The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

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For more than a decade, beginning in 1959, the Soviet Union made a concerted effort to be the first to send humans around the Moon and the first to achieve a manned landing. But whereas the Apollo program unfolded in a blaze of publicity, details of the Eastern aspect of the Moon race only began to emerge with the advent of Perestroika and the subsequent breakup of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s. Essentially, the Soviet Moon effort was three-pronged. The L-1 program was aimed at a manned circumlunar loop without a landing and involved the use of unmanned Zond craft to flight-validate the hardware. The L-3 program was designed to put a cosmonaut on the Moon’s surface. Finally, the Luna series consisted of a variety of automated flyby, orbiter, hard- and softlander, sample-return, and rover vehicles. Only 20 of about 60 Soviet launches of all types of lunar craft from 1959 to 1976 were successful. L-1 Sergei Korolev’s design bureau began work in 1965 on a manned spacecraft called L-1, which was intended to carry two cosmonauts on a single loop around the Moon. From the outside, the L-1 looked like the three-part Soyuz spacecraft, but it lacked its spherical orbital module. Other major differences were less obvious, including a modified propulsion system, a beefed-up heat-shield, and long-range communication systems. Because of repeated equipment failures, the L-1 never flew with a crew. However, unmanned L-1 spacecraft traveled to the Moon five times from 1968 through 1970 as Zonds 4 to 8. These missions tested the spacecraft and the maneuvers necessary for a manned mission. L-3 Russian manned lunar programs Korolev also began designing spacecraft for a manned lunar landing mission, and some hardware was built under Vasily Mishin’s direction. This program, known as L-3, included an orbiter and a lander. The prototype lunar lander was successfully tested in Earth orbit, without a crew, three times in 1970–1971 under the name “Cosmos.” The Soviet lunar lander, known as the Lunar Cabin (LK), was half the size and onethird the mass of the Apollo Lunar Module and was intended to carry one cosmonaut to the Moon’s surface while the Lunar Orbiter Cabin (LOK) remained in lunar orbit with the second crew member. The program depended on the development of a super-rocket known as the N-1. When the N-1 was ready to test launch, the LK and LOK were still being built, so a modified L-1 spacecraft known as the L-1S was used as the primary payload. The N-1 was supposed to place the L-1S and a dummy LK on a trajectory toward the Moon. Once there, the L-1S alone would enter lunar orbit to take high-resolution photos of proposed landing sites and then return to Earth with the exposed film. For the mission, an Orientation Engine Module (DOK) would be attached to the front of the L-1S to slow it enough to place it into lunar orbit, after which the DOK would be jettisoned. The L-1S would then use its own propulsion system, located in the Instrument Module, to accelerate out of lunar orbit for the return to Earth. The spacecraft would perform a double-skip reentry as in previous L-1/Zond flights as a test of the nearly identical LOK Descent Module. However, four successive failures of the N-1’s huge 30-engine first stage left the L-3 program in tatters. Realizing that the Moon race was lost, the Soviets attempted to beat Apollo 11 at the last moment with an automated sample return, but Luna 15 crashlanded just as Armstrong and Aldrin were on their way back from the surface. Subsequently, the Soviets switched their main goal in manned spaceflight to establishing a permanent presence in Earth orbit, adapting their Moon-era hardware to launch a number of Salyut space stations, and using Soyuz spacecraft to ferry crews and supplies for missions of increasing duration. Their lunar ambitions were confined to large robotic sample-return, rover, and orbiter missions in the form of Lunas 16 through 24. 185, 186 (See table, “Soviet Launches Related to Manned Lunar Programs.”) 353
354 Soviet Launches Related to Manned Lunar Programs Name Launch Official Development Date Vehicle Notes Cosmos 133 7K-OK #2 Nov. 28, 1966 Soyuz Destroyed on reentry — 7K-OK #1 Dec. 14, 1966 Soyuz Destroyed on launch pad Cosmos 140 7K-OK #3 Feb. 7, 1967 Soyuz Lost pressure during descent; fell in Aral Sea Cosmos 146 7K-L1 #2P Mar. 10, 1967 Proton Tested Block D Cosmos 154 7K-L1 #3P Apr. 8, 1967 Proton Second firing of Block D; failure Soyuz 1 7K-OK #4 Apr. 23, 1967 Soyuz Planned docking. Komarov in crash landing — 7K-L1 #4 Sep. 28, 1967 Proton First stage failure Cosmos 186 7K-OK #6 Oct. 27, 1967 Soyuz Docked with Cosmos 188 Cosmos 188 7K-OK #5 Oct. 30, 1967 Soyuz Docked with Cosmos 186 — 7K-L1 #5 Nov. 22, 1967 Proton Second stage failure Zond 4 7K-L1 #6 Mar. 2, 1968 Proton Reentry craft destroyed during reentry Cosmos 212 7K-OK #8 Apr. 14, 1968 Soyuz Docked with Cosmos 213 Cosmos 213 7K-OK #7 Apr. 15, 1968 Soyuz Docked with Cosmos 212 — 7K-L1 #7 Apr. 23, 1968 Proton Escape system self-initiated — 7K-L1 #8 Jul. 14, 1968 Proton On-pad explosion killed one person Cosmos 238 7K-OK #9 Aug. 28, 1968 Soyuz Test flight Zond 5 7K-L1 #9 Sep. 15, 1968 Proton Flew around Moon; returned and recovered Soyuz 2 7K-OK Oct. 25, 1968 Soyuz Rendezvous with Soyuz 3 Soyuz 3 7K-OK Oct. 28, 1968 Soyuz Attempted docking with Soyuz 2 failed Zond 6 7K-L1 #12 Nov. 10, 1968 Proton Flew around Moon; crashed upon return Soyuz 4 7K-OK Jan. 14, 1969 Soyuz Docked with Soyuz 5 Soyuz 5 7K-OK Jan. 15, 1969 Soyuz Docked with Soyuz 4; crew transfer — 7K-L1 #13 Jan. 20, 1969 Proton Second stage failed — 7K-L1S Feb. 21, 1969 N-1 First N-1 launch; failure at T + 69 seconds — 7K-L1S Jul. 3, 1969 N-1 Second N-1 launch; failed immediately Zond 7 7K-L1 #11 Aug. 8, 1969 Proton Flew around Moon; successfully recovered Soyuz 6 7K-OK Oct. 11, 1969 Soyuz Joint mission with Soyuz 7 and 8 Soyuz 7 7K-OK Oct. 12, 1969 Soyuz Attempted docking with Soyuz 8 failed Soyuz 8 7K-OK Oct. 13, 1969 Soyuz Attempted docking with Soyuz 7 failed — 7K-L1 Ye Nov. 28, 1969 Proton Test of N-1 upper stage; failed on launch Soyuz 9 7K-OK Jun. 1, 1970 Soyuz Longest human spaceflight to date Zond 8 7K-L1 #14 Oct. 20, 1970 Proton Flew around Moon; successfully recovered — T2K Nov. 24, 1970 Soyuz Lunar lander test in Earth orbit Cosmos 382 7K-L1 Ye Dec. 2, 1970 Proton Successful test of N-1 upper stage in orbit — T2K Feb. 26, 1971 Soyuz Lunar lander test in Earth orbit — N1-L3 Jun. 27, 1971 N-1 Third N-1 launch; failed at T + 51 seconds — T2K Aug. 12, 1971 Soyuz Lunar lander test in Earth orbit — 7K-LOK Nov. 23, 1972 N-1 Fourth N-1 launch; failed at T + 107 seconds
Page 1 and 2:
The Complete Book of Spaceflight Fr
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Contents Acknowledgments v Introduc
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It is astonishing to think that the
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4 How to Use This Book Energy 1 jou
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6 Able passage through a dusty medi
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8 additive additive A substance add
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10 aerobraking was one of two rocke
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12 aerospace medicine aerospace med
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14 AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sound
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16 ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Sa
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18 ammonium perchlorate (NH 4ClO 4)
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20 aniline (C 6H 5NH 2) aniline (C
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22 antiparticle efficient space pro
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24 whose main task was guidance and
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26 LUNAR MODULE FACTS Height: 6.7 m
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28 intended as simply an Earth-orbi
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30 lunar environment. Conrad inadve
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32 CSM; it transmitted data back to
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34 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)
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36 Ariane orbit on the 11th launch
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38 Ariel Ariel A series of six Brit
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40 Artemis Project ESA devised a fo
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42 asteroid missions asteroid missi
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44 America’s first intercontinent
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46 atmosphere first time in the Atl
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48 Avdeyev, Sergei Avdeyev, Sergei
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50 ballistic missile ballistic miss
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52 Belyayev, Pavel Ivanovich with t
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54 biopak their companions who had
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56 Black Brant in June 1969, a seco
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58 boat-tail deliver a two-ton nucl
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60 boost magazine series on spacefl
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62 BS- (Broadcasting Satellite) to
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64 Buran Program was inaugurated wi
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66 canted nozzle astronaut John You
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68 carrier and as CAPCOM (Capsule C
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70 cast propellant decelerate. Then
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72 Cernan, Eugene Andrew broken bit
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Challenger disaster Following the e
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76 chemical fuel Chelomei turned hi
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78 circular velocity circular veloc
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80 Cluster Cluster An ESA (European
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82 Colombo, Giuseppe “Bepi” Col
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84 Aspacecraft in Earth orbit that
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86 companion body companion body A
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88 Copernicus Observatory longest M
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90 cosmic rays was the responsibili
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92 Crocco, Gaetano Arturo crawler-t
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94 Cunningham, R. Walter cryobot An
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Daedalus, Project One of the first
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98 Dawn preceded, in 2006, by SMART
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100 Deep Space Network (DSN) Deep S
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102 Afamily of launch vehicles deri
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104 (GEMs) for improved performance
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106 de-orbit burn de-orbit burn (co
