7 Biological Enemies of H

7 Biological Enemies of Horticultural Plants PURPOSE AND EXPECTED OUTCOMES The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the various classes of pathogens and parasitic factors that cause disorders in horticultural plants. After studying this chapter, the student should be able to 1. Discuss the economic effects of pests in horticulture. 2. List the categories of organisms that are pests to plants. 3. Distinguish among insect pests on the basis of life cycle. 4. Distinguish among insect pests on the basis of feeding habits. [COLOR PLATES—see color plates 4 and 5 for additional chapter photos] OVERVIEW Pests are organisms that are harmful to plants. They include organisms ranging from tiny microorganisms (or microbes) to large animals and other plants. They damage aboveground plant parts and belowground parts, the latter kind of damage being more difficult to detect. The activities of pests may cause physical injury to plants. They may also cause disorders in plants, making them unable to grow and develop properly. In some cases, pests do not come into contact with desirable plants but, just by being in close vicinity, compete for growth factors and deprive the desirable plants of adequate nutrition. Certain pests only cause blemishes on plants, making them unsightly and unattractive without physically damaging or upsetting the physiology of the plant. Whatever the form of pests associated with cultivated plants, they need to be controlled when their presence threatens to cause economic loss to the grower. Pests of cultivated plants include weeds (other plants), insects, nematodes, and mites. Those that cause diseases are bacteria, fungi, and mycoplasma-like organisms. These organisms can be divided into two broad classes: plant pests and animal pests. The life cycles of these organisms are important in their control. Control measures are usually targeted at the stages in their life cycles when they are most vulnerable. In terms of plant diseases, fungal problems predominate. 213

MODULE 1 PLANTS AS PESTS Weed A plant that is growing where it is not wanted. 7.1 WEEDS A weed may be broadly defined as a plant out of place. A corn plant in a bed of roses is as much a weed as a rose plant in a cornfield, no matter how attractive it may look. In theory, any plant can be considered a weed at some point. However, the term is commonly used to refer to certain undesirable plants, often with no economic use to growers. Such plants vary widely in characteristics and include algae, mosses, ferns, and flowering plants. Weeds tend to be more aggressive than cultivated plants and have characteristics that enable them to survive under very harsh conditions. They can thrive on marginal soils and have seeds that have longevity, dormancy, and other allied survival characteristics associated with life in the wild. 7.1.1 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Weeds are undesirable in cultivated fields or the landscape—or for that matter anywhere. They should be controlled because they usually result in economic losses. The following are some of the significant ways in which weeds show their undesirable characteristics. 1. They compete with cultivated plants for growth factors (light, moisture, air, and nutrients [Chapter 4]), thus diminishing the performance of crop plants. Weeds often are better competitors than cultivated plants. They are more vigorous in growth and produce many seeds for effective dispersal. They have long viability and efficient dormancy mechanisms. 2. Weeds may harbor pests of cultivated plants and other dangerous animals. For example, chickweed harbors whitefly, red spider mites, and cucumber mosaic virus. Charlock may harbor clubroot organisms, which attack brassica crops. Groundsel may harbor nematodes. Snakes and rodents hide among weeds. 3. They are an eyesore in the landscape, diminishing the aesthetic value of lawns and other ornamental displays. 4. When they arise, weeds are removed at a cost. Mechanical removal of weeds by using a hoe or uprooting is tedious. Herbicides are commonly used in large operations to control weeds—at a tremendous cost, not to mention the adverse environmental impact. 5. Weeds increase the costs of crop production. Additional equipment and machinery are needed to control weeds. When weed infestation is high and weeds are allowed to flower, the harvested grain may be infested with weeds. These unwanted weeds are cleaned at additional cost to the operation. 6. They reduce the quality and market value of horticultural products. Weeds compete with crops for nutrients and cause desired crops to grow and develop improperly. Yield is decreased, and along with it, income. Seeds infested with weeds command a low market price. Impurities may be eliminated, adding to production costs. 7. They may be poisonous plants that can harm people. Pollen from weeds causes allergies in humans. Plant species such as ragwort and buttercup are toxic to animals. If the fruits of weeds such as black nightshade contaminate the desired crop seed and are eaten by accident, humans may be poisoned. 214 Chapter 7 Biological Enemies of Horticultural Plants

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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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With love to Theresa, quarterback;
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Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T
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Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND
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5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4
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8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276
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12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
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PART 6 Summary 541 References and S
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22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668
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Preface Horticulture is the area of
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful
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PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT
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1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND
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(a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many
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FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of
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CYCADS Many people mistake these pr
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FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran
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FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on
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FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu
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1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS
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1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic
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TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export
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Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te
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What Is Horticulture? This site pro
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Examples of botanical gardens http:
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2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu
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Eight major taxa are commonly used
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TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King
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HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F
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AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events
