berm was constructed around the mix zone. 

Post-mixing monitoring of the soil in the mix zone since 2013 has indicated the loss of 

approximately 97% of the PCE, stable to decreasing concentrations of trichloroethylene, 

dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride, some variability in concentrations of cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, 

and an initial increase in concentrations of chloride. Shallow groundwater flow 

has appeared to by-pass the treatment area, with limited groundwater flow into and out of 

the soil mix zone. Capping and surface stabilization of the mix zone are planned for 2014. 


173 - Field trials of subsurface chaotic advection 

Michelle S. Cho & Neil R. Thomson 

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Chaotic advection refers to the mixing of fluid elements which arise from repeated stretching 

and folding of fluid parcels. Chaotic advection can be engineered in porous media 

by time-dependent Darcy flows and has the potential to enhance mixing under laminar 

conditions. Enhanced mixing has many possible applications in environmental science and 

engineering. Remediation of contaminated aquifers is particularly relevant where mixing 

between the injected reagent and contaminant is necessary. If chaotic advection can be 

stimulated and controlled in situ, remediation efficiencies may be significantly increased 

by enhanced mixing between the injected reagents and contaminants. To assess whether 

chaotic advection can be invoked at scale in a natural porous medium, a field trial has been 

designed in the sandpit area at the University of Waterloo Groundwater Research Facility 

at CFB Borden located near Alliston, ON, Canada, where we propose to use a transient 

reoriented dipole flow for subsurface stirring. A 3 m x 10 m zone in the aquifer has been 

isolated by sheet piling penetrating 2 m below ground surface. A funnel and gate system 

is in place to assess remedial technologies. In the initial phase, we propose to study the 

behaviour of conservative tracers within the aquifer with undisturbed and chaotic groundwater 

flows. Focus will then move to the treatability of a light non-aqueous phase liquid 

(LNAPL) source zone by injected reagents under chaotic and non-chaotic conditions. 

An LNAPL will be released under controlled conditions and then allowed to redistribute 

under gravity, forming a residual LNAPL distribution with the vicinity of the water table. 

This presentation will describe the design criteria associated with the various aspects of this 

field trial, and present modeling results for determination of key flow system parameters 

as well as field data from the tracer test to suggest the presence of chaotic advection in the 

experimental aquifer. 

Groundwater Issues from Mining 

& Aggregates 


Chair: Simon Gautrey 


134 - Protecting water resources with a groundwater recharge 

well system at the Dufferin Aggregates Milton Quarry 

J. Richard Murphy, William T. Armes, & P. Nicholas Fitzpatrick 

GHD (formerly Conestoga-Rovers & Associates), Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

A sophisticated and extensive Groundwater Recharge Well System (GRWS) has been 

successfully implemented for the protection of water resources at the Dufferin Aggregates 


115

Milton Quarry. This system is a unique application of recharge well technology to achieve 

hydrogeologic mitigation of quarry dewatering effects in a sensitive ecological environment. 

Dufferin Aggregates owns and operates one of the largest aggregate quarries in Canada, near 

Milton, in southwestern Ontario. At the Milton Quarry, aggregate resources are extracted 

from the caprock of the Niagara Escarpment (dolostone of the Amabel/Gasport Formation) 

and processed to produce a range of high‐quality crushed stone products. The same dolostone 

formation comprises a shallow unconfined aquifer that supports nearby water supply 

wells, cold water fisheries, and wetlands, including vernal pools used for breeding by the 

Jefferson Salamander Complex which is protected under the Endangered Species Act. 

In 2007 an Extension of the Quarry was approved by the Province of Ontario including the 

requirement to implement the GRWS to maintain groundwater levels surrounding the Extension 

Quarry to prevent negative impacts that might otherwise occur as a result of quarry 

dewatering effects. 

GHD conceived and designed the GRWS to protect water resources and associated ecological 

features in the area of the Milton Quarry from the quarry dewatering influence. This was 

a new approach to environmental mitigation for the aggregate industry; in fact, no comparable 

example could be found anywhere in the world. The GRWS was critical to the success of 

the approval of the Extension Quarry. 

The GRWS has been fully constructed and has been operational since 2007. The GRWS 

forms part of an overall water management system comprised of a reservoir, dedicated pumping 

stations, buried watermains, build-out to over 100 recharge wells, 3 diffuse discharges 

to wetlands, and an Adaptive Management Plan (AMP) that provides the mitigation and 

monitoring framework. The AMP involves extensive monitoring including on-line data reporting 

for access by oversight agencies. 

The GRWS has proven to be effective in mitigating the quarry dewatering effects on nearby 

water resources and maintaining pre-determined seasonally-varying target groundwater 

levels. Ecological monitoring has demonstrated that there have been no detrimental effects 

to the nearby water resources and associated ecological features from the ongoing expansion 

of the quarry. 

The combination of the technical approach and the Adaptive Management Plan makes Dufferin’s 

Milton Quarry a showpiece of environmental protection for the aggregate industry. 


282 - Evaluating mining impacts on groundwater quality in Lake 

Poopó basin, Bolivia using geochemical and isotope tracers 

Sylvia Barroso 1 , Ronald Zapata 2 & Ramon Aravena 3 

1 

BC Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resources, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada 

2 

Department of Engineering – University of San Francisco Xavier, Sucre, Bolivia 

3 

Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Historical and present mining activities have seriously impacted water quality in the Bolivian 

Altiplano (High Plain). The environmental effects of mining in the Poopó River 

and Antequera River sub-watersheds of the Lake Poopó Basin were considered, along 

with physiography, geology, and mine waste management. Stable isotopes, 18 O and 2 H in 

water, and 34 S and 18 O in sulfate complemented with chemical data were used to evaluate 

the impacts of mine tailings in groundwater. In the Poopó River watershed, tailings leachate, 

and slurry from the refinement of zinc and lead ore was held in a ~5 hectare tailings 

impoundment situated at the apex of a colluvial fan, and isolated from the adjacent river. 

In the Antequera River watershed, a >10 ha tailings reservoir was located within the river 

channel, creating a dilute acidic (pH 2) mixture of precipitation and wastewater. As a result 

of evaporation, the isotopic composition of water in the tailings impoundments was higher 

than in groundwater and surface water. Springs, rivers, and shallow groundwater had an 

average isotopic composition of -13‰, and -100‰ for δ 18 O and δ 2 H, respectively. Water 

isotopes in groundwater from drilled wells were lower (median δ 18 O=-15‰, and δ 2 H=- 

110‰), originating from recharge at higher elevation. Stable isotopes of sulfate combined 

with geochemical data were useful indicators of mixing between polluted and ambient 

waters. In comparison to other sources, tailings samples had a very negative sulfate isotope 

composition with average values of -5‰ and -12‰ for δ 34 S and δ 18 O, respectively. Water 

sources impacted by mine waste had lower sulfate isotope composition and higher concentrations 

of cadmium and other trace metals. In Poopó impacts were evident in shallow 

groundwater adjacent to the tailings pond. In Antequera, impacts of leachate from the 

impoundment were noted at distance in down gradient groundwater and surface waters. 

Options for provision of fresh water in this region are limited. Groundwater in drilled wells 

contained elevated, naturally occurring, boron, aluminum and arsenic; while shallow dug 

wells were contaminated by natural and anthropogenic pollutants, including tailings leachate 

and evaporite salts. Sources of uncontaminated water were low temperature springs and 

creeks at higher elevation, upstream of industrial activities and human settlements. 


117

171 - Evaluating the Effects of Increased Lithium Brine 

Extraction from the Salar de Atacama: Conceptual and Numerical 

Groundwater Models 

Mark King 

Groundwater Insight, Inc., Canada 

Steve Shikaze 

Matrix Solutions Inc., Canada 

Hector Maya 

Rockwood Lithium, Chile 

Jaime Solari & Laura Vitoria 

SGA, Chile 

Most of the world’s lithium reserves occur in dry salt lakes (salars) located in a section of 

the high Andes near the common borders of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia. Almost all of 

the current lithium production from this region originates from two companies operating 

in the Salar de Atacama. One of these companies, Rockwood Lithium, is currently seeking 

government approval to increase its brine production rate. This paper provides an overview 

of conceptual and numerical groundwater models constructed to evaluate the potential 

impacts of this proposed increase in brine extraction. 

The Salar de Atacama is located in an extreme desert environment, with annual precipitation 

of less than 50 mm/yr. The lithium-containing brine is located under the flat surface 

of the salar, in a porous evaporite matrix. The nucleus of the salar contains brine with as 

much as ten times the dissolved solids content of seawater. Meanwhile, subsurface waters 

in the outer border areas of the basin are relatively fresh, and are used as a freshwater 

resource. A key environmental feature of the Salar de Atacama are the shallow border lagoons, 

which are an important breeding habitat for migratory flamingoes. Consequently, a 

key criteria for any increase in brine pumping rates is that the water levels in these shallow 

border lagoons remain unaffected. 

In this environment of extreme salinity contrasts, the effects of increased brine pumping 

were evaluated with the numerical model SEAWAT. This numerical code has the capability 

of simulating density-dependent flow, which is a key process in the salar border area, 

where there is an interface between subsurface brines and saline to fresh waters. In this 

evaluation, local-scale SEAWAT models were coordinated with a regional-scale, flow-only 

MODFLOW model. This paper presents an overview of the conceptual and numerical 

approaches used to evaluate this unique and complex environment. 

131 - A Conceptual Model for Pore Water Release from Coal Waste 

Rock Piles in the Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada 

Terryn Kuzyk, S. Lee Barbour, & M. Jim Hendry 

Department of Civil and Geological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 



The open pit mining of coal results in the formation of new landforms constructed from 

waste rock. Rock drains, either constructed or formed during dumping by natural segregation, 

underlie some of these landforms. Constructed rock drains are often designed to convey 

surface water from higher in the watershed through the waste rock dumps. Rock drains also 

collect water moving through the waste rock and convey it to adjacent surface and ground 

water. Long-term monitoring of the chemistry of water conveyed by rock drains provides 

an opportunity to characterize the rates of flushing of these constituents through the waste 

rock piles. In this study, a conceptual model for the long-term release of nitrate (NO 3 

), selenium 

(Se), and sulfate (SO 4 

) from coal waste rock piles is developed and used to interpret 

monitoring data from eleven rock drains of varying ages in the Elk Valley, British Columbia. 

The hypothesis of the conceptual model is that the flushing of the first pore volume of water 

within the waste rock can be characterized by NO 3 

release. The NO 3 

is derived from blasting 

and is considered to be a conservative species. The first pore volume will also contain SO 4 

and 

Se generated by oxidation of waste rock during blasting and pile construction. Post-depositional 

oxidation and production of SO 4 

and Se are identified by the evolution of the effluent 

signature from an initial SO 4 

/NO 3 

ratio, representative of the initial pore fluid at deposition, 

to an increasing SO 4 

/NO 3 

ratio as the initial pore volume is released and Se and SO 4 

are 

produced by oxidation. This hypothesis is tested by interpreting the patterns of NO 3 

, SO 4 

, 

and Se release as described by SO 4 

/ NO 3 

and Se/SO 4 

ratios. In cases where upstream sources 

are contributing to the observed flow and concentrations within the rock drain, an attempt 

is made to correct the monitoring data so that it represents only the contribution from the 

waste rock overlying the rock drain. The concentrations of NO 3 

and SO 4 

were found to 

correspond to differences in the chronology of waste rock placement, while the Se/SO 4 

ratios 

were relatively constant and consistent with ratios associated with oxidation. A model of the 

evolution of the effluent chemistry was developed using a system dynamics model comprised 

of stocks (water storage) and flows (flushing) within blocks of waste rock placed at various 

times within a watershed. The model illustrates how stored water volumes, rates of flushing, 

production rates, dump chronology, and, where applicable, upstream sources control the 

evolution of rock drain chemistry over time. The goal of this work is to develop methods of 

evaluating the impact that various dump designs might have on the timing and magnitude 

of NO 3 

, Se, and SO 4 

releases. 

110 - Characterisation of physical mass transport through oil 

sands fluid fine tailings in an end pit lake: a multi-tracer study 

Kathryn Dompierre & Lee Barbour 

Department of Civil and Geological Engineering - University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 


The first end pit lake in the Athabasca oil sands region has been developed by Syncrude 

Canada Ltd. as part of their closure design for the Mildred Lake Mine site, 40 km north of 

Fort McMurray. The end pit lake, referred to as Base Mine Lake, was constructed within a 

mined-out pit, and incorporates 186 Mm 3 of fluid fine tailings (FFT) below an 8 m water 

cap. Fluid fine tailings are a dense fluid with dispersed, suspended solids, residual bitumen 

and elevated TDS (Siddique et al., 2007). Chemical constituents of concern may move 


119

from the FFT into the lake water via two key processes: (1) advective-diffusive mass transport 

with upward pore water flow caused by settling of the FFT; and (2) mixing created by 

wind events or unstable density profiles through the lake water and upper portion of the 

FFT. Assessing the physical movement of constituents of concern across the FFT-water 

interface is central to determining the feasibility of isolating FFT from the overlying lake, 

and for defining the long-term water chemistry of an end pit lake system. 

In September 2013, vertical thermistor strings were installed off of central platforms on 

Base Mine Lake to measure seasonal temperatures within the lake water and FFT. In 

July 2014, FFT and water samples were taken at 10 cm intervals across the FFT-water 

interface. The samples were centrifuged and analysed in the laboratory using the vapour 

equilibration technique to determine the stable isotopes of water signatures of the tailings 

pore water (Wassenaar et al., 2008). Numerical models were developed in GeoStudio © 

to represent various forms of heat and mass transport through the FFT. The simulation 

results were compared to measured temperatures and stable isotopes of water profiles from 

Base Mine Lake, to evaluate the dominant form of heat and mass transport in the FFT. 

Temperatures within the top 5 m of FFT were affected by seasonal temperature variations in 

the lake water, which was measured to range from 0°C to 18°C. Tailings temperatures below 

the seasonally-affected zone were consistent throughout the measurement period, with an 

average temperature of 10°C. Stable isotopes of water signatures in the FFT pore water were 

fairly consistent with average deuterium and oxygen-18 signatures of -112.84 ‰ and -12.66 

‰, respectively. The FFT pore water signatures were more enriched than the isotope signatures 

measured in the lake, corresponding to findings outlined by Baer (2014). 

The heat transport models indicated that mixing occurs within the top portion of FFT in 

Base Mine Lake during unstable conditions in the fall. The FFT mixing models suggested 

that the dominant form of energy movement through the FFT is a conduction and forced 

convection thermal regime with an upward pore water flow of 0.004 m/d or less. Contrary 

to the heat transport model results, the isotope profiles created by the mass transport models 

without a mixing event provided a reasonable fit to the field data. However, the mass 

transport models with a fall mixing event demonstrated that upward pore water flow could 

reset the observed isotope profile before the isotope samples were collected in the summer. 

Consequently, the isotopic profiles were used to evaluate the mass transport regime required 

Workshop on Groundwater Policy 1 


Chair: Steve Wallace 

Room: Bloomingdale 

144 - Whither Groundwater Policy - Challenges and Opportunities 

of a Paradigm Shift? 


Hugh C. Simpson 

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph, Guelph, 


Robert C. de Loë 

Department of Environment and Resource Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 


Historically, the development and implementation of groundwater policy has been guided 

almost exclusively by expert science and traditional risk analysis. This approach has worked 

well for environmental problems that are relatively simple and predictable. Unfortunately, 

many of the environmental problems that are being faced by decision makers can be classified 

as complex problems. 

Examples include the management and protection or groundwater resources. Complex environmental 

problems are a particular challenge because they are ‘quasi-scientific’, requiring 

more than scientific knowledge needs to be considered during the problem-solving process. 

Current research indicates that a broader and more inclusive risk analysis approach is needed 

for addressing complex environmental problems. A key part of this broader approach 

is involving members of affected communities so that local experiential knowledge, and 

societal beliefs and values, can be incorporated with expert science during the discussion 

and negotiation of solutions to complex problems. This is a difficult challenge for the 

expert science community, and requires a shift from the inwardly-focused traditional approach 

to a more open and inclusive process for groundwater policy development and 

implementation. 

This paper explores elements of the paradigm shift that appears to be taking place in the 

development and implementation of groundwater policy. First, the criteria that qualify 

groundwater management and protection as a complex environmental problem are presented. 

Second, an alternative to the traditional approach – collaborative environmental 

problem-solving – is discussed. Finally, some examples of how collaborative environmental 

problem-solving is being implemented into groundwater policy are presented. 

124 - Implementing Source Protection in York Region 

Scott Lister 

York Region, Newmarket, Ontario, Canada 

This talk will discuss the preparation for implementation of Part IV of the Clean Water 

Act’s source water protection requirements in York Region. This will include a discussion 

of tools and techniques used to identify, investigate and manage over 1,000 water quality 

threats to drinking water sources in York Region, Ontario, focusing on protection of forty-one 

municipal drinking water wells. Threats were investigated using several methods 

of outreach, including site visits with business owners and farmers to complete surveys. 

Generally speaking, under the proposed Source Protection Plans existing threats must be 

managed using Risk Management Plans (RMPs), while proposed activities that would be 


121

significant threats are prohibited. Two existing threat activities conducted by York Region 

require a Risk Management Plan, and a few others are governed by an Environmental 

Compliance Approval. In such cases, those approvals will be amended to include conditions 

to mitigate water quality risks. While waiting for Source Protection Plans to be 

approved the Region has negotiated interim Risk Management Plans (iRMPs) with a 

number of businesses and farmers, and itself! To facilitate RMP negotiation, a DNAPL 

template was developed with the assistance of a DNAPL expert in order to easily list 

threats on-site, existing mitigation measures already in place, and potential gaps. The expert 

developed a list of risk management measures to ensure threats on-site cease to be significant 

threats. York Region also ran a pilot project with an agricultural expert to develop 

an iRMP for a farm. The agronomist, who is also a certified crop advisor, was hired by York 

Region to assess the farm’s drinking water threats, current risk management measures, and 

to propose new risk management measures in the iRMP to ensure the identified activities 

cease to be a significant threat. A Council approved incentive funding program has also 

been established to subsidize the cost of risk management measures and foster relations 

with affected business owners and farmers. 

216 - Source Water Policy Implementation and Application of 

Source Water Protection Models 

Tom Bradley, Don Goodyear, & Mike Fairbanks 

York Region, Newmarket, Ontario, Canada 

The Province of Ontario introduced the Clean Water Act in 2006 to implement Source 

Water Protection (SWP) of municipal drinking water supplies. The program safeguards 

the quality and quantity of municipal drinking water to ensure it is viable in the future. 

Approval of Source Protection Plans and their associated policies require government 

agencies and consultants to apply tools such as numerical models. This talk will focus on 

the current and the future applications of the numerical models developed for the York 

Region Tier 3 Water Budget. 

York Region provides drinking water to a population of over a million, and is growing. 

Water demand associated with the large and expanding population triggered a Tier 3 water 

quantity risk assessment. The models developed for the Tier 3 benefited from York Region’s 

participation in the York, Peel, Durham and Toronto (YPDT) groundwater management 

partnership. The YPDT databases and numerical model were built upon for the 

Tier 3 project and the resulting model is a USGS, GSFLOW transient model, a coupled 

surface water/groundwater model. 

Source Protection Plans (SPP) developed policies that are specific to York Region and ensure 

the moderate risk assigned to its WHPA-Q1 never become a significant risk. In order to 

maintain the moderate risk assignment the policies require planning and approval agencies 

to consider model results when making decisions related to water quantity management. To 

be pro-active, prior to implementation of the policies, York Region applied the Tier 3 models 

to address policies focusing on potential recharge reductions. The Region developed a model 

scenario that evaluated potential impacts associated with increases to impervious, urban area. 


York Region has also begun projects that will permit Region use of the Tier 3 model for 

updates to York Region capture zones (Well Head Protection Areas). The work includes, 

sensitivity assessments, model updates, and assessment of hydrogeologic assumptions used 

in earlier capture zone delineation projects. In addition to implementing Source Protection 

Plan policies, York Region developed an operational plan to redistribute water taking and 

mitigate predicted impacts of extreme drought (climate change). 

The Tier 3 models have provided York Region and its partners, insight into the municipal 

supply aquifers. They have highlighted potential water management issues and provided 

collaboration opportunities between water managers and planning authorities. Continued 

application of the York Region Tier 3 models, as a result of SWP policies, will improve the 

models and improve the understanding of local groundwater resources. 

183 - Development of a Risk Reduction Process to address 

Groundwater Safety in Northern Canada 

N.S. Sundaram, J. Sauriol & J.P. Gobeil 

Stantec Consulting Ltd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

A drinking water system that obtains water from a groundwater source may not require 

secondary disinfection, particle filtration, removal of dissolved organics, and other water 

treatment techniques, as the aquifer supplying the water may be able to provide sufficient 

natural filtration. Because of the significant human health issues associated with drinking 

water supply potability, development of a risk reduction process to evaluate aquifer safety 

is required. The standard risk reduction process involves the installation of test wells in the 

supply aquifer and observation wells between the test wells and nearby surface water bodies, 

based on published information from the provincial ministries with respect to aquifer geometry, 

geology, and hydrology. The application of this standard process to some northern 

Canadian environments introduces significant scientific uncertainties, owing to the lack of 

published information at a scale suitable for the application of standard practice, and to the 

potential presence of discontinuous groundwater flow regimes resulting from northern geology 

and/or significant frost/permafrost presence. Therefore, development of an improved 

risk reduction process to address groundwater safety in Northern Canada was considered. 

Our approach to the development of an improved risk reduction process comprised of 

integrating multiple independent lines of evidence to arrive at a defensible conclusion. In 

order for our approach to show potential, at least two lines of evidence needed to confirm 

each other. A highly defensible approach would require confirmation from all three lines 

of evidence. We have applied this altered risk reduction process to a site located within 

the vicinity of Val-d’Or, Quebec. For the subject site discussed in this paper, we have 

applied a multi-pronged approach that comprised of assessing several independent lines of 

evidence simultaneously (i.e., application of environmental tracer chemicals [Chlorofluorocarbons 

(CFCs), Sulfur Hexafluoride] to groundwater age, identification of microscopic 

surface water-borne organisms to determine surface water intrusion, and hydraulic testing 

to determine aquifer properties) to overcome the uncertainties that are unique to Northern 

Canadian environment. 


123

Groundwater Issues From Oil and Gas 

Exploration & Production 2 


Chair: Dick Jackson 

Room: Strauss 

220 - Injection Wells in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin 

Grant Ferguson 

Department of Civil and Geological Engineering – University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 


Over 23 km 3 of water has been injected into the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin 

(WCSB). The amount of injection has increased in recent years with the advent of hydraulic 

fracturing, various enhanced oil recovery techniques and the growth in potash production. 

Despite this large volume of injection, few negative effects have been definitively 

reported. Contamination of shallow groundwater resources has not been documented at 

a large-scale. Links between seismicity and injection have been made in only a few cases. 

The dearth of consequences may indicate that there are in fact few to document. Alternatively, 

existing research and monitoring efforts may not be sufficient to record the effects of 

injection. Here, known effects of injection are characterized and research and monitoring 

gaps are identified. Understanding the reasons for the apparent success of most injection 

wells in the WCSB is important not only to the continued development of that basin but 

also to support development of other sedimentary basins where there is little to no experience 

with injection wells. 

