Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3–46 cal fruit. Mesocarp Pericarp Endocarp Seed grasses (Figure 3–45). In grasses, the endosperm is the storage organ. The cotyledons provide nutrients for the growing embryo until the seedling is able to photosynthesize. The dicot seed has a tiny opening called a hilum, through which water and air enter to initiate germination. In dicots, the cotyledons are pushed above the soil during germination (epigeous germination), whereas in monocots, the cotyledon remains underground (hypogeous germination). Dicot A type of angiosperm characterized by seeds with two seed leaves or cotyledons. 3.10 FRUITS The mature ovary, together with the associated parts, form the fruit. In most species, the fruit bears seeds. In others, the fruit may develop without fertilization, a phenomenon called parthenocarpy. Parthenocarpic fruits (e.g., Cavendish banana, Washington navel orange, and many fig cultivars) are seedless. The natural function of the fruit is to protect the seed; however, animals and humans most desire the fruit. A typical fruit has three regions: the exocarp (the outer covering or skin), the endocarp (a boundary around the seed and may be hard and stony or papery), and the mesocarp (the often fleshy tissue that occurs between the exocarp and the endocarp) (Figure 3–46). The anatomy of fruits is discussed in great detail in Chapter 2, where such description was necessary to help in the classification of fruits. Parthenocarpy Development of fruit without sexual fertilization. SUMMARY Plant anatomy is the science of cataloging, describing, and understanding the functions of plant structures. Eukaryotes have various levels of structural organization. The cell is the fundamental unit of organization of living things. It is totipotent, grows, and ages. Cells consist of a variety of organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and nuclei, each with specific functions. The mitochondria are involved in energy-related functions, and the chloroplasts in photosynthesis, or food manufacture. The nucleus houses the chromosomes that contain most of the genetic material of the plant. Plant cells undergo differentiation to produce a variety of types, namely, parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. These types differ in cell wall characteristics and have specific structural roles. Cells aggregate to form tissues with specific functions. Parenchyma cells are thin walled and occur in tissues that have secretory, photosynthetic, and growth functions. Collenchyma and sclerenchyma are thicker walled and have mechanical roles in plant-strengthening tissues. Apart from simple tissues, cells aggregate to form complex tissues such as the epidermis (protective role) and those with secretory functions as found in nectaries. Some complex tissues are involved in the movement of organic and inorganic solutes through the plant. The xylem tissues move water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, where they are used in photosynthesis. The photosynthates are transported from leaves to other parts of the plant through the Summary 91
phloem tissue. Unlike animals, in which all parts of the organism grow simultaneously, growth in plants is limited to regions called meristems that occur in the apex or axils of the plant. The primary vegetative body of a plant consists of three organs—root, stem, and leaf. The root is the underground organ involved in anchorage of the plant and absorption of nutrients from the soil. In some species, the roots act as storage organs for carbohydrates. The tap root system, with one large central axis with laterals, is found in dicots, and the fibrous root system, characterized by several dominant roots, is seen in monocots. Tap roots penetrate the soil more deeply than fibrous roots. The stem is the central axis of the shoot of a plant. It holds up the foliage; conducts water, minerals, and food; and sometimes acts as a storage organ. It may be modified to be a vine or may creep (as in stolon), grow horizontally (as in rhizome), or store food (as in bulb, tuber, and corm). The leaf is the primary photosynthetic apparatus of the plant and is usually green in color. It may also be modified to be a storage organ. It varies in shape, size, form, margin, and arrangement. In dicots, secondary growth in nonherbaceous species produces wood, or secondary xylem. The inner layers of the wood that have lost conducting ability constitute the heartwood, and the outer layer forms the sapwood. Gymnosperms produce softwood because they lack certain strengthening fibers. The secondary phloem produces a tough outer layer called bark that replaces the epidermis. The bark in oak species may be several centimeters thick. The flower, showy and colorful, is the reproductive organ of the flowering plant. The male organ comprises the filament and the anther (contains pollen grains). The female organ, the carpel, consists of a style that is capped by a stigma and an ovary that contains ovules. After fertilization, a seed is produced. It contains an embryo, or a miniature plant. In dicot seeds, the embryo is sandwiched between two storage organs called cotyledons. Only one cotyledon occurs in monocots. When dicot seeds are planted, they germinate by pushing the cotyledons above the soil surface (epigeous germination). Monocots leave one cotyledon below the ground (hypogeous germination). 92 Chapter 3 Plant Anatomy REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Esau, K. 1977. Anatomy of seed plants, 2d ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Hartmann, H. T., A. M. Kofrnek, V. E. Rubatzky, and W. J. Flocker. 1988. Plant science: Growth, development, and utilization of cultivated plants, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Hayward, H. E. 1967. The structure of economic plants. New York: Lubrect & Crammer. Moore, R., and W. D. Clark. 1994. Botany: Form and function. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Stern, K. R. 1997. Introductory plant biology, 2d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Wilson, L., and W. E. Loomis. 1967. Botany, 4th ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Excellent and well-illustrated presentation of plant anatomy http://dallas.tamu.edu/weeds/anat.html Excellent microscope slides of cross sections of plant parts http://www.unlv.edu/Colleges/Sciences/Biology/Schulte/Anatomy/Anatomy.html Simple and well-illustrated description of plant structure http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookPLANTANAT.html
HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
With love to Theresa, quarterback;
Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T
Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND
5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4
8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276
12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
PART 6 Summary 541 References and S
22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668
Preface Horticulture is the area of
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful
PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT
1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND
(a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many
FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of
CYCADS Many people mistake these pr
FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran
FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on
FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu
1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS
1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic
TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export
Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te
What Is Horticulture? This site pro
Examples of botanical gardens http:
2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu
Eight major taxa are commonly used
TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King
HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F
AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events
possible system of nomenclature. Ho
Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i
(a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source
texture. The most commonly used gra
TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes
Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri
Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio
5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE
Growth in an organism follows a cer
5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH
waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o
5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis
CO 2 FIGURE 5-6 The C 4 pathway of
Growth and Development The general
TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero
Certain plants are adapted to dry e
conditions exist to sustain growth
Shoot Elongation In certain plants,
for success, since high temperature
FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh
Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla
conditions—pertaining to light, m
them to maturity. The major process
6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR
Similarly, there can be no plant br
APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE
hit with target DNA. Therefore, it
Generally, within ten days of exper
Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200
(b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R
e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele
eeder’s equation. Simply stated,
Before the seed or product becomes
6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE
2. Political disagreement. There ar
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac
PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA
7 Biological Enemies of Horticultur
8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways
is also a root parasite that obtain
LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal
Example Integrated cultural, physic
7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec
Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins
sucking insects (also found with so
FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S
TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases
7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,
FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P
fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,
SUMMARY Insects are a major class o
For the home growers or those who c
for consumers and the environment).
TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an
gibberellic acid spray overcomes st
In a competitive industry, a variet
Chemicals gain access to humans thr
2. Pesticide management. Controllin
Every organism has its natural enem
TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol
1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr
6. Heat treatment. In the greenhous
Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi
under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa
FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye
8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO
application, a particular herbicide
Further, they do not provide unifor
SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us
Sulfur may be applied for both prev
8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES
PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL
9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX
Anther Microspore Megaspore mother
Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa
FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal
Germination Test In laboratory prac
FIGURE 15 The essential structures
processing into flour or meal). How
physiologically immature seeds must
seeds may be treated in this way be
The two basic modes of seedling eme
locations in the field. Home garden
FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:
(a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed
y the gardener or grower. Whatever
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co
species enables vegetative propagat
for rapid rooting. There are two ba
Cutting involving one node (e.g., s
This practice is especially importa
10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting
(a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl
10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting
Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar
MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD
MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA
Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU
variety of ways. In air layering, a
FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop
Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi
The technique is used widely in cro
PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT
11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND
TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo
Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To
Window Displays Plants in windows e
CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR
annuals and hardy perennial species
of the large container filled with
perfection about four to six weeks
FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th
TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo
The lighting condition near these w
Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh
may be used for one pot or a group
garden rooms, atriums, or a large c
The photoperiod affects when the ho
patted firm to keep the plant erect
Other Materials Apart from clay and
(a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan
TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House
• Keep soil moist all the time
• Prefers high temperatures • P
amount and quality of light. If sup
12 Controlled-Environment Horticult
6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do
Detached greenhouses have several a
12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b
horticultural business a less-expen
Texas, Hawaii, and California. The
source of heat for times when the t
FIGURE 12-17 Greenhouse production
FIGURE 12-21 Moving tables allowing
Research program on greenhouse engi
greenhouses equipped with a variety
FIGURE 1 Annual energy required per
This system was demonstrated in a 5
FIGURE 6 Amounts of waste energy ut
Ekholt, B.A., D.R. Mears, M.S. Gini
or object to be warmed. Failure to
objects in its path (e.g., the floo
FIGURE 12-27 Motorized ventilation
FIGURE 12-30 Movable internal shade
FIGURE 12-33 A high pressure sodium
Source of Water The quality of loca
FIGURE 12-37 Overhead sprinkler irr
Intermittent Feed Greenhouse plants
However, in winter, greenhouse vent
OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the
. Foliage or green plants. Foliage
2. Labor. The size of the labor for
FIGURE 13-1 Greenhouse production o
FIGURE 13-2 Lettuce plug is inserte
13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 13-6 Plug produc
14 Growing Succulents PURPOSE AND E
FIGURE 14-3 Leaf succulent represen
frost-hardy. Their rosettes are usu
TABLE 14-1 Plant Selected Popular S
(a) (b) FIGURE 14-12 Typical bromel
14.7.1 WHAT ARE CACTI? 14.7 CACTI C
FIGURE 14-16 Opuntia. (Source: Crai
FIGURE 14-23 Mammillaria. (Source:
FIGURE 14-28 Both desert and jungle
Growing mix Gravel Cacti (a) (b) FI
