Wildlife Breeders Journal 2016

Wildlife stud services
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2016
Wildtelers Joernaal
Wildlife Breeders Journal

WILDLIFE STUD SERVICES
Editorial 6
From the Wildlife Stud Services office 8
ECONOMIC FORECAST OF THE GAME
INDUSTRY
Wildlife industry expected to continue
to grow 12
BREEDING
The Golden King Wildebeest 16
Farming with mini antelope 21
The history of the Livingstone eland in
South Africa 32
Good genetic health of African buffalo 38
Inbreeding and disease resistance 42
Using breeding values to improve desired traits in
wildlife 44
The value of large scale genetic
evaluations 48
Ranch lions in South Africa 52
Pioneer game breeder: Piet Warren 56
WRSA Wildlife Breeder of the year 2014:
Crous-brothers 58
Good Stockmanship: 4 Daughters Ranching 59
DNA TESTING
Table of
CONTENTS
REPRODUCTION
Fertility evaluation of wildlife:
Interesting findings 76
NUTRITION
Nutritional deficiencies and their effects on
production and coat colour 81
Feeding to optimise horn growth of trophy game 87
Feeding systems for game 94
The importance of fibre in ruminant nutrition 101
HEALTH
An overview of parasites in wildlife 103
GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Game camp systems and layouts 106
Passive handling of wildebeest:
a practical example 116
Passive handling of buffalo: a practical example 119
Farmers’ responses to poached rhino 124
Fencing specifications for wildlife 128
Weed control in a game farming operation: best
practices 132
Legal support for the wildlife sector in
South Africa 138
Wildlife TUT-Biobank 62
Sable antelope nuclear origin testing 65
Essential background information for DNA profile
parentage verification 67
Parentage tests for predators 72
GAME MEAT
The potential of game meat as a local and export
commodity 144
WRSA’s international quality standard for
game meat 148
Game meat processing opportunities 154
INVESTMENTS, MARKETING AND AUCTIONS
Investment opportunities in wildlife industry 158
Best practice when setting up a
sales agreement 162
Principles for composing a business plan for a game
farming enterprise 167
2015 Record game prices 171
CALENDAR
Auction calendar 2016 174
Important dates 176
Front Cover: Hercules (48 3/8”)
Owner: Amanzi Private Game Reserve
Breeder: Piet Warren
Photo by: Arcon Media
Back Cover: P29
Owner: Leopard Rock Game Breeders
Breeder: Leopard Rock Game Breeders
Photo by: Arcon Media

Adverts
4 Daughters Ranching 60-61
Afrivet 104
Allflex 71
Alzu Feeds 98
Amanzi Private Game Reserve 22-24
AnimalSure
IFC
Avenatus 136
Bateleur Wildlife Services 153
Clinomics 64
Crous-brothers 1
DJ Farmer 169
Dreyer van Zyl Game 15
Ekim Wildlife 170
Embrio Plus 79
Five Star ID 115
GameLab 166
Gariep Eco Reserve 47
Giraffae Game Breeders 163
Hageland Wildlife Breeders 159
Jan Fourie Wild 29
Karibu Stud 2
Klein Buisfontein Ranch 19
Kwaggashoek Game Ranch 37
Lekkerleef Wild Stoet 121
Lumarie 5
Meadow 86
Oak Lane Farm 10-11; 88-89 & IBC
Obaro 51
Opti Feeds 100
Prinsloo Game Breeders &
Louisiana Wildsboerdery 75
RCL Foods: Epol & Molatek 93
SafeTag® 147
SA Predator Association 54
Unistel 69
Van Zyl Boerdery 137
Van’s Auctioneers 175
Vleissentraal Bosveld 173
Wildlife Stud Services 111
Opinions expressed in the Journal are not necessarily the view of Wildlife Stud Services.
WS 2 does not accept any of the claims made in advertisements.
Brought to you by Wildlife Stud Services
(PTY) Ltd.
Tel: +27 (0) 12 804 6118
Fax: +27 (0) 86 552 8552
E-mail: info@ws2.co.za
Web: www.ws2.co.za
Coordination of Publication
Firefly Publications (Pty) Ltd.
Tel: +27 (0) 51 821 1783
E-mail: palberts@telkomsa.net
Design & Layout: Caria Vermaak
Advertisement design: Donovan Heunis

Wildlife stud services
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Editorial
Dr Paul Lubout
Managing Director
Wildlife Stud Services
DNA SEQUENCING
“Crystal ball” or “Curve ball”
The use of DNA sequencing data (SNP,
whole genome, next generation…) of
wildlife in South Africa is in most cases
grossly misunderstood. The sequencing can
be performed locally and globally (SA, USA,
AUS, etc.), “SO WHAT!” Will the results
be useful to yourself and/or your breeding
advisors? This comes from a belief that your
genetic code can predict your animal’s future
value. In very rare instances it can, but for
the majority of animals genetic sequencing is
still not well enough understood to be of real
value. The literature helps us to explain why.
Research conducted by Janssens et al. (2006)
on predictive genetic testing using sequencing,
confirmed that genetic SNP profiling is not a
Yes/No answer but rather a continuous curve
of possibilities - some more strong than others.
Another research team was keen to point
out that the expression of a multiple gene
trait is as much about environmental factors
as genetics. In fact, common traits such as
horn length and animal weight develop as a
result of very complex interactions between
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various genes, many of which we do not fully
understand. Roughly 21% of animals’ live
weight is genetic, while the rest is up to the
game ranchers to optimise the environment,
management, nutrition etc. of their animals.
Very few traits, with exceptions of single
gene traits such as coat colour, have much of
a degree of predictability at this time. In 2008
it was flagged that the complexity of multiple
gene traits, such as animal weight may “limit
the opportunities for accurate prediction of
these traits without expansive pedigree and
performance databases” and we haven’t
moved forward significantly in this regard.
The hope is that in the future we can not only
better predict but also use this information
more responsibly when selecting for these
traits. As soon as I wrote that, I heard the
“anti- selection” bell ringing. The belief that
wildlife breeders will use their increased
knowledge against conservation goals is
always a worry - but we should remember
that better education means better choices,
better decisions, and the ability to change.
If genetic prediction is where we are going
perhaps a smarter response would be to
promote responsible selection (reproduction,
adaption, longevity, disease resistance, horn
length, weight, etc.), while maintaining
genetic diversity based not on old doctrines
but on impact..... We can’t hold back the tide
of progress, but we can get ready for it. The
wildlife breeding industry needs to embrace
this technology to manage genetic diversity
over the fences.
For now wildlife breeders should not be too
concerned about sequencing although it
can be done but does not produce a reliable
prediction of the animal’s genetic value - the
scientific evidence just isn’t there to support
their claims. The science of predictability
does not yet stack up. Breeders should
however store DNA samples for future use
once the genetic predictions mature.
So, for a bit of fun, is it worth getting your
animals DNA code examined? Apart from
you “paying for it”, is there any value in
getting your animals’ coding sequence
carried out? There potentially could be.
If you use a company which is based in
America, you are essentially offshoring your
data and these companies are free to sell it
on to other companies and marketers. The
Australians caution that genetic tests are not
always ‘black and white’ and that receiving
information out of context or without support
could have profound adverse effects on your
success.
In summary, if you fancy a quick route
to mapping your animal’s ancestry or an
individual animal’s DNA sequence, go
ahead and get them coded. However, you
won’t be able to make any useful decisions
on what you find out yet, because reliable
predictions of genetic values for multiple
gene traits without extensive pedigree and
performance are not possible. So store your
DNA samples, do DNA profiles for parentage,
record your animals (pedigree), performance
test (measure) and save your money until
genetic predictions can be done and linked
to sequenced data. Then, and only then, can
you use the technology of genome mapping
successfully.
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From the
Wildlife Stud Services office
Jaqqui Clute
Office Manager
Wildlife Stud Services
2015 proved once again that a very definite
line has been drawn between commercial,
trophy and stud animals based on genetic
potential. The future of game breeding
lies in stud breeding and more emphasis
is being placed on the quality of animals -
as the species’ numbers increase so does
the pressure on game ranchers to breed
superior animals. Quality animals with
DNA verified pedigrees and performance
records maintained their value in the latter
part of 2015 when the wildlife industry was
under pressure. In September, WS 2 member
Piet Warren proved this by hosting the most
successful auction in the history of game
ranching by selling 40 certified sable bulls
for R137 000 000. He attributes his success
to accurate measuring, record keeping and
rigorously selecting accordingly.
Reproduction and fertility are the first factors
that should come to mind when thinking of
breeding superior animals. The importance of
reproduction is often masked by performance
characteristics even though the economic
and genetic value of an animal is determined
by its ability to reproduce. WS 2 member,
Amanzi Private Game Reserve, tagged a
total of 46 sable calves in 2015; they also
recorded a sable cow with an intercalving
period of 9 months! Their selection process
involves choosing the correct combination of
parents from the current generation to make
genetic progress in the next generation and
on average, the offspring must outperform the
parents. This is the foundation of excellent
breeding practices. The time has passed
where one can simply multiply animals in a
camp and harvest those with potential based
on luck.
A number of stud livestock breeders have
entered the wildlife stud breeding market
(Piet Warren - Brahman, Dr. Anndri Garret
– Brahman, Crous Brothers - Bonsmara,
Hardus Steenkamp - Simbra, Paul Michau
– Holstein & Bonsmara, Frans Stapelberg –
Bonsmara, etc.). WS² expects that because
these breeders register all their calves, send
in regular measurements and performance
records, and are experienced in scientific
stud breeding (utilizing genetic tools, ICP,
setting breeding goals, parentage, pedigrees,
indexes, EBV’s, selection, etc.) they will have
a major impact on the wildlife breeding
industry, and will quickly become the
“LEADERS OF THE PACK”.
The partnership between Wildlife Stud
Services and the SA Predator Association has
also grown from strength to strength. Predator
farmers have shown tremendous support and
we have already registered the first lions with
DNA proven pedigrees on the WS 2 system in
an effort to breed lions that will improve the
overall genetic diversity of the lion population
in South Africa. It is exciting to see how the
partnership contributes toward conservation
of our predators. Genetic conservation
involves conserving the maximum genetic
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diversity within a species or population
which will thereby preserve the evolutionary
potential as well as provide the basis for
adaptability as environmental conditions
change. It is important to be responsible
stewards of the animals in our possession
so a study will also be done to compare the
genetic diversity of lions in private ownership
to that of free-roaming lions in national parks.
A special thanks to all the breeders that
have joined Wildlife Stud Services and
have registered their sable, buffalo and roan
herds on our system. Individually, it would
have taken farmers many years to build a
databasis of +5000 animals with proven
pedigrees, but by being part of a collective
you are contributing to the development of
the wildlife industry. Thanks to this, we now
have sufficient data to do the first genetic
analysis for buffalo, sable and possibly also
roan antelope. The analysis will include
among others: averages, selection indexes
as well as estimated breeding values for
economic important traits per individual
animals and herds, and will be compared
to the averages of the complete database for
each species. This will benefit our breeders
by (i) determining the genetic potential of
their animals, (ii) benchmarking animals
within a herd and on a national level, (iii)
establishing correlations between traits (iv)
calculating genetic variation, and (v) aiding
with animal selections within the herd as
well as when buying new animals. Once the
first genetic analysis is completed, it will be
repeated monthly to ensure that breeders get
quicker feedback on the genetic potential of
their animals and that new data is taken into
account so that new members can also benefit
from the system. Therefore, we encourage
all game ranchers to join the Wildlife Stud
Services system and register their animals to
take part in this game breeding revolution.
Remember, the more animals on the system
with repeated measurements the more
effective and accurate the system becomes,
thus a win-win solution. Remember, your
success is our success!
Lastly, Wildlife Stud Services wants to thank
the advertisers and authors of the 2016
Wildlife Breeders Journal for making the
second edition possible.
WS 2
Team
Dr. Paul Lubout
D.Sc. Agric. Animal Breeding
Director and Genetic Advisor
+27 71 642 5219 • paul@ws2.co.za
Charné Buitendach
M.Sc. Agric. Animal Science
Technical Advisor
+27 82 928 9387 • tech@ws2.co.za
Jaqqui Clute
Office Manager /
SAPA Representative
+27 72 313 9410 • admin@ws2.co.za
Thunis Cocklin
Namibia Representative
+264 81 127 6791
namibia@ws2.co.za
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Wildlife industry
expected to continue to grow
Ernst Janovsky completed his BSc. Agric Hon. degree in Agri-
Economics of Livestock & Agronomy at the University of the Free State.
He was Head of FNB Agriculture from 1997 to 2008 and is currently
Head of ABSA AgriBusiness where he is responsible for the Agric Sector
within ABSA (Absa Corporate and Business Bank) agricultural strategy,
product development, risk management and financial reporting
Market intelligent as well as Management information.
083 230 1085 ernst.janovsky@absa.co.za www.absa.co.za
The private wildlife industry is comprised of four main segments,
namely: hunting, the breeding of game, wildlife tourism/ecotourism
and game products. The private wildlife industry over the past two
decades has grown tremendously, mainly due to the expansion in
breeding and live sales of plain game species. So what does the future
for the hunting and breeding segments entail?
Hunting
The importance of the hunting sector
within the wildlife industry must not be
underestimated, because it creates the
demand for trophy breeding, contributes to
wildlife tourism as hunters and their families
normally visit wildlife parks and enhances
the demand for wildlife products like
venison. Hunting can therefore be seen as
the backbone of the private wildlife industry
in South Africa and is in principle the market
from which all prices within the wildlife
industry are derived. The hunting industry
is where game is harvested and currently
in South Africa the number of game bred
by far exceeds the number of game hunted,
which implies that the game numbers are
still increasing. Given the limitations of our
natural resources (veldt and bush) in the
long run game breeding numbers need to be
balanced with the number of game harvested
through hunting or venison production.
Before the later part of 2000 the majority of
plains game was bred for hunting, with only
a few animals being sold on the live market
for non-consumptive breeding purposes. The
main driving force for the recent growth in
demand for hunting by international and
local hunters has been the decline in game
numbers internationally as well as the
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Economic forecast of the game industry
weakening of the exchange rate, making
South Africa more favourable as a hunting
destination. Given the latest research in
2014, approximately 8 950 international
trophy hunters visited South Africa and on
average each hunter spent R138 000 per visit.
There are approximately 200 000 biltong
hunters in South Africa spending on average
R31 000 per annum on hunting. In South
Africa the total turnover for the game hunting
segment of the wildlife industry is therefore
estimated to be R7,5 billion. This estimation
does not include the indirect money spent
on secondary industries like taxidermy, gun
manufacturing and hunting accessories.
The hunting industry is expected to expand
even further as game numbers and hunting
locations in South Africa continue to
grow as a result of private ownership. This
expansion is also supported by the decline
in international hunting locations due to
the dwindling international game numbers.
The growth in the hunting industry has also
been favourably impacted by the growth in
the breeding of game, resulting in improved
volumes, genetics and the availability of
better trophy animals.
The increase in demand for breeding animals
and trophy animals has positively impacted
the hunting prices of plains game. Over the
past year the price of plains game increased
by almost 12% in spite of a drought in certain
areas that lead to an increase in supply as
animals needed to be culled.
Marketing of one’s enterprise as a hunting
destination is however the trick to a successful
enterprise. This will require an investment in
marketing one’s self internationally as well as
domestically because a good return business
is based on a personal trust relation with the
hunter. One can outsource marketing but
this implies no relationship with the client
and therefore no guaranteed return business.
It is like wine marketing, one needs to build
a brand which takes effort. This also implies
an investment in facilities as well as specie
diversification in order to deliver a one stop
service.
Game Breeding
The breeding and sale of high value game
and colour variants led to an approach of
intensification of breeding systems which
has in some instances led to the inefficient
utilisation of the natural resource where
the focus was on the breeding of only one
species. The combination of species in a
breeding program may lead to a more optimal
utilization of the natural resources but needs
to be well managed.
Over the last two decades the game
breeding sector only really got going with
the developments and investment in game
catching, game transporting and game
auctioning facilities. Without this investment
numerous ranchers did not even consider live
sales as a marketing avenue for their game.
Another contributing factor that unlocked the
value of breeding stock was the development
of a game insurance product that can be used
as a risk management tool, especially during
the stress periods such as during capturing
and the adjusting period after the sale of the
game.
The potential negative impact of disease
outbreaks, the high barriers to entry in terms
of capital investment and lack of up to date
information, remains the main weaknesses
within the industry.
In 2014 the total turnover on game auctions
grew by 35% year on year to a historic high
of R1,8 billion. Taking into consideration
that only approximately 20% of game is sold
at game auctions, the turnover of the game
breeding segment of the wildlife industry is
estimated to be R10 billion. This estimated
turnover excludes revenues from secondary
industries like fencing, feed manufacturing,
pharmaceuticals etc.
As previously mentioned the intrinsic value
of breeding stock is for all practical reasons
derived from the price where the animal is
harvested. With cattle the breeding price
for a cow and bull has inadvertently been
determined by the price of slaughter cattle.
For example the prices of the bull is basically
the slaughter price of cattle multiplied by four
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(R10 000 x 4 = R40 000). This same principle can be used to determine game prices. A buffalo
is for instance hunted for R50 000 to R60 000, which implies that breeding stock should trade
at R200 000 to R240 000. Of course there will be outliers as with cattle where one would pay
R100 000 for specific genetics or R1m for a specific Buffalo bull. If this principle is applied to
all species, colour variants stand out to be trading far above their intrinsic value. It is therefore
expected that the breeding value for colour variants will continue to decrease more severely
than that of other plains game.
Over the past months the prices on game auctions have however started to decline. This is
mainly the result of increases in supply due to severe drought conditions. It could be argued
that the market is getting saturated and that price will tend to soften. In spite of this, further
expansions in the breeding of game can be expected, as the profitability of game breeding is
much higher than that of cattle farming, especially in the scarce game species like Buffalo and
Sable.
To become a breeder is easy. You don’t even need to own land, as you can rent land. All
it takes is a fence, a few females and a male, the question however is does it add value to
diversification and the build of superior genetics. The barrier to enter in the breeding market
is therefore fairly low and given current prices it is expected that more breeding farms will be
established. There will also be a switch from hunting farms to breeding farms.
The following graphs indicate what can be expected in terms of supply and price for the
different groupings with in the game industry:
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15

Colin Engelbrecht
Klein Buisfontein Ranch
THE GOLDEN
KING WILDEBEEST
Colin
Engelbrecht
and his wife
Marisa farm
near the town of
Hartbeesfontein in
the Northwest Province.
Under their management,
the once marginal cattle
farm has been transformed
over the past 11 years into
a successful game farming
operation. During 2009 the first exotic
game was introduced onto the farm.
Presently there are 12 plains
game species; 10 exotic game
species and 10 predator species
to be found on the ranch. Klein
Buisfontein Ranch strives for
breeding excellence through
thorough research and the use of
pure genetics which is the key to
breeding excellence.
083 306 0125
colin@kleinbuisfonteinranch.co.za
www.kleinbuisfontein.co.za
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eeding
Introduction
Wildebeest, also called gnus or wildebai, seem
to have evolved around 2.5 million years ago and
are a genus of antelopes Connochaetes. They belong
to the family Bovidae, which includes antelopes, cattle,
goats, sheep and other even-toed horned ungulates. They
have lightly built hindquarters but are more robust at their
shoulders and chest. Both sexes possess horns which are shaped
like parentheses and resemble those of the female African Buffalo.
The Golden King Wildebeest, also known as the Chocolate Wildebeest or
Copper Wildebeest (Figure 1.1) originated naturally in the Southern parts of
Botswana and Molopo areas of the North West Province.
Figure 1.2: Crossbred King Wildebeest and Normal
Golden Wildebeest
Figure 1.3: Normal Golden Wildebeest with a large
spot/mark on flank
A Golden King Wildebeest is not a crossbred animal between a King Wildebeest and a
normal Golden Wildebeest (Figure 1.2), as some might believe. Golden King Wildebeest
are not normal Golden Wildebeest with a large mark or spot on their flanks, as is the
beliefs of others (Figure 1.3). Golden King Wildebeest are a NATURAL BREED that
breeds true to their traits.
Description
The Golden King Wildebeest (Figure 3) has similar characteristics to
the King Wildebeest (Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2). They differ in facial
colour, but have similar body colour, with some animals having a
large spot or mark on their flanks, as in the King.
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Figure 2.1: King Wildebeest without a spot/mark on
flank
Figure 2.2: King Wildebeest with spot/mark on flank
Figure 3: Golden King Wildebeest with spot/mark on flank
In general all adult animals are grey, tinged
with chocolate brown especially on the
rump. In certain light conditions, the animals
appear to be gold or a reddish copper colour.
There are a number of vertical stripes present
on the neck. They have a gold/reddish copper
mane which runs down the back of the neck
and along the vertebrae (vertebral stripe)
ending in the tail hair of a thick gold/reddish
copper colour (Figure 4).
The facial hair is a thick bush of gold/reddish
copper hair, almost like a fringe, with the
top area light gold between the horns and a
chocolate reddish copper snout. The calves
are born a fawn colour with a darker shade
face. At approximately 2 months of age
the offspring begin to take on their adult
colouration (Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2).
Habitat
Wildebeest prefer open grassland savanna
and savanna woodland. Despite this they can
survive in arid regions. Access to drinking
water is essential. Animals can be bred
successfully in smaller areas.
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Breeding
Golden King Wildebeest can be successfully
bred by pairing a Golden King bull with a
Golden King cow/heifer. The offspring breed
true to the parents in all aspects. Pairing a
Golden King bull with a common or blue
wildebeest cow/heifer will result in splits
being bred. These Golden King split heifers
can then be paired with a Golden King bull
to reproduce Golden King offspring which
are true to the breed (keep in mind the fifty
percent rule).
Reproduction
Wildebeest are prolific breeders and the
Golden King is no exception. Bulls reach
sexual maturity at around twenty four months
and heifers at around eighteen months. The
mating season lasts for approximately three
weeks and coincides with the end of the
rainy season and typically begins on the
night of a full moon. A single calf is born
after a gestation period of about eight and a
half months and between eighty and ninety
percent of calves are born within a three
week period. Calves weigh between eighteen
and twenty two kilograms.
Figure 5.1: Golden King Wildebeest with
offspring
Golden King Wildebeest cannot be
successfully paired with a Golden Wildebeest.
The offspring have the traits of the common
or blue wildebeest. As a result of there being
a small population of Golden King animals in
breeders’ hands at present, pedigrees of these
animals are fairly new, but will increase as
more DNA tests of these animals become
available. This will ensure that the animals
are kept true to their traits.
Figure 5.2: Golden King Calf
Conclusion
The Golden King Wildebeest is a hardy
natural occurring animal which breeds true.
It is not a crossbred animal and it is not a
Golden Wildebeest. Once the numbers of
these animals bred increases, so will the
pedigrees and DNA databases be developed
and expanded further.
The Wildlife Stud Services system is based on an adapted version of the International Livestock
Registry system (ILR2) for wildlife with a built in DNA parentage system and wildlife performance
testing system (e.g. horn length, live weights, reproduction traits etc.). The system offers a database
of DNA verified pedigrees to plan mating combination and manage the level of inbreeding. The
“Mating Predictor” can be used to mate animals on paper. The system will calculate the level
of inbreeding based on the DNA verified pedigrees as well as predict the genetic potential
(estimated breeding values) for various performance (horn length, weaning weight) and fertility
traits (scrotal circumference). EBV’s (Estimated Breeding Values) are calculated using the
animals own measurements, measurements of relatives (based on DNA verified pedigree) and
correlations between traits. Genetic tools such as “MateSel” en “GeneProb” can
also be utilised once sufficient data is available to improve genetic gain (e.g.
colours variants and increased horn length) and manage genetic diversity.
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eeding
Farming with
mini antelope
- Arnaud le Roux & Silke Pfitzer
Arnaud le Roux obtained his National Diplomas in Agriculture and Nature
Conservation; a Higher National Diploma in Nature Conservation, and
a Magister Technologiae: Nature Conservation. He has been farming
with small antelopes for over 15 years near Bela-Bela, Limpopo. Le
Roux is currently self-employed as an Ecology Consultant, developing
environmentally compatible products on behalf of Agrochemical
companies, and wildlife ranching developments. He has managed
several projects on behalf of the Endangered Wildlife Trust and also has 13 years
conservation and rangeland research experience in the department of Agriculture in the
Limpopo Province, 7 years experience as national project manager in the Conservation
and Rangeland division at Ecoguard Biosciences Pty Ltd. (DowAgro Sciences). Le Roux is
also the Wildlife Management Consultant of Le Petit 5.
082 325 6578
arnaudleroux109@gmail.com
Introduction
Intensive wildlife production has increased
dramatically over the last decade. This
form of game farming has been accepted
throughout the wildlife and conservation
industry. Provincial authorities have adapted
legislation to accommodate this form of game
farming and central government has also put
in place legislation to regulate the industry.
The purpose of implementing this form of game
farming can probably mostly be associated
with economic reasons but the conservation
and proliferation of certain threatened
species have also been advocated. A number
of species are being farmed, generally being
those that have a high monetary value due to
their scarcity. The main species being farmed
in this way are sable antelope, nyala, roan
antelope and buffalo.
Game farming has become an integral part
of the agricultural sector in South Africa. This
has probably led to the present day method
of breeding high profile game species under
intensive management conditions.
In many instances farmers have been
instrumental in saving a number of our wildlife
species. Examples include the bontebok,
black wildebeest and Cape mountain zebra,
each of which has in some or another way
been bred to numbers that have saved them
from possible extinction. Donations of
animals by these forward-thinking farmers to
National Parks and Provincial Reserves have
contributed immensely to the conservation
of these species (Young, 1992).
The actions of farmers over the years have
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eeding
culminated in a new profitable form of
land use: game farming. This activity on its
own has shown that it can succeed and has
been compared to a diamond, thus having
many facets. Examples thereof are tourism,
hunting, research and the production of byproducts
such as biltong, venison and hides
(Young, 1992).
Through an evolutionary process, game
farming has become more focussed in
certain instances leading to intensive wildlife
production. As wildlife production increases,
more rare animals are entering the market,
with major economic and conservation
impact. In extensive production systems
the growth rate of rare wildlife populations
is often retarded. Recent realisation that
such animals can be intensively produced
economically and practicably feasible,
provided new stimulus and input into wildlife
production in southern Africa (Bothma & van
Rooyen, 2006).
There is a growing demand for a diversity
of species in the Wildlife Ranching and
Ecotourism Industry. The smaller antelope
have, however, been neglected to date and
their numbers have probably declined in
several areas. Various reasons can be given
for this, one of which is the fact that very
few of these animals are made available to
interested buyers and the breeding of these
species has thus not been tried on and tested
commercially. By now it has been proven by
other species that the most reliable way of
ensuring the future existence of any species
lies in attempts to create a monetary value for
each of them, which in turn should motivate
farmers to breed them, thereby ensuring the
distribution and natural increase in their
population numbers.
animals on land suitable for development
can simply be removed and put into a
captive breeding facility. This may ultimately
work against the objectives of small antelope
conservation, especially considering that
the success of rehabilitation of captive bred
animals into the wild has not been well tested.
Captive breeding must therefore only be seen
as a management tool to ultimately support
the return of animals into natural habitat,
and must not be seen as a conservation tool
in isolation to conserving small antelope
species in their natural habitats.
Source animals are from (1) a population
that is ‘doomed’ i.e. population is under
imminent threat of extinction due to land use
change or poaching, and where there are no
options for natural movement of animals to
contribute to a larger meta-population, (2) a
population at or above maximum productivity
carrying capacity (i.e. at or above 75% of
ecological carrying capacity) or a level at
which Provincial conservation agencies are
prepared to grant a capture permit, or (3)
animals that are injured or imprinted and are
hence non-releasable.
• The purpose is to ensure that there are no
extra negative impacts on wild populations;
it is undesirable to remove animals from
wild populations where these populations
are below carrying capacity, or where
options exist to translocate animals to
other areas of natural habitat.
• In all cases status of populations (doomed
populations, populations above maximum
productivity carrying capacity, and nonreleasable
animals) is to be assessed by an
authorised representative.
The main objective of the Small Game
Breeders Association SA (SGBASA) is to
promote the conservation of all the small
antelopes in their natural habitats. One of the
biggest threats to small antelope species is
habitat loss and fragmentation. While captive
breeding may contribute towards achieving
the goals of the SGBASA, there is also a risk
that providing captive breeding as an option
will result in more land transformation and
habitat loss based upon the perception that
25

Table 1: The small antelope of Southern Africa
AFRIKAANS ENGLISH LATIN
Gewone duiker Common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia
Rooiduiker Red duiker Cephalophus natalensis
Blouduiker Blue duiker Cephalophus monticola
Soenie Suni Neotragus moschatus
Klipspringer Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus
Steenbok Steenbok Raphicerus campestris
Kaapse grysbok Cape grysbok Raphicerus melanotis
Sharpe se grysbok Sharpe’s grysbok Raphicerus sharpei
Oorbietjie Oribi Ourebia ourebi
Damara dik-dik Damara dik-dik Madoqua kirkii
Bosbok Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus
Vaalribbok Grey rhebok Pelea capreolus
Rooiribbok Mountain reedbuck Redunca fulvorufula
Rietbok Reedbuck Redunca arundinum
Three duiker species of South
Africa:
The grey or common duiker (Sylvicapra
grimmia) is widely distributed south of the
Sahara desert. It is very adaptable and can be
found in most types of habitat. It is also often
found close to human habitation and kraals
where it scavenges on leftovers.
Rams are usually smaller than females with a
shoulder height of about 55cm and a mean
bodyweight of about 17kg. Females reach a
shoulder height of about 57cm and average
body weight of 21kg.
The red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis)
belongs to the forest-associated species of
duikers. It prefers riverine habitat but can
also be found in savannah bushveld. The
geographic distribution in South Africa is
limited to the northern and south-eastern
parts of KwaZulu-Natal, Swaziland and the
Lowveld of Mpumalanga. There is also a
population in the Soutpansberg in Limpopo
Province. Red duiker males reach a shoulder
height of 43cm and a body weight of 12kg,
while ewes can be slightly bigger at 45cm
shoulder height and 12 to 14kg body weight.
The blue duiker (Philantomba monticola)
also belongs to the forest-associated species
of duikers. It prefers forests with a dense
canopy in the high rainfall regions of Natal
and along the coastal lowlands along the East
coast of South Africa right into the Western
Cape. It can also be found in the forests
of Swaziland and further north in eastern
Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi.
The blue duiker is the smallest antelope of
southern Africa. Males have an average
shoulder height of 34cm and an average
body mass of 4,5kg, while ewes can stand
1cm taller and have a mass of 5,5kg. The blue
duiker has been classified as “Rare” and is
protected by CITES regulations in terms of
international trade. Blue duikers adapt well
to captivity and there are several successful
breeding projects throughout the country.
For further description of the species and their
habitat, please refer to suitable texts such
as “The Mammals of the Southern African
Subregion” by Skinner and Smithers (1990).
Capture
Capture in the wild is best carried out with
dropnets and beaters. For oribi (Ourebia
ourebi) in grassland habitat, a helicopter
can be used instead of beaters. For mini
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antelope the size of red duiker and bigger,
the mesh size should be 100m x 100mm. For
blue duiker the mesh size should be smaller
(50mm x 50mm).
Passive capture is possible where feeding
stations or water holes on a small property
exist. However, since most duiker species
and also most other mini antelope are
territorial or live in small family groups, only
small numbers will be captured at a time.
Capture by darting, especially in forest habitat,
brings with it difficulties of recovering the
animals. Transmitter darts at this stage are still
very heavy and could lead to severe muscle
damage if fired into the small leg muscles
of a mini antelope. Oribi and steenbok
(Raphicerus campestris) in grassland habitat
have been darted successfully at night with a
spotlight and with reflective tape attached to
the dart. Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus)
has been successfully darted on the rocky
outcrops from a helicopter.
A blowpipe or gas charged dart gun and
very light darts are the safest option for small
antelope such as blue and red duiker. So far
one of the best systems in captivity for these
species seems to be the light Telinject darts
for the Telinject blowpipe. The needles are
very small and bend over or break before
causing any severe injury such as bone
fractures. These darts can be combined with
the tail piece of a Dan-Inject dart and shot
through the Dan-Inject dart gun – provided
the barrel is never held down because this
dart would fall out. The drawback is that the
darts do not inject reliably and the distance
is rather short (10 – 15m). However, half
of a full dose is often good enough to get
hold of mini antelope in captivity for further
handling. The small Pneu-Darts or Dan-Inject
darts can be used for the larger sized mini
antelopes. Needles should always be as short
as possible.
Care should be taken that family groups such
as those in klipspringer and oribi populations
as well as pairs in the steenbok population
stay together.
Drug combinations and dosages
Dosages given below are for adult animals,
unless specified.
A3080 works very well for most species of
mini antelope. A dose of 0,5mg A3080 is
sufficient for blue duiker. Red duiker can
be safely darted with 1 - 1,5mg A3080
combined with 10 – 20mg of Azaperone,
while up to 2mg A3080 can be used for grey
duiker. Steenbok can be darted with 0,5mg
A3080 and oribi with up to 1mg A3080 or
a combination of 0,5mg A3080 and 0,5mg
M99.
Zoletil has also been successfully used to
dart mini antelope – especially if painful
procedures such as small operations need
to be performed and gas anaesthetic is not
available. About 100 to 200mg of Zoletil
provides good anaesthesia in red duiker and
grey duiker.
Haloperidol and perphenazine enanthate
are commonly used as tranquillizers in
mini antelope either on their own or in
combination. Haloperidol can be used at a
dosage rate 4 – 6mg for blue duiker, up to
10mg for red duiker and grey duiker, 10mg for
oribi and 5mg for steenbok. For klipspringer,
2mg of haloperidol and 10mg of azaperone
have been used with good success.
Perphenazine can be used at a dosage rate
of 30mg for blue duiker as well as steenbok
and up to 50mg for red duiker, grey duiker
and oribi.
Crates
Wooden crates with a height x width x
length of 80cm x 35cm x 1m can be used
for mini antelope from the size of red duiker
up to oribi. Crates have to be dark to prevent
jumping and air vents can be covered with
a blanket until tranquillizers take effect after
net capture. Blue duiker crates should be
a bit smaller and even apple boxes have
successfully been used to transport captive
bred blue duiker.
If mini antelope are captured from a boma
and loaded directly into a crate, the crate
should have windows through which the
animal can be injected with tranquillizers.
Wild captured mini antelope should always
be transported in individual crates; however,
bigger wooden boxes have successfully been
used as “mass crates”. The grouping of newly
caught animals in existing family groups
27