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possible system of nomenclature. Ho
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TABLE 1 Type Categories for Plant N
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2.3 OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (O
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2. Shrubs. A shrub has no main trun
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Simple Fruits Fleshy Fruits Drupe B
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FIGURE 2-14 A pome, represented by
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2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
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(a) (b) FIGURE 2-22 (Source: George
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FIGURE 2-25 A narrowleaf plant. (So
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FIGURE 2-29 Parts of a typical gras
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such as rosemary, sage, thyme, marj
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c. Leaves d. Bulbs 2. Cut across (t
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Whole plant Organs FIGURE 3-1 Level
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ibonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, an
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called cristae; this extreme foldin
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By virtue of its position, the prim
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Phloem Tissue Structurally, phloem
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(a) Stalk (b) Culm FIGURE 3-5 Cross
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Scale Compressed stem (a) Whole bul
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Upper epidermis Palisade layer FIGU
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usually occur in xerophytes. In cer
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FIGURE 3-22 Selected common leaf ma
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FIGURE 3-25 Selected common leaf ti
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absorption of water and minerals fr
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Outer bark Inner bark FIGURE 3-37 T
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Anther Filament Stamen FIGURE 3-41
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Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3-4
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE LABORATORY 1.
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4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND HORTICULT
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concentration in the atmosphere.A c
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TABLE 4-1 Climatic Adaptation of Se
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and upward. Another important gener
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Rate of photosynthesis mg/sq. dm/hr
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and plants that flower under only c
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times of the year. Growers start th
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content. This section is sometimes
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TABLE 4-7 Soil Mineral Nutrients Es
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Micronutrients (Trace Elements) Mic
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Neutral FIGURE 4-11 A representatio
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4.4 FERTILIZERS Fertilizer sources
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One of the most commonly used contr
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Chlorosis (the yellowing of green l
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Fertilizers may be applied before p
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It is neither practical nor safe to
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Solution: How much of ammonium nitr
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1°C (34°F), the optimum temperatu
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Cellulose sponge Perched water tabl
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Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Water
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FIGURE 4-19 Furrow irrigation of le
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can self-install an underground irr
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1. Surface drainage. Surface draina
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Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i
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(a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source
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texture. The most commonly used gra
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TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes
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Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri
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Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio
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5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE
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Growth in an organism follows a cer
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5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH
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waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o
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5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis
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Page 190 and 191: Growth and Development The general
Page 192 and 193: TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero
Page 194 and 195: Certain plants are adapted to dry e
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Page 198 and 199: Shoot Elongation In certain plants,
Page 200 and 201: for success, since high temperature
Page 202 and 203: FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh
Page 204 and 205: Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla
Page 206 and 207: conditions—pertaining to light, m
Page 208 and 209: them to maturity. The major process
Page 210 and 211: 6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR
Page 212 and 213: Similarly, there can be no plant br
Page 214 and 215: APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE
Page 216 and 217: hit with target DNA. Therefore, it
Page 218 and 219: Generally, within ten days of exper
Page 220 and 221: Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200
Page 222 and 223: (b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R
Page 224 and 225: e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele
Page 226 and 227: eeder’s equation. Simply stated,
Page 228 and 229: Before the seed or product becomes
Page 230 and 231: 6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE
Page 232 and 233: 2. Political disagreement. There ar
Page 234 and 235: REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac
Page 236 and 237: PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA
Page 240 and 241: 8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways
Page 242 and 243: is also a root parasite that obtain
Page 244 and 245: LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal
Page 246 and 247: Example Integrated cultural, physic
Page 248 and 249: 7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec
Page 250 and 251: Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins
Page 252 and 253: sucking insects (also found with so
Page 254 and 255: FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S
Page 256 and 257: TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases
Page 258 and 259: 7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,
Page 260 and 261: FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P
Page 262 and 263: fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,
Page 264 and 265: SUMMARY Insects are a major class o
Page 266 and 267: For the home growers or those who c
Page 268 and 269: for consumers and the environment).