267 - Assessing water quality of shallow groundwater near a 

tailings pond in the Athabasca oil sands region 

J.W. Roy, G. Bickerton, R.A. Frank, L. Grapentine, & L.M. Hewitt 

Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, 

Canada 

Oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) contains a complex mixture of neutral and polar 

organic compounds, including naphthenic acids, as well as elevated levels of many metals 

and major ions. Many of these are toxic to aquatic life. Thus, the potential for leakage of 

OSPW from tailings ponds to groundwater and subsequent transport of OSPW-affected 

groundwater to nearby surface waters is an environmental concern. However, unaffected 

groundwaters in this area may contain similar mixtures, with possible inputs from several 

geological formations, including one containing natural oil sands. This complicates the 

assessment of groundwater quality and potential ecological impacts from tailings ponds. 

In this study, we attempted such an assessment for an old tailings pond on the edge of the 

Athabasca River using relatively-routine chemical analyses. Over 3 years, >180 shallow 

groundwater samples were collected from riparian areas along the Athabasca River and 

nearby tributaries proximate to oil sands developments, with analyses for major ions, trace 


metals and fluorescence profiles of aromatic naphthenic acids (ANA). Within this data set, 

71 were collected adjacent to our study tailings pond (called “pond-site” samples), while 

54 were not near any tailings pond (called “non-pond” samples). Canadian aquatic life 

guidelines were exceeded for about half of the 20 assessed compounds for both of these 

sets of samples. Indeed, statistical analyses indicate that non-pond samples were indistinguishable 

from, or had higher concentrations than, the pond-site samples for all of the 

assessed parameters, except for F, Mo, Se, and U. This suggests that at this time shallow 

groundwater adjacent to this study tailings pond generally poses no greater risk to aquatic 

life than other shallow groundwaters in the area. Multivariate analyses were also applied to 

the full groundwater dataset separated spatially into 11 smaller zones, including 4 adjacent 

to the study pond, and 2 OSPW samples from nearby tailings ponds. For the majority of 

the parameters, there was considerable overlap in the data from different zones, including 

those near the study pond and away from the pond. However, consideration of a set of 

indicator parameters, including ANA, F, Mo, Se, and Na–Cl ratio, revealed a similarity between 

a small subset of samples (

259 - Assessment of Non-saline Water Use in Alberta’s Upstream 

Oil and Gas Sector between 2004 and 2013: Implications on 

Forecasted Water Use 

T.G. Lemay 

Alberta Energy Regulator, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 

The extraction of hydrocarbons from Alberta’s subsurface relies heavily upon non-saline 

water resources. This water is used in drilling wells, completing wells using techniques 

such as hydraulic fracturing, enhancing recovery through water flooding, processing oil 

sands ore, and generating steam for in situ oil sands extraction. Over the 2004 to 2013 

time period, many changes have occurred in the upstream oil and gas sector in Alberta 

that have influenced non-saline water use in the extraction of hydrocarbons. Many of these 

changes in non-saline water use are related to the changes in the type of exploration and 

production activities being undertaken by upstream oil and gas companies, many of which 

are driven by the transition towards a mature basin, changing commodity prices for oil and 

natural gas and the fiscal realities of project economics. The shift from drilling predominantly 

vertical natural gas wells to drilling horizontal wells targeting liquid hydrocarbons, 

and the continued growth in oil sands mining and in-situ oil sands extraction has meant 

that non-saline water use has changed over time as well in response to Alberta’s oil and 

gas landscape. Our assessment of non-saline water use yielded results that show increases 

between 2004 and 2013 by 54% compared to total non-saline water use in 2004. The 

largest user of non-saline water in the upstream oil and gas sector is the oil sands mining 

sector accounting for 67 to 80% of total non-saline water used. The second largest user 

of non-saline water was the enhanced recovery sector, but only during the 2004 to 2008 

time period. After 2008, the enhanced recovery sector became the third largest user of 

non-saline water. The use of non-saline water for in-situ oil sands extraction represents the 

third largest use of non-saline water between 2004 and 2008, and the second largest use of 

non-saline water between 2009 and 2013. Non-saline water use for drilling represents the 

fourth largest use, and non-saline water in hydraulic fracturing was identified as the smallest 

user. The realities of Alberta’s maturing basin, changing commodity prices and project 

economics will continue to influence the future of non-saline water use. The relationships 

between trends in exploration and development and water use can therefore enable general 

estimates of future non-saline water use based on project development scenarios aiding in 

the identification of current and future demands for water in Alberta. 

303 - Creation of a comprehensive database to characterize 

surface and groundwater quality in the Peace River Regional 

District, North East BC, Canada 

Antonio Barroso & Gilles Wendling 

GW Solutions, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada 

The Peace River Regional District (PRRD) in northeastern British Columbia encompasses 

12 million hectares and is well known for the intensive activity of the oil and gas industry. 

Currently there are many entities including private consultants, non-governmental 


organizations and government agencies collecting water samples from both surface water 

and groundwater sources. However, this information had not been incorporated into a 

comprehensive database that could be used to characterize sites and to evaluate the possible 

impact of the industry on water quality. A common approach is to collect new data, without 

necessarily taking into account historical records, or information collected by other 

entities. Additionally, obtaining reliable information on ambient or background conditions 

is difficult, because of the decades long history of industrial activities throughout the 

region. A database was developed for the PRRD that compiled existing information on 

surface water and groundwater quality. Nearly 12,000 samples from 364 monitoring sites 

were incorporated to characterize surface water chemistry and over 800 samples from 364 

monitoring sites were included to characterize groundwater chemistry of the area. Data included 

in the database span a monitoring period of over 40 years, and were retrieved from 

various, mainly publically available, sources of information including the BC Environmental 

Monitoring System database, the regional health authority, the Site C hydroelectric 

project and so on. The database was built into a GIS format which enables the evaluation 

of spatial trends, and which can easily be converted to other platforms such as Google 

Earth layers, tables, etc. The information was classified into five categories including site 

and sampling information, general chemistry, total and dissolved metals, isotopes, and other 

parameters. An analysis of metals in surface water and groundwater was completed to 

assess the evolution of different parameters over time at varied watershed scales. Surface 

water chemical results were also compared with current national and provincial guidelines 

for aquatic life. Aluminum, cadmium and mercury exceeded the aquatic life guidelines 

within 70%, 60% and 58% of the samples respectively. This is the first comprehensive 

database of this kind compiled for the region, which may be used as a baseline for future 

water quality assessments, to identify gaps or deficiencies in current monitoring programs, 

and to more effectively evaluate the influence of activities on the land and water resources 

in the Peace River. 




Room: Wagner 

313 - Sequence Stratigraphic and Karstic controls of Regional 

Groundwater Flow Zones within the Early Silurian Lockport Group 

of the Niagara Escarpment, Southern Ontario and Manitoulin 

Island 

Frank R. Brunton 

Earth Resources and Geoscience Mapping Section, Ontario Geological Survey, Sudbury, 



127

Regional bedrock potable groundwater flow zone mapping by the Ontario Geological 

Survey across the Niagara Escarpment region of Southern Ontario and Manitoulin Island 

has revealed the existence of preferred pathways that have and are taking advantage of 

predictable and karstic sequence stratigraphic boundaries. Building upon the revisions to 

the Early Silurian stratigraphy in SW Ontario (Brunton and Brintnell, 2012), this study 

highlights the implications of a new paleogeographic/paleoenvironmental perspective. 

The new perspective provides important insights into the controls and predictive nature of 

various carbonate bedrock fluid pathways. It also highlights the economic importance of 

characterizing forebulge-tectonic zones, and the value of geologic mapping and acquisition 

of geologic data to successfully explore, characterize, and name bedrock flow zones in a 

cost-effective manner. 

The study area straddles what has traditionally been described as the boundary between 

the Michigan intracratonic Basin and Appalachian Foreland Basin – a northeast-southwest 

trending feature known as the Algonquin Arch. This study has revealed that the 

so-called Arch can better be referred to as a flexural fore bulge region that migrated both 

spatially and temporally from north to south in southwestern Ontario through the Early 

Silurian. Intermittent responses to far-field tectonics along the Appalachian Foreland basin 

influenced local carbonate ramp geometries and relative sea level fluctuations and differential 

erosion regionally. The more significant the time breaks within the stratigraphic 

architecture – the more regional and significant the extent of the flow zones. 

The sedimentary rocks that comprise the Niagara Escarpment are Early Silurian in age 

and display a complex but predictable stratigraphic architecture that has been revealed 

through acquisition and detailed logging/sampling of cores and outcrops both within and 

away from the “Arch” or fore bulge region. Due to regional stress fields and differential 

erosion of the Paleozoic strata, rock strata presently dip gently in a SW direction away 

from the topographic high of the erosional Niagara scarp face. The underlying regionally 

extensive Cabot Head Formation shales of Clinton Group form the regional aquitard to 

the potable water supplies that reside in the overlying Lockport Group carbonates. 

Delineation of preferred bedrock groundwater flow zones required regional outcrop mapping, 

combined with examination of > 100 bedrock/overburden cores and/or geophysically-logged 

boreholes. The cores were logged and sampled for whole rock, trace element, and 

select REEs and isotopes (C, O, Sr), and conodont biostratigraphy over a five year period 

(2009 through 2014). Key cored holes across the study area also had video logs, variable 

duration packer pumping tests, FLUTe K-profiling, select Heat Pulse and optical-acoustic 

televiewer profiling, and select dye tracer tests. Many of the key cores integrated in this 

study were collected in collaboration with municipalities and other partners that both rely 

on bedrock ground waters and/or are exploring for new resources to meet future population 

and industry pressures. 

Following examination of the regional updip shallow well and more than 16000 oil/gas 

deeper well data, it became apparent that the sequence stratigraphic character of the Early 

Silurian strata was more complex than previously reported, but that similarities exist 

from updip and more deeply buried 3D-structures referred to as Guelph Pinnacle Reefs 


(up to 100m-thick x kms in width & length). The deeply buried Guelph Pinnacles are 

not biogenic reefs, but comprise older and variably paleokarsted Lockport Group strata 

(Gasport & Goat Island Fms) – similar to high-flow groundwaters discovered in Cambridge-Guelph. 

The up to 100m of paleorelief of Lockport Group strata represents an ancient 

(Early Silurian) discontinuous, northwesterly facing set of scarps (mesa/butte topography—tower 

karst) enveloped by Salina Group shallow marine microbialites/evaporites 

(Sarnia area). Newly acquired biostratigraphy data suggest a significant time break separates 

Lockport and Salina Group strata. The Guelph Fm is a karst breccia regionally – reflecting 

extensive Silurian karst erosion – terrestrial settings (Sarnia area) that transition to 

marginal marine-estuarine (Bruce Peninsula-Mount Forest-Kitchener-Waterloo) through 

more open marine settings (i.e. Luther Lakes-Elora to Guelph-Cambridge regions) in an 

ESE direction – carbonate ramp dipping toward the Appalachian Foreland Basin. 

180 - The Use of Mass Balance Modelling to Assess Production 

Well Capture Zones 

M. Fraser & C. Johnston 


R. Wootton, R. Vaillancourt, & E. Hodgins 

Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada 

Source water protection is the first step in the multi-barrier approach to protecting drinking 

water. Capture zones are the basis for source water protection and source protection 

plans and are used to assess potential threats to water quality and/or quantity. The capture 

zones delineate the extent and boundaries of the land area contributing water to the intake 

or well. Therefore the reliable determination of these capture zones is crucial to successful 

source water protection planning. 

For groundwater supplies, capture zones are typically developed using groundwater flow 

modelling, which depending on the assumptions and parameters used (or known at the 

time) could provide varying results. Mass balance modeling of surficial contaminants, such 

as nitrate and chloride, could be used to assess the accuracy of these capture zones. The 

premise being that the mass of a parameter applied at surface should equal the mass of 

the parameter removed in the pumped water at the production well once degradation and 

attenuation are considered. 

Real world examples will be presented to demonstrate how mass balance modeling of 

nitrate and chloride was used to further refine the understanding of the production well 

capture zone. 


129

168 - Deep groundwater systems in southern Ontario: Base of 

fresh water, water types, and flow directions 

Terry Carter 1 , Dejie Wang 2 , Jordan Clark 3 , Arthur Castillo 4 , & Lee Fortner 4 

1 

Consulting Geologist, London, Ontario, Canada 

2 

Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing, People’s Republic of China 

3 

Ontario Oil, Gas and Salt Resources Library, London, Ontario, Canada 

4 

Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, London, Ontario, Canada 

Between 2008 and 2014 the Petroleum Operations Section of the Ministry of Natural 

Resources and Forestry (MNRF) completed a project to identify and map the principal 

water-bearing intervals in the Paleozoic bedrock of southern Ontario. After extensive and 

prolonged quality control edits, GIS queries of water records in the MNRF petroleum 

well database were used to create two map groupings: 17 maps of the static level of water 

in selected water-bearing geological formations in the Paleozoic bedrock, and 89 maps of 

water types and their geologic and geographic distribution in the bedrock. 

In all cases the water contained in Paleozoic bedrock formations and the overlying unconsolidated 

sediments in southern Ontario exhibits increasing salinity with depth. There is a 

down-dip gradation from fresh water at or near the surface in the drift and shallow bedrock 

(

the sampling and analysis of over 100 water wells in the area for 18 Oxygen and Deuterium. 

The mapping identified the major flow systems in the area, and identified considerable 

variations in the δ 18 O values in the individual flow systems, despite recharge under similar 

climatic conditions. 

In 1974, the groundwater demand in the Winnipeg area was considerably different than 

today. Two major meat packing industries in St. Boniface were each drawing over 4,000 

m 3 /day from the carbonate aquifer, while a cold storage facility in the downtown core was 

drawing from several deep wells that were partially completed into the underlying sandstone 

aquifer. The meat packing industries progressively shut down operations from the 

mid 1970’s to the 1980’s. The cold storage plant wells were sealed when the plant was shut 

down in the late 1990’s. Thus the recent period is the first time since the 1880’s that the 

aquifer has not been extensively developed in Winnipeg. 

The author has collected over 100 samples of 18 O and Deuterium across a wide area in and 

around the City of Winnipeg. Additional samples have been collected in the south westerly 

areas of Winnipeg, where previous analytical data was sparse. In addition, many samples 

have been collected from the capital region outside of the City of Winnipeg, within the 

individual flow systems presented through the previous research. 

The mapping effort has drawn some interesting conclusions about the changing conditions 

in Winnipeg since 1974. For example, the main flow systems are still present, although 

the values have changed around the eastern areas of the city. Further, the effects of 

the saline discharge from the Winnipeg Formation are also seen in the current mapping. 

The expansion of quarrying in the Birds Hill area also appears to have had a slight effect 

on flow from this recharge area. 

This paper presents an interesting update to the isotopic signature of an aquifer area that 

has been in a recovery from over 100 years of large consumption. Further, it is interesting 

to compare the changes in the isotopic signature that have occurred in the area during the 

recovery of the carbonate aquifer. 

256 - Geostatistical Characterization of Hydrofacies in a 

Heterogeneous Aquifer Considering Uncertainty in Hard Data 

Amir Niazi, Laurence R. Bentley, & Masaki Hayashi 

University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

Characterizing heterogeneity of aquifers and quantifying the uncertainty associated with 

the characterization is an essential part of flow and solute transport modeling. The Paskapoo 

Formation is a highly heterogeneous bedrock aquifer located in southern Alberta, 

which consists of the remnants of a fluvial depositional system. The large number of wells 

completed in the Paskapoo makes this formation the most significant source of groundwater 

in the Canadian Prairies. This formation is comprised of relatively permeable sandstone 

channels embedded in generally less permeable siltstone and mudstone. 


131

Lithological logs from the Alberta water well database have been used to build statistical 

models of the subsurface and to condition stochastic aquifer simulations. One of the 

inherent drawbacks in this database is that all wells within a quarter section (i.e. 800 m 

by 800m square) are assigned the coordinate of the center of the quarter section. In order 

to quantify the uncertainty associated with the coordinates of the wells, a Monte Carlo 

approach was used to generate a suite of 100 randomly distributed sets of coordinates for 

collocated wells. The coordinates were randomly selected within the quarter section within 

which the collocated wells are enclosed. Subsequently, Markov chain (transition probability 

geostatistics) and sequential indicator simulation (SISIM) were used to generate 

geologic simulations for each set of random coordinates. 

These sets of simulations were then converted to groundwater models and sorted based 

on their consistency with the archived data of single-well pumping tests on selected wells 

across the study area. A subset of the most consistent simulations was upscaled and the 

uncertainty is mapped based on the differences between simulations in the distribution 

of high conductivity hydrofacies materials and low permeability materials. The results of 

this study will constrain the plausible geometries of high and low permeability regions 

and provide a measure of the uncertainty associated with the heterogeneity in a regional 

groundwater model. 

Agricultural Impacts on Groundwater 2 




221 - Matrix diffusion effects on nitrate transport and fate in a 

sedimentary bedrock aquifer 

Steven Chapman, Beth Parker, John Cherry, & Amanda Malenica 


Yefang Jiang 

Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Charlottetown, 

Prince Edward Island, Canada 

Qing Li 

PEI Department Environment, Labour and Justice, Charlottetown, 

Prince Edward Island, Canada 

Cathy Ryan 


Many agricultural areas are underlain by fractured sedimentary rock with thin overburden 

deposits, such that nitrate and other contaminants migrate within these bedrock units, which 

may also be relied on as water supply aquifers. The interconnected fracture network has very 

low bulk fracture porosity (~10 -3 to 10 -5 ) within which nearly all groundwater flow occurs 


and provide the primary contaminant transport pathways, with flow velocities of a few to 

several meters per day possible. However, the rock matrix blocks between fractures have high 

porosity (~5-20%) and matrix diffusion causes transfer of nitrate from groundwater flowing 

in fractures to the matrix. This can be viewed as a positive effect in that rates of transport 

in fractures and downgradient nitrate flux is attenuated, which may be reducing short-term 

impacts to water supply wells and groundwater discharge areas since the front of the contaminated 

zone is expected to move much more slowly. However a negative consequence of the 

large nitrate storage in the matrix is potential for slow release via back diffusion, which can 

cause long-term nitrate persistence following declines in nitrate inputs due to changes in agricultural 

practices. In this study, a portion of an agricultural field was taken out of production 

for a five year period to examine downgradient effects. Field activities included instrumentation 

of the field from upgradient to downgradient along the flow system using multilevel 

monitoring systems for temporal groundwater sampling, continuous coring to assess the nitrate 

distribution in detail in overburden and in the bedrock matrix, and an array of core and 

borehole measurements to provide matrix and fracture parameters for modeling. Numerical 

modeling was conducted to examine matrix diffusion effects using a coupled Equivalent Porous 

Media (EPM) – Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) approach. First a 3-D watershed 

scale EPM flow model was developed and calibrated using the HydroGeoSphere code. This 

flow model provides information on the bulk groundwater flow system (Darcy flux, hydraulic 

gradients) needed to inform 2-D DFN transport simulations using the FRACTRAN 

code, which incorporates key processes controlling contaminant transport in fractured porous 

media. The DFN model was then used to examine matrix diffusion effects for scenarios 

with estimated historical nitrate source inputs followed by removal of the source input. Both 

the field datasets and numerical modeling show strong matrix diffusion effects, acting as an 

impediment to aquifer restoration. Such effects must be considered when assessing efficacy 

of implementation of best management practices (BMPs). Sensitivity to fracture network 

characteristics is evaluated with the DFN modeling informed from field data. 

194 - Decadal scale groundwater nitrate concentrations in 

Western Prince Edward Island 

Jessica A. Guselle & M.C. Ryan 

Department of Geoscience - University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

G. Somers 

Department of Environment, Labour, and Justice, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, 

Canada 

Y. Jiang 

Crops and Livestock Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Prince Edward 

Island, Canada 

Prince Edward Island (PEI) relies wholly on groundwater for its potable water supply, and 

has a large percentage of land under agricultural cultivation (approximately 50%). In addition 

to drinking water concerns, elevated groundwater nitrate in PEI is linked with estuarine eutrophication, 

as groundwater discharge accounts for 60-70% of the baseflow to rivers. Decadal 

scale increases in river nitrate concentrations have been observed in most of PEI’s watersheds. 


133

The change in well water nitrate concentrations in western PEI are assessed by comparing 

three well water sampling programs: i) a continuation of a domestic well water survey that 

was completed by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) from 1950-1953; ii) a continuation 

of a provincial well water survey of public domains (ie. schools, hospitals, provincial 

parks, etc.); and iii) a weekly sampling program of both surface and groundwater at seven 

locations along the Mill River into the estuary. Decadal scale changes in land use (including 

soil and crop management and the potential increase of the population who relies on 

septic systems) are evaluated to reconcile observed nitrate concentration increases in the 

majority of water wells. 

The overall goal of this project is to link the observed decadal scale changes in groundwater 

and the river nitrate concentrations at a watershed scale model to facilitate an understanding 

of how future land changes will affect groundwater, river, and estuarine nitrate 

concentrations. 

304 - Simulating Integrated Water Management for Irrigation in 

the Lower Republican River Basin, Kansas 

A. Brookfield 

Kansas Geological Survey, Lawrence, Kansas, USA 

C. Gnau 

Kansas Water Office, Topeka, Kansas, USA 

In many parts of the world a primary concern for the agricultural industry is the availability 

of water for irrigation. Careful management of both surface water and groundwater 

resources is needed to ensure sustainable use now and into the future. Engineered water 

management systems, including reservoirs and irrigation canals, are often employed to ensure 

the optimal use of water available. Traditionally these systems have been designed and 

operated with little to no consideration of the unaltered hydrologic system they overlay. 

Recent research has highlighted the importance of groundwater/surface water interactions 

to the distribution of water in both surface and subsurface regimes and the importance of 

simulating the hydrologic system holistically. The significance of these interactions is not 

limited to unaltered hydrologic systems, but can extend to the engineered water management 

systems as well. To account for these interactions, the integrated hydrologic model 

HydroGeoSphere (HGS) was linked to the surface water operations model OASIS to 

evaluate the impacts of current water management strategies and potential infrastructure 

improvements on the surface water and groundwater resources of the Lower Republican 

River Basin (LRRB) located in Kansas and Nebraska, USA. 

The LRRB covers approximately 10,300 km 2 and contains two reservoirs and several irrigation 

districts (and their associated canal systems). Surface water and groundwater of 

the LRRB are heavily utilized for agriculture and the region has historically experienced 

severe droughts and floods. Water in this basin is distributed in accordance to an interstate 

compact that was ratified in 1942 and has been subject to litigation before Supreme Court 

several times in more recent years. The compact and associated Supreme Court final stipulation 

settlements require efficient management of both the surface water and groundwater 


in this basin. The HGS/OASIS model framework was used to evaluate the interactions 

and dependencies between the engineered and natural hydrologic systems under historic 

and projected future climatic conditions and potential structural water management alternatives 

in this basin. Results emphasize the need to include groundwater, surface water and 

their interactions in water management strategies and planning. 