settles the animals down easier. A low crate
height will help in preventing the animals
from jumping. Males should have PVC pipes
on their horns of appropriate length and
diameter.
Injured duiker and steenbok can be kept in
a large box with access from the top – this
has been successful in keeping and treating
injured animals for several weeks.
Bomas and camps for mini antelope
A conventional boma of about 8m x 8m
with walls of 3m in height, constructed out
of wooden slats has been successfully used
to house grey duiker, oribi and steenbok. Of
importance is a dark roofed section with a
dividing wall, behind which the animals can
hide. For keeping oribi and steenbok, the
addition of little houses made out of bundles
of thatch grass mimic their natural habitat
and also help to provide hiding place to keep
these animals calm.
It is important that any vertical gaps, for
example around doors, are small or covered
by sheeting so that the antelope cannot trap or
injure their feet or hooves if they start jumping.
Steenbok especially try to creep underneath
walls and doors and can trap themselves, so
these gaps should also be covered or small
enough not to tempt an animal. Klipspringer
will use any opportunity to climb or jump up
boma walls and therefore their boma should
be completely covered over at the top with
sheeting, netting or shade cloth, otherwise
they will escape.
Grey duiker and oribi can be kept in groups
as long as only one mature ram is present per
compartment. Oribi are best kept in family
groups, particularly if captured as such in the
veld.
Steenbok should be kept in habituated pairs
or singly.
Wild captured red duiker is extremely
excitable, more so than other mini antelope
species, and will frequently jump against
the sides of bomas if stressed. They are thus
difficult to keep in conventional bomas but
can be held in big dark boxes (2 - 3m long,
1m high and 1m wide) for several weeks.
These “box bomas” should not have any sharp
edges and be divided into two compartments
so that the animals can be cleaned and fed.
Only one animal should be kept per box. As
red duiker tend to produce a lot of faeces
and urine, a thick layer of bedding (e.g. hay)
is necessary. Drainage holes in the floor are
required for urine and spilled water.
Blue duiker is also a forest species, and will
jump in a conventional boma similar to the
behaviour of red duiker, but not to the same
extent. A box system can also be used in this
species.
For recapture, mini antelope in a box boma
can be run directly into their transport crate.
Grey duiker also could be loaded by running
them down a passage and directly into a row
of crates that was made attractive by hanging
some leaved branches behind which they
can hide.
Oribi and steenbok are best darted for
loading.
Captive breeding of mini antelope
Camps for captive breeding should have
a visible boundary as most mini antelope,
especially duiker, are skittish on release and
tend to run into fences and walls. The fence
should be about 1,8m high and the mesh size
of the fence has to be suitable for the species
that the camp should hold and small enough
to also keep in the neonates and sub adults.
Welded mesh with a small mesh size works
very well for this purpose. An overhang to
the inside helps to prevent escapes. Camps
should if possible resemble the natural
environment and have lots of hiding places.
Corners should be rounded and not present
an opportunity for escape. A-frame houses
are accepted by most species and give good
protection from weather as well as from
raptors. Snakes, such as pythons and black
mambas can become a problem in a captive
breeding operation, as they are attracted to
the mice and rats that often are associated
with the feed offered to the antelope. The
camps should thus be inspected for snakes
regularly and vermin should be controlled.
The fence should be constructed in such a
way that no predator can enter the camp.
Feed and water should be offered under a
roof and this structure could potentially also
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e used to capture the animals if necessary.
Camp sizes vary. The use of small camps
for blue duiker can result in good breeding
success - they can be kept in camps as small
as 5m x 5m, and should be kept in pairs.
Other mini antelope need more space. A 30m
x 30m camp (or bigger) with many hiding
places works well for breeding red duiker.
One ram can be kept with 1-2 females but
rams should never be mixed as they might
fight to death. For grey duiker and steenbok, a
camp of 30m x 30m should also be sufficient
for 2 - 3 animals. Adult rams should never
be held together and it is recommended that
steenbok should be kept in pairs only. The
camps for oribi should be a bit larger and
one male can be kept together with several
females. The offspring, especially male
offspring, have to be monitored closely and
will have to be removed at the first sign of
aggression by the adult ram.
When planning and constructing a camp,
consideration must be given to management
functions within that camp. Hiding places,
feeding areas water troughs / dishes must be
catered for, as well as methods of re-capture
out of the camp. It is not easy to dart a semi
wild red or grey duiker in a camp of 50m x
50m, so night rooms or boxes that the animals
can be trapped in and caught by hand must
be provided.
Feeding of mini antelopes:
Most mini antelopes are concentrate
selectors. Their diet is thus low in fibre and
is digested quickly. They are very selective
in what they forage on. Steenbok and grey
duiker preferentially select herbs, forbs and
certain plant parts such as the tips or flowers,
while the forest duiker species are mostly
frugivores - their diet contains a lot of wild
fruits, which is often dropped by monkeys
and birds. Oribi seem to depend mainly on
different grass species.
This makes it difficult to find the ideal feed
for mini antelope in captivity. Most modern
literature emphasizes that natural browse is
very important in captivity. Natural browse
is usually the preferred food item that is
taken shortly after capture. The 2 species of
browse that are most readily accepted by
most species that require browse is buffalothorn
(Ziziphus mucronata) and red ivory
(Berchemia zeyheri). However, this might
vary from area to area and it is best to offer a
variety of browse at first to determine which is
accepted. The thorns of the buffalo thorn can
be a problem in the box boma and animals
can get hooked up in them.
In addition, good quality antelope pellets,
A-grade Lucerne hay and a mix of cut-up fruit
and vegetables such as carrots, butternut,
broccoli, spinach and apples should be
offered to mini antelope. If wild fruits such
as marulas, berries and figs are available,
these can also be offered. Fresh water should
always be available even if the animals are
not classed as “water dependant”.
Special anatomic features and
diseases:
The red duiker seems very susceptible to
pneumonia and should not be translocated
during the winter months. If held in
colder climates, an isolated shelter has
to be provided. Crotalaria poisoning has
been reported in grey duiker and lead to
complications such as laminitis, deformed
and overgrown hooves. The natural diet of
duikers can contain a high tannin content
but tannin seems to be very well tolerated by
duiker.
In one case with a red duiker female,
Tumbu fly-like (Cordylobia anthropophaga)
maggots could be found in the tail area on
several occasions. The animal was treated
successfully by removing the maggots, and
disinfecting the wound. In addition, long
acting penicillin and Dectomax ® were
injected. Stress related jaw abscesses have
also been reported in different duiker species,
particularly if too many animals were held
together in one enclosure. These were treated
successfully with antibiotics.
Willette et al. (2002) report a rumen
hypomotility syndrome in several species
of small duiker in captivity. A “sloshing”
sound occurs when the animals make
sudden movements and is possibly cause
by fluid and gas build up in the rumen
due to reduced motility. A change of the
hair coat has been observed in some of the
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affected individuals. The hair became lighter
in colour. In addition, the faeces which
normally are pelleted looked clumped and
“dog like”. This condition can be chronic but
it can also eventually lead to death if the gas
build up in the rumen becomes too severe.
Abnormalities reported in blood included a
mild hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphataemia
and hyperglobulinaemia. Serum copper
also was low. This condition could be
prevented by providing more natural
browse and vegetables together with copper
supplementation.
Female blue and red duikers commonly have
horns, which usually are a bit smaller than
the horns of males. This can also be found
regionally in up to 12% of grey duiker where
the females might have short horns. Duikers,
steenbok and oribi have interdigital or pedal
scent glands. These can become infected if
animals are held in a muddy environment.
Duiker, steenbok and oribi have pre-orbital
glands as well. Most mini antelope have
inguinal glands apart from blue and red
duiker.
Gestation Periods
While oribi seem to be seasonal breeders,
lambing during summer, duiker and steenbok
are non-seasonal breeders. Gestation periods
for grey, red duiker and blue duiker are
reported to be around 200 days. The gestation
period for steenbok has been reported to be
around 165 – 175 days, and about 210 days
for oribi.
Grey duiker and red duiker have successfully
mated on several occasions and at least
one male offspring grew up to adulthood.
Whether this male hybrid was fertile is not
known.
Wildlife Ranching SA – Small Game
Breeders Association:
Vision:
We strive to provide insightful industry
guidance and inspiration on the most effective
management practices of small antelope
numbers towards sustainable population
levels in southern Africa and thus ensuring
their survival by optimal habitat management
and utilization of natural resources.
Mission:
The Small Game Breeders Association
SA strives to promote the development,
sustainability and profitability of commercial
small antelope breeding in southern Africa
through involvement and discerning input on
the conservation, breeding and utilization,
translocation, marketing communication,
policy revision and formulation.
Literature of interest
Bailey, T.A., Baker, C.A., Nicholls, P.K. & Wilson, V.J.
1995. Blood Values for captive grey duiker and blue
duiker. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26(3):
387-391.
Barnes, R., Greene, K., Holland, J. & Lamm, M. 2002.
Management and Husbandry of Duikers at the Los
Angeles Zoo. Zoo Biology 21: 107-121.
Bowman, V. & Plowman, A. 2002. Captive Duiker
Management at the Duiker and Mini-Antelope
Breeding and Research Institute (Dambari), Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe. Zoo Biology 21: 161-170.
Dierenfeld E.S., Mueller, P.J. & Hall, M.B. 2002.
Duikers: Native Food Composition, Micronutrient
Assessment and Implications for Improving Captive
Diets. Zoo Biology 21: 185-196.
Estes, R.D.1991. The Behaviour Guide to African
Mammals. Russel Friedman Books, South Africa.
Farst, D.D., Thompson, D.P., Stones, G.A., Burchfield,
P.M. & Hughes, M.L. 1980. Maintenance and
breeding of duikers at Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville.
International Zoo Yearbook 20: 93-99.
Furstenburg D. 1997. Common Duiker. SA Game and
Hunt Jul-Sept: 6-7.
Furstenburg D. 2000. Blouduiker. SA Game and Hunt
Feb: 6-7.
Furstenburg, D. 2005. The Steenbok. In: Intensive
wildlife production in southern Africa. Ed: J. du P.
Bothma & N. van Rooyen, Van Schaik Publishers,
Pretoria.
Jooste R. 1984. Internal parasites of wildlife in
Zimbabwe: Blue Duiker. Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal
15: 32.
Pfitzer, S. & Colenbrander, I.A. 2005. The duikers. In:
Intensive wildlife production in southern Africa. Ed: J.
du P. Bothma & N. van Rooyen, Van Schaik Publishers,
Pretoria.
Shipley, L.A. & Felicetti, L. 2002. Fibre Digestibility and
Nitrogen Requirements of Blue Duikers. Zoo Biology
21: 123-134.
Skinner, J.D. & Smithers R.H.N. 1990. The Mammals of
the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria.
Willette, M.M., Norton, T.L., Miller, C. L. & Lamm,
M.G. 2002 Veterinary Concerns of Captive Duikers.
Zoo Biology 21: 197-207.
Wilson, V.J. 2001. Duikers of Africa. Chipangali
Wildlife Trust, Bulawayo.
31

Photo: Terry Herholdt
The History of the
Livingstone Eland
i n S o u t h A f r i c a
- Terry Herholdt
Livingstone Estate
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eeding
Terry Herholdt has been involved with the successful Stud Breeding
of Brahman cattle since 1982 and has provided export quality cattle
to neighbouring countries since 1987. Since 2003, she has worked
under the auspices of SA Stud Book and built the only registered
herd of Charbray cattle in South Africa from base animals to SP (fully
registered stud) in 2015. She was invited to join the Australian Charbray
Cattle Society in 2013. Terry’s other great passion lies in the research
and breeding of Livingstone Eland, which she has been recording
since the first imports arrived at Livingstone Estate in 1994. Her bloodlines are to be found
in many of the current Livingstone Eland herds in South Africa. Comprehensive record
keeping and DNA samples from the original, imported eland have enabled her to provide
proper stud pedigrees and calving records for this unique Livingstone herd.
082 494 4588
terryherholdt@tiscali.co.za
During the years 1993 - 1995, Livingstone
Eland were re-introduced to South Africa by,
amongst others, Boetie Visser, Clem Coetzee,
Vivian Bristow, Kester Vickery and Dr Johan
Kriek. Up until then, the Cape Eland, a sub
species of the Southern African Common
Eland (Taurotragus Oryx), had been the
only Eland seen in National Parks and on
farms, but they were not suited to the harsh
Bushveld regions. Heavy tick infestations by
hard bodied ticks, led to the loss of ears and
teats, and newborn calves died as a result of
starvation soon after birth. Named after the
region where they originally flourished, Cape
Eland were far better suited to the regions
south of the Drakensberg. Bushman paintings
found in caves in the Drakensberg mountain
range, dating back to the Pleistocene era (70
000 - 100 000 years ago), depict Eland with
different coloured coats. One could argue
that these tiny people were using their artistic
ability to create these different colours, but
what is of great significance, is the fact that
some of the red Eland in this rock art, have
very clear white stripes and black markings
behind their front legs. The San could not
have painted something which they had
never seen! This means that the ‘Livingstone
Eland’ (Taurotragus oryx livingstonii), must
have grazed right up to the foot of the
Drakensberg, but due to climate change and
habitat destruction, they eventually migrated
northwards.
These conclusions were noted during the
Danish research by Lorenzen et al., Journal
of Biogeography 37: 571-581 (2010). Eline
Lorenzen and her team studied the genetic
diversity and movement of African Eland due
to past climate change, whilst researching her
PhD thesis (Population Genetics of African
Ungulates) at the University of Copenhagen.
During the warmer interglacials, simulations
indicate the presence of dense tropical forest
extending from coast to coast across central
Africa. Despite a broad habitat tolerance, the
common Eland avoids dense forest (Estes,
1992) and the presence of a continent-wide
forest would pose a considerable barrier to
gene flow between populations in East and
Southern Africa (Cowling et al., 2008). The
nucleotide distances among the mtDNA
lineages observed in the common Eland
indicate long periods of isolation between
East and South. The southern mitochondrial
lineage in the common Eland coalesced
earlier than the eastern lineage, suggesting
the presence of a longer standing population
in the south. She went on to say, “Common
Eland males have far smaller home ranges
than those of females (Hillman, 1988) and
we predict a corresponding split between
east and south in nuclear genetic markers
reflecting the evolutionary history of both
sexes. The IUCN does not recognize
any subspecies with the common Eland;
33

however, we interpret the marked divide
between mtDNA lineages in East and
southern Africa as indicating independent
evolutionary trajectories in the two regions,
which we argue should be considered in
future management efforts.
Some of the most beautiful Livingstone
Eland were found in the Nuanetse region
of Zimbabwe, on the Nuanetse Ranch
belonging to Brian Kaywood. These
Eland were of the first to be captured and
brought to South Africa. Whilst they were
in quarantine, a group of 20 heifers and
3 bulls were selected and relocated to
Livingstone Estate in Dwaalboom, west of
Thabazimbi, in the Limpopo Province. The
remainder of that Boetie Visser herd were
taken to Ellisras (Lephalale) and both herds
were intensively managed like stud cattle by
Terry Herholdt and the late Machiel Erasmus.
They adapted so well that another three
groups of Livingstone Eland were introduced
to the Herholdt herd at Dwaalboom, after
standing in quarantine. Two of the groups
were from the Mashatu Reserve in Botswana,
and by introducing them, genetic diversity
was ensured. During 2005 – 2008, the
Dwaalboom herd was dispersed and only
a small group were kept on at Livingstone
Estate. These Livingstones were handled
daily and records were kept of calving dates,
paternity and mortality. In April 2012, DNA
samples were taken and sent to Prof Bettine
van Vuuren at the University of Johannesburg
to try and establish whether there was a
separate genetic signature for the Livingstone
Eland from Nuanetse, in conjunction with the
Danish research of Lorenzen et al., referring
to the 3 Intermediate Eland tested at Nuanetse
Ranch. Even though pure Nuanetse genetics
were tested, the Livingstone Eland fell within
the Southern African clade comprising
animals from Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe,
Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. During
2013, DNA samples were taken from the
herd sires and breeding females and the herd
was registered with Wildlife Stud Services
(WS 2 ). Later that year, a partnership was
formed between Livingstone Estate and
Kwaggashoek Game Ranch.
The Livingstone Eland herd at Kwaggashoek
had been imported by Clem Coetzee from
the Chiredzi region in Zimbabwe during the
period 1993-1994 and sold to Kwaggashoek
Game Ranch in 2002. In 2013, the best
females were captured, processed, and put
into intensive breeding camps. As a result
of this partnership, even greater genetic
diversity was guaranteed.
Most of the smaller herds of Livingstone Eland
in the country have been closed herds since
they were originally bought, which has led to
inbreeding. The quest for certain phenotypical
traits, such as prominent stripes in bulls, has
also been achieved by inbreeding, and there
are many small, feminine bulls in the market,
highly sought after for their prominent white
markings, which are mostly a juvenile, or
feminine characteristic.
Mature, wild Livingstone Eland bulls are
very large bodied with black masks on broad
heads, thick necks, especially in the breeding
season, dark necks with reddish through to
blue coloured bodies depending on the
time of the year. They may have visible nasal
chevrons, though this is more a characteristic
of the East African, or Patterson Eland
(Taurotragus oryx pattersonii) Bulls can have
anything from 2 to 10 stripes, or more, but
they should be finer and less obvious than
the females, or juvenile bulls. A few-striped,
masculine bull can easily breed heifers with
up to 14 stripes, but will normally breed
few striped, very masculine, bull calves.
Sadly, these should be the type of bulls used
in breeding programs, which will result in
better fertility and carcass weight within the
herds, but due to the misconception that
Livingstone Eland bulls must have as many
prominent stripes as possible, the smaller,
feminine bulls have been selected, which
could have a negative impact on a stud herd’s
overall fertility.
The most important characteristic of the
Livingstone Eland are the black markings on
strategic places on the body where stronger
pigmentation is needed to protect the
animals from damage caused by hard bodied
ticks. This characteristic is very evident when
comparing the Cape Eland to the Livingstone
Eland. The areas which should have jet black
markings are:
- the coronary band around the top of the
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hoof, going up along the back of the
pastern;
- the black garter behind the front leg,
midway between the knee and elbow;
- the underline of the belly;
- the point of the dewlap;
- the dorsal stripe which extends from the
mane to the tail;
- and the facial mask in mature bulls or a
vertical nasal stripe/light mask in females.
Coat colour can vary between biscuit
coloured to the highly sought after terracotta.
Vertical white stripes on the barrel can be
seen in a fishbone type pattern all the way to
the pin bone at the point of the hindquarter
and are most prominent in calves under the
age of a year. Once they have shed their first
coat, the stripes will become less prominent,
especially in the bull calves as they mature.
Naturalist Abbott Thayer suggested, more
than 100 years ago that high contrast patterns
may distort the perceived speed or direction
of a moving object, making it hard to track
or capture. Therefore, could stripes serve as
‘motion dazzle’ to confuse predators trying
to lock onto a certain calf within the nursery
group whilst being stalked?
The conformation of the true Livingstone
Eland is another trait which differentiates it
from the Cape Eland, and the assumption
that it is merely a colour variation of
the Southern African Common Eland, is
incorrect. Livingstone Eland should be
deep bodied and broad chested. They are
heavier, in general, than their Cape cousins.
The distance from hip bone to pin bone in the
hindquarter is longer than in the Cape Eland
which has a more angular hindquarter, giving
the Livingstone Eland a much bigger surface
area where the most expensive cuts of meat
are found. In an industry that is promoting
the future, large scale marketing of local and
export game meat, this is one of the criteria
that should be high priority when breeding
Eland, as their meat is of the most sought
after, being very similar to beef.
The head of the Livingstone Eland is wider and
shorter than that of the Cape Eland, while the
ears are broader. Nasal and neck chevrons
are aesthetic and not a fixed, functional
genetic characteristic as the black markings
are. The horns are very varied in shape, with
the females having a smoother ridged horn
than the males. Cows have much longer, finer
horns than bulls which should have volume
in their heavily ridged horns. The average
horn lengths documented for Livingstone
Eland is very conservative and based on wild
Eland with limited nutrition at critical stages
of growth. A rule of thumb is that a 30 month
old bull should already measure above 30”
without having horn growth stimulants in his
feed. By maintaining a good body condition
score the bulls can develop to their full
genetic potential for horn length. Artificially
stimulating horn growth but does not reflect
on the bull’s own ability to reproduce it in
his sons under normal conditions for the stud
industry and is strongly advised against. The
average weight documented for male Eland
(500-600kg) has also been based on wild
Eland and fluctuating nutritional availability.
Photo: Terry Herholdt
35

True Livingstone bulls can reach much heavier
weights at maturity within reserves and bulls
over 900kg have been measured. The top,
clean carcass weight of 556kg was recorded
at Kwaggashoek Game Ranch. “The proof
of a bull’s greatness is in the quality of the
sons he produces. Any bull can breed good
daughters, but only the best breeding bulls
will produce exceptional male progeny”....
Livingstone Eland are highly intelligent
antelope and due to their ability to domesticate
they can be managed more easily than other
game animals under the intensive conditions
of stud game farming. Temperament should
be taken into consideration when buying
bulls and females, if possible. The resulting
progeny will be less stressed around humans,
and mortality will be reduced when working
with them.
The Livingstone Eland of Kwaggashoek
Livingstone Joint Venture proudly bear 3
- 4 generation DNA validated pedigrees
with calving records going back to origin of
import. This could not have been achieved
without the innovative techniques and team
effort of the geneticists at Unistel Laboratories
under the guidance of Dr Munro Marx,
Annesca Joubert, Letitia Tredoux and Dr
Joubert Oosthuizen, and the team at Wildlife
Stud Services.
Leading the way in the Stud Game industry in
Southern Africa.....
References
Cowling, SA., Cox, P.M., Jones, C.D, Maslin, M.A.,
Peros, M & Spall, S.A. (2008) Simulated glacial and
interglacial vegetation across Africa: implications for
species phylogenies and trans-African migration of
plants and animals. Global Change Biology, 14, 827
- 840.
Estes, R.D. (1992) The behaviour guide to African
mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores,
primates. University of California Press, Berkely
Hillman, J. (1998) Home range and movement of the
common Eland (Taurotragus oryx Pallas 1766) in Kenya.
African Journal of Ecology, 26, 135 - 148.
Lorenzen, E.D., Charles Masembe., Arctander, P. &
Siegismund, H.R. (2010) A long-standing Pleistocene
refugium in Southern Africa and a mosaic of refugia
in East Africa: insights from mtDNA and the common
Eland antelope. Journal of Biogeography 37, 571 - 581
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37

Photo: Arcon Media
Good genetic health of
African buffalo
on South African wildlife ranches
- Dr Ben Greyling & Dr Pim Van Hooft
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Ben holds a PhD degree in Zoology (Molecular Genetics) from the
University of Pretoria and during his study he executed one of the largest
population genetic studies of buffalo populations in South Africa. He
has more than 25 years experience in the field of molecular genetics
and has worked in the Animal Genetics laboratory of the ARC for 12
years, focusing on molecular genetics and forensics of both livestock
and wild animals. Ben is currently the Research Team Manager of the
Beef Improvement Programme of the Agricultural Research Council
(ARC) and also heads the National Beef Recording and Improvement
Scheme of the ARC.
012 672 9052 ben@arc.agric.za www.arc.agric.za
Pim holds a PhD degree in Population Genetics from the Wageningen
University (the Netherlands). He worked as a post-doc at the University of
Antwerp (Belgium) and at the University of Pretoria. During his scientific
career he performed numerous population genetic studies on African
mammals, particularly the African buffalo. Since 2005 he is a lecturer
at the Resource Ecology Group of the Wageningen University, teaching
population genetics, ecology and statistics.
pim.vanhooft@wur.n
South Africa has more than 20 million
hectares of commercial wildlife ranches on
which the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
is one of the focal species; and hence
conservation and management strategies are
vital to ensure their sustainable utilization and
future protection. Breeding and management
practices on ranches are characterised
by anthropological interventions, which
may affect the population dynamics and
subsequently vital genetic parameters such
as the level of genetic variation and effective
population size (the number of individuals
in a population who contribute offspring to
the next generation). Populations may also
become fragmented into smaller populations.
In small commercial populations selection
of breeding individuals and gene flow
(exchange of genetic material between
populations) are often facilitated through
management. One of the most prominent
threats encountered in small populations is
inbreeding, and it has become essential to
keep pedigree records in order to prevent
close relatives from mating with each other.
Baseline information regarding population
genetic parameters however is often lacking,
amidst a perception that there is a focus on
market-desired phenotypes of economic
importance. More recently, buffalo ranchers
have also expressed their interest in using
performance testing to identify genetically
superior animals, similar to what has become
an established practice among cattle breeders
worldwide. Currently, however the industry
lacks phenotypic, genotypic and pedigree
data which forms the basis for estimating
the genetic merit of an animal regarding a
particular trait.
Molecular tools are available to assess a
few critical genetic parameters that are of
importance for the wildlife conservation
and management of wildlife on ranches,
and DNA technology is one of the fastest
developing technologies currently available
in this regard. Ranchers should however
be well informed on the potential benefits
that the technology offers as well as the
applications thereof. The technology is based
upon the DNA of an individual which is
the blueprint of life, and which consists of
about 3 billion building blocks, the sequence
39

of which determines the genetic code of each
individual mammal. Some sections of the code
make up the genes which are merely sequences
of building blocks that encode for a specific
characteristic, such as eye or coat colour,
growth traits or susceptibility to diseases that is
the result of a compromised immune system, to
name but a few. Important to note is that each
individual has a unique DNA profile, although
being 99% similar to any other individual of
the same species. Another principle which is
also central to a breeding strategy is the fact
that each offspring inherits 50% of its DNA
from both mother and farther (thus adding up
to 100%), a characteristic which is central
to being able to verify paternities. This
principle is also important when it comes
to predicting the probability that a trait
will be inherited by the offspring. Breeders
should also take note of the fact that some
traits are encoded by a single gene, whilst
others (most in fact) are determined by the
interaction between many different genes.
Genes may also change with time (called
mutations) resulting in either good or
(more often) bad effects.
Some of the most widely used
applications of DNA technology
includes parentage verification (vital for
pedigree recording that relate to sound
breeding practices and which can be
done extremely accurately using DNA
markers), individual identification (in
particular for forensic and traceability
purposes), diagnosis of mutations
(good or bad), phylogenetic (i.e.
evolutionary) studies and population
and conservation genetic studies
which assess how populations are
related to each other, their levels of
genetic variation, whether they are
inbred or not etc. The bottom line
is that a wealth of information can
be provided by DNA technology
aimed at assessing a number of
factors that drive the dynamics
within a population and also to assess and predict the
genetic fitness of a population. Genomics (analyses that rely on extensive DNA
sequences rather than on a relatively small set of DNA markers) is a more recent development
and aims to quantify the genetic merit of animals with regard to particular traits of economic
interest.
Population genetics deals with the level of genetic variation within and between populations,
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and factors that affect it (population
bottlenecks, gene flow (exchange of genetic
material between populations), genetic drift
(random fluctuations in the genetic make-up
of populations), isolation, small population
sizes etc.). Some of the most primary issues
that population genetics is concerned with
include the following:
• Has habitat fragmentation impacted upon
the genetic variation of the population?
• What is the level inbreeding, which will be
an indicator of the fitness of a population
to respond to future changes in the
environment, including its reproductive
performance?
• What is the level of migration (gene
flow) in time and space, and the link to
translocations aimed at supplementing
genetic variation?
• What is the level of population
differentiation: which populations are
similar and which populations should be
maintained as genetically distinct?
• What is the effective population size
(number of individuals in a population who
contribute offspring to the next generation)
relative to the census size (total number
of individuals in a population), which
relates to the minimum viable census size
necessary to retain genetic diversity?
• Is there hybridisation between species,
or e.g. between wild and domestic
populations, which may result in the
decrease of the genetic fitness and possible
extinction of an endangered species?
When these parameters are put into context
of the history of the population and the
factors that affect the parameters, appropriate
management and conservation strategies can
be devised for their sustainable utilisation in
the future from a genetic point of view.
Currently, a population genetic study is being
performed on African buffalo from 27 wildlife
ranches in South Africa. For this purpose DNA
markers known as microsatellites are used,
which are tracts of repetitive DNA sequences
(or building blocks) in which certain DNA
motifs or sequences (ranging in length from
2–5 base pairs) are repeated (typically 5-50
times). In a population various variants,
better known as alleles, per microsatellite
occur, each with a specific and unique
number of repeats. Normally, microsatellites
are neutral with respect to natural selection,
meaning that they are not associated with any
phenotypic trait. However this is not the case
for the African buffalo, where microsatellites
are associated with effects on body condition.
In the current study two types of
microsatellites are used: one with alleles
associated with negative effects on body
condition, irrespective of sex, and one with
alleles associated with negative effects on
male body condition but positive effects on
female body condition (sexual antagonism).
A study by Van Hooft and others from 2014
has shown that these alleles have a relatively
high frequency in the Kruger population. It
turns out however that these alleles have
considerably lower frequencies in the ranch
buffalo. Probably this is because ranchers
are, unwittingly, selecting for high body
condition by preferentially breeding with
high-performance bulls. From the Kruger
buffalo it is known (from the same 2014 study)
that an increase in body condition probably
results in a lower susceptibility to bovine
tuberculosis. The same may be expected for
the ranch buffalo.
Two more important observations on the
ranch buffalo are worth noting. There is a
small but significant genetic differentiation
between male and female buffalo from
the same ranch. This suggests that female
buffalo are derived from a more diverse
stock than male buffalo and/or the use of a
relatively small number of breeding bulls.
Furthermore, genetic diversity per ranch is on
average more or less the same as in Kruger,
despite a relatively small population size per
ranch compared to Kruger. Thus the African
buffalo on the wildlife ranches appear to be
in good genetic health, not only because of
their low frequency of alleles with negative
effects on body condition but also because
of their high overall level of genetic diversity.
However, due to the unique characteristics
of microsatellites in African buffalo (i.e.
association with body condition), this may
not necessarily be true for other mammal
species on wildlife ranches.
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Inbreeding
and disease resistance
- Dr Anndri Garrett, Dreyer Van Zyl Game
Dr Anndri Garrett qualified as veterinarian from the University of
Pretoria in 2000. After practicing a few years abroad, she and her
husband, Dr Greg Garrett, also a veterinarian, returned to South
Africa in 2003 to open their own practice in Great Brak River.
During the following 10 years they were also involved part time with
the family’s scarce game breeding projects. In February 2014,
Dr Garret and her family permanently relocated to the family
farm outside Kimberley to manage the sable and roan breeding
projects on a full time basis.
072 080 3883 info@dreyervanzyl.com
www.dreyervanzyl.com
It is common belief in the game industry
that if you want to move Sable to a redwater
(babesiosis) endemic area, the animals
should originate from a redwater area. The
only cases I could find on the subject of
Sable mortalities re. redwater before 2005
was reported in zoo animals. Dr Louis
Greeff, a well-known wildlife vet from
Thabazimbi, has since diagnosed around
50-60 cases of redwater in Sable and most
cases occurred when animals were moved
from one redwater endemic area to another
with a very different habitat e.g. Bushveld to
Free State or North West. He has also seen a
substantial number of cases in animals that
were born in the endemic area and never
moved. He has only diagnosed redwater in
one Sable that had been moved from a nonredwater
area to a redwater area – this Sable
only contracted the disease three years after
it had been moved.
My father started selling Sables that were
bred on our farm in the Northern Cape,
which is a redwater free area, in 1995 and
for the past 21 years our Sables have been
sold to breeders all over South Africa. Even
though most of the animals sold were moved
to redwater endemic areas, we have not had
one report of Sable that died of redwater after
being introduced to their new environment.
Whilst researching the reasons why Sable
on some farms do get babesiosis, I first
suspected that it was because they are often
kept in small camps and are regularly dipped,
causing them to lose their immunity over
time because they were never challenged
(bitten by disease carrying ticks). That did
not make sense because our Sable were
born and bred close to Kimberley and had
NEVER been exposed to these diseases
before they were moved, and yet they
appeared to be immune. Recently I began to
wonder if inbreeding could play a role. The
first and most obvious effect of inbreeding
in a population is a decrease in fertility and
general ability to survive, called inbreeding
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depression. This explanation can apply to
game as well. It has been proven that almost
every trait shows genetic variation in large
populations. This includes disease resistance
(i.e. within a group of animals, you will find
animals with better disease resistance than
others). When inbreeding takes place, it
leads to a reduction in the diversity of that
population’s gene pool. Inevitably, it has the
exact same effect on the multitude of genes
responsible for disease resistance. Sable are
genetically programmed (natural selection)
to be immune to redwater, as they historically
occur in redwater endemic areas. If they had
originally been susceptible to redwater they
would have become extinct in most of their
natural habitat. Our experience over the past
21 years has allowed me to conclude that
even if Sables are born and bred in a redwaterfree
area, they retain the genes that enable
them to be resistant under normal conditions.
Although a host of other factor can lead to
the animals becoming susceptible, I believe
that inbreeding depression is something we
should start considering as well.
Another example where the effect of
inbreeding depression very likely plays a role
is in Roan antelope. Stress (nutritional, social
and other) is a major factor in diseases like
pneumonia, but there are cases where nothing
else but an innate poor immunity seems
likely. One of our Roan herds is particularly
genetically diverse as we have “crossed”
Namibian females with Malawian bulls (all
still Southern Roan and thus permissible). For
the past two years we have had 100% birth
and 100% weaning rates in this herd (20
calves born and weaned in 2015, 18 in 2014).
They are extensively farmed and we do not
touch the calves (yes, we do have theileriosis
in our area). Years ago we wanted to maintain
this herd “pure” Namibian, and could not get
unrelated bulls. We were forced to inbreed
and experienced up to 40% calf mortality on
the same pastures where we now have 100%
weaning rates. One PM was done on a fresh
carcass and no apparent disease could be
diagnosed.
Are we doing enough to make sure that the
animals’ pool of available genes is large
enough to fight disease and other challenges
in order to survive? If we outcross (opposite of
inbreeding; the mating of unrelated animals),
we can increase the genetic diversity of the
South Africa Roan antelope population in
one generation. We should be careful to not
only concentrate on horn length and shape,
etc. and our first focus should be to establish
a healthy, genetically diverse population.
Does this mean you should not breed with
an inbred animal? The genetic diversity in the
offspring of an inbred animal can be corrected
easily by mating the inbred individual
to an unrelated individual. The level of
inbreeding in your herd/animal can easily
be estimated using pedigrees and/or DNA
profiles. Although the genes responsible for
disease resistance have not been identified
and described as yet, a knowledgeable
person can use your animals’ pedigrees and/
or your DNA profiles to identify unrelated
animals and plan your mating’s to minimize
inbreeding (maximize genetic diversity)
while selecting for desired traits.
Inbreeding will most certainly have deleterious
effects on fertility and disease resistance. I
was very excited to learn this information,
which was new to me, and I want to share it.
We have practiced inbreeding in the past, but
will definitely be a lot more careful about it
in the future. Especially in species with very
small gene pools like black impala and Roan
every effort should be made to completely
avoid it. It is in the wildlife industry’s best
interest to look beyond the short-term effects
of inbreeding and focus on the long-term
health and survival of the species. It will be
a sad day if antelope cannot be found in a
semi-natural state in their natural distribution
ranges because they have lost the genetic
ability to survive there.
43

Using breeding
to improve desired
traits in wildlife
- Prof Frikkie Neser & Dr Mike Fair
Department Animal Wildlife and Grassland Sciences
University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300
Frederick Wilhelm Cornelius Neser is a professor in Animal Breeding
at the University of the Free State in South Africa. He is author of 350
scientific and popular scientific publications and received the David
Uys trophy for the best article published in the South African Journal of
Animal Science in 1996 and 2015. In 1999 he was awarded a medal
from the South African Society of Animal Science for an outstanding
research project and in 2003 and 2007 he received awards from the
UFS for outstanding research. He also received several awards from the
livestock industry for outstanding services rendered and research done.
051 401 2387 neserfw@ufs.ac.za www.ufs.ac.za
Animal breeding technologies for domestic
animals have come a long way over the past
100 years. In the early years the emphasis was
on “show ring” performance of the animal.
South Africans managed, in that era, to breed
some of the most beautiful and structurally
sound animals in the world. Unfortunately
very little attention was given to the actual
performance of the animals. Some 50 odd
years ago the actual performance of the
animal became important. The emphasis
and breeding pressure was, however,
very one sided with growth performance
(birth- and weaning weight) receiving the
most attention. This one sided approach
had serious consequences. The positive
correlation between growth and mature
size lead to a dramatic increase in size and
maintenance needs of the animals. But even
more importantly the negative correlation
between growth and fertility as well as size
and adaptation both adaptation and fertility
was decreased. This was accelerated by the
introduction of breeding values which made
the selection process very accurate.
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Recently a more balanced approach was
followed and total herd recording was
introduced. Several traits on all animals were
measured and recorded. These records were
then used to estimate breeding values for all
animals in the herd or flock. To accurately
estimate breeding values both performance
and pedigree records as well as non genetic
factors of an animal are needed. These non
genetic factors include any known aspects,
such as herd of origin or birth year and sex
of the animal, which may influence the
performance of that animal. The breeding
values are then used in an economic index
where each trait is weighted according to its
economic importance and the correlations,
positive or negative, that exist between traits.
The advantage of this approach is that several
traits can be selected for simultaneously
in a balanced manner where the lack of
performance in one trait can be countered by
outstanding
performance in another. With this approach
it is even possible to simultaneously improve
traits that are negatively correlated like
growth and fertility. The dairy industry started
with three traits in an index only to realise
that a more balanced approach was needed
to ensure long term sustainability resulting in
an index that includes up to 14 traits linked
to production, reproduction, health and
longevity.
Why the short history and genetic lesson?
Genetic improvement using modern breeding
technologies in game animals is still in its
infancy. It is possible to prevent the mistakes
made in the sheep and cattle industry if the
correct approach is followed. Before any
accurate selection can take place, records
are needed. This includes both pedigree and
performance records. No selection decision
can ever be taken in isolation. This means
that the moment one trait is changed, it
could influence several others. It is thus
important that all economically important
traits are measured. Accurate pedigree
information is of the utmost importance.
Not only is it important for breeding value
estimation but it is also important for the
prevention of inbreeding. Inbreeding will
lead to inbreeding depression which
can lead to a reduction in adaptation,
fertility and viability. However, it
can also lead to deformities and
genetic abnormalities. This pedigree
information can then be used to
estimate heritabilities and genetic
correlations between traits, which
will in turn be use to estimate
breeding values for each
animal.
In wildlife horn -length,
-circumference, -width,
rings, spirals and general
appearance are probably
some of the most important traits
that drive the prices paid for game at
auctions. These traits are of importance
for both the trophy and biltong hunter.
Unfortunately very little information
on the heritability of the horn traits and
45

Photo: Arcon Media
the correlation of these traits with other
important functional and production traits
are available for South African game species.
International work on game species, like the
Bighorn sheep and Red deer, indicate that the
heritability may be high, varying from 0.35
– 0.69 for horn length and around 0.49 for
horn circumference. The genetic correlation
of horn length with body weight is also high
(0.69), which indicate that selection for
longer horns can lead to an increase in body
weight.
The variability between animals coupled with
the high heritability and genetic correlation
estimates indicate that rapid progress due
to selection would be possible. The use of
breeding values in the selection process,
because of the potentially higher accuracy
in identifying superior animals, would
accelerate this progress even further. This
does, however, mean that selection goals
become extremely important and single trait
selection should be avoided. To insure a
holistic approach to the animals’ long term
survival and wellbeing, traits like female
fertility, scrotal circumference and even body
weight should, to name a few, be included in
the selection program together with the horn
traits. Selection should also be carried out
under conditions that are sustainable given
the threat of an ever changing environment
due to global warming and consumer/public
preferences.
The wildlife industry has the advantage
that modern breeding technologies used
successfully in domestic animal husbandry
can be adopted and implemented to generate
breeding values for animals, thus identifying
superior genetic individuals to be selected for
use in breeding programs. Lessons learned
from domestic animal breeding can further
help the wildlife industry avoid known
pitfalls. These modern breeding tools (mainly
the use of breeding values used in a judicious
manner) would insure rapid progress towards
identified goals.
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47