PART5 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: ORNA
15 Principles of Landscaping PURPOS
8. Create recreational grounds. Suc
knowledge, with concern for resourc
(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 15-2 The occurre
GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPE DESIGN DAV
the landscape. Some very successful
Rhythm and Line Panoramic view of a
FIGURE 15-10 A formal garden. The e
How frequently do they entertain? A
the patio should be located on the
15.7.1 SELECTING PLANTS A homeowner
Plant Arrangement in the Landscape
Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree
SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su
3. Supply materials on a timely bas
such as preparation rooms (for mixi
of environmental fluctuations. Furt
FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli
17 Installation of the Landscape PU
for walks, driveways, and patios (F
Planting may be limited to accentin
17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s
FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i
SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely
TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T
TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras
they determine the success and surv
12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t
pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s
y winds. A stake, which is often a
TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever
TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru
Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub
Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci
may be divided such that each secti
FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah
Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In
Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo
Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and
The seed should be free from weeds
Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup
A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging
way, plants are able to adapt to th
form of a can placed on the lawn wi
TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur
even surface soil surface for layin
MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns
Pruning is sometimes done in conjun
4. Pruning may be done to reduce th
19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t
defeat the purpose of pruning. The
Bud withers as cut end dries back d
19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR
Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a
3. In the third and subsequent year
(a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step
Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab
TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT
Summer pruning eliminates an energy
a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple
FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can
FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to
years to promote continued lateral
Horizontal Espalier The horizontal
19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are
FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas
pyramid-like form that is wider at
After selecting the appropriate spe
PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG
20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP
The National Agricultural Statistic
(This item omitted from WebBook edi
growers should take to determine an
pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da
square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ
High tunnels help increase the prof
(This item omitted from WebBook edi
20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V
Establishing the Crop Planting into
home water supply from the tap. Thi
Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean
6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe
variable, ranging from creamy yello
There are two general production pr
This toxin is heat resistant and no
large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw
REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab
TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1
22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE
22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING
and the specific materials to be us
22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY
preemergent or early postemergent o
Composting is a deliberate activity
22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI
Moisture Supply Water is required b
Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir
As microbial decomposition proceeds
Establishment and Management of an
night, freezing can occur in spring
accomplished by stratification. It
transmitted by the dagger nematode
PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL
24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU
to more than four-fold in standard
Temperature and Humidity Wilting re
FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J
Principle Definition Types (or Uses
pH value-a measure of the acidity o
FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d
24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool
3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad
Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl
24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr
25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX
FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar
FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use
25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai
(a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c
TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop
26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO
Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9
26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to
27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi
whereas oranges are picked (they ha
(b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR
To reduce packaging injury, contain
is replaced by the by-product of re
Stored produce may lose some color,
with pricing. When selling by volum
(a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p
APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting
APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart
APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na
Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa
GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from
Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th
Floriculture The science and practi
M Macronutrient An essential elemen
Root cap A mass of hard cells cover
INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A
defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434
Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re
color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M
color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (
color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (
color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (
color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (
color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow
color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 15 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 17 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 19 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)
color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)
color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)
color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)
color plate 29 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d
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