130 - Evaluating innovative techniques for in situ, real-time 

remote monitoring of nitrate in groundwater 

Graeme MacDonald & Jana Levison 

School of Engineering - University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Certain hydrogeological settings in southern Ontario are particularly vulnerable to nitrate 

contamination of groundwater. Nitrate can leach into aquifers during recharge events, 

where it is subject to complex fate and transport processes under spatially and temporally 

variable flow conditions. Advancements in monitoring and data collection capabilities can 

improve our understanding of these transport processes. Groundwater quality measurements 

are traditionally obtained by purging wells and analyzing the collected samples ex 

situ. This “snapshot” data can disrupt the natural subsurface flow system and is not always 

detailed enough to determine critical water quality conditions. This research involved the 

application of two innovative sensors, the YSI EXO and Satlantic SUNA V2, to develop 

novel groundwater quality sampling techniques. Three unique methods were developed: 

flow cell spot sampling, depth-discrete downhole geochemical profiling, and real 

time remote groundwater quality monitoring (RTRM). While nitrate was the contaminant 

of focus, field parameters including temperature, DO, ORP, EC, and turbidity were 

also monitored. Research sites ranged from supply wells located in shallow overburden 

aquifers to deep fractured bedrock boreholes. Flow cell spot sampling results were compared 

to traditional laboratory sampling methods and were very strongly correlated (R 2 = 

0.99), suggesting that the sensors can provide highly accurate field nitrate measurements. 

Depth-discrete profiling techniques were used to identify groundwater quality zones corresponding 

to different formations. Stratified nitrate concentrations were observed in an 

open bedrock borehole (20 m depth) and an overburden well having a long (8 m) screened 

interval. RTRM methods were conducted by installing sensor equipment directly downhole. 

Groundwater quality parameters were obtained every 15 minutes for several months, 

starting in November 2014, greatly improving the temporal resolution of measurements 

compared to traditional sampling. Data was transmitted over the HSPA network and observed 

in real time, allowing for remote monitoring and effectively reducing labour and 

field visits compared to traditional techniques. The detailed datasets obtained will support 

future nitrate transport modelling initiatives and complement field projects in which in 

situ, detailed nitrate measurements are desired. 


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114 - Validating effects of spring plowing forages on nitrate 

leaching reduction 

Yefang Jiang, Judith Nyiraneza, Mohammad Khakbazan, Brian Murray, & Mark 

Grimmett 

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada 

Prince Edward Island (PEI) is the smallest province in Canada, yet it contributes about onefourth 

of the Canadian potato production. The potato industry plays a critical role in the local 

economy. Intensive potato production is conducted on sandy soils underlain by a semi-confined 

or unconfined sandstone aquifer, which provides all the drinking water in PEI. High 

nitrate leaching losses from the production systems have been linked to the contamination of 

groundwater (i.e., the source of drinking water) and estuarine eutrophication as indicated by 

reoccurring anoxic events in many estuaries. Potatoes are commonly grown in rotation with 

grain underseeded with forages, with the latter being plowed down in the fall of the third 

season as green manure. Previous work has shown that a high proportion of nitrate leached 

from these systems occurs upon potato harvest and fall forage plow down. The rotation forages 

usually include N-rich leguminous crops with low C/N ratio intended for maintaining 

soil organic matter for optimal production. When being plowed down in the fall, a portion 

of these forages release nitrate via mineralization, which leaches from the soil profile with the 

excessive moisture during the wet offseason in PEI. Via paired-field tests during 2010-2012, 

we found that postponing plowing of forages from fall to spring reduces forage-phase nitrate 

leaching by 20-60% and as a result, more soil N is retained for subsequent crops. During 

2013-2014, we asked the growers to implement similar delayed forage plowing in the former 

study sites with sampling facilities we instrumented. We continued on monitoring the tiledrain 

and well water quality, sampling the soil and crop tissues and conducting biophysical 

and modeling analysis. We found that spring plowing forages reduces nitrate leaching but to 

a lesser extent compared to the previous data possibly because the forages did not grow well 

due to the cold spring weather in 2013. We also found that implementing spring plowing did 

not compromise potato yield and quality. This new dataset provides a validation on the effects 

of spring plowing forages on nitrate leaching reduction and potato production and additional 

confidence by industry in the value of implementing spring plowing. 

Workshop on Groundwater Policy 2 


Chair: Steve Wallace 

Room: Bloomingdale 

147 - Groundwater and Aboriginal People: Should the Winters 

Doctrine apply in Canada and, if so, what would it look like? 

Anderson, Kristina 

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 


The Winters doctrine comes out of a United States supreme court case of 1908 which 

set forth the idea that, in the early United States, certain rights were reserved for Native 

Americans with the purpose of allowing them to become self-sufficient communities. 

Where a reserve was created for agricultural purposes, the approach of the American judiciary 

has been to base their calculations on the reservation’s practicably irrigable acreage. 

Several Canadian academics have argued that the Winters doctrine should be applied to 

reservations here but as of yet Canadian courts have not confirmed its application. Assuming 

the Winters doctrine should be adopted in Canada, the next question is whether 

aboriginal water rights were extinguished by a legislative body with the authority to do so. 

The key piece of legislation which might have had this effect at least within the Prairie 

Provinces is the federal Northwest Irrigation Act of 1894. If aboriginal water rights were 

not extinguished by the Northwest Irrigation Act, and at least one prominent academic 

argues they were not, a new issue arises with respect to the priority of aboriginal water 

rights over non-aboriginal water rights under all three major Canadian water allocation 

schemes - Prior allocation, Riparian rights, and Civil code - although quantification and 

priority dates may be less useful outside of the Prior allocation scheme. 

Although Canadian courts have not yet confirmed the application of the Winters doctrine, 

it is clear the Canadian judiciary is influenced by it. Three questions the four western provinces 

will need to grapple with as they determine priority of aboriginal water rights include: 

(1) are aboriginal water rights subject to forfeiture and abandonment for non-use? (2) what 

was the date the reservation in question was created? and (3) how will the amount of water 

necessary to satisfy the objective of the reservation be quantified? In an attempt to answer 

these questions, historical context and modern law will be explored. Examples of historical 

context include the Metis uprising and the creation of the Province of Manitoba in 1870 

exempting lands within the former postage stamp province from the Northwest Irrigation 

Act. Examples of modern law include treaties such as Nisga’a Final Agreement Act 1999, 

in addition to recent court cases such as Piikani First Nation v. Alberta 2002, Tsuu T’ina 

Nation v. Alberta 2010 and Helalt First Nation v British Columbia 2011. The Helalt First 

Nation case is of particular interest as it claimed the reserve’s rights extended to groundwater 

and baseflow of the Chemainus River to maintain a healthy fishery. 

242 - Water Sustainability Act: Factors, principles and reasoning 

governing legislative policy development related to the diversion 

and use of groundwater in British Columbia, Canada 

Mike Wei 

B.C. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada 

The new Water Sustainability Act (WSA), which received Royal Assent in May of 2014, 

was developed to replace the more than 100 year-old Water Act and to address major water 

management policy gaps in British Columbia (BC). One such gap is the current lack of 

government control over the diversion and use of groundwater, a provincial resource. In developing 

the WSA, four major strategic policy questions needed to be answered in relation 

to how BC would regulate the diversion and use of groundwater: 


137

1. Should the diversion and use of groundwater follow a first-in-time, first-in-right priority 

framework as currently exists for surface water in BC or is it appropriate to develop a 

different (and possibly improved) governing framework for groundwater? 

2. How should existing groundwater users be regulated? 

3. How should small groundwater users be regulated? 

4. How should diversion and use of saline groundwater found at depth in the Interior 

Plains Region of northeast BC be regulated? 

The limited state of knowledge of the groundwater resource in BC imposed variable degrees 

of uncertainty to answering these important groundwater policy questions. This 

paper presents the historical regulatory context and examines the factors, principles, and 

reasoning that helped shape the policy outcomes in the WSA. This paper also presents 

some practical insights gained in the process of developing the WSA, which may be of 

useful consideration by other jurisdictions embarking on developing policies to enhance 

sustainable management of their groundwater resource. 

320 - Development of Groundwater Policy for Alberta’s Oil Sands 

Region 

Margaret Klebek 

Alberta Environment and Parks, Government of Alberta, Alberta, Canada 

One of the main concerns in Alberta’s Oil Sands Region (AOSR) is the potential effect 

to groundwater from oils sands projects. To address this, Alberta Environment and Parks 

has developed a number of policies to guide stewardship of groundwater during current 

and future growth. The policies align with the overall principles and goals of Water for 

Life: Alberta’s Strategy for Sustainability and Land Use Framework to manage cumulative 

effects to groundwater on a regional basis. 

The Groundwater Management Framework (GMF) for the Lower Athabasca Region, 

Water Conservation Policy for Upstream Oil and Gas Operations and policies for the 

management of non-saline groundwater in direct contact with bitumen and thermally mobilized 

constituents around in-situ operations have been completed or are nearing completion. 

Further policy development is being considered for protection and management of 

groundwater in the Shallow Thermal Area (STA). 

The GMF introduces several new mechanisms to achieve the goals of preserving and improving 

groundwater quality in the AOSR. It establishes the basis for determining when 

levels of specific chemical parameters have been reached (“trigger values”) that could have 

an effect on groundwater quality. On the basis of trigger values, the GMF establishes 

groundwater quality protection limits that prescribe specific management actions when 

limits are exceeded. 

The Water Conservation Policy for Upstream Oil and Gas Operations expands upon its 

2006 predecessor to include oil sands mining operations in addition to thermal in-situ 

operations. The policy strives to minimize the amount of non-saline (fresh) water used 

for upstream oil and gas projects by requiring operators to critically evaluate all potential 


water sources while taking into account the overall environmental net effects of each water 

sourcing option. 

Requirements for assessing thermally mobilized constituents are being put into place to 

improve understanding of the fate and transport of these constituents in groundwater 

around in-situ operations and to ensure that appropriate monitoring and management 

occurs through the development and implementation of site-specific Groundwater Management 

Plans (GMPs). Further requirements are being developed for the assessment 

and management of non-saline groundwater in direct contact with bitumen for in-situ 

operations, such that that appropriate monitoring and management occurs through the 

implementation of GMPs. 

Most bitumen that is recoverable by in situ methods using steam requires a caprock with 

low permeability, adequate thickness, sufficient integrity, and lateral continuity to contain 

the steam and reservoir fluid. The STA is considered a high risk area for steam-assisted 

drainage schemes (SAGD) since the process is undertaken in the area with relatively 

thin caprock, presence of faults, incising channels, the Devonian and Cretaceous strata 

impacted by dissolution and karsting, which could impact integrity of caprock. Alberta 

Environment and Parks intends to address the environmental risks of the SAGD development 

in the STA, and is considering developing policy based on risk identification and 

performance monitoring. 

250 - Groundwater Monitoring for policy support and development 

under Alberta Environmental Monitoring, Evaluation and 

Reporting Agency (AEMERA) 

Guy Bayegnak & Steve Wallace 

AEMERA, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 

The province of Alberta is currently in a unique situation where confluence of circumstances 

requires us to be very strategic as we continue the responsible development of our resources. 

Today’s rapid growth in population and economic activity is placing unprecedented pressure 

on Alberta’s environment (air, land, groundwater, surface water and biodiversity). Oil and gas, 

forestry and mining, agriculture and recreation, housing and infrastructure are all in competition, 

and often on the same parcel of land. This growth has led to basin closure for surface 

water allocation in some parts of the province, while drawing an increasing local, national and 

international attention of environmental management issues. A key initiative by the province 

to ensure responsible development and sustainable growth is the development of an Integrated 

Resource Management System (IRMS) and the creation of the Alberta Environmental 

Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Agency (AEMERA). 

AEMERA, as part of the Integrated Resource Management System, is responsible for 

monitoring, evaluating and reporting on air, groundwater, surface water, land and biodiversity. 

Using the principles of cumulative effects management, aemera’s monitoring work will 

support the improvement of thresholds, identify potential needs for future management 

responses, and support updating to existing policies as well as the development of new 


139

policies. In this paper we present a brief overview of AEMRA’s mandate. We then focus on 

groundwater and present some of the innovative approaches AEMERA is implementing 

to ensure groundwater cumulative effects are detected, measured, evaluated and reported 

upon, using the example of the groundwater monitoring optimization project, aimed at 

designing a stratified monitoring network. 

127 - BC Oil and Gas Commission Regulatory Framework, 

Groundwater Initiatives, and Key Groundwater Research Topics 

Laurie Welch & Allan Chapman 

BC Oil and Gas Commission, British Columbia, Canada 

The BC Oil and Gas Commission (Commission) is the regulatory authority for oil and 

gas activities in British Columbia. This presentation will outline the current regulatory 

framework for groundwater in B.C. as it pertains to oil and gas activities, and discuss 

the role of the Commission in regulating aspects of groundwater use and protection. In 

response to increasing oil and gas activity in northeast B.C. related to shale gas extraction, 

and to support science-based regulation of groundwater aspects, the Commission has implemented 

or supported a number of recent initiatives. These include enhancements to the 

Commission’s regulatory and permitting procedures for industry water source wells, providing 

support for the Northeast B.C. Water Strategy, collaboration on the Northeast B.C. 

Aquifer Characterization Study, and support of academic research in British Columbia. 

Future focussed research will continue to inform the regulatory regime. Key future research 

topics for northeast B.C. will be reviewed. 


POSTER SESSION: Advanced Techniques for 

Site Characterization 

Thursday October 29, 16:40 

Room: Regent 

141 - Developing a lithostratigraphic and geomechanical 

framework using a discrete fracture network approach across a 

dense borehole cluster within a shallow Paleozoic dolostone 

Andrey Fomenko 1 , Colby M. Steelman 1 , Pete Pehme 1 , & Beth L. Parker 1, 2 

1 


2 

School of Environmental Sciences – University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

To improve our understanding of complex bedrock flow systems, test fundamental hydrogeological 

assumptions, as well as to facilitate the development of new techniques and technologies, 

the G360 group has constructing a field bedrock groundwater research laboratory 

on the University of Guelph campus. Nine boreholes (six vertical and three inclined) have 

been drilled within a quarter hectare area on the university campus to an approximate depth 

of 74 m below ground surface, primarily through the Silurian dolostone and limestone regional 

aquifer into the upper portion of the Cabot Head shale aquitard. The boreholes have 

been carefully configured to capture the three dimensional complexity of the discrete fracture 

network inherent in sedimentary rock. We present the initial phase of the site characterization 

which focuses on the results of high-resolution (cm scale) core logging and downhole 

geophysical logging to investigate the relationship between the lithological and mechanical 

properties of the rock mass and their implications on fracturing. A discrete fracture network 

model was developed and evaluated with respect to major and minor lithostratigraphic units 

as defined by physical core log descriptions supported by data including natural gamma, 

induced conductivity, full-waveform sonic, acoustic televiewer, optical televiewer, borehole 

video camera information collected from all nine coreholes. Fracture network characteristics 

were evaluated in terms of their relationship / dependency to major lithostratigraphic units 

spanning two important bedrock aquifers in the Guelph region. We evaluated the spatial 

variability in lithostratigraphy and discrete fracture properties (i.e., geometry, aperture, frequency), 

and assessed the relationship between lithstratigraphic and geomechanical layers 

at an unprecedentedly small spatial (vertical and lateral) scale. These interdependent data 

sets and fracture model will form the foundation of the second phase of the project which 

will involve a thorough hydraulic characterization of the site using a broad range of innovative 

single and cross-hole hydraulic and hydro-physical tests. Combining these fundamental 

characterizations of the field laboratory will not only develop new insights into both the 

nature fracturing as well as flow and transport in sedimentary rock, but it will also create the 

foundation for future experiments and technology development. 


141

254 - Microbial community characterization at bioremediation 

sites using next generation sequencing 

Philip Dennis, Ximena Druar, & Peter Dollar 

SiREM, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Kirill Krivushin, Line Lomheim, & Elizabeth Edwards 

Department of Chemical Engineering – University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

Next generation sequencing (NGS) is increasingly used to provide detailed microbial 

community characterization in public health, medical, wastewater treatment, industrial 

fermentation and resource extraction scenarios. The growing affordability of NGS now 

makes this technology practical for bioremediation monitoring and performance assessment. 

While NGS protocols are robust, the ability to analyze and interpret results in a 

meaningful way requires ongoing use and observations at a variety of remediation sites to 

better understand the benefits, and limitations, of NGS approaches. 

In this study, NGS using a 454 pyrotag platform and primers targeting 16S rRNA genes, 

were employed to characterize eubacteria and archaea from five geographically distinct 

chlorinated solvent bioremediation sites in Ontario (ON), Oregon (OR), Alaska (AK) 

Kansas (KS) and Florida (FL). All sites were bioaugmented and at various stages of remediation 

and had varying geochemistry and contaminant profiles. Archived genomic 

DNA samples spanning several years were used for the analyses. The resulting sequences 

were analyzed using cluster analysis, to compare the microbial communities over time and 

between sites and non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) to provide correlations 

with geochemical parameters. 

NGS returned an average of 8,000 reads per sample, providing detailed microbial community 

profiles. Cluster analysis indicated that samples generally grouped together by site 

suggesting geographic uniqueness of microbial community structure across these diverse 

sites. Based on the number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) the AK site had the 

lowest apparent microbial diversity and the FL site had the highest. Furthermore, cluster 

analysis indicated that microbial community at the FL site evolved to become the most 

similar to the bioaugmentation culture injected at the site (KB-1) and may indicate that 

the FL site was most compatible with bioremediation in general. Observations of OTU 

frequency indicated that changes in the abundance of individual microorganisms were significant, 

and could be correlated to specific changes in site geochemistry such as oxidation 

reduction potential, and metabolic processes such as toxicity, methanogenesis, sulfate reduction 

and methanotrophy. It would appear that NGS has great potential to increase our 

understanding of microbial communities in bioremediation systems and may find uses in 

site monitoring, diagnosis of problematic sites, remediation optimization and monitoring 

ecological recovery of aquifers. The technology’s usefulness will undoubtedly increase in 

tandem with our ability to meaningfully interpret NGS results. 


295 - Bedrock Groundwater Monitoring Design Created Using 

Portable Drills for Remote and Ecosensitve Areas 

Amanda A. Pierce, Beth L. Parker, John A. Cherry, Steven Chapman, & Celia 

Kennedy 


Robert Ingleton 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Portable drilling machines, the Shaw Portable Core Drill and the Winkie Drill, originally 

produced for the mineral exploration industry have been used in remote and eco-sensitive 

areas to install bedrock monitoring probes for groundwater investigations at distinct hydrogeologic 

settings. The methodology was developed at a large industrial site in southern 

California. The California site is located on a mountain ridge 490 to 670 metres (m) above 

mean sea level. The site is underlain by faulted Late Cretaceous age turbidite sandstones 

with shale interbeds. The mountain groundwater system is a large mound maintained by 

recharge from rainfall with flow primarily in fractures directed downward and outward toward 

the slopes and the urban lowlands below. Groundwater is found discharging at seeps 

along the mountain bedrock slopes. To provide insight into the groundwater flow system 

and contaminant transport and fate the portable rock core drills were hiked into remote 

seep locations and used to core small diameter holes (41 to 50 millimeters) to a maximum 

depth of 12 m. A cluster of wells were completed at multiple depths at 17 locations surrounding 

the site. A monitoring well was designed to accommodate the small diameter 

size of the coreholes by using a seal created by injecting grout into a flexible cylindrical 

impervious fabric liner of diameter slightly larger than the hole. The ‘grout liner’ method 

ensures that the entire annulus above the top of the short well screen is sealed, which allows 

the monitoring well to perform as a piezometer both for measuring hydraulic head and 

groundwater sampling. The seal created using this method avoids loss of the sealant into 

fractures and therefore avoids influence of grout on groundwater chemistry. The methods 

developed at this study area have been implemented in Prince Edward Island sandstone 

to investigate nitrate discharging at streams due to agricultural practices and in dolostone 

near Guelph, Ontario for hydrologic studies regarding surface water/groundwater interaction 

along a bedrock river. These methods applied in these studies overcomes the portability 

limitations of conventional drilling methods that prevent installation of monitoring 

wells in rugged mountainous terrain and has proven transferable to ecologically sensitive 

areas along rivers, lakes and wetlands. 


143

POSTER SESSION: Agricultural Impacts on 

Groundwater 


Room: Regent 

243 - Fate and transport behavior of waste Greenhouse nutrient 

feed water during controlled land application experiments at 

selected field trial sites 

Jiangyue Ju 1 , David L. Rudolph 1 , Don King 2 , & Ann Huber 2 

1 

Department of Earth and Environment Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, 

Canada 

2 

Soil Resource Group, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Because of the high concentration of greenhouses in Essex County, greenhouse discharges 

are considered as a potential contributor to nuisance and harmful algal blooms (HABs) 

and hypoxia in Lake Erie. Nutrient feed waters from greenhouses are comparable to other 

nutrient sources used in agriculture. Land application of greenhouse nutrient feed water to 

adjacent crop land is regarded as a potentially suitable alternative to in-house wastewater 

treatment systems both in cost and ease of adoption. Therefore, the land application of 

the feed water can be an appropriate management response to the nutrient load issues 

in such water courses. In an effort to assess the potential environmental impacts of this 

land application option, a collaborative monitoring program was established at partner 

greenhouse operations near Leamington, ON. We hypothesized that the nutrients in feed 

water applied to active crop lands would be absorbed and attenuated to an acceptable level 

within the soil profile before reaching the local water table. Four field trial sites were established 

and characterized for controlled plot size experiments. Field installations included 

porous cup lysimeters at 30cm, 60cm and 90cm for the collection of soil water samples, 

groundwater wells above and below water table to monitor groundwater quality and water 

table fluctuations and composite soil cores at random locations for soil analysis. At two 

of the field sites, feed water from the greenhouses was applied to the monitored plots in 

the spring at the maximum allowed rate and at the other two sites; the feed water was applied 

both in the fall and spring. Composite soil samples and water samples including soil 

water from lysimeters, shallow groundwater from monitor wells and surface water from 

tile outlets were collected both before and after the land application events. Laboratory 

analysis was focused on nutrients and heavy metals. The field data sets will be compared 

in this presentation to illustrate the performance of the land application process relative 

to environmental impacts and initial observations regarding the utility of this approach to 

managing the waste greenhouse feed waters will be discussed. 


208 - Impacts of alkaline stabilized biosolids application on 

emerging substances of concern (ESOC) in groundwater 

Carolina Klabunde & Jana Levison 

University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Gordon W. Price & Rob Jamieson 

Dalhousie University, Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada 

Anthony Tong & John Murimboh 

Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada 

Mehdi Sharifi 

Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada 

Shiv Prasher 

McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada 

Cathryn Ryan 

University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

Beth Parker 

University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

This multidisciplinary study, part of a broader investigation about the environmental fate 

of biosolids application to agricultural fields, aims to better understand the transport of 

ESOC to a shallow sedimentary fractured bedrock aquifer. Application of biosolids on 

agricultural land is a growing practice and disposal alternative, and can replace the use of 

chemical fertilizers. The biosolids applied for this study are produced using an advanced 

alkaline stabilization process. There is a desire to understand potential environmental implications 

from the application of these soil amendments to ensure that they can be applied 

without negative impacts on the underlying aquifer. The relationship between biosolid 

application rates and resulting concentrations of ESOC in aquifers requires further investigation. 

