Thesis

The Effects of Product Placement on
Consumer Behavior
Dissertation
Author: Mgr. Steven Van Wichelen
Thesis Supervisor: doc. Ing. Jana Turčínková, Ph.D.
Brno, 2018

Mendel University in Brno
Faculty of Business and Economics
The Effects of Product Placement
on Consumer Behavior
Dissertation
Thesis Supervisor:
doc. Ing. Jana Turčínková, Ph.D.
Author:
Mgr. Steven Van Wichelen
Brno 2018

I would firstly and foremost like to thank my supervisor doc. )ng. Jana Turčínková,
Ph.D. for her guidance, inspiration and patience in the completion of this thesis. Secondly,
I would like to thank prof. )ng. Jana Stávková, CSc. and doc. )ng. Lea Kubíčková,
Ph.D. for providing me with the countless resources and opportunities allowing me
to complete this work. Thirdly, I would like to thank all my colleagues at Faculty of
Business and Economics, within the department of Marketing and Trade and beyond,
for their advices and suggestions. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Nataliia,
who against all odds, has been my greatest supporter in the completion of this
work.

Declaration
I hereby declare that the thesis: The Effects of Product Placement on Consumer
Behavior has been written by me and all sources, references and literature used or
excerpted during the elaboration of this work are properly cited and listed in the list
of literature. I agree that my work will be published in accordance with the Section
47b of Act No. 111/1998 Coll. on Higher Education as amended thereafter and in
accordance with the Guidelines on the publishing of University Student Theses.
I am aware of the fact that my thesis is subject to Act. No. 121/2000 Sb., the
Copyright Act, and that the Mendel University in Brno is entitled to close a license
agreement and use the results of my thesis as the School Work under the terms of
Section 60 par. 1 od the Copyright Act.
Before closing a license agreement on the use of my thesis with another person
(subject) I undertake to request for a written statement of the university that the
license agreement in question is not in conflict with the legitimate interests of the
university, and undertake to pay any contribution, if eligible, to the costs associated
with the creation of the thesis, up to their actual amount.
In Brno, August 28, 2018
_______________________________

Abstract
VAN WICHELEN, Steven. The Effects of Product Placement on Consumer Behavior.
Brno, 2018. Dissertation thesis. Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Business and
Economics, Department of Marketing and Trade.
The thesis focuses on the cognitive, affective and conative responses from consumers
to product placement. It wishes to research how attention, brand recall, attitude,
brand personality, product preference and purchase intention are influenced by different
types of product placement. In order to do so, it made use of a survey (n =
164), an eye tracking research (n = 80), an interview comparing 2 experiment
groups with different stimuli (n = 80) and an interview comparing an experiment
group to a control group (n = 55). The result of this work are aimed at evaluating
which effects marketing practitioners can expect from product placement across different
product categories and comparing these findings with the theory and propose
recommendations applicable in practice.
Keywords
Product placement, consumer behavior, branding, eye tracking
Abstrakt
VAN WICHELEN, Steven. Vliv product placementu na chování spotřebitelů. Brno,
. Disertační práce. Mendelova univerzita v Brně, Provozně ekonomická fakulta,
Ústav marketingu a obchodu.
Práce se zaměřuje na kognitivní, afektivní a konativní reakce spotřebitelů na product
placement. Zkoumá, jak pozornost, vybavení si značky, postoje, osobnost
značky, preference produktu a nákupní záměr jsou ovlivněny prostřednictvím
různých typů produkt placementu. Ke sběru primárních dat bylo využito dotazníkové
šetření n = 4, eyetrackingový výzkum n = , hloubkové rozhovory se
skupinami ’častníků experimentů s různými podněty n = a hloubkové rozhovory
s kontrolní skupinou n = . Výsledky této práce hodnotí, které důsledky
působení product placementu mohou firmy v praxi očekávat napříč různými produktovými
kategoriemi. Výsledky jsou srovnány se současnými teoretickými poznatky
a jsou formulována doporučení využitelné v praxi.
Klíčová slova
Product placement, chování spotřebitele, branding, eye tracking