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108 Dnepr Force base by a Thor Burn
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110 downlink Douglas Skyrocket The
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112 Durant Frederick Clark, III (19
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Early Bird (communications satellit
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116 Edwards Air Force Base Echo A t
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118 Einstein Observatory other idea
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120 electrostatic propulsion electr
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122 energy density accelerate an ob
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124 Eole Envisat Envisat being prep
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126 escape energy Organisation). ES
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128 ETS (Engineering Test Satellite
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130 Evans, Ronald E. used to study
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132 Explorer Launch Explorer Spacec
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134 explosive bolt explosive bolt A
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136 FAIR (Filled-Aperture Infrared
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138 fission, nuclear fission, nucle
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140 flux it also supported AFSATCOM
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142 frequency coordination held) re
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144 FTL (Project Vela) and then as
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146 GAIA (Global Astrometric Interf
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148 gamma rays instruments and the
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150 GEC (Global Electrodynamics Con
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152 Attitude Maneuvering System (OA
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154 down relative to the target bec
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156 Gemini 9/“Angry Alligator”
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158 Genesis launch failed and the v
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160 Geotail Geotail A joint ISAS (J
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162 Glavcosmos John Glenn Glenn don
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164 Glennan, T(homas) Keith istrato
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166 Robert Hutchings Goddard (1882-
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168 Gonets Gonets A Russian messagi
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170 gravitational constant (G) Adva
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172 Griffith, George shot out of a
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174 guidance, midcourse guidance, m
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H series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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178 Hale, William Edward Hale The B
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180 Haruka flight. By the end of 19
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182 Helios (reconnaissance satellit
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184 high mass fraction two Soft X-r
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186 HOPE (H-2 Orbital Plane) instru
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188 human factors NGST (Next Genera
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190 hypoxia hypoxia Oxygen deficien
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192 IDCSP (Initial Defense Communic
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194 inertia inertia The property of
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196 Intelsat (International Telecom
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198 Intercosmos Intercosmos Interna
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200 International Space Station An
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202 The ISS Takes Shape The STS-88
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204 interplanetary magnetic field C
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206 interstellar space problem by h
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208 IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballis
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210 ISAS (Institute of Space and As
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212 IUE (International Ultraviolet
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214 JAS (Japanese Amateur Satellite
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216 Joule Joule An X-ray observator
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218 Jupiter A floodlit Jupiter C is
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220 Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Kenn
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222 Kiwi which he broke the sound b
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224 Kourou In the end, Korolev was
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226 Kummersdorf astronomer Gerard P
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L series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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230 Lagrangian orbit carries an arr
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232 laser propulsion Houston. Langl
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234 Lebedev, Valentin V. LDEF Havin
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236 leveled thrust program in space
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238 LiPS (Living Plume Shield) LiPS
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240 Aseries of Chinese launch vehic
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242 Lovell, James Arthur, Jr. Lovel
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244 Aseries of Soviet Moon probes,
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246 On January 15, 1973, Luna 21 to
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248 Lunar Prospector Lunar Prospect
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M series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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252 MACSAT (Multiple Access Communi
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254 Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS)
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256 MAP (Microwave Anisotropy Probe
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258 at risk to themselves, started
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260 An early series of Soviet space
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262 Mars Express Mars Express (cont
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264 Mars Pathfinder (MPF) help dete
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266 Martin Marietta United States.
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268 Maul, Alfred MASTIF The MASTIF
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270 MECO (main engine cutoff) recor
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272 the suborbital journey and safe
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274 a drugstore. Glenn also had the
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276 Mercury-Atlas pilots to take th
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278 meteor deflection screen indica
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280 Milstar (Military Strategic and
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282 Alarge and long-lived Russian s
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284 modulation modulation The proce
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286 Mu long-wave infrared. It also
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288 Musudan together. Two of the co
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290 The Soviet counterpart to the S
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292 NASA Institute for Advanced Con
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294 NEAR-Shoemaker (Near-Earth Aste
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296 Newell, Homer E. Newell, Homer
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298 Nova (rocket) Eight of the spac
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300 nuclear propulsion propulsion)
Page 305 and 306: 302 occultation Hermann Oberth Ober
Page 307 and 308: 304 OKB-1 OKB-1 The classified Sovi
Page 309 and 310: 306 ONERA (Office National d’Étu
Page 311 and 312: 308 Orion, Project first century, t
Page 313 and 314: 310 thin surface layer. So brief wa
Page 315 and 316: 312 Osumi OSO (Orbiting Solar Obser
Page 317 and 318: 314 Palapa Paine, Thomas O. Thomas
Page 319 and 320: 316 parking orbit rifled barrel wit
Page 321 and 322: 318 Pegasus (spacecraft) Pegasus (l
Page 323 and 324: 320 Pickering, William Hayward Pick
Page 325 and 326: 322 Early Pioneers Pioneer 3 being
Page 327 and 328: 324 Planet Imager (PI) Planet Image
Page 329 and 330: 326 POES (Polar Operational Environ
Page 331 and 332: 328 pressure suit pressure suit See
Page 333 and 334: 330 Project Daedalus throughout the
Page 335 and 336: 332 PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Ve
Page 337 and 338: “R” series of Russian missiles
Page 339 and 340: 336 radiation protection in space s
Page 341 and 342: 338 radiometer such as plutonium-23
Page 343 and 344: 340 ranging ranging Techniques for
Page 345 and 346: 342 reentry vehicle materials and t
Page 347 and 348: 344 remaining mass remaining mass T
Page 349 and 350: 346 Rhyolite Rhyolite A series of U
Page 351 and 352: 348 rocket sled rocket sled A sled
Page 353 and 354: 350 Rosetta Rosetta ESA (European S
Page 355: 352 Rudolph, Arthur L. Rudolph, Art
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Page 361 and 362: 358 An early series of Soviet space
Page 363 and 364: 360 Sander, Friedrich Wilhelm had b
Page 365 and 366: 362 satellite constellation satelli
Page 367 and 368: 364 A 6.5-m ring fixed to the top o
Page 369 and 370: 366 Schirra, Walter (“Wally”) M
Page 371 and 372: 368 Schweikart, Russell (“Rusty
Page 373 and 374: 370 Seamans, Robert C., Jr. vehicle
Page 375 and 376: 372 SERT (Space Electric Rocket Tes
Page 377 and 378: 374 Shah-Nama by the Space Shuttle
Page 379 and 380: 376 SIM (Space Interferometry Missi
Page 381 and 382: 378 An experimental American space
Page 383 and 384: 380 by the Skylab 2 crew. Two furth
Page 385 and 386: 382 SMEX (Small Explorer) Space Fli
Page 387 and 388: 384 Sojourner case,anellipticalorbi
Page 389 and 390: 386 sonic speed sonic speed The spe
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Page 393 and 394: 390 space drive propellants and str
Page 395 and 396: 392 space motion sickness (SMS) the
Page 397 and 398: 394 space sail space sail A device
Page 399 and 400: 396 The core vehicle in NASA’s sp
Page 401 and 402: 398 1986, it was decided to build a
Page 403 and 404: 400 Orbiter Jerry Ross, anchored to
Page 405 and 406: 402 Space Studies Board space stati
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404 Spacehab activities for the dis
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406 An airtight fabric suit with fl
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408 spacewalk package. Next, the as
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410 speed of sound speed of sound T
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412 Squanto Terror Sputnik 2 The se
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414 stage pilot for Gemini 3 and pi
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416 John Paul Stapp (1910-1999) An
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418 Starlight Starlight A NASA miss
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420 Stewart Committee Stennis Space
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422 stratosphere stratosphere The l
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424 surveillance satellites milliwa
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426 sweat cooling Launch Date: Dece
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tachyon A hypothetical particle tha
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430 Tenma Telstar Telstar 1, the fi
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432 terrestrial satellite Terrestri
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434 Thor similar to those on the At
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436 thrust chamber At first glance,
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438 Tipu Sultan “Ralph” and “
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440 Alarge intercontinental ballist
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442 Titov, Gherman Stepanovich Tito
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444 TOS (TIROS Operational System)
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446 troposphere TRMM (Tropical Rain
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448 Konstantin Eduardovitch Tsiolko
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450 Tucker, George three-stage vehi
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UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Sat
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454 umbilical connections for measu
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“V” weapons See article, pages
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458 “V” weapons A captured V-2
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460 Vanguard fired from here in Dec
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462 Vega 1 and 2 seven operational
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464 velocity Vehicle Assembly Build
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466 Viking (launch vehicle) Chronol
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468 as data relays for more than an
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470 visible light visible light Ele
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472 Von Kármán, Theodore liquid-f
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474 The first series of manned Russ
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476 Two identical spacecraft sent t
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WAC Corporal A small liquid-propell
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480 weight these findings to variou
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482 White Sands Missile Range Edwar
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484 wind tunnel orbit, Wind provide
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486 Ahypothetical “tunnel” conn
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X planes U.S. experimental aircraft
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490 X-33 configuration and renamed
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Yangel, Mikhail K. (1911-1971) One
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Zarya See International Space Stati
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496 Aseries of Soviet probes (“zo
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Boldfaced terms indicate entry head
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500 Acronyms and Abbreviations GEO
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502 Acronyms and Abbreviations POES
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1. Abbot, Alison. “Rubbia propose
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506 References 70. “Cyrano de Ber
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508 References 148. Harrison, Alber
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510 References 223. O’Neill, G. K
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512 References 300. Verne, Jules. A
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514 Web Sites British Interplanetar
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516 Web Sites ICO http://www.ico.co
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518 Web Sites Seawinds http://eosps
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Advanced propulsion systems and rel
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illicit cargo ingress Lunar Landing
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Gonets Gorizont ICO IDCSP (Initial
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launch pad launch support and hold-
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Microgravity and technology experim
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special theory of relativity specif
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Rocket science and technology after
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LDEF (Long Duration Exposure Facili
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hydrobot microsat minisat nanosat n
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The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

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