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ing pixels sequentially. Data are plural, but an image is singular. Chipping out a piece of film can result in a smaller, but nonetheless complete and unitary image in its own right. 146 Descriptions are finite; visual evidence is not. A page of text can be read in its entirety, but skilled interpreters can make significant discoveries using the same frame of film, decade after decade (after decade). Descriptive evidence typically refers to one topic, but a frame of film can support research into dozens of issues. To test Loch K. Johnson’s estimate that “a professional photo-interpreter may require four hours to decipher fully a single frame of satellite photography,” 147 the author totaled the time required to answer questions that could be addressed by one frame, but quit after the count climbed past 1,000 hours. 148 Arthur C. Lundahl, the first Director of the National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC), estimated the Intelligence Community benefited from only 15 percent of the information potential within even the small amount of satellite photography available in the 1960s. 149 The “process” of visual research is subjective and (ironically) invisible. Remote Sensing specialist Robert A. Ryerson emphasizes that descriptions and definitions of image interpretation “do not provide an explanation of the process” itself. 150 The reports of two interpreters differ even when each studies the same image data, and while “human interpretation contains less errors than [linear analysis], it is not reproducible.” 151 Working in the “other” dimension, professional imagery analysts often “know” but cannot easily “say.” Former NPIC imagery analyst Kris Stevens admitted she sometimes clearly understood an observation yet had trouble finding the words to explain it. 152 Another former NPIC Senior Analyst was exasperated by the inability to describe image research to nonpractitioners: “You don’t know how you do it, you just do it.” 153 To communicate what words cannot, the NPIC Update typically filled its pages with photographs. 154 146 Experimentally, image data may be reduced to a few hundred pixels and still trigger object perception in a human mind. Leon D. Harmon chased the number of pixels a person required to recognize a human face down to 16 x 16, or only 256 pixels. Leon D. Harmon, “The Recognition of Faces,” Scientific American, November 1973, 74. 147 Loch K. Johnson, “Making the Intelligence ‘Cycle’ Work,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 1, no. 4 (Winter 1986-87): 10. 148 This statistic and the other Intelligence Community material in this paper was approved for public release by Department of Defense case 98-S-1060, 16 March 1998 in Mark G. Marshall, Round Peg, Square Holes: The Nature of Imagery Analysis (Washington, DC: JMIC, December 1997), 98-99; In Envisioning Information, Edward Rolf Tufte writes “Same picture, but many stories...” (Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphics Press, 1990), 108. 149 Dino A. Brugioni, “The Art and Science of Photoreconnaissance,” Scientific American, March 1996, 82. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professor of Architecture and Media Arts and Sciences William J. Mitchell writes “there is an indefinite amount of information in a continuous-tone photograph. William J. Mitchell, The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in the Post-Photographic Era, 1st paper ed. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1994), 6. 150 Robert A. Ryerson, “Image Interpretation Concerns for the 1990s and Lessons from the Past,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 55, no. 10 (October 1989): 1427. 151A. Legeley-Padovani, C. Maring, R. Guillande and D. Huaman, “Mapping of Lava Flows Through SPOT Images—An Example of the Sabancay Volcano (Peru),” International Journal of Remote Sensing 18, no. 15 (October 1997): 3125-3126.. 152 Kristina M. Stevens, Staff Officer, Central Imagery Office, interview by author, 6 May 1996. 91
Figure 10. The NPIC Update. Source: NPIC Update, September 1996, cover. Domination. Paralleling both cognition and culture, within the Intelligence Community, the use of linear evidence completely dominates the use of visual evidence. The ethe- 153 David Sullivan, former National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) Senior Imagery Analyst, interview by author, 2 April 1998. 154 NPIC Update, September 1996. 92
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Joint Military Intelligence College
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The Joint Military Intelligence Col
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The History of Intelligence The San
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THE WORK OF INTELLIGENCE
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carefully considered positions on t
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ies out a significant part of Sherm
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To illustrate the fulfillment of Ke
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have I taken any example out of con
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Effective only for producers on a f
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“. . . the month of February . .