The value of large scale
genetic evaluations
- Dr Michael Bradfield, Breedplan SA
Dr Michael Bradfield obtained his BSc at the University of the Free State,
MSc at the University of Edinburg (Scotland) and PHD at the University of
New England in Australia. He heads up BREEDPLAN in Southern Africa
and also works as an international consultant in partnership with ABRI
in Australia for various International organizations.
082 857 0961 michael@agribsa.co.za www.agribsa.co.za
A modern genetic evaluation system
provides an estimated breeding value (EBV)
for each animal. Estimated breeding values
use measurements, such as horn length or
body weight adjusted for age, to provide
an objective measure of how an animal is
expected to breed.
An estimated breeding value simply describes
what the name implies, i.e. the “breeding
value” of the animal. An EBV for horn length
of 1.5 inches for example, would imply that
we can expect that the progeny would have
a 0.75 inch longer horn, compared to the
average of the group within which it can be
fairly compared to (note half the genetics
comes from the female).
EBV’s are based on three components and
become more accurate over time as the source
of information increases. The calculation
starts with the animal’s pedigree, then the
individual animal’s own performance record
and finally, the performance of the progeny.
A genetic evaluation system is undoubtedly
the best way to determine an animal’s
genetic worth and is now commonly used in
all species including dairy, beef, sheep, the
chicken industry and even for the growing
of trees. It is simply a matter of time before
a genetic evaluation system will be
implemented in the game industry.
To run a genetic evaluation system requires:
• accurate pedigrees
• good and well-structured data for the
economically important traits
• bulls or rams used across herds
Scientists will then use the data and pedigree
files to calculate genetic parameters
(heritabilities and correlations) that are used
in the genetic evaluations to calculate EBV’s.
WS 2 and the ILR2/BREEDPLAN system
WS 2 uses the new version of the International
Livestock Registry as it is the central registry
system to record details of animal ownership,
animal performance and reproduction
information as well as details of DNA results
such as verified pedigrees, origin and
colour variant tests of
all animals. The
International
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Livestock Register (ILR2) service is delivered
by an Australian company called the
Agricultural Business Research Institute
(ABRI). ABRI is arguably the world’s largest
provider of breed registry software and
services and provides registry services to
over 140 breed Associations in 20 countries
as per Figure 1. The service is supported by a
large team of specialists including scientists,
agribusiness experts, marketing specialists,
software developers and field staff.
ABRI is able to maintain a servicing position
at the leading edge of genetic/genomic
evaluation technology because of the
licences it holds on the research outcomes
of the University which houses the Animal
Genetics and Breeding Unit (AGBU) which
is regarded as Australia’s premier breeding
research unit.
BREEDPLAN
BREEDPLAN is the genetic evaluation
software provided by ABRI. The BREEDPLAN
software is comprehensive and flexible
and has been applied successfully across a
number of livestock industries and species
worldwide, including:
• Alpacas
• Angora goats
• Beef Cattle
• Boer Goats
• Buffalo
• Dairy Cattle
• Elk
• Horses
• Ostrich
• Red Deer
In Southern Africa BREEDPLAN’s clientele
includes WS 2 , 34 Societies that are
members of the Namibian Stud Breeders
Association (NSBA), 25 Societies that are
in the Zimbabwean Herd Book (ZHB) and
five of the largest beef Societies in South
Africa including the Brahman, Simmental,
Simbra, Brangus, Santa Gertudis and Braford
Societies. The Wagyu is the latest Society to
join.
The BREEDPLAN genetic evaluation
software is integrated with the pedigree and
performance software allowing organizations
such as WS 2 to offer a “one stop shop” service
Figure 1: The ILR 2 system that is used by WS 2 provides registry services to over 140 breed Associations in 20
countries
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to its clients. BREEDPLAN technology can be
used at a number of levels e.g. within-herd
analyses for individual breeders, across-herd
analyses for members of a breed association
or breeding group or international genetic
evaluations where breed associations from
a number of countries pool their data for
analysis, for example South Africa and
Namibia.
Outstanding genetic progress
A genetic evaluation takes the guesswork
out of selection decisions. You can’t see an
animal’s genes! Two animals might look the
same, but genetically they could be quite
different. From just looking at a bull you can’t
tell:
• whether his sons will have long horns,
• how fertile his daughters will be,
• how big his calves will be at birth and
how they will grow,
• what will be the carcass attributes of the
progeny.
These are the very factors that determine the
and have shown outstanding genetic gains
for all the traits that have been recorded.
Below is an example of the Simbra weaning
weights for an individual herd compared
to the breed average. It shows that the
individual producer has added an additional
kilogram per year to his weaning weight and
this purely attributed to the genetics. When
enough game producers record weights and
traits, over time similar genetic trends will
exist.
How to use BREEDPLAN
Use of the WS 2 BREEPDLAN service is easy.
The minimum requirements are:
• Record birth dates
• Identify/Tag each animal
• Test DNA profile
Figure 2: Large scale genetic evaluations maximize genetic progress
because all animals are genetically compared to one another. Example
for an individual herd compared the Simbra beef breed in Southern
Africa.
profitability of your enterprise. By giving you
the EBV’s of animals for the factors you can’t
see, BREEDPLAN takes the guesswork out of
your selection program.
Since the mid 1980’s cattle breeders
throughout the world have been using
BREEDPLAN for their performance recording
• Record the sire and dam of each animal
• Verify parentage via DNA profiles
• Measure the traits of economic importance
for your specie as recommended by WS 2 .
The biggest value of a large scale genetic
evaluation system is that:
• The genetic worth of an Animal
can be directly compared across
herds on condition that there are
genetic links between the herds.
The use of sale animals from one
herd to another provides these
links. These links are reinforced by
the detailed pedigrees available in
the WS 2 ILR2 system.
• Animals can also be directly
compared across years (if the
group of females and some males
are used across years) and also
seasons (seasonal differences are
defined by the system).
• The very best animals can be selected thus
maximising genetic progress.
The difference between a genetic evaluation
system and a Herd Management program
As per Figure 3 below, records can either be
submitted to the central Registry system via
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a paper based system, online system or by
using an on-farm management program. The
advantages for using a Herd Management
program include the advantage that
producers have full control of their data, are
able to capture their own additional records
and produce customised reports. Producers
should ensure that the program they purchase
should seamlessly connect with their registry
system.
Figure 3: Methods for submitting animal and
performance records
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Photo: Arcon Media
Ranch lions
i n S o u t h A f r i c a
- Jaqqui Clute, WS 2 / SAPA Representative
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eeding
Jaqqui Cluté is the office manager and administrator for Wildlife Stud
Services and SA Predator Association. She holds qualifications and
experience in farm- and wildlife management. She is a hunting and
game breeding enthusiast who believes in the principles of modern
conservation.
072 313 9410
admin@ws2.co.za www.ws2.co.za
The breeding and hunting of predators in
South Africa is a controversial topic that
has received a lot of negative publicity
and we seldom hear about the advances,
progress and improvements made to ensure
the sustainable and accountable use of our
predators and wildlife.
The illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife
products threaten to undermine our
conservation successes, but penalising an
entire industry for the illegal actions of the
few is not in South Africa’s best interest. The
South African Predator Association (SAPA) has
therefore proactively developed and issued
norms and standards regarding ranch lions in
South Africa, aiming to make this document
legally binding on all stakeholders in the
ranched lion industry. These stakeholders
include intensive breeding operations, zoos
and lion parks, circuses and exhibitions,
animal traders (import and export), private
pet owners as well as hunting operations.
All stakeholders will need to apply certain
uniform standards that include identification,
certification, registration and licensing of
all animals that will be verified with DNA
profiles.
The individual identification of the animal,
its pedigree and reproductive information
will be recorded and stored on an integrated
animal identification and management
system like ILR2 that is currently used by the
cattle and game industry and is managed by
Wildlife Stud Services. The animal’s social,
reproductive and maternal behaviour, health
and breeding records etc. will be recorded on
this central database. Recording individual
animals will make it possible to implement a
management plan that minimizes inbreeding
and allows selection against undesirable
heritable traits like cleft palates, albinism,
etc. Genetic evaluation will greatly benefit
research towards conservation efforts and
this technology should be used to maintain
a healthy gene pool with as much diversity
as possible. This will also avoid hybridisation
with sub-species outside of South Africa.
SAPA places the welfare of the animal above
its economic value, therefore minimum
standards are provided for the enclosure
and handling facilities, nutrition and health
as well as transportation/translocation of
predators.
No lion will be released for hunting if it
originates from a facility where there has
been regular contact with humans or when
human imprinting has taken place (walk with
the lions, petting of cubs, zoo animals etc.).
The release of lions for hunting purposes will
be strictly controlled and fully traceable –
this will give the hunter the opportunity to
see exactly where and in what circumstances
it was bred, how often its mother littered, and
how long it was released before the hunt takes
place. SAPA ensures that a responsible hunt
will take place in terms of the Threatened or
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Protected Species Act (TOPS) which states
that it is prohibited to hunt a lion:
- in a controlled environment (the minimum
size of the hunting camp is not prescribed
in the TOPS Regulations, as it will differ
from area to area. However, the minimum
size is prescribed in many of the provincial
acts/ ordinances);
- while it is under the influence of a
tranquiliser (the minimum time frame
before a lion may be hunted after it has
been darted, is not prescribed in the TOPS
Regulations but is regulated in terms of
some of the provincial acts/ ordinances);
- with certain methods, such as poison,
snares, air guns, shot guns, or by luring it
with scent or smell
There are currently twelve accredited lion
hunting farms in South Africa and they can
be viewed individually on the SAPA website
(www.sapredators.co.za).
Recently, the South African Minister of
Environmental Affairs, Edna Molewa, said
that the game hunting sector is valued at
around R6.2-billion a year and is a major
source of South Africa’s socio-economic
activity and that banning trophy hunting will
potentially have broader negative effects such
as wildlife-based land use being abandoned
in favour of ecologically adverse alternatives.
As hunters, our behaviour affects the public
opinion of our industry and we should use this
as an opportunity to stress the importance of
sustainable and ethical use of our predators,
wildlife and land. It has become vital that
we lead by example - our actions rather than
our words must depict how we contribute
towards conserving our fauna and flora. By
hunting responsibly, we can preserve our
opportunity to hunt. As Aldo Leopold once
said, “Ethical behaviour is doing the right
thing when no one else is watching – even
when doing the wrong thing is legal.”
The Man Who Made the Difference
Professor Pieter Potgieter stepped down as President of
SAHGCA in 2010 with the prospect of a peaceful retirement.
Little did he know that he would soon be elected as the
President of The South African Predator Association and
that this demanding job would keep him busier than ever!
In Game & Hunt Magazine, he was recently described as
a respected academic, dean, board leader and strategic
thinker. He successfully inspires others to share in a common
vision regarding the hunting and conservation industries in South Africa.
All that know him will agree that under his guidance SAPA has grown into
a strong, well-managed organization. At the Annual General Meeting of
2015, Prof. Potgieter amiably missed another shot at retirement when it was
unanimously voted that he would remain President of the Association for
a third term – a decision that was met by huge applause and celebration
from all members present.
Photo: Purple Frog Photography
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Pioneer game breeder:
It is all in the genes
Piet Warren – Sable Park
Adapted from Landbouweekblad 14 September 2012
“Sable and Roan antelope were plentiful
in the Gravelotte area in my youth” Mr
Piet Waren stated. There were between
20 000 to 30 000 Sable in this mainly
grass veld area with about 400 trees per
hectare. Game numbers, especially Sable
plunged during droughts in the early sixties
and a local Magistrate established a Sable
advisory committee on which Piet’s father
Mr John Warren served to advise him on the
conservation of the species. This initiated a
hunting restriction (classified as Royal game)
on hunting Sable and Steenbokkie. The area
has changed over the years due to incorrect
grazing management (seasonal burning) and
overgrazing causing bush encroachment
over many areas.
In 1975 the first Sable was hunted by Jimmy
Smith, an outfitter, with a client from the USA
on the Warren farm. During this time Piet
noted that trophy Sable had a much higher
value than his Brahman and Nguni cattle. He
continued with trophy hunting and in 1981
game fenced his property with 21 Sable
included to protect this asset.
In the early years survival of the calves was the
major constraint and the Sable was struggling
to maintain their numbers. This was mainly
due to the lack of adequate nutrition caused
by overgrazing. Scattered, small Sable herds
also caused high levels of inbreeding that
negatively impacted reproduction rates of
cows and the survival of the calves. In the
1990’s, trade of Sables was allowed and
new genetics could be introduced to these
small inbred herds. This caused an explosion
in reproduction and survival rates due to
declining levels of inbreeding. Piet travelled
the length and breadth of Southern Africa to
source Sable genetics to expand his genepool.
He bought animals from a variety of breeders
including Malawian Sable from Sable Ranch.
He also bought his first Zambian bull and
noticed that the calves were born red and
this tickled his imagination. At Chris Visser
from Barkly West he found Madala, a 48
inch Zambian bull that he purchased with
the belief that breeding +50 inch Sable was
possible and this became his breeding goal.
As the trophy hunting industry expanded, long
horns became more and more important, with
horn length actually determining the price.
The longer the horns the higher the price!
After many hours of observation Piet noticed
that Sables with smaller ears, thinner horns
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eeding
(circumference), sparse and upright manes,
less pronounced horn rings had longer
horns. Piet tried everything (nutrition, etc.) to
improve horn length without much success,
later deciding that improved genetics were
the only way forward. Today this forms the
cornerstone of the wildlife breeding industry
as selection for improved horn length (growth)
is now paramount. In 2002, Piet started
measuring horn length, horn circumference
at the base, tip to tip, lengths of the tip to
the first ring, number of rings, distance
between rings, etc. as standard practice,
initially mostly bulls. Later he also noticed
that progeny of cows with horns exceeding
30 inches horns grew faster than those with
shorter horns. Since 2013, Piet records all
his Sable on the Wildlife Stud Services (WS²)
wildlife registration, performance recording
and genetic evaluation system with complete
pedigrees (parentage verified using DNA,
UNISTEL).
Today, Piet reminds every breeder he meets
that they should remember: (i) that cows
contribute 50% to the calves’ horn length,
and (ii) selection of cows is extremely
important. Bulls make a bigger contribution
to your herd as they have many calves, so
their short-term impact is quicker. Therefore
if you use an inferior bull you will also breed
backward much quicker. So buy the best
bull you can afford and select your females’
rigorously.
All calves are caught at weaning and their
horns are measured. Horn growth is then
calculated in mm per day (accurate birth date
is a prerequisite) and these measurements are
then used to determine the genetic potential
of the sire (average of all his calves in that
year) and the dam (± 3 calves) for horn
growth. Using this method he now produces
bulls that grow more than 1mm per day
up to the age of 30 months and at maturity
reach horn lengths exceeding 45 inches. The
genetic progress achieved by Mr Piet Warren
can be seen in the progress in horn lengths
from 38 inches initially to +50 inches today,
this is outstanding.
Another measure of Piet Warren’s success
can be seen in the 3 sales held during 2008,
2012 and 2015. At the 2008 sale: 4 bulls horn
lengths exceeded 40 inches, at the 2012 sale:
9 of 58 animals exceeded 40 inches and one
bull was 50.5 inches and at the 2015 sale:
all bulls sold (38) exceeded 40 inches. The
turnover of the 2015 sale was R137 million
- a true achievement and recognition by the
Sable breeding industry. This was also the
first wildlife sale in South Africa, maybe even
in the world where all the animals’ parentage
was confirmed and many animals had 2 and
3 generation pedigrees. As a result of the
complete pedigrees, the percentage of origin
of the bulls (predicted in WS² system based
on pedigree information, 75% Zambian:
25% Southern) on sale could be calculated
and published in the sale catalogue. This
was also confirmed with DNA tests provided
by Prof Bettine van Vuuren of University of
Johannesburg on a number of the animals.
Piet attributes the success with his Sable
herd to his stockmanship, keen observational
ability, accurate record keeping that includes
recording of births (birth dates, sex of calf,
etc.), pedigrees, recording horn traits (length,
circumference, rings, etc.) over the animals’
lifetime and using this information to apply
rigorous selection towards his breeding goals.
“My dream now is to produce a Sable bull
that exceeds 55 ⅜ inches, the South African
record (hunted in Kruger Park Game Reserve
by Mr Breytenbach in 1898). Once this is
achieved our next goal will be to equal the
world record Sable bull (65 inches) that was
shot in Angola in 1954. I believe this can be
achieved within the next 20 years.”
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From “We have a dream”
to WRSA Wildlife Breeder of the year 2014
Crous-brothers
Adapted from Landbouweekblad 31 July 2015
This journey started 14 years ago for Kobus,
Riaan and David Crous when they decided
to do the unthinkable by diversifying into
wildlife ranching in the middle of the
Free State (Kroonstad & Steynsrus) and
Thabazimbi. Up to that stage most wildlife
ranching was practiced in the bushveld areas
of Limpopo, North West and Northern Cape.
Their own farming experience was with
Bonsmara stud breeding, crops (maize, etc.)
and potatoes, however due to spiralling input
costs and low commodity prices they had to
find alternatives of which game farming was
one of the more controversial choices at that
time.
But with a passion for wildlife and proper
research the brothers started to convert
marginal arable land into grazing camps for
scarce game, specifically Sable antelope.
The success of the Sable breeding program
far exceeded their expectations and they
have since then also expanded to other game
species such as buffalo, njala, roan antelope,
rhino, impala (black, saddleback), lions and
copper springbok. Similar to any mixed
farming system, Riaan believes it is important
to diversify between scarce game species
that will have a long term stable demand
and species like colour variants that ensure
a quick turnover.
Initially they fenced of camps between 12
ha and 15 ha, but over time they increased
the camp sizes to ± 45 ha as this allowed
for a more semi-intensive system. Riaan
explained that the semi-intensive system
is more efficient and sustainable, because
the animals are stocked according to the
carrying capacity of the natural veld and
minimal supplementary feed is required (only
seasonal deficiencies are supplemented). At
the same time 45 ha camps still allow easy
management. Today their Free State farm is
5 times more profitable per hectare when
farming with game compared to a cattle.
Despite the many gloomy predictions, Riaan
foresees a rosy future for wildlife ranching in
South Africa. “In most other African countries
wildlife numbers are rapidly decreasing,
while the demand in SA and Namibia for
trophy hunting increases yearly, especially
from foreign countries. The current weak
Rand is also an added advantage for foreign
exchange.” In addition, the game industry
promotes tourism which contributes to the
inflow of foreign capital and job creation.
According to Riaan, game meat is an
unexploited, unique and valuable product
that will strengthen the wildlife ranching
industry even more in the future. “Currently
the price of game meat is lower than beef,
but with the right marketing and awareness
campaigns, targeting the local and foreign
consumer, game meat has the potential to
become more expensive than beef. Game
meat is extremely healthy as it contains
high protein- and low cholesterol levels and
is already popular in restaurants and chain
stores.
By means of good recordkeeping (on farm
records & WS 2 system), DNA testing and
strict selection, the Crous-brothers breed
hardy, fertile animals with exceptional horn
lengths as well as proper body sizes for the
various markets (stud, trophy, meat) and were
therefore named the WRSA Wildlife Breeder
of the year 2014.
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Good stockmanship
the answer to breeding buffalo bulls with +50” horns
4 Daughters Ranching
Adapted from Game & Hunt May 2013 & July 2011
Growing up on their family farm in Botswana,
Paul Michau developed a passion for buffalo
at an early age. Sixteen years ago, he started
his own buffalo breeding project by investing
in a herd from the Kruger National Park’s
disease free buffalo breeding projects as well
as other top quality animals. Attributing his
accomplishments to a rigorous selection
process and a little bit of luck, Paul has bred
bulls that measure from 48” to 53” at six
years old.
Paul believes in maintaining a strict
management program which entails darting
all the animals annually so that the following
procedures can be carried out:
• Vaccinations
• Treatment of internal and external
parasites
• Administer trace elements and vitamins
• Inject bulls with Kyroligo
• Measure horns
• Microchip and tag young animals
• Sampling DNA
• Photographing animals with the tags
clearly visible
• Bulls: Inspect and measure scrotum
circumference
• Cows and heifers: Inspect udders and teats
• General examination for problems such
as hooves growing out, abscesses, sores
etc.
According to Paul it is an expensive,
but essential exercise that ensures better
management of your herd as well as your
breeding program. Records should include
horn measurements, DNA profiles, DNA
verified pedigrees and photos of all the
animals. Paul, an experienced cattle breeder
(Dairy and Bonsmara) utilises these livestock
breeding experiences, stockmanship and
selection skills to genetically improve his
Buffalo and supply accurate and relevant
information to his buyers. Making this
information available to potential buyers will
assist them with their selection process and
will also increase the value of the animals for
sale.
As with his Bonsmara and Holsteins herds, Paul
experimented with different combinations
of buffalo bulls and cows. Because of his
accurate record keeping, he concluded the
following: (i) environmental factors have a
great impact on the animal’s weight and horn
size, (ii) the combination of his best bulls and
best cows did not necessarily breed the best
horns or body size, and (iii) cows with strong
feminine characteristics bred the best bulls.
“We must remember that the hunter is
ultimately our most important client.” Paul
says. “4 Daughters Ranching supports
responsible hunting and therefore strives to
breed superior quality cows and bulls that
will ultimately breed the 50”+ trophies that
the hunter wants.”
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Wildlife stud services
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Wildlife
TUT-Biobank
- Dr Paul Bartels
Wildlife TUT-Biobank, Department Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology
Dr Paul Bartels qualified as a veterinarian from Onderstepoort and is
currently the Veterinarian at the Department of Nature Conservation,
Tshwane University of Technology. Dr Bartels has been actively involved in
Biodiversity Conservation through various projects including bio-banking
and biotechnology development for the benefit of Society; working
with the Wildlife & Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA), while
also serving on the WESSA board; managing the Nyoka Cape Vulture
Restaurant for contributing to the survival of vultures; and providing
education & photographic field opportunities to the vulture restaurant
such as conservation of biodiversity in the Magaliesburg region of
Gauteng / Northwest province.
082 990-3533/(012) 382-5330
bartelsP@tut.ac.za/bartpaul@gmail.com
www.tut.ac.za
Biomaterials (samples) belong to the owner of an animal, they represent additional
biological assets. Banked biomaterials ‘contains’ current and future opportunities in a
wide field of applications that are of direct benefit to the animal owner and clients, as
well as to the broader wildlife ranching and conservation industries.
Tissue, blood and other samples are
routinely taken for wildlife management
and health reasons. If samples are already
being collected, why would one give up
the opportunity to build an additional asset
resource? Sub-samples can be banked for
additional current and future purposes.
Samples are used for many applications
within the wildlife ranching, conservation
and biotechnology fields and include genetic
breeding programmes, individual animal
identification, parentage determinations,
disease diagnosis and occurrence,
poisonings, forensics, nutrition, reproduction
and much more…
Who is TUT-Biobank?
The wildlife TUT-Biobank of the Tshwane
University of Technology (TUT) houses
biomaterial collections (samples) of value
to the South African wildlife ranching and
conservation communities. The Tut-Biobank
maintains a centralized sample-database that
supports the wildlife ranching industry and
its networks.
The wildlife TUT-Biobank facilitates and
supports the organized collection of
biomaterials, through a distributed network
of wildlife veterinary, para-veterinary and
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DNA TESTING
stakeholder ranching communities. The
processing, banking, maintenance and
distribution (when required) events are
managed by experienced personnel. All
sample movements and storage is performed
according to best practices and regulatory
requirements. Updates of sample inventory
are made available to the sample owner on
a regular basis. Sub-samples are accessed by
the owner for various purposes. Biomaterial
collections (blood, tissue, DNA, hair, skin
etc.) held by the Wildlife TUT-Biobank not
only represent an asset to the rancher, but
also a geographically unique resource that is
managed for the benefit of the owner and the
wildlife ranching industry.
The wildlife TUT-Biobank is
independent from laboratories used to
analyse samples. It is therefore prudent
to send duplicate samples to the TUT-
Biobank from where sub-samples can,
if requested by the owner, be sent
for additional analysis or to different
laboratories that carry out different
analysis.
Sample security
Sample security and access to the facility is
strictly controlled. Sub-samples may only
be made available to third parties with the
express written consent of the sample owner.
It is important to note that the TUT-Biobank
is not the owner of samples but rather acts
as a custodian of samples on behalf of the
owner (similar to what a bank does with your
money).
The TUT-Biobank’s service to the wildlife
ranching community will enhance the
security, productivity and efficiency of
sample-banking and use, so multiplying
the research and management output per
set of samples. The emerging national and
global market for components of SA’s genetic
resources (biomaterials) will stimulate
growth in management and research output
and further stimulate the countries green
economy.
How do you become involved?
1. The first step is to recognize that samples
are assets and can be used to further
your wildlife ranching business. Commit
to securing components (biomaterial
samples) of your animals. Contact the
TUT-Biobank for implementing a biobanking
plan for your game ranch.
2. Chances are you are already having
blood or hair samples sent off for
laboratory analysis. Start with subsampling
these samples and build-up
your inventory. This requires coordination
between the sample collector (Vet, paravet),
the laboratory, the wildlife rancher
and the TUT-Biobank.
3. Acquire sets of sample collection
kits from the TUT-Biobank. Make kits
available to the sample collector. Have a
standing arrangement with your sample
collector that samples will be collected
and temporarily banked until they can
be forwarded to the Biobank. Notify the
TUT-Biobank before samples are to be
collected.
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4. Have the Wildlife TUT-Biobank train your
staff in safe sample collection techniques
and temporary storage.
Sample collection
Proper sample collection depends on: (i) the
purpose of sampling, (ii) where the sample
is collected, (iii) if the sample is transported
in an appropriate container within a specific
time-frame, and (iv) are stored under specific
temperature conditions.
1. Hair and blood are routinely collected
from immobilized animals and sent to a
laboratory for analysis. Sub-samples of
hair and blood are banked at the Wildlife
TUT-Biobank.
2. Tissue samples from ear-notches are
routinely collected and stored in a
preservative or stored frozen.
3. Live tissue (Tissue cultures, sperm and
embryos) of high-value animals are
processed and banked in Liquid Nitrogen.
4. Samples are also collected during Post-
Mortem procedures.
5. Mark each container appropriately and
complete the sample collection datasheet.
Accidents do happen, such as with
the accidental death of a high-value
animal. This need not be the end of the
animal’s breeding life. Sperm and other
tissue may be cryopreserved for future
use.
* A Quick reference sample-collecting
guideline is available from the Wildlife
TUT-Biobank
Conclusion
Samples (biomaterials) represent an asset to
the wildlife rancher. Biobanks are structured
to meet all the necessary requirements of
sample security and quality. The Wildlife
TUT-Biobank provides an independent
biomaterial banking service to the wildlife
ranching community. The owner of tissue
may elect to send sub-samples to a second
laboratory if the first laboratory does not
provide a service to the owner.

DNA TESTING
New DNA
technology
Sable antelope nuclear origin testing
Adapted from Piet Warren 2015 sale catalogue – Article by Prof Bettine van Vuuren & Prof Nuno
Ferrand de Almeida
Figure 1: Distribution area of the five sable
groups, based on 57 nuclear markers developed
by MolZooLab and CIBIO.
The Molecular Zoology Laboratory
(MolZooLab, University of Johannesburg), and
the Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic
Resources (CIBIO, University of Porto, Portugal)
developed new DNA technology to identify the
geographical origin of sable antelope. The new
development is based on nuclear DNA. The
nuclear DNA, being inherited from both parents
(50% from the dam and 50% from the sire),
allows for determining the purity of individuals
and to trace mixing between different
populations. Nuclear DNA essentially provides
information about specific individuals whereas
the mitochondrial DNA, which is maternally
inherited, provides information about the
evolutionary origin of specific lineages without
indication of parental contribution.
Five population groups are clearly distinguished for sable antelope based on genetic data:
1. Eastern sable from Kenya to Northern Mozambique (indicated in orange)
2. West Tanzanian sable (indicated in blue)
3. Angolan sable (indicated in purple)
4. Zambian sable – currently no distinction can be made between Zambian and West Zambian
sable (indicated in bright green)
5. Southern sable (indicated in grey-green)
Interpretation of results
• Animals with individual assignment above 95% to one population can be considered as
pure animals with 95% significance.
• Animals with individual assignment between 90 and 95% may still be pure sable from one
population, or may contain residual contribution from other populations as a result of past
mixing.
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• All remaining animals can confidently be considered the result of mixing of different
populations, the degree of mixing is given as a percentage membership to the different
populations.
Table 1: Examples of test results:
East. W Tanz. Angol. Zamb. South. Result
Sample 1 8% - - 92% - Pure Zambian & possible past
Eastern mixing
Sample 2 - - - - 98% Pure Southern (Matetsi)
Sample 3 - - - 99% - Pure Zambian
Sample 4 - - - 40% 60% Mixing of Zambian and Southern
populations
Sample 5 6% - - 14% 80% Mixing of Eastern, Zambian &
Southern populations
Using the nuclear DNA origin test, a practical example:
The sable bull, Mopanie of Mr. Piet Warren that was sold for a record price of R27 million
to Mr. BJ Vorster (both WS 2 members) tested pure Zambian with the new nuclear origin
DNA test. With accurate record-keeping and the use of DNA verified pedigrees Mr Warren
was able to derive the origin compositions of all the sable bulls on auction in advance, as
illustrated in the Sable Park sale catalogue.
MOPANIE
P 56-47 7/8”
PURE ZAMBIAN
SIRE
PIET – 53 5/8”
WESTERN ZAMBIAN
DAM
GEMSBOK DAUGHTER
ZAMBIAN
SABLE RANCH - 47”
ZAMBIAN
S5 33”
WESTERN ZAMBIAN
GEMSBOK – 45”
ZAMBIAN
DRIES VISSER
ZAMBIAN
Figure 2: Mopanie, the sable bull bred by Mr Warren that was sold for a record price at Sable Park
auction on 24 September 2015.
The Wildlife Stud Services system can capture the results of the nuclear origin tests and
automatically calculates the origin composition percentages of the offspring via DNA verified
pedigrees. Therefore, breeders only need to test their base animals for nuclear origin and the
subsequent offspring’s origin is then derived from the pedigrees. The advantages of the WS 2
system are the enormous saving in cost of DNA tests, while also having a DNA verified pedigree which forms the basis of any
performance and genetic evaluation system. Origin and pedigree information in combination with performance data (horn
length, live weight, reproduction data etc.) captured on the WS 2 system not only allows breeders to make selection decisions
(±40% accurate), but also paves the way for genetic analysis. Genetic analysis (done by the WS 2 system) such as selection
indexes, breeding values and genomics are the best predictions of animals genetic potential in order for breeders to make
highly accurate (>80%) selection decisions for maximum progress in economically important traits (e.g. horn length).
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Essential background
information for
DNA Profile
parentage verification
- Dr Munro Marx, Managing Director
Unistel Medical Laboratories (Pty) Ltd.
Dr Marx is the Genetic Counsellor and Managing Director of Unistel
Genetic Laboratories and is an expert on the practical application
of DNA. Unistel was founded in 1999 and is a specialised diagnostics
testing centre for human and animal genetics located on the campus
of Stellenbosch University. Unistel offers a complete genetic testing
service and is a worldwide provider of comprehensive, state-of-the-art
genetic services.
021 938 9213 info@unistelmedical.co.za unistelmedical.co.za
Over the past 10 years, researchers have
mapped the genomes of many livestock
species and various game species to
elucidate their complete genetic make-up.
Genomic maps of mammalian livestock and
game species have been shown to consist
of around 3 billion base pairs of DNA that
are organized into approximately 50 000
to 100 000 genes. These genes are located
on different numbers of chromosomes that
occur in pairs, depending on the species.
Horses for example have 64 chromosomes
(32 pairs), cattle have 60 (30 pairs), sable
antelope have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
and lion have 38 chromosomes (19 pairs).
Genes are the stretches of DNA that make up
the codes for various proteins and enzymes
and represent a specific segment of DNA on
one of those chromosomes.
A DNA or gene marker is an identifiable
piece of DNA that can be mapped to a
unique physical location on a chromosome
and represents a measurable inheritable
difference that shows a variation between
individual animals. This genetic code of an
individual animal is present in every body
cell and therefore a very small portion of that
animal can be utilized to verify its identity.
Samples of blood or hair (containing the
hair roots) are the most commonly used
DNA samples by laboratories for identifying
individual animals. DNA testing is now the
standard tool for profile analysis (animal
identification) and parentage verification for
all species of animals.
Just as in humans, every individual animal
has a unique set of DNA markers referred
to as the DNA profile. If an individual is
compared to itself, the DNA will always
match. Each species also has a unique set of
DNA markers of its own and no human DNA
markers can be used for any animal species
and vice versa. Therefore, if one animal
within a single species is compared with
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another, essentially their DNA is very similar.
All animals have similar body functions, for
respiration, digestion, etc. There are many
things that all mammals share, for instance,
but there are also differences in DNA that
make one individual different and unique
from every other individual even within the
same species.
For parentage verification and identity
testing, advantage is taken of these small
differences at the DNA marker level. These
differences are inherited from parent to
offspring, whether it’s a horse, cow or sable
antelope. The progeny has two copies of
every chromosome, one from each parent.
DNA markers make it possible to follow their
transmission from parent to offspring. For
each DNA marker, a particular offspring (if it
truly is the offspring) has to get one copy of
the marker from its father and one copy from
the mother. Tracing the DNA marker alleles
from the dam to the progeny and from the sire
to the progeny, we can establish whether two
animals could have produced that offspring.
Parentage verification is most accurate when
you have both the sire and the dam to check.
It can become very murky if you only have
one of the parents to test. It is however very
important to understand the limits of DNA
testing. DNA testing can determine whether
a certain animal biologically could NOT be
the dam / sire. This exclusion is 100 percent
accurate. If it does not match, there is
absolutely no way that animal could be the
dam / sire.
In nature, random matings occur with a
relatively large gene pool to draw from. By
contrast in “farmed” game, owners generally
determine the matings within a small segment
of the species population in a camp system.
The genetic variation needed to distinguish
the correct sire and dam of each offspring
is therefore often lost and you often end up
with genetically similar animals because
most matings take place within certain
family lines. Linebreeding often results in
a rancher having several sires with similar,
though not identical, genetics. The mothers
are often also related to the fathers of the
progeny leading to a further lack of variation.
This lack of variation makes the passage of
genetic material from parent to offspring
difficult to determine especially if only one
of the parents are tested.
In most cases, if no marker excludes either
parent, then the probability of parentage can
be high enough to consider the parentage
valid. If it is found that a possible parent
has not contributed a DNA marker allele
to a particular offspring, then it is called an
exclusion. In this case, the animal is excluded
from being the true sire / dam.
A mismatch (single exclusion) can
occasionally be caused by a mutation.
When DNA is passed to offspring (whether
human or animal), a small percentage of the
time there is an error produced (mutation)
that makes the DNA of the offspring slightly
different from that of the parents. This happens
sometimes when one DNA marker does not
match, even though it is the correct parents.
This occurrence is reported in about 1 in
every 300 individuals in humans. Experience
indicates that it is probably similar in most
animal systems. Each laboratory has its own
standards regarding possible mutations. In
most cases laboratories should consult with
the breeder to obtain more information to
establish that this is or isn’t the true parent
(with no other possibility). Depending on
the type of mismatch together with all other
evidence, the parentage may still be valid.
The owner often has enough information to
confirm that this is the only possible scenario.
Sometimes breeders rely too much on
DNA tests and technology and require the
laboratory to determine the sire of progeny.
While DNA-based parent verification is the
most accurate tool for determining correct
parentage, ranchers need to realize that DNA
tests are not a substitute for accurate recordkeeping
or close management. DNA testing,
as performed in the game industry today, can
easily verify whether a certain individual is
not the sire or dam of a certain progeny, or
can give a probability that it is—but is not
an adequate way to try to “find” the sire or
dam if the breeder doesn’t have a clue about
the actual identity of that sire or dam. It can
be done, but this would require the use of
many more DNA markers and can be very
expensive.
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Wildlife stud services
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DNA technology is the most powerful tool
known for resolving questions of parentage
and individual identity. It provides a great
benefit to breeders and a DNA test increases
the validity and value of a pedigree. When
the breeder sells an animal, he/she is not just
selling the animal, but also the guarantee
of pedigree with DNA testing to back it up.
The breeder can guarantee the bloodline
represented in that pedigree and the validity
of pedigree and bloodline is what’s most
important. The known ancestry is what makes
any animal valuable.
Should DNA profiles of stud game be
available in the public domain?
DNA profiles are individual specific and
allow for verification of an animal’s identity,
breeding and pedigree no matter how “linebred”
the pedigree might be. DNA profile
testing can be utilized to establish pedigree
relationships and calculate the level of
genetic variation and inbreeding. Genetically
distinct lineages within the population
can be identified and makes it possible to
establish which individual belongs to which
lineage. DNA profiles can be applied to
model the change in genetic variation in
future generations, facilitating breeding
recommendations that will maintain low
levels of inbreeding.
Further:
• DNA profiling provides an owner with
their stud animal’s unique DNA identity.
• DNA profiling establishes an accurate and
reliable permanent record of the identity
for any stud animal.
• It confirms that pedigrees are correct and
guarantees progeny buyers that pedigrees
are accurate.
• It can be used in cases of multiple sires
to determine and verify the sire of any
progeny.
• It can verify parentage when using
a stud service, thus eliminating the
doubt which surrounds unobserved
stud services.
• It can verify and guarantee
semen to be used for artificial
insemination and confirm
breeding in embryo flushing
programs.
• It can dispel any issues of breeding
disputes over parentage.
• Proof of parentage by DNA profiling
allows verification of carrier status for traits
of interest (colour variants heterozygotes
or “splits”).
The question of confidentiality and ownership
of DNA test results arises. As a basic
principle, ownership of the actual referred
sample ALWAYS resides with the referrer of
the sample and the testing facility only acts
as the custodian of the DNA information
and sample while stored. No unauthorised
use of that sample or DNA information for
whatever purpose is allowed. Should further
DNA tests or research be proposed, the
express, written consent from the referrer
of the samples must be sought. It is further
accepted that the ownership of all DNA test
results resides ONLY with the referrer of the
DNA sample who also paid for completion
of the tests. As in the case of medical test
results, all results obtained on the referred
sample(s) are confidential and the patient’s
express consent MUST be obtained before
they can be made public. The same principle
applies with all DNA test results in the case
of wildlife breeding.
In the cattle industry,
DNA profile
analysis is an
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DNA TESTING
essential and integral part of stud breeding.
Proof of breeding is a non-negotiable element
of the total system and for this both sire and
dam DNA profiles are required. The modern
trend in the cattle stud breeding industry is
to perform artificial insemination (AI) with
purchased semen and also embryo transfer of
flushed embryos after AI. Both tapped semen
and flushed embryos are commercially sold
and patrons need to confirm the identity of
the semen and the breeding of transferred
embryos after birth. This process can only
be completed if DNA profiles for all the
animals are made available for testing. It is
for this reason that the cattle breed societies
strongly encourage publication of DNA
profiles for all stud animals. The only value
that a DNA profile has is the “genetic blue
print” of the animal used for identification
purposes and to confirm the breeding of
progeny. No further information about any
commercially important traits
can be deduced from a DNA
profile.
In the wildlife industry high value animals
are traded for huge amounts of money.
The value of these animals is determined
by the phenotype of progeny bred and/
or the specific breeding of the purchased
animal. The identity and/or breeding of
traded animals should always be confirmed
by way of DNA profile comparison and/or
breeding validation using DNA profiles. For
these reasons the wildlife industry should
seriously consider allowing unrestricted
access to DNA profiles of animals used in
high value breeding programs and sold at
auctions by placing DNA profiles in the
public domain. This can only add value to
breeding stock and ensure the integrity of
not only the wildlife industry but also of the
wildlife game breeders themselves.
Photo: Oak Lane Farm
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Parentage tests for
predators
- Annesca Joubert, Game Services Manager
Unistel Medical Laboratories (Pty) Ltd.
Annesca Joubert obtained her Masters degree in
Genetics at the University of the Free State and is currently
the manager of Game Services at Unistel Medical
Laboratories. Unistel was founded in 1999 and is a
specialised diagnostics testing centre for human and
animal genetics. Unistel offers a complete genetic testing
service and is a worldwide provider of comprehensive,
state-of-the-art genetic services.
021 938 9213 ajoubert@unistelmedical.co.za
www.unistel.co.za
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DNA TESTING
Large predators, big cats in particular, are
among the most recognized and impressive
animals around the world. Yet some of the
most common species are listed on the IUCN
Red List as vulnerable (lion and cheetah), near
threatened (leopard) or endangered (tiger). In
addition to habitat degradation and loss of
prey, many of these predators are threatened
by human conflict. South Africa was one of
the first countries in the world to allow the
private ownership of wildlife species. Private
landowners have significantly contributed to
the re-establishment of certain endangered
species and play an important role in
conservation. Game farms contribute largely
to conservation by maintaining natural
habitat and by providing resources to support
the reintroduction of threatened species.
The practicality of the conservation of
predators is, however, challenging. Game
farms typically have fragmented populations
that require more intensive management.
Small or enclosed populations prevent the
immigration of new individuals into the
group resulting in decreased genetic diversity.
Perhaps the main concern is the lowered
ability of a population to react and adapt
to environmental challenges. A population
with reduced genetic diversity may be more
susceptible to diseases and parasites and
less adaptable to environmental factors such
as climatic extremes. Therefore, it becomes
the game breeder’s responsibility to regulate
the species and manage their gene pool. For
the management of any wildlife species, an
understanding of its ecology, biology and
genetics is crucial.
Genetic tools can elucidate problems and
guide management decisions. This includes
individual identification and parentage
verification. The principles of parentage
verification and genetic management have
been applied in the livestock and game
industry for several years. Breeders have
proven that the combination of thorough
recordkeeping and parentage verification
can result in accurate pedigrees. Individualbased
approaches similar to the intensive
management strategies in livestock are also
advised for predators. In many species, the
social structure and relatedness of individuals
may not be as clear as expected from
observed field data. For example, in social
predators such as lions, the prides usually
consist of one dominant male, 10-15 females
and one or two lesser males that are usually
related to the dominant male. The dominant
male typically mates with the lionesses in
heat. However, more than one female might
be in heat at the same time. Since a lioness
in heat mates every 15 minutes for 3-5 days,
the dominant male might tire of them in
which case the other males will make use of
the opportunity. In small populations every
individual contributes to the genetic diversity
and knowledge of relatedness is essential.
The process of parentage verification is based
on DNA. DNA is a molecule consisting
of nucleotides that carries the genetic
instructions required for the development,
functioning and reproduction of all living
organisms. A gene is a region of DNA that
encodes for a protein and it is the molecular
unit of heredity. Genes can undergo small
changes in their DNA sequence, leading
to different variants known as alleles. The
physical location of a gene on a chromosome,
or the “genetic street address”, is known as
a locus. Animals, like humans, have two
alleles at each locus – one inherited from
each parent. The transmission of genes from
parents to their offspring is the basis of the
inheritance of phenotypic traits such as coat
colour, eye colour, coat pattern, etc.
Among the different methods used for
parentage verification are microsatellites or
short tandem repeats (STRs). These regions of
the genome are made up of repeat sequences
consisting of one to six nucleotides. STRs
are found mainly in the non-coding regions
of the genome. For this reason, they are
neutral relative to natural selection (assuming
that the marker is not closely linked to a
functional gene). These markers are used
with great success due to their high degree
of polymorphism and the co-dominant
inheritance.
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The development of
species-specific markers
is both costly and timeconsuming
and can be a
limiting factor. Nevertheless,
markers that have been
developed for closely related
species (of the same taxonomic
family) have been used across
species with great success.
Microsatellite markers developed
for domestic cats can be readily
applied to compile DNA profiles
for parentage identification in
species such as lions, cheetah,
leopards, tigers, etc., while markers
were also developed to compile DNA
profiles for wild dogs. Additionally,
a DNA test to identify the sex of hyenas
is already available. During parentage
verification a DNA profile is compiled for
each individual using a panel of polymorphic
microsatellite markers. For each marker two
alleles are detected; one inherited from the dam
and the other one from the sire. The offspring must
share the exact same alleles as the parents.
In non-inbred populations the accuracy of a parentage test is usually greater than
99.99% if both of the parents are included in the analysis. If only one parent is taken into
account the accuracy decreases, especially if a large group of closely related animals
are included in the analysis. Animals in closed populations that are closely related to the
actual parent may also appear to match the offspring. Good recordkeeping is essential
to narrow down the list of nominated parents. Nevertheless, it is just as important to
include all the possible parents the first time parentage verification is requested. In rare
cases it might happen that more than one dam/sire matches together with the other
parent. In these cases the laboratory will use an additional panel of markers to exclude
the incorrect animal. The practice of building a genetic database is currently seen as
an integral part of breeding and selling livestock or game species and will also play
an essential role in the overall strategy for the conservation and breeding of predators.
To ensure accurate pedigrees and long term genetic diversity and adaptability, it is
highly advised that management plans include scientific strategies such as parentage
verification.
The WS 2 system captures DNA results on animal profiles, parentages, origin and gene
carriers. WS 2 members receive registration certificates of their registered animals on
which all the available DNA results will appear. The minimum requirement for animal
registration is a DNA profile and the system automatically generates a
pedigree if the parents are DNA profiled.
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Wildlife stud services
75