Page 270 and 271: TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an
Page 272 and 273: gibberellic acid spray overcomes st
Page 274 and 275: In a competitive industry, a variet
Page 276 and 277: Chemicals gain access to humans thr
Page 278 and 279: 2. Pesticide management. Controllin
Page 280 and 281: Every organism has its natural enem
Page 282 and 283: TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol
Page 284 and 285: 1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr
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Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi
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under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa
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FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye
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8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO
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application, a particular herbicide
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Further, they do not provide unifor
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SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us
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Sulfur may be applied for both prev
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8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES
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PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL
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9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX
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Anther Microspore Megaspore mother
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Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa
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FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal
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Germination Test In laboratory prac
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FIGURE 15 The essential structures
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processing into flour or meal). How
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physiologically immature seeds must
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seeds may be treated in this way be
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The two basic modes of seedling eme
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locations in the field. Home garden
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FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:
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(a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed
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y the gardener or grower. Whatever
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co
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species enables vegetative propagat
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for rapid rooting. There are two ba
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Cutting involving one node (e.g., s
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This practice is especially importa
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10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting
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(a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl
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10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting
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Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar
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MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD
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MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA
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Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU
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variety of ways. In air layering, a
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FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop
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Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi
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The technique is used widely in cro
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PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT
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11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND
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TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo
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Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To
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Window Displays Plants in windows e
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CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR
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annuals and hardy perennial species
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of the large container filled with
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perfection about four to six weeks
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FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th
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TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo
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The lighting condition near these w
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Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh
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may be used for one pot or a group
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garden rooms, atriums, or a large c
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The photoperiod affects when the ho
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patted firm to keep the plant erect
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Other Materials Apart from clay and
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(a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan
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TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House
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• Keep soil moist all the time
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• Prefers high temperatures • P
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amount and quality of light. If sup
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12 Controlled-Environment Horticult
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6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do
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Detached greenhouses have several a
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12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b
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horticultural business a less-expen
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Texas, Hawaii, and California. The
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source of heat for times when the t
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FIGURE 12-17 Greenhouse production
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FIGURE 12-21 Moving tables allowing
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Research program on greenhouse engi
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greenhouses equipped with a variety
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FIGURE 1 Annual energy required per
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This system was demonstrated in a 5
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FIGURE 6 Amounts of waste energy ut
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Ekholt, B.A., D.R. Mears, M.S. Gini
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or object to be warmed. Failure to
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objects in its path (e.g., the floo
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FIGURE 12-27 Motorized ventilation
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FIGURE 12-30 Movable internal shade
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FIGURE 12-33 A high pressure sodium
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Source of Water The quality of loca
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FIGURE 12-37 Overhead sprinkler irr
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Intermittent Feed Greenhouse plants
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However, in winter, greenhouse vent
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OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the
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. Foliage or green plants. Foliage
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2. Labor. The size of the labor for
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FIGURE 13-1 Greenhouse production o
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FIGURE 13-2 Lettuce plug is inserte
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13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 13-6 Plug produc
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14 Growing Succulents PURPOSE AND E
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FIGURE 14-3 Leaf succulent represen
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frost-hardy. Their rosettes are usu
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TABLE 14-1 Plant Selected Popular S
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(a) (b) FIGURE 14-12 Typical bromel
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14.7.1 WHAT ARE CACTI? 14.7 CACTI C
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FIGURE 14-16 Opuntia. (Source: Crai
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FIGURE 14-23 Mammillaria. (Source:
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FIGURE 14-28 Both desert and jungle
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Growing mix Gravel Cacti (a) (b) FI
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PART5 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: ORNA
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15 Principles of Landscaping PURPOS
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8. Create recreational grounds. Suc
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knowledge, with concern for resourc
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 15-2 The occurre
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GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPE DESIGN DAV
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the landscape. Some very successful
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Rhythm and Line Panoramic view of a
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FIGURE 15-10 A formal garden. The e
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How frequently do they entertain? A
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the patio should be located on the
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15.7.1 SELECTING PLANTS A homeowner
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Plant Arrangement in the Landscape
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Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree
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SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su
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3. Supply materials on a timely bas
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such as preparation rooms (for mixi
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of environmental fluctuations. Furt
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FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli
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17 Installation of the Landscape PU
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for walks, driveways, and patios (F
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Planting may be limited to accentin
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17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s
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FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i
