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Walk by Faith; Serve with Abandon<br />

Expect to Win!<br />

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The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.<br />

Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities<br />

Achieve Their Full Potential<br />

Since its founding in 2003, The Advocacy Foundation has become recognized as an effective<br />

provider of support to those who receive our services, having real impact within the communities<br />

we serve. We are currently engaged in community and faith-based collaborative initiatives,<br />

having the overall objective of eradicating all forms of youth violence and correcting injustices<br />

everywhere. In carrying-out these initiatives, we have adopted the evidence-based strategic<br />

framework developed and implemented by the Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency<br />

Prevention (OJJDP).<br />

The stated objectives are:<br />

1. Community Mobilization;<br />

2. Social Intervention;<br />

3. Provision of Opportunities;<br />

4. Organizational Change and Development;<br />

5. Suppression [of illegal activities].<br />

Moreover, it is our most fundamental belief that in order to be effective, prevention and<br />

intervention strategies must be Community Specific, Culturally Relevant, Evidence-Based, and<br />

Collaborative. The Violence Prevention and Intervention programming we employ in<br />

implementing this community-enhancing framework include the programs further described<br />

throughout our publications, programs and special projects both domestically and<br />

internationally.<br />

www.TheAdvocacy.Foundation<br />

ISBN: ......... ../2017<br />

......... Printed in the USA<br />

Advocacy Foundation Publishers<br />

Philadelphia, PA<br />

(878) 222-0450 | Voice | Data | SMS<br />

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Dedication<br />

______<br />

Every publication in our many series’ is dedicated to everyone, absolutely everyone, who by<br />

virtue of their calling and by Divine inspiration, direction and guidance, is on the battlefield dayafter-day<br />

striving to follow God’s will and purpose for their lives. And this is with particular affinity<br />

for those Spiritual warriors who are being transformed into excellence through daily academic,<br />

professional, familial, and other challenges.<br />

We pray that you will bear in mind:<br />

Matthew 19:26 (NLT)<br />

Jesus looked at them intently and said, “Humanly speaking, it is impossible.<br />

But with God everything is possible.” (Emphasis added)<br />

To all of us who daily look past our circumstances, and naysayers, to what the Lord says we will<br />

accomplish:<br />

Blessings!!<br />

- The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.<br />

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The Transformative Justice Project<br />

Eradicating Juvenile Delinquency Requires a Multi-Disciplinary Approach<br />

The Juvenile Justice system is incredibly<br />

overloaded, and Solutions-Based programs are<br />

woefully underfunded. Our precious children,<br />

therefore, particularly young people of color, often<br />

get the “swift” version of justice whenever they<br />

come into contact with the law.<br />

Decisions to build prison facilities are often based<br />

on elementary school test results, and our country<br />

incarcerates more of its young than any other<br />

nation on earth. So we at The Foundation labor to<br />

pull our young people out of the “school to prison”<br />

pipeline, and we then coordinate the efforts of the<br />

legal, psychological, governmental and<br />

educational professionals needed to bring an end<br />

to delinquency.<br />

We also educate families, police, local businesses,<br />

elected officials, clergy, and schools and other<br />

stakeholders about transforming whole communities, and we labor to change their<br />

thinking about the causes of delinquency with the goal of helping them embrace the<br />

idea of restoration for the young people in our care who demonstrate repentance for<br />

their<br />

mistakes.<br />

The way we accomplish all this is a follows:<br />

1. We vigorously advocate for charges reductions, wherever possible, in the<br />

adjudicatory (court) process, with the ultimate goal of expungement or pardon, in order<br />

to maximize the chances for our clients to graduate high school and progress into<br />

college, military service or the workforce without the stigma of a criminal record;<br />

2. We then enroll each young person into an Evidence-Based, Data-Driven<br />

Restorative Justice program designed to facilitate their rehabilitation and subsequent<br />

reintegration back into the community;<br />

3. While those projects are operating, we conduct a wide variety of <strong>ComeUnity</strong>-<br />

ReEngineering seminars and workshops on topics ranging from Juvenile Justice to<br />

Parental Rights, to Domestic issues to Police friendly contacts, to mental health<br />

intervention, to CBO and FBO accountability and compliance;<br />

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4. Throughout the process, we encourage and maintain frequent personal contact<br />

between all parties;<br />

5 Throughout the process we conduct a continuum of events and fundraisers<br />

designed to facilitate collaboration among professionals and community stakeholders;<br />

and finally<br />

6. 1 We disseminate Quarterly publications, like our e-Advocate series Newsletter<br />

and our e-Advocate Quarterly electronic Magazine to all regular donors in order to<br />

facilitate a lifelong learning process on the ever-evolving developments in the Justice<br />

system.<br />

And in addition to the help we provide for our young clients and their families, we also<br />

facilitate Community Engagement through the Restorative Justice process,<br />

thereby balancing the interests of local businesses, schools, clergy, social assistance<br />

organizations, elected officials, law enforcement entities, and all interested<br />

stakeholders. Through these efforts, relationships are rebuilt & strengthened, local<br />

businesses and communities are enhanced & protected from victimization, young<br />

careers are developed, and our precious young people are kept out of the prison<br />

pipeline.<br />

Additionally, we develop Transformative “Void Resistance” (TVR) initiatives to elevate<br />

concerns of our successes resulting in economic hardship for those employed by the<br />

penal system.<br />

TVR is an innovative-comprehensive process that works in conjunction with our<br />

Transformative Justice initiatives to transition the original use and purpose of current<br />

systems into positive social impact operations, which systematically retrains current<br />

staff, renovates facilities, creates new employment opportunities, increases salaries and<br />

is data proven to enhance employee’s mental wellbeing and overall quality of life – an<br />

exponential Transformative Social Impact benefit for ALL community stakeholders.<br />

This is a massive undertaking, and we need all the help and financial support you can<br />

give! We plan to help 75 young persons per quarter-year (aggregating to a total of 250<br />

per year) in each jurisdiction we serve) at an average cost of under $2,500 per client,<br />

per year. *<br />

Thank you in advance for your support!<br />

* FYI:<br />

1 In addition to supporting our world-class programming and support services, all regular donors receive our Quarterly e-Newsletter<br />

(The e-Advocate), as well as The e-Advocate Quarterly Magazine.<br />

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1. The national average cost to taxpayers for minimum-security youth incarceration,<br />

is around $43,000.00 per child, per year.<br />

2. The average annual cost to taxpayers for maximum-security youth incarceration<br />

is well over $148,000.00 per child, per year.<br />

- (US News and World Report, December 9, 2014);<br />

3. In every jurisdiction in the nation, the Plea Bargain rate is above 99%.<br />

The Judicial system engages in a tri-partite balancing task in every single one of these<br />

matters, seeking to balance Rehabilitative Justice with Community Protection and<br />

Judicial Economy, and, although the practitioners work very hard to achieve positive<br />

outcomes, the scales are nowhere near balanced where people of color are involved.<br />

We must reverse this trend, which is right now working very much against the best<br />

interests of our young.<br />

Our young people do not belong behind bars.<br />

- Jack Johnson<br />

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The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.<br />

Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities<br />

Achieve Their Full Potential<br />

…a compendium of works on<br />

<strong>ComeUnity</strong><br />

Capacity-Building<br />

“Turning the Improbable Into the Exceptional”<br />

Atlanta<br />

Philadelphia<br />

______<br />

John C Johnson III<br />

Founder & CEO<br />

(878) 222-0450<br />

Voice | Data | SMS<br />

www.TheAdvocacy.Foundation<br />

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Biblical Authority<br />

______<br />

English Standard Version<br />

1 Thessalonians 5:11 Therefore encourage one another and build one another up, just as you are doing.<br />

Hebrews 10:24-25 And let us consider how to stir up one another to love and good works, not neglecting<br />

to meet together, as is the habit of some, but encouraging one another, and all the more as you see the<br />

Day drawing near.<br />

Ephesians 4:29 Let no corrupting talk come out of your mouths, but only such as is good for building up,<br />

as fits the occasion, that it may give grace to those who hear.<br />

Romans 14:19 So then let us pursue what makes for peace and for mutual upbuilding.<br />

1 Corinthians 14:26 What then, brothers? When you come together, each one has a hymn, a lesson, a<br />

revelation, a tongue, or an interpretation. Let all things be done for building up.<br />

Proverbs 27:17 Iron sharpens iron, and one man sharpens another.<br />

Hebrews 10:25 Not neglecting to meet together, as is the habit of some, but encouraging one another,<br />

and all the more as you see the Day drawing near.<br />

Colossians 3:16 Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all<br />

wisdom, singing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, with thankfulness in your hearts to God.<br />

Hebrews 3:13 But exhort one another every day, as long as it is called “today,” that none of you may be<br />

hardened by the deceitfulness of sin.<br />

Romans 15:1-11 We who are strong have an obligation to bear with the failings of the weak, and not to<br />

please ourselves. Let each of us please his neighbor for his good, to build him up. For Christ did not<br />

please himself, but as it is written, “The reproaches of those who reproached you fell on me.” For<br />

whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through<br />

the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope. May the God of endurance and<br />

encouragement grant you to live in such harmony with one another, in accord with Christ Jesus, ...<br />

Ephesians 4:11-16 And he gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the shepherds and<br />

teachers, to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until we all attain<br />

to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of<br />

the stature of the fullness of Christ, so that we may no longer be children, tossed to and fro by the waves<br />

and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by human cunning, by craftiness in deceitful schemes.<br />

Rather, speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ, ...<br />

Ecclesiastes 4:9-10 Two are better than one, because they have a good reward for their toil. For if they<br />

fall, one will lift up his fellow. But woe to him who is alone when he falls and has not another to lift him up!<br />

James 5:13 Is anyone among you suffering? Let him pray. Is anyone cheerful? Let him sing praise.<br />

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1 Peter 2:1-25 So put away all malice and all deceit and hypocrisy and envy and all slander. Like<br />

newborn infants, long for the pure spiritual milk, that by it you may grow up into salvation— if indeed you<br />

have tasted that the Lord is good. As you come to him, a living stone rejected by men but in the sight of<br />

God chosen and precious, you yourselves like living stones are being built up as a spiritual house, to be a<br />

holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. ...<br />

1 Corinthians 10:23 “All things are lawful,” but not all things are helpful. “All things are lawful,” but not all<br />

things build up.<br />

Romans 15:2 Let each of us please his neighbor for his good, to build him up.<br />

2 Thessalonians 1:1-12 Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy, To the church of the Thessalonians in God our<br />

Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus<br />

Christ. We ought always to give thanks to God for you, brothers, as is right, because your faith is growing<br />

abundantly, and the love of every one of you for one another is increasing. Therefore we ourselves boast<br />

about you in the churches of God for your steadfastness and faith in all your persecutions and in the<br />

afflictions that you are enduring. This is evidence of the righteous judgment of God, that you may be<br />

considered worthy of the kingdom of God, for which you are also suffering— ...<br />

1 Peter 5:5 Likewise, you who are younger, be subject to the elders. Clothe yourselves, all of you, with<br />

humility toward one another, for “God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble.”<br />

Colossians 3:15 And let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts, to which indeed you were called in one<br />

body. And be thankful.<br />

Ephesians 4:16 From whom the whole body, joined and held together by every joint with which it is<br />

equipped, when each part is working properly, makes the body grow so that it builds itself up in love.<br />

Ephesians 4:12 To equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ,<br />

Colossians 3:1-25 If then you have been raised with Christ, seek the things that are above, where Christ<br />

is, seated at the right hand of God. Set your minds on things that are above, not on things that are on<br />

earth. For you have died, and your life is hidden with Christ in God. When Christ who is your life appears,<br />

then you also will appear with him in glory. Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: sexual<br />

immorality, impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry. ...<br />

1 Thessalonians 4:18 Therefore encourage one another with these words.<br />

2 Peter 1:3 His divine power has granted to us all things that pertain to life and godliness, through the<br />

knowledge of him who called us to his own glory and excellence,<br />

Matthew 7:12 “So whatever you wish that others would do to you, do also to them, for this is the Law<br />

and the Prophets.<br />

1 John 2:1-29 My little children, I am writing these things to you so that you may not sin. But if anyone<br />

does sin, we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous. He is the propitiation for our<br />

sins, and not for ours only but also for the sins of the whole world. And by this we know that we have<br />

come to know him, if we keep his commandments. Whoever says “I know him” but does not keep his<br />

commandments is a liar, and the truth is not in him, but whoever keeps his word, in him truly the love of<br />

God is perfected. By this we may know that we are in him: ...<br />

Ephesians 5:19 Addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making<br />

melody to the Lord with your heart,<br />

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Psalm 1:1-6 Blessed is the man who walks not in the counsel of the wicked, nor stands in the way of<br />

sinners, nor sits in the seat of scoffers; but his delight is in the law of the LORD, and on his law he<br />

meditates day and night. He is like a tree planted by streams of water that yields its fruit in its season, and<br />

its leaf does not wither. In all that he does, he prospers. The wicked are not so, but are like chaff that the<br />

wind drives away. Therefore the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor sinners in the congregation of<br />

the righteous; ...<br />

Romans 15:5 May the God of endurance and encouragement grant you to live in such harmony with one<br />

another, in accord with Christ Jesus,<br />

Romans 15:4 For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through<br />

endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.<br />

Hebrews 5:12-14 For though by this time you ought to be teachers, you need someone to teach you<br />

again the basic principles of the oracles of God. You need milk, not solid food, for everyone who lives on<br />

milk is unskilled in the word of righteousness, since he is a child. But solid food is for the mature, for those<br />

who have their powers of discernment trained by constant practice to distinguish good from evil.<br />

1 Corinthians 13:13 So now faith, hope, and love abide, these three; but the greatest of these is love.<br />

Philippians 2:3 Do nothing from rivalry or conceit, but in humility count others more significant than<br />

yourselves.<br />

1 Corinthians 2:1-16 And I, when I came to you, brothers, did not come proclaiming to you the testimony<br />

of God with lofty speech or wisdom. For I decided to know nothing among you except Jesus Christ and<br />

him crucified. And I was with you in weakness and in fear and much trembling, and my speech and my<br />

message were not in plausible words of wisdom, but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power, that your<br />

faith might not rest in the wisdom of men but in the power of God. ...<br />

Colossians 1:1-29 Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and Timothy our brother, To the<br />

saints and faithful brothers in Christ at Colossae: Grace to you and peace from God our Father. We<br />

always thank God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, when we pray for you, since we heard of your<br />

faith in Christ Jesus and of the love that you have for all the saints, because of the hope laid up for you in<br />

heaven. Of this you have heard before in the word of the truth, the gospel, ...<br />

1 Thessalonians 5:14 And we urge you, brothers, admonish the idle, encourage the fainthearted, help<br />

the weak, be patient with them all.<br />

Hebrews 10:24 And let us consider how to stir up one another to love and good works,<br />

2 Timothy 2:11-13 The saying is trustworthy, for: If we have died with him, we will also live with him; if<br />

we endure, we will also reign with him; if we deny him, he also will deny us; if we are faithless, he remains<br />

faithful— for he cannot deny himself.<br />

Colossians 3:2 Set your minds on things that are above, not on things that are on earth.<br />

Philippians 2:6-11 Who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be<br />

grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And<br />

being found in human form, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death<br />

on a cross. Therefore God has highly exalted him and bestowed on him the name that is above every<br />

name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth,<br />

...<br />

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1 Corinthians 14:12 So with yourselves, since you are eager for manifestations of the Spirit, strive to<br />

excel in building up the church.<br />

Jude 1:20 But you, beloved, building yourselves up in your most holy faith and praying in the Holy Spirit,<br />

Romans 15:7 Therefore welcome one another as Christ has welcomed you, for the glory of God.<br />

Ephesians 4:32 Be kind to one another, tenderhearted, forgiving one another, as God in Christ forgave<br />

you.<br />

2 Corinthians 1:4 Who comforts us in all our affliction, so that we may be able to comfort those who are<br />

in any affliction, with the comfort with which we ourselves are comforted by God.<br />

Ecclesiastes 4:9-12 Two are better than one, because they have a good reward for their toil. For if they<br />

fall, one will lift up his fellow. But woe to him who is alone when he falls and has not another to lift him up!<br />

Again, if two lie together, they keep warm, but how can one keep warm alone? And though a man might<br />

prevail against one who is alone, two will withstand him—a threefold cord is not quickly broken.<br />

Galatians 6:2 Bear one another's burdens, and so fulfill the law of Christ.<br />

Romans 15:14 I myself am satisfied about you, my brothers, that you yourselves are full of goodness,<br />

filled with all knowledge and able to instruct one another.<br />

Romans 15:11 And again, “Praise the Lord, all you Gentiles, and let all the peoples extol him.”<br />

Romans 15:9 And in order that the Gentiles might glorify God for his mercy. As it is written, “Therefore I<br />

will praise you among the Gentiles, and sing to your name.”<br />

James 1:19 Know this, my beloved brothers: let every person be quick to hear, slow to speak, slow to<br />

anger;<br />

1 Thessalonians 5:17 Pray without ceasing,<br />

Romans 12:10 Love one another with brotherly affection. Outdo one another in showing honor.<br />

Romans 12:1-2 I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a<br />

living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship. Do not be conformed to this<br />

world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that by testing you may discern what is the will of<br />

God, what is good and acceptable and perfect.<br />

James 4:11 Do not speak evil against one another, brothers. The one who speaks against a brother or<br />

judges his brother, speaks evil against the law and judges the law. But if you judge the law, you are not a<br />

doer of the law but a judge.<br />

2 Corinthians 12:19 Have you been thinking all along that we have been defending ourselves to you? It<br />

is in the sight of God that we have been speaking in Christ, and all for your upbuilding, beloved.<br />

Revelation 5:9 And they sang a new song, saying, “Worthy are you to take the scroll and to open its<br />

seals, for you were slain, and by your blood you ransomed people for God from every tribe and language<br />

and people and nation,<br />

Ephesians 5:18 And do not get drunk with wine, for that is debauchery, but be filled with the Spirit,<br />

Page 16 of 201


Ephesians 4:2 With all humility and gentleness, with patience, bearing with one another in love,<br />

1 Peter 3:8 Finally, all of you, have unity of mind, sympathy, brotherly love, a tender heart, and a humble<br />

mind.<br />

Romans 15:1 We who are strong have an obligation to bear with the failings of the weak, and not to<br />

please ourselves.<br />

Matthew 5:44 But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you,<br />

James 5:13-16 Is anyone among you suffering? Let him pray. Is anyone cheerful? Let him sing praise. Is<br />

anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing<br />

him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the one who is sick, and the Lord will<br />

raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven. Therefore, confess your sins to one<br />

another and pray for one another, that you may be healed. The prayer of a righteous person has great<br />

power as it is working.<br />

Hebrews 4:16 Let us then with confidence draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy<br />

and find grace to help in time of need.<br />

1 Corinthians 14:5 Now I want you all to speak in tongues, but even more to prophesy. The one who<br />

prophesies is greater than the one who speaks in tongues, unless someone interprets, so that the church<br />

may be built up.<br />

Psalm 71:23 My lips will shout for joy, when I sing praises to you; my soul also, which you have<br />

redeemed.<br />

1 Thessalonians 3:2 And we sent Timothy, our brother and God's coworker in the gospel of Christ, to<br />

establish and exhort you in your faith,<br />

Ephesians 2:19-22 So then you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you are fellow citizens with the<br />

saints and members of the household of God, built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ<br />

Jesus himself being the cornerstone, in whom the whole structure, being joined together, grows into a<br />

holy temple in the Lord. In him you also are being built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit.<br />

John 16:33 I have said these things to you, that in me you may have peace. In the world you will have<br />

tribulation. But take heart; I have overcome the world.”<br />

John 13:34 A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another: just as I have loved you, you<br />

also are to love one another.<br />

Philippians 4:8 Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is<br />

pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is commendable, if there is any excellence, if there is anything worthy<br />

of praise, think about these things.<br />

James 5:16 Therefore, confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may be<br />

healed. The prayer of a righteous person has great power as it is working.<br />

Acts 15:32 And Judas and Silas, who were themselves prophets, encouraged and strengthened the<br />

brothers with many words.<br />

Psalm 23:4 Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for you are<br />

with me; your rod and your staff, they comfort me.<br />

Page 17 of 201


Joshua 1:9 Have I not commanded you? Be strong and courageous. Do not be frightened, and do not<br />

be dismayed, for the LORD your God is with you wherever you go.”<br />

Colossians 1:28 Him we proclaim, warning everyone and teaching everyone with all wisdom, that we<br />

may present everyone mature in Christ.<br />

Ephesians 3:16 That according to the riches of his glory he may grant you to be strengthened with<br />

power through his Spirit in your inner being,<br />

1 Corinthians 14:1-40 Pursue love, and earnestly desire the spiritual gifts, especially that you may<br />

prophesy. For one who speaks in a tongue speaks not to men but to God; for no one understands him,<br />

but he utters mysteries in the Spirit. On the other hand, the one who prophesies speaks to people for their<br />

upbuilding and encouragement and consolation. The one who speaks in a tongue builds up himself, but<br />

the one who prophesies builds up the church. Now I want you all to speak in tongues, but even more to<br />

prophesy. The one who prophesies is greater than the one who speaks in tongues, unless someone<br />

interprets, so that the church may be built up. ...<br />

Romans 8:38-39 For I am sure that neither death nor life, nor angels nor rulers, nor things present nor<br />

things to come, nor powers, nor height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate<br />

us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord.<br />

Proverbs 1:7 The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction.<br />

James 1:5 If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all without reproach,<br />

and it will be given him.<br />

Colossians 3:23 Whatever you do, work heartily, as for the Lord and not for men,<br />

Philippians 2:5-11 Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he<br />

was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but made himself nothing,<br />

taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form, he<br />

humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross. Therefore God has<br />

highly exalted him and bestowed on him the name that is above every name, ...<br />

John 1:17 For the law was given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ.<br />

Psalm 113:1-9 Praise the LORD! Praise, O servants of the LORD, praise the name of the LORD! Blessed<br />

be the name of the LORD from this time forth and forevermore! From the rising of the sun to its setting, the<br />

name of the LORD is to be praised! The LORD is high above all nations, and his glory above the heavens!<br />

Who is like the LORD our God, who is seated on high, ...<br />

1 Chronicles 16:11 Seek the LORD and his strength; seek his presence continually!<br />

Hebrews 1:8-9 But of the Son he says, “Your throne, O God, is forever and ever, the scepter of<br />

uprightness is the scepter of your kingdom. You have loved righteousness and hated wickedness;<br />

therefore God, your God, has anointed you with the oil of gladness beyond your companions.”<br />

Ephesians 5:1-33 Therefore be imitators of God, as beloved children. And walk in love, as Christ loved<br />

us and gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God. But sexual immorality and all<br />

impurity or covetousness must not even be named among you, as is proper among saints. Let there be<br />

no filthiness nor foolish talk nor crude joking, which are out of place, but instead let there be thanksgiving.<br />

For you may be sure of this, that everyone who is sexually immoral or impure, or who is covetous (that is,<br />

an idolater), has no inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and God. ...<br />

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Luke 2:20 And the shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God for all they had heard and seen, as it<br />

had been told them.<br />

Matthew 22:37 And he said to him, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your<br />

soul and with all your mind.<br />

Matthew 4:23 And he went throughout all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues and proclaiming the<br />

gospel of the kingdom and healing every disease and every affliction among the people.<br />

Amos 6:1 “Woe to those who are at ease in Zion, and to those who feel secure on the mountain of<br />

Samaria, the notable men of the first of the nations, to whom the house of Israel comes!<br />