The research objectives are to identify potential impacts of biosolids application 

on groundwater quality in a shallow bedrock aquifer, looking at both temporal and spatial 

variability, and to determine whether tile drainage systems affect the leaching of ESOC 

to the aquifer. The research site is located at the Bio Environmental Engineering Centre 

(BEEC) in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia. Local soils are usually acidic, allowing the utilization 

of the amendments applied in this study. Previously, the field had received yearly applications 

of manure and herbicides for 11 years, meeting needs of the alternating barley, 

soybean and spring wheat crops. The saturated zone is a red sandstone bedrock aquifer 

(Wolfville formation). The field site is instrumented with a modern and efficient high 

resolution design, using a newly installed CMT multilevel system (25 m deep), tile drain 

sampling and 5 shallow piezometers (1 m to 5 m deep). Two loads of 14Mg/ha each of 

biosolids were incorporated into the soil (November 2014 and May 2015) in a field which 

has not previously received biosolids. The monitoring approach facilitates obtaining distinct 

insights on water quality and contaminant behaviour, capturing a detailed picture 

of contaminant leaching into the subsurface. In addition, a bromide tracer experiment is 

used to further characterize the groundwater flow and travel times from the surface to the 

aquifer. A site conceptual model is developed to characterize the surface-to-aquifer transport 

of relevant ESOC tailored to the local overburden and sedimentary bedrock aquifer 


145

setting. Preliminary results from analysis of major ions and nitrate-nitrogen (e.g. ranging 

from 1 mg/L to 11 mg/L) show that the system is sensitive to surface-applied compounds. 

The results are relevant for the implementation of local water protection policies, can aid in 

the development of standards or guidelines to avoid harm from biosolids application, and 

should be considered by specialists when recommending ideal agronomic loading rates of 

biosolids for agricultural soil amendments. 

299 - Non-point or multi-point? Capturing spatial and temporal 

variation of groundwater nitrate contamination to inform soil and 

crop management 

Shawn E. Loo, Edwin Cey, & M. Cathryn Ryan 


Bernie J. Zebarth 

Potato Research Centre – Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Fredericton, New Brunswick, 

Canada 

Elevated nitrate concentrations in the highly vulnerable, unconfined Abbotsford-Sumas 

Aquifer has been recognized for decades and has been attributed to agricultural practices 

on the land surface. The Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer represents a case study where small 

fields (~5 ha), with different managers, and large variations in inter-annual and inter-field 

nutrient inputs create a multi-point, rather than non-point, nitrate source. Consequently, 

relating groundwater nitrate concentrations to specific management practices is a key 

challenge for addressing groundwater nitrate from a crop management perspective. Environment 

Canada has monitored Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer nitrate concentrations since 

early 1990s using a widespread piezometer network with 0.9 – 2.4 m long screens. This 

approach captures long-term regional trends, but the confounding effects of predominantly 

horizontal flow, complex multi-point nitrate sources, and the unknown time between 

leaching and arrival at the piezometer make it difficult to relate spatial and temporal variations 

in nitrate concentrations to field scale crop management. This study models the fate 

of groundwater nitrate from multiple field sources with time and depth in the Abbotsford-Sumas 

Aquifer, and compares the effects of varying down-gradient distance, depth of 

sampling, and piezometer screen length. The detailed transport modelling results are compared 

with measured concentrations from high-resolution sampling of an individual field 

over several years, as well as the results of Environment Canada’s long-term nitrate time 

series. This work aims to strengthen our conceptual understanding of such multi-point 

agricultural cases to aid interpretation of the long-term nitrate concentration data and 

plan future groundwater monitoring that would better link soil and crop management to 

groundwater nitrate loading on timescales that are meaningful (i.e. ideally within a year). 


271 - Field evaluation of nitrate transport and matrix storage 

processes in Prince Edward Island’s fractured sandstone aquifer 

Amanda Malenica, Steven Chapman, Beth Parker, & John Cherry 


Mark Grimmett & Yefang Jiang 

Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Charlottetown, Prince 

Edward Island, Canada 

Cathy Ryan 


The province of Prince Edward Island (PEI) is unique in Canada because 100% of the 

population is reliant on groundwater for drinking water supply. Of PEI’s total land area, 

42% is cleared for agricultural use, 15% of which was planted with potatoes in 2014 (PEI 

DAF, 2014). Nitrate concentrations have increased steadily in municipal and domestic 

wells and in surface water since the mid-1980s, as have the production of potatoes. Ecological 

impacts are detrimental to estuarine biota and evidenced by visible eutrophication 

and anoxic events. Although beneficial management practices (BMPs) have been identified 

and implemented, groundwater and surface water nitrate concentrations have not decreased 

substantially. The accumulation of nitrate mass diffusing into the porous rock matrix 

over time from fractures that dominate groundwater flow could be impeding the rate 

of nitrate concentration decrease. The relatively low-K rock matrix between the fractures 

constitutes the storage capacity of a dual-domain flow and transport system. Improvements 

in groundwater quality resulting from reduced nitrate loading are likely tempered 

by back-diffusion of the nitrate stored in the matrix where diffusion back to the fractures 

could delay down-gradient improvements in water quality. 

The objective of this study was to characterize the nitrate distribution at two different 

study sites within a discrete fractured network (DFN) context, including quantitation of 

nitrate concentrations in the rock matrix. Continuous cores, up to 45 m deep, were logged 

for lithology, discrete fractures and advective pathways. Discrete depth samples were collected 

adjacent to fractures and at varying distances into the matrix between fractures to 

quantify the immobile nitrate porewater concentrations and evaluate the magnitude of 

attenuation by diffusion and redox controlled reactions. Results showed local peaks in 

matrix nitrate concentrations, as high as 36 mg/L-N, primarily in the partially saturated 

overburden and upper saturated fractured bedrock. Nitrate concentrations did not completely 

attenuate with depth. This suggests the denitrification process is not strong, likely 

due to lack of electron donors and oxygenated conditions. Multi-level monitoring systems 

(MLS) were designed to facilitate high–resolution spatial and temporal measurements of 

mobile groundwater in fractures (hydraulic head, nitrate and other major ions and isotopes). 

Results demonstrate the influence of various mechanisms, including matrix diffusion 

and redox conditions, on the movement and attenuation of nitrate. Understanding 

these controlling processes is critical to informing conceptual models of flow and transport 

in sedimentary bedrock aquifers and understanding efficacy of BMP implementation and 

for development of sustainable agricultural practices. 


147

279 - Groundwater nitrate leaching under various land uses on 

the Abbotsford Sumas Aquifer 

Alison Schincariol, Shawn E. Loo & M. Cathryn Ryan, 


Martin Suchy 

Environment Canada, Vancouver, BC, Canada 

Bernie Zebarth 

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Fredericton, NB 

Groundwater nitrate contamination in the Abbotsford Sumas Aquifer has been recognized 

as early as the 1970s, and widespread aquifer contamination since the 1990s. Although 

other sources are present on the aquifer, standard agricultural practices have been 

identified as the main nitrate source. Understanding the direct influence of soil and crop 

management on groundwater nitrate leaching is important to support beneficial management 

practices. Evolving agricultural land use over the past decades reflects a variety of socio-economic 

conditions, however. Since nitrate leaching is different under different land 

uses, additional research is required to understand the timing and extent of groundwater 

nitrate leaching in each new type of land use. 

While recent research has worked with cooperators on to evaluate the timing a rate of nitrate 

leaching under raspberries, significant blueberry planting have occurred over the past 

decade. This field research uses high-resolution passive diffusion sampling wells installed 

immediately downgradient of varying land uses of interest, including blueberries. A time 

series of high-resolution nitrate profiles are interpreted to evaluate nitrate leaching with 

respect to land use upgradient of each of the three wells. 

In addition to providing insight into nitrate leaching under different land uses, the vertical 

profiles are interpreted holistically in the context of aquifer wide groundwater flow, land 

use, and vertical nitrate distribution. 

POSTER SESSION: Flow and Transport in 



Room: Regent 

148 - Towards effective First Nations’ source water protection: A 

groundwater-focused study for decision-making and long-term 

planning 

Rachael Marshall, Jana Levison, & Edward McBean 

School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

First Nations in Ontario are facing many complex water management issues that put them 

at higher risk than other communities for source water contamination. While source water 


protection (SWP) has been an important priority for municipalities in Ontario under the 

Clean Water Act since 2006, there has been little First Nations’ participation in these processes 

for a variety of reasons. First Nations are often constantly in a state of crisis management, 

with little time or resources to attend SWP Committee meetings, for example. First 

Nations have also voiced concern over their lack of input and the general lack of cultural 

recognition in these processes . The Chiefs of Ontario have highlighted that although it is 

well known that increased First Nations involvement in SWP would reduce rising expenditures 

on drinking water infrastructure, governments continue to regard on-reserve SWP 

as a low priority. Current Canadian federal guidelines for First Nations’ on-reserve SWP 

planning discard hydrogeological studies as too expensive to carry out, and recommend using 

‘rules of thumb’ to determine wellhead protection zones. However, particularly for First 

Nations situated above sensitive aquifer settings such as shallow fractured sedimentary 

bedrock, this lack of hydrogeological data leaves communities unprepared and vulnerable 

to a host of potential drinking water threats. To this extent, the University of Guelph has 

partnered with the Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation – a community situated 

above fractured sedimentary bedrock – to develop an effective SWP process for the 

community. This research aims to develop an improved understanding of groundwater 

processes in fractured bedrock through the use of anthropogenic tracers and 7-channel 

CMT multilevel monitoring systems installed in three retrofitted five- and six-inch drinking 

water wells. Field activities completed to provide aquifer characterization data include 

conducting pumping tests on existing wells in the study area to investigate aquifer yield; 

collecting downhole geophysical data (conductivity and resistivity, gamma ray, temperature, 

and acoustic televiewer) to characterize the subsurface and design the multilevel systems; 

collecting field parameters such as temperature, pH, EC, DO, ORP and turbidity; 

and installing new multilevel monitoring systems in unused five- and six-inch diameter 

wells. The project also aims to determine what implications this fractured rock aquifer 

data may have on SWP processes, particularly for Indigenous communities with limited 

resources located in these vulnerable hydrogeological systems. These findings will be used 

to inform several participatory processes (e.g., focus groups, community events) to develop 

a functioning SWP plan for the community. 

287 - Temporary Sensor Deployments: a Method for Improved 

Insight into Hydraulic Variations and Design of Permanent 

Multilevel Installations 

Peeter Pehme, Beth Parker, Ryan Kroeker, Steven Chapman, & John Cherry. 


Detailed investigations of groundwater flow through fractured rock are consistently progressing 

towards an increased focus on hydraulic characterization of both large and small 

aperture fractures, the latter having an important role on matrix diffusion processes influencing 

plume transport and fate. With increased frequency, the field investigations progress 

to the installation of one of several available detailed multilevel monitoring systems 

(MLS) to monitor pressure and/or variations in groundwater chemistry. Inevitably the 

choice of which MLS to use and its design (i.e. details of port and seal intervals) is a 


149

compromise between: the number of available ports, borehole condition and potential for 

blending hydro-stratigraphic units or missing key flow zones. The importance of these 

compromises is heightened when the MLS is to be used for monitoring a tracer test without 

adequate data to prioritize critical flow zones. 

Temporary sensor deployments (TSDs) were originally designed in response to the challenge 

of developing a method for continuously monitoring an injection of heated water as 

a tracer in a series of down-gradient monitoring wells. The primary goal was to measure 

subtle changes in both the temperature of the groundwater and pressure as near to continuously 

in space and time as possible within the five down-gradient monitoring wells. The 

system consists of the temporary installation of both pressure and high sensitivity (0.0001 

C°) temperature sensors at numerous (10 or more) discrete depth intervals hydraulically 

isolate by a blank polyurethane borehole liner and thermal logging. The depth and length 

of the TSD intervals is designed considering both rock core and geophysical data. 

Subsequently, the deployment of a TSD has proven a valuable pre-screening tool for planning 

permanent multi-level system (MLS) installations. The TSD has also provided insight 

into other types of hydraulic testing such as lining boreholes and thermal logging. 

The system is entirely reusable and reconfigurable as appropriate for another location. Data 

from sites in California and in Prince Edward Island are presented to demonstrate the 

process, the detailed resolution of the system, and the utility of the approach. 

302 - New insights from field deployments of fibre optic 

distributed acoustic sensors to characterize a bedrock aquifer 

Jonathan Munn & Beth Parker 


Thomas Coleman, Michael Mondanos, & Athena Chalari 

Silixa Ltd, Elstree, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom 

Distributed fibre optic sensing is a relatively new technology that allows continuous measurements 

to be made along the entire length of a fibre optic cable. Borehole applications 

of distributed fiber optic sensing have been traditionally applied in deep oil and gas wells; 

however, recent technological advances have brought the sensitivity and spatial resolution 

to the point where shallow (

with a fibre optic cable. A new cable coupling technique using a flexible borehole liner was 

tested and was shown to be highly effective for enhancing the seismic signal recorded with 

the DAS. A comparison between two different cable structures, tight buffer and loose tube, 

were also examined and it was determined that the different structures can strongly influence 

the amplitude of the seismic signal. With good cable coupling, the DAS can provide 

high-resolution VSPs to provide information on the bedrock aquifer matrix and optimal 

cable structures can help maximize the signal to noise ratio of the profile. 

297 - Depth-discrete contaminant mass composition and 

concentration distribution emanating from an aged DNAPL source 

zone in sedimentary rock 

A. Buckley, J.R. Meyer, & B.L. Parker 



Prior to 1970 an estimated 72,700 L of dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) 

were released into the subsurface at a site in south central Wisconsin. Investigations at 

the site found that the DNAPL accumulated about 56 m bgs in a fractured sandstone 

unit. Groundwater flow through the DNAPL source zone over three decades resulted in 

a dissolved phase mixed organic contaminant plume extending about 3 km downgradient. 

Evaluation of potential remedial options requires quantification of the mass and phase 

distribution in and near the DNAPL source zone. In 2014, five holes were continuously 

cored to between 55 and 63 m bgs in a transect downgradient of the source zone. The core 

lithology and fractures were logged in detail and over 630 rock samples were taken (at least 

1 per 30 cm) from the continuous cores for extraction and analysis of the contaminants 

of concern. A comprehensive suite of geophysical and hydro-physical logs were collected 

from each of the boreholes and all of the data was utilized to design high resolution multilevel 

systems (MLSs) for each borehole. Hydraulic heads were measured and groundwater 

samples for contaminant analyses were collected from the MLSs. The rock core contaminant 

profiles provide a quantitative and high resolution view of the contaminant mass 

and phase distribution in the rock matrix; commonly showing over an order of magnitude 

change in concentration across less than 1 m of depth. The groundwater contaminant 

profiles collected from the multilevel systems represent the contaminant distribution in the 

fractures. Integration of the data sets provides a robust understanding of the two-dimensional 

contaminant mass and phase distribution along a transect orthogonal to groundwater 

flow to show the concentration distribution and mass composition relative to the 

high permeability fractures and mass stored in the lower permeability matrix immediately 

downgradient of the DNAPL source zone. Ultimately the variability in the contaminant 

composition and concentration at different spatial scales across this transect will be compared 

to geologic and hydrogeologic properties to provide additional insights into controls 

on contaminant transport and fate in sedimentary rock. 


151

298 - Fracture network and groundwater flux characterization 

using a suite of high resolution methods in a sedimentary 

bedrock aquifer 

Lucas A.F.S. Ribeiro, Jessica R. Meyer, & Beth L. Parker 



In fractured rocks, contaminant distribution and flux are strongly influenced by the characteristics 

and connectivity of fracture networks. This study focuses on characterizing the 

fracture network and hydraulics along a 2-D transect down-gradient of a DNAPL source 

zone in sedimentary rock. Five boreholes were continuously cored along the transect to 

depths between 55 and 63 mbgs. The lithology, sedimentary structures, and fractures observed 

in core were described in detail and were complemented by a comprehensive suite of 

borehole geophysics collected in the open boreholes. Active line source (ALS) temperature 

logging was collected in FLUTe lined holes to identify hydraulically active fractures under 

ambient conditions and hydraulic conductivity data were collected from FLUTe transmissivity 

profiling and straddle packer testing. Additionally, transient hydraulic heads were 

collected using transducer arrays installed behind FLUTe liners. The data collected from 

the core and open and lined boreholes were used to design Westbay MLSs to provide high 

resolution head profiles. 3-D fracture network characterization is achieved by combining 

the 5 transect borehole datasets with 11 boreholes containing similar datasets. Fracture 

scan-line surveys were also done in analogous formations in outcrops to provide regional 

structural trends and to inform fracture lengths, especially for vertical joint sets that inform 

the mechanical unit boundaries. The application of numerous high resolution borehole 

methods and the combined use of surface and borehole fracture datasets contribute to the 

definition of the site specific fracture network. The fracture network information is then 

integrated with the hydraulic data to provide robust estimates of groundwater flux across 

the 2-D transect enhancing the understanding of the present contaminant distribution and 

providing key information for discrete fracture network numerical models for groundwater 

flow and contaminant transport. 

POSTER SESSION: 

Groundwater Issues from Mining & 

Aggregates 


Room: Regent 

169 - Numerical Groundwater Modeling of the Lithium Brine 

Extraction at the Salar de Atacama 


Steven G. Shikaze & Benjamin L. Bolger 


Mark King 

Groundwater Insight Inc., Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 

Hector Maya 

Rockwood Lithium Ltd., Santiago, Chile 

Catalina Orb, Jorge Garcia Tascon, & Jaime Solari 

SGA, Santiago, Chile 

The Salar de Atacama contains one of the world’s largest lithium brine deposits. The 

salar (dry salt lake) is located in the Andes in northern Chile, approximately 1,500 km 

north of Santiago, near the Chile/Argentina/Bolivia border. Lithium is mined from the 

salar by extracting (via pumping) the high salinity brine (over 300,000 mg/L total dissolved 

solids) from the geologic materials in the nucleus of the salar. Around the border 

of the nucleus, shallow lagoons are a nesting habitat for migratory flamingos, and therefore, 

pumping of the brines in the nucleus must consider the potential impact on water 

levels at these lagoons. 

To examine this impact in the nucleus, a numerical model study has been carried out. 

Because the lithium-rich brines in the salar have a fluid density much higher than the 

surrounding fresher water, the program SEAWAT was used to simulate brine pumping 

in the nucleus, and its effect on (1) the groundwater levels around the lagoons, and (2) 

the location of the brine-freshwater interface. The SEAWAT model, which was developed 

in parallel with a three-dimensional MODFLOW model for groundwater flow, 

was used to examine the sensitivity of model parameters such as hydraulic conductivity 

(K), recharge (which is very low over the nucleus), and evaporation (which is very high). 

285 - A review of key groundwater issues, eight years after 

the start of dewatering at the Victor Diamond Mine, James Bay 

Lowlands, Ontario 

Simon Gautrey 

Amec Foster Wheeler, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada 

The Victor Diamond Mine is an open pit mine located in the James Bay Lowlands, approximately 

90 km west of the community of Attawapiskat and 120 km east of the Ring of 

Fire. The mine is surrounded by contiguous wetlands that extend for thousands of square 

kilometers. The limestone bedrock at the site is prone to karst development and the mine is 

located within a few kilometers of two rivers, one of which, the Attawapiskat River, is more 

than 500 m wide. This submission will review two key issues related to impacts of dewatering 

to the wetlands and rivers that were raised as concerns prior to the start of mining and 

compare them to observed conditions after eight years of dewatering. 

From the beginning, it was known that mining would require large scale dewatering. Both 

the mine investors and the Attawapiskat First Nation, on whose traditional lands the mine 

is located, needed to know how much dewatering was going to be required and what 


153

effects dewatering would have on the local environment. For these reasons, the hydrogeological 

assessment of the mine was a priority to all parties. 

The assessment of the mine was supported by a multi-year hydrogeological investigation 

including drilling, pumping tests, groundwater sampling and modelling. This investigation 

concluded that construction of a 300 m deep open pit mine in the limestone was feasible, 

but would require large scale dewatering with a drawdown cone that would extend 

kilometers. There would however, be no long term groundwater related impacts to the 

surrounding wetlands or the nearby rivers. 

The hydrogeological assessment of the mine underwent several rounds of peer review, 

including internal reviews, external reviews, government reviews, and third party reviews. 

A number of groundwater issues were identified by reviewers, with several reviewers indicating 

that the prospect of wide spread drainage of the muskeg and sudden, uncontrollable 

inflows from the rivers as possible reasons to restrict mine development. 

Eight years into dewatering at rates of up to 90,000 m 3 /day, neither of these scenarios has 

materialized. The purpose of this presentation is not to review the original hydrogeological 

investigations, but review the conceptual model more than two thirds of the way through 

the project. This will be supported by a review of select monitoring data from the more 

than 160 monitoring wells. The presentation will illustrate the local hydrogeology by explaining 

why neither widespread wetland drying nor uncontrollable inflows has occurred. 

POSTER SESSION: Groundwater Issues from 

Oil and Gas Exploration & Production 


Room: Regent 

125 - Baseline Groundwater Quality Monitoring and 

Unconventional Gas Development 

Richard E. Jackson 

Geofirma Engineering Ltd, Heidelberg, Ontario, Canada 

Dru Heagle 

Geofirma Engineering Ltd, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

It has become standard practice to monitor domestic (i.e., ‘landowner’, ‘farm’ or ‘residential’) 

wells to establish the baseline groundwater quality (GWQ) in areas of oil and gas 

development. This is because of both regulatory requirements and the proximity of such 

water wells to areas of drilling operations that can lead to complaints of perceived GWQ 

deterioration from landowners. 

However domestic and farm water wells are not scientific instruments designed for sampling 

GWQ and they present numerous constraints that need to be understood and accounted 

for in such reporting. Given (i) the spatial and temporal variability of GWQ in 


aquifers and (ii) the uncertain integrity of domestic and farm wells, there is clearly a burden 

of proof on those sampling such wells to demonstrate that the ‘pre-drill’ data collected are 

robust and provide reliable information for use in dispute resolution and resource management. 

If the only purpose of such ‘baseline’ sampling is the collection of natural gas samples, 

then (i) the transient nature of natural gas emissions from oil and gas wells needs to be 

considered in terms of monitoring and (ii) sample collection must be optimized to reduce 

degassing at the well. Neither constraint is easily overcome with domestic wells. 

An exemplary protocol for testing of domestic and farm wells is that developed by Alberta 

Environment (Standard for Baseline Water Well Testing for Coalbed Methane/Natural 

Gas in Coal Operations, April 2006) that encourages (but does not require) the removal 

of the sanitary seal of a landowner’s well in order to conduct both a water-supply ‘yield 

test’ and GWQ sampling downhole. The additional expense (~$3,000 per well) of such a 

precaution may be considered as part of the cost of acquiring better scientific data from a 

water well not designed to yield scientifically reliable GWQ data. 

145 - Case Study Source Discrimination of a Benzene Release 

Using a Two-Dimensional (2D) Compound Specific Isotopic 

Analysis (CSIA) Approach 

Natalie Szponar, Brad J. MacLean, Tom H. Grimminck, Heather Stuart, & Rob F. Kell 

Dillon Consulting Limited, Oakville, Ontario, Canada 

In recent years, Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA) has emerged as an important 

tool in environmental forensics in assessing source(s) at contaminated sites, understanding 

comingled plumes and evaluating contaminant attenuation. This case study presents 

a Two-Dimensional (2D) CSIA approach that was used to gain a better understanding 

of the potential source(s) and age of benzene impacts to groundwater where no definitive 

source or release date had been identified. 

Extensive groundwater and soil characterization at the site of the case study identified benzene 

impacts in soil from 1 to greater than 4 meter below ground surface, with a maximum 

identified benzene concentration of 1,500 ug/g in soil; and 939,000 ug/L in groundwater. 

Although the characterization has provided a good understanding of the distribution of 

the benzene impacts, the source of the identified impacts and the time of release(s) were 

unknown. These unknowns were further complicated by the presence of numerous potential 

sources and a complex array of underground services and pipelines. 

Stable isotope techniques provide a powerful tool for source discrimination. In particular, stable 

carbon (δ 13 C) and hydrogen (δ 2 H) isotopes when plotted against each other for a specific 

compound (i.e., benzene) [referred to 2D-CSIA] can provide a “fingerprint” plot. This plot 

can be used to distinguish between different physical and biological processes affecting the 

compound, and may also provide further differentiation between different sources of refined/ 

manufactured benzene product (based on source material and manufacturing process). 


155

For this study, impacted groundwater was collected from selected monitoring wells representing 

different areas of the site and concentrations of benzene impacts. In addition, a 

raw benzene product sample was also collected as a representative example potential source 

material from one of the underground pipelines. The 2D-CSIA approach was used on 

these samples to provide information on the source and state of the benzene impacts (i.e., 

historic vs. ongoing) and the degree of weathering (i.e., biological, physical, chemical) as 

interpreted from the isotope signatures. The results of 2D-CSIA will be discussed within 

the limitations of the stable isotope interpretation. 

POSTER SESSION: Groundwater/Surface 

Water Interaction 


Room: Regent 

120 - Moisture loading – the hidden information in observation 

well records 

Garth van der Kamp 

Environment Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada 

It has long been recognized in soil mechanics and hydrogeology that changes of mechanical 

load acting on the ground surface lead to changes of fluid pressure in underlying formations. 

Barometric pressure changes are a changing surface load and their effects on groundwater 

levels are familiar to every hydrogeologist dealing with the “barometric efficiency” of observation 

wells. Changes of total moisture (e.g. snow accumulation, surface water, soil moisture, 

water table storage) also represent changes of mechanical load and therefore are reflected in 

groundwater pressure records for all confined formations. However, moisture loading effects 

are obscured by groundwater pressure fluctuations due to other causes, primarily atmospheric 

pressure changes, and are therefore generally not recognized. Analysis and removal of the 

barometric effects allows identification and analysis of moisture loading effects and can provide 

valuable information on the hydrogeology and hydrology of the well site. 

Observation wells thus act as large-scale weighing lysimeters. Such “geolysimeters” may 

be normal observation wells in confined aquifers and can also be in the form of shut-in 

pressure sensors positioned in the interior of thick aquitards, in which case the sensing 

area is well defined. Geolysimeters can provide a unique measure of total water storage 

changes on a scale commensurate with that of the “pixels” of regional hydrogeological and 

hydrological models. Such storage changes are increasingly recognized as a critical link 

between precipitation and streamflow in watershed hydrology. Incorporation of moisture 

loading theory in numerical models of groundwater-soil moisture-vegetation interactions 

can open the way for use of detailed records of groundwater levels to verify and improve 

model performance. 


186 - A Determination of the Lower Limit of Vertical Fluxes that 

can be Quantified Using Temperature Profiles in Low Permeability 

Streambeds 

Michael O. McBride 1 & Brewster Conant Jr. 2 

1 

WorleyParsons Canada, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

2 



Vertical profiles of temperature in streambeds can be modeled to quantify exchanges of 

water between groundwater and surface water, but in low permeability and low flux environments 

the modeling can yield unreliable or non-unique results. This study was undertaken 

to determine the threshold flux below which the influence of advection water (and 

heat) can no longer be reliably quantified, because it is so small relative to heat conduction 

processes. Thermographs from 1-D vertical arrays of temperature dataloggers deployed in 

the top 1.5 m of low permeability streambeds at three different field sites were simulated 

using the USGS numerical heat transport model VS2DH and 1DTempPro graphical user 

interface. A vertical upward flux of 3.4 x 10 -7 m/s (above the threshold value) was determined 

for silty clay till in Logan Drain (Kintore, Ontario). Modeled best fit fluxes of 5 x 

10 -8 m/s (marginally above the threshold) and ≤1 x 10 -8 m/s (at or below the threshold), 

were determined for the clay streambed deposits of the South and Middle branches of the 

Raisin River (near Cornwall, Ontario), respectively. Sensitivity analyses using the South 

Branch of the Raisin River data indicated simulated streambed temperature profiles were 

practically identical (i.e., non-unique) for specific discharges below 1 x 10 -8 m/s. Although 

threshold flux values were site specific and found to be a function of specific discharge, 

depth of streambed temperature measurement, and sediment thermal properties, the value 

of 1 x 10 -8 m/s was about the minimum reliable flux estimate achievable when using 

dataloggers with accuracies of 0.1°C. The threshold flux values had thermal Péclet numbers 

(tPe) less than 1 (tPe=1 when contributions to energy transport from advection and 

conduction are equal) indicating the Raisin River streambed sites were indeed conduction 

dominated. Additional simulations showed that the threshold flux occurs at a flux corresponding 

to about tPe=0.1 and so between values of 0.1 and 1.0, advection can still be 

quantified. To ensure one can obtain the lowest possible threshold value at a site, high 

resolution and accuracy temperature dataloggers should be deployed as deep as feasibly 

possible (within the active thermal zone, or at least 1 m deep), both within the zone of 

diurnal fluctuations and below to provide optimal transient temperature data to calibrate 

the model to. It appears that shallow streambed temperature profiles (≤ 1.5 m) cannot be 

used to reliably determine flow directions or magnitudes of fluxes below about 1 x 10 -8 m/s. 


157

257 - Hydrogeological and geochemical evaluation of the eastern 

Minesing Wetland in support of the Hine’s Emerald Dragonfly 

(Somatochlora hineana) 

Ryan Post 

Nottawasaga Valley Conservation Authority 

John Spoelstra 

Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada & Department of Earth and 

Environmental Sciences - University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

The globally rare Hine’s Emerald dragonfly (Somatochlora hineana) is restricted throughout 

its range to calcareous wetlands (marshes, sedge meadows and fens) dominated by 

graminoid vegetation and fed primarily by groundwater seeps. To date, the only known 

location of the Hine’s Emerald dragonfly in Ontario is the Minesing Wetlands, Simcoe 

County. 

Characterization of both the eastern Minesing Wetlands groundwater regime and potential 

Hine’s Emerald dragonfly habitat was carried out through field campaigns in 2013 and 

2014 which consisted of monitoring groundwater levels and annual geochemical sampling 

along two transects in addition to updating the ecological lands classification. 

The groundwater-dominated regime of the Minesing Wetlands comprises 3 progressive 

ecohydrological zones: discharge wetlands systems, flow through wetland system, and the 

graminiod fen with the corresponding recharge area situated in the Snow Valley Uplands. 

The Minesing Wetlands groundwater is geochemically characterized as calcium-bicarbonate/alkaline. 

The source of the groundwater is from the upgradient discharge wetland 

systems situated at the base of the bluffs. Groundwater flow direction is locally to the west 

towards the Nottawasaga River. The groundwater regime of the generalized uniform 3m 

think peat unit overlying the clay wetland bottom within the gramoniod fen is atmospherically 

influenced through temperature and precipitation events however levels and temperature 

are strongly correlatable. The Minesing Hine’s Emerald habitat is characterized 

by very slowly moving water, saturated organic soils (e.g. peat), predominance of ground 

level vegetation, and calcium-bicarbonate/alkaline dominated water regime; similar to other 

known locations in the USA. 

Funding for this project was through the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry 

Species at Risk Stewardship Fund and by the Environment Canada’s Lake Simcoe/ 

South-Eastern Georgian Bay Clean-up Fund for the geochemical analysis. 

113 - The influence of water table fluctuation on nutrient 

dynamics in sand from a freshwater beach environment 

Danny Hyumin Oh, Avid Banihashemi, Radmila Kovac, Fereidoun Rezanezhad, & 

Philippe Van Cappellen 

Ecohydrology Research Group, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada & Department of Earth & 

Environmental Science – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 


Water table fluctuations between groundwater and surface water significantly affect the biological 

and geochemical functioning of soils. The pulse of oxygen introduced or removed 

by cyclic draining and rewetting results in significant oxidation and reduction of redox sensitive 

chemical species. Our approach to unravel the biogeochemical implications of water 

table fluctuations is to conduct laboratory experiments with soil columns in which the 

position of the water table can be manipulated. In this project, we used a novel automated 

soil column system where the time course of the water level is imposed via a programmable 

multichannel pump. Four undisturbed sand cores (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm length) were 

collected from the Burlington beach site and were introduced into four columns in the lab. 

The soil columns have ports that are used to install ceramic pore water samplers to characterize 

the evolution of pore water chemistry (pH, major anions/cations, nutrients, DOC 

and DIC) in soil columns during water table fluctuations. At the end of experiment, the 

soil was extruded via the top of the column using a lifting jack and will be sliced every 2 cm 

for further solid phase geochemical characterizations. The goal of this study was to better 

delineate the role of water table oscillations on nutrient fate and distribution in sand from 

a freshwater beach environment. 

129 - Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on soil oxygen dynamics 

T. Milojevic, F. Rezanezhad, & P. Van Cappellen 

Ecohydrology Research Group, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Freeze-thaw cycles represent a major climate forcing acting on soils at middle and high 

latitudes. Freezing and thawing of soils affect their physical properties, biogeochemical 

processes, microbial community, and carbon and nutrient budgets, and modulate gas exchanges 

between the soil and atmosphere, which, in turn, exerts a strong influence on oxygen 

(O 2 

) availability within soil environments. To investigate the role of freeze-thaw cycles 

on soil oxygen dynamics, a highly instrumented soil column experiment was designed 

to realistically simulate freeze-thaw dynamics under controlled conditions. The ability to 

monitor changes in O 2 

levels in both the gas and aqueous phase is key to understanding 

how changes in frequency and amplitude of freeze-thaw cycles affect a soil’s geochemical 

conditions and microbial activity. In this study, we perform soil column experiments in a 

temperature-controlled environmental chamber. The air temperature of the chamber determines 

the soil’s surface temperature, while a band-heater keeps the lower part of the column 

at a constant groundwater temperature. This design allows us to reproduce realistic, 

time- and depth-dependent temperature gradients in the soil column. High-resolution, 

luminescence-based, Multi Fiber Optode (MuFO) microsensors are used to enable continuous 

O 2 

detection at a high degree of spatial flexibility in the column. High-resolution digital 

images of the sensor-emitted light are recorded and light intensity is converted to O 2 

concentration via signal image-processing techniques. In this presentation, we will present 

preliminary results to assess the hypothesis that freeze-thaw cycles regulate the fluxes of 

the greenhouse gases (GHG) not only by acting on the physical transport of gases, but also 

on soil microbial respiration via the variations in O 2 

availability. 


159

151 - Prevalence of Arsenic Enrichment Near the Sediment-Water 

Interface Along Shorelines of the Great Lakes 

Sabina Rakhimbekova, Clare Robinson, & Denis O’Carroll 



The mobility of arsenic in groundwater is controlled by interacting biogeochemical and 

hydrological processes – these processes are complicated near surface water-groundwater 

interfaces due to the mixing of two distinct water entities. The mixing of anoxic groundwater 

with toxic lake water recirculating across the sediment-water interface sets up a reaction 

zone characterized by sharp pH and redox gradients where a range of chemicals (e.g., 

arsenic) undergo important transformations. While prior research has revealed arsenic 

enrichment near the sediment-water interface along the shores of the Great Lakes (up 

to 56 µg/L), there is limited understanding of the ultimate source of arsenic, the physical 

and geochemical processes governing the arsenic behaviour and if arsenic enrichment in 

beach aquifers is a naturally occurring widespread phenomenon. This paper presents pore 

water and sediment chemistry data obtained near the sediment-water interface at a wide 

range of permeable Great Lake shorelines. Elevated As concentrations at a number of field 

sites indicates the process may be naturally occurring and suggests that lake water with 

trace concentrations of arsenic may deliver arsenic to the beach aquifer as it recirculates 

across the sediment-water interface. Arsenic may then be sequestered by metal oxides that 

precipitate below the beach face in distinct redox zones. The accumulation of arsenic in 

the beach aquifer creates a potential risk of elevated arsenic concentrations being rapidly 

released back to the surface water under favorable hydrologic and geochemical conditions 

(e.g., high organic loading from algae washup). The paper also explores potential scenarios 

that may cause mobilization of arsenic from the aquifer and subsequent release to adjacent 

surface waters. 

152 - Quantification of groundwater discharge along shorelines of 

the Great Lakes using Radon-222 

Tao Ji & Clare Robinson 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering – Western University, London, 


Groundwater discharge can be a significant pathway for transporting pollutants, including 

nutrients, organic contaminants and trace metals, into nearshore waters of the Great 

Lakes. Groundwater as a contributor of nutrients to the Great Lakes has received increased 

attention in recent years, particularly with respect to the potential for onsite sewage 

systems to be a source of elevated nutrient levels in nearshore waters. There is, however, 

limited understanding and methods available to quantify the groundwater discharge to the 

Great Lakes, including regional-scale methods to identify hotspot areas of discharge. Radon 

( 222 Rn, t 1/2 

= 3.8 days) is a suitable natural tracer for estimating groundwater discharge 

because it is a conservative gas and its activity is typically 3-4 orders of magnitude higher 

in groundwater than in surface water. Regional-scale 222 Rn surveys were conducted along 


20 km stretches of shoreline in three areas along Lake Huron (Blue Water Beach, Balmy 

Beach and La Fontainne Beach) to identify potential hotspot zones with elevated groundwater 

discharge. Measurements were conducted with portable instrumentation (RAD 7 

and RAD AQUA, Durridge Inc.). Shoreline areas to conduct these regional-scale surveys 

were selected based on topography, hydrogeological information and prior published results. 

222 Rn activities in groundwater, benthic flux, losses to air and mixing were measured 

in specific hotspot area. A steady-state mass balance model which considers the various 

sources and sinks of 222 Rn was then applied to estimate groundwater discharge rates. The 

challenge of this method is minimizing uncertainties in the 222 Rn mass balance including 

quantifying 222 Rn loss through air evasion and mixing, as well as adequately characterizing 

222 

Rn in the groundwater end-member. Intensive sampling and analysis was conducted to 

minimize these uncertainties. The results indicate that high groundwater discharge occurs 

primarily in the nearshore, with decreasing discharge rates offshore. Detailed temperature 

and hydraulic gradient profiles were also collected at discrete locations within the survey 

areas to validate the groundwater discharge rates estimated from the 222 Rn surveys. This 

development of methods to evaluate regional-scale groundwater discharge to nearshore 

waters is critical for developing more effective and targeted management plans to mitigate 

the contribution of groundwater pollutants to nearshore waters. 

162 - Effect of groundwater-lake interactions on the transport of 

nutrients from groundwater to the Great Lakes along permeable 

shorelines 

Monica A. McVicar, Alex Hockin, Denis M. O’Carroll, & Clare Robinson 

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, 


Groundwater discharge represents a potentially important source of nutrients (NO 3- 

, NH 4+ 

, PO 4 

3- 

) to nearshore waters of the Great Lakes. While studies have linked anthropogenic 

activities (i.e., septic systems, leaky sewers, agriculture) to elevated nutrient 

concentrations in shallow permeable coastal aquifers, the ultimate discharge of nutrients 

from groundwater to the lakes is not well understood. Prediction of nutrient loading from 

groundwater to the lake is complex as it is controlled not only by inland groundwater 

nutrient sources but also by transformations occurring as nutrients are transported along 

their discharge pathway. In particular, important nutrient transformations may occur close 

to the groundwater-lake interface where discharging groundwater mixes with lake water 

recirculating across this interface (similar to hyporheic zone processes). Transformations 

occurring here may play a disproportionate role in regulating the ultimate flux of groundwater 

nutrients to the lake including the ratios and chemical forms of the nutrients. The 

objective of this study was to evaluate the way in which the interacting hydrological and 

biogeochemical processes occurring near the groundwater-lake interface along permeable 

Great Lakes shorelines regulates the loading of nutrients to the lakes from groundwater. 

Detailed field investigations were conducted on a fine sand homogeneous beach aquifer on 

Lake Huron to characterize the geochemical conditions close to the groundwater-lake interface 

and their effect on the discharge of groundwater-derived nutrients. To quantify the 


161

nearshore groundwater chemistry including nutrient concentrations, multi-level samplers 

up to a depth of 3 m were installed along transects perpendicular to the shoreline. Vertical 

arrays of pressure transducers were also installed to infer the groundwater flow gradients 

and water exchange across the groundwater-lake interface. At this site NO 3- 

and PO 4 

3- 

concentrations up to 110 mg/L and 450 µg/L, respectively, were observed in the nearshore 

aquifer with concentrations decreasing towards the groundwater-lake interface. Nutrient 

distributions in the nearshore aquifer were also monitored to capture seasonal variability as 

well as to examine the extent to which lake forcing such as waves influence the geochemical 

conditions close to the groundwater-lake interface. 

167 - Influence of oceanic processes on groundwater flow and 

contaminant transport on Sable Island, Nova Scotia 

Victoria Trglavcnik, Clare Robinson, & Denis O’Carroll 



Dean Morrow, Darren White, Viviane Paquin, & Kela Weber 

Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Environmental Sciences Group – 

Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Canada 

Many coastal aquifers worldwide are impacted by human activities. Groundwater flows 

in unconfined coastal aquifers can be extremely complex because the aquifer is exposed to 

dynamic ocean fluctuations such as tides and waves (Robinson, 2006, 2007, 2009; Licata, 

2011; Heiss, 2014). While the influence of oceanic fluctuations on groundwater levels, 

groundwater flow patterns and salinity distribution in coastal aquifers has been well studied, 

the subsequent impact on the fate and transport of groundwater contaminants is not 

well understood. Due to the complexity of coastal aquifers most previous studies have 

used only numerical modelling of idealized systems to examine groundwater contaminant 

behaviour. No prior studies have combined field and numerical modelling to rigorously 

evaluate the fate and transport of groundwater contaminants in dynamic coastal aquifers. 

This paper presents field observations combined with numerical groundwater modelling to 

evaluate the influence of oceanic fluctuations and environmental factors (e.g. tides, waves, storm 

events, rainfall) on the groundwater dynamics and subsequent fate of groundwater contaminants 

on Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Sable Island is a narrow sandy barrier island (maximum 

width of 1.5km) located 175km southeast of Nova Scotia, Canada. Zones of elevated soil and 

groundwater contamination by various PHCs, PAHs and metals are present on the island from 

historical operations. A better understanding of fate and transport of these contaminants will 

assist in developing sustainable management practices to ensure the integrity of the island’s 

ecosystem. Long-term continuous water level data from twenty wells installed across the island, 

and in the contamination around the areas of concern, were first analyzed to determine the external 

forces driving the coastal groundwater dynamics. Following this, a numerical groundwater 

flow and transport model of the aquifer contamination zone was developed to evaluate the 

effects of the transient flow conditions on the fate and transport of the observed contaminant 

plumes. The findings provide valuable insights transferable to other coastal environments where 

oceanic fluctuations control groundwater flow and contaminant transport processes. 


310 - Assessing the Impact of a Mine Tailings Rehabilitation 

Strategy on Nearby Stream and Groundwater Flows 

S.D. Donald, R.G. McLaren, M. Gunsinger, F. Junqueira & B. Reiha 

Golder Associates Ltd., Cambridge, Ontario, Canada 

An alternatives assessment was completed to evaluate feasible rehabilitation strategies to 

manage the potential risk posed by gas emissions from a historic tailings facility at a decommissioned 

mine site. The preferred solution that was selected involves the construction 

of a cover over the surface of the tailings, which provides a barrier of saturated material 

that would significantly reduce gas migration to the surface. While the cover provides the 

benefit of mitigating gas emissions, a potential concern with this strategy was that the cover 

will be constructed with low-permeable soil materials that may promote surface runoff 

and reduce groundwater recharge. Potential effects in turn could be a lowering of the water 

table, desaturation of peat layers that underlie the tailings, and the possible oxidation and 

re-mobilization of currently adsorbed waste products within the peat layer. There were 

also concerns with respect to the influence of this reduced recharge on the groundwater / 

surface water interactions of a stream channel immediately adjacent to the tailings facility. 

In order to assess the impacts that the cover system may have on the local flow system, a 

3-dimensional, integrated, fully-coupled, surface/subsurface numerical modelling approach 

was utilized. An existing calibrated subsurface flow model was used as a starting point. A preliminary 

base case steady-state simulation with average annual surplus water was developed 

for the existing site conditions (no cover). Subsequent simulations with average monthly 

surplus water were then carried out for the base case and two cover system scenarios with 

reduced infiltration. Time-varying infiltration rates for the tailings facility (covered and uncovered) 

where derived from a separate 1D numerical flow model and applied as a specified 

flux boundary condition in the tailings on the top surface of the 3D model. 

Modelling results indicate that the placement of the cover would have minimal impact on 

the elevation of the water table and the saturation of the peat layer underlying the tailings, 

and the surface water flow magnitude in an adjacent stream. However, the model results 

did suggest that there could be significant impacts on the spatial location and temporal 

variation of zones where the adjacent stream was ‘gaining’ or ‘losing’ water to and from the 

subsurface. While not the case for this particular site, this could have a negative impact on 

watercourses where the aquatic systems rely on these relationships. In this particular application, 

the advantages of the integrated modelling approach, over traditional uncoupled or 

loosely-coupled approaches, becomes evident. With the fully integrated approach, subtle 

changes in the surface/subsurface flow relationships are directly visible. 


163

POSTER SESSION: Innovation in the 

Remediation of Contaminated Sites 


Room: Regent 

321 - Application of Push-Pull Tests to Define Biogeochemical 

Controls on Selenium and Nitrate Attenuation in Saturated Coal 

Waste Rock 

Marcie Schabert, M. Jim Hendry, & S. Lee Barbour 

Department of Geological Sciences – University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 

Canada 

Surface mining of steelmaking coal in the Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada, has resulted 

in the release of constituents of interest such as selenium (Se) and nitrate (NO 3- 

) into 

the Elk River. Oxidation of sulfide minerals in the unsaturated coal waste rock generates 

water-soluble forms of Se (selenite (SeO 3 

2– 

) and selenate (SeO 4 

2- 

) that are mobile in the 

aqueous phase. Nitrate, introduced to the waste rock through the blasting process, is also 

water soluble and mobile in the aqueous phase. Limited data suggests that the attenuation 

of Se and NO 3 

via reduction can occur in saturated waste rock, therefore the placement of 

waste rock in topographic low areas, such as backfilled pits, could create saturated conditions 

in which Se and NO 3- 

attenuation would be enhanced. A push-pull test is an in situ 

method that can be used to examine physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of an 

aquifer. Testing involves injecting water spiked with conservative and reactive tracers into 

the formation, allowing the spiked water to react within the formation for a period of time, 

and then extracting it. Dilution of the injected water can be quantified by monitoring the 

concentration of the conservative tracers during extraction. Any loss of reactive tracer beyond 

that due to dilution can be attributed to physical-chemical reactions in the formation. 

In this study, push-pull tests were used to determine if SeO 4 

2– 

and/or NO 3- 

can be attenuated 

within saturated waste rock. Chloride (Cl - ) and deuterium in the water molecules 

(δ 2 H) were used as conservative tracers, and either dissolved oxygen (O 2 

), SeO 4 

2– 

, NO 3- 

, 

or both SeO 4 

2– 

and NO 3- 

were used as reactive tracers. The injection volume for these 

tests was between 910 to 1005 L of spiked water, and the reaction time ranged between 

19 and 67 hours (h). Extraction was conducted for 8 h, with samples for geochemical 

analysis being collected on either 15 or 30 min intervals. In addition to geochemical samples, 

pH, temperature, and reduction potential were monitored during both the injection 

and extraction phases. Concentrations of tracers were normalized relative to the injection 

concentration of each tracer. Normalized plots of reactive tracers were compared to those 

of conservative tracers for each test to determine if O 2 

, SeO 4 

2– 

, and NO 3 

reduction is occurring 

in the saturated waste rock at the scale of the testing. 


268 - Smouldering Combustion of NAPLs in Soil: Advancing 

Process Understanding in the Context of STAR Remediation 

Marco A.B. Zanoni & Jason I. Gerhard 

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, 


Jose L. Torero 

School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia 

Smouldering combustion is defined as an oxygen-limited, flameless form of combustion. 

Glowing red charcoal in a barbeque is a typical example. Smouldering is the governing 

process of an innovative soil remediation technology called Self-sustaining Treatment for 

Active Remediation (STAR), which has been proved an effective approach to successfully 

destroy nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) in soil with minimal energy input. A 

key feature of STAR is that the reaction is self-sustaining, meaning that once ignited, 

the reaction will continue using the energy released from the exothermic oxidation of the 

contaminant (i.e., fuel) as long as sufficient contaminant and oxygen is available. Smouldering 

has long been studied in a fire safety context, focused almost exclusively on porous 

solids, such as foam cushions and insulation; very little is known about smouldering of 

liquid fuels (i.e., NAPLs) in an inert solid porous matrix (i.e., soil). Moreover, smouldering 

is a complex thermodynamic process, involving kinetic pyrolysis and oxidation reactions, 

multiple heat transfer mechanisms and ultimately a balance between energy recirculated 

ahead of the front and heat losses. The objective of this work was to develop a better fundamental 

understanding of STAR thermodynamics, and the chosen methodology was to 

build a numerical model to simulate smouldering behaviour in a one-dimensional system. 

A set of partial differential equations representing the conservation of mass, momentum, 

and energy were combined with appropriate chemical reactions solved using COMSOL 

Multiphysics. Several kinetic reaction frameworks were developed for the pyrolysis and 

oxidation of coal tar and the kinetic parameters (pre-exponential factor, activation energy, 

reaction order, and stoichiometric coefficients) were estimated through applying a genetic 

algorithm to thermogravimetric analysis data. Furthermore, local thermal non-equilibrium 

between the injected air and the soil/NAPL was used in the energy conservation. The heat 

transfer process was better simulated by the development of a new empirical correlation to 

calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient (hsf) between the soil and injected air over 

a wide range of in situ parameters. Ongoing work includes further developing the model, 

calibrating it to 1D experiments, and simulating a wide range of smouldering scenarios. 

Overall, this work is revealing that thermodynamic modelling is an essential tool for better 

understanding the complex interactions of mass and heat transfer underlying STAR propagation, 

and providing insights into process optimization and application limits. 


165

278 - Microbial Subsurface Repopulation Following In Situ STAR 

Remediation 

Gavin Overbeeke & Jason Gerhard 



Elizabeth Edwards 

Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry – University of Toronto, 

Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

Gavin Grant 

Savron, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

STAR (Self-sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation) is an emerging remediation 

technology that employs a self-sustaining smouldering reaction to destroy nonaqueous 

phase liquids (NAPLs) in the subsurface. The reaction is a slow, controlled, flameless exothermic 

oxidation reaction that proceeds strictly through NAPL-contaminated soil. The 

reaction front travels at rates of 0.5 to 5 m per day and subjects the soil to temperatures 

between 400°C and 1000°C. As a result, not only does STAR cause in situ destruction of 

NAPL, but it thoroughly dries and likely sterilizes the soil through which it passes. The 

objective of this work is to monitor the re-saturation of the soil over time and quantify 

the microbial repopulation of the treated source zone. STAR is currently being applied as 

a full scale, in situ remedy for coal tar beneath a former creosol manufacturing facility in 

New Jersey, USA. STAR is being applied at two depths where significant coal tar contamination 

is observed: a shallow fill unit and a deeper fine sand alluvial aquifer, both beneath 

the water table. This project includes analysis of soil cores and groundwater samples taken 

from both depths immediately after STAR treatment and at regular intervals afterwards, 

allowing time for groundwater to reinfiltrate and for microbial populations to reestablish. 

Samples were also taken from outside the treatment zones to provide background data. 

Both soil and groundwater samples were analyzed for total number of microorganisms 

and microbial diversity using Pyrotag analysis. Pyrotag analysis subjects DNA within a soil 

sample to quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR), which is used to estimate the 

abundance of microorganisms, as well as Amplicon sequencing of 16srRNA genes, which 

provides an estimation of microbial composition and diversity. To inform the field research 

program, an initial bench top laboratory study using site soil and natural groundwater 

is exploring the rate at which STAR-treated soil is repopulated with naturally occurring 

microorganisms. The expectation of this research program is to provide insight into the 

changes in microbial abundance and diversity as the subsurface transitions from contaminated 

to remediated and then repopulated soil. The rate at which the microbial abundance 

changes, as well as the variations seen in microbial diversity will be a key factor in determining 

the rate at which the subsurface improves towards its natural soil function. 

196 - Importance of Groundwater Flow Direction Match in 

Groundwater Flow Model Calibration 

Hongze Gao & Steve Harris 

Conestoga Rovers & Associates, a GHD Company, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 


In groundwater flow model calibration, it is a tradition and standard to look at the calibration 

error statistics. As a rule of thumb when the statistic errors are minimized, the 

simulated groundwater elevations are supposed to match the observed elevations at the 

available/selected calibration targets. Thus the groundwater flow directions are theoretically 

considered to match as well. However, quite often it is the case that groundwater flow 

directions do not match to the best for a long term average flow condition even when the 

minimized calibration errors are found. Reasons may include: 1) the observation event (as 

calibration targets) does not necessarily represent the long term average conditions due to 

groundwater elevation fluctuations (and hence groundwater flow direction variations); 2) 

groundwater elevation measurement errors; 3) over simplification of the site conditions 

such as lumping different hydrogeological units to a single model layer where a vertical 

hydraulic gradient may exist, etc. For a contaminated site where a plume in groundwater 

is fully delineated, a long term groundwater flow direction is obtained that should be a 

primary calibration target to focus on. Focusing on groundwater flow direction match in 

groundwater flow model calibration is extremely important when using a calibrated model 

to optimize the design of the groundwater remediation system. 

289 - Self-Sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR) – 

Vapour Emissions Characterization and Mitigation 

Cody Murray & Jason I. Gerhard 

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering - Western University, London, Ontario, 

Canada 

Gavin P. Grant, Grant Scholes, & Dave Major 

Savron Solutions, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Self-sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR) is a novel technology based on 

the principles of smouldering combustion where the contaminants, primarily Non-Aqueous 

Phase Liquids (NAPLs), are the fuel for the reaction. STAR is self-sustaining in that, 

following a short duration, localized ignition event, the combustion front propagates 

through the contaminated material without any externally added energy. The reaction is 

supported and accelerated by air injection. This technology is capable of destroying greater 

than 99.9% of contaminant / waste mass and has many potential applications to the oil and 

gas, manufacturing, and utility industries. The STAR process is well suited for the in situ 

treatment of NAPL source zones as well as the ex situ treatment (STARx) of excavated 

soils, drilling muds, or other contaminated soils. In addition, STARx can be used for the 

treatment of organic wastes such as waste oils and lagoon sludges when the waste material 

is mixed with a porous media to establish the conditions required for smouldering combustion 

reactions to take place. 

The objective of this work is to study the gaseous emissions from STAR and STARx. In 

particular, this work seeks to characterize the emissions and determine the factors affecting 

the volatile emissions rate and its relationship to treatment efficiency / remediation 

performance. Specific attention is being given to characterize (i) combustion gases, such 

as carbon dioxide (CO 2 

), carbon monoxide (CO), and oxygen (O 2 

), (ii) volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs), and (iii) aerosols/oil mists. These are being quantified for both the 


167

in situ treatment of coal tar at a field site as well as for the ex situ destruction of crude oil 

tank bottoms and hydrocarbon impacted soils. The work is exploring the sensitivity of the 

emissions to key system parameters (e.g., air flow rate, water content) and testing ways to 

mitigate the emissions. This work is expected to demonstrate the very high rate of mass 

destruction occurring during STAR/STARx application and also demonstrate how to understand, 

minimize, and manage the emissions that may occur. 

POSTER SESSION: Regional Groundwater 

Systems 


Room: Regent 

133 - Isotope and hydrogeochemical characterisation of 

groundwater in a degrading permafrost environment in northern 

Quebec, Canada. 

Marion Cochand 1 , John Molson 1 , Jean-Michel Lemieux 1 , Johannes A.C. Barth 2 , 

Robert Van Geldern 2 , Richard Fortier 1 , & René Therrien 1 

1 

Centre d’études nordiques, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada, 

2 

Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany 

One consequence of global warming already being felt in northern Quebec is permafrost 

thaw. Although its influence on groundwater resources is still largely unknown, it will 

probably lead to increased groundwater recharge and changing flow dynamics. 

A two square kilometer watershed in a discontinuous permafrost zone close to the Inuit 

village of Umiujaq (northern Quebec, Canada) has been instrumented to assess the influence 

of permafrost degradation on groundwater resources. The catchment is located 

in the Tasiapik valley, which is mainly filled with glacial-fluvial and Quaternary marine 

sediments. The area became deglaciated about 7500 years ago, and permafrost mounds 

have formed within marine silts. The valley has two aquifers: an unconfined shallow sandy 

aquifer located in the upper part of the valley, and a deeper confined aquifer in fractured 

bedrock below the permafrost mounds. 

Nine observation wells are being used to monitor both aquifers in a longitudinal transect 

along the valley with measurements of groundwater levels and temperature profiles. In 

addition, ground- and surface water, as well as precipitation and permafrost samples were 

collected during three field campaigns in the summers of 2013 and 2014, and in November 

2014 for hydrogeochemistry (dissolved metals and major anions), stable isotope 

analysis (δ 18 O and δ 2 H) and dating ( 14 C and 3 H/ 3 He). The aim was to identify the origin 

of groundwater (i.e. proportions from rain, snow and permafrost), to characterize groundwater 

evolution along the flow path, and to understand seasonal dynamics together with 

determination of residence time. 


First results from stable isotope analyses show groundwater depletion in δ 18 O and δ 2 H 

that may result from permafrost thawing which recharges the aquifer with water depleted 

in heavy isotopes. In contrast, shallow thermokarst lakes show enriched signals in δ 18 O 

and δ 2 H resulting from evaporation. Groundwater hydrogeochemical data revealed mainly 

HCO 3 

– Ca water types. As expected, the shallow aquifer had lower concentrations in 

dissolved ions compared with the deeper aquifer. 

These results, combined with further field campaigns including additional site characterization 

and water sampling as well as thermal and hydrogeochemical modelling, will 

provide better understanding of the flow dynamics in the catchment to evaluate influences 

of thawing permafrost on groundwater. 

174 - Hydrostratigraphic and Groundwater Flow Models of a 

Complex Unconsolidated Aquifer System, Nanaimo Lowlands, 


N. Benoit, D. Paradis, J. Bednarski, & H. Russell 


To support sustainable groundwater management, tridimensional (3D) hydrostratigraphic 

and groundwater flow models were developed for an unconsolidated aquifer system in 

the Nanaimo Lowlands, British Columbia (Canada). The study area is a coastal strip on 

eastern Vancouver Island (~580 km 2 ). A 3D hydrostratigraphic model was developed using 

existing well logs and published cross sections as well as new data from rotosonic coring, 

borehole geophysics, seismic reflection surveys and surficial geology mapping. The detailed 

surficial geology consists of 31 different units that are grouped into 8 major hydrostratigraphic 

units, of which 5 correspond to aquifers and 3 to aquitards. These are (from the 

surface down): Capilano-Salish (sand), Capilano glaciomarine (silty clay), Vashon-Capilano 

(sand and gravel), Vashon (till), Quadra (sand), Dashwood-Cowichan (compact silt), 

Mapleguard (sand), and siltstone to sandstone bedrock. This succession of Late Pleistocene 

to Holocene sediments is up to 140 m thick and is present over most of the study area, 

thinning to the southwest with rising topography and bedrock outcrops. Capilano-Salish 

and Vashon-Capilano units are shallow aquifers with relatively high vulnerability to surface 

contamination and low groundwater potential due to their limited thickness. The 

Quadra sand is the most exploited aquifer unit. It underlies the ubiquitous low permeability 

Vashon till and overlies Dashwood-Cowichan aquitard or the bedrock. The Quadra 

has a thickness of up to 50 m in place and it is predominantly above sea level, which 

minimizes issues of seawater intrusion. However, only about one-third of its thickness is 

saturated likely due to: (1) the covering by the Vashon aquitard that limits groundwater 

replenishment and (2) its deep incision by modern rivers that substantially drain its flanks. 

The relatively low permeability sedimentary rock aquifer is also extensively exploited, but 

only in areas where the Quadra aquifer is not present. Results of 3D groundwater flow 

modelling based on the hydrostratigraphic model show that baseflow to major rivers is 

provided mostly by groundwater seepage from heavily incised Quadra sand. Different regional 

groundwater flow patterns are also observed reflecting stratigraphic controls: flow 


169

within the Quadra aquifer generally follows surface water drainage basin with discharge 

to rivers, whereas flow in underlying Mapleguard and bedrock aquifers is directed towards 

the Strait of Georgia without significant hydraulic connection with rivers. Hydrogeological 

insights gained through this study shows that the complexity of this aquifer system can 

make groundwater management challenging and that each system component should be 

carefully understood to ensure sustainable management. 

312 - Hydrogeochemical Assessment of a Regional Geochemical 

Anomaly, Niagara Peninsula 

Caitlin McEwan & Greg Slater 

School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada 

Stewart Hamilton 

Ontario Geological Survey, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, Sudbury, 


A geochemical anomaly in the Niagara Peninsula affecting water quality to the point of 

non-potability was first identified by the Ontario Geological Survey in 2010 by the Ambient 

Groundwater Geochemistry study. Interpretation of data collected during that field season 

shows two anomalous geochemical zones that are distinct with respect to the groundwater 

chemistry of the same geologic units elsewhere in Southern Ontario. Elsewhere, bedrock 

groundwater geochemistry in these Paleozoic strata is reasonably consistent within formations 

and reflects the lithological and mineralogical composition of the host rock. The first 

zone exists in the western Niagara Peninsula, and is characterized by Ca-Mg-SO 4 

2- 

-HCO 3 

rich waters and has high pCO 2 

and bacterial counts. This geochemical zone spans several 

geological formations including Devonian carbonates, Silurian evaporates and Silurian carbonates 

along a north-south trend, and in some cases cross-formational flow is indicated. 

The potentiometric surface was plotted to assess groundwater flow using the static water levels 

of wells, GPS elevations and locations, well stick-up and well depth following the protocol 

of the Ambient Groundwater Geochemistry Program. The assessment of hydraulic heads 

along a north-south transect crossing the Niagara Escarpment and the buried Onondaga Escarpment 

in both shows groundwater to flow northward and southward from each bedrock 

topographic high. Several new monitoring wells installed in the local Silurian carbonate/ 

evaporite contact aquifer through collaborative efforts of the Ontario Geological Survey and 

the Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority will provide hydrogeological ‘golden spikes’ 

for the determination of regional flow direction. Ongoing work seeks to identify sources 

of these geochemical anomalies with additional sampling to increase the density of sample 

points. The collection of ∂ 34 S, ∂ 13 C, ∂ 18 O, and ∂D isotopic samples at each site during ongoing 

sampling will aid interpretation of the geochemical processes occurring in this anomalous 

geochemical zone. Previous work has suggested several possibilities for the source of 

the anomalous geochemical zones including the presence of corroded abandoned gas well 

casings as a mechanism for groundwater transport from depth and groundwater transport in 

karst aquifers. Identification of the sources of these water quality problems will be a first step 

in identifying safe and reliable groundwater supplies for local residents and providing data to 

make informed decisions by other stakeholders on long term water supplies in the region. 


316 - Regional patterns and geochemical controls on shallow 

groundwater chemistry in Southeastern Ontario 

Laura M. Colgrove, Stewart M. Hamilton, & Fred J. Longstaffe 

Department of Earth Sciences – University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada 

This study reports regional chemistry for shallow groundwater from southeastern Ontario 

and identifies the dominant geochemical processes responsible for its variability. The database 

includes chemical analyses of groundwater from 264 wells located between the Frontenac 

Arch and the Quebec border, which were sampled as part of the Ambient Groundwater 

Geochemistry Program of the Ontario Geological Survey. Users of groundwater 

in eastern Ontario experience unusually elevated levels of many chemical constituents, 

including Na + , Cl - , I - , DOC, DIC and TDS. Whereas typical drinking water has TDS 

ranging from 500-700 ppm, 39 Eastern Ontario samples can be classified as “brackish”, 

ranging from 1000 – 10000 ppm, and 1 sample classified as saline at 10400 ppm. Spatial 

variations in groundwater chemistry show a strong correlation with the occurrence of 

Pleistocene (“Leda”) clays deposited by the Champlain Sea. Halogen ratios, water stable 

isotope compositions and major-ion proportions suggest that the regional groundwater 

flow system may be interacting with Champlain seawater still present in parts of the study 

area. Infiltrating meteoric water is confined by thickening Champlain Sea clays, and its 

chemistry evolves through ion exchange and mixing with Pleistocene water. Ion exchange 

with these clays softens the water, creating potential health-related implications for drinking 

water, including those associated with elevated concentrations of sodium and fluoride. 

Elevated DIC, DOC and I - , along with the presence of HS - and CH 4 

, are attributed to 

anaerobic decomposition of organic matter associated with the Champlain Sea clays and 

shale. The combined contributions of Champlain seawater and decomposition of associated 

organic matter has produced the highest I - concentrations so far measured in Ontario, 

which commonly exceed those of seawater by an order of magnitude. 

119 - Challenges and Issues Related to the Water Supply from the 

Brandon Channel Buried Valley Aquifer – Brandon, Manitoba 

Jeffrey J. Bell 

Friesen Drillers Ltd., Steinbach, Manitoba, Canada 

The hydrogeology and recharge characteristics of buried valley aquifers on the Canadian 

prairies are complex. The City of Brandon, in western Manitoba, relies on a water supply 

from the Assiniboine River. A large buried deposit of sand and gravel was present within a 

valley in the shale bedrock in Brandon. This deposit is called the Brandon Channel Aquifer. 

The Brandon area was once a key restriction in the northerly drainage of the vast majority 

of Central North America. This river system deposited a large amount of sediment. The 

area was subsequently glaciated several times, during the Pleistocene. These glacial events 

deposited related glacial deposits. 

Two industrial plants utilize 30,000 m 3 /day of groundwater for process and cooling applications. 

The aquifer is narrow in places and varies considerably in thickness and structure. 


171

The aquifer is mostly confined; but is exposed at some places along the Assiniboine River 

Valley. Initially, the groundwater quality was poor with high chlorides and total dissolved 

solids. With the increased pumping, the quality improved. Heavier and evaporitic isotopes 

indicated that water from the Assiniboine River was recharging the aquifer. 

Two major pumping centers have developed deep drawdown zones in the potentiometric 

surface, where some areas indicate a strong recharge boundary from the Assiniboine River. 

This recharge boundary sustains the aquifer’s ability to supply large amounts of water. 

However, there are groundwater flows moving towards the pumping wells from other areas 

which still contain older glaciogenic water. Groundwater sampling shows that the groundwater 

in the dynamic zones is improving in quality, and indicates recharge. Over the last 

five years drawdown has developed in the western areas of the aquifer due to the pumping 

of the City of Brandon emergency supply wells. This new drawdown has dramatically 

altered the potentiometric surface and at some places the geochemistry. 

Numerous groundwater level observation wells show annual aquifer recharge with normal 

seasonal and climatic conditions. The network also records the effects of changing pumping 

rates. During the few years on several occasions, the Assiniboine River has reached 

flood stage, and the aquifer rises and falls very rapidly to the river water level changes. 

The Brandon Channel Aquifer is an important aquifer that provides substantial water 

supply for industrial use in the City of Brandon. The recent municipal use of the aquifer, 

shows that proper management is required of this complex buried valley aquifer. Therefore 

additional groundwater investigations should be undertaken. 

184 - Free convection or variable density flow within groundwater 

flow systems? 

K. Udo Weyer & James C. Ellis 

WDA Consultants Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

There exists a scientific conflict between the postulated but unproven existence of free 

convection under hydrodynamic on‐shore conditions and the well‐established existence of 

gravitational groundwater flow systems under the same conditions. The extensive literature 

on free convection indicates that downward directed fingers of higher density fluid may 

develop via free convection under hydrostatic laboratory conditions. Numerical codes have 

subsequently been developed which model these fingers in an hydrostatic environment. 

So far, there has not been any conclusive proof of the field occurrences of free convection 

under hydrodynamic on-shore conditions presented, despite strong claims to the contrary. 

The claims were mainly based on 2008 geo-electrical field measurements in the shore near 

sabkha (salt flat) areas in Abu Dhabi (van Dam et al., 2009). 

Repeat geophysical measurements in 2009 did not find the ‘fingers’ which were claimed 

to have existed in 2008. Subsequently a prominent proponent of free convection stated 

subsequently: “Hundreds of papers on theory, modelling & laboratory experiments on 

finger instabilities associated with free convection…. But a complete lack of conclusive 


field based evidence and data” (Simmons, 2011). In January 2014 a publication by the 

same group of the 2009 authors claimed unexpectedly that the 2008 and 2009 geophysical 

measurement reflected the occurrence of free convection in the sabkha of Abu Dhabi (van 

Dam et al., 2014). 

Fortunately, the sabkha area of Abu Dhabi has been seen by sedimentologists of the petroleum 

industry as a natural present day laboratory to explain the huge amount of dolomitization 

which has occurred in the geological past. Wood et al. (2002) were the first 

authors conducting actual hydraulic field work in the Abu Dhabi sabkha area by drilling 

450 shallow (

The Ontario Geological Survey (OGS) began mapping both the overburden and shallow 

and deeper bedrock potable groundwater resources along the Niagara Escarpment in 2009. 

The main goal was to establish a 3D geologic model that could be used to delineate and 

predict locations of new groundwater resources for populations in key growth areas within 

the Escarpment region. The timing of the regional bedrock aquifer mapping initiative 

coincided with the Town of Shelburne retaining a consulting team to conduct a hydrogeological 

study to find additional groundwater supplies in bedrock to augment four existing 

wells, in order to meet future increased population and industry demands. The consultants 

were to review all existing hydrogeological data and select favourable areas within a 5km 

perimeter of the town boundary. 

The Shelburne groundwater exploration study also coincided with anticipated changes 

in the Ontario Drinking Water Standards for Arsenic levels – some of the existing bedrock 

wells, which ended in the interface aquifer contact zone, had produced As levels that 

would exceed the new standard. OGS bedrock geochemistry, petrology and SEM studies 

had revealed that As was naturally occurring and concentrated in microbially-precipitated 

framboidal pyrites in some of the rock formations of the Lockport Group – the main 

cliff-forming package of carbonates that hosts the potable groundwater flow zones along 

the Niagara Escarpment. OGS staff presented current knowledge of the regional 3D bedrock 

model and groundwater flow zones to the Town and consultants in December 2009. 

