Advances in E-learning-Experiences and Methodologies
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RAPAD<br />
methods <strong>and</strong> techniques accord<strong>in</strong>g to criteria such<br />
as the complexity of the system under development,<br />
the role of the user <strong>in</strong> the system <strong>and</strong> the<br />
expertise of the system developer. RAPAD can<br />
also be considered to be a cont<strong>in</strong>gency methodology<br />
draw<strong>in</strong>g, as it does, on a range of tools <strong>and</strong><br />
techniques which can be adapted for a variety of<br />
circumstances.<br />
This flexibility can be useful <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
complex scenarios where an <strong>in</strong>novative approach<br />
might be useful. This is often the case <strong>in</strong> higher<br />
education where there are additional reasons for<br />
complexity. As well as the different cultural <strong>and</strong><br />
social norms encountered learn<strong>in</strong>g support systems<br />
have to have sound pedagogic aims, objectives,<br />
<strong>and</strong> achievements. Consequently, it can be<br />
argued that the implementation of such systems<br />
can be more difficult than “normal” bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation systems.<br />
Participatory design was pioneered <strong>in</strong> Sc<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>avia<br />
<strong>in</strong> the 1960s <strong>and</strong> 1970s (Preece et al., 2002).<br />
As its name suggests, it is designed to encourage<br />
user <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> the design process <strong>and</strong>, along<br />
with contextual design, is one of the user-centred<br />
approaches to <strong>in</strong>teraction design. Whereas contextual<br />
design aims to use an ethnographic approach<br />
to help the designer to underst<strong>and</strong> the user <strong>in</strong> his<br />
or her social, work <strong>and</strong> cultural context, participatory<br />
design encourages the active <strong>in</strong>volvement of<br />
the user <strong>in</strong> the design process. We can consider<br />
the similarities between contextual design <strong>and</strong><br />
participatory design. Contextual design has seven<br />
activities: contextual <strong>in</strong>quiry, work model<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
consolidation, work redesign, user environment<br />
design, mockup, <strong>and</strong> test with customers (Preece<br />
et al., 2002, p. 296). One form of participatory<br />
design, as used here, is to broadly follow these<br />
activities, but to ensure that the user (or learner <strong>in</strong><br />
this case) is dynamically <strong>and</strong> iteratively <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> the full design <strong>and</strong> development process. This<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement is not always an easy task to ensure,<br />
although the participation of students study<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
human computer <strong>in</strong>teraction unit <strong>in</strong> the first <strong>and</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> iteration of this study greatly facilitated<br />
the process.<br />
The participatory approach <strong>in</strong> this study was<br />
operationalized by the use of cognitive profiles<br />
<strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>volvement of students <strong>in</strong> reflect<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
their own responses <strong>and</strong> then apply<strong>in</strong>g them to<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g environment design. Us<strong>in</strong>g the three<br />
measures plus an iterative process of discussion,<br />
design, <strong>and</strong> feedback gave a more holistic <strong>and</strong><br />
systemic approach to the design of the PELEs.<br />
In the <strong>in</strong>formation systems arena, there is a<br />
central statement <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that you cannot design<br />
a better or improved system without fully underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
how the current system works—<strong>and</strong> no<br />
one underst<strong>and</strong>s the day to day work<strong>in</strong>g of a system<br />
like the users. As with many well-worn say<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
it is uttered frequently but followed rarely. Giv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
students the relatively comprehensive <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g their approaches to learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> their<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation process<strong>in</strong>g preferences (with reference<br />
to the layout <strong>and</strong> structure of learn<strong>in</strong>g materials<br />
<strong>and</strong>, by <strong>in</strong>ference, <strong>in</strong>terfaces) allows them to<br />
reflect <strong>and</strong> comment on both the accuracy of the<br />
measures <strong>and</strong> their applicability to the tasks <strong>in</strong><br />
h<strong>and</strong>—<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g thoughts on how <strong>and</strong> why they<br />
learn. The use of the additional learn<strong>in</strong>g style<br />
<strong>and</strong> personality elements of the cognitive profile<br />
also allows comparison between the measures<br />
<strong>and</strong> an extension of the <strong>in</strong>dividual differences<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g considered<br />
Why Use a Reflective <strong>and</strong><br />
Participatory methodology?<br />
The overall process for the <strong>in</strong>dividual student is<br />
one of reflect<strong>in</strong>g on the elements of a personal<br />
cognitive profile <strong>and</strong> then, after discussion <strong>and</strong><br />
consideration, apply<strong>in</strong>g the results of those reflections<br />
to the development of a Web technologybased<br />
personalised e-learn<strong>in</strong>g environment.<br />
This approach taken has several key features<br />
that contribute to its effectiveness. These <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
• Participation <strong>in</strong> the process helps students<br />
to develop metacognitive awareness <strong>and</strong>