Fertility evaluation of wildlife
interesting findings
- Dr Morné de la Rey, Veterinarian & Director, Embrio Plus
Dr Morné de la Rey qualified as a veterinarian from Onderstepoort
in 1994 whereafter he joined his father at Embrio Plus. Embrio
Plus specialises in embryo flushing, embryo transfers and artificial
insemination in livestock. He did the first embryo sexing in cattle
in Africa in 1995, however got international recognition for the first
cloning in Africa in 2003 of the Holstein calf Futhi. He has served on
various international committees representing Africa and is active
in recent years with theriogenology in wildlife large ungulates,
working with his favourite animals: sable antelope, buffalo, roan
antelope and blue wildebeest. His vision is to help save endangered
species like the giant sable, bongo and northern white rhino.
012 250 2359 / 082 786 7324 info@embryoplus.com
www.embryoplus.com
For many years now it has been common practice to do fertility
testing in livestock bulls (cattle), rams and bucks before auctions. Due
to the current value of certain species of game and subsequently
the potential financial losses due to lack of offspring, it is advisable
to do fertility evaluation of bulls and rams.
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eproduction
To do fertility evaluation at this stage is not
yet an exact science, since not enough work
has been done to determine fixed standards
or parameters as is the case with livestock.
We are therefore currently extrapolating the
statistics and standards for cattle and sheep
to evaluate the semen profiles of the various
game species. In wildlife one also has to
consider seasonal variance, especially in the
breeds that have a strictly seasonal breeding
season. These bulls or rams might not have
the same quality of semen right throughout
the year.
However, it is still possible to do a proper
scientifically based evaluation, especially
where males have a good semen motility and
morphology profile. The problem is currently
with cases of border-line motility and
morphology. Many more animals will have
to be tested, data accumulated and assessed
along with eventual pregnancy rates in order
to get a standardisation of the parameters,
before we will know, for instance, at which
percentage of linear motility, semen
from certain species will
ensure adequate fertilisation
rates.
At the moment, the most common evaluation
parameters being used are the size and
physical state of both internal and external
reproductive organs, semen motility and
semen morphology. Scrotal circumference,
widely used in domesticated livestock to
gauge the size of the testes, is extremely
variable between the different game species.
Due to the large numbers of male game
animals I have been testing over the past 5
years, I’ve established a very good correlation
between the size of testes and the quality of
semen produced by the animals. I am also
getting good statistics on the size of testis
in the relevant species relative to the age
of the males. In nature males do not mate
with females before they are mature and can
dominate the other bulls and also the cows.
Currently we will put males at a very young
age with cows as some of the bulls are fertile
and can serve a few females. If I take the
example of blue-wildebeest: most Golden

ulls are put with the cows at approximately
27 months of age. Some bulls do achieve
to mate 20 cows but not all of them. One
must remember that not all calves are born
within one month (e.g. December), but
rather over a period of 3 months. You also get
early maturing bulls and late maturing bulls.
Therefore an early maturing bull that was
born first in the breeding season compared to
a late maturing bull born 3 months later have
a huge difference in maturity and thus when
they can be used. Scrotal circumference, as
previously mentioned is a good indicator
of fertility. Small testes more often give low
quality semen and larger testes normally
better quality semen. It is very good to
measure the circumference and note it down
since game breeders are so used to measure!!
The following minimum parameters can be
used for circumference of the scrotum. I
need to reiterate, this is a guide and not
scientifically proven:
• Buffalo
30cm 3yr
34cm 4yr
36 - 48cm Mature
• Blue wildebeest
>24cm 2yr
26cm 3yr
28 - 30cm Mature
• Sable
More or less the same as the blue
wildebeest
Figure 1: Measuring scrotal circumference
Figure 2: Normal testes compared to various faults
Two parameters that can (much easier in
domestic animals, though) and should be
tested for a complete fertility evaluation is
serving capacity (libido) and serving ability.
This is, however, very difficult to standardize
and visualize under field conditions.
Figure 3: Male fertility evaluation
Lastly we have seen that herd dynamics also
play a very important role in wildlife and
the most fertile bull might not produce any
offspring, due to the fact that he might be
submissive to the dominant cow, or fighting
with other members of the herd, for instance.
The best time of year to evaluate the quality
of the semen is just before the breeding
season, for this is when the highest quality
of semen is available and being produced
by the bull or ram. A bull or ram should
not be tested whilst in the breeding herd
and busy breeding with the females, since
he will not be able to be collected properly
by means of electro-ejaculation. When the
bulls are tested, one should be extremely
cautious with the procedure and I always
advise clients to have 2 specialists at hand
with the semen collection, a capable and
experienced wildlife vet to handle the
capture and anaesthesia of the animal and
a reproduction specialist with experience in
andrology and preferably in game. Do the
collection of semen in the morning or late
afternoon during the cooler time of the day
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and make sure not to stress the animals too
much. DO NOT dart and work with more
than 2 animals at a time, the practitioners
cannot divide their focus and attention to the
different animals.
Another procedure normally performed
in large beef herds is a herd visit to do
pregnancy diagnosis on the female animals
4-6 weeks after the breeding season. To know
the females are pregnant is a great relief,
instead of getting a nasty surprise 9 months
later. My advice is to examine a few females
as representative samples about 6 weeks after
the end of the breeding season. At that stage,
if the pregnancy rate is very low, one can still
interfere by introducing another bull and at
least salvage some progeny from that specific
season.
Figure 4: Pregnancy diagnosis of a sable cow
In the past year we have seen quite a number
of “problem” cows either not getting pregnant
and cows that aborted incompletely. A full
reproductive examination should be done
on every cow and cannot undergo a blanket
treatment. A very important finding we
experience is the amount of first calf cows,
especially with sable antelope, that fail to
conceive again. In a cattle farming operation
they are also the group of animals that
farmers battle the most to get in calf again
as their uterine horns were stretched for the
first time and has to recover to normal before
the next conception. They also are producing
milk for the first time and suckling stress has
a marked influence on them to get back into
cycle. I do however see that a lot of heifers
cycle at a much younger age than before and
therefore get mated by the herd bull early
on. At this stage I think that the heifers start
to cycle early due to optimal nutrition and
because of the closed herd system (running
with the bulls) they are mated at an age far
too young!! It is very important for female
animals to reach puberty in terms of weight
AND age before they get pregnant.
We have experienced cows that have been
injected with prostaglandins to abort the
foetus of an unwanted mating in order to
be put with a better or more preferred bull.
That causes a lot of incomplete abortions
and lead to endometritis. Animals with
endometritis would not conceive and has to
be treated with uterine installations / flushes
as very few of these induced abortions clean
out by themselves. Some animals might
become permanently infertile or take longer
to conceive than if she had the calf naturally
and then reconceive.
As I’ve said before, it is not an exact science
and much more work needs to be done to
get accurate and reliable results. We are
still in the process of working on the correct
evaluation parameters in all the different
species as each of them is different. I will
update my findings constantly and report to
the industry by mean of this article.
The WS 2 system allows for the capturing
of animal birth details (ID, birth date etc.)
from which it automatically calculates
reproduction traits like age at first calving
/ lambing; inter- calving / lambing period;
days last calved / lambed of ewes /
cows to assist breeders in selection and
management decisions. The system
also captures measurements and
produces breeding values for scrotal
circumference of rams / bulls.
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Nutritional deficiencies
and their effects on production and coat colour
in wild ungulates under ranching conditions
- Stephen Slippers (SCS Feed Consult)
- Craig Shepstone (Wildlife Nutrition Services)
Stephen Slippers is sole proprietor of SCS Feed Consult, a private
consultancy conducting business since 2011 from a small farm near
Cape Agulhas. He holds a Masters in Animal Science from Free State
University in South Africa and has been working in animal agriculture
for 35 years, split between an academic- and a private sector career.
In the private sector he held various positions at Agrihold/Rumevite,
Vleissentraal Co-operative, and Meadow Feeds Natal. His involvement
in nutrition of wildlife stems from his time as technical executive for
ruminants at Meadow Feeds.
074 195 2283
goedgenog@gmail.com
Craig Shepstone received his BSc degree in Animal and Pasture
Science at the University of Pretoria in 2005. He is currently registered
as a Professional Animal Scientist and is the owner of Wildlife Nutrition
Services. The focus of the company is aiding wildlife ranches and
reserves with ecologically based veld management systems,
designing supplementation or feed that suite the ranching / reserve’s
requirements, using water, soil, grass and the particular species
requirements as a guideline.
083 305 1380
craig.shepstone@gmail.com
Introduction
Compared to the wild, the combination of
confinement systems and imposed habitats
subject wildlife to greater challenges when
it comes to satisfying their nutritional
needs from the available resources, thereby
amplifying the probability of nutritional
deficiencies. Feed consists of 6 main
nutrient classes: carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, minerals (ash) vitamins and water. This
article will look into some examples of
commonly and rarely recognized nutritional
deficiencies that affect wildlife, their effect
on economically important traits, and will
suggest ways of avoiding and correcting such
deficiencies.
Energy
Carbohydrates, proteins and fats can actually
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yield energy, but minerals and vitamins
are also critically involved in the process
of energy generation in the body. Cells
starved of energy due to a deficient supply
of energy-yielding nutrients will function
sub-optimally or may malfunction and die
off if the deficiency of nutrients is severe
enough and prolonged. Energy deficiency is
the inevitable consequence of inadequate or
insufficient feed intake (i.e. of feed scarcity
and poor feed quality, alone or as terrible
twins). Under such circumstances, energy
deficiency is usually accompanied by a
generalised deficiency of the other nutrients.
Protein and Amino Acids
The indispensable amino acids lysine and
methionine are frequently the first limiting
amino acids in livestock (and wildlife)
production. When both are limiting at the
same time, we refer to them as co-limiting.
Protein (or amino acids) deficiencies will
impair normal immunity, metabolism and
productivity (reproduction, growth, lactation
and horn growth). The impact of the protein
(or amino acid) deficiency will be in
proportion to the severity and duration of the
deficiency. Moreover, the time at which the
deficiency occurs is also important. A severe
protein deficiency affecting a pregnant female
during early pregnancy (when most tissue
differentiation and development of organ
systems occur) and late pregnancy (when
about two thirds of foetal growth occurs and
antibodies are produced for excretion in the
milk) will be more damaging than the same
protein deficiency during mid-pregnancy.
Methionine is a sulphur-containing amino
acid, and is abundant in keratin proteins
that occur in hair, hooves and horns.
Consequently, a methionine deficiency will
be a limiting factor in growth of these tissues.
Carbohydrates
The bulk of herbivore diets consist of
carbohydrates, particularly structural
carbohydrates (fibres – cellulose and
hemicellulose) in leaves and stems. When
high levels of simple carbohydrates (starches
and sugars) are included in ruminant diets,
animals may show symptoms of acidosis
(off-feed, diarrhoea, eventually lameness
and death) and red gut. Other stomach types
may present with pathologies of the stomach
(e.g. ulceration in the pig family) and lower
digestive tract (e.g. red gut and colic). Obesity
in both genders is another risk of high levels
of simple carbohydrates in the diet of wildlife
species. Reproductive fitness suffers in obese
subjects as a result of fat accumulation
around the reproductive organs.
The keys to managing the risks of replacing
roughages with simple carbohydrates are
firstly to understand that total replacement
of roughages in the diet is undesirable, if
not impossible. Secondly, changes to dietary
carbohydrate sources should be introduced
gradually (full transition takes about 21 days).
Thirdly, total dietary starch levels greater than
15% is undesirable in wildlife nutrition.
Fats
Plant materials consumed by wild herbivores
usually contain low fat concentrations,
however; wildlife diets are sometimes
enriched with supplementary fats in order
to increase the energy density of the diet.
It is important to keep in mind that high fat
concentrations in wildlife diets may also
have elements of risk.
Ruminants don’t have a dietary need for any
fatty acid as the fatty acids are synthesised
by microbes in the rumen, so there is no
real likelihood of a fatty acid deficiency in
ruminants. On the other hand some fatty
acids are considered dietary essentials for
monogastric species, for example linoleic
acid (C18:2).
Knowledge about fatty acid saturation is of
importance for several reasons. The more
unsaturated a fatty acid is, the more reactive
it is, and this increases the risk of autooxidative
reactions in fat-rich feeds (e.g.
hominy chop). Oxidation causes rancidity
and loss of essential nutrients in the feed and
animal body stores, for example fat-soluble
vitamins (Vitamin A, E, C) and certain minerals
like selenium. Secondly, rancid feeds are
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less acceptable to animals and may lead to
reduced or no feed intake, causing deficient
nutrient intake for variable periods of time.
Some of the fatty acid breakdown products in
rancid fats are directly toxic to animal cells,
for instance free radicals like peroxides.
High levels of fat (particularly when highly
unsaturated) in the diet of ruminant wildlife
will also interfere with fibre digestion in the
rumen, but can be avoided by making use of
rumen inert fats.
Macrominerals
Macrominerals are those minerals with
relatively large requirements, usually
expressed in percentage units. The
macrominerals considered essential for
animals are calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P),
magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium
(Na), chloride (Cl), and sulphur (S).
Ca and P are major components of bone,
and deficiencies impacts on normal skeletal
development in young animals. P plays
a critical role in energy metabolism and
reproduction. P deficiency is the most widely
occurring mineral deficiency affecting grazing
animals (including wildlife) in grassland and
savannah ecosystems in Southern Africa.
A magnesium deficiency is characterised
by muscular incoordination known as
“grass staggers”. Abnormally high dietary
concentrations of potassium interfere with the
absorption of magnesium from the intestine,
thus inducing a magnesium deficiency.
Wildlife kept on cultivated pastures like
kikuyu and ryegrass that accumulate high
concentrations of K, can lead to induced Mg
deficiencies.
Besides other functions, K, Na, Cl, and S
play a significant role in the maintenance
of the acid-base balance in the body. Diets
are generally cationic, indicating a greater
concentration of Na and K relative to Cl and
S. Sometimes we may choose to make diets
neutral to slightly anionic (by increasing Cl
and S), for instance to minimise the risk of
metabolic upsets like milk fever around birth,
or to minimise the risk of bladder stones in
males of the small antelope species.
Salt (sodium chloride), often used as a
mechanism to control intake of supplements,
is also a fairly widespread deficiency on
rangelands. Correcting a salt deficiency is
quite cheap, and has a profound positive
effect on water and feed intake.
Water as a nutrient and mineral
carrier
A wide variation in the concentration of some
trace minerals occur in water and will have
a big influence on the total trace mineral
ingestion of wildlife. Such variation should
be recognised and dealt with in practical
nutrition by employing the following
strategies (after Socha et al. (2006), with some
modifications suggested by the authors):
• Analyse the trace mineral concentrations
of feeds, forages and drinking water;
• Feed trace mineral concentrations well
above requirements through increasing
the levels of inorganic trace mineral
sources such as sulphates (problems with
bioavailability); organic trace minerals
(very expensive), hydroxy trace minerals
(suggested by the authors) or a combination
of these inorganic and organic sources
(suggested by Socha et al., 2006).
Hydroxy trace minerals (HTM) offer the
advantage of superior bio-availability and
affordability, being more expensive than
sulphates, but far less expensive than organic
forms of the comparable trace mineral.
Micro Nutrients
Micro nutrients (vitamins and trace minerals)
are required in small (micro) amounts by
animals, yet they have critical catalytic and
regulatory functions in metabolism that make
them essential for maintenance of life itself.
Vitamins
Vitamins are divided into fat-soluble vitamins
(Vitamins A, -D, -E, and K), and water soluble
vitamins (the B-group vitamins and Vitamin
C). Vitamins are catalysts (or co-factors) in
metabolic reactions, meaning that they are
not part of the reaction products, but must
be present in order for the reactions to occur.
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Hence, vitamin deficiencies will impair
metabolic activity and consequently normal,
healthy functioning of wildlife.
In ruminants deficiencies of vitamins of the
B-group are very rare (e.g. occur when high
production levels are sought or with high
starch and sugar diets). Biotin is considered an
important B-vitamin because of its significant
role in increasing hoof and horn growth,
while Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency can
cause pathology of the brain and sudden
death.
Deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins,
particularly Vitamin A and Vitamin E, are more
likely to occur in herbivores under practical
feeding conditions. Amongst other functions,
these two vitamins are natural antioxidants
that help protect animal cells from damage
during episodes of oxidative stress.
Vitamin A precursors are relatively abundant
in green, leafy plant materials and grains with
yellow pigmentation (e.g. yellow maize).
Vitamin A deficiency causes symptoms like
night blindness, poor growth, abnormal
foetuses and reproductive abnormalities
that affect both genders (Schaefer, 2004).
Vegetable fats or oils are good sources of
Vitamin E. There is a close association between
Vitamin E and selenium, so that Vitamin E
shortages are more likely when selenium is
also deficient (and vice versa). According to
Clagett-Dame (2004), symptoms of Vitamin
E deficiency include nutritional muscle
dystrophy (more commonly known as white
muscle disease), as well as reproductive
issues like testicle degeneration, ovarian
atrophy, sterility and resorption of embryos
and foetuses. Synthetic forms of Vitamin
A and Vitamin E are available for dietary
supplementation.
Micro Minerals (Trace Minerals)
These minerals are required in very small
(trace) amounts (1 mg/kg or less and up to
100 mg/kg). The essential trace minerals
include cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iodine (I),
iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), selenium (Se),
and zinc (Zn). Others regarded as either
essential or at least important include boron,
bromine, chromium, fluorine, molybdenum
and nickel, to mention a few. Trace minerals
are subject to a myriad of interactions in
the digestive tract which affects their bioavailability
and metabolism.
The classical example is the interactions
between dietary copper, sulphur and
molybdenum, illustrated in Table 6. Both
sulphur and molybdenum exert powerful
negative effects on the absorption of copper,
and may induce secondary copper deficiency.
Other examples include the negative
interactions between elements of the
halogen group (iodine, bromine, fluorine and
chlorine). Bromine will antagonise iodine
thereby interfering with normal production of
the metabolic-regulating T3 and T4 hormones
by the thyroid gland, causing hypothyroidism
characterised by a much reduced metabolic
rate and a tendency to accumulate fat despite
normal feed intake. High bromine levels
occur in many water resources in Southern
Africa (Du Toit & Casey, 2010). In reaction,
supplementation of iodine above normal
levels will displace bromine and restore
normal thyroid function.
Fluorine also occurs at high concentrations in
some waters, causing disrupted phosphorous
metabolism, causing brittle bones, disfiguring,
bone fractures, disrupted reproduction,
tainted and black teeth that wears down
faster than normal etc. Chronic fluorosis
can be mitigated by including various salts,
including common salt (sodium chloride) to
increase urinary excretion of fluorine and
reduce its reabsorption by the kidneys (J.
Meyer, 2016 – personal communication).
The functions of trace minerals in the body are
varied, but often associated with the structure
and functioning of enzymes and vitamins that
are critical regulators of metabolic reactions.
Examples of these minerals include: zinc,
cobalt and selenium.
Nutritional deficiencies and their
effects on coat colour
Coat colour variations in wildlife that
differentiate scarce phenotypes with the
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Figure 1: Hair discolouration in a sable antelope
thought to be due to trace mineral deficiencies,
primarily of copper and zinc (Photo credit: Dr
C. Foggin 2008). Condition reversed by proper
mineral supplementation.
genetic capacity to transmit these colour genes
to future generations have become of great
economic significance in wildlife breeding.
However, not all colour variation in wildlife
is due to genetic differences. Environmental
effects, primarily rooted in nutrition, cause
colour variations that are not transmitted to
future generations and may even be quite
transient, appearing or disappearing in tune
with dietary changes. Such environmentally
rooted colour variations obviously do not
have the same economic significance as
genetically rooted colour variations.
To gain insight into how the nutritional
environment might affect coat colour, we
need a basic understanding of coat colour
regulation. Hair colour is genetically
predetermined by the type of melanin
Figure 2: Lighter skin colour, loss of body
condition and abnormal gait in an eland cow
with copper and selenium deficiency detected
by tissue analysis (Photo credit S.C. Slippers,
2015). Condition reversed by proper mineral
supplementation.
pigment inherited. These include the black
colour pigments (eumelanins) and red
colour pigments (phaeomelanins). However,
trace minerals such as copper, iron, zinc,
manganese, selenium and biotin play a role
in the synthesis, regulation or other processes
of hair pigment formation during the animals’
life and can bring about variation in the hair
colour.
The condition Achromotrichia refers to the
production of hair that lack pigmentation.
This lack of pigmentation is characterised
by a lightening or bleaching of the base
colour (e.g. black becomes red or silvery
gray, brown becomes yellow, and so on) and
hair depigmentation (when there is complete
lack of hair pigmentation – i.e. “white” hair).
Most frequently these pigment deviations
are linked to primary or secondary copper
deficiency.
Conclusion
Wildlife are frequently exposed to nutritional
deficiencies, which may be made worse by
the modern trend towards confined ranching
in ecosystems to which some of the wildlife
species are unadapted. It is incumbent upon
wildlife managers to minimise the negative
effects of such potential deficiencies on their
animals and bank balance, by cultivating
a greater awareness of different types of
nutritional deficiencies, their underlying
causes, the effects on the health and
productivity of wildlife (including effects
on coat colour), and available means of
preventing and combatting nutritional
deficiencies.
For a detailed version of the article please
follow the link below: https://www.dropbox.
com/s/h55v5gmmj2pdgg9/Nutritional%20
d e f i c i e n c i e s % 2 0 a n d % 2 0 t h e i r % 2 0
effects%20on%20production%20and%20
coat%20colour.pdf?dl=0&preview=Nutritio
nal+deficiencies+and+their+effects+on+pro
duction+and+coat+colour.pdf
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Sulphur
(% of DM)
Molybdenum
(mg/kg DM)
Absorption Coefficient of Dietary
Copper
0.20 1 0.046
0.40 1 0.031
0.60 1 0.023
0.25 0.5 0.043
0.25 1 0.042
0.25 2 0.039
0.25 5 0.031
0.25 10 0.022
0.25 20 0.010
0.25 100 0.003
Table 1: Effect of dietary sulphur and molybdenum on copper absorption (NRC, 2001, adapted
from Suttle & McLaughlan, 1976)
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Feeding to optimise
horn growth of trophy game
- Craig Shepstone (Wildlife Nutrition Services)
- Stephen Slippers (SCS Feed Consult)
Background information
Game farming has its origins in hunting and
conserving animals and plant species. Over
the last few centuries, hunting of trophy
animals has led too many of the large horned
animals being removed from natural roaming
herds, leaving the smaller animals to sire the
following generations.
When looking at this industry from an
economic perspective where trophy hunters
are willing to pay good money for larger
horned trophy specimens, game ranchers
and farmers have become more and more
encouraged to start breeding with high
quality long horned antelope and scarce
game species. With more and more farmers
entering into the game farming industry a
positive spin off has been created; namely
a greater demand for healthy high quality
breeding animals.
Horns are found on all males in the family
Bovidae (hollow-horned ruminants) but are
absent in one third of the females. Horns
play an important role in social and sexual
interactions; sexual dimorphism exists in
most species in terms of horn size, use and
shape.
Horn growth
The majority of the research that has been
done on horn size was done on wild sheep
and goats in America and Asia living on
natural grazing areas. Horn growth in wild
sheep is well known to vary in populations
due to differences in climate and soil
characteristics. Horn-growth research on
African game is ongoing, focusing on growth
per animal per day in millimetres.
In a study on the naturally grazing mountain
goats, Oreamnos americanus, it was found
that total length and basal circumference of
horns was positively correlated with mass,
chest girth and hind-foot length in both male
and female animals. Sexual dimorphism in
terms of body mass of male mountain goats
increases up to the age of five years; horngrowth
dimorphism tends to reach its peak at
2 years of age (Cote et al., 1998).
Unfortunately, research on horn and horn
growth is limited, so looking at antler and
antler growth is the starting point for horn
growth research. In order to understand the
complexities of horn growth, we need to
understand what factors contribute to antler
growth.
Antler growth
The main contributors to antler growth are
age, nutrition and genetics. Age and optimal
nutrition can only stimulate the buck’s antler
growth within the genetic capability of the
animal. The supply and intake of optimal
nutrition will have a great effect prior to and
during antler growth. Since the 1950s, when
modern-day research started quantifying the
effect of nutrition on antler development,
it was learned that a number of nutritional
components interact to generate the bony
matrix of antlers, namely protein, energy
and minerals. Similarly, these nutritional
components are necessary for horn growth as
well. The main difference is that antlers are
shed every year, followed by a larger set of
antlers year after year; the horns of Bovidae,
in comparison, grow longer year after year.
Age, genetics and nutrition as factors
affecting horn growth in Bovidae
Age
Most horn growth occurs during the growth
phase of all young animals, with the growth
rate slowing down as an animal approaches
maturity. Rates of horn growth differ between
>> page 91
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species. In some species, the horns stop
growing once an animal has reached
maturity, while in others they keep growing,
but at a considerably slower rate.
Genetics
The heritability of horn length is published
as 0.41 on a scale where 1 would be 100%
without any environmental influence (Hall
BK, Bones and Cartilage: Developmental
and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology, Chapter 7,
p117, Academic Press).
Nutrition
The direct advantages of supplying the
animals what nature can’t:
1. Animals in a poor body condition will
improve,
2. Animals in optimal body condition will
calve and produce enough high quality
milk,
3. Trophy class animals will mature at an
earlier age,
4. Shorter inter-calving periods resulting in
more offspring within the female animal’s
life time,
5. Genetically superior animals receive
the necessary nutrient to reach their full
potential,
6. More animals can be kept
within a given area.
What is horn and what initiates
its growth?
In short, the horn is a keratinous
epidermal shell enclosing
a living bony interior (the
cornual process) that grows
out from the frontal bone of
the skull. The surface
of the bone is ridged
and porous, allowing
nutrient supply via
blood vessels. The bony
surface is covered
with a papillated
dermis that is
continuous with
the periosteum
and epidermis of
the bone, which
keratinises into
its protective
covering, the horn. The chemical
composition of horn is similar to that
of hoof.
When considering nutrient supply
to horns, it is important to realise that
skeletal health and bone growth are
directly related to optimal horn growth.
The horn growth of an individual animal
starts as cartilage in the foetus where the
mother supplies the necessary nutrients
via her blood. As the foetus grows, large
sections of the cartilage ossify into bone.
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Post-parturition, the mother can only supply
nutrients via her milk. As the animal grows
older and feeds on available forage, it
receives nutrients from the forage and what
supplemental feed is available.
Skeletal development of the foetus
While the foetus grows from a few cells
into a calf or lamb in the mother’s womb,
it obtains the building blocks for optimal
skeletal growth. These nutrients are supplied
by the mother to the foetus via her blood.
If the mother is healthy and in a good body
condition her foetus will get the necessary
nutrients in the correct amount and balance
ensuring optimal skeletal growth.
If it happens that the mother cannot supply
the foetus with the necessary nutrients for
optimal bone growth, the foetus won’t grow
optimally, leading to either a smaller animal
or an animal that struggles with bone-growth
related problems such as osteochondrosis
latens, a condition seen in cattle and horses.
To conclude: if the mother receives poor
nutrition, she will not be able to ensure an
optimal supply of nutrients via her blood to
her foetus, resulting in a young animal that
has not received the building blocks for
optimal skeletal growth, resulting in suboptimal
horn growth. To prevent this, it is
necessary to supply the mothers with the
correct nutrients, allowing optimal foetal
growth before birth and milk that leads to a
healthy calf that grows optimally after birth,
ensuring optimal skeletal and horn growth.
Practical advice
In the dry season, the natural grazing or
browse has less protein, energy and minerals
than what it has in the green season, so it is
advisable to supply high producing animals
with the necessary protein, energy, minerals
and trace minerals at this time. Protein pellets
/ cubes and self-made feeds can be supplied
to supplement these natural deficiencies.
In the wet or green season, supply
the animals with the macro and trace
minerals. Natural green forage is limited in,
particularly phosphorous and trace minerals.
Commercially this can be found in properly
formulated salt mineral licks – please avoid
the use of salt blocks as they only supply salt.
What to do and what not to do regarding
feeding female animals
Establishing when to feed more or less or
when to supply the animal with the extra
nutrients is crucial, because the female
animal needs to keep herself productive and
supply milk when she is in lactation.
Reference to body condition score is
made often in papers covering nutrition,
reproduction and animal health, so in context
with this article Body Condition Score (BCS)
is on a scale of 1 to 5. With 1 being very thin,
2 being thin to average, 3 being optimal, 4
optimal to fat and 5 being over fat.
Young female animals must never be allowed
to get to the point when they are over fat. This
is often associated with animals over eating
feed high in energy which result in a build-up
of fat around the female reproductive organs,
prolonging the first heat cycle – oestrus.
Dry animals must receive enough protein,
energy, minerals and vitamins to maintain
a good body condition (BCS = 3). Dry
pregnant animals need a mineral and vitamin
supplement that will supply both the mother
and foetus with the necessary nutrients for
optimal skeletal and horn growth.
Pregnant animals receiving too much food in
their last trimester of pregnancy could lead
to birthing problems and dystocia due to
oversized calves or lambs.
Lactating animals require more nutrients than
their dry or pregnant contemporaries; please
follow your feed company’s advice in feeding
them. When females normally receive a low
intake protein-mineral supplement you can
multiply the dry cow value with 1.6 to get the
approximate intake for lactation.
Optimal nutrition ensures that animals
reach their genetic potential in the
current generation, whereas selection for
genetic improvement (EBV’s) guarantees
long term permanent progress in the
subsequent generations.”
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Table 1: Nutrients required for optimal horn growth
Nutrient
Calcium
Phosphorous
Magnesium
Sulphur containing
amino acids
Trace minerals
Lysine and
Methionine
Copper,
manganese, zinc,
Feed source
dry season
Well balanced game
pellets, licks.
Well balanced game
pellets, licks.
Well balanced game
pellets, licks.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Well balanced game
pellets, licks.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Well balanced game
pellets, licks.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Vitamins Vitamin A, biotin Well balanced game
pellets, licks.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Feed source
wet season
Well balanced game
salt mineral licks.
Well balanced game
salt mineral licks.
Well balanced game
salt mineral licks.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Well balanced game
salt mineral licks.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Water soluble
mineral and vitamin
supplementation.
Vitamin A - Injection
Photo: Thaba Pulani
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Feeding
systems for game
- Craig Shepstone (Wildlife Nutrition Services)
- Stephen Slippers (SCS Feed Consult)
Photo: Jopie Fourie, Amanzi Private Game Reserve
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Keeping or housing of game has two
main branches:
1. Game reserves that focus on tourism,
conservation and hunting,
2. Game farms that focus on breeding scarce
or expensive game, or those that do both
on the same or different properties.
During the last century keeping game has
evolved from saving game from complete
extermination with the creation of Kruger-,
Umfolozi- and Hluhluwe National Parks as
well as other conservancy areas, to privately
owned game reserves or game farms. Since
the introduction of the Game Theft Act of
1991 (allowing ranchers to own game that
was previously state owned) keeping and
breeding of scarce or expensive game has
grown from a few individual game ranchers
to one of the fastest growing industries in
South Africa. Breeding trophy animals for
the breeding and hunting industry is one of
the main focuses of game ranching, while
supplying red meat is a close second. Many
of these privately owned game reserves have
camped of areas that are divided into smaller
camps where different species of high value
are farmed. They are housed either on their
own or in combination with one or two other
species.
When comparing farms, management
systems and final production goals, it is
difficult to near impossible, to try carbon
copy methods from one farm to the next – i.e.
this is what my neighbour or another game
rancher does.
Factors that make it difficult to
carbon copy methods from one farm
to another:
1. Physical location of farm – differing
biomes:
• Climate – and its effects on the available
forage
• Rainfall
2. Size of farm or camps differs from one
farm to the next
3. Varying quality and quantity of available
grass and browse for desired specie to be
housed:
• Veld type – sweet versus sour
• Grazing and or browsing capacity of
camp or farm
4. Production decisions (game reserve
arguments for hunting and tourism or
intensive breeding camp arguments):
• Chosen species nutrient requirements
– can the farm / camp supply this
• Combination of different species in
one camp or farm
• Stocking rate – the amount and species
of animals the rancher wants to put in
the camp / farm
5. Feeding:
• Available feed: not always available
country wide
• Self-mix feeds: raw materials differing
from one area to another
6. Water supply:
• Water supply and quality differing from
one area to another.
Broadly speaking there are 5 different game
farming/ranching systems that South African
Game ranchers use. By understanding
the systems and the possible differences
that may exist, a game rancher can easily
make the correct decisions in terms of feed
management.
SYSTEMS AND ADVISED FORM OF
FEEDING / SUPPLEMENTATION:
1. For game farms/reserves focussing on
hunting/tourism
Characterised by large pieces of natural land
where the game animals roam in a semiextensive
(when compared to “wild” Africa)
environment. These areas are cordoned off
with a boundary fence, stopping the animals
from moving out and others coming in. These
game ranches/reserves house a wide variety
and number of different species. Animals kept
in these systems can naturally select food of
superior quality throughout the year. High-
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quality feed is generally in short supply in the
dry months; resulting in animals having poor
reproduction rates (individual cows/ewes
calving only every two to three years).
In larger, more extensive systems, the
supplementation of hay and or feed will
occur very seldom, if ever – possibly only
during droughts and or after fire. Smaller
ranches may need supplementation if and
when the stocking rate exceeds the carrying
capacity of the piece of land. Droughts, fires
and overstocking will all have a negative
effect on any game ranch/reserve, resulting
in insufficient amounts and or quality of feed.
These animals will have to be supplied with
extra nutrients or roughage to keep them
alive.
Considerations and what to feed if the
carrying capacity of the reserve is greater
than the stocking rate:
Normally associated with drought where
there is enough dry natural forage (protein
shortage): provide lucerne hay, protein blocks
as a protein source and salt mineral licks for
minerals.
Considerations and what to feed if the
stocking rate exceeds the carrying capacity
of the reserve (too many animals)
Normally associated with drought where
there is insufficient natural forage: grass hay
to fill bellies, lucerne hay and protein blocks
as a protein source as well as salt mineral
licks to supply minerals.
General
Move the feeding areas periodically –
this can help prevent overutilisation of a
specific area – or create a dedicated feeding
site that often gets cleaned. Under these
circumstances pelleted rations are not
required or recommended. If pellets are
deemed necessary, feed the animals in bowls
or on any stony area where the pellets will
not be on ground, soil, or dust. Feed every
2- 3 days to prevent any single animal from
overeating and getting sick from conditions
such as rumenitis and acidosis.
2. For game ranches/reserves feeding
expensive game at localised points in a
large fenced area with other species
System 2 is basically the same as System 1,
but there is a herd of sable, buffalo or any
other species that are valuable. The animals
of economic value are fed to try and ensure
a calf every year. These animals should be
located every day and fed in bowls placed
on the ground. Once the animals are finished
eating, the bowls should be removed and the
feeding programme repeated the next day.
Alternatively, a fixed feeding site can be used,
but then one must ensure that less-valuable
species are kept away when the focus species
is feeding. If dedicated feeding sites are used,
these must be kept scrupulously clean. The
rest of the farm gets handled the same as in
System 1.
3. For game farms with one species per
camp system
When camps house only one species
(the carrying capacity of camp and group
dynamics, i.e. numbers of cows, calves,
heifers, bulls, etc. being kept in mind), it
is easy to supplement the animals with the
correct feed at the correct time. Using average
weights, pregnancy and climate data, the
required intakes of the feed can be estimated
and supplied. The main reproduction aim is
to ensure a calf/lamb every year or production
cycle.
When winter (dry season) approaches, the
nutrient value drops in the natural forage.
The production aim of a calf/lamb per year
necessitates the use of supplemental feeding
to supply the nutrients the animals need for
this purpose at this time of the year. Game
pellets or self-mix feed can be supplied on a
daily basis to fulfil this requirement. During
the green months, if there is a suitable
quantity of available grazing, the animals
only need minerals. These can be supplied
by using salt mineral licks.
Feeding sites – for grazing and parasite
management move the feeding sites regularly
during the rainy season. If the animals are
eating protein supplements, move the feeding
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Nutrition
sites every seven days, and during the drier
winter months, every month; this gives the
grass within the feeding area a chance to
recover and grow to maturity. If these camps
have been depleted of available forage as a
result of overstocking, drought or fire, use the
small camp system mentioned below.
Creep feeding for young animals
This involves a dedicated feeding site for
young, growing animals with a steel or
wooden pole crush built around it to prevent
older, larger animals from getting in. The
creep feed should be a high quality, palatable
feed to allow young animals to develop
according to their full genetic potential at an
earlier age. In addition, the efficiency with
which feed is converted into meat, skeletal
structure and horns is the highest during
the growth stage of young animals, making
it more economical when compared to
feeding older animals. Other advantages of
creep feed for young animals include earlier
weaning which allows the females to build
up sufficient reserves for the next calf/
lamb, while also reducing the stress in
young animals that are often associated
with weaning. The larger, mature animals
are usually fed just outside the creep
feeding area.
4. For game farms with more than one
species per camp
When 2 or more species are housed in the
same camp, it is more difficult to ensure
that each animal gets its minimum amount
of food. The group dynamics still need to
be taken into account, i.e. number of cows,
calves, heifers, bulls, etc. Ensuring that larger
species don’t dominate smaller species at the
feed bowls can be difficult. The same feeding
arguments need to be followed as in System
3, but plans need to be made to ensure all
animals get a chance to feed.
Creep feeding for smaller animal
species
In trying to ensure all animals get their feed,
creep-feeding systems have been used with
a lot of success on many game farms. This
involves a dedicated feeding site with a
steel or wooden pole crush built around it
to prevent the larger species from getting in.
The larger species are fed in their own area,
thus preventing dominance and overeating.
Many farms successfully feed the animals in
different areas.
5. For game farms with small camp systems:
boma and zoo
When feeding animals housed in small
camps/zoos, group dynamics need to be kept
in mind, i.e. the number of cows, calves,
heifers, bulls and so forth, so that all of the
animals can be supplied with the necessary
amount of feed. These camps normally have
limited or no grazing
available.
W h e n
s u p p l y i n g
cubes, pellets or
self-mix feed on a daily basis, a total mixed
ration can be made and supplied to the
animals on an ad hoc basis if the necessary
equipment to make long-fibre-length feed is
available. Ensure hay is always present.
Hay supplied in the camps, must not be
placed on the ground. Place the hay in hay
racks or in dedicated hay bowls. Regarding
the feeding sites, the feed bowls can be
moved regularly or dedicated feeding sites
can be used that must be cleaned regularly.
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Nutrition
Faeces and old feed should be removed.
Boma – please refer to previous editions
boma nutrition article (WS 2 2015)
6. For game farms that do a combination of
two or more of the above, please refer
to the system and follow the guidelines
mentioned above.
Key points to keep in mind
Species combinations:
When looking at what species are to be
combined with each other in smaller camp
systems, I will strongly urge all ranchers to
look at the stomach type as the baseline
argument.
Broadly speaking there are 3 categories:
1. Grazers – bulk and selective grass eaters
2. Browsers – otherwise known as
concentrate selectors – tree and shrub leaf
eaters
3. Intermediates – those that eat both
When combining groups combine category
1 with 3, and 2 and 3.
Nutrient requirements for the species in these
combinations are similar, so when putting out
feed in times of lack or drought, one feeding
argument can be fed, where all the animals
get their maintenance requirements.
Browsers including: giraffe, kudu, nyala,
bushbuck and other small antelopes’ nutrient
requirements differ considerably from
grazers.
Pellets/self-mix feeds, boma feeds:
• To ensure all animals get their minimum
daily intake, place the feed/supplement in
bowls.
• Follow feed suggestions provided by the
feed manufacturer.
• Hay or natural roughage must be available
at all times.
• Do not place pellets or self-mix feeds on
the ground. When supplying these feeds,
follow feed-bowl guidelines strictly.
Hay, natural veld
• Ensure roughage is available at all times.
• Ensure that the hay is placed in a hay rack,
or on a surface that prevents the build-up
of mould.
• Clear the left-over debris as often as
possible as this may create a suitable
environment for pathogenic organisms to
multiply.
• If and when animals eat feed/hay that is on
the ground the chance exists that they can
eat soil, which could cause gut impaction,
parasite infestation and the accumulation
of unwanted heavy metals often found in
the soil surrounding feeding sites.
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Nutrition
The importance of
fibre in ruminant nutrition
- John Veenstra, Technical Manager, Opti Feeds
John Veenstra has a degree in Animal Science and is a registered
scientist with the South African Council for Scientific Professions. He has
been practising in the animal feed industry for the past 23 years. He is
currently the Technical Manager at Opti Feeds responsible for product
development, formulations and quality assurance. He was instrumental
in developing the Opti Game Feed range. Opti Feeds is a supplier
of high quality scientifically designed animal feeds in the Northwest
province operating in a 300 km radius of the town Lichtenburg.
018 632 4051 or 083 388 5237
www.optifeeds.co.za
sales@optifeeds.co.za
Introduction
The game farming industry has increased
dramatically during the last 5 years. This has
resulted in game being held in smaller camps
with a high proportion of the diet being fed as
pellets out of the bag and less coming from the
available grazing. This comes with a number
of risks as this practice reduces the amount
of effective fibre (physical length of the fibre)
that the animal eats and can therefore impact
on its digestive system. Fibre type, quality
and length impact proper rumen function
and the health status of the animal (Mirzaei-
Aghsaghali, A et al. 2011). It is therefore
important that the game farmer manages the
supplementation of his animals to ensure that
rumen health is not compromised.
What is Fibre?
Most game species are ruminants which
have evolved as efficient consumers of plant
materials. Plant materials are made up of
digestible and indigestible materials. The
digestible portion of the plant is mainly the
starch and sugars and is referred to as the
non-structural carbohydrates. The portion
of the plant that cannot be digested by the
digestive enzymes of the animal is referred to
as the fibre or structural carbohydrates.
The fibre is usually found in the cell walls
which forms the structure of the plant and
is made up of the hemicellulose, cellulose,
lignin and other soluble fibres. Chemically
the fibre fraction is measured by Crude Fibre
(the cellulose and a portion of the lignin and
hemicellulose), acid detergent fibre or ADF
(cellulose and lignin portion) and the neutral
detergent fibre also known as NDF (the
hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin portion)
(Mertens, 2002). The NDF is the measure
which most accurately measures the fibre
content of plant materials as it measures
the three main fractions of fibre. Mertens
(2002) however, maintains that the chemical
definition of fibre is inadequate in describing
the true value of the fibre in the diet. He
maintains that the physical properties
(primarily particle size) of the fibre also have
an influence on maintaining proper rumen
function and animal health. The physical
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properties determine chewing time, rate
of passage through the rumen and the mat
effect of the rumen contents. All these factors
are important in determining the efficiency
of fibre digestion and the impact that fibre
has on rumen health. The premises is that the
finer the roughage the less time is spent on
chewing activity which means that there is
less saliva produced to buffer the rumen and
the rate of passage is faster which means the
fibre spends less time in the rumen and is
therefore not as efficiently digested as long
roughage. Mertens (2002) estimated that
grass ground to 5mm length has a physical
effectiveness factor of only 40% compared
to that of grass longer than 50mm (100%
physical effectiveness factor). In ruminants it
is therefore not only the amount of fibre in
the diet that is important but also the physical
properties of the fibre, e.g., the length of the
cut.
Digestion in the Rumen
In ruminants the fibre component can be
digested by microbial fermentation in the
rumen, in particular the fibrolytic bacteria.
This fermentative digestion of the fibre is a
slow process and requires that the material
remains in the rumen for an adequate period
to allow rumination and fermentation to
take place. During the rumination process
the animal regurgitates and chews its cud.
This process reduces the particle size of the
material exposing a greater surface area for
the microorganisms to do their work. The cud
mixes with large amounts of saliva which
assists in buffering the rumen and enabling
it to maintain a pH of between 6.2 and 6.8
which is the ideal environment for fibrolytic
bacteria to thrive and enhances fibre
digestion. Long particle size therefore has
the effect of increasing the chewing time and
reducing the rate of passage which is positive
for fibre digestion and ensuring the proper
functioning of the rumen and maintaining the
health status of the animal (Mertens, 2002).
The starch component of feed is digested
mainly by the amylolytic bacteria in the
rumen which specialise in fermenting the
starch found in grains. The main product of
the fermentation of this starch is proprionic
acid which has an acidifying effect on the
rumen. This suits the amylolytic bacteria as
they prefer to operate in a more acidic (pH
5.5 to 6.0) environment than the fibrolytic
bacteria. As the pH in the rumen decreases
below 6.0, the fibrolytic bacteria start to die
off and the digestion of fibre decreases. High
starch diets will therefore have a negative
effect on the digestion of fibre due to its
acidifying effect on the rumen contents and
its effect on reducing the fibrolytic bacterial
population.
Conclusion
Rumen health and the proper functioning
of the rumen are affected by the content of
the diet and the physical form of the fibre
fraction.
Most game farmers use pelleted feeds as a
supplementation for their animals. Pelleted
feeds are restricted as to the particle size
that is incorporated in the feeds. Most of the
particles in these feeds will be less than 5
mm and will not be as effective in promoting
rumen health as long roughage. Pelleted
feeds also make use of the by-products of
the milling and distilling industries. These
products also have low physically effective
fibre factors and are usually higher in starch
content. Feeding a high percentage of the diet
as pelleted feed to game species increases
the risk of digestive problems that can even
result in death when the animal does not get
sufficient long roughage from grazing. The
game farmer should therefore manage the
quantities of pelleted feeds that are fed to
the animal to ensure that rumen health is not
compromised.
References
Mirzaei-Aghsaghali, A and Maheri-Sis, N. 2011.
Importance of physically effective fibre in ruminant
nutrition: A review. Annals of Biological Research, 2
(3): 262-270.
Mertens, D.R. 2002. Measuring fibre and its
effectiveness in ruminant diets. US Dairy Forage
research Center, USDA-ARS, Madison, WI.
Parish, J. 2007. Effective fibre in Beef Cattle Diets.
Cattle Business in Mississipi Beef production Strategies.
Blezinger, S.B. 2013. Fibre Digestion Important in
Grazing Cattle. http://cattletoday.com/archive/2013.
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Health
An overview of
parasites in wildlife
- Drs Hanre Bredenkamp & Rozanne Ferreira
Technical & Marketing Manager, Afrivet
Dr Bredenkamp qualified as veterinarian and also completed her MSc
degree at the University of Pretoria. She is currently the Technical and
Marketing Manager at Afrivet.
012 817 9086 hanre.bredenkamp@afrivet.co.za
www.afrivet.co.za
Over the last few years the game industry has
grown significantly and as a result previously
livestock farmed land is now utilised for
wildlife ranching. Fences that once divided
the livestock farms into camps have been
removed. In many cases game ranches consist
of a few neighbouring farms from which even
the inner border fences have been removed,
leaving only the outside border fences of the
larger farm. Although this practice is far better
than any practice since 1850, it still does not
allow for the natural migration of big game
species which prevents the movement from
unfavourable conditions like parasite infested
environments.
In nature (no human intervention), game
will naturally adapt to reduce or tolerate
parasites, for example impala will remove
tick larvae by grooming themselves, while
the bushbuck, bontebok and tsessebe
prevent eye-worm infections by nodding
their heads. Furthermore, zebras are rarely
in poor condition, even with extremely high
internal parasite counts. This can be ascribed
to the bone marrow of the long bones that
constantly produces new red blood cells,
which is different from other animals in
that most other species only have a limited
capacity for producing red blood cells from
the long bones after reaching maturity.
There is a perception that game is less
susceptible to parasites, however this is just
partly true and further only applies when
animals are allowed to migrate as mentioned
previously. In nature, predators will still
eliminate the weaker animals that are not able
to overcome parasite infestations, thereby
nature selects against genetically inferior
animals (natural selection) and improves the
overall adaptability of the herd to the current
environment.
Man-made infrastructures like roads, cities,
mines and fences are the major factors
that limit normal migration and predation
patterns. In addition, antelope species are
sometimes kept in certain environments
that they are not naturally adapted to, or are
mixed with other species they don’t usually
share a habitat with. This leads to various
complications including the build-up of
parasites and stress-related problems.
When all the above mentioned factors are
taken into account, it is no surprise that
parasites which usually affect livestock are
now also causing problems in game species.
Wireworm, heartwater and brown ear-tick
are some examples.
The type of wireworm species that infects
wildlife can vary between wildlife species.
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health
It was interesting to find that the wireworm
species, Haemonchus contortus, usually
found in sheep, have been isolated
numerous times in game, especially sable
and springbok. This species of wireworm is
mostly resistant to popular dewormers. The
only explanation for the infection in game
species is that the veld was contaminated
with resistant wireworm strains in the egg or
larval stage where sheep previously grazed.
Infected game, for example sable, spread the
resistant worms further as they were sold and
translocated from farm to farm.
The heartwater- or bont tick is a multi-host
tick and big game species (especially those
larger than wildebeest) are common hosts for
adult bont ticks. In heartwater areas the bont
tick (Amblyomma hebraeum) will transmit
heartwater to susceptible game species. The
same applies for the brown ear-tick and redlegged
tick that are carriers of the Theileria
blood parasites. The brown ear-tick can affect
wildlife to such an extent that they can lose
their ears, particularly eland.
Unfortunately there is no generic parasite
control program, because every farm has
different conditions, different species of
wildlife and therefore also different parasite
loads. It is recommended to work closely
with your veterinarian to plan a sustainable
control program. This will include faecal egg
counts, tick identification, farm visits by the
veterinarian as well as regular observations
by the farmer. Treatment should only be
given in special cases. These animals must
be identified and the number of treatments
must be recorded. If it is necessary to treat
a specific animal regularly, it is advisable
to cull this animal from the breeding herd.
Wildlife ranchers should at all times aim to
allow only the animals that are healthy and
well-adapted to the conditions on the farm
to enter the breeding programs. This practice
will improve the overall resistance and
reduce the number of chemical treatments of
by the herd.
It is important to treat animals individually
for parasites - methods can be discussed with
your veterinarian. In case of internal parasites,
dewormers such as fenbendazol or ivermectin
can be mixed into the feed. However, it can
pose a risk if animals don’t have individual
feed bowls, because feed intake per animal
cannot be monitored otherwise. It is therefore,
advised to have one feeding bowl per animal
as far as management allows it, to ensure
accurate dosing. The feed intake of animals
will also vary according to seasonal changes
and consequently veld quality, therefore
premixed feeds are not effective. Depending
on the drug used, overdosing can lead to
toxicity; while underdosing will promote
parasite resistance. Drop-out-darts can be
used to administer an injectable ivermectin
for selective treatments.
The ideal way to manage external parasites
is to treat individual animals according
to body weight with a pour-on agent in
the areas of tick infestation (e.g. near the
head in case of brown ear-tick). There are
“tick balls” available that contains a pouron
agent in the form of a paintball and
can be administered with a paintball gun.
With the latter method selective treatment
is possible without handling the animals.
Other methods, for example a dipping-tray
and Duncan applicator, are less selective
as precise and regular doses cannot be
guaranteed. In this respect, the tick-off system
is more effective in administering the correct
dose, but unfortunately regular and repeated
administration is difficult to manage.
It can be challenging to identify animals that
require treatment against parasite infestations,
especially when animals are wild. However,
animals that behave abnormally and are in
poor condition will usually be the affected
animals and can be identified with regular
observations. When animals are herded, the
animals that tend to fall behind should be
inspected closer for parasites.
Wildlife is usually bought on auction. These
animals originate from various parts of the
country and can be infected with parasites
that do not generally occur on your farm.
It is recommended to remove external
parasites and deworm all sale animals before
they are off-loaded on the farm. If possible,
newly bought animals should be kept in a
quarantine area until tests confirm that they
have no transmittable diseases or parasites.
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Game camp
systems & layouts
- Deon Furstenburg, Specialist Game Production & Wildlife Management Biologist
GeoWild Consult (Pty) Ltd. Director
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general management practices
Graduated B.Sc. Pta. 1983, B.Sc. Hons. Wildlife Management Pta.
1984, M.Sc. Wildlife Management Pta. 1991 (feeding ecology of
giraffe in Kruger Park), awarded the Junior Captain Scott Memorial
Medal, National Academy of Science, Art & Technology. A 12 year
Ph.D. study in the Eastern Cape – The influence of environmental and
animal factors in sustaining production in semi-arid vegetation. Senior
scientist at the Agricultural Research Council 1990-2014, achieved ARC
directors awards (1994 & 1997), ECGMA Plume award (2001) and 2008
awarded by the World Association of Animal Production (global climate
change & animal production). 35 years scientific experience, 16 book
chapters, 7 peer-reviewed publications, 32 conference proceedings,
177 non-refereed publications, 67 platform presentations, 208
consultancy reports and student lecturing for 4 years at Grootfontein
Agricultural College and 12 years at NMMU. Currently Director and
shareholder GEO WILD CONSULT.
072 575 3289
www.geowild.co.za
deon@geowild.co.za
Introduction
Ranching or farming with game entitles an
understanding of the natural ecosystems and
the forces of function, as well as specialized
knowledge and expertise of environmental
science, earth science, climatology, ecology,
evolution, geographic parameters, vegetation
dynamics, game science, animal production,
animal population dynamics, animal health
and animal performance. Game animals
evolved free roaming and with decision of
choice (Furstenburg, 2015d & e) controlling
animal behaviour and development. These
animals are now being farmed and managed
for production and for income. In order to
do so the animals need to be confined on
reserves, parks, ranches and farms - all
enclosed by some form of fencing that
restricts animal movement and the animal’s
decision of choice. Animal production and
income are increased with the application
of camp systems, but only if the camps are
laid out very specifically according to: (i) the
ecological limitations of the land, (ii) the very
needs of the specific animal species, and
(iii) the strategic parameters of best animal
quality and performance management.
The smaller the size of a game camp, the more
difficult it is to provide in the specific animal
species needs and the greater the risk of poor
performance and the long-term survival of the
animal. Adapting from natural free roaming
to a small camp system confinement involves
change of social structure, feeding, climate,
decrease of physiological resistance, change
of genetic fitness, increase in parasites and
diseases, change of refuse and predation,
increased stress, change of physiological body
condition, body structure and reproduction.
What is a camp? It is any fenced-in land unit
that are smaller than the minimum land area
needed for the natural long-term survival and
health (without human input) of all animal
species inhabiting the very land. Not even
the fenced-in Kruger National Park or the
Yellowstone National Park fulfils the natural
migration needs of all of the inhabitant game
species. Within the South African game
industry game camps are found from

