The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

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USRA (Universities Space Research Association) A nonprofit corporation under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences. Institutional membership has grown from 49 colleges and universities when USRA was founded 30 years ago to 90 in 2002. All member institutions have graduate programs in space sciences or aerospace engineering. Besides 77 member institutions in the United States, there are three member institutions in Canada, two in England, and two in Israel. USRA provides a mechanism through which universities can coop- UT (Universal Time) 455 erate effectively with one another, with the government, and with other organizations to further space science and technology, and to promote education in these areas. Most of USRA’s activities are funded by grants and contracts from NASA. UT (Universal Time) The same as GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) in England. Eastern Standard Time (EST) is five hours earlier than Universal Time.
“V” weapons See article, pages 457–459. vacuum In the simplest sense, empty space. However, since a vacuum, either natural or artificial, is never completely empty, the term needs a modifier. Thus scientists speak of a hard vacuum, a quantum vacuum, and so forth. See also: Casimir effect, energy, vacuum energy drive, and zero-point energy. vacuum energy drive A hypothetical form of propulsion based on the discovery that a vacuum, far from being a pocket of nothingness, actually churns and seethes with unseen activity. This cosmic unrest is caused by quantum fluctuations, tiny ripples of energy—called zero-points—in the fabric of space and time. By interfering with these fluctuations, it may be possible to tap their energy. So far, only relatively crude demonstrations of the power of quantum fluctuations have been carried out. In one set of experiments, carried out by physicists led by the late Nobel prize–winner Hendrik Casimir, two metal plates were clamped and held together by zero-point forces. The crucial point is that the plates were brought together with a force that heated them up very slightly (see Casimir effect). While this isn’t enough to run a starship, it showed that it is possible to tap the energy field of a vacuum and turn it into power. One proposal for creating a quantum fluctuation space-drive is based on the idea that these tiny energy ripples hold objects back as they fly through space; in other words, they are responsible for inertia. If this effect could be countered, rockets would need much less fuel to overcome their own inertia and would fly through space with 58, 99 far less effort. Valier, Max (1893–1930) An Austrian amateur rocketeer and space popularizer who advocated the use of rockets for spaceflight. Educated in engineering in Berlin, he experimented with rockets in the 1920s with the Verein für Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel), of which Wernher von Braun and Hermann Oberth were prominent members. His non-technical book Der Vorstoss in den Wltenraum (The Advance into Space) spread Oberth’s ideas to a wide audience. Valier was also interested in using rockets to V 456 propel ground vehicles and, together with Fritz von Opel and Friedrich Sander, built the world’s first rocketpowered automobile in 1928. Two years later, aged only 31, Valier was killed when a small, steel-cased LOX/ alcohol engine, designed for use in the Opel-Rak 7 rocket car, exploded during a test run in his laboratory. 91, 296 See Valier-Oberth Moon gun. Valier-Oberth Moon gun In the 1920s, members of the Verein für Raumschiffahrt amused themselves by redesigning Jules Verne’s Moon gun (see Columbiad ). In 1926, the rocket pioneers Max Valier and Hermann Oberth designed a gun that would correct Verne’s technical mistakes and be capable of firing a projectile to the Moon. The projectile would be made of tungsten steel, practically solid, with a diameter of 1.2 m and a length of 7.2 m. Even using the latest gun propellants, a barrel length of 900 m would be necessary. To eliminate the compression of air in the barrel during acceleration, it was proposed that the barrel itself be evacuated to a near-vacuum, with a metal seal at the top of the barrel. Residual air would provide enough pressure to blast this seal aside before the shell exited the gun. To minimize drag losses in getting through the atmosphere, it was proposed to put the mouth of the gun above most of Earth’s atmosphere: it would be drilled into a high mountain of at least 4,900 m altitude. Van Allen, James Alfred (1914–) An American space scientist who participated in 24 missions, including some of the early Explorers and Pioneers. His research focused on planetary magnetospheres and the solar wind. He began high-altitude rocket research in 1945, initially used captured V-2s (see “V” weapons), and is best remembered for his discovery of the radiation belts that were subsequently named after him (see Van Allen Belts). Van Allen received a B.S. from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1935 and an M.S. (1936) and a Ph.D. (1939) from the California Institute of Technology. After a spell with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, where he studied photodisintegration, Van Allen moved in 1942 to the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, where he worked to develop a rugged vacuum tube. He also helped to develop proximity fuses for (continued on page 459)
Page 1 and 2:
The Complete Book of Spaceflight Fr
Page 3 and 4:
Contents Acknowledgments v Introduc
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It is astonishing to think that the
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4 How to Use This Book Energy 1 jou
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6 Able passage through a dusty medi
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8 additive additive A substance add
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10 aerobraking was one of two rocke
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12 aerospace medicine aerospace med
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14 AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sound
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16 ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Sa
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18 ammonium perchlorate (NH 4ClO 4)
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20 aniline (C 6H 5NH 2) aniline (C
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22 antiparticle efficient space pro
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24 whose main task was guidance and
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26 LUNAR MODULE FACTS Height: 6.7 m
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28 intended as simply an Earth-orbi