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paper — preferably a disintereste
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sentences — like a supercomma or
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Completeness The flip side of the c
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about the subject — that your pap
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gence. But the use of intelligence
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international conference highlighte
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PART I INTELLIGENCE PROCESS [I]ntel
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intelligence products may be descri
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Human Source Intelligence (HUMINT)
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Table 2. Illustrative Definitions o
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As with the “Five Ws,” this mod
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Types of Intelligence Requirements
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Page 53 and 54: GETTING INTELLIGENCE RIGHT: THE POW
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Page 81 and 82: Figure 5. Relating Process to Princ
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Page 85 and 86: today’s strategic warning network
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Page 107 and 108: Figure 17. Pattern. Source: Kennedy
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Page 115 and 116: SPY FICTION, SPY REALITY 211 Jon A.
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Page 135 and 136: I will, however, note one crucial p
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Page 143 and 144: Finally, we must ask how all this c
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occurs is in the eyes of the behold
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gence, it was evident that the cult
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national intelligence estimates, re
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The military is in a support role o
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Committee on Governmental Affairs i
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LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND POLITICAL/MILIT
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cause and to their computer and lib
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(1) Make membership of the House an
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which the nation was founded, such
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THE SAN CRISTOBAL TRAPEZOID By A. D
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The entire intelligence-operations
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Soviet leader’s responses through
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SHIFT IN RESPONSIBILITY The Preside
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The SS-5 IRBM, by contrast, had a r
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vide the President and his advisers
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A BAD DAY On 27 October, an Air For
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proposed in your second letter whic
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much to the security of the U.S. as
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selected from among the best availa
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EXPANDING THE HORIZON: THE ORIGINS
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lis that it could not be relied upo
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lot” of information not only abou
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dent.” 353 On the same occasion,
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sively for Israel’s use was prefe
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ferent conclusions regarding the sa
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Human sources require special handl
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Getting the Case Released Except fo
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This is particularly true when the
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At this time there were 258 America
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A Tradition of Tribal Violence Conf
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Thursday, 7 April In his 0700 hours
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they relied on occasion on a battal
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The last convoy, led by Ambassador
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TEACHING NOTE FOR USE WITH THIS CAS
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THE CREATION OF THE NATIONAL IMAGER
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highlights the role of the House an
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The idea for such an agency seems t
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deeply the SSCI was immersed in it.
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sity of the guerilla warfare aimed
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able, for the most part, to both th
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Within the NFIP, the situation for
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At this point, a NIMA Director-Desi
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tions and a requirement for periodi
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gorilla’’ on Capitol Hill. The
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esolved the issue of jurisdiction o
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tive branches, allowing a secret pa
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SASC conference committee over the
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every area. 484 The commission’s
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HEALTH AND NATIONAL SECURITY George
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ecognizable external military threa
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A LIKELY DEMOCRATIC HEALTH SECURITY
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High Commissioner for Refugees (UNH
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Figure 24. Estimated Number of Peop
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military and the UNHCR. This study
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likely to occur (Boutros-Ghali a: 4
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Strategic warning is an intelligenc
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Early notification allows the opera
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INTELLIGENCE SUPPORT TO PLANNING AN
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Principal sources of information ar
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While human intelligence is ideally
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5) Unclassified intelligence produc
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hegemonic power fighting various gr
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the U.S. government have personal a
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attack in a Tokyo subway and contin
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Religion has effectively filled a v
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who would contend that the current
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The relevance of this discussion is
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classified and is subject to strict
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The RAC and its decentralized Insti
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Although researchers at Asilomar we
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The published report was the subjec
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■ Fourth, university faculties ha
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esearch community a free pass, maki
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In response to the recommendations
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“SALSA FOR CYBER SONICS,” EDUCA
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“OSINT?” the cyber sonic asks.
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As we meet today, the College’s a
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INTELLIGENCE: AN ECONOMIC GOOD Mark
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less, Congress “artificially” l
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■ Synergistic Value. Synergy mean
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Granted, because of the subjectivit
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impact the calculation of time, in
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so that an optimal strategy can be
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cally areas which lack significant,
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notably heroin and marijuana, to Am
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ment model every administration has
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IT ISN’T THE ACQUISITION, BUT THE
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Just as military analysts seek enem
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ing Intelligence by Principles of Q
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■ Colonel Thomas W. Shreeve, Unit
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More information can be found at ht
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