Extrapolation of the 3D geologic model into the Melancthon-Shelburne areas, along with 

renewed regional mapping that indicated major changes were needed to describe the bedrock 

stratigraphy of the area, resulted in the drilling of two cored holes to the regional 

bedrock aquitard – Cabot Head Formation (>95m depth). 

Subsequent core analysis, down-hole camera and geophysical tests, packer pumping tests 

and FLUTe profiling indicated potential deeper groundwater flow zones in the Goat 

Island and Gasport formations, with a total local thickness of 40m. A larger diameter 

water well was drilled and tested next to the more promising OGS-FLUTe-instrumented 

monitoring well, and confirmed a supply that is more than double the capacity the Town 

was expecting and with low As levels. Both a Municipal Class EA and Federal EA have 

since been completed and approved. The Town is expecting to bring the new water supply 

of more than 1600m 3 /day on-line in 2015. 

137 - Regional groundwater resources assessment in the 

Chaudière-Appalaches region, Québec, Canada 

Jean-Marc Ballard 1 , Marc-André Carrier 1 , Harold Vigneault 1 , Guillaume 

Légaré-Couture 1 , Michel Parent 2 , Laureline Berthot 1 Châtelaine Beaudry 1 , Marc 

Laurencelle 1 , Xavier Malet 1 , Annie Therrien 1 , & René Lefebvre 1 

1 


2 


A groundwater resources assessment was carried out in the 15 600 km 2 Chaudière-Appalaches 

region extending south from the St. Lawrence River to the USA border. Data 

compilation extracted more than 20 000 well records from the governmental well database. 


Well data were also extracted from over 350 documents collected from municipalities and 

government agencies. New fieldwork involved 11 cone penetration tests, 24 rotopercussion 

soundings and 9 conventional wells open in the rock aquifer. Complete chemical analyses 

were carried out on 131 groundwater samples, mostly collected from residential wells. 

Almost 200 other chemical analyses were obtained from previous or on-going projects in 

the study area. 

Over a 10 to 30 km-wide strip adjacent to the St. Lawrence River, the topography is that 

of a low plateau, which was covered by the Champlain Sea up to 180 m ASL, while the 

interior of the region is either hilly or mountainous. Farmland occupies the St. Lawrence 

valley and its main tributary valleys over about 22% of the region, while 60% of the region 

is forested, and the remainder is either urban, wetlands or water bodies. A small area is 

underlain by the geological province of the St. Lawrence Platform and the remainder is 

part of the Appalachians. Fine-grained marine sediments are present below about 100 

m ASL, while extensive sand blankets occur up to the Champlain Sea limit. The hilly 

interior is covered by relatively thin and permeable till, with glaciofluvial sediments locally 

present. The regional aquifer consists of fractured bedrock, whilst restricted local aquifers 

are in surficial sediments. In terms of water use, 70% of the 287 000 residents relies on 

groundwater through private wells or municipal water supply, as 64% of municipalities use 

groundwater from more than 300 supply wells. Groundwater provides 40% of total water 

use, 30% of this being used for industrial or commercial purposes, 38% residential and 

32% agricultural. Although groundwater is generally of good quality, naturally occurring 

components locally exceed provincial drinking water criteria (F, Ba and As). Seven water 

types were defined on the basis of the proportions of major ions. Some of these water types 

represent a natural geochemical evolution. However, other water types appear to indicate 

groundwater quality degradation that could be due to agricultural activities, deicing salts or 

waste water. While concentrations associated to these water types generally do not exceed 

standards, mitigation measures should be taken to prevent further degradation. 

251 - Regional hydrogeological mapping of saline and non-saline 

groundwater resources in the Belly River Group of the Alberta 

basin 

Nevenka Nakevska, Amandeep Singh, & Dan Palombi 

Alberta Geological Survey, AER, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 

Characterization of saline groundwater resources is becoming increasingly important as 

the Government of Alberta implements its Water Conservation Policy seeking to minimize 

freshwater use in the energy sector. The groundwater program at the Alberta Geological 

Survey (part of the Alberta Energy Regulator) is re-initiating the mapping and 

characterization of saline aquifers using existing methodologies and improving upon them 

to account for variable-density groundwater. 

Our current study is focused on the regional mapping of hydraulic heads, total dissolved 

solids, and density-corrected flow directions in the Belly River Group. The Belly River 

Group is one of the youngest (upper Cretaceous-aged) economically important hydrocar- 


175

on producing zone in Alberta. Toward the deformation front of the Rocky Mountains 

in the Alberta basin, the Belly River Group strata and lateral equivalents are known to 

contain saline groundwater. Updip the aquifer progressively thins and outcrops in central 

and east-central Alberta where non-saline groundwater exists. Hence as a regional aquifer, 

the Belly River Group is an important potential water source for unconventional oil and 

gas projects but also an important water source for domestic water users. Given the various 

groundwater uses of the Belly River Group and the potential for co-interference of saline 

and non-saline groundwater, it is important to map regional groundwater flow, salinity and 

where relevant, density-corrected hydraulic heads to assess current and future development 

scenarios for this aquifer. 

During the first part of the study we focused on analyzing and filtering data from two 

sources, water wells and petroleum exploration boreholes. Maps of hydraulic head, salinity, 

and temperature distribution within the Belly River Group were produced. The second 

part of the study focused on advancing the methodology for mapping variable-density flow 

using the water driving force methodology that allows for a qualitative analysis of potential 

effects of density-driven flow. 

POSTER SESSION: Surficial Geology of 

Southern Ontario 


Room: Regent 

276 - Emerging trends from the groundwater monitoring data 

collection at the Upper Thames River Conservation Authority 

(UTRCA) 

Linda P. Nicks & Karla Young 

Upper Thames River Conservation Authority, London, Ontario, Canada 

The Ontario Provincial groundwater monitoring network (PGMN) began in 2001 for 

the purpose of establishing a long-term, province-wide monitoring network and is a partnership 

between the Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change (MOECC) and 

Conservation Ontario. It is important to note that in contrast to meteorological and stream 

flow data, which may have records up to 100 years in length, continuous groundwater 

level records are significantly shorter. The network was designed to provide baseline data 

on ambient groundwater conditions in aquifers throughout Ontario and to monitor the 

partitioning of precipitation between runoff, groundwater recharge, and stream flow. The 

data can be used to obtain information on the natural groundwater level fluctuations across 

topographic, geologic, climatic and land-use environments, and to obtain information on 

the behavior of various types of aquifers under natural or anthropogenic stress. The wells 

were primarily instrumented between 2001 and 2003. The UTRCA maintains approximately 

28 wells throughout the watershed with a nearly continuous record of groundwater 


levels over this period. In addition to the PGMN, another 13 observation wells were established 

to investigate the interaction of groundwater and natural heritage features and many 

of these monitors were established as early as 1992 and have a longer period of manual 

water level investigation. In addition to water levels, these wells have seasonal water quality 

information over a significant portion of this period. 

Typically groundwater systems respond slowly to human actions, land use change and climate 

variability and a longer term perspective is needed to manage this resource. Groundwater 

hydrographs graphically illustrate the dynamics and interaction of the components 

of the hydrologic cycle. Since 2001, the region has experienced periods of high groundwater 

and periods of drought and trends are starting to emerge in the monitoring data. 

While the hydrographs and water quality address a meaningful range of conditions, not all 

settings are represented and many impacts remain largely unknown. 

Through Source Water Protection, a comprehensive water budget and review of the water 

quality was completed for in the Thames-Sydenham and Region Drinking Water Source 

Protection that incorporates the UTRCA, the Lower Thames River and St. Clair Region 

Conservation Authorities. To characterize the location, quality and sustainable yield of the 

groundwater resource, hydrographs and water quality from the region will be utilized to 

compare and contrast various hydrogeologic settings of southwestern Ontario. 

157 - A Geological and Hydrogeological Investigation of the 

Dundas Buried Bedrock Valley, southern Ontario 

A.S. Marich, E.H. Priebe, & A.F. Bajc 


A multi-year investigation of the Dundas buried bedrock valley was conducted by the 

Ontario Geological Survey in collaboration with the Grand River Conservation Authority. 

Increasing pressures on groundwater resources in southern Ontario have resulted in the 

need for a better understanding of deeply buried aquifers. The Dundas Valley is recognized 

as a prominent re-entrant of the Niagara Escarpment at the west end of Lake Ontario and 

extends northwestward beneath the Waterloo Moraine. Parts of the valley, especially near 

its eastern end at Lake Ontario, are in-filled with more than 200 m of sediment. These 

sediments vary significantly in age from west to east. In the western part of the valley system, 

the deep, coarse grained sediments are pre-Late Wisconsin in age (> 25 000 years old) 

and those to the east are mainly late-glacial (< 13 000 years old). 

This study was designed to gain a greater understanding of the valley’s geometry, the infilling 

sediments, the hydrogeological properties of those sediments, and the waters contained 

within them. Following data compilation and preliminary conceptualization, a gravity survey 

was conducted to define possible valley locations. Key thalwegs, believed to contain 

deeply buried aquifers based on water well information, were targeted for further study 

with continuous sediment coring and monitoring well installation. Hydraulic testing and 

groundwater sampling for hydrochemistry and isotope tracers provided valuable insight 

into groundwater resource potential of the deep valley sediments from both water quality 


177

and quantity perspectives. This work has resulted in a clearer picture of the sediment records 

contained within the valley and its tributaries. No single continuous aquifer exists 

across the entire valley length, but rather, each thalweg appears to contain aquifer segments 

of varied connectivity. These deeply buried aquifers are typically confined by compact tills 

and very fine-textured glaciolacustrine deposits. The final product of this study is an updated 

conceptual three-dimensional geologic model for the Dundas buried bedrock valley 

system that highlights potential aquifer units to be targeted for future investigation. 

195 - Stratigraphic record and deglacial history of the interlobate 

zone between Ingersoll and Cambridge, southwestern Ontario, 

Canada 

Andy F. Bajc 


Stratigraphic modelling of Quaternary sediments along the interlobate zone of southwestern 

Ontario (Ingersoll-Cambridge) was undertaken as part of the Ontario Geological 

Survey’s groundwater initiative. The objective of the initiative is to develop interactive 3-D 

models of Quaternary geology that provide geologic frameworks for groundwater studies. 

The framework was developed by reviewing and compiling archival surficial and subsurface 

geologic information and by continuously coring 44 boreholes to bedrock. 

A regionally consistent and reproducible stratigraphic succession was encountered comprising 

an older drift package on bedrock of Early Wisconsin or Illinoian age consisting 

of Erie-lobe diamicton (Canning Till) and associated stratified deposits. Discontinuous, 

non-glacial, organic-rich stratified deposits indicating cool, interstadial conditions unconformably 

overlie the older drift package and suggest a period of ice withdrawal spanning 

the interval 23.5 to >50 ka BP. Nissouri Phase Catfish Creek Till unconformably overlies 

these deposits and compositionally displays a shift in provenance from early, lobate ice flow 

to more regional, southerly flow followed by late, lobate ice flow in response to a thinning 

ice sheet. Catfish Creek Till is a distinctive marker horizon in southern Ontario that commonly 

acts as a regional aquitard. An interlobate zone following the Highway 401 corridor 

represents the suture line along which the Erie-Ontario and Huron ice lobes separated 

following the Nissouri Phase. Stratified deposits of the Waterloo moraine accumulated 

along the interlobate zone in either a subglacial or ice-walled lake. Correlative deposits 

accumulated to the southwest in the Woodstock, Dorchester and Lakeview moraines. 

Progressive retreat of the Erie-Ontario and Huron ice lobes resulted in the catastrophic 

drainage of these lakes along either ice-marginal or subglacially-carved tunnel channels 

occupying the modern courses of the Thames and Middle Thames rivers and Trout Creek. 

A period of ice recession resulted in the widespread deposition of fine-medium textured 

glaciolacustrine deposits on the Erie-Ontario side of the interlobate zone with limited 

accumulation on the Huron side. Slight readjustments in the overall retreat of the Huron 

and Erie-Ontario ice lobes resulted in the deposition of Tavistock Till and Port Stanley 

and Wentworth tills, respectively. A series of well-developed recessional and/or terminal 

moraines were constructed along the retreating Erie-Ontario ice lobe resulting in the local 


accumulation of thick sequences of subaquatic fan sediments capped by variably textured 

diamictons. Downcutting and subsequent backfilling of low-lying areas between the moraines 

with deltaic deposits of the Norfolk sand plain resulted in the local removal of Port 

Stanley and Wentworth till. 

270 - Sedimentology and Hydrogeology of the Paris and Galt 

Moraines 

H.E.J. Russell & D.R. Sharpe 


A.F. Bajc 

Ontario Geological Survey, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, Sudbury, 


D.I. Cummings 

Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

The Paris and Galt moraines extend from near Lake Erie, 130 km north towards the 

Caledon area, are up to 11 km wide, and have a relief of 30 m. They evolve from two distinct 

ridges in the south to a broad, hummocky terrain with multiple ridges and secondary 

landscape elements (kettle depressions, eskers, subaerial fans, channels) in the north. These 

geomorphic changes are mirrored by changes in sediment type, thickness, and stratigraphy. 

Continuous cores reveal that the moraine consists of a succession of intercalated sand, 

gravel and diamicton units. Depending on the geographic location, a variety of different 

units can underlie the moraine, including older tills, lacustrine mud, or glacifluvial sand 

and gravel. Locally, the lower contact is cryptic where the moraine overlies sedimentologically 

similar deposits. Outcrop data suggest northern and southern parts of the moraine are 

different. Within the southern glacilacustrine basin, large foresets of >10 m height occur at 

the base of one pit exposure. By contrast, horizontally stratified outwash gravel is common 

in northern pits. A stoney, sandy silt diamicton, (Wentworth Till), covers large parts of the 

moraine, is massive to stratified, and is locally inter-bedded with sand and gravel. Where 

overlain by gravel, its upper contact can be loaded, suggesting it was water-saturated and 

thus prone to deformation during gravel deposition. Glacifluvial deposits are present in 

front of and locally underneath the moraine. The moraine strata are interpreted to have 

been deposited during a pause in the overall retreat of the Erie-Ontario ice margin with a 

highly variable meltwater flux both spatially and temporally. The narrow, southern moraine 

ridges may represent more rapid retreat within a glacial lake basin given the scale of foresets 

and confining lacustrine sediment. The northern, broader hummocky terrain is interpreted 

to have been deposited in a terrestrial environment based on the bedding character of the 

glacifluvial sand and gravel. 

Of the numerous moraines present within the Grand River watershed, the Paris-Galt moraines 

represent one of the three most hydrogeologicaly significant moraines, along with 

the Waterloo and Orangeville. The hummocky terrain of the moraine likely contributes 

to enhanced infiltration and recharge; a number of local aquifers occur within the moraine 

sediments (e.g. St George Aquifer); and the porous substrate of the moraine enhances 

groundwater contribution to baseflow of the Grand River. 


179

233 - Using geophysical logs for stratigraphic assessment of 

glaciated terrains in southern Ontario 

Heather Crow, Susan Pullan, & Hazen Russell 


Downhole geophysical logs provide a means of identifying stratigraphic changes and characterizing 

lithological units based on variations in physical properties of sediments. A suite 

of logs, including natural and active spectral gamma, induced conductivity and magnetic 

susceptibility, fluid temperature, and P and S-wave velocities, has been collected by the 

Geological Survey of Canada in 55 wells drilled in glaciated terrains of southern Ontario. 

This dataset provides the most comprehensive downhole geophysical characterization 

available of Late Wisconsin stratigraphy in the province Ontario. 

The wells are located within the Oak Ridges, Oro, and Waterloo moraines, and boreholes 

range in depth from 25 – 200 m. The Quaternary stratigraphy consists of a succession of 

sedimentary units separated by distinct erosional surfaces that can have considerable relief 

due to incision by paleo-valleys. The geophysical data thus provides characterization of a 

range of glacial and proglacial sedimentary settings that consist of laminated muds, sand 

and gravel, and mud and sandy diamictons. 

The geophysical signatures are varied, but common patterns emerge in the log suites 

which can be attributed to certain glacial facies. For example, saw tooth patterns in 

the gamma and induction logs indicate sediment dominated by high-energy environments 

and rapid deposition. Hour glass and reverse hour-glass signatures are seen in 

lower energy, rhythmically stratified mud and fine sand. Elevated P-wave velocities in 

a stratigraphically young diamicton overlying lower velocity diamictons are indicative 

of the Newmarket Till. 

POSTER SESSION: Sustainability of 

Groundwater Resources 


Room: Regent 

118 - Groundwater Supplies from the Pierson Channel Buried 

Valley Aquifer 

Jeffery J. Bell 

Friesen Drillers Ltd., Steinbach, Manitoba, Canada 

A buried valley aquifer lies in the far southwestern corner of the Province of Manitoba, 

which is known as the Pierson Channel Buried Valley Aquifer. The bedrock geology in 

the area is the Pierre Formation, which consists of green bentonitic shale. During bedrock 

surface mapping by the GSC in 1970, the buried valley feature was mapped, and 

the thelweg of the channel was approximately determined. The entire sequence of the 


channel is buried by about 100 meters of Pleistocene deposits, consisting of mainly of 

glacial drift. The channel is thought to be about 1.6 km wide typically. 

The hydrogeology of the Pierson Buried Valley Aquifer is not well understood. The aquifer 

was first explored in the mid 1960’s by the GSC, and the MCWS. Recently, the GSC 

has undertaken additional geophysical work in the area to further define the location of 

the channel. 

Test drilling that was conducted for a water supply in the area encountered approximately 

15 meters of well-rounded fine gravel and coarse sand. A long term pumping test was 

conducted, with several weeks of recovery monitoring following the cessation of pumping. 

Although the sand and gravel aquifer was highly transmissive, negative boundary conditions 

consistent with narrow valley, strip type aquifers were present early during the testing. 

The groundwater quality was noted to be slightly brackish, with chlorides approaching 500 

mg/L. Samples collected for 18 O and deuterium showed isotopically depleted groundwater 

approaching δ 18 O of -20.00 per mille, plotting on the meteoric water line for the area. 

These results indicate that the aquifer was recharged during a period of time where climatic 

conditions were much colder than present. 

Long term monitoring results conducted on the aquifer show that the geochemical changes 

and the response to pumping is interesting and insightful to the future development of 

the aquifer. 

This project is particularly interesting from a geology and hydrogeology point of view, as 

it is the first known large scale test of the Pierson Buried Valley Aquifer at high pumping 

rates. It is also the first known analysis of the isotope hydrogeology of the aquifer. The 

long term monitoring of the aquifer will also aide future research into the Pierson Buried 

Valley Aquifer. 

161 - Determining the validity of satellite-based measurements of 

groundwater level changes in Southern Ontario 

Ellen Hachborn & Jana Levison 

School of Engineering - University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Aaron Berg 

Department of Geography - University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 

Groundwater is an important freshwater resource for the population of Southern Ontario 

with over 3 million users in the Great Lakes Basin. Low water conditions are a major concern 

for industry, agriculture, and domestic use as many depend on groundwater for their 

livelihoods. Historically, low water conditions were relatively rare in Ontario, but as the 

demand for water increases and climate patterns shift, low water levels may become more 

common. Currently, drought conditions are assessed by conservation authorities and the 

Ministry of Natural Resources through surface water measurements according to the Ontario 

Low Water Response Plan (OLWRP). No techniques using satellite data have been 

applied to measure groundwater level changes at a regional scale in Ontario. The Gravity 

Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission measures variations in 


181

Earth’s gravitational field from terrestrial mass changes and has been shown in several 

studies to be sensitive to changes in groundwater. The objective of this study is to examine 

the applicability of GRACE measurements of groundwater changes from 2003 to 2013 for 

identification and monitoring of low water conditions. Two regions in Southern Ontario 

are examined over the study period; the Cataraqui and Quinte areas in the Southeast and 

the Grand River and Nottawasaga Valley areas in Southcentral Ontario. The Global Land 

Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) is a land surface model which contains monthly data 

for snowmelt and soil moisture. Monthly measurements of GRACE data when combined 

with the corresponding GLDAS data are used to determine the change in groundwater. 

The values obtained from data analyses will be compared with groundwater observations 

measurements (e.g. water well data from provincial monitoring networks) to determine 

the suitability of GRACE-derived measurements for the detection of low groundwater 

conditions. Preliminary results investigating Southeastern Ontario at a 26,000 km 2 scale 

from 2009 to 2013 showed that GRACE is sufficiently sensitive to obtain a meaningful 

signal during periods of low water conditions. In 2012, for example, the study area was 

observed to have a lower groundwater level in the late summer than any other time in the 

study correlating to the Province’s documentation of low water conditions during that time 

period. The findings of this study will be applicable to drought monitoring networks such 

as the OLWRP and will be useful for conservation authorities and local governments. 

This research will also aid studies looking at groundwater level changes in watersheds with 

limited well monitoring networks including remote regions and developing nations. 

165 - Characterising water storage change of Canada’s landmass 

using GRACE satellite observations 

Shusen Wang 

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada 

The GRACE satellite, a first-of-a-kind mission launched in March of 2002, has been 

mapping the Earth’s gravity field with an efficient and cost-effective way at an unprecedented 

accuracy. GRACE has enabled scientists for the first time to measure the total 

water storage change (TWS) of the Earth’s landmass from space. In this study, the TWS 

retrieved from GRACE observations for Canada’s landmass during the 11 years of 2003- 

2013 is used to characterize the TWS climatology. The seasonal variations and decadal 

trends of TWS during 2003-2013 over different regions in Canada are analyzed. A principle 

component analysis (PCA) is used to reveal the major variation anomalies and their 

drivers. Applications of the GRACE observations in water budget quantification, flood 

forecasting, drought monitoring, glacier and snow cover change detection, and climate 

change impacts assessment will be also discussed. 

143 - Comparison of predicted and actual impacts-dewatering of 

a local shallow sand aquifer-Fergus, Ontario 

Dwight Smikle, David Wilson, & David Hopkins 

R.J. Burnside and Associates Limited, Guelph, Ontario, Canada 


Dewatering is required at many development sites where the installation of municipal services 

(i.e. water and sewage) require work be undertaken below the groundwater table. In 

order to assess impacts on local water resources due to pumping and obtain the necessary 

permits, a hydrogeological investigation for the subject lands is required. The hydrogeological 

assessment should include an evaluation of the predicted impacts of the dewatering 

activities as well as provide an outline of any contingency or mitigation processes that will 

be implemented for the period of dewatering. 

The recent installation of municipal services at a subdivision in Fergus, Ontario necessitated 

dewatering of the shallow unconfined sand aquifer. Because many existing residences 

in the area used shallow wells to obtain domestic water from the same unconfined aquifer, 

extensive investigation of the hydrogeologic system was undertaken to assess the impacts 

of dewatering on the local groundwater resources. The sensitivity of the aquifer to impacts 

also required implementation of a rigorous groundwater quantity and quality monitoring 

program that started well before dewatering and continued after the installation of services 

was complete. The prediction of dewatering impacts to local shallow dug wells was based 

on calculations using a considerable historical data set, as well as aquifer testing and a 

simplified hydrogeological model. The calculations indicated that limited and relatively 

localized impacts to groundwater resources would result from dewatering and that these 

impacts would be relatively short term. Comparison of the estimated impacts to actual 

impacts indicated that a simplified model that is based on a firm understanding of the geological 

and hydrogeological regimes can be used to make accurate predictions concerning 

the impacts of dewatering aquifers. 