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30 lunar environment. Conrad inadve
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32 CSM; it transmitted data back to
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34 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)
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36 Ariane orbit on the 11th launch
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38 Ariel Ariel A series of six Brit
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40 Artemis Project ESA devised a fo
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42 asteroid missions asteroid missi
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44 America’s first intercontinent
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46 atmosphere first time in the Atl
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48 Avdeyev, Sergei Avdeyev, Sergei
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50 ballistic missile ballistic miss
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52 Belyayev, Pavel Ivanovich with t
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54 biopak their companions who had
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56 Black Brant in June 1969, a seco
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58 boat-tail deliver a two-ton nucl
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60 boost magazine series on spacefl
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62 BS- (Broadcasting Satellite) to
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64 Buran Program was inaugurated wi
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66 canted nozzle astronaut John You
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68 carrier and as CAPCOM (Capsule C
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70 cast propellant decelerate. Then
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72 Cernan, Eugene Andrew broken bit
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Challenger disaster Following the e
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76 chemical fuel Chelomei turned hi
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78 circular velocity circular veloc
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80 Cluster Cluster An ESA (European
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82 Colombo, Giuseppe “Bepi” Col
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84 Aspacecraft in Earth orbit that
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86 companion body companion body A
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88 Copernicus Observatory longest M
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90 cosmic rays was the responsibili
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92 Crocco, Gaetano Arturo crawler-t
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94 Cunningham, R. Walter cryobot An
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Daedalus, Project One of the first
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98 Dawn preceded, in 2006, by SMART
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100 Deep Space Network (DSN) Deep S
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102 Afamily of launch vehicles deri
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104 (GEMs) for improved performance
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106 de-orbit burn de-orbit burn (co
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108 Dnepr Force base by a Thor Burn
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110 downlink Douglas Skyrocket The
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112 Durant Frederick Clark, III (19
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Early Bird (communications satellit
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116 Edwards Air Force Base Echo A t
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118 Einstein Observatory other idea
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120 electrostatic propulsion electr
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122 energy density accelerate an ob
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124 Eole Envisat Envisat being prep
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126 escape energy Organisation). ES
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128 ETS (Engineering Test Satellite
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130 Evans, Ronald E. used to study
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132 Explorer Launch Explorer Spacec
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134 explosive bolt explosive bolt A
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136 FAIR (Filled-Aperture Infrared
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138 fission, nuclear fission, nucle
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140 flux it also supported AFSATCOM
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142 frequency coordination held) re
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144 FTL (Project Vela) and then as
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146 GAIA (Global Astrometric Interf
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148 gamma rays instruments and the
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150 GEC (Global Electrodynamics Con
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152 Attitude Maneuvering System (OA
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154 down relative to the target bec
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156 Gemini 9/“Angry Alligator”
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158 Genesis launch failed and the v
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160 Geotail Geotail A joint ISAS (J
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162 Glavcosmos John Glenn Glenn don
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164 Glennan, T(homas) Keith istrato
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166 Robert Hutchings Goddard (1882-
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168 Gonets Gonets A Russian messagi
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170 gravitational constant (G) Adva
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172 Griffith, George shot out of a
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174 guidance, midcourse guidance, m
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H series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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178 Hale, William Edward Hale The B
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180 Haruka flight. By the end of 19
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182 Helios (reconnaissance satellit
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184 high mass fraction two Soft X-r
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186 HOPE (H-2 Orbital Plane) instru
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188 human factors NGST (Next Genera
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190 hypoxia hypoxia Oxygen deficien
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192 IDCSP (Initial Defense Communic
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194 inertia inertia The property of
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196 Intelsat (International Telecom
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198 Intercosmos Intercosmos Interna
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200 International Space Station An
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202 The ISS Takes Shape The STS-88
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204 interplanetary magnetic field C
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206 interstellar space problem by h
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208 IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballis
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210 ISAS (Institute of Space and As
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212 IUE (International Ultraviolet
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214 JAS (Japanese Amateur Satellite
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216 Joule Joule An X-ray observator
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218 Jupiter A floodlit Jupiter C is
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220 Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Kenn
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222 Kiwi which he broke the sound b
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224 Kourou In the end, Korolev was
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226 Kummersdorf astronomer Gerard P
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L series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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230 Lagrangian orbit carries an arr
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232 laser propulsion Houston. Langl
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234 Lebedev, Valentin V. LDEF Havin
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236 leveled thrust program in space
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238 LiPS (Living Plume Shield) LiPS
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240 Aseries of Chinese launch vehic
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242 Lovell, James Arthur, Jr. Lovel
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244 Aseries of Soviet Moon probes,
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246 On January 15, 1973, Luna 21 to
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248 Lunar Prospector Lunar Prospect
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M series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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252 MACSAT (Multiple Access Communi
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254 Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS)
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256 MAP (Microwave Anisotropy Probe
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258 at risk to themselves, started
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260 An early series of Soviet space
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262 Mars Express Mars Express (cont
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264 Mars Pathfinder (MPF) help dete
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266 Martin Marietta United States.
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268 Maul, Alfred MASTIF The MASTIF
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270 MECO (main engine cutoff) recor
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272 the suborbital journey and safe
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274 a drugstore. Glenn also had the
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276 Mercury-Atlas pilots to take th
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278 meteor deflection screen indica
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280 Milstar (Military Strategic and
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282 Alarge and long-lived Russian s
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284 modulation modulation The proce
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286 Mu long-wave infrared. It also
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288 Musudan together. Two of the co
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290 The Soviet counterpart to the S
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292 NASA Institute for Advanced Con
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294 NEAR-Shoemaker (Near-Earth Aste
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296 Newell, Homer E. Newell, Homer
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298 Nova (rocket) Eight of the spac
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300 nuclear propulsion propulsion)
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302 occultation Hermann Oberth Ober
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304 OKB-1 OKB-1 The classified Sovi
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306 ONERA (Office National d’Étu
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308 Orion, Project first century, t
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310 thin surface layer. So brief wa
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312 Osumi OSO (Orbiting Solar Obser
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314 Palapa Paine, Thomas O. Thomas
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316 parking orbit rifled barrel wit
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318 Pegasus (spacecraft) Pegasus (l
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320 Pickering, William Hayward Pick
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322 Early Pioneers Pioneer 3 being
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324 Planet Imager (PI) Planet Image
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326 POES (Polar Operational Environ
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328 pressure suit pressure suit See
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330 Project Daedalus throughout the
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332 PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Ve
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“R” series of Russian missiles
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336 radiation protection in space s