Free roaming – multi species
Free roaming used to be without any
fences only limited by natural boundaries
such as demographic rivers, mountain
ridges, vegetation & habitat zones, climate
zones and by events such as fire, drought,
flooding, tornados and storms. In present
time free roaming is some degree of space
and movement of an animal within a larger
fenced-in system (boundary fence only, no
internal fences) where it still has a choice to
decide between limited different habitats,
landscape, topography and two or more
different types of food resources. The animal
also has the choice to avoid or tolerate close
presence of other animals and other animal
species. On some ranches and farms certain
larger camps can also be considered to be
free-roaming camps, but only if the animal
has some degree of own choice of decision
within the camp and adequate space of
movement. It is not about the size of the camp
or the land, but the spatial limits and the
degree of decision of choice; free-roaming
camps can be any size greater than 400 ha
as determined by the specific environmental
parameters. Animal population structures in
free roaming camps, as per animal species,
consist of one or more breeding herds, more
than three adult breeding males, at least
one bachelor group and sometimes solitary
post-mature males. All animals remain
permanently in the same land-area (camp).
Genetic management is minimal, mostly
restricted to the purchase of good genetic
material at the start and thereafter only
periodic import of new blood.
The most important factors to consider when
purchasing land and/or selecting animal
species to be kept or ranched on a specific
land:
• Does the land contain habitat that is
suitable for the specific species?
• Are the climate conditions suitable for the
specific species?
• What is the level of social species
interaction to be anticipated; what other
animal species and what numbers, age
and sex (population structures)?
• What is the natural vegetative carrying
capacity of the camp?
• What is the status quo of the veld condition
and of the structure of the vegetation?
Extensive camp – multi species
An extensive camp is similar as a free-roaming
camp with one difference – the habitat and
food resource are homogeneous (without
variation) throughout the entire camp.
Thus, the animal does not have a decision
of choice, but is forced to utilize and adapt
to whatever the environmental conditions
provided within the camp – the animal is
being manipulated at all times. Extensive
camps are almost always semi-artificial. The
camp can be of any size, normally greater
than 400 ha. Animal population structures
are generally similar to those of free roaming
camps. All animals may remain permanently
in the same camp. Surplus animals can be
removed to other camps, but is generally not
necessary. Genetic management is minimal,
mostly restricted to the purchase of good
genetic material at the start and thereafter
only periodic import of new blood.
Important factors to consider:
• Degree of diversion of the habitat from
what is optimally suitable for the specific
species?
• Degree of diversion of the climate from
what is optimally suitable for the specific
species?
• What is the level of social species
interaction to be anticipated (population
structures)?
• What is the natural vegetative carrying
capacity of the camp?
• What is the status quo of the veld condition
and of the structure of the vegetation?
Large camp – multi or single species
A large camp by general code of practice is any
game camp larger than 100 ha. Large camps
are ecologically artificial to almost all aspects
of nature. Large camps are mostly managed
by means of agricultural animal production
strategies, but with wildlife animals. They can
either be stocked with a single species or with
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multiple species. Generally the population
structure for each animal species consists of
one adult breeding male, breeding females
and youngsters of both sexes. The animals
may remain permanently in the same camp,
except for males that need to be all removed
before reaching the age of sexual maturity.
Surplus animals need to be removed to other
camps. Genetic management is of greater
importance and herds need be specifically
managed for genetic quality control. The
inputs of a specialist geneticist and an expert
wildlife nutritionist become important.
Important factors to consider:
• Degree of diversion of the habitat from
what is optimally suitable for the specific
species?
• Degree of diversion of the climate from
what is optimally suitable for the specific
species?
• What is the natural vegetative carrying
capacity of the camp?
• What is the status quo of the veld condition
and of the structure of the vegetation?
• A well-defined artificial supplement
feeding and nutrition program.
Small camp (semi intensive) – multi &
single species
All small camps are entirely artificial as it is
managed by agricultural norms and standards
of animal and veld production. The vegetative
production is generally far less than the
feeding needs of the animal load stocked
and the expertise of a specialist nutritionist
is required. Camp sizes differ with regard to
the animal species stocked. In practice many
game owners stock wild animals in camps
much smaller than the advised minimum
specifications which have severe long-term
negative implications to both the veld and
the animals. Most often the negative effects
only manifest after the animals had been sold
and translocated to new environments. Small
camp systems are manipulated intensive
management of both veld and animal, but to
the advancement of economic quantitative
production and human food security. A small
camp is no other than an artificial breeding
pen. Although in practice some small camps
are stocked with more than one animal
species, it is scientifically totally advised
against. Conflicts and social interaction
between animals are extremely tense in small
camps – special precautionary management
procedures need to be applied. Expert
professional advice of various academic
fields (wildlife production ecologist, game
scientist, animal nutritionist, animal geneticist
and wildlife veterinarian) remain critical at
all times. Only one breeding herd of adult
females and sub-adults of both sexes, and
one adult breeding male may be stocked per
camp. The animals remain permanently in
the same camp except for all male offspring
that need to be removed before reaching
the age of sexual maturity. Surplus animals
need to be removed to other camps. Genetic
management between two different breeding
herds in two different camps is crucial.
Best practice is to have two small camps,
sections A and B, and to alter the animals
between the two sections at eight month
intervals as to apply rotational stocking and
rotational rest of veld (Furstenburg, 2015f).
Only one mature bull of a species may be
kept with females in a small camp as the
camp lacks the needed intersocial space
for conflict escape and for social separation
of individuals. The degree of social conflict
differs for different game species and
individuals.
Important factors to consider:
• Degree of diversion of the habitat from
what is optimally suitable for the specific
species?
• Degree of diversion of the climate from
what is optimally suitable for the specific
species?
• A well-defined artificial supplement
feeding and nutrition program.
• A well-defined genetic management
program.
• A well-defined parasite and health
management program.
Intensive camps
This is camps or holding pens where all
needs of the animal are being provided in
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an artificial manner for example zoo-cages.
Intensive conditions are found on several
game farms where animals are being kept
and bred in paddocks that are no more than
cages. Although being done by some game
owners it is utterly advised against. Most
often the negative effects only manifest after
the animals had been sold and translocated.
Handling camps, quarantine camps & bomas
It is important that the number of small camps
always exceeds the number of breeding herds
farmed. A quarantine camp is needed to host
newly purchased animals coming from a
different environment, temporarily kept for
inspection and acclimation. Spare camps are
required for the treatment and hosting of sick
and injured and surplus animals. Handling
camps are required for the move and change
of animal herd structures and for darting and
capturing purposes.
General
The smaller the game camp the greater the
tendency of the animals to claim it as a
territory and to defend it against any stranger
or newcomer animal to be introduced.
New introductions are never to be released
directly into a small camp hosting other
existing animals. Individuals have different
temperaments, as with humans and react
differently when introduced and/or mixed
with unknown strangers. Practise has proved
animals in small camp systems to be generally
more aggressive than when free-roaming.
New introductions of either male or female
animals need be familiarised with existing
animals gently over time before mixing.
A good practice is to move the existing
animals and the new introductory animal/s
simultaneously to a new camp for mixing
rather than entering the new introduction
directly into the existing camp and herd. The
chance is big that the existing animals will
see the newcomer as intrusive and will attack/
fight it. This is a common phenomenon with
golden wildebeest and sable.
With free roaming behaviour, animals
migrate and move after drinking water and
suitable fodder. Camp systems lack these
parameters and force animals to repeatedly
utilize the same resources irrespective of
the quality and condition. Thus a minimum
of two drinking points must be provided in
each camp irrespective of how small it is to
prevent animals from cluttering around one
point and overstepping the social spatial
boundaries of individual animals. The same
apply for feeding stations. Drinking points
and feeding stations may never be closer
than 20 m (preferable 30 m) from any fence
or infrastructure to prevent animals being
cluttered against and intruding individual
social space. Feeding buckets must be more
than the number of animals in the camp. With
multi-species camps two to three feeding
stations must be supplied simultaneously
at the same time. Feeding buckets must be
loose and moved by at least 50 cm with every
feeding and rotated between at least three
feeding sites every two weeks to prevent
parasite build-up at the stations. Rather
place feeding buckets in a large circle (5 m
apart) than in a straight line. This prevents the
strongest animal taking the best food from all
of the buckets repeatedly.
Design & layout
The design and layout of a camp system
always start with the habitat feasibility study
performed by the specialist game production
ecologist – the only expert qualified to
assess and determine camp layouts for
game. Geology, soil, climate, vegetation
and landscape form the backbone of any
game production camp system and need be
assessed by a professional academic expert.
Two examples are given in Figure 1 & 2,
illustrating the effect of vegetation, habitat,
topography, soil and landscape on the outlay
of a game camp system. Animal species
selection as for the specific camps are very
specific according to the environmental
parameters in both examples, and according
to the biological behavioural features of
each animal as described in detail in the
Game Species Window e-book (Furstenburg,
2015a. Amazon Publishers USA, 1 241 pp.
ISBN 978-0-620-65883-6).
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Table 1: Minimum camp size advised for one breeding herd of a game species
Veld Type
Animal species
Kalahari
Bushveld
Grassland
Karoo Savannah Highveld
Gemsbok, Eland, Red hartebeest, Buffalo,
White rhino, Mountain zebra 200 ha 75 ha 50 ha
Blue/Gold wildebeest, Sable, Roan,
Tsessebe, Plains zebra, 75 ha 40 ha 30 ha
Black wildebeest, Waterbuck
Springbok, Impala, Blesbok,
Mountain reedbuck 75 ha 20 ha 15 ha
Nyala, Oribi 50 ha 12 ha 12 ha
Common reedbuck, Bushbuck,
Klipspringer 30 ha 10 ha 7 ha
Duiker, Steenbok, Suni, 20 ha 2 ha 2 ha
*Take special note that this is a general guideline compiled from actual case studies and need be
discussed with an expert game production/wildlife ecologist for your specific farm or land.
>> page 112
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Figure 1a: A game camp system for a Ranch in the Eastern Central Sandy Bushveld where
camps are divided according to landscape and vegetation type.
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Figure 1b: A game camp system for a Ranch in the Eastern Central Sandy Bushveld where
animal species are selected according to the most suitable land area for each.
Figure 2a: A complexed game camp system for a Ranch in the Waterberg Mountain Sour
Bushveld where camps are divided according to landscape and vegetation type.
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Figure 2b: A complexed game camp system for a Ranch in the Waterberg Mountain Sour
Bushveld where animal species are selected according to the most suitable land area for each.
Selected bibliography
Furstenburg, D. 2015a. The Game Species Window -
E-Book. Amazon USA, 1 241 web pp. ISBN 978-0-620-
65883-6
Furstenburg, D. 2015b. Risikobestuur van wild –
Deel 8b: Toepaslike kundigheid en wildplaasbestuur.
Game&Hunt 22(2).
Furstenburg, D. 2015c. Risikobestuur van wild – Deel
8a: Diensverskaffers en wildplaasbestuur. Game&Hunt
22(1)
Furstenburg, D. 2015d. Risikobestuur van wild –
Deel 7b: Dier se keuse van beslauit – Toepassing.
Game&Hunt 21(12):92-94.
Furstenburg, D. 2015e. Risikobestuur van wild – Deel
7a: Dier se keuse van besluit. Game&Hunt 21(11):108-
111.
Furstenburg, D. 2015f. Risikobestuur van wild – Deel
2: Kampstelsels. Game&Hunt 21(5):150-155.
Furstenburg, D. 2015g. Risikobestuur van wild – Deel
1: Omgewing & verskuiwing. Game&Hunt 21(4):178-
181.
Furstenburg, D. 2005h. Naturally occurring common
species of game in the Free State, an overview. Game
Ranching in Central S.A. 2005i, pp30-51.
Furstenburg, D & Stoltz, MM. 2008. Global climatic
change and animal production. Proceedings, 10th
World Animal Production Congress, Cape Town.
Furstenburg, D. 2005. The greater kudu. In: Eds. J.
du P. Bothma & N. van Rooyen, Intensive wildlife
production in southern Africa. Van Schaik Publisher,
Pretoria. Pp147-168. ISBN 0-627-02549-8
Furstenburg, D. 2003a. The dynamics of Valley
Bushveld. Proceedings, GSSA Congress, Port Elizabeth.
Furstenburg, D. 2003b. Game series 2 – Limits to game
production. Farmers Weekly, 21 June.
Furstenburg, D. 2003c. Game series 4 – Game: Stocking
up. Farmers Weekly, 5 July.
Furstenburg, D, Kleynhans, M. 2000. Integrated Kudu,
Duiker, Bushbuck and Boergoat Production Systems in
Valley Bushveld: Ecological Interactions, Processes &
Constrains. Pelea 21st Anniversary Scientific Edition
19:134-141.
Furstenburg, D, Du Toit, PF. 2002. Optimizing game
production in a new era: the road to financial success.
Grootfontein Agric. 16pp.
Furstenburg, D. 2002a. Wildproduksiebestuur Deel 1.
Wildkonsep. Game&Hunt 8(4):41-43.
Furstenburg, D. 2002b. Wildproduksiebestuur Deel
2. Habitatgeskiktheid en Vreetgedrag. Game&Hunt
8(5):38-39.
Furstenburg, D. 2002c. Wildproduksiebestuur Deel
3. Sosiale Strukture en Ruimtelike Organisasie.
Game&Hunt 8(6):35, 53.
Furstenburg, D. 2002d. Wildproduksiebestuur Deel 4.
Produksienorme. Game&Hunt 8(9):34-35.
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Furstenburg, D. 2002e. Eco-production dynamics in
eastern Cape Valley Bushveld. Proceedings, GSSA
Congress, Christiana.
Furstenburg, D. 2001. Game production optimization
within a new era: the essence, the principles and
the pendulum to financial success. Proceedings, 5th
International, Wildlife Ranching Symposium, Pretoria.
Furstenburg, D. 1998. Game Production: Limitations
set by land area, breeding and population dynamics.
Pelea 17:25-37.
Furstenburg, D. 1996. Management of domesticated
Boergoat and free ranging kudu in a production system.
Proceedings, All Africa Agricultural International
Congress, Pretoria.
Furstenburg, D & Kleynhans, M. 1996. Kudu movement
within a closed ranch system as influenced by livestock
and human activity. Proceedings, GSSA Congress,
Nelspruit.
Furstenburg, D, Kleynhans, M, Akanbi, J & Venter, A.
1996. The symbiotics of browsing in an integrated
game / Boergoat production system in Valley Bushveld.
Proceedings, 2nd Valley Bushveld Symposium,
Grahamstown.
Furstenburg, D, Kleynhans, M & Le Roux J. 1996.
Integrated Kudu, Duiker, Bushbuck and Boergoat
Production Systems in Valley Bushveld: Ecological
Interactions, Processes & Constraints. Pelea 15:5-13.
Furstenburg, D & Swart, D. 1995. Feeding ecology
and nutritional efficiency of domesticated Boergoat
and free ranching kudu in an integrated production
system. Proceedings, 4th International Symposium of
Herbivore Nutrition, France.
Furstenburg, D & Van Hoven, W. 1994. Condensed
tannin as anti-defoliate agent against browsing by giraffe
(Giraffa camelopardalis). Comparative Biochemistry
and Physiology 107A(2):425-431.
Greyling, B, Furstenburg, D & Van Hooft, P. 2013.
Ranched populations: the implications for conservation
management of the African buffalo from a genetics
point of view. National Parks Board Symposium,
Skukuza.
115

Passive handling of wildebeest:
a practical example
- Gregory Barnard, Grootrivier Farm
Gregory Barnard manages the game ranching division on their family
farm, Grootrivier, just outside Sterkrivier in Limpopo. During 2010, he
started a Golden Wildebeest breeding program with a Golden bull
bought from York Safaris and a group of natural Blue Wildebeest cows.
By means of good management practices (animal identification,
calving records, measuring performance, recordkeeping etc.) and
DNA testing, Gregory successfully breeds DNA verified split Wildebeest
and Golden Wildebeest that are fertile and have been selected for
proper horn size and genetic diversity.
073 733 9102
dianeb@lantic.net
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Introduction
Grootrivier Farm has a challenging terrain;
the rocky, mountainous topography and thick
bushveld biome complicated the traditional
method of capturing and handling game
using a helicopter. As a result, the idea of a
passive handling facility for wildebeest was
born. After visiting numerous game farms
with existing passive handling facilities, the
best ideas from each was taken into account
and a customised handling facility was
designed and built. This facility has been
used for capturing, handling and sorting of
Blue Wildebeest on Grootrivier Farm over the
past few years with great success. The aim of
this article is to share some of the knowledge,
advantages and disadvantages of the system
in an effort to help other game farmers that
are interested in building passive handling
facilities.
Handling facility layout:
The facility is divided into different sections,
including:
1. A central boma (a)
• The central boma is 50m in diameter
with walls 3m high.
• Central pole – for camera or “curtains”
(false partitions).
• Sides are covered with broad conveyor
belt to prevent animal injury. (Note: all
the sides and gates of the facility are
covered with conveyor.)
• Sliding gates (remote activated)
entering the boma from each camp
make it possible to capture animals
from the different camps.
• Draw animals in with feed and water.
• A camera system will allow you to see
when animals enter the central boma
and remote activated gates will ensure
quick capture.
2. False passage (b)
• Exiting from the side of the boma.
• Runs along the side of the boma,
conforming to the curve of the boma.
• Use sails to encourage animals to
proceed down the passage.
• The passage narrows as it approaches
the processing ring so that the animals
can’t see more than a few metres in
front of them – this keeps the animals
calm.
• Sliding gates in strategic places
throughout the false passage prevent
animals from trampling each other or
turning around.
• The passage has peep holes for
observation and for injection of
animals with a pole syringe and/or
treatment with pour-on products such
as Deadline.
3. Processing ring (c)
• The processing ring is 4m in diameter.
• Two turning gates (d) in the ring make
it possible to move the animals in any
direction – very effective.
• Animals receive a tranquiliser.
• After the tranquiliser has taken effect
animals can be tagged, microchipped,
sampled for DNA, treated (if sick) etc.
• The animals can also be sorted and
calves weaned.
4. Central platform (e)
• Situated above holding pens.
• Higher than the walls of the holding
pens for better observation.
• The central platform allows you to
overlook all the areas of the facility.
5. Holding pens (f)
• Very effective for observation after
tranquilisers have been reversed.
• Animals are sorted according to sick,
weaned, for sale etc.
6. Exit passages
• For moving animals back to the
different camps once the animals are
sorted.
• For moving animals to loading ramp.
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7. Loading Ramp (g)
• For easy loading and downloading of
animals without being tranquilised.
Advantages
• Stress on the animal is kept to a minimum.
• Animals are not chased for prolonged
periods of time.
• The curved layout of the facility keeps
animals calm.
• Cost effective.
• Animals are captured, handled, treated,
sorted and moved with minimal
intervention.
Disadvantages
• Waiting for animals can become time
consuming and particularly difficult
during the wet season when the natural
veld provides sufficient amounts of high
quality feed - in this case a helicopter is
required.
• Initial large capital investment.
Future developments planned
• Animal restraining facility at the end of
the narrow passage before the processing
ring. It will be a facility that clamps the
animal and of which the floor drops
out. We will then ear tag, tattoo, inject,
measure, do fertility tests, brand females,
dose, etc. animals.
• Install a scale to weigh animals.
Conclusion
With this facility, the handling of wildebeest
has become much easier. The facility also
allows for planned matings e.g. specific
bull can be put with specific cows. With
the help of DNA testing (to verify pedigrees)
and the Wildlife Stud Services system
mating combinations are planned to avoid
inbreeding and achieve maximum genetic
variation, thus retaining hybrid vigour in the
herd.
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Photo: Francois Meyer
Passive handling of buffalo
a practical example
Frans Stapelberg is a passionate game rancher that refers to buffalo
as the “blue-chip investment” of the game industry. His background
as a mechanical engineer, the advantage of his own engineering
workshop in Middelburg, and 15 years’ experience in intensive breeding
of buffalo made it possible for him to build, design and test a buffalo
handling facility on his farm Elandsdrif near Marble Hall. The facility is
described by other farmers as flawless; Frans however describes it as
“a bit fancy”. His game stud is called “Lekkerleef Wildstoet” and is part
of the Classic Game Breeders auction group.
082 496 9111/ 083 227 2863 lekkerleef@ctecg.co.za www.lekkerleef.co.za
Introduction
There is a saying that there are as many
recipes as there are cooks. This can also be
said for bomas in the game industry, more
specifically buffalo bomas, which will shortly
be discussed in the following article.
In the newly proposed “Veterinary Procedural
Notice for Buffalo Disease Risk Management
in South Africa”, that is believed to be
implemented in the next year, the DAH
(Department of Animal Health) suggested in
paragraph 512G the following requirement
for keeping buffalo: “In addition, land that is
registered for the keeping of buffalo has to
have quarantine facilities (boma) for buffalo
on the premises in order to make provision
for the handling, testing and isolation of
buffalo during translocation, surveillance
and suspected disease outbreaks.”
In short, the DAH will gradually make it
compulsory for the prospective and surely
the current buffalo farmers to have a boma
facility on the farm that complies with the
minimum prescribed standards. Given the
above information, it is advisable to build
a facility that meets more than just the
regulatory requirements.
Advantages of a carefully planned
and properly designed buffalo boma:
1. It is easy to treat and care for sick and
injured animals.
We all operate previously cattle-farmed
land that may have broken fences, loose
wires or undesirable material that haven’t
always been removed. Although buffalo
are hardy animals, foreign objects can
also get stuck in their hooves. Moreover,
puff adders and spitting cobras are not
particularly considerate when they feel
threatened and thus also pose a risk
to buffalo. Injuries have to be treated
effectively.
2. Boma facilities allow for yearly
vaccinations against blackquarter,
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anthrax, botulism, pasteurella and Rift
Valley fever,
3. as well as yearly deworming and parasite
control.
4. If weaning young animals, DNA
sampling, horn measurements,
weighing, microchipping and sorting
animals are part of your management
program then a boma is essential.
5. A boma also serves as a (i) quarantine
area for animals until blood test results
are available, (ii) holding pen to view
/ load sale animals, and (iii) temporary
holding pen for adapting / introducing
new animals into a herd.
6. Substantial savings on helicopter and
veterinary costs associated with treating
animals in the veld.
7. As a result of animals being handled
3 to 4 times a year in the boma, they
become relatively mild tempered - a
trait for which many buyers pay an extra
premium.
8. Stress on the animals is significantly
reduced because they are familiar with
the environment where handling takes
place.
9. Animals remain calm in grazing camps
because they are not darted from
vehicles or helicopters.
Disadvantages of poorly designed
bomas:
1. Unnecessary animal injuries
2. Dangerous for personnel
3. Frustration of personnel, vet, buyers etc.
Factors to consider when planning a
boma facility:
1. The location of the farm with regards to
existing camps, soil type (avoid clay soil),
slope (for effective drainage), access for
heavy vehicles, water, electricity, handling
of manure and water used for cleaning,
calm area with minimum / no noise or
disturbances.
2. Number of animals to be housed and
handled (plan in advance for possible
expansion).
3. The boma can be planned to serve as a
central location for herd management: an
office with a refrigerator for medicine and
DNA samples as well as a storage shed
for equipment (e.g. tools, wheelbarrows,
brooms, maintenance materials, stretcher
etc.).
4. Determine the requirements of the pens
(pens for individual animals, crush, type
of floors, roofed or open?). If a crush is
part of your boma design it is advisable
to consider a curved crush that can be
divided into individual compartments by
sliding doors - see figure 1 (B). The crush
should not exceed a height of 2 meters
and should be covered on the sides and
top (e.g. line with conveyor).
Principles of the boma design
1. Buffalo should be captured passively
from the grazing camp via passages
of approximately 5 metres wide that
enter the boma - see figure 1 (A). Water
troughs should be placed in the capture
pens, while the tick-off can be placed at
the entrances of the pens.
2. Water troughs should preferably be
installed at the same height in order
to limit the number of ball valves
needed. Cement water troughs are
recommended to ensure cool drinking
water. Lock valves should be placed at
the water supply points which lead to
individual troughs. Make provision for
water troughs to be drained when they
are not used.
3. Easy and safe access for personnel to
feeding troughs is important. Each feed
trough should have the capacity to
contain one day’s feed supply for the
maximum amount of animals that can
be kept in the pen. Remember that the
feed troughs should have draining holes
for rainwater.
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Wildlife stud services
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4. Choose construction material (steel,
wood, conveyer, concrete) carefully and
keep the following in mind: wellbeing
of animals, limiting the maintenance
needed, boma lifespan, safety of animals
and personnel.
5. Place gates in the corners (and in the
natural direction in which the animals
would move) of the camp/pen. Swinging
and sliding gates (hanging from a top rail
and no rail at the bottom, only a guide
above ground level) should be closed
and locked automatically with minimum
effort for personnel, while buffalo must
not be able to open the gates!
6. Crush is 900mm and passages in the
facility between pens are 1.1m.
7. Pen/boma height of 2 metres is sufficient
and constructions should be at least 3
times stronger than that required for
cattle. 65mm diameter tubular cross
bars with a 6mm wall thickness and
spacing as indicated on figure 3.
8. Enough room for heavy vehicles to
turn for the loading and off-loading of
animals. Make provision for the height
of the truck and trailer as well as access
from behind and from the side of the
vehicles - see figure 1(C).
9. Water supply should not only be
sufficient for drinking water but also
for cleaning, especially with concrete
floors. During the summer months,
buffalo enjoy cooling off under water
sprinklers and during winter the same
sprinklers are used for dust control.
10. The feed store must be able to stock
at least one week’s feed supply at
maximum boma capacity – see figure
1(D).
See the following link for an aerial video of
boma layout:
h t t p s : / / w w w . d r o p b o x . c o m / s /
o0c20n9mrot5eg6/Buffalo%20boma%20
layout%20aerial%20video.mp4?dl=0&pre
view=Buffalo+boma+layout+aerial+video.
mp4
Economic considerations
Given the current economic climate the most
frequently asked question is about the cost
and repayment period of such a facility.
Some of the hidden cost savings lie within
the fact that:
• The animals can be immobilised under
much better conditions compared to
darting from a helicopter or even vehicles
– feed and water are withdrawn 12 hours
before planned immobilisation which
reduces the danger of rumen fluid in
the airway and lungs that can result in
pneumonia or even suffocation and death.
• Animals can be immobilised under
any weather conditions since pens are
sheltered and well ventilated.
• Buffalo tend to pull the darts out and
sometimes chew and even swallow
the darts. In the pens, animals can be
separated and this problem can be
monitored / eliminated.
• Death as a result of heat stress and capture
myopathy is eliminated.
• Pole syringes are used in 90% of all cases
where drugs are administered, therefore
the risk of poor shot placement with dart
guns are eliminated.
• A well-designed, good quality boma
definitely contributes to the value of the
herd.
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Figure 1: Boma layout
Figure 2: Water supply system
Figure 3: Specifications
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Farmers’ responses to
poached rhino
- Dr Johan Marais & Dr Gerhard Steenkamp
Saving the Survivors (STS)
Saving the Survivors was started by Drs Johan Marais and Gerhard Steenkamp as a
direct consequence of the escalating poaching of rhinos. They are both senior lecturers
at the faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria and have a passion for rhinos
and other wildlife.
082 556 0644 / 082 809 3845
www.savingthesurvivors.org
Introduction
Rhino poaching is gripping farmers and
veterinarians alike. The current rate of
poaching is an environmental disaster and
together with the fate of the African elephant
and our continent’s pangolin species, a real
indictment on the human race. It is quite
apparent that until such time that suitable
alternatives are found to curb the poaching,
more animals will succumb to poaching of
which the majority will die, but a number of
animals will also be left for dead and badly
mutilated. The aim of this paper is to alert
the game farmer to events that can or may
take place on the discovery of a poached
animal as well as some guidelines on what
have worked in the past.
Prepare yourself
As said before the poaching of our rhino is
escalating and no one farm or farmer has
a guarantee of being safe. Despite tens
of thousands of Rands spent monthly on
security, poachers are in indiscriminant
and your property unfortunately may be the
next one they target.
Make sure that all your relevant telephone
numbers are at hand, not only on your
phone, but the farm managers should also
have access to these. Relevant numbers
would include, but not be limited to:
• Your local veterinarian/s
• An alternative veterinarian
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• Your local sector policing (neighbourhood
or farm watch)
• PROA (Private Rhino Owner’s Association)
• Local investigation officer
• Local police
When tragedy strikes
Speaking to farmers which have suffered this
dreadful tragedy, not one told me they were
expecting it. This may obviously differ but for
the majority of you it will be an unexpected
event which means, the better prepared you
are the more effective you will be able to
deal with the situation.
First and foremost remember that poaching
is a crime and therefore the poaching scene
is a crime scene. Having said that, surviving
humans or animals takes precedence and
every effort should then be made to save
them. Decide on one person to liaise with
the security companies/police and as soon
as an incident has occurred let them deal
with phoning the relevant people. While you
are driving around the farm looking for the
poached animal you may go in and out of
signal range which can cause frustration and
a delayed response. The radio networks in
existence in the farming communities are of
great assistance here. Local neighbourhood
or farm watches and PROA have operating
procedures on how to deal with these
incidences and their guidelines should be
followed.
When you learn for the first time of a
poaching or potential poaching victim
on your property, alert your veterinarian
immediately. Even if at that time you haven’t
seen the animal yet and don’t even know if it
is alive or not, they need to know that there
is a potential patient on the horizon and
open all communication channels to you in
order to get all the relevant information as
you collect it. When you arrive at the scene
please do not proceed to drive right up to the
animal. Not only are you contaminating the
crime scene, but these animals, if still alive
will be very stressed by this action. Rather
stop 10 - 20 metres away from the animal
and see if you can notice any movements of
the limbs, head, ears, tail or even breathing
movements to assess the status of the animal.
These observations can be enhanced using
binoculars. If you are still not sure let ONE
person approach the animal, preferably from
the rear and walk a straight line towards the
animal to assess if it is alive or not. Once it
has been established that the animal is dead,
retreat on the same path that you approached
the animal in order to keep your impact on
the crime scene minimal. If this was a cow,
you need to think about the potential calf.
If this is a known animal that had a calf,
every effort should now go into finding this
calf. Normally calves would stay close to the
cows unless they were either traumatised
or was attacked by predators. One person
needs to stay with the carcass and act on the
recommendations of the investigating officer
until such time that they can be on site.
Calves that are with the carcass should be left
alone. Our natural instinct is to rush in and
try and mother these calves, however this
may cause more stress to this individual and
should not be done as a rule. Liaise with your
veterinarian and relay all relevant information
regarding this calf and its potential injuries.
Your veterinarian will then guide you as to
what to do next, depending on how soon
he or she will be on the farm. For calves
that have strayed from the cow, allow one
person to follow it on foot and protect it from
predators.
Figure 1: Rhino calf mauled by hyenas after the
cow was poached. (Photo credit: Dr Peter Rogers).
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Figure 2: A rhino calf mauled by lions after the
cow was poached (Photo credit: Dr Louis Greef)
The way the calf behaves as well as any
injuries present should once again be
communicated with your veterinarian and
his/her advice followed.
We are very fortunate that there are several
rhino orphanages that can look after
abandoned or injured rhino calves (please
see Table 1). Speak to your veterinarian first
and see where they suggest your rhino go to
for help. The same infrastructure is however
not that readily available for adult white
rhinos. Unlike black rhinos these animals
from the veld find it difficult to acclimatise
to a boma when moved there and would
much rather benefit from a larger camp
(1 – 10 hectares). This makes them feel
more comfortable and the chances of them
not eating are diminished. It also greatly
enhances any future observations/treatments.
Those injured animals left in the veld should
be monitored by someone following them
on foot or a foot collar should be placed the
first time it is treated in order to find it again.
Future treatment events may require the help
of a helicopter to find and immobilise the
rhino which increases the costs.
There are several rhinos that have been
successfully treated for poaching related
injuries and even though these treatments
may require intensive care for the animal
as well as a team of veterinarians and other
care givers, every rhino deserves a chance at
survival. With the benefit of research over the
past 3 years we now approach the injured
rhino a little bit different than before. When
your veterinarian arrives he/she will usually
assess the rhino (including calf) from a distance
and make an initial assessment. He/she will
then proceed to immobilise the animal and
then perform a cursory clinical evaluation
which will usually also include the taking
of several blood samples. Today we have
some parameters that can help us understand
the level of trauma in the rhinoceros and
ongoing studies are aimed at relating several
of these parameters with survival. Some
rhinos are poached by using immobilisation
drugs and your veterinarian’s approach to
these will be completely different. Complete
reversal of these individuals is the immediate
response we may have but yet again dealing
with several cases have shown that partial
reversal with some basic supportive therapy
may be much more beneficial to the animal
before it is then completely reversed. At this
point in time your veterinarian may call other
veterinarians to assist him/her with the future
treatment of your rhino.
Who is Saving the Survivors (STS) and
what do we do?
Saving the Survivors (STS) is a registered NPC
and aims to do the following:
• Assist local veterinarians in treating
injured rhinos.
• Share our experiences with veterinarians
(local and abroad) in order to help save as
many rhinos as possible.
• Guide clinically relevant research into
certain aspects of rhino health (like horn
anatomy, normal blood values for rhino as
well as those of injured rhino, leg and head
anatomy, antibiotic and anti-inflammatory
drug usage).
• Research into the use of complete surgical
dehorning of rhino calves as a deterrent to
poaching and creating a hornless herd/s
of rhinos as future reservoirs of rhino to
populate areas with insufficient numbers.
• Currently we are treating around 40 – 50
wounded rhinos annually. It very seldom
requires a single visit, but the close co-
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operation between us and your local
veterinarian is the key to optimally treat a
rhino.
Being an NPC enables us to use public
funding to treat animals belonging to other
NPC’s or the State (including parastatals like
SANParks) for free. Animals belonging to
private individuals are also treated; however
this will attract a fee. Ultimately our aim is
the survival of each and every rhino that we
attend to. Even if this means that an animal
may not be fit to withstand the rigours of
the African bush. Through partnerships
we can accommodate these individuals in
sanctuaries where we can hopefully still get
them to reproduce and continue to help with
the potential survival of the species. This is
also the case with abandoned orphans. Our
motto truly means ‘Creating Hope from Hurt!’
Figure 4: Dealing with large wounds like this
one of Hope’s face is very challenging and
requires a whole team of people. Healing is
estimated to take at least 18 months. (Photo
credit: STS).
Table 1: Rhino calf rehabilitation facilities currently in South Africa
ORPHANAGE/FACILITY CONTACT PERSON PROVINCE TEL. NR.
Hoedspruit Endangered Species Adine Rhoode Mpumulanga 082 499 7526
Centre (HESC)
Rhino Revolution Terry Rawlings Mpumulanga 092 927 8618
The Rhino Orphanage Arrie van Deventer Limpopo 083 645 4398
Care for Wild Petronel Nieuwoudt Mpumulanga 082 825 8735
Fundimvelo Thula Thula Rhino Karen Trendler KwaZulu-Natal 072 969 4499
Orphanage
Figure 3a: A young
rhino cow poached by
immobilisation at first
presentation.
(Photo credit: STS)
Figure 3b: The same
rhino cow as in 3A,
3 months after initial
treatment and by keeping
the wound covered with
a technique developed
by STS.
(Photo credit: STS)
Figure 3c: Wound healed
6 months after we started
the treatment.
(Photo credit: Ray Landau)
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Fencing specifications
for wildlife
- Aldon Prinsloo, Director & Head of Fencing Department
Chemvet Steel & Fencing
Aldon Prinsloo, a qualified Agricultural Extension Officer, joined
Chemvet Steel and Fencing in 1992 where he researched and
assisted in the development of electric fencing in conjunction with
Stafix. Today, as Director and Head of the Fencing Department, his
21 years of experience in electric fencing and wildlife fences are noncomparable.
Being a game farmer and breeder himself, Aldon gives
first hand experienced advice. He is also the Chairman of the Pretoria
Game Interest group, a Chamber of the WRSA.
011 437 9000 / 082 572 0607 aldon@chemvet.co.za www.chemvet.co.za
Introduction
To ensure the most effective fence and
prevent over or under spending on a huge
infrastructure development, it is important
to do sufficient research regarding the types
of animals kept, the nature of the terrain,
the type of material and available finances.
There is no standard specification on a game
fence and each game farmer should therefore
evaluate his own situation and consult
with their local Nature Conservation office
regarding requirements by authorities.
1. Height of the fence
The height and density of the fence depends
on the type of animals to be kept in and
outside. Wild animals can be classified into
three categories:
1.1 Animals that crawl
E.g.: Duiker, Springbok, Roan, Sable, Nyala,
Wildebeest, Hartebeest. A 1.8m game
fence is sufficient to contain these animals,
however with intensive breeding, a higher
fence is recommended to help avoid jumpers
and predators from entering the breeding
camps.
1.2 Animals that jump
Leaping game includes species such as
Eland, Kudu, Waterbuck and Impala and a
2.4m game fence is recommended.
1.3 Animals that dig
Warthog, Bushpig and Porcupine are common
culprits who dig their way underneath fences.
Jackal, Cheetah and Lynx gladly use these
holes to pass through. To avoid the daily
frustration of closing these holes, a mesh or
nettingwire fence as well as a trip standard is
recommended.
2. Type of fences
2.1 Conventional Steelwire fence
Undoubtedly the most common, effective
and most well priced game fence to contain
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wild animals. The following heights and
strands are recommended (deviations in
brackets):
• 1.8m – 16 Strands (13 – 18)
• 2.4m – 21 Strands (17 – 32)
• 3.0m – 24 Strands (21 – 34)
With a very suitable quality, ease of
workmanship and a breaking strain of 450
kg, the 2.24mm High Strain Steelwire is the
most popular wire used on game fences.
Recommendations on material spacing:
Straining Post (With 2 X Stays) Every 200m
Intermediate Post (With no Stays) In between every straining post
Y-Standards
Every 10m
Droppers From 500mm to 2m spacing (Usually 1.43m
– 6 droppers between each Y-standard)
2.2 Block Wire (Hingejoint / Veldspan)
There are many different manufacturers,
patterns and quality of block type fences
available. These types of fences are very
popular as they are easy to erect and create a
dense barrier. This fence has huge advantages
in areas where snares are traditional problems.
Recommendation on material spacing:
Straining Post (With 2 X Stays) Every 98.5m
Y-Standard
Every 10m
Droppers
Every 2.5m (3 Droppers between each Y-standard)
2.3 Steelwire fence with Nettingwire or
Diamond Mesh
Ideal for breeding camps to create a denser
bottom section. A 200 - 300mm flap can be
folded at the bottom part of the fence. This
flap will ensure continuous contact with
the ground level contour. Stones can be
packed on this folded part in order to prevent
the unwanted from entering or exit. Jackal
75mm and Pig 90mm woven from a 1.8mm
wire in a forward twist pattern ensure a good
quality which cannot unravel. A good quality
Diamond mesh would be manufactured
from a 2.0mm or 2.5mm wire in either
75/64/50mm apertures.
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2.4 Nettingwire fence
Some farmers prefer to erect their total
fence with Nettingwire. As 1.8m netting is
the highest standard nettingwire available,
two roles of 1.2m are erected on top of
each other. 2.24mm high strain steelwire
are strained on ground level and every 200
- 400mm upwards. Although this fence is
very efficient, any animal impact damage are
difficult to repair to its original form. Spacing
on the rest of the material are the same as
2.1.
3. Material quality
When planning a game fence, which is
usually a lifetime investment, it is important
to be well informed that there are several
options available on material quality, pricing
and availability.
3.1 Posts and Stays
Straining posts and stays can be seen as
the foundation and the only anchor to
your strained fence. Avoid any bending or
movement at all cost. Over 7.5 ton strain will
be applied to a 2.4m fence straining post and
therefore at least 114mm X 3mm tubular post
are recommended. Thinner material might
bend and also has a much shorter lifespan.
3.2 Y-Standards
The 3.05m Mittal Y-Standard profile’s weight
has recently been increased to 2.3kg/m.
Lighter profiles are still available but will not
give the same steadiness and strength on a
game fence.
3.3 Droppers
The function of the dropper is to ensure secure
wire separation on the fence. Make sure to
bind the steelwire with the correct double tie
round the dropper. The Mittal T-Dropper is a
profile manufactured to 0.58 kg/m standard
and is rated as one of the most ridged profiles
with the best shape for secure binding.
3.4 Wire
Fully or Heavy Galvanised (SABS 675) and
Lightly Galvanised (SABS 935) wire are
available in the market. The Lightly Galvanised
wire has a zinc coating of minimum 40 grams
zinc per m² while fully galvanised wire’s zinc
coating is minimum 240 grams per m². Fully
galvanised wire offer a 600 % better quality
difference in life expectancy for less than 20
% price difference.
3.5 Gates
Heavy duty gates are recommended. The gate
can either be covered with a mesh or flatbar
welded across. Gates should be equipped
with good quality gate hinges. A tube
swivelling hinge ensures smooth handling
and is a much longer lasting mechanism.
The gate must be equipped with a strong
and hassle free locking system. Also ensure
big enough gates for heavy vehicles to pass
through.
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4. Electrifying the fence
Electrification is added onto a fence to
prevent animals from touching the barrier
(the fence). Recommendation of different
lengths, types, quantity and spacing heights
on offset brackets are all determined by the
combination animals and predators to be
controlled.
Rivers, dongas and mountains has its own
interesting challenges, but very successful
and easy maintainable methods are currently
used.
Energiser power consumption is minimal.
• Correct way of joining steelwire.
• For sandy soil or turf, consider to make the
straining posts longer.
• It is advisable not to strain the wire through
the holes of Y-standards as this method
tends to damage the galvanising on the
wire.
• Make use of Straining Boxes on corners
and gates.
5. Fencing tips:
• Correct way of tying the wire around
droppers and Y-Standards.
A tripwire around the outside of the fence,
keeps diggers out successfully.
131

Weed control
in a game farming operation
- Pat Loots, Managing Director, Avenatus (Pty) Ltd.
Pat Loots has been a household name in the Agriculture Chemical
industry since 1975. His years of knowledge, experience and passion
working with herbicides, insecticides and fungicides has been the
largest weight to his success in this industry. Pat is a proud game farmer
with various interests throughout the industry. As the Managing Director
of Avenatus Pty Ltd, with the best handpicked product range for the
game farmer, Pat has been involved for the past 3 years in sharing his
knowledge and experience with game farmers and their employees’
through WRSA training sessions.
082 494 0989 / 082 553 5962
pat@avenatus.co.za
Introduction
Chemical weed control plays a vital role
across the globe, ensuring economical food
production. It is doubtful if adequate food
stocks would be available without the use of
herbicides. For that very reason companies
are spending astronomical amounts on
research and development in an effort to find
solutions for existing weed problems, while
trying to keep abreast of the phenomenon
of weed resistance at the same time. Control
and quite often chemical control of problem
plants, harmful insect pests and diseases has
become an integral part of successful farming
operations.
In South Africa there was a tremendous move
to transform commercial stock farms into
game ranches, particularly over the last ten
years. Due to bush encroachment many farms,
particularly in the northern and eastern parts
of the country have become uneconomical
units as far as meat production is concerned.
Hand in hand with the steady increase in
density of indigenous woody plants, alien
plants have also increasingly made their
presence felt along rivers and in catchments.
This situation benefitted significantly from
the general lack of understanding and limited
public concern about these environmental
threats.
Enclosures which vary in size – from ten to
fifty hectares - are fenced off these days for
intensive game farming. The game farmer is
therefore affecting the ecosystem even more
directly than cattle farmers used to. To feed
game, farmers source fodder from anywhere
in South Africa – from road reserves to
cultivated lucerne – a critical component
of most commercial game supplements.
Unfortunately the “imported” fodder
sometimes contains seeds from hardy weeds
from other parts of the country which then
establish in areas where they are an unknown
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entity. Game ranchers are unknowingly
“breeding” what can only be described as
a potential crisis – a combination of bush
encroachment, infestations of alien invasive
plants as well as an influx of “imported”
weeds.
The game rancher may be spending days
or even weeks to obtain the right genes at
enormous prices of specific game species
and to implement breeding programmes
with the help of veterinarians as well as other
experts. However, the question each rancher
has to answer for himself is how much time is
he allocating towards managing his pastures
and maintaining his expensive game fences?
Where the fence is electrified weed control
is even more important, because weeds
tap electricity making the fence, which is
supposed to protect very valuable game, less
than optimally effective. Thus the purpose of
the fence is defeated. Natural grazing that is
managed well remains the game rancher’s
biggest asset, because it is still the most
economical source of nutrition available.
Game ranchers should therefore focus more
on pasture management as well as protection
of the expensive fences which is protecting
the even more valuable species of wildlife
they farm with. This aspect as well as effective
pasture management, which include effective
vegetation control, should enjoy the same
attention to detail.
What is a weed?
A weed can be regarded as any plant
occurring where it is not wanted. Weeds on a
game farm can be grouped according to their
lifespan – annual or perennial. Additionally,
problem plants can be sub-divided into
grasses (mono-cotyledons) and broadleaf
plants (di-cotyledons), which include woody
plants, like trees and shrubs. One can also
distinguish between indigenous and exotic
plants. Some plants are so noxious that they
have received declared weed status, in which
case they may not even be present on your
property. Some plants are highly toxic. Can
you identify those plant species that can
potentially cause serious losses? Are they
present in your breeding camps? Is there an
effective vegetation management program
for your farm that was put together by experts
in their particular field?
What is a herbicide?
To the general public, herbicides or weed
killers is a generic term indicating that a
compound has the ability to control plants.
This definition is not at all adequate. In a
legal context it means that a product has
been registered for a specific application
with the relevant authority – the Registrar
of Act 36 of 1947. In order to do that, the
applicant has to prove that the product
complies with certain standards in terms of
efficacy, formulation stability and safety to
the environment, humans and animals. From
a technical point of view, there are around
twenty herbicide groups where members of
that particular group act on a specific target
site within a targeted plant. Within these
groups are individual active ingredients,
which can be regarded as members of a
specific family and they share specific traits.
These days there are also several generic
versions with the same active ingredient.
Knowing a trade name, which often has no
relevance to the active ingredient, is useless.
The real weed killer inside your herbicide is
the active ingredient according to its specific
properties. Game ranchers need to take those
properties into consideration before they
start the procurement process. A good place
to start is with the end result: What is the
required outcome? The required outcome is
achieved when the right product (or product
combinations) is applied at the correct
dosage, under favourable conditions. This
is a specialised field requiring a specialised
skill set. Game farmers do not hesitate to
involve experts with a proven track record
in their operations when it comes to erection
of fences or breeding programs, but they
also need expert advice when it comes to
herbicide selection and application.
In order to ensure value is derived from the
money that was spent, there are a significant
number of factors which should be taken into
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consideration when a weed control program
is considered, namely:
1. Correct identification of the problem plant
is vital. Only then can one select the right
product(s) for the job!
2. Quality of the spray water that is to be
used for application of the product which
often refers to aspects like
a. pH
b. Amount of silt, clay or organic matter
in suspension
c. Amount and type of dissolved mineral
salts in the water
3. Environmental factors which determine
growing conditions at time of application
a. Soil moisture
b. Rain before and after application
c. Temperature
d. Relative humidity
e. Wind – speed and direction
f. Season
g. Clay and organic matter clay content of
the soil
4. Development stage of target weeds –
height, coppicing plants, or immature
5. Type of application equipment used
6. Level of competence of staff entrusted
with application of herbicides
Herbicide mode of action
A herbicide can be seen as any substance,
man-made or natural, that modifies the
metabolic processes of a treated plant in
such a way that it becomes less of a problem.
Treated plants may be killed, suppressed or
experience altered growth. Established plants
or seedlings or both may be the target.
The mode of action can be selective or nonselective.
Where non-selective herbicides
are used, application becomes even more
critical with more factors to consider during
application than with selective products. The
game rancher needs to be appreciative of
the fact that non-selective herbicides do not
know the difference between a troublesome
sickle bush and a 100 year old camel thorn
tree. Herbicides generally act in three broad
modes of action which a rancher needs to be
familiar with: Systemic, contact (or both) as
well as residual or pre-emergence control.
These different modes of action can give
an indication of what to expect in terms of
control of unwanted vegetation.
1. Contact herbicides
These products destroy only plant tissue
in direct contact with the herbicide.
Generally, these are the fastest-acting
herbicides, but they are usually ineffective
when it comes to perennial or well
established, mature plants or plants that
can regrow from roots, suckers or tubers.
2. Systemic herbicides
Some systemic herbicides are strictly
foliar applied and once absorbed, has the
ability to move through the plant where
they destroy a greater amount of tissue.
Other systemic herbicides lack the ability
to affect seed germination, while some
possess that ability too. These products are
often selected for their ability to control
well established and/or hardy perennials.
Glyphosate is a well well-known and
popular example.
3. Residual herbicides
These are often applied to the soil rather
than on the plant itself and are taken up by
the roots of target plants and potentially all
non-target plants with roots in the treated
area. While some plants may display
a degree of tolerance, these products
generally behave in a progressively nonselective
manner as dosages increase.
These products rely on rainfall to move
them into the soil and land owners should
take that into consideration when these
products are applied. A farmer in the
summer rainfall area will apply these
products in summer, whereas a colleague
in the Western Cape would try to get the
product into the ground in winter when
adequate precipitation is more likely.
Taking all of the above into consideration
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Figure 1: Dense vegetation around game fences
can cause serious damage to fences when fires
break out.
Figure 3: Planning and effective execution
of a weed control program require in-depth
knowledge and understanding of the features of
herbicides as well as external or environmental
factors which may affect the end result. Consult a
herbicide expert.
Figure 2: A well-managed game farm’s fences
should be be weed free at all times, ideally even
before game is transferred to these breeding
camps.
(the different modes of action of herbicides
belonging to the twenty or so herbicide
groups) it should be apparent that unless
you know exactly what you are looking for,
shopping off a shelf at the local coop might
not be the way to go. Planning and effective
execution of a weed control program require
in-depth knowledge and understanding of
the features of herbicides as well as external
or environmental factors which may affect
the end result.
Herbicides on a game farm
With the fencing of a game farm, changing it
from a unit that produces meat commercially
into an operation that focusses on breeding
game, we change conditions dramatically.
This type of investment must be must be
accompanied with a three to five year plan.
If we think about the job at hand and all the
aspects associated with the establishment of a
game farm (bush encroachment, the influx of
new plants not endemic to the region, control
of unwanted vegetation to create enclosures
favourable for game breeding, controlling
vegetation as a fire management strategy)
one has to regard chemical weed control as
a critical management resource that every
game rancher can’t do without. Game fences
itself are worth millions, but that is only part
of the story. The animals inside those fences
are worth so much more! If such fences are
electrified, how do we ensure consistent,
uninterrupted power to deter intrusion and
to prevent animals from escaping? A well
planned, well executed vegetation control
strategy can provide peace of mind, help
protect your investment and extend the life
span of your fence. Game fences should be
weed free at all times, ideally even before
game is transferred to breeding camps.
Bush encroachment is an aspect of game
farming that needs special attention.
Indiscriminate removal of one tree species
like Terminalia, accompanied by the
introduction of impala’s, may cause sickle
bush (Dichrostachys cinerea) populations to
explode. Planning should take everything
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into consideration – starting date, the initial
herbicide treatments as well as the followup
treatments for the following years, but
flexible enough to react to situations that
might instigate specific actions. Regular and
thorough inspections are a critical aspect of
a successful vegetation management strategy.
Long term success depends on thorough
planning – at least 5 years ahead. There are
no quick fixes here.
The game farmer works towards certain
goals and plans accordingly. Game ranchers
talk about breeding programs and the
importance of the right genetic material for
each species, creation of suitable breeding
camps, establishment of reliable water
supply, effective parasite control and so
on, but the farmer who ignores the reality
of bush encroachment, establishment of
“imported” weed populations and vegetation
threatening electric fences, can receive a
rude awakening at some point. We should
anticipate nature reacting to whatever action
we take. Therefore, it is fatal to expect a high
degree of success if we approach vegetation
control in a haphazard, unplanned fashion.
Summary
The correct use of herbicides is only part of
the science of managing a farm to the ideal
of a sustainable, economical unit. The game
farmer of the future needs to partner with
experts in their particular field to realize this
ideal and effective vegetation management is
one aspect that demands special attention.
The era of allowing game to roam along
uncontrolled is gone. Pastures need to be
managed in order to be sustainable in the
long term. This requires different intervention
strategies at different
times. This responsibility,
the protection of the
environment - including
the vegetation and the
wildlife it supports - is
huge. The sustainability of
an intensive game farming
operation should be
entrusted to someone with
the necessary expertise
and the contribution of
an experienced herbicide
expert can make, should
not be underestimated.
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Wildlife stud services
137