POSTER SESSION: Vadose Zone Hydrogeolgy 


Room: Regent 

215 - An Examination of the Applicability of White’s 1932 Method 

to Estimate Actual Evapotranspiration Rates from Diurnal 

Watertable Fluctuations 

Jason H. Davison & Edward A. Sudicky 

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, 

Canada & Aquanty Inc., Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

John C. Lin 

Department of Atmospheric Sciences – University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA 

Water budget calculations within a watershed require a detailed understanding of the 

precipitation, evapotranspiration, surface water flows and groundwater fluxes. Traditional 

methods that estimate actual evapotranspiration rates rely on proxy information based on 

either remote sensing satellite data, pan evaporation tests, meteorological energy balances 

or eddy covariance techniques. Previously, White 1932 (USGS Open Report; see also, 


183

Freeze and Cherry, 1979) hypothesized that diurnal watertable fluctuations commonly 

observed in shallow monitoring wells could be used to estimate actual evapotranspiration 

rates. In recent years, application of the White method has gained renewed interest in the 

literature, although the theoretical basis of the technique has not yet been explored to our 

knowledge. In order to test the applicability of White’s method, we applied HydroGeo- 

Sphere (HGS), a 3D fully-integrated surface and variably-saturated subsurface flow and 

transport model that can account for vegetation-dependent evapotranspiration processes, 

coupled to an Atmospheric Boundary Layer Model (ABL). ABL is a 0D time-dependent 

energy and water balance model. A number of test cases are examined involving different 

vegetation types and hydrologic conditions. Our simulations replicate the diurnal watertable 

oscillations commonly observed in field data, and, when the model output data are 

analyzed using White’s method, it is found that the results generally agree with the actual 

evapotranspiration computed internally within the coupled HGS-ABL model, but significant 

discrepancies can occur. 

218 – Impact of Snow Cover and Frozen Soil on Water and Gas 

Fluxes through Unsaturated Sands 

Sophie Guillon, Florent Barbecot, Marie Larocque, & Daniele L. Pinti 

GEOTOP, UQAM, Montréal, Québec, Canada 

Eric Pili 

CEA, DAM, DIF, Arpajon, France 

Seasonal freezing of part of the vadose zone and presence of seasonal snow cover is of 

concern for all regions in Canada. The occurrence and thickness of frozen soil and snow 

cover are directly responsible for water, energy and gas fluxes from the surface to aquifers 

and vice-versa. In these cold environments, groundwater recharge mainly occurs during 

the spring snowmelt and as a result of fall rain. Smaller recharge events also occur during 

the winter due to melting at the snow-soil interface and infiltration into frozen or partly-thawed 

soil. But soil water dynamics and water infiltration before the onset of spring 

snowmelt are neither well studied nor constrained, and they are not considered by the 

models currently used to calculate groundwater recharge. The intensity and duration of 

these winter recharge events appear to be controlled by the thickness and permeability of 

frozen soil and its frozen water content. Fluxes of CO 2 

and other trace gases such as CH 4 

and N 2 

O have been shown to occur during winter and to contribute to the annual gas 

budget, but they are often not measured or considered. Microbial processes, temperature 

and soil permeability are involved in controlling these gas fluxes, which need to be better 

understood and quantified. The objective of this work is to better understand the influence 

of soil freeze/thaw events on water infiltration and gas fluxes during winter. This presentation 

will describe a case study based on the monitoring of water and gas fluxes in the 

frozen vadose zone and in the snowpack during the winter season at an instrumented site 

located on a sand deposit (esker), west of Montreal (Canada). Water content, temperature, 

air pressure, CO 2 

and radon concentrations are measured in the first meters of soil and in 

the snowpack during winter season. Water stable isotopes depth profiles are used to identify 

spatial and temporal variability of water infiltration. These data are used to develop, 


validate and calibrate a new numerical scheme to quantify water and heat budgets, as well 

as recharge during winter. 

252 - Spatial and temporal controls on snowmelt infiltration 

through the partially frozen vadose zone in an undulating prairie 

landscape 

Aaron Mohammed, Edwin Cey, & Masaki Hayashi 


Groundwater recharge in the Canadian prairies is heavily dependent on depression-focused 

infiltration of snowmelt water into partially frozen glacial sediments. As such, soil 

freeze-thaw and preferential flow processes play important roles in constraining groundwater 

recharge. This study aims to examine the hydraulic and thermal regimes throughout 

the vadose zone to better understand the processes controlling infiltration, redistribution 

and recharge in these cold, dynamic environments. 

Three field sites comprising differing landscape and geologic characteristics in southern 

Alberta have been instrumented with soil moisture and temperature sensors, capillary wick 

flux-meters, and piezometers. These instrumented profiles capture the characteristic upland, 

mid-slope and depression features of the undulating prairie landscape. High frequency 

soil moisture and temperature monitoring are used to examine initiation controls, depth 

and rates of infiltration and subsurface flows. Soil moisture and temperature data also 

reveal the spatial and temporal frost depth dynamics across different topographic locations 

and relate timing of thaw to initiation of infiltration and soil moisture redistribution along 

the depression-upland transition. Combining these observations with drainage fluxes and 

piezometric responses constrains the effects of soil moisture distribution in the vadose zone 

and how it affects deeper drainage and potential recharge. The detailed field monitoring 

provides valuable insight into the hydraulic and thermal processes governing infiltration 

and recharge to shallow groundwater. Preliminary data analysis suggests that antecedent 

moisture and thermal profiles control the initiation and timing of infiltration during both 

mid-winter thaw events and spring snowmelt. Macroporosity is expected to be a critical 

parameter in governing water movement through frozen soils, as both thermal and hydraulic 

responses are frequently observed at depth prior to complete ground thaw. Understanding 

these processes and how they interact to constrain groundwater recharge will enable a 

holistic conceptual model of infiltration and recharge in the Canadian Prairies. 

280 - Three-phase flow characterization of hydrocarbon 

contaminated peat 

Behrad Gharedaghloo & Jonathan S. Price 

Department of Geography and Environmental Management – University of Waterloo, 

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

The potential for hydrocarbons to contaminate peatlands is increasing in Canada, particularly 

because of the expanding oil and gas industry and its use of pipelines and rail for 


185

transport. The transport of hydrocarbons within both the vadose zone and saturated zone 

can lead to contaminated surface and ground water resources, and can adversely affect 

the health of plants and fauna. Peatlands, which are very common in the boreal zone, 

are particularly susceptible to spills since their poor mechanical strength results in weak 

foundations for rail beds and pipelines. There is no general agreement on the methodology 

to deal with hydrocarbon contamination, mostly because the methodology is dependent 

on the physical properties of the contaminated area, which will govern the transport of 

immiscible fluids. However, to deal with hydrocarbon contamination and understand its 

behaviour underground and particularly in the vadose zone, three-phase flow (air, water 

and hydrocarbon) characteristics of the surrounding media must be determined. Several 

studies have investigated the three-phase flow of water, air and hydrocarbon contaminants 

in mineral soils and rock. However, little or no such study has been done in peat. Considering 

that peat is composed of organic material, and its physical and chemical properties in 

the presence of hydrocarbons might be different from properties of soil or rock, investigation 

of three-phase flow characteristics of peat media is necessary. To study the multiphase 

characteristic of peat, water retention curves for two-phase of water and air, and capillary 

pressure-saturation curves for oil-air and water-oil systems were measured for peat core 

samples. The results from this study characterize the vertical distribution of contaminant 

phase, water and air in the vadose zone of peat, in the case of a hydrocarbon spill. 

290 - Assessing transport of in situ and applied tracers in 

partially saturated, macroporous soil under varying irrigation 

rates 

Edwin Cey, Danijela Mikulic, Matthew Howroyd, & Michael Callaghan 


Salt contamination of soil and shallow groundwater is a major concern in western Canada, 

due to the large number of oil and gas production sites that have been affected by releases 

of produced water. Saline soil impairs plant growth and reduces agricultural productivity, 

requiring remediation methods that often utilize irrigation to enhance downward flushing 

of salt from the soil profile. Fine-grained glacial soils hamper remediation efforts because 

the soils have low permeability and contain macropores that cause water to bypass the 

soil matrix where the vast majority of the salt is stored. The purpose of this study was 

to examine small-scale transport processes associated with the flushing of salt from low 

permeability, macroporous soils under varying irrigation rates. Four large, intact soil cores 

were collected from an industrial remediation site and instrumented with a network of 

tensiometers, solution samplers, and outflow collectors. Two paired-core experiments were 

conducted using the same volumes of applied water, but with the water applied at different 

irrigation rates. Low irrigation rates were designed to prevent ponding on the soil surface 

and minimize the initiation of preferential flow along macropores, whereas high irrigation 

rates were more representative of current site remediation practices. During the irrigation 

period, the migration of in situ (chloride) and applied tracers (bromide, iodide, and Brilliant 

Blue dye) was monitored, and the final distribution of the tracers was characterized 

by carefully cutting and sampling the cores at the conclusion of irrigation. Image analysis 


of soil dye patterns was also used to quantify dye distributions in each core and compare 

to the anionic tracer results. The spatial and temporal distribution of solute tracers varied 

as a function of the irrigation rate, with slower irrigation rates resulting in more uniform 

(Darcian) flow, vertically stratified tracer distributions, and greater chloride mass removal. 

At higher irrigation rates, the initiation of preferential flow resulted in lower chloride removal 

efficiency due to limitations in lateral mass exchange between macropores and the 

soil matrix. The results have important implications for remedial design, suggesting that 

properly controlled irrigation can improve salt flushing efficiency without increasing water 

usage or the timeframe required for soil remediation. 

291 - Pore-scale modelling of multiphase flow in a mixedwettability 

peat substrate 

Owen Sutton, Behrad Gharedaghloo, & Jonathan Price 

Geography and Environmental Management – University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, 

Canada 

Although a significant body of literature exists on multiphase fluid movement in typical 

porous media, there is a relative dearth of studies performed with highly organic soils, 

like peat. Given the unique wettability characteristics of peat, the properties governing 

multiphase flow are considered to be highly heterogeneous. The lack of knowledge 

about multiphase flow in peat made it difficult to make statements about processes that 

could be occurring over a large scale, such as the spread of LNAPL following a train 

derailment. Therefore, it was deemed necessary to investigate pore-scale mechanics 

through computational fluid dynamics simulations. The modelling was performed using 

a commercially available multiphysics software package. The processes of imbibition and 

drainage of oil-water, air-water, and oil-air are modelled for the peat substrate using various 

fluid contact angles determined through laboratory goniometer experiments. The 

peat media is represented in the model as a two-dimensional slice of a computed tomography 

(CT) scan. Data was collected and analyzed to understand residual saturation and 

capillary pressure under varying wettability regimes. This work will have the potential to 

aid hydrogeologists and wetland hydrologists in assessing contaminant transport in the 

unsaturated zone of highly organic media. 


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POSTER SESSION: Workshop on 

Groundwater Policy 


Room: Regent 

269 - A Screening Tool for Guiding Groundwater Curtailment 

during Water Scarcity 

Klaus Rathfelder, Andarge Baye, & Mike Wei 

British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada 

Pat Lapcevic & Sylvia Barroso 

British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operation, Nanaimo, 


British Columbia is embarking on the regulation of groundwater use and groundwater 

licensing under authority of the recently passed Water Sustainability Act (WSA). The 

WSA provides a precedence of water rights based on a first-in-time, first-in-right (FIT- 

FIR) scheme with exceptions for essential household needs and protection of critical ecological 

flows. During periods of water scarcity, the provincial government has authority to 

order short-term curtailment of surface and groundwater use to protect ecological flows in 

groundwater dependent ecosystems; for example during low flows coinciding with sensitive 

fish runs. However, the recovery of streamflow following a reduction in groundwater 

pumping occurs over a period of time that can span hours to months or longer, depending 

on the degree of connectivity, the aquifer hydraulic properties, and the well location relative 

to the stream. Therefore, policies to administer groundwater curtailment during water 

scarcity seek to take potential action on users in accordance with FITFIR, but to apply 

FITFIR only where it is a likely to benefit streamflow recovery within a timeframe of 

interest. This paper describes a screening tool to assist water managers for guiding curtailment 

activities to those wells that are most likely to affect short-term streamflow recovery. 

The screening tool is a spreadsheet based application that uses analytical solutions of the 

Glover model to relate streamflow recovery to four parameters: groundwater pumping rate, 

well distance from the stream, aquifer transmissivity, and aquifer storativity. The output 

of the screening tool is a curtailment envelop that identifies pumping wells that are most 

likely to influence streamflow recovery in a specified curtailment period. This information 

provides water managers with a focus area for groundwater curtailment activities including 

confirmation of well locations and groundwater usage, and if necessary to take action on 

users based on FITFIR. The curtailment envelop has a variable distance from the stream as 

a function of pumping rate. It is determined as a percentage of recovery scenarios derived 

from input distributions of transmissivity and storativity. A benefit of the screening tool is 

that it can be used pre-emptively to guide collection of information on water well locations 

and groundwater use prior to low flow periods. Application of the tool is demonstrated for 

the Lower Cowichan watershed on the east coast of Vancouver Island, where surface water 

and groundwater use for industrial and municipal water supply has reduced streamflow 

during the summer dry season and has the potential to impact salmonid species. 


Moments of Insight in Hydrogeology 

Friday October 30, 9:05 - 11:45 


Room: Viennese Ballroom 

274 - Hydrogeologists without Borders and the “GW2.0 Initiative” 

M. Cathryn Ryan 


Hydrogeologists without Borders (HWB) is a Canadian charity focused on linking hydrogeology 

to the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector. Although much of 

the regions of critical need worldwide are increasingly groundwater dependent, and a 

significant part of the international aid sector drills water wells, projects are often lacking 

in their hydrogeological component especially sustainable well construction. Major 

efforts to provide improved water supply in developing countries are thwarted because 

of the inability to find and develop groundwater resources - often due to the lack of hydrogeological 

expertise. HWB seeks to provide an updated version of the 1979 Freeze 

and Cherry text Groundwater as a training tool that will be available worldwide and in 

multiple languages. This new, online, version will be developed under an Editorial Board 

that includes the original co-authors, Al Freeze and John Cherry. This session will celebrate 

the GW2.0 initiative. 

126 - Groundwater redox processes: incorporating chemical 

thermodynamics into hydrogeology in the 1970s 

Richard E. Jackson 

Geofirma Engineering Ltd, Heidelberg, Ontario, Canada 

During the 1960s the groundwater geochemistry of iron became a topic of interest 

within the US Geological Survey through work by John Hem. William Back and Ivan 

Barnes of the USGS showed the evolution of Eh and Fe in the groundwater flow system 

of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Maryland. In the 1970s, Mike Edmunds of the British 

Geological Survey in the UK measured a full suite of hydrochemical parameters in 

English aquifers such as the Lincolnshire Limestone. These studies showed that ferrous 

iron concentrations were constrained in recharge areas by dissolved oxygen (DO) and by 

aqueous sulphide further down the flow system. In between, an area of high dissolved 

ferrous iron and manganese existed due to the high solubility of FeCO 3 

and MnCO 3 

under conditions of Fe(III) and Mn(IV) oxide dissolution. Analogies with anoxic muds 

studied by Robert Berner of Yale University were apparent. 

Simultaneously Werner Stumm of Harvard University identified the thermodynamic 

sequences of redox reactions that occurred in the presence of an excess of either DO or 

dissolved organic carbon, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, although Stumm was interested 

in wastewater treatment systems. These sequences were adopted by Donald Thorstenson 

of the USGS and a group at Chalk River Nuclear Labs in Ontario (Douglas 


189

Champ and Janis Gulens of AECL and Richard Jackson of Environment Canada) to 

explain the sequential occurrence of DO, nitrate, Fe, Mn and sulphide species. Stumm 

also provided guidance on the interpretation of Eh measurements by platinum electrodes 

that were problematic in most aqueous environments. Champ noted that the microbial 

requirements for functioning in groundwater systems were easily met by available nutrients 

dissolved in groundwater, while Gulens explained the effects of various sorbed 

species (e.g., DO, sulphide, cyanide from Zobell’s solution) on the measured Pt electrode 

potential. Jackson wrote the paper that appeared in 1979 in the Canadian Journal of 

Earth Sciences based on field data from a short (1 km) flow system he was studying at 

Chalk River including data from Back and Barnes and Edmunds. 

Thus chemical thermodynamics and electrochemical theory were incorporated into hydrogeology 

through the necessity understanding complex groundwater quality patterns 

and Eh measurements. This work in the 1970s set the stage for the adoption of monitored 

natural attenuation for the biodegradation of chlorinated and fuel hydrocarbons 

in the 1990s. 

115 - Temporal Scales in Groundwater Science: 

The Challenge to Hydrogeologists 

William M. Alley 

National Ground Water Association, San Diego, California, USA 

One of the great challenges facing groundwater hydrologists is to communicate the highly 

variable temporal characteristics of groundwater systems and their responses to human and 

natural stresses. Just as hydraulic conductivity spans many orders of magnitude, temporal 

scales range from real-time to many millennia. This presentation examines the different 

time scales of interest to hydrogeologists with an emphasis on how these time scales relate 

back to groundwater management and governance. 

248 - Laboratory demonstration of confined and unconfined 

aquifer storage characteristics 

Robert W. Gillham 



Undergraduate students of hydrogeology commonly have difficulty appreciating the differences 

in processes of water storage and release in confined and unconfined aquifers. 

After several attempts to teach the concepts, but with only moderate success, a laboratory 

model was developed that provided a physical and visual demonstration of specific 

yield, specific storage and several related phenomena. As reflected in answers to exam 

questions, there was a dramatic improvement in the level of student understanding. A detailed 

description of the model and a worked example is included in: Gillham, R. W. and 

O’Hannesin, S. F. 1984. Apparatus for demonstrating confined and unconfined aquifer 

characteristics. Journal of Geological Education, 32: 261-264. 


159 - Training the Next Generation of Hydrogeologists 

James Barker 

Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 

Training hydrogeologists involves a complex collaboration between the trainee, the 

training institute, employers, accreditation organizations, professional societies, and government 

regulators. All have important roles to play, but also all have multiple accountabilities 

and responsibilities and so their focus is diffuse. Should students have a broad 

(but therefore shallow) environmental water training or should they specialize? Should 

institutions provide a better underpinning in science and engineering or more practice 

in hydrogeology? At least the requisite course curricula for hydrogeologists is captured 

in professional accreditation, which can be modified as required. The next generation of 

hydrogeologists has no shortage of access to high quality information about the technical 

practice of hydrogeology, but typically has limited experience in its application. This is 

the shortcoming we must overcome. 

The participation of all parties to develop and provide experiences in hydrogeology to 

trainees is therefore critical. University co-op programs, (paid) apprenticeships, and ongoing 

experience-loaded upgrade courses for continued accreditation are all part of the 

solution. These need to be developed as a seamless transition from school to work place 

and so involvement of professional hydrogeologists throughout the training is required. 

Mentoring of trainees is a critical part of their early employment. Given the diversity of 

hydrogeologists and their firms and the market forces in play, mentoring of new hires 

appears to be variable and often weak. 

In Canada, the professional societies (IAH) should play a greater role in providing experience 

in the application of information in hydrogeology. This role must include leadership 

and, as necessary, coercion across our diverse hydrogeology community. 

237 - Groundwater Flownets: “This is where I first understood 

groundwater flow systems” 

Emil Frind 1 & John Molson 2 

1 


2 


The above comment by a former student vividly demonstrates the importance of 

flownet analysis in the study and teaching of groundwater flow systems. A flownet, 

consisting of equipotentials and streamlines, shows where the water comes from, 

where it goes, and what path it takes in the subsurface – in short, it gives a basic visual 

and quantitative understanding of a flow system. Traditionally, flownet analysis is 

taught in hydrogeology courses by means of graphical methods, using pencil and paper. 

This intuitive method works well as long as the system is isotropic, homogeneous, 

and there is no scale distortion – but it becomes challenging as complexities come 

into play. Groundwater texts often use flownets to illustrate flow systems, but rarely 

provide practical approaches for generating these flownets for complex situations such 


191

as mountainous terraines, and under different scales. This may be a reason why flownet 

analysis is not used much in practice. 

Flownets can be generated very easily by means of the dual theory of analysis. This 

method, which comes from fluid dynamics, was first introduced in Canada in the 

early 1980s by the first author, and it has since been enhanced by the second author. 

The dual method consists of two governing equations: the standard equation for potentials, 

and a complementary equation, based on the Cauchy-Riemann relationship, 

for streamfunctions. The boundary conditions are also complementary. Because both 

equations have the same form, they can be solved together using the same numerical 

techniques. The plots of these two independent solutions give an accurate flownet 

for any type of flow system, even under highly complex conditions or extreme scale 

distortions. With some enhancements, it can also inform about groundwater age. The 

only limitations are that flow is within the cross-sectional plane, of uniform density, 

and at steady state, and the system has no internal sources or sinks. Incorporated into 

the model FLONET, the dual solution can be used to verify 3D solutions for more 

complex situations. A key feature is that the method can easily be used to test the 

effect of many different configurations and boundary conditions for a given system – 

giving answers to the ubiquitous “what if ” question – without running an expensive 

3D model. Above all, it is a valuable teaching tool in both the classroom and the computer 

lab, and as the above-mentioned former student aptly recognized, it gives a clear 

understanding of how a groundwater system works. 

311 - Unstated assumptions – a challenge for students and 

hidden traps for the unwary 

Garth van der Kamp 

Water Science and Technology, Environment Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada 

In hydrogeology, as in all of human thought, there are always unstated assumptions. 

Often it is precisely these invisible statements that turn out to cause the failure of the 

bridge, or the unintended consequences of a government policy, or to be the critical 

flaw in a paper in Water Resources Research. But it is also these assumptions that are 

hardest to detect – they are smoothed over beautifully because usually the authors 

are not even aware of them. Hydrogeology science and its publications contain many 

examples of invalid unstated assumptions, as hidden traps for the unwary. Unstated 

assumptions which are shared by a whole community of researchers are hardest to 

detect – such paradigms are very interesting when they are identified, because that can 

lead to major advances in the science! 

We published a minor paper in Water Resources Research in 1969 (Carr and van der 

Kamp, Vol. 5, 1023-1031) which contains a fatal flaw. The source of the error was an 

unstated and invalid assumption in a 1950 publication by C.E. Jacob, a recognized 

“authority” in hydrogeology, so we could be excused. It was three years later before 

the error was identified by a graduate student (myself ) in an “aha!” moment while 

puzzling over some strange observations that could not be explained by the theory in 


the 1969 paper. The unstated assumption is well hidden. When a typical fourth-year 

hydrogeology class is challenged to find the error in the 1969 paper the students are 

rarely successful. 

Some lessons: the word of experts and “authorities” may be wrong; the unstated assumptions 

are usually hidden in the opening paragraphs of a paper or in the introduction 

to the theory section; just because a paper has been published in a “refereed” 

journal is no guarantee that it is correct; pay special attention to the “outliers” in the 

data that are explained away, ignored or not presented at all. 


193

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195

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International Association 

of Hydrogeologists - 

Canadian National Chapter 


October 27 - 30, 2015 

Waterloo Inn 

475 King Street North 

Waterloo, Ontario, CANADA

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