Psalm 78:1-72 A Maskil of Asaph. Give ear, O my people, to my teaching; incline your ears to the words<br />

of my mouth! I will open my mouth in a parable; I will utter dark sayings from of old, things that we have<br />

heard and known, that our fathers have told us. We will not hide them from their children, but tell to the<br />

coming generation the glorious deeds of the LORD, and his might, and the wonders that he has done. He<br />

established a testimony in Jacob and appointed a law in Israel, which he commanded our fathers to teach<br />

to their children, ...<br />

Deuteronomy 32:43 “Rejoice with him, O heavens; bow down to him, all gods, for he avenges the blood<br />

of his children and takes vengeance on his adversaries. He repays those who hate him and cleanses his<br />

people's land.”<br />

1 Timothy 3:16 Great indeed, we confess, is the mystery of godliness: He was manifested in the flesh,<br />

vindicated by the Spirit, seen by angels, proclaimed among the nations, believed on in the world, taken up<br />

in glory.<br />

Colossians 3:13 Bearing with one another and, if one has a complaint against another, forgiving each<br />

other; as the Lord has forgiven you, so you also must forgive.<br />

Colossians 2:1-23 For I want you to know how great a struggle I have for you and for those at Laodicea<br />

and for all who have not seen me face to face, that their hearts may be encouraged, being knit together in<br />

love, to reach all the riches of full assurance of understanding and the knowledge of God's mystery, which<br />

is Christ, in whom are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge. I say this in order that no one<br />

may delude you with plausible arguments. For though I am absent in body, yet I am with you in spirit,<br />

rejoicing to see your good order and the firmness of your faith in Christ. ...<br />

Colossians 1:9 And so, from the day we heard, we have not ceased to pray for you, asking that you<br />

may be filled with the knowledge of his will in all spiritual wisdom and understanding,<br />

1 Corinthians 8:1 Now concerning food offered to idols: we know that “all of us possess knowledge.”<br />

This “knowledge” puffs up, but love builds up.<br />

Acts 17:2 And Paul went in, as was his custom, and on three Sabbath days he reasoned with them from<br />

the Scriptures<br />

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Page 20 of 201


Table of Contents<br />

…a compilation of works on<br />

<strong>ComeUnity</strong><br />

Capacity-Building<br />

Biblical Authority<br />

I. Introduction: Capacity-Building……………………………………. 23<br />

II. Organizational Development………………………………………. 39<br />

III. Collaboration………………………………………………………… 55<br />

IV. Social Networking…………………………………………………… 69<br />

V. Digital Collaboration………………………………………………… 81<br />

VI. Social Networking Analysis…….………………………………….. 85<br />

VII. Digital Humanity…………………………………………………...... 95<br />

VIII. Opportunities Management………………………………............. 111<br />

IX. References……………………………………………………......... 121<br />

______<br />

Attachments<br />

A. Community Capacity-Building: A Practical Guide<br />

B. Community Capacity-Building - Fostering Economic and Social Resilience<br />

C. Community Capacity-Building: Lessons Learned from Our Partners<br />

Copyright © 2003 – 2018 The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved.<br />

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This work is not meant to be a piece of original academic<br />

analysis, but rather draws very heavily on the work of<br />

scholars in a diverse range of fields. All material drawn upon<br />

is referenced appropriately.<br />

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I. Introduction<br />

Capacity-Building Overview<br />

Capacity Building (or capacity development) is the process by which individuals<br />

and organizations obtain, improve, and retain the skills, knowledge, tools, equipment<br />

and other resources needed to do their jobs competently or to a greater capacity (larger<br />

scale, larger audience, larger impact, etc). Capacity building and capacity development<br />

are often used interchangeably.<br />

Community capacity building is a conceptual approach to social, behavioral change and<br />

leads to infrastructure development. It simultaneously focuses on understanding the<br />

obstacles that inhibit people, governments, international organizations and nongovernmental<br />

organizations (NGOs) from realizing their development goals and<br />

enhancing the abilities that will allow them to achieve measurable and sustainable<br />

results.<br />

The term community capacity building emerged in the lexicon of international<br />

development during the 1990s. Today, "community capacity building" is included in the<br />

programs of most international organizations that work in development, such as<br />

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the World Bank, the United Nations and non-governmental organizations like Oxfam<br />

International. Wide use of the term has resulted in controversy over its true meaning.<br />

Community capacity building often refers to strengthening the skills, competencies and<br />

abilities of people and communities in small businesses and local grassroots<br />

movements so they can achieve their goals and potentially overcome the causes of<br />

their exclusion and suffering. Organizational capacity building is used by NGOs &<br />

Governments to guide their internal development and activities.<br />

Definitions<br />

Many organizations interpret community capacity building in their own ways and focus<br />

on it rather than promoting two-way development in developing nations. Fundraising,<br />

training centers, exposure visit, office and documentation support, on the job training,<br />

learning centers and consultants are all some forms of capacity building. To prevent<br />

international aid for development from becoming perpetual dependency, developing<br />

nations are adopting strategies provided by the organizations in the form of capacity<br />

building.<br />

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) was one of the forerunners in<br />

developing an understanding of community capacity building or development. Since the<br />

early 70s the UNDP offered guidance for its staff and governments on what was<br />

considered "institution building".<br />

The UNISDR defines capacity development in the DRR domain as "the process by<br />

which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their<br />

capability over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through<br />

improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions – within a wider social and<br />

cultural enabling environment."<br />

In 1991, the term evolved to be "community capacity building". The UNDP defines<br />

capacity building as a long-term continual process of development that involves all<br />

stakeholders; including ministries, local authorities, non-governmental organizations,<br />

professionals, community members, academics and more. Capacity building uses a<br />

country's human, scientific, technological, organizational, and institutional and resource<br />

capabilities. The goal of capacity building is to tackle problems related to policy and<br />

methods of development, while considering the potential, limits and needs of the people<br />

of the country concerned. The UNDP outlines that capacity building takes place on an<br />

individual level, an institutional level and the societal level.<br />

<br />

Individual level – Community capacity-building on an individual level requires the<br />

development of conditions that allow individual participants to build and enhance<br />

knowledge and skills. It also calls for the establishment of conditions that will<br />

allow individuals to engage in the "process of learning and adapting to change".<br />

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Institutional level – Community capacity building on an institutional level should<br />

involve aiding institutions in developing countries. It should not involve creating<br />

new institutions, rather modernizing existing institutions and supporting them in<br />

forming sound policies, organizational structures, and effective methods of<br />

management and revenue control.<br />

Societal level – Community capacity building at the societal level should support<br />

the establishment of a more "interactive public administration that learns equally<br />

from its actions and from feedback it receives from the population at large."<br />

Community capacity building must be used to develop public administrators that<br />

are responsive and accountable.<br />

Non Training Level-Providing Enabling Environment To The Trained Staff To<br />

Perform At His Optimum Level.<br />

Holding similar views to the UNDP about systems nature of capacity, Wakely (1997)<br />

also believed that thinking about capacity building as simply training or human resource<br />

development was too limiting and that there needed to be a shift from that mindset. He<br />

believed increasing the capacity of the individual was not enough to contribute to the<br />

advancement of sustainable development alone, and needed to be paired with a<br />

supportive institutional and organizational environment. The three aspects of capacity<br />

building that Wakely believed essential to creating better cities are human resource<br />

development, organizational development, and institutional development. Human<br />

resource development defined as "the process of equipping people with the<br />

understanding and skills, and access to the information and knowledge to perform<br />

effectively", and is where Wakely believes too much emphasis and efforts are focused<br />

here. Organizational development involves the processes of how things get done within<br />

an organization and requires examining how and why an organization does something<br />

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and what could be improved. Institutional development is the "legal and regulatory<br />

changes" that must be made in order for organizations to enhance their capacities.<br />

Community capacity building is defined as the "process of developing and strengthening<br />

the skills, instincts, abilities, processes and resources that organizations and<br />

communities need to survive, adapt, and thrive in the fast-changing world."<br />

Community capacity building is the elements that give fluidity, flexibility and functionality<br />

of a program/organization to adapt to changing needs of the population that is served.<br />

Infrastructure development has been considered "economic capacity building" because<br />

it increases the capacity of any developed or developing society to improve trade,<br />

employment, economic development and quality of life<br />

History<br />

The term "community capacity building" has evolved from past terms such<br />

as institutional building and organizational development.<br />

In the 1950s and 1960s these terms referred to community development that focused<br />

on enhancing the technological and self-help capacities of individuals in rural areas.<br />

In the 1970s, following a series of reports on international development an emphasis<br />

was put on building capacity for technical skills in rural areas, and also in the<br />

administrative sectors of developing countries. In the 1980s the concept of institutional<br />

development expanded even more. Institutional development was viewed as a longterm<br />

process of building up a developing country's government, public and private<br />

sector institutions, and NGOs.<br />

Though precursors to capacity building existed before, they were not powerful forces in<br />

international development like "capacity building" became during the 1990s.<br />

The emergence of capacity building as a leading development concept in the 1990s<br />

occurred due to a confluence of factors:<br />

<br />

<br />

New philosophies that promoted empowerment and participation, like Paulo<br />

Freire's Education for Critical Consciousness (1973), which emphasized that<br />

education, could not be handed down from an omniscient teacher to an ignorant<br />

student; rather it must be achieved through the process of a dialogue among<br />

equals.<br />

Commissioned reports and research during the 1980s, like the Capacity and<br />

Vulnerabilities Analysis (CVA) which posited three assumptions:<br />

1. Development is the process by which vulnerabilities are reduced and capacities<br />

increased;<br />

2. No one develops anyone else;<br />

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3. Relief programs are never neutral in their development impact.<br />

<br />

Changes in international development approaches<br />

During the 1980s many low-income states were subject to "structural adjustment<br />

packages"—the neoliberal nature of the packages led to increasing disparities of wealth.<br />

In response, a series of "social dimension adjustments were enacted". The growing<br />

wealth gap coupled with "social dimension adjustments" allowed for an increased<br />

significance for NGOs in developing states as they actively participated in social service<br />

delivery to the poor.<br />

<br />

Then, in the 1990s a new emphasis was placed on the idea of sustainable<br />

development.<br />

Capacity Building As Path To Sustainable Development<br />

With increasing concerns about environmental issues such as climate change, there<br />

has been a focus on achieving sustainable development, or development that<br />

maximizes social, economic, and environmental benefit for the long term. During<br />

debates about how to achieve sustainable development, it has become commonplace<br />

to include discussions about local community empowerment as well as "related<br />

concepts of participation, ownership, agency, and bottom up planning". In order to<br />

empower local communities to be self-sustaining, capacity building has become a<br />

crucial part towards achieving sustainable development. Many NGOs and<br />

developmental organizations end up inducing chronic aid dependency within<br />

communities by doing developmental projects for the communities rather than in<br />

partnership with them.<br />

Reports like the CVA and ideas like those of Freire from earlier decades emphasized<br />

that "no one could develop anyone else" and development had to be participatory.<br />

These arguments questioned the effectiveness of "service delivery programs" for<br />

achieving sustainable development, thus leading the way for a new emphasis on<br />

"capacity building."<br />

In September 2000, the commitment, sealed in the Millennium Declaration in<br />

September 2000 in New York, of 190 countries to achieving the Millennium<br />

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Development Goal by 2015, and the urgent need for countries, particularly developing<br />

countries, to effectively and speedily respond to the current global economic recession,<br />

climate change and other crises that are plaguing the world and adding to the two billion<br />

people already living below the poverty line, has renewed interest and engagement in<br />

capacity building.<br />

In Developing Societies<br />

In the UNDP's 2008–2013 "strategic plan for development" capacity building is the<br />

"organization's core contribution to development". The UNDP promotes a capacity<br />

building approach to development in the 166 countries it is active in. It focuses on<br />

building capacity on an institutional level and offers a six–step process for systematic<br />

capacity building.<br />

The steps are:<br />

1. Conducting Training Need Assessment (TNA)<br />

2. Engage Stakeholders on Capacity Development<br />

An effective capacity building process must encourage participation by all those<br />

involved. If stakeholders are involved and share ownership in the process of<br />

development they will feel more responsible for the outcome and sustainability of the<br />

development. Engaging stakeholder's who are directly affected by the situation allows<br />

for more effective decision-making, it also makes development work more transparent.<br />

UNDP and its partners use advocacy and policy advisory to better engage stakeholders.<br />

3. Assess Capacity Needs and Assets<br />

Assessing preexisting capacities through engagement with stakeholders allows capacity<br />

builders to see what areas require additional training, what areas should be prioritized,<br />

in what ways capacity building can be incorporated into local and institutional<br />

development strategies. The UNDP argues that capacity building that is not rooted in a<br />

comprehensive study and assessment of the preexisting conditions will be restricted to<br />

training alone, which will not facilitate sustained results.<br />

4. Formulate a Capacity Development Response<br />

The UNDP says that once an assessment has been completed a capacity building<br />

response must be created based on four core issues:<br />

Institutional Arrangements<br />

Assessments often find that institutions are inefficient because of bad or weak policies,<br />

procedures, resource management, organization, leadership, frameworks, and<br />

communication. The UNDP and its networks work to fix problems associated with<br />

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institutional arrangements by developing human resource frameworks "cover policies<br />

and procedures for recruitment, deployment and transfer, incentives systems, skills<br />

development, performance evaluation systems, and ethics and values."<br />

Leadership<br />

the UNDP believes that leadership by either an individual or an organization can<br />

catalyze the achievement of development objectives. Strong leadership allows for<br />

easier adaption to changes, strong leaders can also influence people. The UNDP uses<br />

coaching and mentoring programmers to help encourage the development of leadership<br />

skills such as, priority setting, communication and strategic planning.<br />

Knowledge<br />

The UNDP believes knowledge is the foundation of capacity. They believe greater<br />

investments should be made in establishing strong education systems and opportunities<br />

for continued learning and the development of professional skills. They support the<br />

engagement in post-secondary education reforms, continued learning and domestic<br />

knowledge services.<br />

Accountability<br />

the implementation of accountability measures facilitates better performance and<br />

efficiency. A lack of accountability measures in institutions allows for the proliferation of<br />

corruption. The UNDP promotes the strengthening of accountability frameworks that<br />

monitor and evaluate institutions.<br />

They also promote independent organizations that oversee, monitor and evaluate<br />

institutions. They promote the development of capacities such as literacy and language<br />

skills in civil societies that will allow for increased engagement in monitoring institutions.<br />

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5. Implement a Capacity Development Response<br />

Implementing a capacity building program should involve the inclusion of multiple<br />

systems: national, local, institutional. It should involve continual reassessment and<br />

expect change depending on changing situations. It should include evaluative indicators<br />

to measure the effective of initiated programs.<br />

6. Evaluate Capacity Development<br />

Evaluation of capacity building promotes accountability. Measurements should be<br />

based on changes in an institutions performance. Evaluations should be based on<br />

changes in performance based around the four main issues: institutional arrangements,<br />

leadership, knowledge, and accountability.<br />

The UNDP integrates this capacity building system into its work on reaching<br />

the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The UNDP focuses on building capacity at<br />

the institutional level because it believes that "institutions are at the heart of human<br />

development, and that when they are able to perform better, sustain that performance<br />

over time, and manage 'shocks' to the system, they can contribute more meaningfully to<br />

the achievement of national human development goals."<br />

Capacity building in developing countries is explained by Lant Pritchett, Michael<br />

Woolcock, and Matt Andres as a fourfold modernization process in the areas of:<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Economy: Enhanced productivity<br />

Polity: Accurate preference aggregation<br />

Society: Equal social rights, opportunities<br />

Administration: Rational, professional, organizations<br />

In this theory, called Modernization Theory, growth over time in these four areas leads<br />

to a state becoming developed. The underlying idea behind this theory is that<br />

development agencies are tasked with facilitating growth in these four areas in order to<br />

speed up the process of development or make the process more equitable.<br />

In Governments<br />

One of the most fundamental ideas associated with capacity building is the idea of<br />

building the capacities of governments in developing countries so they are able to<br />

handle the problems associated with environmental, economic and social<br />

transformations. Developing a government's capacity whether at the local, regional or<br />

national level will allow for better governance that can lead to sustainable development<br />

and democracy. To avoid authoritarianism in developing nations, a focus has been<br />

placed on developing the abilities and skills of national and local governments so power<br />

can be diffused across a state. Capacity building in governments often involves<br />

providing the tools to help them best fulfill their responsibilities. These include building<br />

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up a government's ability to budget, collect revenue, create and implement laws,<br />

promote civic engagement, be transparent and accountable and fight corruption.<br />

Joel S. Migdal explains that<br />

governments can strengthen weak<br />

states by building capacity<br />

through changing land tenure<br />

patterns, adjusting methods<br />

of taxation, and improving<br />

modes of transportation.<br />

Migdal cites Mexico's<br />

passing of Ley de<br />

desamortización in<br />

1856 as an example<br />

of establishing<br />

property rights as a<br />

means to strengthen<br />

a government's<br />

capacity for rule by<br />

establishing order.<br />

This establishes a<br />

social structure to<br />

reduce citizen conflict<br />

within the state and a<br />

means to organize<br />

agricultural production for<br />

optimal output. Adjusting<br />

methods of taxation is another way<br />

to<br />

consolidate power in a weak state's<br />

government. This can be done through increasing<br />

government revenue through increased taxation and also formalizing tax collection by<br />

collecting taxes in cash instead of in kind. Migdal cites the example of 19th Century<br />

Egypt's declaration of cash taxes only as the reason for increased economic capacity as<br />

farmers were forced into more market relations, pushing them to produce crops for<br />

export to increase cash revenue. This gave the state more liquid income. Also, Migdal<br />

explains that new modes of transportation can strengthen a state's capacity through<br />

decreased isolation leading to increasing economic opportunity by regional trade,<br />

increased accessibility, and reduced cost of transporting goods. Migdal cites the<br />

example of the railroad in India in 1853 as a means of growing the cotton export<br />

industry by 500%.<br />

Below are examples of capacity building in governments of developing countries:<br />

<br />

In 1999, the UNDP supported capacity building of the state government in Bosnia<br />

Herzegovina. The program focused on strengthening the State's government by<br />

fostering new organizational, leadership and management skills in government<br />

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figures, improved the government's technical abilities to communicate with the<br />

international community and civil society within the country.<br />

<br />

<br />

Since 2000, developing organizations like the National Area-Based Development<br />

Program have approached the development of local governments in Afghanistan,<br />

through a capacity building approach. NABDP holds training sessions across<br />

Afghanistan in areas where there exist foundations for local governments. The<br />

NABDP holds workshops trying community leaders on how to best address the<br />

local needs of the society. Providing weak local government institutions with the<br />

capacity to address pertinent problems, reinforces the weak governments and<br />

brings them closer to being institutionalized. The goal of capacity builders<br />

in Afghanistan is to build up local governments and provide those burgeoning<br />

institutions with training that will allow them to address and advocate for what the<br />

community needs most. Leaders are trained in "governance, conflict resolution,<br />

gender equity, project planning, implementation, management, procurement<br />

financial, and disaster management and mitigation."<br />

The Municipality of Rosario, Batangas, Philippines provided a concrete example<br />

related to this concept. This municipal government implemented its Aksyon ng<br />

Bayan Rosario 2001 And Beyond Human and Ecological Security Plan using as<br />

a core strategy the Minimum Basic Needs Approach to Improved Quality of Life –<br />

Community-Based Information System (MBN-CBIS) prescribed by the Philippine<br />

Government. This approach helped the municipal government identify priority<br />

families and communities for intervention, as well as rationalize the allocation of<br />

its social development funds. More importantly, it made definite steps to<br />

encourage community participation in situation analysis, planning, monitoring and<br />

evaluation of social development projects by building the capacity of local<br />

government officials, indigenous leaders and other stakeholders to converge in<br />

the management of these concerns.<br />

Isomorphic Mimicry<br />

One approach that some developing countries have attempted to foster capacity<br />

building is through isomorphic mimicry. Similar to the concept of mimetic<br />

isomorphism used in organizational theory, isomorphic mimicry refers to the tendency of<br />

government to mimic other governments' successes by replicating methods and policy<br />

designs deemed successful in other countries. While such an approach can be effective<br />

for solving certain development problems that have "a universal technical solution", it<br />

often ignores the political and organizational realities on the ground and produces little<br />

benefits to those using it. An example of a failed mimicry relates to the legal reform<br />

in Melanesia. In response to a major international assistance mission to improve the<br />

quality of the justice system, a jail and a courthouse were built, costing millions of<br />

dollars. However, the new justice infrastructure has been rarely used since its<br />

establishment, because there has been a lack of bureaucracy and financial sources to<br />

support the expensive justice system. As summarized by Haggard et al., accelerated<br />

modernization is an entirely inappropriate strategy for enhancing the functionality of<br />

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legal system as solutions like this often require state capacities that developing<br />

countries do not have. Another example took place in Argentina. During the economic<br />

crisis in late 1980s, the government implemented a series of fiscal policies as<br />

recommended by IMF to regulate high point inflation affecting the country's economy.<br />

However, rather than constraining aggregate spending, the fiscal rule merely shifted<br />

spending from the central and to provincial governments. Adopting international best<br />

practices do not often translate into positive changes; in the case of Argentina, the<br />

mimicry produced little change to the vulnerable economy.<br />

In Local Communities<br />

The capacity building approach is used at many levels throughout, including local,<br />

regional, national and international levels. Capacity building can be used to reorganize<br />

and capacitate governments or individuals. International donors like USAID often<br />

include capacity building as a<br />

form of assistance for developing<br />

governments or NGOs working in<br />

developing areas. Historically<br />

this has been through a US contractor<br />

identifying an in-country NGO and<br />

supporting<br />

its financial, M&E and<br />

technical<br />

systems toward the goals<br />

of that USAID intervention. The<br />

NGO's capacity is developed as a subimplementer<br />

of the donor. However, many NGOs<br />

participate in a form of capacity building that is<br />

aimed toward individuals and the building of local<br />

capacity. In a recent report commissioned by UNAIDS<br />

and the Global Fund, individual NGOs voiced their needs<br />

and preference for broader capacity development inputs by<br />

donors and governments. For individuals and in-country NGOs,<br />

capacity building may relate to leadership development, advocacy skills,<br />

training/speaking abilities, technical skills, organizing skills, and other areas of personal<br />

and professional development. One of the most difficult problems with building capacity<br />

on a local level is the lack of higher education in developing countries. Between 2 and 5<br />

percent of Africans have been to tertiary school.<br />

Another difficulty is ongoing brain drain in developing countries. Often, young people<br />

who develop skills and capacities that can allow for sustainable development leave their<br />

home country. Damtew Teferra of Boston College's Center for African Higher Education<br />

argues that local capacity builders are needed now more than ever and increased<br />

resources should be provided for programs that focus on developing local expertise and<br />

skills.<br />

The development sector, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa has many decades of<br />

'international technical advisors' working with and mentoring government officials and<br />

national non-government organizations. In health service delivery, whether maternal<br />

care or HIV related, community organizations have been started and often grew through<br />

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the strength of their staff and commitment to be national and even regional leaders in<br />

their technical fields. Whilst higher education is still an under-served demand, there are<br />

significant resources of experienced staff. More recent donor initiatives, including The<br />

Global Fund's Community Systems Strengthening and the US PEPFAR Technical<br />

Assistance to the New Partners Initiative begin to address the organisation capacity<br />

needs and stronger skills to be recognised as part of the national response to health<br />

needs in a country. To complete the capacity development cycle, the Global Fund and<br />

UNAIDS Technical Support Facility and the TA teams for CSO funded by the New<br />

Partners Initiative are staffed and managed by residents and nationals of those same<br />

developing countries.<br />

Below are some examples of NGOs and programs that use the term "capacity building"<br />

to describe their activities on a local scale:<br />

<br />

<br />

The Centre for Community Empowerment (CCEM) is an NGO working<br />

in Vietnam that aims to "train the trainers" working in the development sector of<br />

Vietnam. The organization believes that the sustainability of a project depends on<br />

the level of involvement of stakeholders and so they work to train stakeholders in<br />

the skills needed to be active in development projects and encourage the activity<br />

of other stakeholders. The organization operates by providing week-long training<br />

courses in for local individuals in issues such as project management, report<br />

writing, communication, fund-raising, resource mobilization, analysis, and<br />

planning. The organization does not create physical projects, rather it develops<br />

the capacity of stakeholders to initiate, plan and analyze and develop projects on<br />

their own.<br />

Mercy Ships is a Christian, healthcare NGO, that provides another example of an<br />

NGO participating in localized "capacity building." While CECEM devotes its<br />

energy to training individuals to be better project managers and participants,<br />

Mercy Ships participates in a form of capacity building that focuses on the preexisting<br />

capacities of individuals and builds on those. For example, Mercy Ships<br />

focuses on training doctors and nurses about new procedures and technologies.<br />

They also focus on building leadership skills through training workshops for<br />

teachers, priests and other community leaders. Leaders are then trained in other<br />

areas such as care and construction of hygienic water wells.<br />

The first example depicts capacity building as tool to deliver individuals the skills they<br />

need to work effectively in civil society. In the case of Mercy Ships, the capacity building<br />

is delivering the capacity for individuals to be stakeholders and participants in defined<br />

activities, such as health care.<br />

Societal development in poorer nations is often contingent upon the efficiency of<br />

organizations working within that nation. Organizational capacity building focuses on<br />

developing the capacities of organizations, specifically NGOs, so they are better<br />

equipped to accomplish the missions they have set out to fulfill. Failures in development<br />

can often be traced back to an organization's inability to deliver on the service promises<br />

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it has pledged to keep. Capacity building in NGOs often involves building up skills and<br />

abilities, such as decision making, policy-formulation, appraisal, and learning. It is not<br />

uncommon for donors in the global north to fund capacity building for NGOs<br />

themselves. For organizations, capacity building may relate to almost any aspect of its<br />

work: improved governance, leadership, mission and strategy, administration (including<br />

human resources, financial management, and legal matters), program development and<br />

implementation, fund-raising and income generation, diversity, partnerships and<br />

collaboration, evaluation, advocacy and policy change, marketing, positioning, planning.<br />

Capacity building in NGOS is a way<br />

to strengthen an organization so<br />

that it can perform the specific<br />

mission it has set out to do and<br />

thus survive as an organization. It is<br />

an ongoing process that incites<br />

organizations to continually reflect<br />

on their work, organization,<br />

and leadership and ensure that they are fulfilling the<br />

mission and goals they originally set out to do.<br />

Alan Kaplan, an international<br />

development practitioner and leading NGO<br />

scholar, asserts that capacity development of<br />

organizations involves the build-up of an<br />

organization's tangible and intangible assets.<br />

He argues that for NGOs to be effective<br />

facilitators of capacity building in developing<br />

areas, they must first focus on developing<br />

their organization. Kaplan argues that capacity<br />

building and organizational development in<br />

organizations should first focus on intangible qualities<br />

such as:<br />

Conceptual Framework<br />

An organization's understanding of the world, "This is a coherent frame of reference, a<br />

set of concepts which allows the organization to make sense of the world around it, to<br />

locate itself within that world, and to make decisions in relation to it."<br />

Organizational Attitude<br />

This focuses on the way an organization views itself. Kaplan asserts that an<br />

organization must view itself not as a victim of the slights of the world, rather as an<br />

active player that has the ability to effect change and progress.<br />

Vision And Strategy<br />

This refers to the organization's understanding of its vision and mission and what it is<br />

looking to accomplish and the program it wishes to follow to do so<br />

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Organizational Structure<br />

A clear method of operating wherein communication flow is not hindered, each actor<br />

understands their role and responsibility.<br />

Kaplan argues that NGOs who focus on developing a conceptual framework, an<br />

organizational attitude, vision and strategy are more adept at being self-reflective and<br />

critical, two qualities that enable more effective capacity building. Though he asserts<br />

that these intangible qualities are of utmost importance – Kaplan says that tangible<br />

qualities such as skills, training and material resources such as tools, handbooks,<br />

manuals, advisories, primers, guidelines, etc are also imperative.<br />

Another aspect of organizational capacity building is an organization's capacity to<br />

reassess, reexamine and change according to what is most needed and what will be the<br />

most effective.<br />

Evaluation<br />

Since the arrival of community capacity building as such a dominant subject<br />

in international aid, donors and practitioners have struggled to determine a concise<br />

mechanism for determining the effectiveness of capacity building initiatives. In 2007,<br />

David Watson, developed specific criteria for effective evaluation and monitoring of<br />

capacity building. Watson complained that the traditional method of monitoring NGOs<br />

that is based primarily on a linear results-based framework is not enough for capacity<br />

building. He argues that evaluating capacity building NGOS should be based on a<br />

combination of monitoring the results of their activities and also a more open flexible<br />

way of monitoring that also takes into consideration, self-improvement and cooperation.<br />

Watson observed 18 case studies of capacity building evaluations and concluded that<br />

certain specific themes were visible:<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

monitoring an organization's clarity of mission – this involves evaluating an<br />

organization's goals and how well those goals are understood throughout the<br />

organization.<br />

monitoring an organization's leadership – this involves evaluating how<br />

empowered the organization's leadership is-how well the leadership encourages<br />

experimentation, self-reflection, changes in team structures and approaches.<br />

monitoring an organization's learning – this involves evaluating how often an<br />

organization participates in effective self-reflection, and self-assessment. It also<br />

involves how well an organization "learns from experience" and if the<br />

organization promotes the idea of learning from experience.<br />

monitoring an organization's emphasis on on-the-job-development – this involves<br />

evaluating how well an organization encourages continued learning, specifically<br />

through hands on approaches.<br />

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monitoring an organization's monitoring processes – this involves evaluating how<br />

well an organization participates in self-monitoring. It looks at whether or not an<br />

organization encourages growth through learning from mistakes.<br />

In 2007, USAID published a report on its approach to monitoring and evaluating<br />

capacity building. According to the report, USAID monitors: program objectives, the<br />

links between projects and activities of an organization and its objectives, a program or<br />

organization's measurable indicators, data collection, and progress reports. USAID<br />

evaluates: why objectives were achieved, or why they were not, the overall contributions<br />

of projects, it examines qualifiable results that are more difficult to measure, it looks at<br />

unintended results or consequences, it looks at reports on lessons learned. USAID uses<br />

two types of indicators for progress: "output indicators" and "outcome indicators." Output<br />

indicators measure immediate changes or results such as the number of people trained.<br />

Outcome indicators measure the impact, such as laws changed due to trained<br />

advocates.<br />

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II. Organizational Development<br />

Organization Development (OD) is the study of successful organizational<br />

change and performance. OD emerged from human relations studies in the 1930s,<br />

during which psychologists realized that organizational structures and processes<br />

influence worker behavior and motivation. More recently, work on OD has expanded to<br />

focus on aligning organizations with their rapidly changing and complex environments<br />

through organizational learning, knowledge management and transformation of<br />

organizational norms and values. Key concepts of OD theory include: organizational<br />

climate (the mood or unique “personality” of an organization, which includes attitudes<br />

and beliefs that influence members’ collective behavior), organizational culture (the<br />

deeply-seated norms, values and behaviors that members share) and organizational<br />

strategies (how an organization identifies problems, plans action, negotiates change<br />

and evaluates progress).<br />

Overview<br />

Organization development as a practice involves an ongoing, systematic process of<br />

implementing effective organizational change. OD is both a field of applied science<br />

focused on understanding and managing organizational change and a field of scientific<br />

study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology,<br />

particularly industrial and organizational psychology, and theories of motivation,<br />

learning, and personality. Although behavioral science has provided the basic<br />

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foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have<br />

made their presence felt. Experts in systems thinking, in organizational learning, in the<br />

structure of intuition in decision-making, and in coaching (to name a few) whose<br />

perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but in a much more multidisciplinary<br />

and inter-disciplinary approach, have emerged as OD catalysts or tools.<br />

Organization development, as a growing field, is responsive to many new approaches.<br />

History<br />

Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is the founding father of OD, although he died before the<br />

concept became mainstream in the mid-1950s. From Lewin came the ideas of group<br />

dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as<br />

providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the<br />

"Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after<br />

his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training<br />

Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-groups and group-based OD emerged.<br />

Kurt Lewin played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known<br />

today. As early as World War II (1939-1945), Lewin experimented with a collaborative<br />

change-process (involving himself as consultant and a client group) based on a threestep<br />

process of planning, taking action, and measuring results. This was the forerunner<br />

of action research, an important element of OD, which will be discussed later. Lewin<br />

then participated in the beginnings of laboratory training, or T-groups. After Lewin's<br />

death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey-research methods at<br />

the University of Michigan. These procedures became important parts of OD as<br />

developments in this field continued at the National Training Laboratories and in<br />

growing numbers of universities and private consulting-firms across the country.<br />

Leading universities offering doctoral-level degrees in OD include Benedictine<br />

University and the Fielding Graduate University.<br />

Douglas and Richard Beckhard, while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950s<br />

[...] coined the term organization development (OD) to describe an innovative bottom-up<br />

change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112).<br />

The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the<br />

important forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from<br />

a person's "here and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such<br />

groups usually meet without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to<br />

learn about themselves from their spontaneous "here and now" responses to an<br />

ambiguous hypothetical situation. Problems of leadership, structure,<br />

status, communication, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a group. The<br />

members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice<br />

such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group<br />

members. [5] Herbert A. Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in<br />

Organization Development in the late fifties. He also founded the first doctoral program<br />

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in organizational behavior at Case Western State University, and his colleague, Robert<br />

Blake, was also influential in making the term "organizational development" a more<br />

widely recognized field of psychological research.<br />

As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory<br />

training was conducted in "stranger groups" - groups composed of individuals from<br />

different organizations, situations, and backgrounds.<br />

A major difficulty developed, however, in transferring knowledge gained from these<br />

"stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home". This required a transfer between two<br />

different cultures, the relatively safe and protected environment of the T-group (or<br />

training group) and the give-and-take of the organizational environment with its<br />

traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to begin to apply it<br />

to "family groups" — that is, groups located within an organization.<br />

From this shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an<br />

important factor in influencing group members (along with some other developments in<br />

the behavioral sciences) emerged the concept of organization development.<br />

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Core Values<br />

Underlying Organization Development are humanistic values. Margulies and Raia<br />

(1972) articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows:<br />

1. providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as<br />

resources in the productive process<br />

2. providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the<br />

organization itself, to develop to their full potential<br />

3. seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its<br />

goals<br />

4. attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting and<br />

challenging work<br />

5. providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in which<br />

they relate to work, the organization, and the environment<br />

6. treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which<br />

are important to their work and their life<br />

This is a separate concept from change efforts known as:<br />

1. Operation management<br />

2. Training and Development<br />

3. Technological innovations....etc.<br />

Objectives<br />

The objectives of OD are:<br />

1. to increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees<br />

2. to increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment<br />

3. to confront problems instead of neglecting them<br />

4. to effectively manage conflict<br />

5. to increase cooperation and collaboration among employees<br />

6. to increase organizational problem-solving<br />

7. to put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of an<br />

organization on a continuous basis<br />

As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific<br />

situations, they vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programsare<br />

tailored to meet the requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all<br />

organizational development programs try to achieve the following objectives:<br />

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1. making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization.<br />

Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision of<br />

the organization<br />

2. encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them<br />

3. strengthening inter-personal trust, cooperation, and communication for the<br />

successful achievement of organizational goals<br />

4. encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus<br />

making them feel responsible for the implementation of the plan<br />

5. creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and<br />

participate enthusiastically<br />

6. replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill<br />

7. preparing members to align with changes and to break stereotypes<br />

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8. creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change<br />

According to organizational-development thinking, organization development<br />

provides managers with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a<br />

broad selection of management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal,<br />

group, and organizational effectiveness.<br />

Change Agent<br />

A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such<br />

functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a<br />

behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving<br />

their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of<br />

human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed<br />

later).<br />

The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal<br />

change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and<br />

in the intervention technology of OD. Beckhard reports several cases in which line<br />

people have been trained in OD and have returned to their organizations to engage in<br />

successful change-assignments. In the natural evolution of change mechanisms in<br />

organizations, this would seem to approach the ideal arrangement.<br />

Researchers at the University of Oxford found that leaders can be effective changeagents<br />

within their own organizations if they are strongly committed to "knowledge<br />

leadership" targeted towards organizational development. In their three-year study of<br />

UK healthcare organizations, the researchers identified three different mechanisms<br />

through which knowledge leaders actively "transposed", "appropriated" or "contended"<br />

change concepts, effectively translating and embedding these in organizational practice.<br />

The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organization who is schooled in<br />

OD theory and technique. In such a case, the "contractual relationship" is an in-house<br />

agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions involved<br />

except the fee.<br />

Sponsoring Organization<br />

The initiative for OD programs often comes from an organization that has a problem or<br />

anticipates facing a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized<br />

by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in<br />

solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client<br />

or patient must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a<br />

willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures the<br />

organization that management is actively concerned.<br />

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Applied Behavioral Science<br />

One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other<br />

improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship". Some believe that<br />

the change agent is not a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine<br />

the "patient", make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does s/he try to teach<br />

organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the<br />

job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral<br />

sciences as industrial/organizational<br />

psychology, industrial<br />

sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organizational<br />

behavior, economics, and political science, the change agent's main function is to help<br />

the organization define and solve its own problems.<br />

The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described<br />

in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data<br />

to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data,<br />

and taking action.<br />

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Systems Context<br />

The Holistic and Futuristic View of Organization<br />

OD deals with a total system — the organization as a whole, including its relevant<br />

environment — or with a subsystem or systems — departments or work groups — in<br />

the context of the total system. Parts of systems — for example, individuals, cliques,<br />

structures, norms, values, and products — are not considered in isolation; the principle<br />

of interdependency — that change in one part of a system affects the other parts — is<br />

fully recognized. Thus OD interventions focus on the total cultures and cultural<br />

processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant behavior of<br />

individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of the influences of<br />

groups rather than of personalities.<br />

Improved Organizational Performance<br />

The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and<br />

external functioning and relationships. This includes improved interpersonal and group<br />

processes, more effective communication, and enhanced ability to cope with<br />

organizational problems of all kinds. It also involves more effective decision processes,<br />

more appropriate leadership styles, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, as<br />

well as developing improved levels of trust and cooperation among organizational<br />

members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of<br />

the nature of man — that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving<br />

higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization<br />

development and effectiveness is the scientific method — inquiry, a rigorous search for<br />

causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.<br />

Self-managing work groups allows the members of a work team to manage, control, and<br />

monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to deciding<br />

when to take rest breaks. An early analysis of the first-self-managing work groups<br />

yielded the following behavioral characteristics (Hackman, 1986):<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Employees assume personal responsibility and accountability for outcomes of<br />

their work.<br />

Employees monitor their own performance and seek feedback on how well they<br />

are accomplishing their goals.<br />

Employees manage their performance and take corrective action when<br />

necessary to improve their and the performance of other group members.<br />

Employees seek guidance, assistance, and resources from the organization<br />

when they do not have what they need to do the job.<br />

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Employees help members of their work group and employees in other groups to<br />

improve job performance and raise productivity for the organization as a whole.<br />

Organizational Self-Renewal<br />

The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving the<br />

client organization with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which<br />

to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal<br />

and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a<br />

regulatory and corrective mechanism. To this end, OD scholars and practitioners use<br />

tools such as simulations with their clients, to be used in workshops and classroom<br />

settings. One example of a self-renewal simulation, authored by researchers from<br />

Cornell University and Indiana University, can be found here (see citation).<br />

Understanding Organizations<br />

Weisbord presents a six-box model for understanding organizations:<br />

1. Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organization's mission<br />

and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization's<br />

purpose.<br />

2. Structure: How is the organization's work divided up? The question is whether<br />

there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.<br />

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3. Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform<br />

different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs.<br />

4. Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the<br />

organization formally rewarded or punished members for.<br />

5. Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance<br />

among them.<br />

6. Helpful mechanism: What must the organization attend to in order to survive and<br />

thrive - procedures such as planning, control, budgeting, and other information<br />

systems.<br />

Modern Development<br />

In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to<br />

managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has<br />

become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.<br />

With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organization<br />

development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) writes<br />

about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing,<br />

outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy,<br />

harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of<br />

aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance<br />

decreases. deKlerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase<br />

performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide<br />

a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into<br />

perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses.<br />

One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel<br />

about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other.<br />

Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they<br />

normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active<br />

participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss<br />

its meaning..<br />

The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of<br />

organization development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development<br />

with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-<br />

2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where<br />

strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic<br />

leadership style using the support of high tech tools. Bob Aubrey (2015) introduced<br />

KDIs (Key Development Indicators) to help organisations go beyond performance and<br />

align strategy, organisations and individuals and argued that fundamental challenges<br />

such as robotics, artificial intelligence and genetics prefigure a regeneration of the field.<br />

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Action Research<br />

Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point as<br />

"organization improvement through action research". If one idea can be said to<br />

summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was<br />

conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral<br />

scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective,<br />

permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly<br />

related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to<br />

adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps,<br />

each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the<br />

result of action".<br />

Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps:<br />

1. "Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group<br />

becomes aware of a need to change.<br />

2. "Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored<br />

and tested.<br />

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3. "Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforced,<br />

adopted.<br />

Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a<br />

series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together.<br />

The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering,<br />

feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is<br />

the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet<br />

unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the<br />

consultant the process of problem diagnosis.<br />

The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage<br />

includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and<br />

to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in<br />

Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the<br />

effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system<br />

into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning<br />

activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following<br />

the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part<br />

of the transformation stage.<br />

The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes<br />

actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following<br />

the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can<br />

be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor<br />

adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B<br />

(see Figure 1). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the<br />

first, or planning, stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model<br />

shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and<br />

measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change.<br />

As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem<br />

awareness. The action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of<br />

behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is<br />

inevitable overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clear-cut and<br />

cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which<br />

new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part<br />

of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.<br />

Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves the<br />

client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving<br />

process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed<br />

back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in<br />

identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real<br />

causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically.<br />

Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses,<br />

and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is<br />

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nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a longrange,<br />

cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the<br />

effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools<br />

for self-analysis and self-renewal.<br />

OD Interventions<br />

"Interventions" are principal<br />

learning processes in the<br />

"action" stage (see Figure 1)<br />

of organization development.<br />

Interventions are structured<br />

activities used individually or<br />

in combination by the<br />

members of a<br />

client system to improve their<br />

social or task performance.<br />

They may be introduced by a<br />

change agent as part of an<br />

improvement program, or<br />

they may be used by the<br />

client following a program to<br />

check on the state of the<br />

organization's health, or to<br />

effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse<br />

procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews,<br />

relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent<br />

and a member of the client organization. Every action that influences an organization's<br />

improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an<br />

intervention.<br />

There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several<br />

assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice<br />

of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:<br />

1. The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the<br />

basic units of change are groups, not individuals.<br />

2. An always relevant change goal is the reduction of<br />

inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and the development<br />

of a more collaborative condition.<br />

3. Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information<br />

sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.<br />

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4. Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage<br />

their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of<br />

managerial strategy.<br />

5. One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication,<br />

mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.<br />

6. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be<br />

allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and<br />

conduct of the change.<br />

Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals<br />

through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the<br />

total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do),<br />

and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally,<br />

interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they<br />

tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms,<br />

interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or<br />

skill practice.<br />

One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in<br />

the client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human<br />

learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of<br />

new behavior, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to<br />

new levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an<br />

atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can<br />

be inhibited in organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is<br />

inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could be<br />

constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available.<br />

Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established<br />

norms. Such an organization may also be constrained because of the law of systems: If<br />

one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the<br />

status quo. Hierarchical authority, specialization, span of control, and other<br />

characteristics of formal systems also discourage experimentation.<br />

The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of<br />

the things which will help him are:<br />

1. A real need in the client system to change<br />

2. Genuine support from management<br />

3. Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior<br />

4. A sound background in the behavioral sciences<br />

5. A working knowledge of systems theory<br />

6. A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better<br />

ways to do things.<br />

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A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group<br />

Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership<br />

development.<br />

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III. Collaboration<br />

Collaboration is the process of two or more people or organizations working together<br />

to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most<br />

collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within<br />

a decentralized and egalitarian group.<br />

Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and<br />

rewards when facing competition for finite resources.<br />

Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and<br />

communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in<br />

collaborative problem-solving.<br />

Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial<br />

collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term.<br />

In its applied sense,"(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties<br />

strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome."<br />

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Examples<br />

Trade]<br />

Trade is a form of collaboration between two societies that produce different portfolios<br />

of goods. Trade began in prehistoric times and continues because it benefits all of its<br />

participants. Prehistoric peoples bartered goods and services with each other without a<br />

modern currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance<br />

commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. Trade exists because different communities<br />

have a comparative advantage in the production of tradable goods.<br />

Community organization: Intentional Community<br />

The members of an intentional community typically hold a<br />

common social, political or spiritual vision. They share responsibilities and resources.<br />

Intentional communities include cohousing, residential land<br />

trusts, ecovillages, communes, kibbutzim, ashrams, and housing cooperatives.<br />

Typically, new members of an intentional community are selected by the community's<br />

existing membership, rather than by real estate agents or land owners (if the land is not<br />

owned by the community).<br />

Hutterite, Austria (16th Century)<br />

In Hutterite communities housing units are built and assigned to individual families, but<br />

belong to the colony with little personal property. Meals are taken by the entire colony in<br />

a common long room.<br />

Oneida Community, Oneida, New York (1848)<br />

The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense of communal property<br />

and possessions) and Mutual Criticism, where every member of the community was<br />

subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general<br />

meeting. The goal was to eliminate bad character traits.<br />

Kibbutz (1890)<br />

A Kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement<br />

combines socialism and Zionism seeking a form of practical Labor Zionism. Choosing<br />

communal life, and inspired by their own ideology, kibbutz members developed a<br />

communal mode of living. The kibbutzim lasted for several generations<br />

as utopian communities, although most became capitalist enterprises and regular<br />

towns.<br />

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Indigenous Collaboration<br />

Collaboration in indigenous communities, particularly in the Americas, often involves the<br />

entire community working toward a common goal in a horizontal structure with flexible<br />

leadership. Children in some indigenous American communities collaborate with the<br />

adults. Children can be contributors in the process of meeting objectives by taking on<br />

tasks that suit their skills.<br />

Indigenous learning techniques comprise Learning by Observing and Pitching In. For<br />

example, a study of Mayan fathers and children with traditional Indigenous ways of<br />

learning worked together in collaboration more frequently when building a 3D model<br />

puzzle than Mayan fathers with western schooling. Also, Chillihuani people of the Andes<br />

value work and create work parties in which members of each household in the<br />

community participate. Children from indigenous-heritage communities want to help<br />

around the house voluntarily.<br />

In the Mazahua Indigenous community of Mexico, school children show initiative and<br />

autonomy by contributing in their classroom, completing activities as a whole, assisting<br />

and correcting their teacher during lectures when a mistake is made. Fifth and sixth<br />

graders in the community work with the teacher installing a classroom window; the<br />

installation becomes a class project in which the students participate in the process<br />

alongside the teacher.<br />

They all work together without needing leadership, and their movements are all in sync<br />

and flowing. It is not a process of instruction, but rather a hands-on experience in which<br />

students work together as a synchronous group with the teacher, switching roles and<br />

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sharing tasks. In these communities, collaboration is emphasized, and learners are<br />

trusted to take initiative. While one works, the other watches intently and all are allowed<br />

to attempt tasks with the more experienced stepping in to complete more complex parts,<br />

while others pay close attention.<br />

Collaboration in The Free Market<br />

Ayn Rand said that one way people pursue their rational self-interest is by building<br />

strong relationships with other people. According to Rand, participants in capitalism are<br />

connected through the voluntary division of labor in the free market, where value is<br />

exchanged always for value. Rand's theory of rational egoism claims that acting in one's<br />

self-interest entails looking out for others in order to protect the innocent from injustice,<br />

and to aid friends, allies, and loved ones.<br />

Game Theory<br />

Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics, computer science, and economics<br />

that looks at situations where multiple players make decisions in an attempt to maximize<br />

their returns. The first documented discussion of game theory is in a letter written<br />

by James Waldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in 1713. Antoine Augustin<br />

Cournot's Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838<br />

provided the first general theory. In 1928 it became a recognized field when John von<br />

Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in game theory<br />

culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von<br />

Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.<br />

Military-Industrial Complex<br />

The term military-industrial complex refers to a close and symbiotic relationship among<br />

a nation's armed forces, its private industry, and associated political interests. In such a<br />

system, the military is dependent on industry to supply material and other support, while<br />

the defense industry depends on government for revenue.<br />

Skunk Works<br />

Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields to describe a group<br />

within an organization given a high degree of autonomy unhampered by bureaucracy,<br />

tasked with advanced or secret projects. One such group was created at Lockheed in<br />

1943. The team developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, notably<br />

beating its first deadline by 37 days.<br />

Manhattan Project<br />

The Manhattan Project was a collaborative project during World War II among<br />

the Allies that developed the first atomic bomb . It was a collaborative effort by<br />

the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada.<br />

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The value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration is attributed<br />

to Vannevar Bush. In early 1940, Bush lobbied for the creation of the National Defense<br />

Research Committee. Frustrated by previous bureaucratic failures in implementing<br />

technology in World War I, Bush sought to organize the scientific power of the United<br />

States for greater success.<br />

The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear weapons in 1945:<br />

a test detonation of a plutonium implosion bomb on July 16 (the Trinity test)<br />

near Alamogordo, New Mexico; an enriched uranium bomb code-named "Little Boy" on<br />

August 6 over Hiroshima, Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code-named "Fat Man"<br />

on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan.<br />

Project Management<br />

As a discipline, Project Management developed from different fields including<br />

construction, engineering and defense. In the United States, the forefather of project<br />

management is Henry Gantt, who is known for his use of the "bar" chart as a project<br />

management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories<br />

of scientific management and for his study of the management of Navy ship building.<br />

His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work<br />

breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.<br />

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The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the<br />

United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using<br />

mostly Gantt charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical<br />

project scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and Review<br />

Technique" or PERT, developed as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with<br />

the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program; and (2) the "Critical Path<br />

Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont<br />

Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance<br />

projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.<br />

In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of the<br />

project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of<br />

project management are common even among the widespread application of projects<br />

from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of<br />

Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project<br />

Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), standards and guidelines of practice that<br />

are widely used throughout the profession. The International Project Management<br />

Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development<br />

and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline. Both organizations are now participating in the<br />

development of a global project management standard.<br />

However, the exorbitant cost overruns and missed deadlines of large-scale<br />

infrastructure, military R&D/procurement and utility projects in the US demonstrates that<br />

these advances have not been able to overcome the challenges of such projects.<br />

Black Mountain College<br />

Academia<br />

Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice, Theodore Dreier and other former faculty<br />

of Rollins College, Black Mountain College was experimental by nature and committed<br />

to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting a faculty which included leading visual artists,<br />

poets and designers.<br />

Operating in a relatively isolated rural location with little budget, Black Mountain fostered<br />

an informal and collaborative spirit. Innovations, relationships and unexpected<br />

connections formed at Black Mountain had a lasting influence on the postwar American<br />

art scene, high culture and eventually pop culture. Buckminster Fuller met<br />

student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was the first geodesic<br />

dome (improvised out of slats in the school's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his<br />

dance company; and John Cagestaged his first happening.<br />

Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of<br />

the progressive education movement. In its day it was a unique educational experiment<br />

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for the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an important incubator for the<br />

American avant garde.<br />

Learning<br />

Dr. Wolff-Michael Roth and Stuart Lee of the University of Victoria assert that until the<br />

early 1990s the individual was the 'unit of instruction' and the focus of research. The two<br />

observed that researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that "knowing" is better<br />

thought of as a cultural practice. Roth and Lee also claim that this led to changes in<br />

learning and teaching design in which students were encouraged to share their ways of<br />

doing mathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, that children take<br />

part in the construction of consensual domains, and 'participate in the negotiation and<br />

institutionalization of … meaning'. In effect, they are participating in learning<br />

communities.<br />

This analysis does not consider the appearance of Learning communities in the United<br />

States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College, which is widely<br />

considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in<br />

1984. In 1985, this same college established The Washington Center for Improving the<br />

Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education<br />

approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces. The school later<br />

became notorious for less-successful collaborations.<br />

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Classical Music<br />

Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular music, there have been<br />

some notable examples of music written collaboratively by classical composers.<br />

Perhaps the best-known examples are:<br />

<br />

<br />

Hexameron, a set of variations for solo piano on a theme from Vincenzo Bellini's<br />

opera I puritani. It was written and first performed in 1837. The contributors<br />

were Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Carl Czerny, Sigismond Thalberg, Johann<br />

Peter Pixis, and Henri Herz.<br />

The F-A-E Sonata, a sonata for violin and piano, written in 1853 as a gift for the<br />

violinist Joseph Joachim. The composers were Albert Dietrich (first<br />

movement), Robert Schumann (second and fourth movements), and Johannes<br />

Brahms (third movement).<br />

Occupational examples<br />

Arts<br />

Figurative Arts<br />

The romanticized notion of a lone, genius artist has existed since the time of Giorgio<br />

Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, published in 1568. Vasari promulgated the idea that artistic<br />

skill was endowed upon chosen individuals by gods, which created an enduring and<br />

largely false popular misunderstanding of many artistic processes. Artists have used<br />

collaboration to complete large scale works for centuries, but the myth of the lone artist<br />

was not widely questioned until the 1960s and 1970s.<br />

Collaborative Art Groups<br />

Dada (1913)<br />

Fluxus (1957)<br />

Situationist International (1957)<br />

Experiments in Art and Technology (1967)<br />

Mujeres Muralistas (1973)<br />

Colab (1977)<br />

Guerrilla Girls (1985)<br />

SITO (1993)<br />

2 Easy Fashion (2008)<br />

Ballet<br />

Ballet is a collaborative art form. Ballet entails music, dancers, costumes, a venue,<br />

lighting, etc. Hypothetically, one person could control all of this, but most often every<br />

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work of ballet is the by-product of collaboration. From the earliest formal works of ballet,<br />

to the great 19th century masterpieces of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Marius Petipa, to the<br />

20th century masterworks of George Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky, to today’s ballet<br />

companies, feature strong collaborative connections between choreographers,<br />

composers and costume designers are essential. Within dance as an art form, there is<br />

also the collaboration between choreographer and dancer. The choreographer creates<br />

a movement in her/his head and then physically demonstrates the movement to the<br />

dancer, which the dancer sees and attempts to either mimic or interpret.<br />

Music<br />

Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or groups work on the<br />

piece. Typically, multiple parties are involved (singers, songwriters, lyrisits, composers,<br />

and producers) come together to create one work. For example, one specific<br />

collaboration from recent times (2015) was the song "FourFiveSeconds". This single<br />

represents a type of collaboration because it was developed by pop idold Rihanna, Paul<br />

McCartney (former bassist, composer and vocalist for The Beatles), and<br />

rapper/composer Kanye West. Websites and software facilitate musical collaboration<br />

over the Internet, resulting in the emergence of Online Bands.<br />

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Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music:<br />

Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals—awarded since 1988<br />

Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals—awarded since 1995<br />

Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration—awarded since 2002<br />

Collaboration has been a constant feature of Electroacoustic Music, due to the<br />

technology's complexity. Embedding technological tools into the process stimulated the<br />

emergence of new agents with new expertise: the musical assistant, the technician, the<br />

computer music designer, the music mediator (a profession that has been described<br />

and defined in different ways over the years) – aiding with writing, creating new<br />

instruments, recording and/or performance.<br />

The musical assistant explains developments in musical research and translates artistic<br />

ideas into programming languages. Finally, he or she transforms those ideas into a<br />

score or a computer program and often performs the musical piece during the concerts.<br />

Examples of collaboration include Pierre Boulez and Andrew Gerzso, Alvise Vidolin<br />

and Luigi Nono, Jonathan Harvey and Gilbert Nouno, among others.<br />

Entertainment<br />

Collaboration in entertainment dates from the origin of theatrical productions, millenia<br />

ago. It takes the form of writers, directors, actors, producers and other individuals or<br />

groups work on the same production. In the twenty-first century, new technology has<br />

enhanced collaboration. A system developed by Will Wright for the TV series title Bar<br />

Karma on CurrentTV facilitates plot collaboration over the Internet. Screenwriter<br />

organizations bring together professional and amateur writers and filmmakers.<br />

Business<br />

Collaboration in business can be found both within and across organizations and ranges<br />

from partnership and crowd funding to the complexity of a multinational corporation.<br />

Inter-organizational collaboration brings participating parties to invest resources,<br />

mutually achieve goals, share information, resources, rewards and responsibilities, as<br />

well as make joint decisions and solve problems.<br />

Collaboration between public, private and voluntary sectors can be effective in tackling<br />

complex policy problems, but may be handled more effectively by boundaryspanning<br />

teams and networks than by formal organizational structures. Collaboration<br />

allows for better communication within the organization and along supply chains. It is a<br />

way of coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide variety of<br />

knowledge. Collaboration with a selected few firms has been shown to positively impact<br />

firm performance and innovation outcomes.<br />

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Technology has provided the internet, wireless connectivity and collaboration tools such<br />

as blogs and wikis, and has as such created the possibility of "mass collaboration".<br />

People are able to rapidly communicate and share ideas, crossing longstanding<br />

geographical and cultural boundaries. Social networks permeate business culture where<br />

collaborative uses include file sharing and knowledge transfer. Journalist Evan<br />

Rosen claims that command-and-control organizational structures inhibit collaboration<br />

and replacing such structures allows collaboration to flourish.<br />

Studies have found that collaboration can increase achievement and<br />

productivity. However, a four-year study of interorganizational collaboration found that<br />

successful collaboration can be rapidly derailed through external policy steering,<br />

particularly where it undermines relations built on trust.<br />

Coworking spaces are businesses that provide space for freelancers to work with others<br />

in a collaborative environment.<br />

Education<br />

In recent years, co-teaching has become more common, found in US classrooms<br />

across all grade levels and content areas. Once regarded as connecting special<br />

education and general education teachers, it is now more generally defined as “…two<br />

professionals delivering substantive instruction to a diverse group of students in a single<br />

physical space."<br />

As American classrooms have become increasingly diverse, so have the challenges for<br />

educators. Due to the diverse needs of students with designated special needs, English<br />

language learners (ELL), and students of varied academic levels, teachers have<br />

developed new approaches that provide additional student support. In practice, students<br />

remain in the classroom and receive instruction by both their general teacher and<br />

special education teachers.<br />

In the 1996 report "What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future" economic<br />

success could be enhanced if students developed the capacity to learn how to “manage<br />

teams… and…work together successfully in teams”.<br />

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Teachers increasingly use collaborative software to establish virtual learning<br />

environments (VLEs). This allows them to share learning materials and feedback with<br />

both students and in some cases, parents. Approaches include:<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Collaborative Partnerships: Business/Industry-Education<br />

Learning circle<br />

Collaborative partnerships<br />

Four Cs of 21st century learning<br />

21st century skills<br />

Publishing<br />

Collaboration in publishing can be as simple as dual-authorship or as complex<br />

as commons-based peer production. Tools include Usenet, e-mail<br />

lists, blogs and Wikis while 'brick and mortar' examples include monographs (books)<br />

and periodicals such as newspapers, journals and magazines. One approach is for an<br />

author to publish early drafts/chapters of a work on the Internet and solicit suggestions<br />

from the world at large. This approach helped ensure that the technical aspects of the<br />

novel The Martian were as accurate as possible.<br />

Science<br />

Scientific collaboration rapidly advanced throughout the twentieth century as measured<br />

by the increasing numbers of coauthors on published papers. Wagner<br />

and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled from 1990 to<br />

2005. While collaborative authorships within nations has also risen, this has done so at<br />

a slower rate and is not cited as frequently.<br />

Medicine<br />

While nurses have long collaborated with doctors, the physician assistant -<br />

physician relationship is more recent. A collaborative plan is filed with each state board<br />

of medicine where the PA works. This plan formally delineates the scope of practice<br />

approved by the physician.<br />

Technology<br />

Collaboration in technology encompasses a broad range of tools that enable groups of<br />

people to work together including social networking, instant messaging, team spaces,<br />

web sharing, audio conferencing, video, and telephony. Many large companies adopt<br />

collaboration platforms to allow employees, customers and partners to intelligently<br />

connect and interact.<br />

Enterprise collaboration tools focus on encouraging collective intelligence and staff<br />

collaboration at the organization level, or with partners. These include features such as<br />

staff networking, expert recommendations, information sharing, expertise location, peer<br />

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feedback, and real-time collaboration. At the personal level, this enables employees to<br />

enhance social awareness and their profiles and interactions Collaboration<br />

encompasses both asynchronous and synchronous methods of communication and<br />

serves as an umbrella term for a wide variety of software packages. Perhaps the most<br />

commonly associated form of synchronous collaboration is web conferencing, but the<br />

term can encompass IP telephony, instant messaging, and rich video interaction with<br />

telepresence, as well.<br />

The effectiveness of a collaborative effort is driven by three critical factors:<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Communication<br />

Content Management<br />

Workflow<br />

The Internet<br />

The Internet's low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills<br />

has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply<br />

communicate, but the wide reach of the Internet allows groups to easily form,<br />

particularly among dispersed, niche participants.<br />

An example of this is the free software movement in software development which<br />

produced GNU and Linux from scratch and has taken over development<br />

of Mozilla and OpenOffice.org (formerly known as Netscape<br />

Communicator and StarOffice).<br />

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Commons-Based Peer Production<br />

Commons-based peer production is a term coined by Yale Law professor Yochai<br />

Benkler to describe a new model of economic production in which the creative energy of<br />

large numbers of people is coordinated (usually with the aid of the internet) into large,<br />

meaningful projects, mostly without hierarchical organization or financial compensation.<br />

He compares this to firm production (where a centralized decision process decides what<br />

has to be done and by whom) and market-based production (when tagging different<br />

prices to different jobs serves as an attractor to anyone interested in doing the job).<br />

Examples of products created by means of commons-based peer production<br />

include Linux, a computer operating system; Slashdot, a news and announcements<br />

website; Kuro5hin, a discussion site for technology and culture; Wikipedia, an<br />

online encyclopedia; and Clickworkers, a collaborative scientific work. Another example<br />

is Socialtext, a software solution that uses tools such as wikis and weblogs and helps<br />

companies to create a collaborative work environment.<br />

Massively Distributed Collaboration<br />

The term massively distributed collaboration was coined by Mitchell Kapor, in a<br />

presentation at UC Berkeley on 2005-11-09, to describe an emerging activity<br />

of wikis and electronic mailing lists and blogs and other content-creating virtual<br />

communities online.<br />

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IV. Social Networking<br />

A Social Network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as<br />

individuals or organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between<br />

actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the<br />

structure of whole social entities as well as a variety of theories explaining the patterns<br />

observed in these structures. The study of these structures uses social network<br />

analysis to identify local and global patterns, locate influential entities, and examine<br />

network dynamics.<br />

Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently interdisciplinary academic field<br />

which emerged from social psychology, sociology, statistics, and graph theory. Georg<br />

Simmel authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of<br />

triads and "web of group affiliations". Jacob Moreno is credited with developing the<br />

first sociograms in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships. These approaches<br />

were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social<br />

networks became pervasive in the social and behavioral sciences by the 1980s. Social<br />

network analysis is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is<br />

also employed in a number of other social and formal sciences. Together with<br />

other complex networks, it forms part of the nascent field of network science.<br />

Overview<br />

The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study<br />

relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies (social<br />

units, see differentiation). The term is used to describe a social structure determined by<br />

such interactions. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the<br />

convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is,<br />

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necessarily, relational. An axiom of the social network approach to understanding social<br />

interaction is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated<br />

through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of<br />

these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is<br />

that individual agency is often ignored although this may not be the case in practice<br />

(see agent-based modeling). Precisely because many different types of relations,<br />

singular or in combination, form these network configurations, network analytics are<br />

useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study<br />

include, but are not limited to anthropology, biology, communication<br />

studies, economics, geography, information science, organizational studies, social<br />

psychology, sociology, and sociolinguistics.<br />

History<br />

In the late 1890s, both Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tönnies foreshadowed the idea<br />

of social networks in their theories and research of social groups. Tönnies argued that<br />

social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who<br />

share values and belief (Gemeinschaft, German, commonly translated as "community")<br />

or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links (Gesellschaft, German, commonly<br />

translated as "society"). Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts,<br />

arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that<br />

can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors. Georg<br />

Simmel, writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks<br />

and the effect of network size on interaction and examined the likelihood of interaction<br />

in loosely knit networks rather than groups.<br />

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in<br />

psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently. In psychology, in<br />

the 1930s, Jacob L. Moreno began systematic recording and analysis of social<br />

interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see sociometry).<br />

In anthropology, the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical<br />

and ethnographic work of Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, and Claude<br />

Lévi-Strauss. A group of social anthropologists associated with Max Gluckman and<br />

the Manchester School, including John A. Barnes, J. Clyde Mitchell and Elizabeth Bott<br />

Spillius, often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which<br />

network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa,<br />

India and the United Kingdom. Concomitantly, British anthropologist S. F. Nadel codified<br />

a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis. In sociology, the<br />

early (1930s) work of Talcott Parsons set the stage for taking a relational approach to<br />

understanding social structure. Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of<br />

sociologist Peter Blauprovides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social<br />

units with his work on social exchange theory.<br />

By the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and<br />

traditions. One group consisted of sociologist Harrison White and his students at<br />

the Harvard University Department of Social Relations. Also independently active in the<br />

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Harvard Social Relations department at the time were Charles Tilly, who focused on<br />

networks in political and community sociology and social movements, and Stanley<br />

Milgram, who developed the "six degrees of separation" thesis. Mark<br />

Granovetter and Barry Wellman are among the former students of White who<br />

elaborated and championed the analysis of social networks.<br />

Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced work by sociologists,<br />

political scientists, and physicists such as Duncan J. Watts, Albert-László<br />

Barabási, Peter Bearman, Nicholas A. Christakis, James H. Fowler, and others,<br />

developing and applying new models and methods to emerging data available about<br />

online social networks, as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks.<br />

Levels of Analysis<br />

In general, social networks are self-organizing, emergent, and complex, such that a<br />

globally coherent pattern appears from the local interaction of the elements that make<br />

up the system. These patterns become more apparent as network size increases.<br />

However, a global network analysis of, for example, all interpersonal relationships in the<br />

world is not feasible and is likely to contain so much information as to be uninformative.<br />

Practical limitations of computing power, ethics and participant recruitment and payment<br />

also limit the scope of a social network analysis. The nuances of a local system may be<br />

lost in a large network analysis, hence the quality of information may be more important<br />

than its scale for understanding network properties. Thus, social networks are analyzed<br />

at the scale relevant to the researcher's theoretical question. Although levels of<br />

analysis are not necessarily mutually exclusive, there are three general levels into which<br />

networks may fall: micro-level, meso-level, and macro-level.<br />

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Micro Level: At the micro-level, social network research typically begins with an<br />

individual, snowballing as social relationships are traced, or may begin with a small<br />

group of individuals in a particular social context.<br />

Dyadic Level: A dyad is a social relationship between two individuals. Network<br />

research on dyads may concentrate on structure of the relationship (e.g. multiplexity,<br />

strength), social equality, and tendencies toward reciprocity/mutuality.<br />

Triadic Level: Add one individual to a dyad, and you have a triad. Research at this level<br />

may concentrate on factors such as balance and transitivity, as well as social<br />

equality and tendencies toward reciprocity/mutuality. In the balance theory of Fritz<br />

Heider the triad is the key to social dynamics. The discord in a rivalrous love triangle is<br />

an example of an unbalanced triad, likely to change to a balanced triad by a change in<br />

one of the relations. The dynamics of social friendships in society has been modeled by<br />

balancing triads. The study is carried forward with the theory of signed graphs.<br />

Actor Level: The smallest unit of analysis in a social network is an individual in their<br />

social setting, i.e., an "actor" or "ego". Egonetwork analysis focuses on network<br />

characteristics such as size, relationship strength, density, centrality, prestige and roles<br />

such as isolates, liaisons, and bridges. Such analyses, are most commonly used in the<br />

fields of psychology or social psychology, ethnographic kinshipanalysis or<br />

other genealogical studies of relationships between individuals.<br />

Subset Level: Subset levels of network research problems begin at the micro-level, but<br />

may cross over into the meso-level of analysis. Subset level research may focus<br />

on distance and reachability, cliques, cohesive subgroups, or other group<br />

actions or behavior.<br />

Meso Level: In general, meso-level theories begin with a population size that falls<br />

between the micro- and macro-levels. However, meso-level may also refer to analyses<br />

that are specifically designed to reveal connections between micro- and macro-levels.<br />

Meso-level networks are low density and may exhibit causal processes distinct from<br />

interpersonal micro-level networks.<br />

Organizations: Formal organizations are social groups that distribute tasks for a<br />

collective goal. Network research on organizations may focus on either intraorganizational<br />

or inter-organizational ties in terms of formal or informal relationships.<br />

Intra-organizational networks themselves often contain multiple levels of analysis,<br />

especially in larger organizations with multiple branches, franchises or semiautonomous<br />

departments. In these cases, research is often conducted at a workgroup<br />

level and organization level, focusing on the interplay between the two<br />

structures. Experiments with networked groups online have documented ways to<br />

optimize group-level coordination through diverse interventions, including the addition of<br />

autonomous agents to the groups.<br />

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Randomly Distributed Networks: Exponential random graph models of social<br />

networks became state-of-the-art methods of social network analysis in the 1980s. This<br />

framework has the capacity to represent social-structural effects commonly observed in<br />

many human social networks, including general degree-based structural effects<br />

commonly observed in many human social networks as well<br />

as reciprocity and transitivity, and at the node-level, homophily and attribute-based<br />

activity and popularity effects, as derived from explicit hypotheses<br />

about dependencies among network ties. Parameters are given in terms of the<br />

prevalence of small subgraph configurations in the network and can be interpreted as<br />

describing the combinations of local social processes from which a given network<br />

emerges. These probability models for networks on a given set of actors allow<br />

generalization beyond the restrictive dyadic independence assumption of micronetworks,<br />

allowing models to be built from theoretical structural foundations of social<br />

behavior.<br />

Scale-free networks: A scale-free network is a network whose degree<br />

distribution follows a power law, at least asymptotically. In network theory a scale-free<br />

ideal network is a random network with a degree distribution that unravels the size<br />

distribution of social groups. Specific characteristics of scale-free networks vary with the<br />

theories and analytical tools used to create them, however, in general, scale-free<br />

networks have some common characteristics. One notable characteristic in a scale-free<br />

network is the relative commonness of vertices with a degree that greatly exceeds the<br />

average. The highest-degree nodes are often called "hubs", and may serve specific<br />

purposes in their networks, although this depends greatly on the social context. Another<br />

general characteristic of scale-free networks is the clustering coefficient distribution,<br />

which decreases as the node degree increases. This distribution also follows a power<br />

law. The Barabási model of network evolution shown above is an example of a scalefree<br />

network.<br />

Macro Level: Rather than tracing interpersonal interactions, macro-level analyses<br />

generally trace the outcomes of interactions, such as economic or<br />

other resource transfer interactions over a large population.<br />

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Large-Scale Networks: Large-scale network is a term somewhat synonymous with<br />

"macro-level" as used, primarily, in social and behavioralsciences, in economics.<br />

Originally, the term was used extensively in the computer sciences (see large-scale<br />

network mapping).<br />

Complex Networks: Most larger social networks display features of social complexity,<br />

which involves substantial non-trivial features of network topology, with patterns of<br />

complex connections between elements that are neither purely regular nor purely<br />

random (see, complexity science, dynamical system and chaos theory), as<br />

do biological, and technological networks. Such complex network features include a<br />

heavy tail in the degree distribution, a high clustering coefficient, assortativity or<br />

disassortativity among vertices, community structure (see stochastic block model),<br />

and hierarchical structure. In the case of agency-directed networks these features also<br />

include reciprocity, triad significance profile (TSP, see network motif), and other<br />

features. In contrast, many of the mathematical models of networks that have been<br />

studied in the past, such as lattices and random graphs, do not show these features.<br />

Imported Theories<br />

Theoretical Links<br />

Various theoretical frameworks have been imported for the use of social network<br />

analysis. The most prominent of these are Graph theory, Balance theory, Social<br />

comparison theory, and more recently, the Social identity approach.<br />

Indigenous Theories<br />

Few complete theories have been produced from social network analysis. Two that<br />

have are Structural Role Theory and Heterophily Theory.<br />

The basis of Heterophily Theory was the finding in one study that more numerous weak<br />

ties can be important in seeking information and innovation, as cliques have a tendency<br />

to have more homogeneous opinions as well as share many common traits. This<br />

homophilic tendency was the reason for the members of the cliques to be attracted<br />

together in the first place. However, being similar, each member of the clique would also<br />

know more or less what the other members knew. To find new information or insights,<br />

members of the clique will have to look beyond the clique to its other friends and<br />

acquaintances. This is what Granovetter called "the strength of weak ties".<br />

Structural Holes<br />

In the context of networks, social capital exists where people have an advantage<br />

because of their location in a network. Contacts in a network provide information,<br />

opportunities and perspectives that can be beneficial to the central player in the<br />

network. Most social structures tend to be characterized by dense clusters of strong<br />

connections. Information within these clusters tends to be rather homogeneous and<br />

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edundant. Non-redundant information is most often obtained through contacts in<br />

different clusters. When two separate clusters possess non-redundant information,<br />

there is said to be a structural hole between them. Thus, a network that<br />

bridges structural holes will provide network benefits that are in some degree additive,<br />

rather than overlapping. An ideal network structure has a vine and cluster structure,<br />

providing access to many different clusters and structural holes.<br />

Networks rich in structural holes are a form of social capital in that they<br />

offer information benefits. The main player in a network that bridges structural holes is<br />

able to access information from diverse sources and clusters. For example, in business<br />

networks, this is beneficial to an individual's career because he is more likely to hear of<br />

job openings and opportunities if his network spans a wide range of contacts in different<br />

industries/sectors. This concept is similar to Mark Granovetter's theory of weak ties,<br />

which rests on the basis that having a broad range of contacts is most effective for job<br />

attainment.<br />

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Research Clusters<br />

Communication<br />

Communication Studies are often considered a part of both the social sciences and the<br />

humanities, drawing heavily on fields such<br />

as sociology, psychology, anthropology, information science, biology, political science,<br />

and economics as well as rhetoric, literary studies, and semiotics. Many communication<br />

concepts describe the transfer of information from one source to another, and can thus<br />

be conceived of in terms of a network.<br />

Community<br />

In J.A. Barnes' day, a "community" referred to a specific geographic location and studies<br />

of community ties had to do with who talked, associated, traded, and attended church<br />

with whom.<br />

Today, however, there are extended "online" communities developed<br />

through telecommunications devices and social network services. Such devices and<br />

services require extensive and ongoing maintenance and analysis, often using network<br />

science methods. Community development studies, today, also make extensive use of<br />

such methods.<br />

Complex Networks<br />

Complex networks require methods specific to modelling and interpreting social<br />

complexity and complex adaptive systems, including techniques of dynamic network<br />

analysis. Mechanisms such as Dual-phase evolution explain how temporal changes in<br />

connectivity contribute to the formation of structure in social networks.<br />

Criminal Networks<br />

In criminology and urban sociology, much attention has been paid to the social networks<br />

among criminal actors. For example, Andrew Papachristos has studied gang murders<br />

as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards<br />

from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger<br />

gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for<br />

strength.<br />

Diffusion of Innovations<br />

Diffusion of ideas and innovations studies focus on the spread and use of ideas from<br />

one actor to another or one culture and another. This line of research seeks to explain<br />

why some become "early adopters" of ideas and innovations, and links social network<br />

structure with facilitating or impeding the spread of an innovation.<br />

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Demography<br />

In demography, the study of social networks has led to new sampling methods for<br />

estimating and reaching populations that are hard to enumerate (for example, homeless<br />

people or intravenous drug users.) For example, respondent driven sampling is a<br />

network-based sampling technique that relies on respondents to a survey<br />

recommending further respondents.<br />

Economic Sociology<br />

The field of sociology focuses almost entirely on networks of outcomes of social<br />

interactions. More narrowly, economic sociology considers behavioral interactions of<br />

individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets". Sociologists, such as<br />

Mark Granovetter, have developed core principles about the interactions of social<br />

structure, information, ability to punish or reward, and trust that frequently recur in their<br />

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analyses of political, economic and other institutions. Granovetter examines how social<br />

structures and social networks can affect economic outcomes like hiring, price,<br />

productivity and innovation and describes sociologists' contributions to analyzing the<br />

impact of social structure and networks on the economy.<br />

Health Care<br />

Analysis of social networks is increasingly incorporated into health care analytics, not<br />

only in epidemiological studies but also in models of patient communication and<br />

education, disease prevention, mental health diagnosis and treatment, and in the study<br />

of health care organizations and systems.<br />

Human Ecology<br />

Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship<br />

between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The scientific<br />

philosophy of human ecology has a diffuse history with connections<br />

to geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, zoology, and natural ecology.<br />

Language and Linguistics<br />

Studies of language and linguistics, particularly evolutionary linguistics, focus on the<br />

development of linguistic forms and transfer of changes, sounds or words, from one<br />

language system to another through networks of social interaction. Social networks are<br />

also important in language shift, as groups of people add and/or abandon languages to<br />

their repertoire.<br />

Literary Networks<br />

In the study of literary systems, network analysis has been applied by Anheier,<br />

Gerhards and Romo, De Nooy, and Senekal, to study various aspects of how literature<br />

functions. The basic premise is that polysystem theory, which has been around since<br />

the writings of Even-Zohar, can be integrated with network theory and the relationships<br />

between different actors in the literary network, e.g. writers, critics, publishers, literary<br />

histories, etc., can be mapped using visualization from SNA.<br />

Organizational Studies<br />

Research studies of formal or informal organization relationships, organizational<br />

communication, economics, economic sociology, and other resource transfers. Social<br />

networks have also been used to examine how organizations interact with each other,<br />

characterizing the many informal connections that link executives together, as well as<br />

associations and connections between individual employees at different<br />

organizations. Intra-organizational networks have been found to affect organizational<br />

commitment, organizational identification, interpersonal citizenship behavior.<br />

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Social Capital<br />

Social capital is a form of economic and cultural capital in which social networks are<br />

central, transactions are marked by reciprocity, trust, and cooperation,<br />

and market agentsproduce goods and services not mainly for themselves, but for<br />

a common good.<br />

Social capital is a sociological concept about the value of social relations and the role of<br />

cooperation and confidence to achieve positive outcomes. The term refers to the value<br />

one can get from their social ties. For example, newly arrived immigrants can make use<br />

of their social ties to established migrants to acquire jobs they may otherwise have<br />

trouble getting (e.g., because of unfamiliarity with the local language). A positive<br />

relationship exists between social capital and the intensity of social network use. In a<br />

dynamic framework, higher activity in a network feeds into higher social capital which<br />

itself encourages more activity.<br />

Network Position and Benefits<br />

In many organizations, members tend to focus their activities inside their own groups,<br />

which stifles creativity and restricts opportunities. A player whose network bridges<br />

structural holes has an advantage in detecting and developing rewarding<br />

opportunities. Such a player can mobilize social capital by acting as a "broker" of<br />

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information between two clusters that otherwise would not have been in contact, thus<br />

providing access to new ideas, opinions and opportunities. British philosopher and<br />

political economist John Stuart Mill, writes, "it is hardly possible to overrate the value ...<br />

of placing human beings in contact with persons dissimilar to themselves.... Such<br />

communication [is] one of the primary sources of progress." Thus, a player with a<br />

network rich in structural holes can add value to an organization through new ideas and<br />

opportunities. This in turn, helps an individual's career development and advancement.<br />

A social capital broker also reaps control benefits of being the facilitator of information<br />

flow between contacts. In the case of consulting firm Eden McCallum, the founders<br />

were able to advance their careers by bridging their connections with former big three<br />

consulting firm consultants and mid-size industry firms. By bridging structural holes and<br />

mobilizing social capital, players can advance their careers by executing new<br />

opportunities between contacts.<br />

There has been research that both substantiates and refutes the benefits of information<br />

brokerage. A study of high tech Chinese firms by Zhixing Xiao found that the control<br />

benefits of structural holes are "dissonant to the dominant firm-wide spirit of cooperation<br />

and the information benefits cannot materialize due to the communal sharing values" of<br />

such organizations. However, this study only analyzed Chinese firms, which tend to<br />

have strong communal sharing values. Information and control benefits of structural<br />

holes are still valuable in firms that are not quite as inclusive and cooperative on the<br />

firm-wide level. In 2004, Ronald Burt studied 673 managers who ran the supply chain<br />

for one of America's largest electronics companies. He found that managers who often<br />

discussed issues with other groups were better paid, received more positive job<br />

evaluations and were more likely to be promoted. Thus, bridging structural holes can be<br />

beneficial to an organization, and in turn, to an individual's career.<br />

Social Media<br />

Computer networks combined with social networking software produces a new medium<br />

for social interaction. A relationship over a computerized social networking service can<br />

be characterized by context, direction, and strength. The content of a relation refers to<br />

the resource that is exchanged. In a computer mediated communication context, social<br />

pairs exchange different kinds of information, including sending a data file or a computer<br />

program as well as providing emotional support or arranging a meeting. With the rise<br />

of electronic commerce, information exchanged may also correspond to exchanges of<br />

money, goods or services in the "real" world. Social network analysis methods have<br />

become essential to examining these types of computer mediated communication.<br />

In addition, the sheer size and the volatile nature of social media has given rise to new<br />

network metrics. A key concern with networks extracted from social media is the lack of<br />

robustness of network metrics given missing data.<br />

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V. Digital Collaboration<br />

Digital Collaboration is using digital technologies for collaboration. Dramatically<br />

different from traditional collaboration, it connects a broader network of participants who<br />

can accomplish much more than they would on their own.<br />

Examples<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Online meetings and webinar<br />

Co-authoring documents and shared spreadsheets<br />

Mind maps<br />

Social media<br />

Shared task lists or issue tracking systems<br />

Wikis<br />

Background<br />

21st century mobile devices such as apps, social media, bandwidth and open data,<br />

connect people on a global level. This has led to an increase in information and at the<br />

same time increased levels of stress. As a result, workplace innovators and visionaries<br />

want to discover new digital tools and are rethinking how, when and where they work.<br />

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Processes<br />

e-Mail<br />

A collaborative system through electronic devices which allows users to exchange<br />

messages and information online by way of computer, tablet, or smartphone. Users<br />

develop accounts and use E-mail for work and leisure related topics. A great reliance is<br />

placed on e-mail to communicate, gone are the days when a message can go unread.<br />

Adapting digital tools such as notetaking apps, task lists and ical to David<br />

Allen's Getting Things Done (GTD) productivity workflow, users can find "weird time", to<br />

process the e-mail in box. GTD principles can be difficult to maintain over the long term.<br />

Examples of providers for e-mail are Gmail, Comcast, and Outlook.<br />

Social Media<br />

Social Media networks foster collaboration as well as manage and share knowledge<br />

between peers and interested groups. Participation in these networks builds trust<br />

among peers which leads to open sharing of ideas. News and information can be<br />

activity filtered through subscription allowing users to focus on what interests them, as<br />

opposed to passively receiving information. Events, activities, files and discussions are<br />

searchable and presented as a timeline. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter,<br />

and Instagram bring users together by connecting them on the internet.<br />

Open Data Sources<br />

Applications that can deliver data to help make decisions. Public agencies<br />

and GIS services provide, what was once thought of as proprietary data, to the private<br />

sector developers to present useful context and decision making. People themselves<br />

can also provide data about their location or experience which has social value to<br />

interested users.<br />

Wikis<br />

Wikis are websites which allow collaborative modification of its content and structure<br />

directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a simplified markup<br />

language (known as "wiki markup"), and often edited with the help of a rich-text editor. A<br />

wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine. There are dozens of<br />

different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug<br />

tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary.<br />

Identity and Adoption<br />

Innovators and visionaries of both Generations X and Y are leading the mainstream<br />

pragmatist to digitally collaborative tools. The Net Generation is growing up with digital<br />

collaborative tools such as Wikipedia, Twitter, Facebook, Flipboard and Pinterest,<br />

building trust among peers and openness in their on-line communities. Influenced by<br />

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cautious optimism about employment, post turbulent 2008 economy, and trust among<br />

peers this generation will culturally tend to share and sustain resources. These factors<br />

contribute to increased adoption of digitally collaborative tools and active participation<br />

over the previous Generation X.<br />

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VI. Social Networking Analysis<br />

Social Network Analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures<br />

through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in<br />

terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and<br />

the ties, edges, or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Examples<br />

of social structures commonly visualized through social network analysis include social<br />

media networks, memes spread, information circulation, friendship and acquaintance<br />

networks, business networks, social networks, collaboration graphs, kinship, disease<br />

transmission, and sexual relationships. These networks are often visualized<br />

through sociograms in which nodes are represented as points and ties are represented<br />

as lines.<br />

Social network analysis has emerged as a key technique in modern sociology. It has<br />

also gained a significant following<br />

in anthropology, biology, demography, communication<br />

studies, economics, geography, history, information<br />

science, organizational<br />

studies, political science, social psychology, development studies, sociolinguistics,<br />

and computer science and is now commonly available as a consumer tool (see the list<br />

of SNA software).<br />

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History<br />

Social network analysis has its theoretical roots in the work of early sociologists such<br />

as Georg Simmel and Émile Durkheim, who wrote about the importance of studying<br />

patterns of relationships that connect social actors. Social scientists have used the<br />

concept of "social networks" since early in the 20th century to connote complex sets of<br />

relationships between members of social systems at all scales, from interpersonal to<br />

international.<br />

In the 1930s Jacob Moreno and Helen Jennings introduced basic analytical methods. In<br />

1954, John Arundel Barnes started using the term systematically to denote patterns of<br />

ties, encompassing concepts traditionally used by the public and those used by social<br />

scientists: bounded groups (e.g., tribes, families) and social categories (e.g., gender,<br />

ethnicity).<br />

Scholars such as Ronald Burt, Kathleen Carley, Mark Granovetter, David<br />

Krackhardt, Edward Laumann, Anatol Rapoport, Barry Wellman, Douglas R. White,<br />

and Harrison White expanded the use of systematic social network analysis. Even in the<br />

study of literature, network analysis has been applied by Anheier, Gerhards and<br />

Romo, Wouter De Nooy, and Burgert Senekal. Indeed, social network analysis has<br />

found applications in various academic disciplines, as well as practical applications such<br />

as countering money laundering and terrorism.<br />

Connections<br />

Metrics<br />

Homophily: The extent to which actors form ties with similar versus dissimilar others.<br />

Similarity can be defined by gender, race, age, occupation, educational achievement,<br />

status, values or any other salient characteristic. Homophily is also referred to<br />

as assortativity.<br />

Multiplexity: The number of content-forms contained in a tie. For example, two people<br />

who are friends and also work together would have a multiplexity of 2. Multiplexity has<br />

been associated with relationship strength.<br />

Mutuality/Reciprocity: The extent to which two actors reciprocate each other's friendship<br />

or other interaction.<br />

Network Closure: A measure of the completeness of relational triads. An individual's<br />

assumption of network closure (i.e. that their friends are also friends) is called<br />

transitivity. Transitivity is an outcome of the individual or situational trait of Need for<br />

Cognitive Closure.<br />

Propinquity: The tendency for actors to have more ties with geographically close<br />

others.<br />

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Distributions<br />

Bridge: An individual whose weak ties fill a structural hole, providing the only link<br />

between two individuals or clusters. It also includes the shortest route when a longer<br />

one is unfeasible due to a high risk of message distortion or delivery failure.<br />

Centrality: Centrality refers to a group of metrics that aim to quantify the "importance"<br />

or "influence" (in a variety of senses) of a particular node (or group) within a<br />

network. Examples of common methods of measuring "centrality" include betweenness<br />

centrality, closeness centrality, eigenvector centrality, alpha centrality, and degree<br />

centrality.<br />

Density: The proportion of direct ties in a network relative to the total number possible.<br />

Distance: The minimum number of ties required to connect two particular actors, as<br />

popularized by Stanley Milgram's small world experiment and the idea of 'six degrees of<br />

separation'.<br />

Structural holes: The absence of ties between two parts of a network. Finding and<br />

exploiting a structural hole can give an entrepreneura competitive advantage. This<br />

concept was developed by sociologist Ronald Burt, and is sometimes referred to as an<br />

alternate conception of social capital.<br />

Tie Strength: Defined by the linear combination of time, emotional intensity, intimacy<br />

and reciprocity (i.e. mutuality). Strong ties are associated with homophily, propinquity<br />

and transitivity, while weak ties are associated with bridges.<br />

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Segmentation<br />

are identified as 'cliques' if every individual is directly tied to every other individual,<br />

'social circles' if there is less stringency of direct contact, which is imprecise, or<br />

as structurally cohesive blocks if precision is wanted.<br />

Clustering coefficient: A measure of the likelihood that two associates of a node are<br />

associates. A higher clustering coefficient indicates a greater 'cliquishness'.<br />

Cohesion: The degree to which actors are connected directly to each other by cohesive<br />

bonds. Structural cohesion refers to the minimum number of members who, if removed<br />

from a group, would disconnect the group.<br />

Modelling and Visualization of Networks<br />

Visual representation of social networks is important to understand the network data<br />

and convey the result of the analysis. Numerous methods of visualization for data<br />

produced by social network analysis have been presented. [35][36][37] Many of the analytic<br />

software have modules for network visualization. Exploration of the data is done through<br />

displaying nodes and ties in various layouts, and attributing colors, size and other<br />

advanced properties to nodes. Visual representations of networks may be a powerful<br />

method for conveying complex information, but care should be taken in interpreting<br />

node and graph properties from visual displays alone, as they may misrepresent<br />

structural properties better captured through quantitative analyses.<br />

Signed graphs can be used to illustrate good and bad relationships between humans. A<br />

positive edge between two nodes denotes a positive relationship (friendship, alliance,<br />

dating) and a negative edge between two nodes denotes a negative relationship<br />

(hatred, anger). Signed social network graphs can be used to predict the future<br />

evolution of the graph. In signed social networks, there is the concept of "balanced" and<br />

"unbalanced" cycles. A balanced cycle is defined as a cycle where the product of all the<br />

signs are positive. According to balance theory, balanced graphs represent a group of<br />

people who are unlikely to change their opinions of the other people in the group.<br />

Unbalanced graphs represent a group of people who are very likely to change their<br />

opinions of the people in their group. For example, a group of 3 people (A, B, and C)<br />

where A and B have a positive relationship, B and C have a positive relationship, but C<br />

and A have a negative relationship is an unbalanced cycle. This group is very likely to<br />

morph into a balanced cycle, such as one where B only has a good relationship with A,<br />

and both A and B have a negative relationship with C. By using the concept of balanced<br />

and unbalanced cycles, the evolution of signed social network graphs can be predicted.<br />

Especially when using social network analysis as a tool for facilitating change, different<br />

approaches of participatory network mapping have proven useful. Here participants /<br />

interviewers provide network data by actually mapping out the network (with pen and<br />

paper or digitally) during the data collection session. An example of a pen-and-paper<br />

network mapping approach, which also includes the collection of some actor attributes<br />

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(perceived influence and goals of actors) is the * Net-map toolbox. One benefit of this<br />

approach is that it allows researchers to collect qualitative data and ask clarifying<br />

questions while the network data is collected.<br />

Social Networking Potential<br />

Social Networking Potential (SNP) is a numeric coefficient, derived<br />

through algorithms to represent both the size of an individual's social network and their<br />

ability to influence that network. SNP coefficients were first defined and used by Bob<br />

Gerstley in 2002. A closely related term is Alpha User, defined as a person with a high<br />

SNP.<br />

SNP coefficients have two primary functions:<br />

1. The classification of individuals based on their social networking potential, and<br />

2. The weighting of respondents in quantitative marketing research studies.<br />

By calculating the SNP of respondents and by targeting High SNP respondents,<br />

the strength and relevance of quantitative marketing research used to drive viral<br />

marketing strategies is enhanced.<br />

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Variables used to calculate an individual's SNP include but are not limited to:<br />

participation in Social Networking activities, group memberships, leadership roles,<br />

recognition, publication/editing/contributing to non-electronic media,<br />

publication/editing/contributing to electronic media (websites, blogs), and frequency of<br />

past distribution of information within their network. The acronym "SNP" and some of<br />

the first algorithms developed to quantify an individual's social networking potential were<br />

described in the white paper "Advertising Research is Changing" (Gerstley, 2003)<br />

See Viral Marketing.<br />

The first book to discuss the commercial use of Alpha Users among mobile telecoms<br />

audiences was 3G Marketing by Ahonen, Kasper and Melkko in 2004. The first book to<br />

discuss Alpha Users more generally in the context of social marketing intelligence was<br />

Communities Dominate Brands by Ahonen & Moore in 2005. In 2012, Nicola Greco<br />

(UCL) presents at TEDx the Social Networking Potential as a parallelism to the potential<br />

energy that users generate and companies should use, stating that "SNP is the new<br />

asset that every company should aim to have".<br />

Practical Applications<br />

Social network analysis is used extensively in a wide range of applications and<br />

disciplines. Some common network analysis applications include data aggregation<br />

and mining, network propagation modeling, network modeling and sampling, user<br />

attribute and behavior analysis, community-maintained resource support, locationbased<br />

interaction analysis, social sharing and filtering, recommender<br />

systems development, and link prediction and entity resolution. In the private sector,<br />

businesses use social network analysis to support activities such as customer<br />

interaction and analysis, information system development analysis, marketing,<br />

and business intelligence needs (see social media analytics). Some public sector uses<br />

include development of leader engagement strategies, analysis of individual and group<br />

engagement and media use, and community-based problem solving.<br />

Security Applications<br />

Social network analysis is also used in intelligence, counter-intelligence and law<br />

enforcement activities. This technique allows the analysts to map covert organizations<br />

such as a espionage ring, an organized crime family or a street gang. The National<br />

Security Agency (NSA) uses its clandestine mass electronic surveillance programs to<br />

generate the data needed to perform this type of analysis on terrorist cells and other<br />

networks deemed relevant to national security. The NSA looks up to three nodes deep<br />

during this network analysis. After the initial mapping of the social network is complete,<br />

analysis is performed to determine the structure of the network and determine, for<br />

example, the leaders within the network. This allows military or law enforcement assets<br />

to launch capture-or-kill decapitation attacks on the high-value targets in leadership<br />

positions to disrupt the functioning of the network. The NSA has been performing social<br />

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network analysis on call detail records (CDRs), also known as metadata, since shortly<br />

after the September 11 attacks.<br />

Textual Analysis Applications<br />

Large textual corpora can be turned into networks and then analysed with the method of<br />

social network analysis. In these networks, the nodes are Social Actors, and the links<br />

are Actions. The extraction of these networks can be automated by using parsers.<br />

The resulting networks, which can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by<br />

using tools from network theory to identify the key actors, the key communities or<br />

parties, and general properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall<br />

network, or centrality of certain nodes. This automates the approach introduced by<br />

Quantitative Narrative Analysis, whereby subject-verb-object triplets are identified with<br />

pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-object.<br />

Internet Applications<br />

Social network analysis has also been applied to understanding online behavior by<br />

individuals, organizations, and between websites. Hyperlink analysis can be used to<br />

analyze the connections between websites or webpages to examine how information<br />

flows as individuals navigate the web. The connections between organizations has been<br />

analyzed via hyperlink analysis to examine which organizations within an issue<br />

community.<br />

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Social Media Internet Applications<br />

Social network analysis has been applied to social media as a tool to understand<br />

behavior between individuals or organizations through their linkages on social media<br />

websites such as Twitter and Facebook.<br />

In Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning<br />

One of the most current methods of the application of SNA is to the study of computersupported<br />

collaborative learning (CSCL). When applied to CSCL, SNA is used to help<br />

understand how learners collaborate in terms of amount, frequency, and length, as well<br />

as the quality, topic, and strategies of communication. Additionally, SNA can focus on<br />

specific aspects of the network connection, or the entire network as a whole. It uses<br />

graphical representations, written representations, and data representations to help<br />

examine the connections within a CSCL network. When applying SNA to a CSCL<br />

environment the interactions of the participants are treated as a social network. The<br />

focus of the analysis is on the "connections" made among the participants – how they<br />

interact and communicate – as opposed to how each participant behaved on his or her<br />

own.<br />

Key Terms<br />

There are several key terms associated with social network analysis research in<br />

computer-supported collaborative learning such<br />

as: density, centrality, indegree, outdegree, and sociogram.<br />

<br />

<br />

Density refers to the "connections" between participants. Density is defined as<br />

the number of connections a participant has, divided by the total possible<br />

connections a participant could have. For example, if there are 20 people<br />

participating, each person could potentially connect to 19 other people. A density<br />

of 100% (19/19) is the greatest density in the system. A density of 5% indicates<br />

there is only 1 of 19 possible connections.<br />

Centrality focuses on the behavior of individual participants within a network. It<br />

measures the extent to which an individual interacts with other individuals in the<br />

network. The more an individual connects to others in a network, the greater their<br />

centrality in the network.<br />

In-degree and out-degree variables are related to centrality.<br />

<br />

<br />

In-degree centrality concentrates on a specific individual as the point of focus;<br />

centrality of all other individuals is based on their relation to the focal point of the<br />

"in-degree" individual.<br />

Out-degree is a measure of centrality that still focuses on a single individual, but<br />

the analytic is concerned with the out-going interactions of the individual; the<br />

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measure of out-degree centrality is how many times the focus point individual<br />

interacts with others.<br />

<br />

A sociogram is a visualization with defined boundaries of connections in the<br />

network. For example, a sociogram which shows out-degree centrality points for<br />

Participant A would illustrate all outgoing connections Participant A made in the<br />

studied network.<br />

Unique Capabilities<br />

Researchers employ social network analysis in the study of computer-supported<br />

collaborative learning in part due to the unique capabilities it offers. This particular<br />

method allows the study of interaction patterns within a networked learning<br />

community and can help illustrate the extent of the participants' interactions with the<br />

other members of the group. The graphics created using SNA tools provide<br />

visualizations of the connections among participants and the strategies used to<br />

communicate within the group. Some authors also suggest that SNA provides a method<br />

of easily analyzing changes in participatory patterns of members over time.<br />

A number of research studies have applied SNA to CSCL across a variety of contexts.<br />

The findings include the correlation between a network's density and the teacher's<br />

presence, a greater regard for the recommendations of "central"<br />

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participants, infrequency of cross-gender interaction in a network, and the relatively<br />

small role played by an instructor in an asynchronous learning network.<br />

Other Methods Used Alongside SNA<br />

Although many studies have demonstrated the value of social network analysis within<br />

the computer-supported collaborative learning field, researchers have suggested that<br />

SNA by itself is not enough for achieving a full understanding of CSCL. The complexity<br />

of the interaction processes and the myriad sources of data make it difficult for SNA to<br />

provide an in-depth analysis of CSCL. Researchers indicate that SNA needs to be<br />

complemented with other methods of analysis to form a more accurate picture of<br />

collaborative learning experiences.<br />

A number of research studies have combined other types of analysis with SNA in the<br />

study of CSCL. This can be referred to as a multi-method approach or<br />

data triangulation, which will lead to an increase of evaluation reliability in CSCL<br />

studies.<br />

<br />

Qualitative method – The principles of qualitative case study research constitute<br />

a solid framework for the integration of SNA methods in the study of CSCL<br />

experiences.<br />

<br />

<br />

Ethnographic data such as student questionnaires and interviews and<br />

classroom non-participant observations<br />

Case studies: comprehensively study particular CSCL situations and<br />

relate findings to general schemes<br />

Content analysis: offers information about the content of the<br />

communication among members<br />

<br />

Quantitative method – This includes simple descriptive statistical analyses on<br />

occurrences to identify particular attitudes of group members who have not been<br />

able to be tracked via SNA in order to detect general tendencies.<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Computer log files: provide automatic data on how collaborative tools are<br />

used by learners<br />

Multidimensional scaling (MDS): charts similarities among actors, so that<br />

more similar input data is closer together<br />

Software tools: QUEST, SAMSA (System for Adjacency Matrix and<br />

Sociogram-based Analysis), and Nud*IST<br />

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VII. Digital Humanities<br />

Digital Humanities (DH) is an area of scholarly activity at the intersection<br />

of computing or digital technologies and the disciplines of the humanities. It includes the<br />

systematic use of digital resources in the humanities, as well as the reflection on their<br />

application. DH can be defined as new ways of doing scholarship that involve<br />

collaborative, transdisciplinary, and computationally engaged research, teaching, and<br />

publishing. It brings digital tools and methods to the study of the humanities with the<br />

recognition that the printed word is no longer the main medium for knowledge<br />

production and distribution.<br />

By producing and using new applications and techniques, DH makes new kinds of<br />

teaching and research possible, while at the same time studying and critiquing how<br />

these impact cultural heritage and digital culture. Thus, a distinctive feature of DH is its<br />

cultivation of a two-way relationship between the humanities and the digital: the field<br />

both employs technology in the pursuit of humanities research and subjects technology<br />

to humanistic questioning and interrogation, often simultaneously.<br />

Definition<br />

The definition of the digital humanities is being continually formulated by scholars and<br />

practitioners. Since the field is constantly growing and changing, specific definitions can<br />

quickly become outdated or unnecessarily limit future potential. The second volume<br />

of Debates in the Digital Humanities (2016) acknowledges the difficulty in defining the<br />

field: "Along with the digital archives, quantitative analyses, and tool-building projects<br />

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that once characterized the field, DH now encompasses a wide range of methods and<br />

practices: visualizations of large image sets, 3D modeling of historical artifacts, 'born<br />

digital' dissertations, hashtag activism and the analysis thereof, alternate reality games,<br />

mobile makerspaces, and more. In what has been called 'big tent' DH, it can at times be<br />

difficult to determine with any specificity what, precisely, digital humanities work entails."<br />

Historically, the digital humanities developed out of humanities computing and has<br />

become associated with other fields, such as humanistic computing, social computing,<br />

and media studies. In concrete terms, the digital humanities embraces a variety of<br />

topics, from curating online collections of primary sources (primarily textual) to the data<br />

mining of large cultural data sets to topic modeling. Digital humanities incorporates both<br />

digitized (remediated) and born-digital materials and combines the methodologies from<br />

traditional humanities disciplines (such<br />

as history, philosophy, linguistics, literature, art, archaeology, music, and cultural<br />

studies) and social sciences, with tools provided by computing (such<br />

as hypertext, hypermedia, data visualisation, information retrieval, data<br />

mining, statistics, text mining, digital mapping), and digital publishing. Related subfields<br />

of digital humanities have emerged like software studies, platform studies, and critical<br />

code studies. Fields that parallel the digital humanities include new media<br />

studies and information science as well as media theory of composition, game studies,<br />

particularly in areas related to digital humanities project design and production,<br />

and cultural analytics.<br />

The Digital Humanities Stack (from Berry and Fagerjord,<br />

Digital Humanities: Knowledge and Critique in a Digital Age)<br />

Berry and Fagerjord have suggested that a way to<br />

reconceptualise digital humanities could be through a<br />

"digital humanities stack". They argue that "this type of<br />

diagram is common in computation and computer science to show how technologies<br />

are ‘stacked’ on top of each other in increasing levels of abstraction. Here, [they] use<br />

the method in a more illustrative and creative sense of showing the range of activities,<br />

practices, skills, technologies and structures that could be said to make up the digital<br />

humanities, with the aim of providing a high-level map." Indeed, the "diagram can be<br />

read as the bottom levels indicating some of the fundamental elements of the digital<br />

humanities stack, such as computational thinking and knowledge representation, and<br />

then other elements that later build on these. "<br />

History[edit]<br />

Digital humanities descends from the field of humanities computing, whose origins<br />

reach back to the 1930s and1940s in the pioneering work of English<br />

professor Josephine Miles and Jesuit scholar Roberto Busa and the women they<br />

employed. In collaboration with IBM, they created a computer-generated concordance<br />

to Thomas Aquinas' writings known as the Index Thomisticus. Other scholars began<br />

using mainframe computers to automate tasks like word-searching, sorting, and<br />

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counting, which was much faster than processing information from texts with<br />

handwritten or typed index cards. In the decades which followed archaeologists,<br />

classicists, historians, literary scholars, and a broad array of humanities researchers in<br />

other disciplines applied emerging computational methods to transform humanities<br />

scholarship.<br />

As Tara McPherson has pointed out, the digital humanities also inherit practices and<br />

perspectives developed through many artistic and theoretical engagements with<br />

electronic screen culture beginning the late 1960s and 1970s. These range from<br />

research developed by organizations such as SIGGRAPH to creations by artists such<br />

as Charles and Ray Eames and the members of E.A.T. (Experiments in Art and<br />

Technology). The Eames and E.A.T. explored nascent computer culture and<br />

intermediality in creative works that dovetailed technological innovation with art. [14]<br />

The first specialized journal in the digital humanities was Computers and the<br />

Humanities, which debuted in 1966. The Association for Literary and Linguistic<br />

Computing (ALLC) and the Association for Computers and the Humanities (ACH) were<br />

then founded in 1977 and 1978, respectively.<br />

Soon, there was a need for a standardized protocol for tagging digital texts, and<br />

the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) was developed. The TEI project was launched in 1987<br />

and published the first full version of the TEI Guidelines in May 1994. TEI helped shape<br />

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the field of electronic textual scholarship and led to Extensible Markup Language (XML),<br />

which is a tag scheme for digital editing. Researchers also began experimenting with<br />

databases and hypertextual editing, which are structured around links and nodes, as<br />

opposed to the standard linear convention of print. In the nineties, major digital text and<br />

image archives emerged at centers of humanities computing in the U.S. (e.g.<br />

the Women Writers Project, the Rossetti Archive, and The William Blake Archive), which<br />

demonstrated the sophistication and robustness of text-encoding for literature.<br />

The advent of personal computing and the World Wide Web meant that Digital<br />

Humanities work could become less centered on text and more on design. The<br />

multimedia nature of the internet has allowed Digital Humanities work to incorporate<br />

audio, video, and other components in addition to text.<br />

The terminological change from "humanities computing" to "digital humanities" has been<br />

attributed to John Unsworth, Susan Schreibman, and Ray Siemens who, as editors of<br />

the anthology A Companion to Digital Humanities (2004), tried to prevent the field from<br />

being viewed as "mere digitization." Consequently, the hybrid term has created an<br />

overlap between fields like rhetoric and composition, which use "the methods of<br />

contemporary humanities in studying digital objects," and digital humanities, which uses<br />

"digital technology in studying traditional humanities objects". The use of computational<br />

systems and the study of computational media within the arts and humanities more<br />

generally has been termed the 'computational turn'.<br />

In 2006 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) launched the Digital<br />

Humanities Initiative (renamed Office of Digital Humanities in 2008), which made<br />

widespread adoption of the term "digital humanities" all but irreversible in the United<br />

States.<br />

Digital humanities emerged from its former niche status and became "big news" at the<br />

2009 MLA convention in Philadelphia, where digital humanists made "some of the<br />

liveliest and most visible contributions" and had their field hailed as "the first 'next big<br />

thing' in a long time."<br />

Values and Methods<br />

Although digital humanities projects and initiatives are diverse, they often reflect<br />

common values and methods. These can help in understanding this hard-to-define field.<br />

Values<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Critical & Theoretical<br />

Iterative & Experimental<br />

Collaborative & Distributed<br />

Multimodal & Performative<br />

Open & Accessible<br />

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Methods<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Enhanced Critical Curation<br />

Augmented Editions and Fluid Textuality<br />

Scale: The Law of Large Numbers<br />

Distant/Close, Macro/Micro, Surface/Depth<br />

Cultural Analytics, Aggregation, and Data-Mining<br />

Visualization and Data Design<br />

Locative Investigation and Thick Mapping<br />

The Animated Archive<br />

Distributed Knowledge Production and Performative Access<br />

Humanities Gaming<br />

Code, Software, and Platform Studies<br />

Database Documentaries<br />

Repurposable Content and Remix Culture<br />

Pervasive Infrastructure<br />

Ubiquitous Scholarship.<br />

In keeping with the value of being open and accessible, many digital humanities<br />

projects and journals are open access and/or under Creative Commons licensing,<br />

showing the field's "commitment to open standards and open source." Open access is<br />

designed to enable anyone with an internet-enabled device and internet connection to<br />

view a website or read an article without having to pay, as well as share content with the<br />

appropriate permissions.<br />

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Digital humanities scholars use computational methods either to answer existing<br />

research questions or to challenge existing theoretical paradigms, generating new<br />

questions and pioneering new approaches. One goal is to systematically integrate<br />

computer technology into the activities of humanities scholars, as is done in<br />

contemporary empirical social sciences. Yet despite the significant trend in digital<br />

humanities towards networked and multimodal forms of knowledge, a substantial<br />

amount of digital humanities focuses on documents and text in ways that differentiate<br />

the field's work from digital research in media studies, information<br />

studies, communication studies, and sociology.<br />

Another goal of digital humanities is to create scholarship that transcends textual<br />

sources. This includes the integration of multimedia, metadata, and dynamic<br />

environments (see The Valley of the Shadow project at the University of Virginia,<br />

the Vectors Journal of Culture and Technology in a Dynamic Vernacular at University of<br />

Southern California, or Digital Pioneers projects at Harvard). A growing number of<br />

researchers in digital humanities are using computational methods for the analysis of<br />

large cultural data sets such as the Google Books corpus. Examples of such projects<br />

were highlighted by the Humanities High Performance Computing competition<br />

sponsored by the Office of Digital Humanities in 2008, and also by the Digging Into Data<br />

challenge organized in 2009 and 2011 by NEH in collaboration with NSF, and in<br />

partnership with JISC in the UK, and SSHRC in Canada. In addition to books, historical<br />

newspapers can also be analyzed with big data methods. The analysis of vast<br />

quantities of historical newspaper content has showed how periodic structures can be<br />

automatically discovered, and a similar analysis was performed on social media. As part<br />

of the big data revolution, Gender bias, readability, content similarity, reader<br />

preferences, and even mood have been analyzed based on text mining methods over<br />

millions of documents and historical documents written in literary Chinese.<br />

Digital humanities is also involved in the creation of software, providing "environments<br />

and tools for producing, curating, and interacting with knowledge that is 'born digital' and<br />

lives in various digital contexts." In this context, the field is sometimes known as<br />

computational humanities.<br />

Tools<br />

Digital humanities scholars use a variety of digital tools for their research, which may<br />

take place in an environment as small as a mobile device or as large as a virtual<br />

reality lab. Environments for "creating, publishing and working with digital scholarship<br />

include everything from personal equipment to institutes and software to<br />

cyberspace." Some scholars use advanced programming languages and databases,<br />

while others use less complex tools, depending on their needs. DiRT (Digital Research<br />

Tools Directory) offers a registry of digital research tools for scholars. TAPoR (Text<br />

Analysis Portal for Research) is a gateway to text analysis and retrieval tools. An<br />

accessible, free example of an online textual analysis program is Voyant Tools, which<br />

only requires the user to copy and paste either a body of text or a URL and then click<br />

the 'reveal' button to run the program. There is also an online list of online or<br />

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downloadable Digital Humanities tools that are largely free, aimed toward helping<br />

students and others who lack access to funding or institutional servers. Free, open<br />

source web publishing platforms like WordPress and Omeka are also popular tools.<br />

Digital humanities projects are more likely than traditional humanities work to involve a<br />

team or a lab, which may be composed of faculty, staff, graduate or undergraduate<br />

students, information technology specialists, and partners in galleries, libraries,<br />

archives, and museums. Credit and authorship are often given to multiple people to<br />

reflect this collaborative nature, which is different from the sole authorship model in the<br />

traditional humanities (and more like the natural sciences).<br />

There are thousands of digital humanities projects, ranging from small-scale ones with<br />

limited or no funding to large-scale ones with multi-year financial support. Some are<br />

continually updated while others may not be due to loss of support or interest, though<br />

they may still remain online in either a beta version or a finished form. The following are<br />

a few examples of the variety of projects in the field:<br />

Digital Archives<br />

The Women Writers Project (begun in 1988) is a long-term research project to make<br />

pre-Victorian women writers more accessible through an electronic collection of rare<br />

texts. The Walt Whitman Archive (begun in the 1990s) sought to create a hypertext and<br />

scholarly edition of Whitman’s works and now includes photographs, sounds, and the<br />

only comprehensive current bibliography of Whitman criticism. The Emily Dickinson<br />

Archive (begun in 2013) is a collection of high-resolution images of Dickinson’s poetry<br />

manuscripts as well as a searchable lexicon of over 9,000 words that appear in the<br />

poems.<br />

The Slave Societies Digital Archive (formerly Ecclesiastical and Secular Sources for<br />

Slave Societies), directed by Jane Landers and hosted at Vanderbilt University,<br />

preserves endangered ecclesiastical and secular documents related to Africans and<br />

African-descended peoples in slave societies. This Digital Archive currently holds<br />

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500,000 unique images, dating from the 16th to the 20th centuries, and documents the<br />

history of between 6 and 8 million individuals. They are the most extensive serial<br />

records for the history of Africans in the Atlantic World and also include valuable<br />

information on the indigenous, European, and Asian populations who lived alongside<br />

them.<br />

The involvement of librarians and archivists plays an important part in digital humanities<br />

projects because of the recent expansion of their role so that it now covers digital<br />

curation, which is critical in the preservation, promotion, and access to digital<br />

collections, as well as the application of scholarly orientation to digital humanities<br />

projects. A specific example involves the case of initiatives where archivists help<br />

scholars and academics build their projects through their experience in evaluating,<br />

implementing, and customizing metadata schemas for library collections.<br />

The initiatives at the National Autonomous University of Mexico is another example of a<br />

digital humanities project. These include the digitization of 17th-century manuscripts, an<br />

electronic corpus of Mexican history from the 16th to 19th century, and the visualization<br />

of pre-Hispanic archaeological sites in 3-D.<br />

Cultural Analytics<br />

"Cultural analytics" refers to the use of computational method for exploration and<br />

analysis of large visual collections and also contemporary digital media. The concept<br />

was developed in 2005 by Lev Manovich who then established the Cultural Analytics<br />

Lab in 2007 at Qualcomm Institute at California Institute for Telecommunication and<br />

Information (Calit2). The lab has been using methods from the field of computer science<br />

called Computer Vision many types of both historical and contemporary visual media—<br />

for example, all covers of Timemagazine published between 1923 and 2009, 20,000<br />

historical art photographs from the collection in Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New<br />

York, one million pages from Manga books, and 16 million images shared on Instagram<br />

in 17 global cities. Cultural analytics also includes using methods from media design<br />

and data visualization to create interactive visual interfaces for exploration of large<br />

visual collections e.g., Selfiecity and On Broadway.<br />

Cultural Analytics research is also addressing a number of theoretical questions. How<br />

can we "observe" giant cultural universes of both user-generated and professional<br />

media content created today, without reducing them to averages, outliers, or preexisting<br />

categories? How can work with large cultural data help us question our<br />

stereotypes and assumptions about cultures? What new theoretical cultural concepts<br />

and models are required for studying global digital culture with its new mega-scale,<br />

speed, and connectivity?<br />

The term “cultural analytics” (or “culture analytics”) is now used by many other<br />

researchers, as exemplified by two academic symposiums, a four-month long research<br />

program at UCLA that brought together 120 leading researchers from university and<br />

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industry labs, an academic peer-review Journal of Cultural Analytics: CA established in<br />

2016, and academic job listings.<br />

Textual Mining, Analysis, and Visualization<br />

WordHoard (begun in 2004) is a free application that enables scholarly but nontechnical<br />

users to read and analyze, in new ways, deeply-tagged texts, including the<br />

canon of Early Greek epic, Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Spenser. The Republic of<br />

Letters (begun in 2008) seeks to visualize the social network of Enlightenment writers<br />

through an interactive map and visualization tools. Network analysis and data<br />

visualization is also used for reflections on the field itself – researchers may produce<br />

network maps of social media interactions or infographics from data on digital<br />

humanities scholars and projects.<br />

Network analysis:<br />

graph of Digital Humanities Twitter users<br />

Analysis of Macroscopic Trends<br />

in Cultural Change<br />

Culturomics is a form of computational lexicology that<br />

studies human behavior and cultural trends through<br />

the quantitative analysis of digitized<br />

texts. [66][67] Researchers data mine large digital<br />

archives to investigate cultural phenomena reflected in language and word usage. The<br />

term is an American neologism first described in a 2010 Science article<br />

called Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books, co-authored by<br />

Harvard researchers Jean-Baptiste Michel and Erez Lieberman Aiden.<br />

A 2017 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the<br />

United States of America compared the trajectory of n-grams over time in both digitized<br />

books from the 2010 Science article with those found in a large corpus of regional<br />

newspapers from the United Kingdom over the course of 150 years. The study further<br />

went on to use more advanced Natural language processing techniques to discover<br />

macroscopic trends in history and culture, including gender bias, geographical focus,<br />

technology, and politics, along with accurate dates for specific events.<br />

Online Publishing<br />

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (begun in 1995) is a dynamic reference work<br />

of terms, concepts, and people from philosophy maintained by scholars in the field. MLA<br />

Commons offers an open peer-review site (where anyone can comment) for their<br />

ongoing curated collection of teaching artifacts in Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities:<br />

Concepts, Models, and Experiments (2016). The Debates in the Digital<br />

Humanities platform contains volumes of the open-access book of the same title (2012<br />

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and 2016 editions) and allows readers to interact with material by marking sentences as<br />

interesting or adding terms to a crowdsourced index.<br />

Criticism<br />

Lauren F. Klein and Matthew K. Gold have identified a range of criticisms in the digital<br />

humanities field: "'a lack of attention to issues of race, class, gender, and sexuality; a<br />

preference for research-driven projects over pedagogical ones; an absence of political<br />

commitment; an inadequate level of diversity among its practitioners; an inability to<br />

address texts under copyright; and an institutional concentration in well-funded research<br />

universities". Similarly Berry and Fagerjord have argued that a digital humanities should<br />

"focus on the need to think critically about the implications of computational imaginaries,<br />

and raise some questions in this regard. This is also to foreground the importance of the<br />

politics and norms that are embedded in digital technology, algorithms and software.<br />

We need to explore how to negotiate between close and distant readings of texts and<br />

how micro-analysis and macro-analysis can be usefully reconciled in humanist<br />

work." Alan Liu has argued, "while digital humanists develop tools, data, and metadata<br />

critically, therefore (e.g., debating the ‘ordered hierarchy of content objects’ principle;<br />

disputing whether computation is best used for truth finding or, as Lisa Samuels and<br />

Jerome McGann put it, ‘deformance’; and so on) rarely do they extend their critique to<br />

the full register of society, economics, politics, or culture." Some of these concerns have<br />

given rise to the emergent subfield of Critical Digital Humanities (CDH):<br />

"Some key questions include: how do we make the invisible become visible in the study<br />

of software? How is knowledge transformed when mediated through code and<br />

software? What are the critical approaches to Big Data, visualization, digital methods,<br />

etc.? How does computation create new disciplinary boundaries and gate-keeping<br />

functions? What are the new hegemonic representations of the digital – ‘geons’, ‘pixels’,<br />

‘waves’, visualization, visual rhetorics, etc.? How do media changes create epistemic<br />

changes, and how can we look behind the ‘screen essentialism’ of computational<br />

interfaces? Here we might also reflect on the way in which the practice of makingvisible<br />

also entails the making-invisible – computation involves making choices about<br />

what is to be captured. "<br />

Negative Publicity<br />

Klein and Gold note that many appearances of the digital humanities in public media are<br />

often in a critical fashion. Armand Leroi, writing in The New York Times, discusses the<br />

contrast between the algorithmic analysis of themes in literary texts and the work of<br />

Harold Bloom, who qualitatively and phenomenologically analyzes the themes of<br />

literature over time. Leroi questions whether or not the digital humanities can provide a<br />

truly robust analysis of literature and social phenomenon or offer a novel alternative<br />

perspective on them. The literary theorist Stanley Fish claims that the digital humanities<br />

pursue a revolutionary agenda and thereby undermine the conventional standards of<br />

"pre-eminence, authority and disciplinary power." However, digital humanities scholars<br />

note that "Digital Humanities is an extension of traditional knowledge skills and<br />

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methods, not a replacement for them. Its distinctive contributions do not obliterate the<br />

insights of the past, but add and supplement the humanities' long-standing commitment<br />

to scholarly interpretation, informed research, structured argument, and dialogue within<br />

communities of practice".<br />

Some have hailed the digital humanities as a solution to the apparent problems within<br />

the humanities, namely a decline in funding, a repeat of debates, and a fading set of<br />

theoretical claims and methodological arguments. Adam Kirsch, writing in the New<br />

Republic, calls this the "False Promise" of the digital humanities. While the rest of<br />

humanities and many social science departments are seeing a decline in funding or<br />

prestige, the digital humanities has been seeing increasing funding and prestige.<br />

Burdened with the problems of novelty, the digital humanities is discussed as either a<br />

revolutionary alternative to the humanities as it is usually conceived or as simply new<br />

wine in old bottles. Kirsch believes that digital humanities practitioners suffer from<br />

problems of being marketers rather than scholars, who attest to the grand capacity of<br />

their research more than actually performing new analysis and when they do so, only<br />

performing trivial parlor tricks of research.<br />

This form of criticism has been repeated by others, such as in Carl Staumshein, writing<br />

in Inside Higher Education, who calls it a "Digital Humanities Bubble". Later in the same<br />

publication, Straumshein alleges that the digital humanities is a 'Corporatist<br />

Restructuring' of the Humanities. Some see the alliance of the digital humanities with<br />

business to be a positive turn that causes the business world to pay more attention,<br />

thus bringing needed funding and attention to the humanities. If it were not burdened by<br />

the title of digital humanities, it could escape the allegations that it is elitist and unfairly<br />

funded.<br />

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Black Box<br />

There has also been critique of the use of digital humanities tools by scholars who do<br />

not fully understand what happens to the data they input and place too much trust in the<br />

"black box" of software that cannot be sufficiently examined for errors. Johanna<br />

Drucker, a professor at UCLA Department of Information Studies, has criticized the<br />

"epistemological fallacies" prevalent in popular visualization tools and technologies<br />

(such as Google's n-gram graph) used by digital humanities scholars and the general<br />

public, calling some network diagramming and topic modeling tools "just too crude for<br />

humanistic work." The lack of transparency in these programs obscures the subjective<br />

nature of the data and its processing, she argues, as these programs "generate<br />

standard diagrams based on conventional algorithms for screen display...mak[ing] it<br />

very difficult for the semantics of the data processing to be made evident."<br />

Diversity<br />

There has also been some recent controversy among practitioners of digital humanities<br />

around the role that race and/or identity politics plays. Tara McPherson attributes some<br />

of the lack of racial diversity in digital humanities to the modality of UNIX and computers<br />

themselves. An open thread on DHpoco.org recently garnered well over 100 comments<br />

on the issue of race in digital humanities, with scholars arguing about the amount that<br />

racial (and other) biases affect the tools and texts available for digital humanities<br />

research. McPherson posits that there needs to be an understanding and theorizing of<br />

the implications of digital technology and race, even when the subject for analysis<br />

appears not to be about race.<br />

Amy E. Earhart criticizes what has become the new digital humanities "canon" in the<br />

shift from websites using simple HTML to the usage of the TEI and visuals in textual<br />

recovery projects. Works that has been previously lost or excluded were afforded a new<br />

home on the internet, but much of the same marginalizing practices found in traditional<br />

humanities also took place digitally. According to Earhart, there is a "need to examine<br />

the canon that we, as digital humanists, are constructing, a canon that skews toward<br />

traditional texts and excludes crucial work by women, people of color, and the LGBTQ<br />

community."<br />

Issues of Access<br />

Practitioners in digital humanities are also failing to meet the needs of users with<br />

disabilities. George H. Williams argues that universal design is imperative for<br />

practitioners to increase usability because "many of the otherwise most valuable digital<br />

resources are useless for people who are—for example—deaf or hard of hearing, as<br />

well as for people who are blind, have low vision, or have difficulty distinguishing<br />

particular colors." In order to provide accessibility successfully, and productive universal<br />

design, it is important to understand why and how users with disabilities are using the<br />

digital resources while remembering that all users approach their informational needs<br />

differently.<br />

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Cultural Criticism<br />

Digital humanities have been criticized for not only ignoring traditional questions of<br />

lineage and history in the humanities, but lacking the fundamental cultural criticism that<br />

defines the humanities. However, it remains to be seen whether or not the humanities<br />

have to be tied to cultural criticism, per se, in order to be the humanities. The<br />

sciences might imagine the Digital Humanities as a welcome improvement over the<br />

non-quantitative methods of the humanities and social sciences.<br />

Difficulty of Evaluation<br />

As the field matures, there has been a recognition that the standard model of academic<br />

peer-review of work may not be adequate for digital humanities projects, which often<br />

involve website components, databases, and other non-print objects. Evaluation of<br />

quality and impact thus require a combination of old and new methods of peer<br />

review. One response has been the creation of the DHCommons Journal. This accepts<br />

non-traditional submissions, especially mid-stage digital projects, and provides an<br />

innovative model of peer review more suited for the multimedia, transdisciplinary, and<br />

milestone-driven nature of Digital Humanities projects. Other professional humanities<br />

organizations, such as the American Historical Association and the Modern Language<br />

Association, have developed guidelines for evaluating academic digital scholarship.<br />

Lack of Focus on Pedagogy<br />

The 2012 edition of Debates in the Digital Humanities recognized the fact that pedagogy<br />

was the “neglected ‘stepchild’ of DH” and included an entire section on teaching the<br />

digital humanities. Part of the reason is that grants in the humanities are geared more<br />

toward research with quantifiable results rather than teaching innovations, which are<br />

harder to measure. In recognition of a need for more scholarship on the area of<br />

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teaching, Digital Humanities Pedagogy was published and offered case studies and<br />

strategies to address how to teach digital humanities methods in various disciplines.<br />

Organizations<br />

The Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO) is an umbrella organization<br />

that supports digital research and teaching as a consultative and advisory force for its<br />

constituent organizations. Its governance was approved in 2005 and it has overseen the<br />

annual Digital Humanities conference since 2006. The current members of ADHO are:<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Australasian Association for Digital Humanities (aaDH)<br />

Association for Computers and the Humanities (ACH)<br />

Canadian Society for Digital Humanities / Société canadienne des humanités<br />

numériques (CSDH/SCHN)<br />

centerNet, an international network of digital humanities centers<br />

The European Association for Digital Humanities (EADH)<br />

Japanese Association for Digital Humanities (JADH)<br />

Humanistica, L'association francophone des humanités numériques/digitales<br />

(Humanistica)<br />

ADHO funds a number of projects such as the Digital Humanities Quarterly journal and<br />

the Digital Scholarship in the Humanities (DSH) journal, supports the Text Encoding<br />

Initiative, and sponsors workshops and conferences, as well as funding small projects,<br />

awards, and bursaries.<br />

HASTAC (Humanities, Arts, Science, and Technology Alliance and Collaboratory) is a<br />

free and open access virtual, interdisciplinary community focused on changing teaching<br />

and learning through the sharing of news, tools, methods, and pedagogy, including<br />

digital humanities scholarship. It is reputed to be the world's first and oldest academic<br />

social network.<br />

Centers and Institutes<br />

Department of Digital Humanities (King's College London, UK)<br />

Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute (University of<br />

Glasgow, Scotland)<br />

Sussex Humanities Lab (University of Sussex, UK)<br />

Humlab, Umeå University (Sweden)<br />

Digital Humanities Summer Institute (DHSI) (University of Victoria, Canada)<br />

Forensic Computational Geometry Laboratory (FCGL) [95] (IWR, Heidelberg<br />

University, Germany)<br />

Heidelberg Centre for Digital Humanities (Heidelberg University, Germany)<br />

The European Summer University in Digital Humanities (Leipzig University,<br />

Germany)<br />

Cultural Analytics Lab (The Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA,<br />

and Qualcomm Institute, USA)<br />

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Center for Digital Research in the Humanities (University of Nebraska-Lincoln,<br />

USA)<br />

Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (University of Virginia, USA)<br />

Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (University of Maryland,<br />

USA)<br />

Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media (George Mason University,<br />

Virginia, USA)<br />

The Walter J. Ong, S.J.<br />

Center for Digital<br />

Humanities (Saint Louis<br />

University, St. Louis, MO,<br />

USA<br />

UCL Centre for Digital<br />

Humanities (University<br />

College London, UK)<br />

Center for Public History and<br />

Digital Humanities (Cleveland<br />

State University, USA)<br />

Center for Digital Scholarship<br />

and Curation (Washington<br />

State University, USA)<br />

Scholars' Lab (University of<br />

Virginia, USA)<br />

Centre for Digital Humanities<br />

Research (Australian National<br />

University, AU)<br />

Helsinki Centre for Digital<br />

Humanities (HELDIG)<br />

(University of Helsinki,<br />

Finland)<br />

Laboratory for digital cultures<br />

and humanities of the<br />

University<br />

of<br />

Lausanne (LaDHUL) (University of Lausanne, Switzerland)<br />

Centre for Information-Modeling, Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities (ZIM-<br />

ACDH) (University of Graz, Austria)<br />

mainzed, Mainz Centre for Digitality in the Humanities and Cultural Studies<br />

(Mainz, Germany)<br />

Conferences<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Digital Humanities conference<br />

THATCamp<br />

Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) conference<br />

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Journals and Publications<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Digital Humanities Quarterly (DHQ)<br />

DHCommons<br />

Digital Literary Studies<br />

Digital Medievalist<br />

Digital Scholarship in the Humanities (DSH) (formerly Literary and Linguistic<br />

Computing)<br />

Digital Studies / Le champ numérique (DS/CN)<br />

Humanités numériques (Humanistica)<br />

Journal of Digital Archives and Digital Humanities<br />

Journal of Digital and Media Literacy<br />

Journal of Digital Humanities (JDH)<br />

Journal of Interactive Technology and Pedagogy<br />

Journal of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities (JJADH)<br />

Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative<br />

Kairos<br />

Southern Spaces<br />

Umanistica Digitale (AIUCD)<br />

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VIII. Opportunities Management<br />

Opportunity Management (OM) has been defined as "a process to<br />

identify business and community development opportunities that could be implemented<br />

to sustain or improve the local economy".<br />

Opportunity management is a collaborative approach for economic and business<br />

development. The process focuses on tangible outcomes.<br />

Opportunity management may result in interesting and motivating projects that help<br />

improve teamwork. Its three components are<br />

1. generating ideas,<br />

2. recognizing opportunities, and<br />

3. driving opportunities.<br />

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Risk<br />

Risk management can be described as the process of proactively working with<br />

stakeholders to minimise the risks and maximise the opportunity associated with project<br />

decisions. Risks are about the possibility of an adverse consequence. [6] Good risk<br />

management does not have to be expensive or time consuming but relies on<br />

adaptability in response to change. Risk management ensures that an organization<br />

identifies and understands the risks to which it is exposed. Organisations continuously<br />

face environments in which uncertainty is constantly challenging the existing ways of<br />

doing business and the way that risk needs to be managed. However, the upside to risk,<br />

that is often overlooked, is that the feared uncertain event could have a desired<br />

outcome. TAP University's blog notes that this is a positive risk or opportunity and<br />

needs to be managed to ensure a good result. Having a clear understanding of all risks<br />

allows an organization to measure and prioritize them and take the appropriate actions<br />

to reduce losses.<br />

Where risk management seeks to understand what might go badly in a project,<br />

opportunity management looks for what might go better.<br />

Opportunity management is the process that converts the chance to decisiveness and is<br />

increasingly becoming embedded in the culture of organisations as they mature and<br />

broaden their understanding of the value that managing uncertainty can bring. For<br />

positive risk or opportunity management to be effective in creating or protecting value it<br />

must be an integral part of the management processes, be embedded in the culture and<br />

practices of the organisation, be tailored to the business process of the organisation,<br />

and comply with the risk management principles outlined in ISO 31000. An opportunity<br />

management process has required elements that need to be evaluated before<br />

advancing and allocating scarce resources to any project. All organisations have limited<br />

resources and it is important that they are used sensibly.<br />

The first step that an organisation should take in order to improve decision making and<br />

reduce risk is identifying potential opportunities. It is advised that a business takes the<br />

necessary time and considers numerous ways of identifying opportunities for initiatives.<br />

Organisations could implement processes like "organizational catch ball" which would<br />

help them to develop plans and strategies for economic growth in the community. As<br />

Conti notes, "the interactive catch ball process from management level to the next is<br />

necessary for correct planning and alignment of goals". They could also implement<br />

brainstorming activities, hold stakeholder meetings, hold focus group interviews and<br />

hold jurisdictional reviews. This would help the organisation generate ideas to include in<br />

the initiative funnel. The firm should proceed to evaluate and prioritize initiatives to<br />

enable more effective courses of action to be taken in the future. This would involve<br />

ranking criteria in order of importance to ensure the correct alignment of targets for the<br />

projects. It is vital that the firm includes many opportunities in the decision making<br />

funnel to be effective. This will allow for a more comprehensive scope of ideas to be<br />

included in the decision making funnel.<br />

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Funnel<br />

An opportunity management funnel is a framework that allows management to evaluate<br />

and select opportunities. An opportunity management funnel is a process whereby<br />

many opportunities are put in up front and fewer investment decisions coming out at the<br />

end of the funnel. The goal of the opportunity management funnel is to eliminate weak<br />

ideas before they consume excessive resources while allowing strong ideas to filter<br />

through the process. The challenges for the business and project management team is<br />

to make choices and decisions that move toward the desired objectives – a task that is<br />

made difficult by change.<br />

The funnel approach raises questions pertaining to:<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Who will work to move the idea forward?<br />

What assessment criteria should be set?<br />

Who will decide whether the idea should be pursued or dropped?<br />

How will the decision be made?<br />

The funnel filters the broadest range of opportunities and ensures that all priority sectors<br />

are represented. The process must be unbiased and lead to a choice of resources that<br />

maximizes return. When selecting which opportunities to filter through the process,<br />

users should be aware that initially, there are no bad ideas or limits. The unviable<br />

alternatives will be filtered out using the phase–gate model. Rigorous screening must be<br />

applied to focus on the initiative. The business can examine the merit of each initiative<br />

before deciding to dedicate resources to the project. The business will have the option<br />

to implement three decisions at a gate such as advance, rework and kill the project.<br />

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Perhaps the greatest challenge that users of stage and gate processes face is making<br />

the gates work well: as go the gate, so goes the process. This will help prevent the firm<br />

from wasting valuable resources and time on ineffective initiatives.<br />

Stage-Gate/Phase–Gate Decision Making<br />

The stage-gate process was created because the traditional organisational structure is<br />

primarily for top-down, centralized control and communications, all of which are not<br />

practical for organizations that use project management and horizontal workflow. The<br />

stage-gate process evolved into life-cycle phases. Stages are phases of the decisionmaking<br />

process where development work is completed. Phase–gate systems divide the<br />

innovation process into a predetermined set of stages composed of a group of<br />

"prescribed, related, and often parallel activities."<br />

Most Phase–gate systems involve four to seven stages. Since each proceeding stage is<br />

more expensive than the previous, it is imperative that a high degree of researchbacked<br />

discrimination is involved in passing stages. The body of research collected for<br />

proposed initiatives should be frequently consulted to adequately support the decisionmaking<br />

processes.<br />

A firm could use certain assessment criteria to help identify opportunities and will<br />

ensure resources are not wasted on low value opportunities. There are three types of<br />

criteria that a firm could use. These include criteria of inclusion, criteria of exclusion and<br />

portfolio level criteria. Using assessment criteria would provide a transparent process<br />

that will highlight what initiatives to abandon and which initiatives to pursue. Exclusion<br />

criteria could be used by the firm, as it saves time and money. It is a simple method of<br />

reducing the number of initiatives to evaluate. "A firm must maintain records to support<br />

why a portfolio was assigned to a specific composite, or was excluded from all<br />

composites." The firm could also look at inclusive criteria to help to prioritize initiatives.<br />

This could include ensuring that it has key stakeholder support, or making the initiative<br />

economically feasible. Portfolio level criteria may also be used to ensure the right mixes<br />

of initiatives are used. Ensuring that the initiatives stimulate job creation and have the<br />

support of the community are some of the criteria that the firm could include while<br />

planning an initiative.<br />

It is imperative that evaluation of each gate should be objective, open-minded, clear on<br />

the businesses' strategic goals and done by experienced people. People that are<br />

evaluating the project at each gate must have the courage to terminate the project if<br />

necessary. This is important as it will prevent any bias from occurring throughout the<br />

decision making phase. However, the system that the firm puts in place should not be<br />

so rigorous that it omits viable projects or too laid-back that resources are spread finely<br />

across multiple projects. "The lack of tough Go/Kill decision points means too many<br />

product failures, resources wasted on the wrong projects, and a lack of focus." A level of<br />

uncertainty can be positive for evaluating criteria by the firm as too many kills of ideas<br />

may discourage stakeholders from forming ideas.<br />

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Philosophical Underpinnings<br />

A risk and opportunity management policy is a statement of intent which should<br />

communicate an organisations attitude, rational and philosophy towards risk and<br />

opportunity management. While opportunity management is considered to be a recent<br />

phenomenon resulting from the blending different project management<br />

methodologies, business development is well-rooted in philosophy.<br />

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics clearly differentiates between the outcomes (ends) we<br />

aim to achieve and the outputs (means) we use to achieve these outcomes. Careful<br />

deliberation is required to select the outputs that are most likely to contribute to the<br />

outcomes we desire. Aristotle understands that problems could arise that would<br />

necessitate dropping one output in favor of another. Aristotle's theory links the logicmodel<br />

to the Phase–gate process thereby introducing deliberation and kill points.<br />

Aristotle states:<br />

"Rather, we lay down the end, and then examine the ways to and means to achieve it. If<br />

it appears that any of several [possible] means will reach it, we examine which of them<br />

will reach it most easily and most finely; and if only one [possible] means reaches it, we<br />

examine how that means will reach it and how the means itself is reached, until we<br />

come to the first cause, the last thing to be discovered. For a deliberator would seem to<br />

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inquire and analyze in the way described, as though analyzing a diagram...If we<br />

encounter an impossible step – for instance, we need money but cannot raise it – we<br />

desist; but if it appears possible we undertake it. What is possible is what we achieve<br />

through our agency [including what our friend could achieve for us]... Deliberation is<br />

about the actions he can do, and actions are for the sake of other things; hence we<br />

deliberate about things that promote an end, not about the end."<br />

Kant's Critique of Judgment is probably the most important and influential work in<br />

Western aesthetic theory. Philosopher Immanuel Kant's aesthetic theory also offers<br />

insight into opportunity management as it makes the connection between the<br />

imaginative (open end of the funnel) and understanding (application of deliberative<br />

thought and criteria). Kant states:<br />

"For, in lawless freedom, imagination, with all its wealth, produces nothing but nonsense;<br />

the power of judgement, on the other hand, is the faculty that makes it consonant with<br />

understanding. Taste, like judgement in general, is the discipline (or corrective) of genius.<br />

... It introduces a clearness and order into the plenitude of thought, and in so doing, gives<br />

stability to the ideas, and qualifies them at once for permanent and universal approval."<br />

There are endless things that can be considered, but only a small portion of these can<br />

practically be achieved. If opportunity management does not adequately address both<br />

imagination and understanding, the best opportunities will not be pursued. Some<br />

individuals and organizations have become so used to thinking of risk management<br />

solely in terms of the negative outcomes of uncertainty that they recoil from using the<br />

same process to address opportunities. Opportunity management requires originality<br />

and rule: Kant notes:<br />

"...genius (1) is a talent for producing that for which no definite rule can be given, and not<br />

an aptitude in a way of cleverness for what can be learned according to some rule; and<br />

that consequently originality must be its primary property. (2) Since there may be original<br />

nonsense, its products must at the same time be models, i.e., be exemplary; and<br />

consequently, though not themselves derived from imitation, they must serve that<br />

purpose for others, i.e., as a standard or rule of estimating. (3) It cannot indicate<br />

scientifically how it brings about its product, but rather gives the rule as nature. Hence,<br />

where an author owes a product to his genius, he does not himself know how the ideas<br />

for it have entered into his head, nor has he the power to invent like at pleasure, or<br />

methodologically, and communicate the same to others in such precepts as would put<br />

them in a position to produce similar products... (4) Nature prescribes the rule through<br />

genius not to science but to art, and this also only in so far as it is to be fine art."<br />

American philosopher Charles S. Pierce notes that new knowledge originates outside of<br />

the traditional logic of induction and deduction. He posits a process<br />

of abduction through which a mind freed from constraints to arrive at a creative<br />

inference. Abduction is a process of conjecture that is capable of creating new<br />

knowledge through the positing of a novel hypothesis. It makes no claim to ‘what is' but<br />

rather to ‘what might be.' The content of the idea cannot be tested in advance but where<br />

the process of reaching a decision is biased the idea is likely to be flawed. Peirce notes,<br />

"But observed facts relate exclusively to the particular circumstances that happen to<br />

exist when they were observed. They do not relate to any future occasions upon which<br />

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we may be in doubt how we ought to act. They, therefore, do not, in themselves contain<br />

practical knowledge." Opportunity management entails ongoing assessment of the<br />

decision-making process increasing the likelihood of success.<br />

Roger Martin asserts that Pierce's notion of abduction is the basis of what he terms<br />

"Design Thinking" which is at the core of "the most powerful formula for competitive<br />

advantage in the twenty-first century." Design thinking is about the creation of, as well<br />

as the adaptive use of a body-of behaviors and values. Design thinking embeds<br />

integrative thinking throughout the entire organization. In his book "The Opposable<br />

Mind", Martin states:<br />

"At its core, integrative thinking requires the integration of mastery and originality. Without<br />

mastery there won't be a useful salience, causality, or architecture. Without originality,<br />

there will be no creative resolution. Without creative resolution, there will be no<br />

enhancement of mastery, and when mastery stagnates, so does originality. Mastery is an<br />

enabling condition for originality, which in turn, is a generative condition for mastery. The<br />

modes are interdependent."<br />

Project Management<br />

Project management is the planning, organizing and controlling of a firm's resources to<br />

achieve reasonably short-term goals that have been established to complete specific<br />

targets and objectives. It is usually management driven and focuses on setting targets,<br />

problem solving and obtaining results. The purpose of project management is to act as<br />

a change agent, delivering a change to the status quo of a project, and achieving this in<br />

a controlled and managed way. In the initiation stage of project management,<br />

opportunity management may aid in the determination of the nature and scope of the<br />

project. Much like the initiation stage of project management, opportunity management<br />

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aids in determining the nature and scope of projects. Since the initiation stage is crucial<br />

to the overall performance of the project management cycle, opportunity management<br />

may be used by project managers to determine which projects are worth<br />

pursuing. Project management is an attempt to manage uncertainty, since it is seen as<br />

a structured approach to produce managed change in a changing environment.<br />

Most notably, opportunity management may aid in defining the business<br />

needs/requirements of the organization through the filtration of various alternatives and<br />

budgeting requirements. In the process of planning, projects should be properly defined<br />

and divided into logical, progressive steps. The screening and assessment criteria<br />

offered by opportunity management allow project managers to establish the business<br />

case for the project. Opportunity management determines which projects are worth<br />

pursuing before dedicating excessive resources.<br />

As the project progresses from the initiation stage to the planning and design phase, the<br />

screening and assessment criteria will act as a continuous gauge to determine the<br />

viability of the project. This ongoing determination of the viability of the project also aids<br />

in portfolio management since project managers employ opportunity management to<br />

determine which projects are worth pursuing and the prioritization of projects.<br />

Furthermore, project managers should be able to identify and engage the appropriate<br />

stakeholders throughout the entire project life cycle and determine who must be<br />

involved in each phase and who merely needs to be kept informed of the progress<br />

made.<br />

Opportunity management determines the payback of the project within the initiation<br />

stage. Although the payback period is defined by Kerzner as the least precise of all<br />

capital budgeting methods because the calculations are in dollars and cannot adjusted<br />

for the time value of money. By establishing the payback period within the opportunity<br />

management process, project managers may continually assess the project<br />

expenditures and re-evaluate the payback period on an ongoing basis.<br />

Project management is the planning, delegating, monitoring and controlling of all<br />

aspects of the project, and the motivation of those involved, to achieve the project<br />

objectives within the expected performance targets for time, cost, quality, scope benefits<br />

and risks. The monitoring and control phase of project management mirrors fairly<br />

closely stage gate decision making, although stage gate decision making addresses<br />

potential problems earlier in the project management cycle. Like the monitoring and<br />

control phase, the logic model employed in opportunity management observes and<br />

monitors the project performance on an ongoing basis.<br />

The logic model helps a firm to outline the sequence of events related to the project. In<br />

a nutshell, a logic model is a valuable tool that produces a basic program "picture" that<br />

shows how the organisation's program is intended to do work. If the project is<br />

determined to be unable to meet the criteria outlined in the opportunity management<br />

process, the project or opportunity managers will take measures to correct the problems<br />

and put the project back on track.<br />

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Community Capacity Building<br />

Capacity building is designed to promote change. Capacity building may be defined as<br />

anything that increases the ability and/or desire of groups, businesses, municipalities,<br />

not-for-profit organizations to effectively engage in community economic<br />

development. Stakeholders such as Governments can contribute to environmental<br />

community capacity building not only through the provision of practical support in terms<br />

of resource provision and throughout the opening up of information and communication<br />

channels for communities, but also ensuring that there is meaningful collaboration with<br />

communities.<br />

Capacity building is an approach to economic development that focuses on<br />

understanding the difficulties that prevent people, governments, organizations form<br />

recognizing their developmental goals while enhancing the abilities that will allow them<br />

to achieve measurable and sustainable results. It involves training and development<br />

activities that get the community actively involved in the development of their locality.<br />

Put simply, capacity building is any initiative that increases the desire or ability of<br />

individuals, groups and organisations to effectively participate in economic development<br />

activities. Community capacity building assists groups by enhancing skills essential to<br />

regional economic planning, development and implementation. Capacity building cannot<br />

be seen or undertaken in isolation as it is deeply embedded in the social, economic and<br />

political environment. It is about strengthening peoples capacity to determine their own<br />

values and priorities and to act on these, which gives us the basis of development. In<br />

examining community capacity building and local economic development, it is essential<br />

to recognise the importance of building links between social economy organisations and<br />

the private sector as well as governments in order to address the complex social and<br />

economic problems which all communities confront.<br />

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Along with "empowerment, "participation", and "gender equality", capacity building is<br />

seen as an essential element if development is to be sustainable and centered in<br />

people. Developing opportunity management systems is an important part of<br />

opportunity management since the model since it allows organizations to identify the<br />

most effective allocation of resources. Since communities have fixed resources,<br />

opportunity management is a useful tool to identify the most utilitarian allocation of<br />

resources to achieve the maximum benefit. The essential criteria for all initiatives should<br />

be included and must not be wasted as all organisations face limited<br />

resources. Community capacity building has the potential to reach into social and<br />

economic life and contribute to building stronger, more cohesive and resilient<br />

communities.<br />

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IX. References<br />

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_building<br />

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_development<br />

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration<br />

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network<br />

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_collaboration<br />

6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysis<br />

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_humanities<br />

8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_management<br />

9. http://www.chs.ubc.ca/archives/files/Community%20Capacity-<br />

Building%20A%20Practical%20Guide.pdf<br />

10. https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/44681969.pdf<br />

11. https://philanthropynw.org/sites/default/files/resources/Community%2520Capacity%2520<br />

Case%2520Studies%25204.30.12.pdf<br />

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Attachment A<br />

Community Capacity-Building:<br />

A Practical Guide<br />

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Attachment B<br />

Community Capacity-Building:<br />

Fostering Economic and Social Resilience<br />

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Attachment C<br />

Community Capacity-Building:<br />

Lessons Learned from Our Partners<br />

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Advocacy Foundation Publishers<br />

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Advocacy Foundation Publishers<br />

The e-Advocate Quarterly<br />

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Issue Title Quarterly<br />

Vol. I 2015 The Fundamentals<br />

I<br />

The <strong>ComeUnity</strong> ReEngineering<br />

Project Initiative<br />

Q-1 2015<br />

II The Adolescent Law Group Q-2 2015<br />

III<br />

Landmark Cases in US<br />

Juvenile Justice (PA)<br />

Q-3 2015<br />

IV The First Amendment Project Q-4 2015<br />

Vol. II 2016 Strategic Development<br />

V The Fourth Amendment Project Q-1 2016<br />

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Landmark Cases in US<br />

Juvenile Justice (NJ)<br />

Q-2 2016<br />

VII Youth Court Q-3 2016<br />

VIII<br />

The Economic Consequences of Legal<br />

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Vol. III 2017 Sustainability<br />

IX The Sixth Amendment Project Q-1 2017<br />

X<br />

The Theological Foundations of<br />

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XII<br />

The EB-5 Investor<br />

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The Juvenile Justice<br />

Legislative Reform Initiative<br />

Q-2 2018<br />

XV The Advocacy Foundation Coalition Q-3 2018<br />

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XVI<br />

for Drug-Free Communities<br />

Landmark Cases in US<br />

Juvenile Justice (GA)<br />

Q-4 2018<br />

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Issue Title Quarterly<br />

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XIX Staff & Management Q-3 2019<br />

XX Succession Planning Q-4 2019<br />

XXI The Budget* Bonus #1<br />

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XXV International Labor Relations Q-3 2020<br />

XXVI Immigration Q-4 2020<br />

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The 21 st Century Charter Schools<br />

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XXX<br />

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Vol. VIII<br />

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XXXII<br />

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@ The Foundation<br />

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XXXIII The Advisory Council & Committees Q-2 2022<br />

XXXIV<br />

The Theological Origins<br />

of Contemporary Judicial Process<br />

Q-3 2022<br />

XXXV The Second Chance Ministry @ ... Q-4 2022<br />

Vol. IX 2023 Legal Reformation<br />

XXXVI The Fifth Amendment Project Q-1 2023<br />

XXXVII The Judicial Re-Engineering Initiative Q-2 2023<br />

XXXVIII<br />

The Inner-Cities Strategic<br />

Revitalization Initiative<br />

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XXXVIX Habeas Corpus Q-4 2023<br />

Vol. X 2024 <strong>ComeUnity</strong> Development<br />

XXXVX<br />

The Inner-City Strategic<br />

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XXXVXI The Mentoring Initiative Q-2 2024<br />

XXXVXII The Violence Prevention Framework Q-3 2024<br />

XXXVXIII The Fatherhood Initiative Q-4 2024<br />

Vol. XI 2025 Public Interest<br />

XXXVXIV Public Interest Law Q-1 2025<br />

L (50) Spiritual Resource Development Q-2 2025<br />

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LI<br />

Nonprofit Confidentiality<br />

In The Age of Big Data<br />

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LII Interpreting The Facts Q-4 2025<br />

Vol. XII 2026 Poverty In America<br />

LIII<br />

American Poverty<br />

In The New Millennium<br />

Q-1 2026<br />

LIV Outcome-Based Thinking Q-2 2026<br />

LV Transformational Social Leadership Q-3 2026<br />

LVI The Cycle of Poverty Q-4 2026<br />

Vol. XIII 2027 Raising Awareness<br />

LVII ReEngineering Juvenile Justice Q-1 2027<br />

LVIII Corporations Q-2 2027<br />

LVIX The Prison Industrial Complex Q-3 2027<br />

LX Restoration of Rights Q-4 2027<br />

Vol. XIV 2028 Culturally Relevant Programming<br />

LXI Community Culture Q-1 2028<br />

LXII Corporate Culture Q-2 2028<br />

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Vol. XV 2029 Inner-Cities Revitalization<br />

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and Economic Empowerment<br />

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and Sustainability<br />

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LXVIII<br />

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LXVIII Social Program Sustainability Q-1 2030<br />

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Vol. XVIII 2032 Public Policy<br />

LXXVII Public Interest Law Q-1 2032<br />

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The e-Advocate Monthly Review<br />

2018<br />

Transformational Problem Solving January 2018<br />

The Advocacy Foundation February 2018<br />

Opioid Initiative<br />

Native-American Youth March 2018<br />

In the Juvenile Justice System<br />

Barriers to Reducing Confinement April 2018<br />

Latino and Hispanic Youth May 2018<br />

In the Juvenile Justice System<br />

Social Entrepreneurship June 2018<br />

The Economic Consequences of<br />

Homelessness in America S.Ed – June 2018<br />

African-American Youth July 2018<br />

In the Juvenile Justice System<br />

Gang Deconstruction August 2018<br />

Social Impact Investing September 2018<br />

Opportunity Youth: October 2018<br />

Disenfranchised Young People<br />

The Economic Impact of Social November 2018<br />

of Social Programs Development<br />

Gun Control December 2018<br />

2019<br />

The U.S. Stock Market January 2019<br />

Prison-Based Gerrymandering February 2019<br />

Literacy-Based Prison Construction March 2019<br />

Children of Incarcerated Parents April 2019<br />

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African-American Youth in The May 2019<br />

Juvenile Justice System<br />

Racial Profiling June 2019<br />

Mass Collaboration July 2019<br />

Concentrated Poverty August 2019<br />

De-Industrialization September 2019<br />

Overcoming Dyslexia October 2019<br />

Overcoming Attention Deficit November 2019<br />

The Gift of Adversity December 2019<br />

2020<br />

The Gift of Hypersensitivity January 2020<br />

The Gift of Introspection February 2020<br />

The Gift of Introversion March 2020<br />

The Gift of Spirituality April 2020<br />

The Gift of Transformation May 2020<br />

Property Acquisition for<br />

Organizational Sustainability June 2020<br />

Investing for Organizational<br />

Sustainability July 2020<br />

Biblical Law & Justice TLFA August 2020<br />

Gentrification AF September 2020<br />

Environmental Racism NpA October 2020<br />

Law for The Poor AF November 2020<br />

…<br />

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2021<br />

Biblically Responsible Investing TLFA – January 2021<br />

International Criminal Procedure LMI – February 2021<br />

Spiritual Rights TLFA – March 2021<br />

The Theology of Missions TLFA – April 2021<br />

Legal Evangelism, Intelligence,<br />

Reconnaissance & Missions LMI – May 2021<br />

The Law of War LMI – June 2021<br />

Generational Progression AF – July 2021<br />

Predatory Lending AF – August 2021<br />

The Community Assessment Process NpA – September 2021<br />

Accountability NpA – October 2021<br />

Nonprofit Transparency NpA – November 2021<br />

Redefining Unemployment AF – December 2021<br />

2022<br />

21 st Century Slavery AF – January 2022<br />

Acquiesce to Righteousness TLFA – February 2022<br />

<strong>ComeUnity</strong> Capacity-Building NpA – March 2022<br />

…<br />

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The e-Advocate Quarterly<br />

Special Editions<br />

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Social Media for Nonprofits October 2017<br />

Mass Media for Nonprofits November 2017<br />

The Opioid Crisis in America: January 2018<br />

Issues in Pain Management<br />

The Opioid Crisis in America: February 2018<br />

The Drug Culture in the U.S.<br />

The Opioid Crisis in America: March 2018<br />

Drug Abuse Among Veterans<br />

The Opioid Crisis in America: April 2018<br />

Drug Abuse Among America’s<br />

Teens<br />

The Opioid Crisis in America: May 2018<br />

Alcoholism<br />

The Economic Consequences of June 2018<br />

Homelessness in The US<br />

The Economic Consequences of July 2018<br />

Opioid Addiction in America<br />

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The e-Advocate Journal<br />

of Theological Jurisprudence<br />

Vol. I - 2017<br />

The Theological Origins of Contemporary Judicial Process<br />

Scriptural Application to The Model Criminal Code<br />

Scriptural Application for Tort Reform<br />

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Vol. II - 2018<br />

Scriptural Application for The Canons of Ethics<br />

Scriptural Application to Contracts Reform<br />

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Legal Missions International<br />

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Issue Title Quarterly<br />

Vol. I 2015<br />

I<br />

II<br />

God’s Will and The 21 st Century<br />

Democratic Process<br />

The Community<br />

Engagement Strategy<br />

Q-1 2015<br />

Q-2 2015<br />

III Foreign Policy Q-3 2015<br />

IV<br />

Public Interest Law<br />

in The New Millennium<br />

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Vol. II 2016<br />

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VI Zimbabwe Q-2 2016<br />

VII Jamaica Q-3 2016<br />

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Vol. IV 2018<br />

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Vol. V 2019<br />

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XIV South Korea Q-3 2019<br />

XV Puerto Rico Q-4 2019<br />

Issue Title Quarterly<br />

Vol. VI 2020<br />

XVI Trinidad & Tobago Q-1 2020<br />

XVII Egypt Q-2 2020<br />

XVIII Sierra Leone Q-3 2020<br />

XIX South Africa Q-4 2020<br />

XX Israel Bonus<br />

Vol. VII 2021<br />

XXI Haiti Q-1 2021<br />

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XXIV China Q-4 2021<br />

XXV Japan Bonus<br />

Vol VIII 2022<br />

XXVI Chile Q-1 2022<br />

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The e-Advocate Juvenile Justice Report<br />

______<br />

Vol. I – Juvenile Delinquency in The US<br />

Vol. II. – The Prison Industrial Complex<br />

Vol. III – Restorative/ Transformative Justice<br />

Vol. IV – The Sixth Amendment Right to The Effective Assistance of Counsel<br />

Vol. V – The Theological Foundations of Juvenile Justice<br />

Vol. VI – Collaborating to Eradicate Juvenile Delinquency<br />

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The e-Advocate Newsletter<br />

Genesis of The Problem<br />

Family Structure<br />

Societal Influences<br />

Evidence-Based Programming<br />

Strengthening Assets v. Eliminating Deficits<br />

2012 - Juvenile Delinquency in The US<br />

Introduction/Ideology/Key Values<br />

Philosophy/Application & Practice<br />

Expungement & Pardons<br />

Pardons & Clemency<br />

Examples/Best Practices<br />

2013 - Restorative Justice in The US<br />

2014 - The Prison Industrial Complex<br />

25% of the World's Inmates Are In the US<br />

The Economics of Prison Enterprise<br />

The Federal Bureau of Prisons<br />

The After-Effects of Incarceration/Individual/Societal<br />

The Fourth Amendment Project<br />

The Sixth Amendment Project<br />

The Eighth Amendment Project<br />

The Adolescent Law Group<br />

2015 - US Constitutional Issues In The New Millennium<br />

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2018 - The Theological Law Firm Academy<br />

The Theological Foundations of US Law & Government<br />

The Economic Consequences of Legal Decision-Making<br />

The Juvenile Justice Legislative Reform Initiative<br />

The EB-5 International Investors Initiative<br />

2017 - Organizational Development<br />

The Board of Directors<br />

The Inner Circle<br />

Staff & Management<br />

Succession Planning<br />

Bonus #1 The Budget<br />

Bonus #2 Data-Driven Resource Allocation<br />

2018 - Sustainability<br />

The Data-Driven Resource Allocation Process<br />

The Quality Assurance Initiative<br />

The Advocacy Foundation Endowments Initiative<br />

The Community Engagement Strategy<br />

2019 - Collaboration<br />

Critical Thinking for Transformative Justice<br />

International Labor Relations<br />

Immigration<br />

God's Will & The 21st Century Democratic Process<br />

The Community Engagement Strategy<br />

The 21st Century Charter Schools Initiative<br />

2020 - Community Engagement<br />

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Extras<br />

The Nonprofit Advisors Group Newsletters<br />

The 501(c)(3) Acquisition Process<br />

The Board of Directors<br />

The Gladiator Mentality<br />

Strategic Planning<br />

Fundraising<br />

501(c)(3) Reinstatements<br />

The Collaborative US/ International Newsletters<br />

How You Think Is Everything<br />

The Reciprocal Nature of Business Relationships<br />

Accelerate Your Professional Development<br />

The Competitive Nature of Grant Writing<br />

Assessing The Risks<br />

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About The Author<br />

John C (Jack) Johnson III<br />

Founder & CEO<br />

Jack was educated at Temple University, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Rutgers<br />

Law School, in Camden, New Jersey. In 1999, he moved to Atlanta, Georgia to pursue<br />

greater opportunities to provide Advocacy and Preventive Programmatic services for atrisk/<br />

at-promise young persons, their families, and Justice Professionals embedded in the<br />

Juvenile Justice process in order to help facilitate its transcendence into the 21 st Century.<br />

There, along with a small group of community and faith-based professionals, “The Advocacy Foundation, Inc." was conceived<br />

and developed over roughly a thirteen year period, originally chartered as a Juvenile Delinquency Prevention and Educational<br />

Support Services organization consisting of Mentoring, Tutoring, Counseling, Character Development, Community Change<br />

Management, Practitioner Re-Education & Training, and a host of related components.<br />

The Foundation’s Overarching Mission is “To help Individuals, Organizations, & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential”, by<br />

implementing a wide array of evidence-based proactive multi-disciplinary "Restorative & Transformative Justice" programs &<br />

projects currently throughout the northeast, southeast, and western international-waters regions, providing prevention and support<br />

services to at-risk/ at-promise youth, to young adults, to their families, and to Social Service, Justice and Mental<br />

Health professionals” everywhere. The Foundation has since relocated its headquarters to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and been<br />

expanded to include a three-tier mission.<br />

In addition to his work with the Foundation, Jack also served as an Adjunct Professor of Law & Business at National-Louis<br />

University of Atlanta (where he taught Political Science, Business & Legal Ethics, Labor & Employment Relations, and Critical<br />

Thinking courses to undergraduate and graduate level students). Jack has also served as Board President for a host of wellestablished<br />

and up & coming nonprofit organizations throughout the region, including “Visions Unlimited Community<br />

Development Systems, Inc.”, a multi-million dollar, award-winning, Violence Prevention and Gang Intervention Social Service<br />

organization in Atlanta, as well as Vice-Chair of the Georgia/ Metropolitan Atlanta Violence Prevention Partnership, a state-wide<br />

300 organizational member, violence prevention group led by the Morehouse School of Medicine, Emory University and The<br />

Original, Atlanta-Based, Martin Luther King Center.<br />

Attorney Johnson’s prior accomplishments include a wide-array of Professional Legal practice areas, including Private Firm,<br />

Corporate and Government postings, just about all of which yielded significant professional awards & accolades, the history and<br />

chronology of which are available for review online. Throughout his career, Jack has served a wide variety of for-profit<br />

corporations, law firms, and nonprofit organizations as Board Chairman, Secretary, Associate, and General Counsel since 1990.<br />

www.TheAdvocacy.Foundation<br />

Clayton County Youth Services Partnership, Inc. – Chair; Georgia Violence Prevention Partnership, Inc – Vice Chair; Fayette<br />

County NAACP - Legal Redress Committee Chairman; Clayton County Fatherhood Initiative Partnership – Principal<br />

Investigator; Morehouse School of Medicine School of Community Health Feasibility Study - Steering Committee; Atlanta<br />

Violence Prevention Capacity Building Project – Project Partner; Clayton County Minister’s Conference, President 2006-2007;<br />

Liberty In Life Ministries, Inc. – Board Secretary; Young Adults Talk, Inc. – Board of Directors; ROYAL, Inc - Board of<br />

Directors; Temple University Alumni Association; Rutgers Law School Alumni Association; Sertoma International; Our<br />

Common Welfare Board of Directors – President)2003-2005; River’s Edge Elementary School PTA (Co-President); Summerhill<br />

Community Ministries; Outstanding Young Men of America; Employee of the Year; Academic All-American - Basketball;<br />

Church Trustee.<br />

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www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org<br />

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