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SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely
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TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T
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TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras
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they determine the success and surv
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12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t
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pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s
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y winds. A stake, which is often a
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TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever
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TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru
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Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub
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Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci
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may be divided such that each secti
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FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah
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Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In
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Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo
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Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and
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The seed should be free from weeds
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Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup
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A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging
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way, plants are able to adapt to th
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form of a can placed on the lawn wi
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TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur
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even surface soil surface for layin
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MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns
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Pruning is sometimes done in conjun
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4. Pruning may be done to reduce th
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19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t
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defeat the purpose of pruning. The
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Bud withers as cut end dries back d
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19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR
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Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a
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3. In the third and subsequent year
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(a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step
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Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab
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TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT
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Summer pruning eliminates an energy
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a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple
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FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can
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FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to
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years to promote continued lateral
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Horizontal Espalier The horizontal
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19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are
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FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas
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pyramid-like form that is wider at
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After selecting the appropriate spe
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PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG
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20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP
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The National Agricultural Statistic
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(This item omitted from WebBook edi
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growers should take to determine an
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pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da
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square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ
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High tunnels help increase the prof
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(This item omitted from WebBook edi
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20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V
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Establishing the Crop Planting into
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home water supply from the tap. Thi
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Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean
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6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe
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variable, ranging from creamy yello
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There are two general production pr
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This toxin is heat resistant and no
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large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw
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REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab
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TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1
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22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE
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22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING
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and the specific materials to be us
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22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY
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preemergent or early postemergent o
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Composting is a deliberate activity
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22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI
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Moisture Supply Water is required b
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Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir
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As microbial decomposition proceeds
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Establishment and Management of an
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night, freezing can occur in spring
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accomplished by stratification. It
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transmitted by the dagger nematode
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PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL
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24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU
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to more than four-fold in standard
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Temperature and Humidity Wilting re
Page 712 and 713:
FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J
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Principle Definition Types (or Uses
Page 716 and 717:
pH value-a measure of the acidity o
Page 718 and 719:
FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d
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24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool
Page 722 and 723:
3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad
Page 724 and 725:
Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl
Page 726 and 727:
24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr
Page 728 and 729:
25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX
Page 730 and 731:
FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar
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FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use
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25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai
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(a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c
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TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop
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26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO
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Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9
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26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to
Page 746 and 747:
27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi
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whereas oranges are picked (they ha
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(b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR
Page 752 and 753:
To reduce packaging injury, contain
Page 754 and 755:
is replaced by the by-product of re
Page 756 and 757:
Stored produce may lose some color,
Page 758 and 759:
with pricing. When selling by volum
Page 760 and 761:
(a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p
Page 762 and 763:
APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting
Page 764 and 765:
APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart
Page 766 and 767:
APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na
Page 768 and 769:
Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa
Page 770 and 771:
GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from
Page 772 and 773:
Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th
Page 774 and 775:
Floriculture The science and practi
Page 776 and 777:
M Macronutrient An essential elemen
Page 778 and 779:
Root cap A mass of hard cells cover
Page 780 and 781:
INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A
Page 782 and 783:
defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434
Page 784 and 785:
Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re
Page 786 and 787:
color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M
Page 788 and 789:
color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (
Page 790 and 791:
color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (
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color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (
Page 794 and 795:
color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (
Page 796 and 797:
color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow
Page 798 and 799:
color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 800 and 801:
color plate 15 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 802 and 803:
color plate 17 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 804 and 805:
color plate 19 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 806 and 807:
color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)
Page 808 and 809:
color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)
Page 810 and 811:
color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)
Page 812 and 813:
color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)
Page 814 and 815:
color plate 29 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 816 and 817:
color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d

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