Content
1 Introduction 13
2 Objectives 14
2.1 Effects on cognitive responses .........................................................................................14
2.2 Effects on affective responses...........................................................................................14
2.3 Effects on conative responses...........................................................................................15
3 Literature Survey 16
3.1 Brand equity ..............................................................................................................................16
3.1.1 The definition of a brand and brand equity ....................................................16
3.1.2 The marketing effects of brand equity...............................................................17
3.1.3 Building brand associations through the communication process .....20
3.1.4 Sender, receiver, media and message characteristics ................................21
3.2 Product placement .................................................................................................................22
3.2.1 Product placement definition ................................................................................22
3.2.2 Product placement origins and evolution ........................................................24
3.2.3 Product placement media types ...........................................................................24
3.2.4 Product placement types ..........................................................................................25
3.2.5 Product placement regulations, ethics and criticism .................................26
3.2.6 Product placement effectiveness..........................................................................27
3.2.7 Product placement as endorsement process ..................................................27
3.2.8 The self-concept ............................................................................................................30
3.2.9 Personality traits as components of meaning transfer ..............................31
3.3 Consumer behavior................................................................................................................33
3.3.1 Attention ..........................................................................................................................36
3.3.2 Comprehension and memory .................................................................................38
3.3.3 Beliefs, attitudes and preferences ........................................................................39
3.3.4 Intention judgment and behavior ........................................................................40
4 Methods and materials 42
4.1 Theoretical background of methods used ..................................................................42
4.1.1 Questionnaires ..............................................................................................................42
4.1.2 Eye-tracking....................................................................................................................43
4.1.3 Interviews ........................................................................................................................45
4.2 Overview of the samples .....................................................................................................46

4.3 Self-reported effects of product placement ............................................................... 48
4.3.1 Sample description...................................................................................................... 48
4.3.2 Research design and procedure............................................................................ 48
4.3.3 Research questions and hypotheses ................................................................... 49
4.4 Differences in effects between visual and audiovisual product
placements .............................................................................................................................................. 49
4.4.1 Sample description...................................................................................................... 49
4.4.2 Research design and procedure............................................................................ 49
4.4.3 Research questions and hypotheses ................................................................... 53
4.5 Differences in effects between exposure and non-exposure to product
placement ................................................................................................................................................ 54
4.5.1 Sample description...................................................................................................... 54
4.5.2 Research design and procedure............................................................................ 54
4.5.3 Research questions and hypotheses ................................................................... 58
4.6 Statistical methods used ..................................................................................................... 58
4.6.1 Pearson Chi-square statistic ................................................................................... 58
4.6.2 Fischers Exact Test ..................................................................................................... 59
4.6.3 Shapiro-Wilk Test ........................................................................................................ 59
4.6.4 Box-Cox Transformation .......................................................................................... 60
4.6.5 Levenes Test .................................................................................................................. 60
4.6.6 Analysis of variance .................................................................................................... 60
4.6.7 Mann–Whitney U test ................................................................................................ 60
4.7 Software used ........................................................................................................................... 61
5 Results 62
5.1.1 Self-reported effects of product placement..................................................... 62
5.1.2 Product category recall ............................................................................................. 62
5.1.3 Brand recall..................................................................................................................... 62
5.1.4 Attitude ............................................................................................................................. 65
5.2 Differences in effects between visual and audiovisual product
placements .............................................................................................................................................. 67
5.2.1 Brand recall..................................................................................................................... 67
5.2.2 Attitude ............................................................................................................................. 70
5.2.3 Product preference ..................................................................................................... 73
5.2.4 Attention .......................................................................................................................... 79
5.3 Differences in effects between exposure and non-exposure to product
placement ................................................................................................................................................ 88

5.3.1 Brand recall .....................................................................................................................88
5.3.2 Attitude .............................................................................................................................90
5.3.3 Purchase intention ......................................................................................................98
5.4 Practical implications ........................................................................................................ 100
5.4.1 Cognitive responses ................................................................................................. 100
5.4.2 Affective responses .................................................................................................. 101
5.4.3 Conative responses .................................................................................................. 102
6 Discussion 104
7 Benefits of the thesis 108
7.1 Benefits for the theory and science ............................................................................. 108
7.2 Benefits for practice ........................................................................................................... 108
7.3 Benefits for pedagogy ........................................................................................................ 108
8 Conclusion 110
9 References 113
A Questionnaire survey 130
B Questionnaire interview experiment 1 131
C Questionnaire interview experiment 2 136

12 Introduction
x

Introduction 13
1 Introduction
An increasing number marketers have warned companies about the changing consumer
responses to advertising. Interruption-based marketing models are claimed
to soon become obsolete (Godin, 1999). Some go one step further in asserting that
the traditional 30-second spot on television could die all together in its current form
(Jaffe, 2005). Whether these claims will prove to be true remains yet to be seen: advertising
spending in the US continues to grow year after year (Nanji, 2017). Drawing
attention is no easy task due to the hundreds of messages consumers are confronted
with on a daily basis (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998) and their limited
ability to handle large quantities of information (Miller, 1956).
Yet the amount of alternative types of marketing approaches and tools are
plenty, ranging from viral marketing to gaming or social media to name a few. This
thesis will focus in particular on product placement (for definition, see chapter
3.2.1) as a marketing practice. As a response to consumers increasingly skipping advertising
breaks (Russell and Belch, 2005), advertisers are diverting their spending
to this form of promotion: product placement spending in 2017 in the US only is
estimated at $8.78 billion (PRWeb, 2018). With its legalization on the 1 st of June
2011 in the Czech Republic, the product placement practice is still rather recent and
therefore relevant for the Czech market (Kalista, 2011). This increased spending has
also resulted in increases in sales across various product categories (Russell and
Stern, 2006). In addition, product placements in successful films have a positive effect
on stock prices (Wiles and Danielova, 2009). Qualitative advantages of product
placement include its potential for specific targeting and heightened exposure frequency
(Russell and Belch, 2005).
Product placement as a marketing practice is, however, not new: it has been
around since the beginning of the last century (Turner, 2004). However, research
on the effects of product placement remains limited. This will be the focus of this
thesis. In particular, the thesis wishes to determine the impact of this form of promotion
on cognitive, affective and conative responses (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith,
1998). Which outcomes can be expected from product placement and how can marketers
improve their product placement efforts?

14 Objectives
2 Objectives
The general research objective of the thesis is to determine the effects of product
placement on consumer behavior through the scientific method by describing, predicting,
controlling and explaining behavioral phenomena (Kardes, 1999). Particularly,
the thesis wishes to determine which cognitive, affective and conative reactions
(Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998) are to be expected from this form of promotion
as a source of brand equity Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008). It aims to
tackle these issues within the following research conditions:
• Determining the cognitive and affective responses to brands resulting from exposure
to product placement;
• Determining the differences in cognitive and affective responses to brands between
exposure to visual and audiovisual types of product placement;
• Determining the differences in affective and conative responses to brands between
exposure to product placement and non-exposure to product placement.
By effect studied, this breaks the research objective down into the following partial
objectives:
2.1 Effects on cognitive responses
In terms of cognitive responses, the thesis firstly wishes to describe how much attention
is given to product placement and test if there are differences in attention to
visual product placement between product preferences. Secondly, it wishes to test
if product category recall and brand recall are dependent on each other given exposure
to product placement. Thirdly, it wishes to test if brand recall and product
placement type are dependent on each other.
2.2 Effects on affective responses
In terms of affective responses, the thesis firstly wishes to test if attitude towards
brands and brand recall are dependent on each other given exposure to product
placement. Secondly, it wishes to describe the differences in attitude towards
brands between visual and audiovisual types of product placement and the qualitative
reasons for attitudinal change. Thirdly, it wishes to test if there is a difference
in attitude between exposure and non-exposure to product placement. Fourthly, it
wishes to test the dependency between product preference and product placement
type and describe the qualitative reasons for preference. Finally, it wishes to describe
in which way brand personality is influenced by character personality traits.

Objectives 15
2.3 Effects on conative responses
The thesis wishes to test if there is a difference in purchase intention between exposure
and non-exposure to product placement.

16 Literature Survey
3 Literature Survey
The literature survey has as a goal to clarify the theoretical foundations of study relevant
to the research objectives of this thesis. These fields of study are threefold:
branding, product placement and consumer behavior.
Firstly, the literature survey will describe branding as a marketing discipline
and overarching thematic of this thesis. In particular, the concept of brand equity
will be defined as well as the types of marketing effects companies can draw from
brand equity. The following three brand equity effects will be focused on: brand
identity, brand meaning and brand response.
Secondly, the literature survey will describe product placement as an advertising
form which could serve as a stimulus to achieve desired brand equity effects
as described above. In particular, it will describe briefly the evolution of this advertising
form through time, the currently existing types of product placement, the
available media vehicles which can be used for it, some concerns in terms of ethics
and regulations in applying this advertising form and the most important academic
advances in terms of product placement, and in particular, the effects which can be
expected. This section will also describe endorsement processes as a component of
product placement and personality traits as meaning transferred through this process.
Thirdly, the literature survey will link up the two fields of study above by describing
which cognitive, affective and conative processes exist on the level of consumer
behavior to transform these product placement stimuli as input into brand
equity effects as output. This part will cover the theoretical concepts of processes
regulating attention, comprehension and memory, beliefs, attitudes and preferences
as well as intention judgment and behavior.
3.1 Brand equity
3.1.1 The definition of a brand and brand equity
A brand can be defined as a cluster of emotional and functional values that enables
organizations to make a promise about a unique and welcomed experience. (De Chernatony,
2010, p. 31). The following functions of a brand for consumers can be discerned:
the identification of the source of the product, the assignment of responsibility
to the product maker, a risk reducer, a search cost reducer, a promise, bond or
pact with the maker of the product, a symbolic device and a signal of quality (Keller,
Apéria and Georgson, 2008). Such perceived quality is the most essential predicator
of profitability. In addition, perceived quality can have a stronger impact than objectively
measured quality (Jacobson and Aaker, 1987). Brand positioning can be defined
in this context as the act of designing the company's offer and image so that it
occupies a distinct and valued place in the target customer's mind Keller, Apéria and
Georgson, 2008, p. 35). As this position is one of the most crucial factors of the
brand's success, brand positioning is a crucial marketing task (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998).

Literature Survey 17
One of the benefits yielded by brands is the profitability through added value
which motivates consumers into purchases (De Chernatony, 2010). Creating strong
brands is not easy task due to the many challenges marketers face in the current
marketing landscape: savvy customers, media fragmentation, increased competition,
increased costs and greater accountability Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008).
In the light of the difficulties associated with brands, the importance of brand planning
needs to be emphasized: brands play a variety of roles and for a number of reasons
satisfy many different needs. They are the end result of much effort and by implication
represent a considerable investment by the organization. (De Chernatony,
2010, p. 56). Brand planning goes further than merely focusing on tactical aspects
of promotion and design: companies need to have a clear vision and strategy in order
to achieve their branding objectives (De Chernatony, 2011). In this light the strategic
brand management process was introduced, which involves four steps: identifying
and establishing the brand positioning, planning and implementing brand
marketing campaigns, measuring and interpreting the brand performance and
growing and sustaining brand equity Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008).
Brand equity refers to the marketing effects which can be attributed to the
brand Keller, Apéria and Georgson, and its added value Kardes, . )n
other words, the differences in results if the product was marketed with or without
the brand. This brand equity is positive when consumers have a favorable reaction
to a product and how it is marketed when the brand is identified than when it is not
Kardes and Allen , Keller, Apéria and Georgson, .
Brand equity was the basis for the development of the customer-based brand
equity model Keller , Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008) as a framework to
develop strong brands across product categories (Pappu, Quester and Cooksey,
2005). The model states companies should build brands according to the steps described
in the next section.
3.1.2 The marketing effects of brand equity
Strong brands are built by creating brand identity, giving brand a meaning, evoking
brand responses and fostering brand relationships Keller, Apéria and Georgson,
2008), as shown in figure 1.
Fig. 1 Customer-based brand equity model
Source: Keller, Apéria and Georgson, , p.57 (own adaptation)
Firstly, the brand needs to be identified with the customer and ensure that the customer
associates the brand to a certain product category or a customer need

18 Literature Survey
through brand awareness. This is reflected by the depth and breadth of awareness.
The depth of awareness refers to how likely and how easily a consumer will think of
a brand in a particular usage situation. The breadth of the awareness refers to various
situations when the brand might come to mind Keller, Apéria and Georgson,
2008). This largely depends existing brand knowledge in the mind of the consumer
(Cowley and Mitchell, 2003) according to the product category structure in memory
Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . The power of advertising to inform and persuade
are very important at this stage (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). Brand
awareness refers in this context to the extent to which a consumer can recognize
and recall the brand (Rossiter, 1987; Keller 1993; Keller, Apéria and Georgson,
2008), as part of a certain category of products (Keller, 1993; Aaker, 2009). The importance
of either brand recall or brand recognition will depend on the product category
and whether or not purchase decisions are made at the point of purchase or
not, the latter being a situation where brand recognition is more important given
the multitude of brand stimuli presented (Ross, 1979).
Secondly, brand meaning must be created in the minds of the consumers by
linking a set of primary, brand associations Keller , Keller, Apéria and
Georgson, 2008). A brand association refers to anything which is connected to a
brand in the memory of a consumer (Aaker, 2009). According to the Associative Network
Memory Model (Anderson, 2013) such knowledge is stored as information in
the memory of a consumer through nodes where links represent the strength of association
between information. Such a memory function will be discussed later on.
Brand associations are crucial for buying decisions (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith,
1998). These consist of both logical as well as rational components, respectively
brand associations related to performance and brand associations related to imagery
Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . Tough it requires significant investments
to achieve this, strong brands instantly trigger many essential associations which
are stored in the memory of a consumer (Kardes, 1999). Companies attempt to create
such associations as a basis for a positive brand image. To do so the chosen associations
need to be strong, favorable and unique. A consumer can have knowledge
structures about a brand which are sourced from the brand or product itself through
for instance its brand elements, such as its logo, or marketing mix elements, such as
its price. The marketing mix will be defined further on. Such knowledge can also be
built through secondary brand associations. In this situation, a brand borrows information
from another entity which has its own knowledge structure in the mind of
the consumer. Examples of sources of secondary brand associations include: the
company itself and its other brands, the country of origin and other geographical
areas, the channels of distribution, licensing, sporting, cultural and other events,
third party sourcing and celebrity endorsements Keller, Apéria and Georgson,
2008).
These associations, communicated as message factors, can be either rational
or emotional in nature, where rational appeals tend to be more effective for a target
audience which has high cognition needs and contrarily, emotional appeals are more
effective for a target audience which experiences a low cognition need (Cacioppo
and Petty, 1982, Kardes, 1999). These appeals relate to brand performance and

Literature Survey 19
brand imagery Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . Brand performance is about
how a product wishes to answer the functional needs of a consumer. It refers to
product quality and its dimensions are primary product characteristics, features, reliability,
conformance, durability, serviceability, aesthetics and perceived quality
(Garvin, 1984; Zeithaml, 1988) to which price can be added. Brand imagery on the
other hand refers to how a brand wishes to answer the consumers psychological
and social needs and regards the intangible benefits of a brand. These intangibles
regard the types of profiles of the user, purchase and usage situations, brand personality
and the brands history Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008).
Thirdly, the meaning given to brands leads to a brand response, expressed as
brand judgements and brand feelings. Brand judgements regard the rational opinions
and evaluations of customers regarding the brand quality, brand credibility,
brand consideration and brand superiority. Brand feelings on the other hand are
about the emotional responses of a customer regarding a brand. This does not
merely affect how the customer feels about the brand but also about himself and
others Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008). Such feelings evoked might even change
the experience of the actual usage or consumption of the product through an advertising
process which is known as transformational advertising: through the exposure
to the advertising of this nature, a consumer might associate a unique set of
psychological characteristics to the usage of a product, which might not be available
to the brand without exposure to the advertising (Puto and Wells, 1984). Brand feelings
evoked within the consumer can be broken down into warmth, fun, excitement,
security, social approval and self-respect (Kahle, Poulos and Sukhdial, 1988).
Finally, the previous three stages in building brand equity lead to brand resonance
or the relationship the company fosters with the consumer through the
brand. This leads to various levels of relationships in depth and intensity: behavioral
loyalty, attitudinal attachment, sense of community and active engagement. When a
consumer feels behavioral loyalty, his purchasing behavior is not necessarily motivated
by positive attitudes shaped through the brand. This happens only in case of
altitudinal attachment, when purchasing behavior is driven by such positive attitudes,
potentially leading to repeat purchases. Sense of community refers to a situation
where using a brand makes a consumer feel part of or associated to a larger
group associated to the brand. Activate engagement is a situation when a consumer
feels such a strong bound with a brand that he is willing to invest time himself to
support the brand by specific behaviors such as promoting the brand actively (Keller,
Apéria and Georgson, . Through being loyal to a brand, the consumer commits
itself to a consistent repeat purchase of the product, despite eventual causes
for switching behavior (Busch and Houston, 1985; Oliver, 2014). An overview of
these stages are summarized in figure 2.

20 Literature Survey
Fig. 2 Sub-dimensions of brand building blocks
Source: Keller, Apéria and Georgson, , p. 58
A way how to create favorable brand associations to build brand equity Keller, Apéria
and Georgson, 2008) and to change attitude is through marketing communication
and promotion (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). The next section will describe
promotion and the communication process that goes along with it and the
characteristics of its components.
3.1.3 Building brand associations through the communication process
Promotion is defined as as communicating information between seller and potential
buyer or others in the channel to influence attitudes and behavior (Perreault and
McCarthy, 2002, p. 392). Though other categorizations exist, promotion can be broken
down into the following subcategories: personal selling, sales promotion and
advertising (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). From a brand perspective, promotion
or marketing communications can be defined as the means by which firms attempt
to inform, persuade and remind consumers – directly or indirectly – about the
brands that they sell (Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008, p. 223). For communications
of any kind to be effective in terms of its potential to persuade, they need to be
attention drawing, easily understood, convincing and memorable, to be the basis for
the Message Learning approach (Hovland, Janis and Kelly, 1953). Communication
objectives are however not limited to persuasion: these might also include aim to

Literature Survey 21
inform or remind (Kotler, 2012). These processes of the Message Learning approach
are in turn affected by the following independent variables: the sender (the source
of the message), the message (the content of the message), the receiver (the one who
receives the message) and the medium (through which medium the message is sent)
(Kardes, 1999; Kotler, 2012). These are the building blocks of the communication
process, see figure 3, a way how meaning of brands is communicated (Foxall, Brown
and Goldsmith, 1998; Kotler, 2012) where the sender first encodes the message using
a medium which is then decoded by the receiver. The channel or media refers to
the means through which the message is transferred which can be formal or informal
(Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). This can result in a certain response and
possibly feedback towards the initial sender. This entire process is subject to noise,
which may negatively affect the communication objectives (Kotler, 2012).
Fig. 3 Elements in the communication process
Source: Kotler, 2012, p. 414 (own adaptation)
The key components of the communication process are thus the sender, the receiver,
the message and the media. The next section describes how the characteristics of
each of these components affects the communication process.
3.1.4 Sender, receiver, media and message characteristics
The effectiveness of communication in terms of persuasion is affected by the various
characteristics of the sender, the receiver, media and message (Kardes, 1999). The
sender or source of the communication regard the communicator's characteristics
in terms of expertness/credibility and attractiveness (Hovland and Weiss, 1951;
Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998; Kardes, 1999) and is essential for how a message
is received by an audience (Kardes, 1999). Through his level of expertise, the
endorser is more likely to change the attitude of a consumer than a non-expert (Foxall,
Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). It is noteworthy that the persuasiveness and trustworthiness
of a message tends to be higher when the source argues against its own
interests (Pechmann, 1992). