April /May 2019
Navigating
the Organic Certification Process
with USDA's National Organic Program.
Organic Soil Disinfestation Methods
Soil Solarization and Biosolarization
Testing the Accuracy of
Soil Tests for Organic Growers
Degree-day Models for Vegetable Growers:
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Organic Farmer April/May 2019
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INCORPORAT ED
INSECT PHEROMONE & KAIROMONE SYSTEMS
Your Edge – And Ours – Is Knowledge.
PM
Organic
FARMER
4
12
18
24
30
IN THIS ISSUE
Navigating the Organic
Certification Process with
USDA's National Organic
Program
Organic Soil Disinfestation
Methods-Soil Solarization
and Biosolarization
Testing the Accuracy of
Soil Tests for Organic
Growers
Degree-Day Models
for Vegetable Growers:
Croptime
Benefits of Organic Food
Production
4
18
PUBLISHER: Jason Scott
Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com
EDITOR: Kathy Coatney
ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons
Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com
PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com
Phone: 559.352.4456
Fax: 559.472.3113
Web: www.organicfarmingmag.com
CONTRIBUTING WRITERS
& INDUSTRY SUPPORT
Nick Andrews
Oregon State
University Extension
Ann Baier
Sustainable
Agriculture Specialist,
National Center
for Appropriate
Technology
Len Coop
Oregon State
University Dept.
Horticulture and
Integrated Plant
Protection Center
Steve Elliot
Western SARE and
Western Integrated
Pest Management
Center
Timothy Jacobs
Graduate Student
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Kevin Day
County Director and
UCCE Pomology Farm
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Diagnostics
Neal Kinsey
President of Kinsey
Agricultural Services
Heidi Noordijk
Oregon State
University Extension
Heather Stoven
Oregon State
University Extension
Ashraf Tubeileh
Assistant Professor,
Horticulture and Crop
Science Deparment,
California Polytechnic
State University, San
Luis Obispo, CA, USA
Emily J. Symmes
UCCE IPM Advisor,
Sacramento Valley
Kris Tollerup
UCCE Integrated Pest
Management Advisor,
Parlier, CA
24
The articles, research, industry updates,
company profiles, and advertisements in this
publication are the professional opinions of
writers and advertisers. Organic Farmer does
not assume any responsibility for the opinions
given in the publication.
April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
3
By ANN BAIER | Sustainable Agriculture Specialist, National Center for Appropriate Technology
Farmers and ranchers make decisions
every day about production and processing,
marketing approaches and
certification programs in the context of
real-life people, places and circumstances.
Your farm or ranch
business depends
on agricultural
markets,
consumer
preference
trends,
trade
policies,
regional
infrastructure,
and
quality of
life for your family
and community.
Organic certification to the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA)
organic regulations is a practical option
that provides a firm foundation on
which to build healthier production
systems and thriving commerce.
Agricultural systems are diverse with
respect to crop and livestock production
systems, handling or processing options,
marketing strategies, import-export
policies and other applicable regulations.
Organic cropping systems include diverse
combinations of annual vegetables,
small fruits and berries, perennial fruit
and nut crops, mushrooms and sprouts,
herbs and flowers, fiber crops, grains and
legumes, feed and forage, pasture and
range. Livestock operations produce a
range of food and fiber, eggs and meat,
milk and honey from many different
species and breeds of insects, poultry,
swine, and ruminants. Whether your
organic crop and livestock enterprises
are stand-alone production enterprises,
or diversified and integrated businesses
with processing, storage or distribution,
the elements of your agricultural
business are all addressed by the USDA
organic regulations.
This article is intended to help you
find and read the organic regulations,
consider factors your decisions about
becoming certified organic, and become
familiar with te the certification process.
These considerations and the references
and resources provided will help you
determine whether organic certification
is a good choice for your operation, and
if this is the appropriate time to begin.
What are the Requirements?
“205.2 Organic production. A
production system that is managed in
accordance with the Act and regulations
in this part to respond to site-specific
conditions by integrating cultural,
biological, and mechanical practices
that foster cycling of resources, promote
ecological balance, and conserve
biodiversity.”
USDA organic regulations describe the
practices and recordkeeping necessary
to represent a farm, ranch or handling/
processing facility and its products as
certified organic. These regulations,
found in the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR), Chapter 7, Part 205,
detail the production standards for crop
and/or livestock production, as well as
handling (processing) of agricultural
products. They also specify procedures
for establishment, accreditation, and
operation of certification agencies.
To make it easier to find and read the
sections of the regulations that apply
directly to producers and handlers (and
navigate around the administrative,
certifier accreditation and procedural
requirements) the National Center for
Appropriate Technology’s (NCAT’s)
ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture
program has compiled a set of
excerpts of the key regulations relevant
specifically to crop production,
livestock production and handling
(processing) activities. Requirements
that are common to all types of certified
organic operations include development
of a written organic production and
handling system plan (Organic System
Plan, or OSP), and recordkeeping
requirements. Each of these
publications contains verbatim excerpts
of the regulations for certification of
crops, livestock, or handling. Although
summary paraphrases (including this
article) may offer a useful introduction
and overview, and guidance documents
provide interpretation and explanation
of the regulations, there is no substitute
for referring directly to the regulatory
text. See References for links.
Feasibility of Compliance with
USDA Regulations
Does your farm or ranch have the
capacity to comply with the applicable
USDA organic regulations? Can you
Continued on Page 6
4
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
5
Continued from Page 4
show land use history of three years
without prohibited materials? Do you
practice crop rotation to conserve soil,
build organic matter, manage pests and
nutrients, break pest cycles and enhance
biological diversity? Are you committed
to searching for and using commercially
available organic seed and planting
stock? Does your pest management
rely on preventive practices, biological,
mechanical and physical controls, using
allowed materials, with appropriate
restrictions, and only when all other
efforts are insufficient to prevent or
control pests?
Do you raise livestock as organic
according to regulations? Do they
receive 100 percent organic feed
and allowed supplements? Does
your animal health care focus on
practices preventative, using only
allowed vaccinations, biologics
and medicines? Do livestock living
conditions include adequate pasture for
ruminants? See: Pasture for Organic
Ruminant Livestock: Understanding
and Implementing the National
Organic Program (NOP) Pasture
Rule, https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pubsummaries/?pub=360.
Do living
conditions include outdoor access for
all animals (any confinement duly
justified), with fresh air, clean water,
direct sunlight, shade, shelter, bedding,
opportunities to exercise, move freely,
minimize stress and allow for natural
behaviors, as appropriate to the species?
Does your recordkeeping system
include a clear audit trail to track
production from seed and source
through production practices, harvest,
storage, transport, processing and
sale? Can you assure prevention of
commingling of organic production
with any non-organic products? Do
you take appropriate measures, during
production and after harvest, to prevent
contamination by prohibited materials,
heavy metals, nutrients and pathogens?
Can you describe ways you maintain or
improve the natural resources of your
operation?
Are there any significant barriers to
organic compliance for your operation?
Do your production systems face any
significant challenges, such as pests or
FREE online tutorials
on soil health, produce safety, and more
How can ATTRA help you?
Trusted technical assistance for your ag challenges
diseases, that could
not be addressed
with compliant
preventive
practices and
materials allowed
for use in organic
production? For
example, USDA
organic regulations
prohibit use of antibiotics
on organic livestock, yet
require a livestock producer
to treat sick animals humanely,
even if it means using a prohibited
medication. Under these circumstances,
the individual treated animal would
lose its organic status, but as long as
there is an adequate system in place
to identify and segregate that animal
from the organic herd, the rest of the
operation can remain certified organic.
Your organic system plan lists all the
materials planned for use, including any
prohibited materials that may be needed
in order to restore an animal to health,
along with a description of procedures
to be followed if an animal were to be
treated.
What about the Paperwork?
While organic certification requires
recordkeeping and audit trail
documentation, recordkeeping is
simply a good business practice. A
majority of records required for organic
certification benefit any agricultural
business, regardless of certification
status. A good recordkeeping system
can facilitate completion of tax returns,
enterprise cash flow budgeting, loan
applications, as well as compliance with
other federal regulatory requirements
related to environmental health and
food safety. For example, the Food
and Drug Administration Food Safety
Modernization Act (FSMA) requires
traceability for fresh produce. USDA’s
Food Safety and Inspection Service
requires inspection, grading and
labeling of livestock products. You
can increase efficiency in your overall
business management by developing
your recordkeeping systems that serve
multiple purposes.
Producers and processors alike recount
how the records they kept for organic
certification enabled them to track
practices, ingredients or products; to
identify patterns, follow correlations,
and the clarify causes. Records can help
6
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
you more readily remedy
problems, or replicate
and expanded upon
successes. A discussion
of the multiple benefits
of recordkeeping is
found in several articles
in the NCAT/ATTRA
newsletter issue focused
on that topic: http://
attra.ncat.org/newsletter/
attranews_1105.html.
Practical Help with
Recordkeeping
and records track
on-farm activities.
Many commercial
recordkeeping programs
are available as well.
Several types of
recordkeeping strategies
were reviewed in an
Organic Recordkeeping
Webinar Series for Crop
Producers presented by
the California Certified
Organic Farmers
(CCOF) Foundation,
by Ann Baier on
August 20, 2018 and
Thea Rittenhouse on
September 2018 https://
www.ccof.org/blog/
organic-recordkeepingwebinar-series-growers.
Organic regulations require that
certified operations develop and
maintain a recordkeeping system
that is adapted to the business, fully
discloses all activities and transactions,
and demonstrates compliance with
the regulations in sufficient detail Will it Pencil Out?
as to be readily understood and Accessibility and Affordability
audited. They must be available of Organic Production
for inspection, and kept for 5 years
after their creation. Records may How do the economics of organic
be in written, visual, or electronic production work for my crops and/
form. There is no specific format for or livestock? The Organic Market
recordkeeping that is required. A Overview by USDA’s Economic
number of sources, including organic Research Service, and the Organic
certifiers, NCAT/ATTRA, and the Trade Association show sales
NOP make organic recordkeeping of organic food, fiber and other
forms or templates available to use products growing steadily every year
or adapt. Documentation Forms for since 2005, with price premiums
Organic Crop and Livestock Producers. remaining high, and organic
The introduction describes three consumers increasingly mainstream.
main components of documenting The outlook on demand and price
compliance with regulations: the OSP for organic products appears to be
describes the plan, documents show
transactions between businesses, Continued on Page 8
Checklist to Prepare for Organic Inspection
Review your Organic System Plan (OSP); update
as needed so that it is accurate and current, with
respect to all your practices and procedures:
production areas, products and activities, whether
crops, livestock and/or handling; a list of
materials used or planned for use, commingling
and contamination prevention; monitoring and
recordkeeping systems descriptions; labeling.
Gather your recordkeeping, available in a
form that can be readily audited and
understood. It may be helpful to consider
three main categories: Inputs that enter the
farm; management activities that happen on
the farm; Production outputs. Examples
below are for crop producers.
What comes onto the Farm; Input
Materials
Seed and planting stock, seedlings &
transplants, greenhouse supplies
Soil amendments: organic fertilizers,
lime, gypsum, compost and manure
Pest management materials
Materials used for cleaning tools,
sanitation or Post-harvest handling
What Happens on the Farm—Farm
Management Practices.
Cultural practices: soil preparation,
irrigation
Seeding and planting records
Crop rotation (sequence and location)
Pest monitoring and management
Natural resource maintenance or
improvement
Prevention of commingling &
contamination
What goes out of the Farm—Production
Harvest records
Sales transactions
Rosemary at Flores Organic Farms. Photo Courtesy of Ann Baier.
7
Continued from Page 7
robust, such that the
higher organic input
and management costs
may be offset by price
premiums for certified
organic products.
See: Understanding
Organic Pricing and
Costs of Production
https://attra.ncat.org/
attra-pub/download.
php?id=419
The transition period can be a hurdle
if your operation has previously relied
on materials prohibited in organic
production. USDA regulations specify
a transition of three years between the
last use of prohibited materials and the
sale of a certified organic crop. During
transition, the learning curve can be
steep; organic management and input
costs higher while sales prices remain
lower (transitional crops rarely garner
a premium over conventional prices).
While market benefits kick in after
three years, realization of the biological
benefits of organic management is
a more gradual, ongoing process of
continual improvement. USDA’s Natural
Resource Conservation Service (NRCS)
has developed practice standards
to support transition to organic. In
addition, to ease the financial burden,
many states have cost share programs
that reimburse a portion of organic
certification fees.
As a reflection of a growing organic
market, suppliers of inputs allowed
for use in organic production have
expanded their offerings over the last
couple of decades, resulting in a long
list of materials that have been reviewed
for compliance to USDA regulations (by
the Organic Materials Review Institute,
Washington State Department of
Agriculture, Environmental Protection
Agency, California Department of
Food and Agriculture (CDFA) and
many USDA-accredited certifiers).
Input choices may be more available in
some regions, and with certain types
of crop or livestock inputs. Areas with
higher concentrations of organic farms
have increasingly well-developed and
knowledgeable input-supply businesses.
Nonetheless, certified producers and
processors always need to take primary
responsibility to ensure the compliance
of their inputs by listing them
in their Organic System
Plan, and approved
by their certifier for
their intended use.
This process is
described further in
ATTRA Sustainable
Agriculture program’s
publication, Organic
Materials Compliance.
To discern viability of
organic certification for
your operation, you will need
to research both supply and affordability
of inputs. Sharpen your pencil or pull
up a spread sheet, and consult some
enterprise budgets or cost studies and
current price reports. Run several costbenefit
analyses for your farm based on
different marketing scenarios, product
pricing, and additional estimated
expenses related to record maintenance
and fees for each certification program.
Consider seed and planting stock,
fertility and pest management materials,
and livestock feed. Because feed is a
both a daily need (organic livestock
must consume all organic feed) and
major expense for livestock producers,
it is critical to assess whether there is
a reliable and cost-effective supply of
organic feed that provides sufficient
feed quantities for your animal’s entire
life cycle, either through your own
production or supplemental feed
available for purchased locally? Does
your current customer base provide a
reliable price premium for your organic
products that is sufficient to offset the
increased costs of organic production?
How can you achieve an appropriate
balance of pricing with volume of sales
to allow for economic viability of your
business?
How does the Certification
Process Work?
To help producers become familiar with
the process of organic certification, the
National Organic Program’s “Sound and
Sensible” initiative provides resources
to match different milestones along the
certification journey.
Reading the regulations; Each of
series of Tip Sheets on Organic
Standards explains the regulations
with contextual questions related
to different crop and livestock
production systems;
Deciding to embark upon this
process, and for what scope(s)—crop
production, wild crops, livestock
production and/or handling;
Choosing a USDA-accredited certifier;
Developing an Organic System Plan
and submitting it to your chosen
certifier along with your application
and fees;
Preparing for an organic inspection,
maintaining recordkeeping and
renewing annually.
To help you become familiar with the
inspection process and prepare for
your own inspection, the International
Organic Inspectors Association videos
entitled “What to Expect when You’re
Inspected” show mock inspections
of two real-life certified organic
producers—a vegetable farmer, and
a livestock producer. These are found
at https://www.ams.usda.gov/reports/
what-expect-when-you%E2%80%99reinspected.
What about Market
Access Opportunities and
Complimentary Certifications?
Are there other certification programs
for product differentiation that are
either required in addition to organic
certification, or that you might pursue
as an alternative to the organic label?
The answer to this question has many
possible answers, as it depends on
many factors related to marketing.
Will organic certification facilitate
access to markets that would benefit
your business? What are the relative
advantages of different certification
programs and marketing approaches?
Are they complimentary? Will you
sell live animals, meat or valueadded
products? Will your markets
include particular wholesalers,
international markets, or retail stores
that require other certifications, such as
governmental food safety or industry
(e.g. leafy greens) standards for food
safety of crops? Do your buyers require
specific animal welfare certification
programs for livestock? Factor in
whether a certification agency can
help streamline the recordkeeping and
inspection processes for certification to
more than one set of standards?
Continued on Page 10
8
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
9
Continued from Page 8
Choose a USDA-Accredited
Certifier and Seek Organic
Certification
You can find information about
accredited certifiers on USDA’s NOP
website, at https://www.ams.usda.
gov/services/organic-certification/
certifying-agents
Even though there are currently 80
certifiers on this list, you can usually
winnow the options down to a
few practical choices that are good
options for your location, and scope
of operations (crops, livestock, and/
or handling). To help you choose the
certifier that best meets your needs,
ask your potential buyers, and other
organic farmers in your area about
which certifier they prefer.
Once you have identified a USDAaccredited
certification agency (ACA),
submit your application with an
Organic System Plan. Your ACA will
review the application, assess the
potential for the operation to comply,
and send an inspector to conduct
an on-site inspection. The inspector
verifies that land-use history,
production-management practices,
materials, contamination-prevention
measures, and recordkeeping are all
in compliance with USDA’s National
Organic Program Regulations. The
ACA reviews the inspection report
and makes a certification decision.
Although all USDA-accredited
organic certifiers inspect to the same
regulations, they may create their own
certification forms (application and
OSP) and procedures, and require
their certified clients to present the
information required by the USDA
organic regulations in that format,
on their own forms. Some people ask
about the use of different Organic
System Plan (OSP) templates. Please
be aware that most certifiers prefer, if
not require, clients use their own OSP
templates. Therefore, please be sure
your organic certifier approves the
use of any particular OSP form before
you complete it, as it would be a waste
of your time to complete any OSP
template unless your certifier accepts
and approves its use.
Who Can Help Farmers
and Ranchers Navigate the
Certification Process?
While there is a lot to learn, there are
many, many resources available to
help you on your way. Producers who
complete the organic certification
process have found it worth their while.
If you need more information on a
particular aspect of this topic that
applies to your operation, please consult
the resources listed.
You can also contact NCAT’s ATTRA
Sustainable Agriculture Program by
calling 1-800-346-9140 (Bilingual
English-Spanish hotline (800) 411-
3222) or emailing your question
to askanag@ncat.org. ATTRA is a
program developed and managed by
the National Center for Appropriate
Technology (NCAT). The majority
of funding for ATTRA is through a
cooperative agreement with the United
States Department of Agriculture’s Rural
Business-Cooperative Service. We are
also partially funded through sales and
subscriptions of a portion of ATTRA
materials and through contributions
from friends and supporters. We are
committed to providing high value
information and technical assistance
to farmers, ranchers, extension agents,
educators, and others involved in
sustainable agriculture in the United
States.
ATTRA services are available to farmers,
ranchers, market gardeners, extension
agents, researchers, educators, farm
organizations, and others involved
in agriculture, especially those who
are economically disadvantaged or
belong to traditionally underserved
communities. NCAT strives to make
our information available to everyone
who needs it. If you are a limited-access
or low-income farmer and find that one
of our publications is just not in your
budget, please call 800-346-9140.
The National Center for Appropriate
Technology (NCAT) is a private
nonprofit organization, founded in 1976,
which manages a series of projects that
promote self-reliance and sustainable
lifestyles through wise use of appropriate
technology. Its programs deal with
sustainable and renewable energy,
energy conservation, resource-efficient
housing, sustainable community
development, and sustainable
agriculture. The National Center for
Appropriate Technology (NCAT)
launched ATTRA in 1987. NCAT is
headquartered in Butte, Montana, and
has five regional offices.
How Can I Find an Organic
Farming Community or
Network?
Organic farmers and processors often
gain new ideas and sound advice from
others doing similar work. Recognizing
this, many organic certifiers and farm
organizations across the country
offer events or forums for learning
and networking, whether through
informal discussions at breakfast
meetings, workshops or field days to
visit the operations of experienced
organic producers or handlers, as
well as webinars or conferences. Also
helpful are opportunities for organic
producers to network with others
in the supply chain, from handlers
and processors to retailers. If you're
interested in organic production or
processing, look for a group that offers
educational events or networking
opportunities near you. Several
nonprofit organizations, university
programs, and regional and national
centers contribute to mutual learning,
and can be found on NCAT’s website
under “other resources”: http://attra.
ncat.org/other/, as well as the database
of Sustainable Agriculture Organizations
and Publications https://attra.ncat.
org/attra-pub/sustainable_ag/. Several
organizations are listed on the National
Sustainable Agriculture Coalition
Website: http://sustainableagriculture.
net/about-us/members/. USDA’s
Sustainable Agriculture Research
and Education (SARE) program
has four regional office for outreach
https://www.sare.org/content/search?
SubTreeArray=2%2C2003%2C4528&S
earchText=organic, as well as many
Organic Guides, such as Transitioning
to Organic, Certification, Marketing,
Conservation, Tillage, Seeds, and
Animal Systems. If you are considering
organizing a network yourself, there is a
guide for that as well: Finding Support
through Farmer to Farmer Networking,
by Oregon State Extention, https://
extension.oregonstate.edu/findingsupport-through-farmer-farmernetworking.
Being involved in a network
that can provide practical information,
advice and support can be invaluable as
you navigate a new journey.
Comments about this article? We want
to hear from you. Feel free to email us at
article@jcsmarketinginc.com
10
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
Publications by NCAT’s ATTRA
Sustainable Agriculture Program
A concise description of the organic certification
process, and how to prepare for
an organic inspection, can be found in
the following ATTRA publications:
Organic Certification Process
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/viewhtml.php?id=163
Preparing for an Organic Inspection:
Steps and Checklists
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=165
Organic Materials Compliance
www.attra.org/attra-pub/download.php?id=157
Pasture for Organic Ruminant Livestock:
Understanding and Implementing the National
Organic Program (NOP) Pasture Rule https://
attra.ncat.org/attra-pub-summaries/?pub=360
Documentation Forms for Crop
and Livestock Producers
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub-summaries/?pub=358
This same document can be found in Section I
of the NOP Program Handbook in three parts.
A discussion of the multiple benefits of
good records is found in several articles
in the NCAT/ATTRA newsletter issue
focused on recordkeeping: http://attra.
ncat.org/newsletter/attranews_1105.html.
Understanding Organic Pricing
and Costs of Production
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/download.php?id=419
Organic Standards for All Organic Operations
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/download.php?id=158
Organic Standards for Crop Production:
Excerpts of USDA's National Organic Program
Regulations https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=100
Organic Standards for Livestock Production:
Excerpts of USDA's National Organic
Program Regulations https://attra.ncat.org/
attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=159
Organic Standards for Handling: Excerpts of
USDA's National Organic Program Regulations
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=160
For a detailed overview of organic certification,
as appropriate to your operation:
The Guide for Organic Crop Production
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=67
or
http://www.ams.usda.gov/publications/content/guide-organic-crop-production
Guide for Organic Livestock Producers
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=154
or
http://www.ams.usda.gov/publications/content/guide-organic-livestock-producers
Guide for Organic Processors
https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=407
or
http://www.ams.usda.gov/publications/
content/guide-organic-processors
USDA’s NOP website:
https://www.ams.usda.gov/about-ams/programs-offices/national-organic-program
includes links to:
• Organic Regulations
• Organic Certification
• Introduction to Organic Practices
• Benefits of Organic Certification
• National Organic Program Handbook; Guidance &
Instructions for Accredited Certifying Agents & Certified Operations
• Sound and Sensible (Useful Resources: Videos, Checklists and Tip Sheets):
o “What to Expect at an Organic Vegetable Farm Inspection”
o “What to Expect at an Organic Livestock Farm Inspection”
o Debunking the myths: Finding success in the organic market place
o Checklist: “Ten Steps to Transition”
o Tip Sheets: Organic Standards (in English and Spanish)
April/May 2019 www.organicfarmermag.com 11
Organic Soil Disinfestation Methods
Soil Solarization and Biosolarization
By TIMOTHY JACOBS | Graduate Student
And ASHRAF TUBEILEH | Assistant Professor, Horticulture and Crop Science
Deparment, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA
Soils are reservoirs for weeds, pathogens, and nematodes,
which if left uncontrolled can devastate crop
yields. If pathogen, nematode, or weed levels rise to
economically damaging levels it becomes necessary for growers
to use soil disinfestation techniques to kill soilborne organisms.
Historically, conventional growers use soilborne fumigants to
disinfest soil particularly in high-value crops such as strawberries.
However, methyl bromide, the most widely used fumigant,
has been phased out and banned in most of the world due to
its emission of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons. This has
spurred heavy research into non-toxic alternative soil disinfestation
techniques many of which can be used in organic
systems. The following article will highlight a few organic soil
disinfestation techniques which can be used to control weeds,
soilborne pathogens, and other soilborne pests.
Figure 1: Example of solarization in a field environment. Also,
picture of sudangrass cover crop a potential biofumigant. Photo
courtesy of Timothy Jacobs.
Soil Solarization
Soil solarization is an organic method,
which has displayed effective weed,
pathogen, and nematode control.
It involves placing a clear, thin (1-3
mil), low-density polyethylene tarp
over irrigated soil and generates lethal
temperatures for pathogens, pests,
and weeds. In general, temperatures
generated during soil solarization range
from 104-158°F. The tarp is left on the
soil for four to eight weeks, depending
on the soil temperatures generated.
Solarization depends on solar radiation
to heat soil and is most effective during
peak periods of solar radiation in June
and July. Effective temperatures can
still be achieved in May, August, and
September depending on location.
Soil solarization relies on clear, sunny
weather, so areas with frequent
summer fog or thunderstorms are not
appropriate for soil solarization. It is
most effective in areas with hot, clear
summers such as California’s central
valley and desert regions.
Solarization can control most annual
weeds which occur in California
cropping systems. Shorter times are
required to kill cool season annual
Figure 2: Average seed germination percentages ± SE (n=6) for seeds (as a percentage
of control) after being exposed to 55°C for two hours. Pairwise comparisons were done
using Tukey’s HSD test (a
STEPS FOR
SOLARIZING SOIL
are as follow
1
2
3
4
Prepare soil for solarization.
For solarization to be effective,
tarps need to be as tight to the
soil surface as possible. All large
clods and rocks should be removed
from soil and soil should
be level. Solarization can be used
on raised beds or flat on soil. If
using raised beds, beds should
be shaped before solarization to
minimize soil disturbance after
solarization. Disturbing soil after
solarization can bring up untreated
seeds and pathogens from
lower in the soil to the surface.
Irrigate soil to field capacity to improve
heat transfer through soil.
Tarp can be applied by hand or
machine. If applying by hand dig
trenches around edge of application
area and bury tarps in
trenches. Cover with 2-3 inches
of soil. When applying tarp make
sure it is tight against soil surface
and held down all edges by soil.
Wait four to eight weeks then
take off tarp. Leaving tarp on soil
is not recommended as during
winter months tarp will act like
a greenhouse promoting weed
germination. Unfortunately, most
tarps are not recyclable so they
must be thrown in trash after
use. More durable tarps can be
reused if removed carefully.
For more information on soil solarization UC
ANR has some great resources at http://ipm.
ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74145.html
species (i.e., annual sowthistle) than
warm season annual species (i.e.,
redroot pigweed). Warm season species
common purslane can be challenging
to kill with solarization as it will
germinate in temperatures as high as
113°F. Other annual species which
require higher temperatures to kill
are those with hard seeds or thick
seed coats (Figure 2, see page 12, T.
Jacobs, unpublished data). Common
hard-seeded weeds are legume species,
bur clover and black medic, Malvacae
species, little mallow and velvetleaf, and
Erodium spp. (filaree). Perennial weeds
such as field bindweed and nutsedge
are difficult control with solarization
as well. For example, nutsedge tuber
mortality will not occur until exposed
to temperatures of 122°F or hotter
(Webster 2006). For control of perennial
and hard seeded weeds daily maximum
temperatures of 122°F or higher need
to be reached for at least a four-week
period (T. Jacobs, unpublished data).
Soil solarization can reduce the
disease incidence of many pathogens
to an economically manageable level.
Solarization will only provide control in
the first 8-12 inches
of soil. Therefore,
the control of some
pathogens, which
reside deeper in
soils, such as big vein
disease in lettuce is
limited (Iwamoto
and Aino 2008).
Additionally, mobile
soilborne organisms
can recolonize root
zones of plants after
solarization. This
makes control of
soilborne insects
such as garden
symphylans via
solarization difficult.
Before using soil
solarization, growers
should identify the
pathogens and other
pests in their soil
and consult experts
on whether soil
solarization is an
effective technique
for controlling the
soilborne organisms.
Solarization has
increased yields in
Bring the
heat on
hard-to-kill
weeds and
insects with
Distributed by
a variety of crops. Potential reasons
for increased yields due to solarization
are reductions in pathogen and
weed populations, larger availability
of heat solubilized nutrients such
as ammonia, and changes in plant
physiology (Candido et al. 2011). Costs
of solarization vary, depending on
plastic prices, but in general the plastic
costs are between $150-300 per acre
(Stapleton et al. 2008). Application costs
will depend on method of application
(machine or hand-applied). However,
due to yield increases and reduced
weeding time, solarization often pays
for itself and then some, particularly in
weedy or heavily diseased fields.
A wide variety of plastics are available
for use in soil solarization. The best
plastics are clear/transparent, 1-3
mils thick, and UV-inhibited to
prevent breakdown in sunlight. Most
agricultural plastic retailers have
solarization plastic available. For smaller
scale projects, thin (
Continued from Page 13
(found at most hardware stores) can
be used. Greenhouse plastics are often
more durable and reusable, but much
more expensive ($2,000-3,000 per acre)
so not practical for large scale use.
Additionally, painter’s plastic will break
down in sunlight and will only last four
to six weeks before removal becomes
difficult. Thinner plastics will result in
higher temperatures but are more prone
to tearing. Therefore, thicker plastic
should be used in windy areas.
Steps for solarizing soil are as follow:
(Elmore et al. 1997)
1) Prepare soil for solarization. For
solarization to be effective, tarps need
to be as tight to the soil surface as
possible. All large clods and rocks
should be removed from soil and soil
should be level. Solarization can be
used on raised beds or flat on soil.
If using raised beds, beds should be
shaped before solarization to minimize
soil disturbance after solarization.
Disturbing soil after solarization can
bring up untreated seeds and pathogens
from lower in the soil to the surface.
2) Irrigate soil to field capacity to
improve heat transfer through soil.
3) Tarp can be applied by hand or
machine. If applying by hand dig
trenches around edge of application
area and bury tarps in trenches. Cover
with 2-3 inches of soil. When applying
tarp make sure it is tight against soil
surface and held down all edges by soil.
4) Wait four to eight weeks then
take off tarp. Leaving tarp on soil is
not recommended as during winter
months tarp will act like a greenhouse
promoting weed germination.
Unfortunately, most tarps are not
recyclable so they must be thrown in
trash after use. More durable tarps can
be reused if removed carefully.
For more information on soil
solarization UC ANR has some great
resources at http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/
PESTNOTES/pn74145.html
Biofumigation
Biofumigation is another soil
disinfestation technique available for
use by organic growers. Biofumigation
uses decomposing plant and animal
residues which release biocidal gasses
to reduce populations of soilborne
organisms (Youssef 2015). Plants from
the Brassicaceae family, in particular
mustards (Brassica spp. and Sinapis
spp.), are the most popular biofumigant
due to their release of secondary plant
compounds called glucosinolates
(Earlywine et al., 2012). Gluscosinolates
breakdown into isothiocyanate gases
which have phytotoxic properties able
to reduce the viability of soilborne
organisms. Green manures of mustard
cover crops can be incorporated
in order to release these biocidal
chemicals. Alternatively, mustard
seed meal products can be purchased
and incorporated into the soil for
biofumigation. Mustard seed meals are
produced from the remnants of brassica
seeds crushed for their oil, biofuels, or
condiments (Meyer et al. 2015).
Residues from other plant materials
outside of the Brassicaceae family
have been tested for effectiveness as
biofumigants. Sorghum spp. and other
members of the Poacae family have
demonstrated potential for use as
biofumigants (Stapleton et al. 2010).
Sorghum spp. contain
dhurrin which breaks
down into hydrogen
cyanide gas during
its decomposition.
The incorporation of
Sorghum spp. green
manure has shown
the ability to suppress
populations of rootknot
nematode and
verticillium wilt
(MacGuidwin et al.
2012)) Other potential
green manures such as
buckwheat, canola, and
Australian winter pea
can reduce inoculum
density of pathogens at
varying levels (Ochiai
et al., 2008; Wiggins
and Kinkel, 2004).
In order to use green
manures to control
soilborne organisms
it is important to
remember that the
chemicals which act as
natural fumigants are
1) released upon plant
injury as a defense
mechanism and 2)
extremely volatile. As the chemicals are
released after plant injury, cover crops
should be mowed with a flail mower
before incorporation, to activate the
release of chemical compounds. After
mowing plants should be incorporated
as soon as possible, as 80 percent
of the biofumigant gas can volatize
within just 20 minutes. To prevent
biofumigant gases from escaping, soil
should be cultipacked or tarped after
incorporation of green manure. Any
agricultural plastic will suffice including
those used for soil solarization. After
incorporating residues into soil, field
needs to be irrigated to field capacity
to enhance breakdown of secondary
plant compounds into biocidal gases.
Specifics of biofumigation including
seeding rate, time to terminate cover
crop, and growing practices of cover
crop will differ depending on the cover
crop species.
Biosolarization
Soil solarization and biofumigation
involve similar techniques including
tarping and irrigating soils to
Continued on Page 16
Figure 3: Close up picture of a raised bed undergoing
solarization. Notice how all edges of tarp are buried under
soil and tarp is pulled flat across bed.
Photo courtesy of Timothy Jacobs.
14
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
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April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
15
1
2
3
4
5
Continued from Page 14
field capacity. Combining soil
solarization with biofumigation
can enhance the efficacy of
both techniques. This is called
biosolarization and includes
the incorporation of organic
amendments (i.e. compost, green
manure) under the solarization
plastic exposing organic
amendments to high temperatures
generated by solarization. Multiple
studies have shown increased
efficacy of solarization by including
organic amendments. This occurs
through multiple mechanisms.
Tarping the soil prevents
biocidal gases released during
biofumigation from escaping
and increases their penetration
throughout the soil through heat
exposure (Gamliel et al. 2000).
These gases result in direct toxicity
against soilborne organisms.
Incorporating organic amendments
into soils increases microbial
activity. These microbes can
compete with and suppress
detrimental soilborne organisms.
Increased microbial activity during
biosolarization can increase soil
temperatures from 2-5°C during
soil solarization. (Gamliel and
Stapleton 1993, Simmons et al.
2013). However, this effect is not
consistent across all biosolarization
treatments as different organic
amendments behave differently.
Experiments with increased
temperatures generally used
compost as an organic amendment.
Incorporation of green manures
from cover crops frequently results
in similar temperatures to that of
solarization (Peachey et al. 2001).
Additionally, tarping soil amended
with high carbon inputs (i.e., rice
bran, molasses) can lead to an
increase in accumulation of organic
acids released from anaerobic
bacteria which are toxic to many
soilborne pathogens (Simmons et
al. 2016).
Lastly, disinfestation resulting from
anaerobic conditions and high
temperatures from soil solarization
still result during biosolarization.
Multiple studies have documented
success controlling pathogens at
sublethal solarization temperatures (30-
40°C) when organic amendments were
used in combination with solarization
(Blok et al. 2000, Coelho et al. 2001,
Núñez-zofío et al. 2011, Tjamos and
Fravel 1995). This can expand the use
of solarization to temperate regions
where normally solarization would
not generate lethal temperatures
for soilborne pests. Climates where
solarization may have its greatest effect
are in more northern climates with
less intense solar radiation and coastal
regions with frequent foggy summers
and lower temperatures.
Amendments which have been
effectively used with solarization
include green manures Brassica
spp., Sinapis spp., and Sorghum spp.
Other green manures may result in
effective control when combined with
solarization as well, they just have not
been tested. Other organic amendments
effectively used with solarization are
food processing byproducts tomato
pomace and olive pomace, various
animal manures or composts (including
sheep, pig, chicken), and carbonrich
materials used in anaerobic soil
disinfestation (wheat bran, rice bran,
molasses).
More research needs to be put into
biosolarization to determine appropriate
levels and types of organic amendments
as well as its use in different cropping
system. However, biosolarization can
increase the efficacy of soil solarization
making it suitable to cooler regions or
for use during late spring or early fall
when soil solarization results in lower
temperatures.
Conclusion
Soil solarization and biosolarization
can result in effective soil disinfestation
reducing pathogen and weed
populations to acceptable levels for
organic growers. Problems still need
to be addressed such as the disposal of
plastic, but these techniques are much
cheaper, non-toxic and can provide
excellent control of soilborne organism
for high value specialty, berry and
vegetable crops.
Works Cited
Comments about this article? We want
to hear from you. Feel free to email us at
article@jcsmarketinginc.com
Blok WJ, Lamers JG, Termorshuizen AJ, Bollen GJ (2000)
Control of Soilborne Plant Pathogens by Incorporating Fresh
Organic Amendments Followed by Tarping. Phytopathology
90:253–259
Candido V, D’addabbo T, Miccolis V, Castronuovo D (2011)
Weed control and yield response of soil solarization with
different plastic films in lettuce. Sci Hortic (Amsterdam)
130:491–497
Coelho L, Mitchell DJ, Chellemi DO (2001) The effect of soil
moisture and cabbage amendment on the thermoinactivation of
Phytophthora nicotianae. Eur J Plant Pathol 107:883–894
Earlywine DT, Smeda RJ, Teuton TC, Sams CE, Earlywine DT,
Smeda RJ, Teuton TC, Sams CE, Xiong X (2010) Evaluation
of Oriental Mustard ( Brassica juncea ) Seed Meal for Weed
Suppression in Turf America Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/
stable/40891279 Weed Management - Other Crops / Areas -
Evaluation of Oriental Mustard ( Brassica júncea ) Seed Meal f
Supp. Weed Technol 24:440–445
Elmore CL, Stapleton JJ, Bell CE (1997) Soil Solarization A
Nonpesticidal Method for Controlling Diseases , Nematodes ,
and Weeds DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL
RESOURSES. Page University of California:Vegetable and
Information Center. 1-17 p
Gamliel A, Austerweil M, Kritzman G (2000) Non-chemical
approach to soilborne pest management - Organic amendments.
Crop Prot 19:847–853
Gamliel A, Stapleton JJ (1993) Effect of Chicken Compost or
Ammonium Phosphate and Solarization on Pathogen Control,
Rhizosphere Microorganisms, and Lettuce Growth
Iwamoto Y, Aino M (2008) Effect of soil solarization with
supplementary materials on the occurence of lettuce big-vein
disease in a commercial field. Soil Microorg 62:15–19
MacGuidwin AE, Knuteson DL, Connell T, Bland WL,
Bartelt KD (2012) Manipulating Inoculum Densities of
Verticillium dahliae and Pratylenchus penetrans with Green
Manure Amendments and Solarization Influence Potato Yield.
Phytopathology 102:519–527
Meyer SLF, Zasada IA, Rupprecht SM, Vangessel MJ, Hooks
CRR, Morra MJ, Everts KL (2015) Mustard Seed Meal for
Management of Root-knot Nematode and Weeds in Tomato
Production 4461
Núñez-zofío M, Larregla S, Garbisu C (2011) Application of
organic amendments followed by soil plastic mulching reduces
the incidence of Phytophthora capsici in pepper crops under
temperate climate. Crop Prot 30:1563–1572
Ochiai N, Powelson ML, Crowe FJ, Dick RP (2008) Green
manure effects on soil quality in relation to suppression of
Verticillium wilt of potatoes:1013–1023
Peachey ARE, Pinkerton JN, Ivors KL, Miller ML, Moore LW
(2001) Effect of Soil Solarization , Cover Crops , and Metham on
Field Emergence and Survival of Buried Annual Bluegrass ( Poa
annua ). Weed Technol 15:81–88
Simmons CW, Guo H, Claypool JT, Marshall MN, Perano KM,
Stapleton JJ, VanderGheynst JS (2013) Managing compost
stability and amendment to soil to enhance soil heating during
soil solarization. Waste Manag 33:1090–1096
Simmons CW, Higgins B, Staley S, Joh LD, Simmons BA,
Singer SW, Stapleton JJ, VanderGheynst JS (2016) The role of
organic matter amendment level on soil heating, organic acid
accumulation, and development of bacterial communities in
solarized soil. Appl Soil Ecol 106:37–46
Stapleton JJ, Molin ar RH, Lynn-Patterson K, McFeeters
SK, Shrestha A (2008) Methyl bromide alternatives … Soil
solarization provides weed control for limited-resource and
organic growers in warmer climates. Calif Agric 59:84–89
Stapleton JJ, Summers CG, Mitchell JP, Prather TS (2010)
Deleterious activity of cultivated grasses (Poaceae) and residues
on soilborne fungal, nematode and weed pests. Phytoparasitica
38:61–69
Tjamos EC, Fravel DR (1995) Detrimental effects of sublethal
heating and Talaromyces flavus on microsclerotia of Verticillium
dahliae
Webster TM (2006) High temperatures and durations of
exposure reduce nutsedge (Cyperus spp.) tuber viability. Weed
Sci 51:1010–1015
Wiggins BE, Kinkel LL (2004) Green Manures and Crop
Sequences Influence Potato Diseases and Pathogen Inhibitory
Activity of Indigenous Streptomycetes
Youssef MMA (2015) Biofumigation as a promising tool for
managing plant parasitic nematodes . A review. Sci Agric
10:115–118
16
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
Helping Farmers Grow
Naturally
Since 1974
Helping Farmers Grow NATURALLY Since 1974
www.newerafarmservice.com
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April/May 2019
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17
Testing the Accuracy
of Soil Tests for
Organic Growers
By NEAL KINSEY | President of Kinsey Agricultural Services
So long as the soil sample is taken in a way to accurately represent the soil in each field, the soil test will
provide the proper information needed to show what needs to be done.
Photo courtesy of Neal Kinsey, Kinsey Ag Service.
18
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
Purpose of Soil Tests
Is it actually possible that a soil
analysis can be accurate enough
to provide specific answers to soil
fertility needs?
What is the purpose of a soil test?
Some feel a soil test should only be
considered in order to point the farmer
or his agronomist in a general direction.
Others use it as a crutch to justify
applying fertilizer to grow a certain
yield whether it is really needed or not.
Still others use a soil analysis to assess
the nutrient content and requirements
for feeding the soil in order to provide
the needs of the living organisms
present there and the crop that will
be grown. Organic growers should
advocate and practice the third point in
this set of principles.
But is it actually possible that a soil
analysis can be accurate enough to
provide specific answers to soil fertility
needs? Many claim it is not. And what
makes this even harder to determine is
the fact that there are numerous ways
to test and report nutrient values on a
soil test. What evidence is there that
real numbers can have real meaning
when using a properly conducted soil
analysis?
One very common assumption causes
great errors in the conclusions some
draw when considering the accuracy
and value of soil tests. That assumption
is that the numbers provided on soil
tests from different soil laboratories
all mean the same thing. First, some
laboratories choose to express all or
parts of their measured nutrient levels
as ppm (parts per million), while
others use pounds per acre. Outside
the United States it is common for
labs to use kilograms per hectare (kg/
ha) and milligrams per kilogram (mg/
kg, which is actually the same as parts
per million), instead of pounds and
ppm. That is the easy part to grasp
and understand in terms of soil test
differences.
Understanding Soil Tests
What seems so much harder for many
to comprehend is that the number on
one soil test does not necessarily mean
the same thing as that same number
Continued on Page 20
April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
19
Continued from Page 19
on another soil test. Those who believe
they always do are all too often making
some very serious mistakes.
For example, farmers and growers who
request soil tests from our company are
advised that calcium should occupy 60-
70 percent of the soil’s cation exchange
capacity. There are other labs who use
the same guidelines, but still others
who advise 65-75 percent for calcium
(Ca) saturation on their soil analysis.
The target we shoot for on medium to
heavy soils is ideally 68 percent. But
that same soil sent to three other labs
will not measure 68 percent. One will
report it as 64 percent. Another reports
it as 74 percent. And still another
shows 80 percent. Yet all four labs are
considered as within the tolerance
range for measuring and reporting
calcium levels on that soil.
The lesson here is to learn and follow
directions from the laboratory you
are using based on their numbers,
not a test from some other lab whose
numbers could vary considerably
and thus lead to wrong conclusions.
Sometimes only Ca, Mg (magnesium)
and K (potassium) are given as 100
percent of the total soil nutrient
saturation from a soil testing lab,
while on tests received from some
other labs, sodium and other bases
also contribute to that 100 percent
total. Consequently, a farmer could
have a field day and tell everyone he
had to reach 80 percent calcium in his
fields before attaining his top yields.
If the intent is then to take a soil to
80 percent as that farmer found to
be beneficial, be sure to send it to the
same lab for analysis before deciding
to spend what it takes to achieve
that percentage. If a soil test from a
different lab shows 68 percent calcium
saturation when the lab that farmer
uses shows it as 80 percent, then it
can be a costly mistake to buy and
apply the calcium required to reach 80
percent on the test that is showing 68
percent.
Potassium
Potassium is another example of how
number differences on test reports can
be misleading. To be most effective
for growing crops on the test we use,
potassium should be a minimum
of 2 percent and a maximum of 7.5
percent to avoid problems caused
by having too little or too much. For
example, from the test we use, farmers
are advised not to drive potassium
above 7.5 percent because that will tie
up boron availability and above this
level also increases weed pressure in
the field. Farmers and growers can see
this happening to their crops and in
their fields. Yet when the same soil
is tested by another very reputable
soil laboratory, they report that soil
as having 8.5 percent potassium.
For those who think 7.5 percent on
one test means the same on tests
from other labs, this now becomes a
bone of contention, bringing claims
that soil test numbers are just not
reliable. If farmers using the test
that recognizes the same results at
8.5 percent as the other test at 7.5
percent, then the numbers on the
tests are certainly reliable, it is just the
ability of the user to interpret those
results that must be learned.
But such differences as described
in the paragraph above can cause
complications when striving to
educate farmers and growers about
the value of using soil tests. Another
problem with high potassium
is that when combined with the
sodium percentage, and both added
together total 10 percent or higher,
this will cause manganese uptake
to be blocked from the plant, even
on soils that show to have excellent
manganese levels. But this is not true
on the soils that show potassium as
8.5 percent, because then the soils
have to be at least 11.00 percent
before that happens, and that is
assuming that sodium would be
Continued on Page 22
Soils that test high in magnesium still grow crops that are deficient in magnesium.
Photo courtesy of Neal Kinsey, Kinsey Ag Service.
20
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
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Continued from
Page 20
reported at the same
level on both tests
which likely will
not be true either.
If the farmer wants
to use a different
test, he will have
to work to find the
right percentages
or find someone he
can trust to do it for
him.
Magnesium
Magnesium seems
perhaps the best
example of all to
use for testing
the accuracy of
a soil test and to
demonstrate how
exact a soil test can
be when used to
determine a soil’s
true fertility. A
seldom recognized,
rarely acknowledged
and extremely
costly condition
in agriculture is
how excessive
magnesium in
the soil results
in a magnesium
deficiency in
food and feed crops—even those that
are organically grown. This is well
demonstrated based on the soil testing
methods used by Dr. William Albrecht
all the way back in the early to middle
parts of the last century.
In addition, Dr. Albrecht taught that
soils should contain at least 10 percent
magnesium to assure that plants could
take up an adequate amount from the
soil. He maintained that any soil with
less than 10 percent magnesium would
only grow magnesium deficient plants.
This holds true on any soil tests that
matches the ability of the test he used
to determine magnesium content in the
soil. But again, there are soil labs whose
methods for determining magnesium
are different and when compared
to the test Dr. Albrecht used, these
soil tests show 8 percent magnesium
when the one he used showed 10
percent. So again, due to differences in
measurements, there are those who still
maintain that magnesium testing is not
On any part of the field where magnesium availability drops
below 10 percent, the tops on carrots will die prematurely.
Photo by Neal Kinsey, Kinsey Ag Service.
that useful.
But there is a way to show just how
exact that 10 percent figure actually
is, when determined the same way Dr.
Albrecht did it and then applied to
needed magnesium levels for carrot
production. This has been shown time
after time, and year after year, since the
time he taught how to measure and
interpret the content of magnesium
in the soil. In carrots grown from the
East Coast to the West Coast and all in
between, in both the US and Canada,
this can be counted on to happen for
those growing carrots. On any part of
the field where magnesium availability
drops below 10 percent, the tops on
carrots will die pre-maturely in the field
if the test being used reflects exactly
what the test Dr. Albrecht used does. If
a test gives another answer, then when
sampled and analyzed based on the
same procedures used by Dr. Albrecht,
the soil has less than 10 percent
magnesium.
Accuracy of Soil
Tests
Some still claim a
soil test is only to
point the farmer in
the right direction,
but cannot be
used for specific
measurements. If so,
they are using the
wrong soil test or
else have not been
properly taught about
how to understand
and interpret one that
actually works.
Just remember one
thing, the advice
from a soil test is only
as accurate as the
sample that is taken
and sent for analysis.
So long as the soil
sample is taken in
a way to accurately
represent the soil in
each field, the soil
test will provide the
proper information
needed to show what
needs to be done.
When properly taken
and interpreted, the
soil test is just like
a reliable road map. An accurate soil
test shows the path needed to reach the
point in terms of soil fertility where the
farmer or grower needs to be.
You can only properly manage the
things you can properly measure. Be
sure the soil tests you use are telling you
what you need to know to achieve both
excellent yields and excellent quality.
Neal Kinsey is owner and President of
Kinsey Agricultural Services, a consulting
firm that specializes in restoring and
maintaining balanced soil fertility for
attaining excellent yields while growing
highly nutritious food and feed crops on
the land. Please call 573-683-3880 or see
www.kinseyag.com for more information.
Comments about this article? We want
to hear from you. Feel free to email us at
article@jcsmarketinginc.com
22
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
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Degree-Day
Models for
Vegetable
Growers:
CROPTIME
By NICK ANDREWS | Oregon State University Extension
LEN COOP | Oregon State University Dept. Horticulture and Integrated Plant Protection Center
STEVE ELLIOT | Western SARE and Western Integrated Pest Management Center
HEIDI NOORDIJK | Oregon State University Extension
HEATHER STOVEN| Oregon State University Extension
24
Pest managers are familiar with the concept of using degree days to predict
pest outbreaks. Insects, plant diseases, and other ectothermic organisms like
crops and weeds, develop in relation to the temperature around them, and
degree-days are a way to measure accumulated temperature over time. Degree-days
are usually a more accurate way of predicting their development than calendar time
alone.
The team at Oregon State University (OSU) is adapting a degree-day modeling
system built for pest management into a tool for vegetable growers to better plan
their planting and harvesting dates and prevent weed seed rain. It’s called Croptime
and growers throughout the United States can use it at
extension.oregonstate.edu/croptime.
Croptime is a degree-day-based tool that overcomes a common shortcoming of
seed catalogs, which give expected maturity dates in calendar days or other rough
estimates of time-to-maturity. Calendar days are pretty inaccurate, and growers
recognize that. Days to maturity depend on the time of year and location the crop
is grown in. For example, various catalogs report that ‘Arcadia’ broccoli matures in
65 to 90 days. That range is consistent with the team’s findings in the Willamette
Valley in western Oregon, depending on when and where it is planted. Degree-day
models can help you predict where you fall in that range, usually with an accuracy
of a week or less.
Degree-days are more accurate than calendar days, and are especially useful when
crops are planted early or late, or when the weather is unusual.
Croptime was built on the backbone of the USPest.org agricultural and pest
management degree-day modeling site that is linked to thousands of individual
weather stations throughout the U.S. If you use the degree-day models in areas
with a different climate than the Willamette Valley, remember that the models
were developed in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, and use some caution. Degreedays
are usually more accurate than time, but other factors like day-length, light
intensity, water availability and pest pressure can also influence time to maturity.
For example, the Willamette Valley doesn’t get many days with high temperatures
above 90°F. So the team can’t identify maximum daily temperatures for crops like
tomatoes and peppers that could be important in hotter climates.
The site currently has about two dozen vegetable models, including four varieties of
broccoli, seven cucumber varieties, four sweet pepper, four tomatoes and four sweet
corn varieties. It also has models that predict viable seed set for redroot pigweed,
lambsquarter and hairy nightshade.
Continued on Page 26
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Continued from Page 24
Maximizing Profits
Figure 1. Some cauliflower growth stages. Photos by Heidi Noordijk.
Growers know harvest timing matters. Processors want
a consistent supply of produce throughout a growing
season, not a glut followed by a shortage then another
glut. And fresh market growers want to time their harvest
when labor is available and demand is high so they can
maximize profits. Reliable harvest-timing helps ensure
a consistent supply of vegetables to processors, and
fresh produce for local restaurants, farmers markets,
community supported agriculture (CSAs), local retailers
and wholesalers.
Crop timing can also help to avoid pests, an important
integrated pest management principle. The three weed
models can help growers predict when they can stop
cultivating redroot pigweed, lambsquarter or hairy
nightshade without risking weed seed rain. Seed rain is
when a weed releases its seed and it “rains” back down on
the soil, replenishing the seed bank of ungerminated seeds
in the soil. When growers accurately predict crop harvest
and weed seed development, they are able to manage
weeding activities more efficiently.
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
At the beginning of the project growers, buyers and seed
companies helped the team identify crops and varieties
to focus on (see sidebar). They hope to have 50 varietyspecific
models online in the next year or two.
Local Conditions
The whole system is based on using local weather
conditions and forecasts. In the Croptime calculator,
http://uspest.org/dd/model?mdt=veg, you select the
weather station nearest your farm. Then choose the model
you want to run, and enter up to four planting dates. You
can select from a number of different long-term forecast
options, including the 30-year historical average, 10-year
historical average, weather from last year, weather from
two years ago, and a new forecast by the National Oceanic
Continued on Page 28
Sidebar: Croptime degree-day models.
26
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
MY
K
Bio With Bite.
April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
27
Continued from Page 26
and Atmospheric Administration built
from several different climate models
(the “NMME” default).
When you “Click here to see full model
output” Croptime displays a report
showing the dates that crops will reach
various growth stages according to
the model. For some crops the team
attempts to predict first and last harvest,
but for most crops they can only predict
first harvest. A mobile app version
is available for Android (Apple IOS
support pending), and can be tested
using this weblink: http://uspest.org/dd/
model_app?mdt=veg. This app version
allows only a single planting date at a
time, but should be more handhelddevice
friendly.
The Croptime website links to the
Croptime calculator, and has a short
“how-to” video, a quick-start guide,
and a growth-stage guide. Access it
here: https://extension.oregonstate.
edu/croptime. Contact nick.andrews@
oregonstate.edu if you would like to
collaborate.
Comments about this article? We want
to hear from you. Feel free to email us at
article@jcsmarketinginc.com
Growers and collaborators who tested
Croptime have given the team some
good ideas to improve the site. One idea
is to allow a grower to enter a harvest
date, so that the Croptime model can
predict a good planting date. Another
idea is based on the assumption that
although absolute days to maturity in
seed catalogs isn’t very reliable, relative
days to maturity of different varieties
in the same catalog is more reliable.
The team could develop a way for
growers to predict time to maturity of
a variety it hasn’t modeled if their seed
catalog predicts days to maturity of a
variety we have modeled in Croptime.
For example, if a different broccoli
variety is about 10 days earlier than
‘Arcadia’, ‘Emerald Pride’, ‘Green Magic’
or ‘Imperial’ (varieties modeled in
Croptime), they could convert that
difference to degree-days to predict
harvest dates.
Figure 2. The Croptime calculator input page set up for Corvallis, OR, transplanted
Marketmore 76 cucumbers planted every two-weeks from May 15-July
1, 2019. On Feb 24, 2019, the model predicts first harvest on July 17, July 24, August
1 and August 12. This user might want to spread out their planting dates
more than every two-weeks to avoid gluts and extend their production season.
28
Organic Farmer April/May 2019
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Benefits
of Organic Food Production
By CECILIA PARSONS | Associate Editor
Business opportunities in organic food production led a
lengthy list of benefits at the annual meeting of
California Certified Organic Farmers (CCOF).
Growers, processors and marketers of organically grown
agricultural commodities attended the Fresno gathering
in February where the inaugural Benefits Report by the
CCOF Foundation was presented.
Panelists at the 2019 CCOF annual meeting and conference highlighted CCOF's
new report on benefits of organic farming. From left are Steve Pedersen of
High Ground Organics, Laetitia Benador, CCOF research fellow, Jane Sooby
senior policy specialist CCOF and Joe Morris, Morris Grassfed Beef.
Photo Courtesy of Cecilia Parsons
Organic Demand
The CCOF Foundation reports that, organic is the fastest
growing sector of the U.S. food industry with value
approaching $50 billion. This sector also grew six percent
in 2017, compared to one percent growth in all U.S. food
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sales. Their statistics show that 82 percent of families in the
U.S. purchase organically grown or processed food.
In addition to demand, organically
grown crops and livestock support the
viability of producers who typically
receive 20 percent higher prices.
The organic food industry also creates
an estimated 1.4 million jobs in the
U.S. and 407,400 jobs in California.
The report states that organic farms
tend to create more full time year
round employment opportunities
for farmworkers. The goal stated at
the meeting is to have 10 percent of
California farmland certified organic
by 2030.
Digging farther into the new report
were speakers Joe Morris of Morris
Grassfed Beef, Steve Pederson of
High Ground Organics and CCOF
researcher Laetitia Benador.
A Clear Plan
The benefits report, Benador said, was
done to show policy makers that the
organic industry has a clear plan to
move forward and present sustainable
solutions to food production.
“We have the evidence showing
the benefits of expanded organic
food production,” Benador told the
30 Organic Farmer April/May 2019
"
We have the evidence
showing the benefits
of expanded organic
food production
audience. All of the claims made in
the report are backed by rigorous
scientific study, she noted.
Instead of asking if organic
producers can feed the world’s
population, Benador said it is
important to look beyond yield
and focus on sustaining natural
resources with better land
management.
Nutritional Benefits
As for the nutritional benefits to
consuming organically grown food,
Benador cited meta- analyses that
use statistical methods to aggregate
and detect underlying trends in the
data from hundreds of studies on
nutrients that impact human health.
She said that six out of eight peerreviewed
meta analyses concluded
that organically grown foods
contained higher levels of certain
nutrients than conventionally grown
foods and two studies found no
consistent nutritional differences.
Overall, the meta analyses and
individual crop comparison studies
show that organically grown
fruits and vegetables can provide
consumers with higher levels of a
range of nutrients, she said.
Environmental Benefits
Environmental benefits of organic
production were included. Practices
in organic crop production improve
soil quality and structure and
reduce soil erosion. These soil
improvements in turn hold water
and prevent fertilizer and pesticide
leaching. The biodiversity in the
soils helps them to be more resilient
to extreme weather conditions.
The report states that yields are
comparable to conventional
yields when organic farmers build
long term soil fertility and use
diversification practices including
"
crop rotation and multi-cropping
strategies. Yields typically improve when
growers learn better weed management
techniques.
Pederson, who farms vegetables and
strawberries two miles from the
California coast said the environmental
benefits of organic production are
important in helping comply with
regulations. He is mitigating climate
change effects by increasing the carbon
sequestration on his farm ground,
using less energy and reducing nutrient
Continued on Page 32
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leaching to preserve groundwater
quality.
Joe Morris, who has operated Morris
Grassfed Beef since 1991, said the ‘big
picture’ report is a resource for the
entire farming community as farmers
and ranchers seek to improve their
land management.
What Consumers Want
Conference speaker and one of the
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Continued from Page 31
largest producers of organically grown
leafy green vegetables, Arnott Duncan,
said growers need to be willing to learn
what consumers want.
“You need to listen to signals, buyers
asking for certain products, time slots.
The challenge is to meet that need,”
Duncan said.
Large v Small Growers
He also touched on the
small versus large organic
producer issue, noting it is
not true the larger growers
are attempting to keep small
organic producers out of the
market. Local agriculture
groups may also
struggle to
include
service farm labor provider, noted that
securing a labor force has become more
acute in recent years and labor can be
the largest cost in production.
Due to more labor intensive practices
employed in organic production,
the need for skilled farm labor
is increasing. A 2018 study of
organic farming employment in ten
Washington and California counties
found that more workers are hired
per acre and more year-round
employment is offered than
on conventionally farmed
acres. More full time, year
around employment helps
provide livable wages for
California farm workers.
Arnott said new
technology is coming
that will reduce
the need
for many
unskilled
jobs, but he views the next generation
of organic farmers will come from other
industries and adapt their knowledge of
technology to the farm.
“They will see organic production
as cool, fun, collaborative and
challenging,” Arnott said.
According to the Benefits Report,
farmers who grow organically use
more labor intensive practices than
conventional farmers to manage weeds,
insect pests and disease. Organic
systems also include a higher diversity
of crops, requiring more skilled labor.
Jenny Ramirez, director of human
resources for Harvesters Inc., a support
system for farm workers, said treatment
of workers, including providing a safe
work place is paramount in retaining a
labor force. Workers who feel they are
treated well by their employers tend to
Continued on Page 34
organic growers, perceiving them to
be a threat.
“It is not easy to move forward if
there is distrust between large and
small producers. That is a bridge
we need to build,” he noted. Large
producers are not monopolizing the
market, Duncan said. They do open
doors for organic products and create
spin-off opportunities for all organic
producers.
Duncan, who farms more than 8,000
acres of organically certified ground
in Arizona and California, said
learning to farm organically has been
a humbling experience for him.
“You have to be willing to learn, fight
your way through challenges and
learn how to deal with them. Don’t
cheat.”
Strong Labor Force
Maintaining a strong labor force
in organic food production is one
challenge producers face. Matt
Rogers, founder of AgSocio, a Bay
Area company that operates as a full
32 Organic Farmer April/May 2019
April/May 2019
www.organicfarmermag.com
33
Continued from Page 32
stay with that farm, Ramirez said.
Opportunities for Organics
Meeting export demand for organically
grown food is an opportunity for
California growers. The Benefits Report
notes that Canada and Mexico are the
biggest export markets for organically
grown food, but more than 104 different
countries are also buying California
products.
Opportunities in organic production
are attracting the next generation of
U.S. famers. Proportionally, more
new and beginning farmers—those
who have been principal operators of
their farms for ten years or less—are
starting organic farms than are starting
conventional farms. In California
32 percent of organic farmers are
beginning farmers compared to 26.5
percent in conventional production. The
beginning farmers also are less likely to
need off-farm income with an organic
system, even though they tend to farm
fewer acres.
The full Benefits Report can be read on
line at ccof.org/roadmap.
Comments about this article? We want
to hear from you. Feel free to email us at
article@jcsmarketinginc.com
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