Legal support
for the
wildlife ranching/farmed wildlife sector in South Africa
the current and potential role of legislation administered by the
Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries
- Keith A Ramsay, Scientific manager: Animal Production
Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries South Africa
Mr Keith Ramsay is Scientific Manager: Livestock Development at the
Department for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. He is a Pretoria Boys
High and University of Pretoria (BSc, BSc Hons – Animal Breeding and
Physiology and MSc Reproductive Physiology) alumni. He worked for
Department Development Aid for 20 years where he gained invaluable
experience in the developing animal agriculture field – particularly
in the socio-cultural importance of livestock and communicating with stock owners. He
specialised in small farm systems research and development and indigenous livestock.
This included smallholder poultry models and integrated fish – poultry systems. He moved
to DAFF in 1994 and was Registrar of Animal Improvement from 1994 to 2004. Mr Ramsay
serves on the Board of Directors of Rare Breeds International and Heifer International –
South Africa.
012 319 7448 / 083 377 1022 KeithR@daff.gov.za www.daff.gov.za
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general management practices
For the purposes of this article, the term farmed wildlife will be used for all wild animals kept
in enclosures on agricultural land. This would include free ranging animals in enclosures
larger than 1000 ha as well as smaller selective breeding herds in enclosures less than 1000
ha. The latter would include categories such as captive lion breeding and the breeding of
small antelope species.
Wildlife ranching/farming in South Africa
Over the past 40 years, there has been a growing interest in the use of wild herbivores as a
more viable and sustainable alternative to conventional species and farming systems using
domestic livestock. Wildlife farming also has the added advantage of ecotourism, hunting
and the trade in a wide range of products that include trophies, skins and bones.
This has led to the emergence of a wildlife ranching sector that is widely recognized as a
world leader in the extensive use of wild animals for farming/ranching purposes. In 1987,
the then Department of Agricultural Development recognised wildlife ranching as a fullyfledged
agricultural activity, but the legislation controlling aspects of this sector remains
largely focused on animal health, agricultural resource conservation and fencing. There is
still little to no control over the breeding and improvement of farmed wildlife and only a
limited degree of control over the welfare of the animals in this sector - this despite the fact
that that wildlife ranching/ farmed wildlife currently makes a sizeable contribution to the
GDP.
Farming with wild animals has a wide range of ethical, emotive, health and food safety
issues that often require assurances that can only be generated through the application of
existing legislation relevant to this sector. In addition, questions are being asked about the
welfare of farmed wildlife and how these animals impact on biodiversity and the stability of
populations of similar animals in conservancies.
There are claims that captive breeding programs are reducing pressure on species at risk
such as rhino and lion but there is little to no information on the genetic structure of these
populations and how, if needed, selected animals could be re-introduced into specific
conserved ecosystems where they either no longer exist or where the resident population is
at risk as a result of reduced numbers or inbreeding.
There is no doubt that captive bred populations can play a role in conservation, but this
needs to be founded on good scientific/genetic information.
This, in turn needs a legal support base to ensure that certain basic interventions can be
applied by all concerned without having to resort to legal action including moratoriums on
certain activities such as the breeding of colour variants that would normally not be seen in
significant numbers in natural populations.
Table 1 shows the DAFF legislation that is currently applicable to specific aspects of wildlife
farming as well as some legislation that could assist in monitoring and controlling the sector,
with assurances on animal welfare, breeding value and the certification of genetic material
in mind.
While the health, meat safety and fencing issues are relatively well controlled, the industry
is currently experiencing an increase in the breeding of colour variants that seldom occur in
natural populations as well as an increase in the breeding of large predators (mainly lions)
for a range of subsectors including hunting. This has raised concerns about how colour
breeding is monitored and controlled, how the collection and use of semen and embryos is
monitored and controlled, what control (if any) exists to avid the harmful effects of heritable
genetic defects and how the captive predator breeding sector can be controlled / control
itself.
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Table 1: DAFF legislation relevant to farmed wildlife.
ACT
Animals Protection Act, 1962 (Act No 71 of
1962 (APA)
Performing animals protection Act, 1935
(Act 24 of 1935). (PAPA)
South African Abattoir Corporation Act,
1992 (Act No 120 of 1992)
Meat Safety Act, 2000 (Act No 40 of 2000)
Animal Health Act, 2002 (Act No 7 of 2002)
COMMENTS
APA – Limited application – largely
dependent on monitoring by animal welfare
societies and reports on abuse, but standards
have been and are being developed for
specific activities and species. None,
however, are currently regulations in terms
of this Act.
Where applicable, wildlife operations need
a PAPA licence.
Applies to any meat processing facilities
and meat products from the sector.
Direct application – control over animal
diseases and parasites and the movement of
animals.
Animal diseased Act, 1984 (Act No 35 of
1984). To be repealed by the Animal Health
Act, 2002 (Act no 7 of 2002)
Veterinary and Para-veterinary Professions
Act, 1982 (Act No 19 of 1982)
Fencing Act, 1963 (Act no 31 of 1963)
Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act,
1983 (Act No 43 of 1983)
Perishable Products Export Control Act,
1983 (Act No 9 of 1983)
Agricultural Product Standards Act, 1990
(Act No 119 of 1990)
Animal Identification Act, 2002 (Act No 6
of 2002)
Animal Improvement Act, 1998 (act 62 of
1998)
All buffalo farms are registered in terms of
this legislation.
Control over all veterinary and para
veterinary activities related to wildlife.
Some application.
Applicable but difficult to monitor and
enforce.
Being applied and complied with.
Limited application but not compulsory.
Some owners mark their breeding stock
with their legal mark that is registered for
listed domestic animals.
Currently not applicable but this Act has the
potential to make a major contribution to
responsible and sustainable wildlife farming
in South Africa.
Having a National Biodiversity Act that is effectively administered by the nine Provinces
currently makes it extremely difficult to manage a wildlife gene pool that is largely found
on agricultural land, but this could be simplified by using National legislation that has
been specifically developed for animal identification and improvement, with no devolved
functions at Provincial level. This could complement the unavoidable conservation
legislation linked to hunting and the keeping of listed and endangered species.
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Many may argue that this would not work but the fact that all the buffalo farms in South
Africa are registered with the Directorate of Animal Health at DAFF (Table 2) and that many
of these operations have animal ID systems and breeding programs, tends to support the
inclusion of other species and other legislation.
This registration does not exempt the owners from other National and Provincial legislation
but it makes it possible to have an effective monitoring and control infrastructure in place.
Table 2: Buffalo farms on the DAFF register.
PROVINCE DISEASE FREE FMD/CD INFECTED TOTAL
Mpumalanga 61 18 79
Gauteng 38 0 38
Limpopo 1257 80 1337
North West 305 0 305
Free State 259 0 259
KwaZulu-Natal 28 62 90
Eastern Cape 194 0 194
Western Cape 75 0 75
Northern Cape 128 0 128
Total 2345 160 2505
There is no reason why the buffalo registration could not be broadened to include other
species and why all could not be subject to relevant sections of National animal identification
and improvement legislation. Currently, there are over 5000 game fenced farms in South
Africa and almost half of these would appear to be registered buffalo farms.
Table 3: The number of game farms per province.
PROVINCE
NUMBER OF GAME
FENCED FARMS
TOTAL AREA GAME
FENCED AREA
AVERAGE SIZE PER
FARM
Free State 180 147 743 821 ha
Limpopo 2 482 3 325 652 1 340 ha
North West 340 364 935 1 073 ha
Mpumalanga 205 276 016 1 346 ha
Gauteng 72 82 076 1 140 ha
KwaZulu-Natal 90 168 841 1 876 ha
Eastern Cape 624 881 633 1 413 ha
Northern Cape 986 4 852 053 4 921 ha
Western Cape 82 265 205 3 234 ha
Total 5 061 10 364 154 17 164 ha
This could be supported by a recent legal opinion on the mandates of DEA and DAFF as far
as Biodiversity (Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No 10 of 2004 / NEMBA) and Animal welfare
(Animals Protection Act, 1962 (Act No 71 of 1962 (APA); Performing animals protection
Act, 1935 (Act 24 of 1935) (PAPA) are concerned. This is linked to a recent case where it
was argued that the Minister of DEA could not stop the hunting of captive wildlife using
provisions in NEMBA.
The conclusion of the legal opinion was that there are clear mandates when it comes to
cruelty or suffering of animals where the legislation – the APA and PAPA – is administered
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y DAFF and that DEA‘s mandate is clear when it comes to the protection of species that are
threatened or in need of national protection to ensure their survival in the wild.
What is not clear is who is responsible for the wildlife species that are not threatened or in
need of protection and that are being farmed with on agricultural land, nor does it clarify
concerns around farming with wildlife species where there is no risk of any contamination
of wild populations of the same species.
Farmed wildlife could be effectively monitored and controlled by using a combination of
DEA and DAFF legislation that would cover all key aspects and ensure that issues of National
importance could not have different interpretations and implementation at Provincial level.
This would include recording and evaluation, maintaining pure populations, guarding
against inbreeding and the harmful effects of heritable genetic defects and managing the
trade in semen and embryos in a responsible way.
Section 7-10 deals with the requirements for registration of reproduction operators, centres
and donor animals, the purpose being registration of semen collectors, inseminators, embryo
collectors or embryo transferors; registration of collection centres and donor animals. This
will make the registration of reproduction operators, centres and donor animals compulsory
and will lead to effective control of these activities. By registering all donor animals, one
immediately has access to genetic information as well as a system that will ensure that no
animals with listed defects can be used as donors. Currently, there is no control over the AI
industry as far as wildlife is concerned – genetic material can be collected and used. There
is also no control over the registration of donor animals which can lead to (and has led to)
inbreeding problems inbreeding in captive breeding programs – including serious genetic
defects.
Section 13 and 14 controls the collection and sale of genetic material. This will assist in
monitoring and controlling the collection and sale of semen and embryos and will make
provision for quality control and guarantees that are currently non-existent. There is currently
no effective control over the collection and sale of genetic material of wildlife and it is not
compulsory to provide any guarantees that would include genetic information or warranty
on the quality and safety of the product – i.e. semen or embryos.
Sections 11, 12 and 15 concerns registration of animal breeders’ societies and registering
authorities, stud book animals and the establishing of herd books (pedigrees). This will enable
the establishment of animal breeders’ societies and registering authorities to monitor and
control the breeding of captive wildlife. It will also add stability to animal identification and
recording and will establish a databank and system to monitor issues such as inbreeding and
the frequency of heritable genetic defects. It will also provide reliable genetic information
to DEA where the introduction of captive bred wildlife is being considered to bolster wild
populations. There is currently no control over the wildlife breeding industry as far as
organised breed societies and breed standards are concerned. This has led to situations
where animals with genetic defects such as albinism are being bred and sold.
Section 16 and 17 will assist in monitoring and controlling the trade in wild animals and
genetic material with an additional authorisation that would make provision for genetic
information and the importation of material from listed animals only. This would also
control the quality and quantity of semen and embryos in particular. It could also be used
to enforce welfare considerations as these could be added as provisions for authorisation.
There is currently limited control over the importation and exportation of wild animals and
genetic material – there have been cases where large quantities of semen has been exported
and it would also be fairly easy to import semen or embryos with no genetic information as
only health protocols would have to be followed.
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By applying these sections of Act 62/98 along with the Animal Identification Act, 2002 (Act
No 6 of 2002) one can develop a comprehensive framework for farmed wildlife that will
not clash with NEMBA but actually complement it. The challenge will be to convince the
purists that farmed wildlife poses no threat to biodiversity and can, in fact, make meaningful
contributions to endangered wild populations when sufficient genetic information is available
to ensure that any introduction is as genetically similar as possible to the endemic animals.
This information can be generated if the relevant sections of the Animal Improvement Act
are applied in a responsible way.
Managing deviations from the norm
One caution, man cannot make breed standards for an animal created by God. The
phenotypic description of the animal in its natural environment is more than sufficient and
should not be interfered with. But where man has enclosed animals and started breeding
programs, often keeping deviants that may not have survived in a natural ecosystem, one
has to bring in a degree of selection, particularly when it comes to heritable genetic defects
that could have a negative impact on the animals’ quality of life. This would include defects
of the limbs, head (wry face, over and undershot jaw) and degrees of albinism that would
expose the unpigmented parts of the body to ultra violet radiation. This is becoming more
and more important as some grassland biomes are gradually changing into woody biomes
with trees that filter the sun’s rays – increasing ultra violet radiation that can lead to cancers
on unpigmented areas. Keeping a wildebeest with a pink nose / other poorly pigmented
areas is effectively a form of cruelty. In nature, such animals would soon die. Breeding with
such animals is irresponsible and should not be encouraged.
References
DAFF – Statistics on registered buffalo farms. Musetha, T.V. 2014 An overview of Wildlife Ranching (game
farming) in South Africa. DAFF, 2014.
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The potential
game
of
meat
as a local and export commodity
- Dr Flippie Cloete
Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management
North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus
Flippie Cloete is a senior lecturer and researcher in Agricultural
Economics at the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus).
He obtained his PhD in Agricultural Economics at the University of
the Free State in 2010. Dr Cloete’s research focuses on agricultural
development and wildlife economics. He has worked on numerous
research projects for both national and international stakeholders in the
agricultural sector. Dr Cloete sits on a number of steering committees
and is a member of several professional organisations. He also sits on
the editorial board of two international journals, and is frequently asked
to speak and share his expertise at national and international forums.
018 299 4245 flippie.cloete@nwu.ac.za
www.nwu.ac.za
It is widely promulgated that the future
growth of the game ranching industry rests
on the prospects of game meat, a segment
of the game ranching industry that has, to
date, largely been neglected. Besides, it can
probably be argued that the growth in the
consumption of game meat will be central
in terms of ensuring that game ranching
remains a viable agricultural land use option
in the future, or at least for those individuals
who derive their livelihood from ranching
with game animals. The latter stems from
the fact that growth and development over
the past decade were primarily been driven
by non-consumptive utilisation of game
animals. As a result, South Africa sits with
an ever increasing game animal population.
This does not only highlight the importance
of growing the current consumptive markets
but it also raises questions with regard to the
potential of game meat, not only as a means to
stimulate growth, but also to provide a much
needed alternative consumptive market.
One way of answering the question is to
look at developments in terms of wealth
or the distribution of wealth, otherwise
referred to as class mobility. Although this
approach have been criticised in the past for
naive conceptualisation, results from many
scientific papers have revealed that a positive
relationship does exist between changes in
wealth and consumption patterns. In most
developing countries, an increase in wealth
has led to a shift from a starch-based to a
higher protein-based diet, i.e. an increase in
the demand for, among other things, meat
and meat products. Figure 1 presents an
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Game Meat
overview of changes in the so-called livings
standard measurements (LSM) of South
Africa; an index that is based on income and
consumption patterns. LSM 1 is the poorest,
most resourced constrained households,
while LSM 10 is the wealthiest or households
with the highest livings standards. Important
to note is that the number of households
within the LSM1 to LSM 4 groups have
continuously declined, while the numbers
of households in the middle to upper LSM
groups have increased. The biggest growth
since 2004 was reported in the LSM 7
(53.9%) and LSM 8 (50.4%) groups. As a
result, the numbers of households in the socalled
middle class have more than doubled.
In 2013, research by the Unilever Institute for
Strategic Marketing revealed that the black
economic middle class had grown to 4.2
million people – a far cry from the 1.7 million
people in 2004. This has gone hand in hand
with an increase in spending power; with
the spending power of the black economic
middle class being estimated to be around
R400 billion per annum, notably higher than
the estimated R323 billion of the historically
wealthier white middle class. As can be
expected, the rise in the black economic
middle class caused changes in spending/
consumption patterns. In general, total
consumer expenditure increased between 30
and 50% across the different income groups.
However, it were only the low and middle
income groups who, based on a percentage
basis in terms of total spending, that reported
an increase in food expenditure. Also
important to note are the changes in terms of
spending on meat and meat products. A larger
share of consumers’ ‘meat budget’ is going to
processed meat products, while spending on
mutton and lamb reported a notable decline
(see Figure 1). The decline in the spending
on mutton and lamb is most probably price
related, while ‘convenience’ is contributing
towards gains in terms of processed meats.
The game ranching industry or ‘game meat
industry’ already has a notable presence in
the processed meat segment, considering
that an estimated 30 000 tons of game meat
is consumed in the form of or as part of other
processed meat products annually (Van der
Linde, 2015) 3 . This accounts for an estimated
25% of the total game meat that is produced
and consumed in South Africa annually. The
growth in terms of processed meat products
is definitely an aspect that should not go
unnoticed. Moreover, the continued rise in
the local economic middle class will most
certainly present the game ranching industry
with opportunities to grow game meat
consumption in the future.
Figure 1: Class mobility in South Africa 1 and
changes in real household-level expenditure 2
Africa is often overlooked when considering
export opportunities, especially for products
that require a cold chain. However, Africa
is changing, and with change comes
opportunities. In the past, BRICS (Brazil,
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Russia, India, China and South Africa) and
even the MINTs (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria
and Turkey) were labelled as the countries
with potential; however, the focus is shifting
towards the KINGS (Kenya, Ivory Coast,
Nigeria and Ghana) as the countries with
potential. The latter has contributed towards
notable international interest and as a result
increased levels of foreign direct investment,
infrastructure development, economic
prosperity etc. in these countries. It is
estimated that 220 million Africans, who in
the past were only able to meet basic needs,
will become consumers with a discretionary
spending power by the end of 2015. This
number is predicted to double by 2030.
Equally important to note is that an increase
in wealth will also lead to a change in the
orientation of African consumers, consumers
will become more Western oriented with
Western ambitions and Western consumption
patterns 4 . The latest report by African Wise
(2015) 5 suggests that spending power in
Africa has increased on average with 4%
per annum since the turn of the century –
reaching almost US$R800 billion by the
end of 2015. According to predictions, this
is likely to double by 2020. The changes in
terms of the Westernisation or formalisation
of markets in Africa are also clear from the
increasing presence of formal retail food
chains on the continent. For example,
Masmart have no less than 290 stores in 13
countries, while Shoprite have a presence
in 16 African countries. Other food-related
companies such as Clover, Carrefour and
even agribusiness such as Senwes and AFGRI
are also venturing into Africa. Moreover, in
2014, six of the top 10 export destinations
for fresh or chilled meat exports from South
Africa were other African countries – while
12 out of the top 20 were on the African
continent. Although Africa had and will have
its challenges, things are changing, which
makes it difficult to ignore the opportunities
that are being presented.
Similarly, the predictions of a global
population totalling 9 billion by 2050 and
the need to double food production is again
underlining the potential for agriculture or
food production in general. According to
the FAO (2012) 6 , the biggest economic and
population growth will be in developing
countries. In line with this, per capita meat
consumption in developing countries is
expected to grow substantially over the
next decade, while stagnation is predicted
for developed countries. The latter includes
most of Europe and North America. There
is, however, a definite shift towards more
healthy diets in the developed world, which
presents opportunities for game meat – a
product that is perceived by most consumers
as the healthiest animal protein source
available. New Zealand is currently the
leading producer and exporter of ‘venison’ to
Europe. The latest statistics suggest a notable
decline in the production and exports of
venison from New Zealand to the Europe.
From 2006 to 2014, the number of tons
exported decreased from just over 40 000
to a mere 23 000 tons – valued at NZ$181
million or just over one billion rand. The
decline in venison production and exports
is, however, as a result of a notable increase
in the profitability of dairy farming in New
Zealand and not due to a decline in the
demand for venison in Europe. Demand for
venison in Europe is still estimated to be in
excess of 100 000 tons per annum. The fact
that demand is outstripping supply is evident
from the continued venison price increase
since 2007/08 (Figure 2).
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game meat
Figure 2: New Zealand venison exports and
price changes, 2006-2014 7
Based on the above, New Zealand is satisfying
a mere 23% of the potential market demand
for game meat or ‘venison’
in Europe. This is a clear
indication of the potential
that exists in the European
market.
In conclusion, vast market
opportunities for game
meat and/or processed
game meat products
clearly exist both locally
and abroad. However,
the biggest challenges in
terms of growing game
meat consumption will
be the establishment of
an enabling environment
– an environment that
will ensure the successful
transition of game from the
farm to the fork. WRSA has
made significant strides
with the introduction
of the WRSA game
meat scheme and the
international accreditation
thereof; however, notable
investments are still
required before producers
will be able to fully
exploit the opportunities
presented.
Reference
1
SAARF All Media and Products Surveys (AMPS) 2004
to 2014
2
Vermeulen, H., Schonfeldt, H.C., Pretoruis, B and
Louw, M. (2015). Changing meat consumption patterns
due to class mobility in South Africa. Paper presented
at the 53rd Annual Conference of the Agricultural
Economics Association of South Africa, Parys, South
Africa.
3
Van der Linde, W. (2015). Diversification and
Contribution of the Wildlife Industry, Paper presented
at the 2015 Conference of the South African Wildlife
Management Association, Kimberley, South Africa.
4
Mckinsey South Africa, (2012). The Rise of the African
Consumer. Available from http://www.mckinsey.com.
5
African Wise, (2015). The African Consumer. Available
from http://www.africanwise.com.
6
FAO, (2012). World Agricultural Towards 2030/50.
Available from http://www.fao.org
7
Deer Industry New Zealand, (2015). The Deer industry
at a glance. Available from http://www.deernz.org.
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Wildlife
WRSA
Ranching South Africa’s
Internationally Registered Quality Standard
for Game Meat in South Africa
- Dr Maretha van der Merwe, Deputy Director, CTTM
Maretha obtained a qualification as Environmental Health practitioner
after matric and finished her master’s degree on TB in kudu and
buffalo in 2005. She completed her PhD study, titled: “Investigating
the concept of a Game Meat Scheme to promote safe game meat
on the South African Market” in 2012. Maretha became involved with
the Northern Game Ranchers Association in 2004 and witnessed the
national change to WRSA. Her vision is to become more involved in
training in the Game Meat Industry and also to fill some of the research
gaps as she believes Africa have the potential to be the food store for
the rest of the world.
082 498 0685
marethavdm7@gmail.com
The Game Industry in South Africa through its
official mouthpiece, Wildlife Ranching South
Africa (WRSA), is gearing itself to produce a
natural, healthy and unique SA protein food in
an attempt to respond to the predicted tripling
of the population of the African continent.
South Africa is a semi-arid country and has
proven, over the last few decades, to be ideal
for the breeding of game animals on more than
70% of its total available farm land. There are
currently more than 20 million head of game
animals in South Africa. Furthermore, the
Game Industry proved beyond any doubt to be
an investor’s dream, currently providing more
than R20 billion to the country’s revenues.
Eco tourism, taxidermy and curios, trophy and
biltong hunting, breeding for colour variants
and meat production are some of the focus
pillars in the industry. WRSA is experiencing
the full impact of not only financial growth but
also increasing genetic information, improved
and advanced technologies, evolving disease
control, supply chain traceability and lastly but
most importantly the production of meat.
The fact that an estimated 20% of red meat
consumed during the hunting seasons in
RSA is deemed to be game meat is extremely
conservative and is probably much closer to
35 - 42%, taking into consideration the scope
of application of game meat in the current
processed meat market.
However, more than 80% of the meat sold to
the SA consumer comes with little or no safety
mechanisms in place. Most of the zoonotic
diseases, (traditionally from domesticated
animals) have already been demonstrated to
manifest in the game population.
In South Africa, specific legislation for the
harvesting and sale of game meat is nonexistent
and control from Government
very poor. The Meat Safety Act 40 of 2000
(replacing the Abattoir Hygiene Act) was
gazetted in 2000 and umbrella five different
meat regulations namely: Red Meat, Poultry,
Ostriches, Crocodiles and Game Regulations.
Since 2004, the draft Game regulations have
not been promulgated or gazetted (due to legal
discrepancies e.g. dead animals may not enter
an abattoir) and this scenario has since left the
game industry without any legal guidelines to
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game meat
produce for the local market. Unfortunately the
draft game Regulation was based on the Red
Meat Regulations and all of the requirements
including all aspects of an “abattoir”. The
abattoir is per definition the place where
the animal is stunned, the throat slit and the
carcass bled. With game harvesting, all these
activities take place in the veld when the
game animal is either shot or hunted. The most
fundamental difference, therefore, between
domesticated or farmed animals and game is
the abattoir process. The game industry tried to
convince DAFF of the futility of enforcing such
an unnecessary and large expense such as an
abattoir on a game ranch, but to no avail.
WRSA had been comprehensively negotiating,
since 2006, with the department of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) to promulgate a
practical and cost effective Game Meat Scheme
to ensure the safe legal supply of game meat to
the local market. DAFF assured WRSA in writing
that this very expensive and long process (a
decade of negotiations for the game industry)
would successfully end in promulgation at the
latest September 2013. Needless to say, this did
not happen and according to DAFF, State Legal
requested amendments and finalization of the
draft Game Regulations in December 2013.
The figure below differentiates between the
export market, the local market and own use
of game meat. It highlights the fact that the
export abattoir is basically the processing plant
and the temporary depot in the veld, the actual
abattoir. The thick bordered facilities indicate
where the meat is processed; wrongly labelled
as “abattoirs” although it is a processing
action and no longer under the jurisdiction of
DAFF but that of the Department of Health.
It is important to note that an abattoir facility,
including mobile abattoirs, are irrelevant in
the game industry and until DAFF recognises
the folly of their planned Regulation, the
production of game meat for the local market
will not be successfully controlled. Although
own use is exempted under the draft Game
Regulation it is however, restricted in terms of
the number of animals to be hunted every 14
days and another thorn in the flesh of the game
industry (specifically the SA Hunters).
Figure 1: Flow diagram for the three different end users of game meat
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It now makes good sense for the Game
Industry to take the responsibility of
controlling the production of this commodity/
own produce to ensure not only the safety of
the consumer but also to address/contribute
to food security on the African Continent
against the background of Government‘s
failure in its accountability under the Meat
Safety Act. The Game Industry, therefore,
had no option but to develop and implement
standards that are on a more advanced level
than the proposed draft by Government.
WRSA pro-actively submitted an application
to an International Standards body to register
its own internationally monitored set of
guidelines or Standards for the production of
game meat in SA. The scope of the Standard
for game meat entails the “farm to fork
approach”, meaning from the game ranch
where the game are naturally bred, free
roaming and hunted, to where the hygienic
slaughter and processing of the meat occurs,
to the retailers and finally to the consumers
plate.
The WRSA Game Meat Standard is based on
three internationally accredited standards
namely ISO 9001, ISO 14000 and ISO
22000 which cover the full supply chain
from the game ranch to the consumer’s
plate. Projects based on traditional and
communal land are part of the process to
promote development of game ranches and
so alleviate poverty, improve knowledge and
empower communities.
Internationally it is found that industry
standards are a method by industry to ensure
that their product is produced under a code
that will ensure confidence in the consumer,
while showing responsibility as citizens
of the country to ensure the safety of food
to the consumer. The WRSA Game Meat
Standard’s main aim is to ensure affordable
and sustainable supply of high protein, safe
game meat that will contribute to National
Food Security as part of the Green Economy.
The developed standard was constructed
from Veterinary Procedural Notices (VPN’s)
currently used by the export market as
required by the European Union, together
with International Standards for quality such
as ISO 14000, ISO 9001 and ISO 22000
(HACCP) and aims to achieve the following
objectives:
• The Game Industry taking ownership
of the standard as intellectual property
and actively investing in the promotion
thereof.
• Implementation to be impeccable and
above suspicion.
• The standards on which it is based
should be internationally accepted i.e.
ISO 22000.
• The retailer/consumer’s access to the
audit trail will ensure traceability as
well as product safety and quality.
• The professional consultants contracted
by the Game Industry to audit the
standard should be qualified and
experienced in game meat production
and processing.
• An advanced level of safety and quality
should be evident throughout the
supply chain.
In achieving the abovementioned objectives
the following are proposed:
• The Game Industry (WRSA) and its
members must not only be committed
to the ownership and responsibility of
the standard but should actively be
involved in the roll out process thereof.
• The appointed professional consultants
should declare no conflict of interest;
have no stake in the production of the
product other than to implement and
to audit the total value chain, to ensure
their impartiality.
• The WRSA Standard should without
fail, at all times be executed to ensure
the safety and quality of the product.
The standard is divided into 5 different areas
of application and certification namely:
A. Infrastructure and Enterprise Development
• Development of accredited training
material and service providers identified
• Logistical Enterprise Development
• Administrative development and
management
• Marketing and promotional planned
activities
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B. Accreditation of the game farm – as
a natural, free roaming farm, free of
pesticides and residues
C. Accreditation of the harvesting teamhunting/harvesting
teams to comply with
Standard to ensure hygienic slaughter
practices
D. Accreditation of the slaughter facility
(mobile or permanent structures)
E. Accreditation of the processing plant (to
comply with health and hygiene standards
when secondary meat processing is
conducted according to the Department
of Health)
WRSA has also engaged in several workshops
and meetings with the following retailers:
Spar, PNP, Shoprite and Woolworths to
involve their specific requirements and to
enter into memorandums of understanding to
ensure good quality and safe game meat on
the local retailers’ shelves. Furthermore, the
training of game meat inspectors/examiners
and the basic meat hygiene training for
slaughter and facility workers are managed
and prescribed by WRSA. Below is the policy
statement that WRSA released to the media
upon the official launching of the Standard
in July 2015:
“Policy statement”
The president of Wildlife Ranching South
Africa and its council (WRSA) representing
game ranchers in South Africa and being the
industry’s official mouthpiece commit itself
hereby:
To actively promote the requirements and
rules of the branding standard for game meat
and to make the necessary funds and human
resources available in order to ensure that
the standard can effectively be implemented
throughout the Republic of South Africa
where game for local consumption is
harvested.
WRSA commits itself to ensure that qualified
professional consultants will be appointed
for the implementation of the standard and
that their integrity will be impeccable.
WRSA commits itself to an annual revision
of the policy, incorporating future changes in
all applicable National Acts and Regulations.
The council is also committed to ensure
that training of personnel involved in the
implementation of the standard will be done
in such a way to ensure that it will enhance
the product quality as well as the standard of
living of the personnel involved.
WRSA furthermore, commits itself to ensure
an appeal process for all participants,
governed by an impartial body.
• WRSA is committed to ensure that the
logo used in the branding of game meat
will become the symbol of quality and
safety assurance to the consumer in
South Africa. The logo symbolizes the
following:
• Game meat is consistent with the
policy of green economy advocated by
the organization.
• That the meat is derived from natural
free roaming animals in their natural
state and comply with ISO 14000.
• That the animals were harvested
according to the rules and regulations
as prescribed under the Animal Anticruelty
Act and the Livestock Welfare
Committee Codes of Practice for the
handling of animals.
• That no growth stimulants or
-promotants, antibiotics or any
chemicals/additives that could harm
the consumer are present in the
product.
• That the supply chain of harvesting game
meat subscribes to an international ISO
9001 and ISO 22000 mark of quality
assurance.
• That the auditing is done in such
a manner as to ensure the highest
integrity to protect the WRSA standard.
In addition, the WRSA code of conduct for all
its members includes the following section
on game meat that prescribes the labelling of
game meat. This is a first as no requirements
are available in Regulation R146 on Labelling
for game meat (R146 as promulgated under
the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectant
Act 54 of 1972).
“Game meat safety”
4.1 With regard to all types of game
meat (i) production, and (ii) meat processing
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activities, the rancher will assertively promote
safe game meat production and refrain from
any activities that are unethical or that will
offend or mislead consumers. The rancher
will therefore ensure:
4.1.1 Safe, quality game meat throughout
the production process from the farm
to the fork;
4.1.2 Implementation and compliance
with relevant laws, codes, regulatory
guides, transportation permits and the
game meat scheme;
4.1.3 No misrepresentation or misleading
labelling of any game meat product
or processed game meat product.
The following options for the correct
labelling of game meat must be
adhered to:
Figure 2: The WRSA game meat standard was
launched in July 2015.
Option 1*
Species specific e.g. kudu fillet, springbok
Carpaccio, warthog sausage, zebra steaks,
giraffe biltong, crocodile steaks etc.
Option 2
Processed game meat - “may contain one of
the following game species: impala, blesbok,
kudu, lechwe red, lechwe nile, lechwe kafue,
grey rhebok, black and blue wildebeest, red
hartebeest, sable antelope, tessebe, oryx,
roan, eland, springbuck, blue and common
duiker, steenbok, mountain reedbuck, nyala,
bushbuck and buffalo but not bushpig,
warthog, rhino (black and white), sharp’s
grysbok, sunie, bontebok, european fallow
deer, cape grysbok, mountain zebra, plains/
burchell`s zebra, crocodile, hippopotamus,
klipspringer, oribi, porcupine, red duiker,
giraffe or elephant.
Option 3
Processed game meats with other ingredients
derived from domesticated/farmed animals
or exotic animals such as fallow deer must
be listed and labelled as such. Meat/biltong/
sausage with mixed species game meat
should be labelled accordingly.
* Option 1 is the preferred option
Note: Game meat for own consumption are
excluded from regulatory control”
Figure 3: An example of a mobile abattoir
that is used during game meat harvesting.
Figure 4: Training of game meat examiners.
In conclusion
The main reason why game meat is
snowballing in popularity and market share
is due to the following marketing advantages:
• Healthy:
o lower fat content, low in cholesterol,
contain an enzyme that possesses the
ability to lower cholesterol level in
humans, higher protein, iron, zinc and
selenium content than red meat
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game meat
o free of hormones, antibiotics and growth
stimulants
o Recommended to people with high blood
pressure, dietary deficiencies, lowered
immunity and to patients with high
cholesterol
• Due to the lower pH of game meat
compared to beef, game meat has a
natural resistance to pathogenic bacteria
growth and provides a better shelf life.
• More humanely harvested than domestic
stock.
• More conservation orientated and “green”.
Game meat is organic and natural and
possesses a low carbon footprint.
• South Africa has very few competitors -
most of Africa has Foot and Mouth disease
restrictions & New Zealand farms with
exotic deer.
• Game meat is a delicacy and offers a
wonderful taste of good protein food.
• Internationally it is a rare commodity.
• Game meat has a R3 billion export
potential.
WRSA is the first game industry worldwide,
and a pioneer in its own right, that has
developed and successfully registered its
own standard for game meat harvesting,
slaughtering and processing. First world
countries are following suit on the ground
breaking work done for game meat
production in South Africa.
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Game meat
processing opportunities
- Ankie Stroebel, Member recruitment and marketing
Wildlife Ranching South Africa
Ankie Stroebel completed her studies at the University of the Free State
whereafter she worked in the meat industry for 30 years as Product
Developer, Marketing and Brand Manager at well-known companies
including the SA Meat Board, Bull Brand Foods, Karoo Cuisine, Certified
Angus Beef and Good Foods Solutions. She did significant work on red
meat product development for retailers, which include case ready to
shelf-stable meat products for both local and export markets. She has
written numerous meat recipes, done demonstrations and radio talks
on red meat, while also doing food styling for food photography. Currently she is working for
the Wildlife Ranching South Africa in the capacity of member recruitment and marketing.
012 335 6994 / 082 4411 822 members@wrsa.co.za www.wrsa.co.za
Game meat, the new generation’s red
meat
Game meat, like any other animal protein
can be processed in numerous exciting ways.
Game meat can be converted into the most
scrumptious meals and finest cuisine. With
a little imagination one can become the
world’s best cook!
The processing of game meat is completely
different from the old days when processing
primarily consisted out of biltong, dry wors,
boerewors and meat cooked off the bone
for pie meat. In fact, the processing of game
meat has become a skilled profession. Game
meat is as versatile as any other red meat. In
fact, it is so versatile that one could never run
out of ideas.
Game meat is complemented by:
• fresh herbs: rosemary, thyme, oreganum,
mint and lemon thyme,
• spices: ginger, coriander, cloves, nutmeg,
cumin and mace,
• dairy products: fresh cream, crème
fraîche, sour cream, Bulgarian yoghurt
and buttermilk,
• beverages: dry red wine, fruity white wine
and beer,
• berries: cranberries, gooseberries,
strawberries, goji berries and blueberries,
• fruit: apricot, pineapple, peaches, starfruit
and kiwifruit,
• vegetables: mushrooms, tomatoes,
butternut, lemon grass, green beans and
carrots to name but a few.
Game meat is healthy, nutritious, low in fat
and cholesterol, and contains higher levels
of iron than any other red meat. Game meats
are usually free-range animals, which mean
they have less saturated fat and are therefore
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game meat
healthier than other protein sources.
Game meat is also low in calories when
compared with beef, lamb, and pork. Game
meat is high in eicosapentaenoic acid, an
essential omega-3 fatty acid that has several
cardiovascular benefits.
Game meat is produced in a natural
environment and as a result is usually rich in
vitamins and minerals, while also being free
from the growth hormones that are normally
found in domestic meat and poultry products.
Photo by Quintus Strauss. Courtesy MLP Media,
Wildlife Ranching magazine.
Table 1: Nutritional values of meat from different game species compared to that of beef
(Enser et al., 1998; Hoffman, 2000; Jansen van Rensburg, 2001; Kroucamp, 2004; Smit, 2004;
Hoffman et al., 2007; Hoffmann et al., 2009).
SPECIES
PROTEIN
(%)
FAT
(%)
CHOLESTEROL
(MG/100G)
N-6 : N-3
Beef 1 19.2 14.2 76 15.6 – 20.1
Springbok 2 20 2.20 54.45 – 59.34 3.28 : 1
Blesbok 2 22.15 – 22.19 0.92 – 1.19 49.74 – 54.56 3.62 : 1
Impala 2 23.8 2.45 52.54 3.76 : 1
1
Grain fed
2
Grass fed
Game meat has a full-bodied meat taste
that is delicious when prepared and cooked
correctly. Game meat can be cooked in
numerous ways. By using the correct cooking
method, game meat can be transformed into
a connoisseur’s meal. Cooking methods are
classified in two categories, for example,
dry heat cooking methods and moist heat
cooking methods, depending on the age of
the animal and animal species.
Dry heat cooking methods are used on
tender cuts from the hindquarter for example
loin, fillet and rump. These are the cuts
which contain less connective tissue than
the forequarter cuts. When applying dry heat
methods the product is in direct contact with
the heat source. Dry heat cooking methods
include: oven roasting, oven grilling, pan
frying, braai over the coals and kettle braai
(Weber).
Moist heat cooking methods are used on
less tender cuts for example legs/buttocks
(topside, silverside and knuckle) and the
forequarter cuts. When applying moist heat
cooking methods the product is cooked in
liquid (meat stock, fruit juice, wine, beer and
vegetable juice) to break down the connective
tissue. Moist heat cooking methods include:
stews, casseroles and pot roasting.
Any game meat species is suitable for
processing.
Game meat can be categorised as
follows:
(i)
Category A: large game (larger than
domestic cattle, e.g. giraffe, elephant
and hippopotamus);
(ii) Category B: medium game (comparable
to domestic cattle, e.g. buffalo, kudu,
eland or zebra);
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(iii) Category C: small game (comparable to domestic sheep and goats, e.g. springbuck,
impala or blesbuck).
The following products can be processed from game carcasses
Steak Cuts
Which cut?
Steaks
Minute steaks
fillet (keep whole if too small), rump, loin
buttock, for example silverside and topside
Photo by Belinda Strauss. Courtesy MLP Media, Wildlife
Ranching magazine.
Value added products
Kebabs
Espetadas
Cubes
Stir-fry strips//trinchado/goulash
Roasts (topside, silverside, knuckle)
Minced products
Meatballs plain
Meatballs curry
Boerewors
Sosatie wors
Hamburger patties
Breakfast sausage
Mince 90/10 (90% meat/10% fat)
Mince 80/10 (80% meat/20% fat)
cubes from buttock
cubes from buttock
cut from buttock
buttock
deboned forequarter
deboned forequarter
deboned forequarter
deboned forequarter
deboned forequarter
deboned forequarter
trimmings
trimmings
Canned products
Game meat can be treated and enhanced with herbs and spices and canned. This is a
healthy nutritious shelf stable alternative protein product similar to the old-time favourite
“bully beef”. This can be a winner amongst consumers, specifically in rural areas.
Chakalaka flavoured game meat or curried game meat (like traditional brawn) in a can
would also be a popular protein alternative amongst consumers.
Processed products (manufactured from deboned fore- and hindquarter)
Salami’s
Cabanossi’s
Cheesegrillers
Buckworst
Chorizo
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game meat
Cured and smoked products
Warthog leg
Silverside roast
Topside roast
Springbuck leg
Photo by Quintus Strauss. Courtesy MLP Media,
Wildlife Ranching magazine.
Table 2: Different parts of game carcass and percentage of total carcass:
% OF CARCASS MEAT % BONE% LOSS%
Buttocks 39.0 80.4 19.5 0.1
Saddle and fillet 15.3 73.8 24.9 1.3
Neck 9.1 73.3 26.2 0.5
Blades 20.7 78.0 21.5 0.5
Ribs 15.2 75.4 24.4 0.2
Loss 0.7
Total 100.0 77.0 22.0 1.0
WRSA game-meat scheme
WRSA has done pioneer work in the development of an international standard guiding
the production of game meat from the ranch to the consumer. This standard was registered
by International Standards Certification (ISC), a globally accredited certification body
headquartered in Australia. This was obtained in less than two years by WRSA. This comprises
that WRSA is now accredited to run its own game-meat scheme for commercial purposes in
South Africa. The world’s first.
Carcass traits are known to be medium to highly heritable in domesticated livestock
species. However, no data is available on the heritability of these traits in game
species. The WS 2 system allows for the recording and genetic analysis of game
meat traits such as carcass weight and rib-eye area. Data will be used (with consent)
to establish the heritability of carcass traits of the different game species and also
aid breeders in the selection and improvement of carcass weights and yields of
expensive cuts like the rib-eye.
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Investment opportunities
in the wildlife industry
- Dr Paul Lubout, Managing Director
Wildlife Stud Services
Dr Lubout completed his BSc Agric, BSc Agric Hons and MSc degrees
at the University of Pretoria, whereafter he obtained his DSc. at the
University of Fort Hare. Dr Lubout has been employed in various posts
in agriculture and the scientific community as: Agricultural Advisor,
Senior Lecturer, Ass. Professor, Professor & HOD, Dean of Science &
Agriculture. In 2012 Dr Lubout decided to start his own company
called Wildlife Stud Services (WS 2 ), of which he is currently the Head
Genetic Advisor and Managing Director.
071 642 5219 paul@ws2.co.za www.ws2.co.za
There have been a number of public
statements by various public figures on the
potential for investing in the wildlife industry
with returns exceeding other financial
instruments. Mr Norman Adami said in a
kykNET interview that the wildlife industry
can grow to a R100b industry in the next
10 years. One only has to look at the recent
scientific research based publication on
“Game Ranch Profitability in South Africa
(2015)” by PC Cloete, P van der Merwe and
M Saayman to fully understand the potential
of the wildlife industry in Southern Africa.
With internal rate of return on investment that
varies from +13 % for scarce game (Buffalo
-13.5% , Sable – 28.8%), +38% for colour
variants (Wildebeest – 42.2%, Black Impala
– 35.2%) and with breeding plains game
(Nyala, Koedoe, etc.) starting to escalate
prices of superior animals.
The supply and demand rule will apply in
the game industry as it does in any other and
thus scarce genetics will always be in high
demand. The growth of the game breeding
industry was initially driven by scarce
game species, then moved to colour variant
breeding and now includes the breeding of
genetically superior animals of all plains
game species as well. Each species has its
own challenges, but as long as you
produce genetically superior
animals with long horns
(e.g. Sable) and/or
colour variants
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159