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338 radiometer such as plutonium-23
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340 ranging ranging Techniques for
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342 reentry vehicle materials and t
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344 remaining mass remaining mass T
Page 349 and 350:
346 Rhyolite Rhyolite A series of U
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348 rocket sled rocket sled A sled
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350 Rosetta Rosetta ESA (European S
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352 Rudolph, Arthur L. Rudolph, Art
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354 Soviet Launches Related to Mann
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Sagan, Carl Edward (1934-1996) A pr
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358 An early series of Soviet space
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360 Sander, Friedrich Wilhelm had b
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362 satellite constellation satelli
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364 A 6.5-m ring fixed to the top o
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366 Schirra, Walter (“Wally”) M
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368 Schweikart, Russell (“Rusty
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370 Seamans, Robert C., Jr. vehicle
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372 SERT (Space Electric Rocket Tes
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374 Shah-Nama by the Space Shuttle
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376 SIM (Space Interferometry Missi
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378 An experimental American space
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380 by the Skylab 2 crew. Two furth
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382 SMEX (Small Explorer) Space Fli
Page 387 and 388:
384 Sojourner case,anellipticalorbi
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386 sonic speed sonic speed The spe
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388 Soyuz spacecraft ESA astronaut
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390 space drive propellants and str
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392 space motion sickness (SMS) the
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394 space sail space sail A device
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396 The core vehicle in NASA’s sp
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398 1986, it was decided to build a
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400 Orbiter Jerry Ross, anchored to
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402 Space Studies Board space stati
Page 407 and 408: 404 Spacehab activities for the dis
Page 409 and 410: 406 An airtight fabric suit with fl
Page 411 and 412: 408 spacewalk package. Next, the as
Page 413 and 414: 410 speed of sound speed of sound T
Page 415 and 416: 412 Squanto Terror Sputnik 2 The se
Page 417 and 418: 414 stage pilot for Gemini 3 and pi
Page 419 and 420: 416 John Paul Stapp (1910-1999) An
Page 421 and 422: 418 Starlight Starlight A NASA miss
Page 423 and 424: 420 Stewart Committee Stennis Space
Page 425 and 426: 422 stratosphere stratosphere The l
Page 427 and 428: 424 surveillance satellites milliwa
Page 429 and 430: 426 sweat cooling Launch Date: Dece
Page 431 and 432: tachyon A hypothetical particle tha
Page 433 and 434: 430 Tenma Telstar Telstar 1, the fi
Page 435 and 436: 432 terrestrial satellite Terrestri
Page 437 and 438: 434 Thor similar to those on the At
Page 439 and 440: 436 thrust chamber At first glance,
Page 441 and 442: 438 Tipu Sultan “Ralph” and “
Page 443 and 444: 440 Alarge intercontinental ballist
Page 445 and 446: 442 Titov, Gherman Stepanovich Tito
Page 447 and 448: 444 TOS (TIROS Operational System)
Page 449 and 450: 446 troposphere TRMM (Tropical Rain
Page 451 and 452: 448 Konstantin Eduardovitch Tsiolko
Page 453 and 454: 450 Tucker, George three-stage vehi
Page 455 and 456: UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Sat
Page 457: 454 umbilical connections for measu
Page 461 and 462: 458 “V” weapons A captured V-2
Page 463 and 464: 460 Vanguard fired from here in Dec
Page 465 and 466: 462 Vega 1 and 2 seven operational
Page 467 and 468: 464 velocity Vehicle Assembly Build
Page 469 and 470: 466 Viking (launch vehicle) Chronol
Page 471 and 472: 468 as data relays for more than an
Page 473 and 474: 470 visible light visible light Ele
Page 475 and 476: 472 Von Kármán, Theodore liquid-f
Page 477 and 478: 474 The first series of manned Russ
Page 479 and 480: 476 Two identical spacecraft sent t
Page 481 and 482: WAC Corporal A small liquid-propell
Page 483 and 484: 480 weight these findings to variou
Page 485 and 486: 482 White Sands Missile Range Edwar
Page 487 and 488: 484 wind tunnel orbit, Wind provide
Page 489 and 490: 486 Ahypothetical “tunnel” conn
Page 491 and 492: X planes U.S. experimental aircraft
Page 493 and 494: 490 X-33 configuration and renamed
Page 495 and 496: Yangel, Mikhail K. (1911-1971) One
Page 497 and 498: Zarya See International Space Stati
Page 499 and 500: 496 Aseries of Soviet probes (“zo
Page 501 and 502: Boldfaced terms indicate entry head
Page 503 and 504: 500 Acronyms and Abbreviations GEO
Page 505 and 506: 502 Acronyms and Abbreviations POES
Page 507 and 508: 1. Abbot, Alison. “Rubbia propose
Page 509 and 510:
506 References 70. “Cyrano de Ber
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508 References 148. Harrison, Alber
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510 References 223. O’Neill, G. K
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512 References 300. Verne, Jules. A
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514 Web Sites British Interplanetar
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516 Web Sites ICO http://www.ico.co
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518 Web Sites Seawinds http://eosps
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Advanced propulsion systems and rel
Page 525 and 526:
illicit cargo ingress Lunar Landing
Page 527 and 528:
Gonets Gorizont ICO IDCSP (Initial
Page 529 and 530:
launch pad launch support and hold-
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Microgravity and technology experim
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special theory of relativity specif
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Rocket science and technology after
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LDEF (Long Duration Exposure Facili
Page 539:
hydrobot microsat minisat nanosat n
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The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

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