(Black Impala, etc.) and/or combined colour
variants (King Golden Wildebeest, etc.) there
will be a market driven by scarcity. We must
always remember that when the skin is off
we can still sell the meat. So all investments
can only realise the maximum returns if
they utilise all the income streams open to
the wildlife ranching industry (eco-tourism,
breeding, trophy hunting, biltong hunters,
game meat for local consumption & export
and game by-products).
There are a number of different investment
options in the market:
1. Partnerships with existing farmers (can
include or exclude joint ownership of
land). This is a common practice with
existing game farmers that want to expand
but lack the cash and/or non-game farmers
that have the land but not the animals
and/or infrastructure. An investor will then
supply the cash for the camp infrastructure
and purchase of the breeding animals,
while the farmer will be responsible for
the day to day management of the animals.
There will be a partnership agreement that
allocates profits according to the terms
agreed upon.
2. Renting of facilities (a camp) on existing
game farms and/or supplying own manager
or paying a fee for the management of the
animals. All costs and profits to the owner
of the animals.
3. Buying a share (e.g. 25%) in an exceptional
bull (e.g. 53’ Sable bull) or ram and then
placing a number of your females with
this exceptional male (according to your
allocated share). You will pay the current
owner a fee for management and feeding
of your females and cost of the upkeep of
the male (including insurance). You will
own all the progeny produced by your
animals.
4. Investment companies – in most cases
land is not owned by the investor.
a. Animal ownership models
i. Full ownership – investor owns all
the animals (male and females) in a
specific project (e.g. Nyala) paying for
camp and feeding costs with a profit/
progeny share agreement;
ii. Breeding projects – e.g. owning a
number of females in a black Impala
breeding program, with company
supplying the black ram and/or investor
paying for camp rent and feeding costs
and with a profit/progeny sharing as
per agreement;
iii. Fractional ownership – you own part of
a defined group of females (could be
multiple species) and superior males
and/or paying (according to fraction
owned) for camp rent and feeding
costs and with a profit share (according
to fraction owned) as per agreement.
b. Taking up shares in existing and new
developments. Company designs an
investment portfolio that comprises a
farm with infrastructure, one or multispecies
breeding projects, lifestyle options
(hunting options, accommodation),
lodge, etc. The company is responsible
for the day to day running of the facility
and predicts population growth, genetic
improvement and profits. The investor
can then buy shares in the company and
will get returns on his investment from
growth of share value (quantity & quality),
dividends and/or lifestyle benefits (based
on shareholding).
The above options offer a numbers of lifestyle
benefits which can include:
1. Hunting opportunities for the investor and
his clients;
2. Accommodation on the game farm for
investor and his clients;
3. Other.
To reduce the investors risk the following
best practices should be followed:
1. Annual report that includes audited
financial reports;
2. Independent risk assessment and
evaluation of farm (fences, camp, etc.)
and farm management plan to ensure
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investments, marketing & auctions
your investment is safe and will realize the
predicted returns. Annual reports should
also be supplied for grazing, nutritional
and animal health management;
3. Animals (assets) are insured with a
reputable company. This is especially
important when investing with existing
farmers and/or renting facilities. Most
investment companies have this covered;
4. Proper animal registration, performance
recording and genetic evaluation system
should be used (e.g. WS²) that meets
requirements of Livestock Improvement
Act 62 of 1998 with animal identification
as prescribed in Animal Identification Act
2 of 2002 (Brand or Tattoo - permanent,
DNA profile – UNISTEL; ear tag and
microchip – are removable) and genetic
analysis that makes scientific selection for
colour variants and horn length possible.
The compliance with the WS² system
ensures that your assets can be identified
(DNA 99.99% accuracy), parentage
verified with e.g. big horned bull (DNA –
99.96% accuracy), optimal reproduction
(most important trait) achieved by getting
age at first calving/lambing, inter-calving/
lambing period and days last calved or
lambed data. There is for example a herd
of 20 Nyala ewes with a +30 inch bull
that only produced 2 lambs per year for
3 years and then profits and/or genetic
progress is not possible. Also if a Sable
herd has on average an intercalving period
of 9.5 months vs 12 months it will have a
profound effect on the potential returns.
WS² already offers an auditing option to
shareholders and/or investment companies
by certifying the assets, verifying parentage
and the pedigree using DNA, evaluating
management performance (intercalving
period, is horn growth optimal, etc.) and
maximizing genetic value (is the Sable
bull you are investing in under the top
10% based on performance – e.g. horn
length) and genetic progress (estimation
of breeding values of animals and mating
the best to the best) for the shareholder.
Quarterly progress reports (verifying
animals correctly identified, DNA profile
on record, parentage verification done,
performance traits recorded, etc.). Annual
Genetic Reports (as part of Partnership/
Company Annual report) on animal
performance (reproduction, horn traits,
weights, colours, etc.) and genetic
progress (breeding values) are supplied to
various partners, shareholders, investors
and investment companies.
There are exciting options available to
investors in the wildlife industry that offer
both growth (quantity) as well as genetic
improvement (quality) opportunities. Most
breeding projects are long term (5-10 years)
before benefits/investment future values
are fully realised. By offering animals for
example Black Saddled Impala in this fast
growing industry will offer good returns, but
add to that genetic improvement of horn
length (Black Saddled Impala ram – 27’ horns
– top 10% - scarce) and you have a long-term
success.
So the bottom-line is to invest in a company/
farm/project that is totally transparent (all
information available and audited), buys the
best genetics, identifies their animals (assets)
permanently (DNA + Tattoo), manages the
animals optimally, records performance,
breeds scientifically to ensure you get a return
on your investment (quantity and quality) and
then you can enjoy the wildlife experience
and share in the long-term profits.
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Best practise
when setting up a
sales agreement
- Joan Jackson, Wildlife Risk Manager and Product Developer
GeoWild Consult (Pty) Ltd.
Joan has been involved in the Short-term Insurance industry for 33
years and is a qualified licentiate member of the IISA and still busy
furthering her studies at Unisa. She started to focus on the wildlife
industry 21 years ago and became the first person to write a South
African Wildlife Insurance product, which is now widely used in the short
term insurance industry and supported by various Re-Insurers locally,
including Lloyds. She, together with Mr. Deon Furstenburg developed
the first risk management program including the unique Star Grading
program for the game farmer.
082 455 5925 joan@geowild.co.za www.geowild.co.za
Since 1995, the Wildlife auctions in South
Africa developed their own unique style and
various business models came into practise.
The catalogues became more colourful and
the auctioneers due to Regulations/Acts
updated their terms and conditions (rules
of auction). Each and every Buyer needs to
read through these rules of auction, because
this information will not only explain the
manner in which the sale of each Lot will
be conducted, but also guides the Buyer(s)
with the processes to follow and to comply
with Wildlife Insurance policies’ (contracts)
terms and conditions based on these rules of
auction, if and when applicable. The rules
of auction may change from time to time
and Wildlife insurance contracts can/will be
endorsed to follow suit.
For the purpose of best practice, the Buyer(s)
need to know and understand that:
• unless otherwise stated, the sale of each
Lot is regarded to be a separate transaction,
• the sale is completed by the fall of the
hammer,
• sale by auction is subject to a reserve
price,
• the auctioneer as the appointed agent
of the Seller(s) will collect the money
payable by issuing a Tax Invoice (including
VAT) and the Seller(s) are responsible to
pay the Auctioneer its commission (all
payments collected must be payable into
the Auctioneer’s Trust account),
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• all the assets (animals), other than
catalogue animals, change ownership with
the fall of the hammer and are deemed to
be delivered to the Buyer, but no animal(s)
shall be released to the Buyer(s) unless the
auctioneer’s invoice has been paid in full,
• the Buyer(s) shall at own risk and expenses,
remove the animal(s) from the sale venue
(holding facility) and any penalty payable
(cost incurred) for late removal of animal(s)
shall be for the account of the Buyer(s),
• the Seller(s) who offers the animal(s) for
sale, accepts the liability regarding the
information furnished (published in the
catalogue) for example: age, animal
profile (pedigree), gestation etc.,
• the Buyer(s) shall prior to the sale(s)
ascertain all the information about the
animal(s) on sale because with any bid,
the Buyer(s) indicates acceptance of the
animal(s) condition at the time of sale
(refer to the notes below) and the Buyer(s)
shall not be entitled to withhold payment
to the Auctioneer as a result of any possible
or pending claim against the Seller(s),
• the Buyer(s) must comply with the FICA
requirements (Financial Intelligence
Centre Act 2001) with registration and
provide the Auctioneer with a copy of
his/her identity document and proof of
residence (very important requirement).
Another new trend (sales pitch) is to include
Short Term Insurance – the catalogue will
then include: General Insurance Terms
and conditions applicable and Additional
conditions with reference to each auction
group’s specific guarantee of performance
and part of the insurance programs if
applicable, or just the group’s contribution to
sales support. Insurance may only be sold by
a Registered Broker (FSP) and documentation
that confirms the contract, must be provided
to each Buyer together with a policy wording
(FAIS Act). The Buyer may effect own
insurance, but still subject to all the terms
and conditions mentioned, or otherwise
stated in the contract.
However, the diversity of the game industry
makes it even more challenging to operate
within specific guidelines, resulting in a
business practice with a lot of pitfalls. Skills,
expert knowledge and industry background
are needed to negotiate a properly structured
deal. Game farmers/investors need to
be cautious and fully aware of each and
every sales model or combination of sales
models, presented by the seller(s) or their
representatives at any auction, including
electronic/internet auction(s).
Without any hesitation discuss the risk factors
up front with an expert Wildlife Risk Manager
and/or a qualified Wildlife Short-term
Insurance Broker if and when applicable.
Always bear in mind that we are trading
under a contract (specific guidelines apply),
and things can go wrong. It is imperative that
the buyer(s) give attention to detail and gather
the following information (but not limited to):
• both experts mentioned must give their
advice in writing or if verbal advice
was given, followed up with a written
document that can be used in any dispute,
• do not use an agent as your wildlife expert,
especially if they were appointed by the
seller(s),
• never rush into a spur of the moment sale
at an auction because this can become
your worst sale of the day due to lack
of knowledge, background and proper
investigation of:
• the place of origin, the habitat, climate,
supplement feeding program, free
roaming/camp system etc. (critically
important),
• capture team and method used to
capture the animal(s),
• translocation - distance and by whom
– (WTA member or not),
• handling and holding facilities of these
animal(s) prior to the auction,
• veterinarian(s) used, medication
administered, if any
• days already in boma/holding facility
prior to auction date
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• any injuries sustained in this process/
treated or not due to the above (note -
old injuries and repeated old handling
stress tends to manifest in heart failure
after purchase)
• is/are any female(s) tested for gestation,
any abortions prior to sale or any cases
of dystocia reported, and
• is/are the male(s)/female(s) being tested
for fertility,
• are there any DNA/animal profile
information/certificates available with
sale
• verify horn measurements, method
used and alike (trophy’s),
• verify any data provided on the growth
specifics of any animal offered on sale,
• confirm that the animal(s) on auction are
sold by its rightful owners or their legally
appointed representatives,
lot) must be done in such manner that the
buyers can still make an informed decision
taken in account the new information,
• it is the buyer’s duty or that of his
representative to make sure that the
genetic pool available matches his new/
current herds,
• animal(s) on catalogue/electronic listings
must be inspected before the capture takes
place and all the above will be applicable
to verify a deal(s),
• last but not least, the total deal must
be clearly understood and catalogues/
electronic listings must only provide true
and up to date information that can be
used in any South African court of Law
in terms of various Acts applicable to this
industry.
• the description(s) of the animal(s) must be
correct (age, gender, species, identification
any measurements etc.),
• the photographs presented must be of the
animal(s) on sale (not an example) and
taken recently (not older than 1 month if
possible),
• any changes to printed catalogues (specific
There are General risk factors that game
farmers/investors can calculate themselves,
but then there are those Specific/Special risk
factors that need to be assessed/investigated
by experts and together the Total Risk factor(s)
must be considered when buying a specific
lot at an auction and without any doubt
any high value animal(s). The specific sales
option or combination of sales options will
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have a direct influence on the risk factors to
be considered.
By applying this code of best practice, each
game farmer/ investor can lower their risk, cut
back on financially conducted economical
waste, animal cruelty, and inspire the trade to
apply best practices to all spheres of service
delivery in the above chain of events.
Lower risks can also attract lower Wildlife
Insurance premiums, better excesses payable
if a loss occurs and better renewal terms and
conditions on recurring business. Auction
cover – wildlife insurance – is rated as the
highest risk cover and therefore attracts the
high premiums and specific underwriting. It
is imperative for the industry to improve on
risk.
Documentation must proof the sales
agreement/insurance cover if applicable;
provide additional information e.g. DNA/
Shareholding Certificates and all Buyers need
to make sure they receive what was specified
in the documentation.
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Principles for composing a business plan
for a game farming enterprise
- Jan de Jong
Owner of Jan de Jong Consulting
Jan de Jong has an agricultural diploma (Cedara), degrees in Agricultural
Management and a Masters degree in Agricultural Economics from
the University of Natal. He was involved in agricultural Banking for
nearly 30 years. During this time he specialised in exotic flowers, citrus
varieties, timber, indigenous medicinal plants and herbs, hydroponics,
organic production, apiculture, exotic birds, and little known livestock
enterprises, including game. He is one of the founders of the Youth
Show movement, is a senior interbreed cattle judge, senior slaughter
cattle- and slaughter sheep judge. He is the Honorary Secretary of both
associations. He runs his own multi-disciplinary agricultural consultancy
business (Jan de Jong Consulting), and writes monthly articles for
various agricultural journals. He is Agriseta accredited.
082 783 9538 jdejongconsulting@gmail.com
jandejongconsulting@gmail.com
Ask a potential borrower for a business plan
and it will frighten most people off: that is one
reason why bankers ask for it. It is an easy way
to gauge how serious a prospective borrower
is. While it seems like an insurmountable
problem to prepare a business plan, with the
aids available today most people are able to
prepare an acceptable document. There are
plenty of formats available on the internet. This
article is not going to describe the formulation
of a business plan, only point you in the right
direction in what to include and describe
some pitfalls that can occur.
What does a business plan do? It explains
how a person intends to start a business. It
sets out all factors of production in a logical,
understandable and financially acceptable
document that is used as a starting point in
obtaining finance. In the case of a game
farming enterprise the industry is fairly young.
This means that there is not as much available
research information as there would be for
a beef or dairy enterprise. It also means that
a lot of information is probably extrapolated
from other sources. In itself this is not a
problem, until one realises that sometimes
this information does not supply a good fit to
a game breeding enterprise.
The way in which a business plan is formulated
is logical, it follows a certain direction, and
while formats do vary, objectives are set out
in basically the same way. Do not become
discouraged when you see hundreds of
formats listed on the internet. Define your
search further by adding game, beef or
agriculture into your search criteria. Don’t be
afraid to change the business plan format to
suit your enterprise. A good idea is to take a
few formats that contain relevant headings
and combine them. It would be preferable to
have more headings at the beginning and then
clear them as your confidence in completing
your plan increases.
The game industry is interesting: there is
currently much written, but some press is very
negative and does not do the industry justice.
The aim of the business plan is not to explain
or defend the industry, but to enlighten the
reader about the finer points of the industry
to ensure a positive decision. The reader may
know nothing and be very apathetic, but he
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may also be knowledgable. In both cases the
objective is basically the same. You need to
educate him to show the viability and low
risk, or you have to persuade him that you
understand the viability and the low risk
inherent in the industry. That you understand
the industry is the main point to be made in
the market research.
Be objective in your market research, accept
that certain allegations made against parts
of the industry may be factual and therefore
carry risk. Try to avoid being in that sector of
the industry. Some sections of your plan are
more important than others, remember that
a business plan is a strategic document that
sets out your approach to a long term goal.
How you intend to achieve that goal must be
conveyed. The only way of doing this is by
having points (measurables) along the path
that show progress. These will be short and
medium term objectives.
Marketing of product is an important section:
it is the basis of income generation. Set out
how and why your chosen scheme will
operate and include possible factors involved
in its success. Operational issues (day to
day) management items will not appear in
the business plan, but will be used in your
calculations in generating input for the cash
flow. An example of a daily management item
is feed requirements. The figure will be used
in calculating total annual feed requirements.
It and all other production items would pull
through to the final cash flow document.
In setting out the assumptions remember that
you are not a seasoned player, all your figures
are assumptions. Similarly, do not assume
selling prices in the same league as the
established breeders. Rather make the mistake
of using lower than market figures for sales and
slightly higher than obtained figures for inputs.
Include wastage as a factor in calculations.
Know that certain capital costs will probably
be higher than first anticipated. For example
fencing, R75 000/km is a figure quoted.
Does this include bush clearing, grading the
fenceline, stone, sand and cement for anchor
poles, and decent gates? Ensure that facts
are relevant, achievable and from objective
sources. Include them as an addendum to the
plan.
The financial section of the plan is the most
important section: it explains to the banker
why and how much money is required (this is
seen from the calculations and the cash flow),
where it will be invested (geographically),
when it will be repaid, how it will be repaid
(the source) and what security will be available
for the loan.
Probably the easiest way to explain what is
required in your business plan is to show the
mistakes that so many make:
• The plan should not be an overly glossy
document with a host of pictures. If it is
an electronic copy ensure the format is in
common usage in South Africa. Do not use
a new computer programme - the reader
may not have access to it.
• The Executive Summary at the beginning
basically tells the reader what to expect in
the plan, the goals and the repayment plan.
If this section contains waffle, incorrect
facts and unrealistic expectations chances
are good that the balance of the plan will
not even be read. This first impression
cannot be overlooked.
• One basic rule is not to have a Vision and
Mission Statement that reads: …. to be the
best game farmer within the next three
years…. This will automatically infuriate
the most optimistic banker. The chances of
this happening with borrowed money, is
zero.
• Do not repeat facts, ensure that they can be
verified.
• In generating the cash flow forecast,
remember that you are working with
expensive assets: trying to scrimp on
feedstuffs and inputs are counterproductive.
While it is not easy to account for every
item in a cash flow, omitting basic items
will cause mistrust in the plan. Try to
account for all costs.
• Ensure that available capital is correctly
applied: returns to capital investment
should be as fast as possible, or cash flow
problems could occur before income is
generated. Budgeting for capital items
should be on a “must have” basis, not a
“nice to have” basis.
• If a farmer has applied his own capital (and
that his contribution may be appreciable)
it is sometimes difficult to convince a
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financial institution that the investment was
indeed made. Keep proof of investment.
Banks will normally advance up to 60% of
the purchase price of a property.
• While the Landbank considers long term
to be 25 years, commercial banks look at
10 years as long term. In the business plan
consider where the application will be
made, and use that institution’s repayment
criteria. In considering the repayment
period the difference between a longer and
shorter period is mostly interest.
• Terms of a loan is linked to an asset’s
lifespan, that is why vehicles are financed
for five years. If a longer than normal
repayment period is required on an asset
it indicates that economic feasibility is
questionable. A bank official will see that
immediately.
• A mistake that is often made is to request
prime interest rate. If the business plan
covers a start–up enterprise the chances
are non-existent. The business has a high
risk profile, and unproven management.
Don’t even consider this.
• Not stating your own contribution clearly
is a big fault. One does not want to search
for this. Likewise, not stating how it will
be applied is also a fault. Make your own
contribution as big as possible. The more
the contribution the less the risk to the
financial institution, and the lower the loan
amount.
• Income expectations based on a few high
priced animals will render the whole plan
a waste of time. Prices sourced from annual
game sales figures are better, discounting
these prices slightly will impress the
reader. Do not assume that your calving
and lambing figures are comparable to
established breeders, and state acceptable
mortality figures - a bit higher than normal.
There is always “skoolgeld “ payable.
• Use good, verifiable sources of information,
state the source of data, and do not simply
“copy and paste”.
Conclusion
A well constructed business plan will do you
credit, and the potential lender may even
consider approving a loan subject to a few
changes: consider this strongly. A haphazard
document will decrease the next persons
chances of obtaining a loan. That person’s
may be you.
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2015 Vleissentraal Bosveld
RECORD GAME AUCTION PRICES
13-02 Bastergemsbokvers 2 000 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Blesbokooi (dragtig van wit saalrugram) 280 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Wildebeeskoei - goue split (dragtig) 475 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Goue gemsbokbul 850 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Koningswildebeesbul 13 000 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Gemsbokkoei - goue split - (dragtig) 350 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Gemsbokbul - rooi 9 500 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Gemsbok pakket (rooi & rooi split dragtige koeie) 30 000 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Njalaooi - (dragtig) 90 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokooi 30 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokooi - wit split - (dragtig) 1 700 000 Piet du Toit
13-0 Rooibokram - saalrug 7 500 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokram - saalrug (jong) 6 500 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokram - swart 2 800 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokooi - saalrug split - (dragtig) 875 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokram - swart (jong) 1 600 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokooi - swart - (dragtig van saalrugram) 1 100 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Rooibokooi - swart split (dragtig van swart ram) 250 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Springbokram - hartwater 425 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Springbokooi - hartwater (dragtig) 110 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Springbokooi - hartwater koffie - (dragtig) 2 500 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Swartwitpensvers - Matetsi - (dragtig) 3 200 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Swartwitpenskoei - Zambies X - (dragtig) 3 400 000 Piet du Toit
13-02 Swartwitpenskoei - Wes-Zambies - (dragtig) 7 000 000 Piet du Toit
06-03 Rooibokram (27.5”) 900 000 Herholdt Game
07-03 Swartwitpensbul - Zam X Mat - (jong) 1 600 000 Gravelotte Wildprodusente
27-03 Rooibokooi - swart 870 000 Swart- & Goue veiling
11-04 Luiperdmannetjie 59 000 Piet Haasbroek
11-04 Luiperd - (familiegroep) 50 000 Piet Haasbroek
24-04 Waterbokkoei - (wit voete) 60 000 Hanley Wildlife Services
02-05 Basterhartbees - (familiegroep) 100 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Blesbokooi - (dragtig van geel ram) 70 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Blesbokram - geel 1 500 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Blesbokooi - geel - (dragtig) 800 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Wildebeesvers - goud - (dragtig) 650 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Blouwildebeeskoei - (dragtig van koningsbul) 250 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Blouwildebeesvers - konings split 1 450 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Blouwildebeesvers - goue split - (dragtig) 340 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Koningswildebeesvers - (dragtig) 3 600 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Goue gemsbokvers - (dragtig) 650 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
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02-05 Gemsbokvers - goue split - (dragtig) 220 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Koedoebul - swart 1 500 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Njala-ooi - (dragtig) 140 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Rooibokram - swart 3 200 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Springbok - hartwater - (familiegroep) 60 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Springbok - hartwater - wit - (familiegroep) 70 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Springbok - hartwater - koper - (familiegroep) 110 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Swartwitpenskoei - Matetsi - (dragtig) met verskalf 2 700 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
02-05 Swartwitpensvers - Wes Zambies 6 000 000 Pilanesberg Game Breeders
23-05 Blesbokooi - wit saalrug 4 200 000 WRSA (Bela Bela)
23-05 Blesbokooi - wit saalrug split 1 400 000 WRSA (Bela Bela)
27-05 Blesbokram - wit (18.5”) 40 000 Trophy Breeders - Karoo
27-05 Lechweram 300 000 Trophy Breeders - Karoo
27-05 Wildebeesvers - goud - (dragtig) 680 000 Trophy Breeders - Karoo
27-05 Rooibokram - wit split 100 000 Trophy Breeders - Karoo
29-05 Volstruis - Zimbabwe Blues - (familiegroep) 30 000 Greater Kuduland Safaris
06-06 Blouwildebeeskoei 30 000 Xtreme Game Auction
06-06 Blouwildebeesvers 50 000 Xtreme Game Auction
06-06 Lechweram - rooi 360 000 Xtreme Game Auction
13-06 Livingstone elandkoei met verskalf 550 000 Bloodline Africa
13-06 Rooibokooi - (dragtig van 27 1/8” ram) 40 000 Bloodline Africa
13-06 Swartwitpenskoei - Matetsi 1 600 000 Bloodline Africa
13-06 Swartwitpenskoei - Matetsi - met bulkalf 1 500 000 Bloodline Africa
24-07 Wildebeeskoei - goud - met bulkalf 625 000 Genome Game Breeders
24-07 Leeumannetjie 500 000 Genome Game Breeders
24-07 Leeuwyfie - (dragtig) 100 000 Genome Game Breeders
24-07 Springbokram - hartwater - wit 51 000 Genome Game Breeders
24-07 Springbokram - hartwater - koper 85 000 Genome Game Breeders
01-08 Basterhartbeeskoei 65 000 Loskop Game Breeders
01-08 Blesbokooi - koper split 70 000 Loskop Game Breeders
01-08 Wildebeeskoei - goud 1 500 000 Loskop Game Breeders
05-09 Buffelkoei OA (35 3/4”) - met verskalf - (dragtig) 12 000 000 Stud Game Breeders
05-09 Swartwitpensbul - Matetsi (45”) 2 600 000 Stud Game Breeders
05-09 Swartwitpensbul - Zambies - (jong) 3 500 000 Stud Game Breeders
05-09 Gemsbokkoei - goud - met kalf 950 000 Stud Game Breeders
05-09 Witrenosterkoei - met bulkalf 740 000 Stud Game Breeders
05-09 Koedoekoei - (dragtig van 63 3/8” bul) 420 000 Stud Game Breeders
12-09 Koedoebul (66 5/8”) 9 400 000 Trophy Breeders
19-09 Buffelkoei (dragtig) met verskalf 7 200 000 Thaba Tholo
24-09 Swartwitpensbul - Zambies (48”) 27 000 000 Piet Warren
24-09 Swartwitpensbul - Zambies X (48 1/16”) 17 000 000 Piet Warren
26-09 Rietbok - (familiegroep) 35 000 Golden Breeders Family Auction
26-09 Rooiribbok - (familiegroep) 28 000 Golden Breeders Family Auction
26-09 Springbokram - hartwater - swart 30 000 Golden Breeders Family Auction
26-09 Rooibokooi - (dragtig van saalrugram) 34 000 Golden Breeders Family Auction
29-09 Bastergemsbokbul (31”) 9 500 000 Wintershoek Wild
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SAVE the date
Sales calendar
Date
Auctioneers Name Town/Premises Auctioneer Auction Name
of Auction
13-Feb-16 Wildswinkel Piet du Toit Farm Piet Du Toit Wildboerdery Veiling
27-Feb-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Shamma Game Lodge, Rustenburg Mike Kilassy Duffield Game Breeders Exotic Auction
05-Mar-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game and Rare Game Auction
12-Mar-16 Thabazimbi Wild Thabazimbi Shakawe and Guest Sellers Auction
12-Mar-16 Mpatamacha Wakkerstroom Hunt Essentials Game Auction
19-Mar-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Big Boy Rare Game Auction
19-Mar-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Plains Game and Rare Game Auction
02-Apr-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
02-Apr-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Plains Game and Rare Game Auction
02-Apr-16 BKB Wildlife Albertinia, Suid Kaap Lazarus and 777 Game Breeders Auction
15-Apr-16 Van’s Auctioneers Midrand, Steyn City City Sleekers
16-Apr-16 Wildswinkel Signature Wildlife
16-Apr-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game and Rare Game Auction
23-Apr-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Brandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
30-Apr-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
07-May-16 Wildswinkel Royal Marang, Rustenburg Pilansberg Game Breeders Auction
14-May-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game and Rare Game Auction (large Rare Game)
14-May-16 Wildswinkel Wintershoek Wildswinkel Diamantveld
21-May-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Memel Gamecapcor Wildlife Auctions
25-May-16 Wildswinkel Gariep Eco Reserve, Colesberg Neil Swart Wildswinkel Karoo
28-May-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
28-May-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Brandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
03-Jun-16 Mpatamacha Carousel Brandon Leer Classic Game Breeders Auction
10-Jun-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
11-Jun-16 Wildswinkel Bela Bela Bloodline Africa
18-Jun-16 Wildswinkel Bela Bela Wildlife Legacy Rare Game Breeders
25-Jun-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
01-Jul-16 Wildswinkel Wildswinkel Kalahari Auction
02-Jul-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
02-Jul-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Memel Gamecapcor Wildlife Auctions
16-Jul-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
16-Jul-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game and Rare Game Auction
23-Jul-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer Long Horn Game Breeders Auction
23-Jul-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Rustenburg Mike Kilassy Duffield Game Breeders Plains Game Auction
30-Jul-16 Wildswinkel Bela Bela Wildswinkel Bosveld Auction
30-Jul-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Pieter Heyns Plains Game Auction
06-Aug-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Memel Gamecapcor Wildlife Auctions
12-Aug-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
20-Aug-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
20-Aug-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Rustenburg Mike Kilassy Duffield Game Breeders Plains Game Auction
27-Aug-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game and Rare Game Auction
09-Sep-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
23-Sep-16 Wildswinkel Wintershoek Wintershoek Wild
24-Sep-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
01-Oct-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy 4th Future Exotic Game Breeders Auction
08-Oct-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer WRSA Auction
08-Oct-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Rustenburg Mike Kilassy Duffield Game Breeders Exotic Auction
15-Oct-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
22-Oct-16 Mpatamacha Vaalwater Bandon Leer Plains Game and Exotic Auction
29-Oct-16 Aucor Wildlife Auctions Vaalwater Mike Kilassy Plains Game Auction
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SAVE the date
Datums om te onthou/Dates to remember
Vanaf/ Tot/To Waar/Where
From
Februarie / February
Stig van Oos-Kaap bedryfskamer 16/02/2016 Grahamstad
Stig van Oos-Kaap bedryfskamer 16/02/2016 Oos-Londen
Stig van Oos-Kaap bedryfskamer 16/02/2016 Graaff Reinet
Memel bedryfskamer 16/02/2016 Memel
Noord Vrystaat beryfskamer byeenkoms 17/02/2016 Jan de Klerk 082 5706257
Naboomspruit bedryfskamer byeenkoms 18/02/2016 Ellalien Davey 083 391 7755
Grahamstad beryfskamer byeenkoms 23/02/2016 Gerhard Heyneke 074 103 5212
Oos Londen bedryfskamer byeenkoms 25/02/2016 Gerhard Heyneke 074 103 5212
Graaff Reinet bedryfskamer byeenkoms 26/02/2016 Johan Bouwer 082 776 0257
Maart / March
Standerton Wildsinligingsdag 09/03/2016 Theuns Swanepoel 072 629 9066
WRSA Gala Dinner, Conference and Exhibition 17/03/2016 20/03/2016 Sun City
April / April
Suid Kaap bedryfskamer byeenkoms 09/04/2016 Mosselbaai
Hartland / Senwes-Hinterland Bedryfskamer: Wildsvleis as 13/04/2016 Bona Bona
vertakking van jou boerdery
Huntex Gauteng 14/04/2016 17/04/2016 Gallagher Estate, Midrand
Mei / May
WRSA plaaswerkersopleiding 04/05/2016 Castle de wildt – Pat Loots 082 494 0989
NAMPO 17/05/2016 20/05/2016 Bothaville
Huntex Eastern Cape 27/05/2016 29/05/2016 Mentors Country Estate, Jeffreys Bay
Junie / Junie
Game Fair, Europe 16/06/2016 19/06/2016 Shropshire
ABSA Kirkwood wildfees 24/06/2016 26/06/2016 Kirkwood Skougronde
Augustus / August
Jacaranda Show 24/08/2016 28/08/2016 Pretoria Show Grounds
September / September
Hartland Bedryfskamer: Volhoubaarheid van jou wildplaas, balans 07/09/2016 Bona Bona
tussen diere prestasie en ekologiese faktore
IWRS (Windhoek Show) 12/09/2016 16/09/2016 Safari Hotel, Windhoek
Agri Mega Week 14/09/2016 17/09/2016 Mega Park Bredasdorp
November / November
Hartland Bedryfskamer Jaareindfunksie 05/11/2016 Bona Bona
176
2016
Wildtelers Joernaal
Wildlife Breeders Journal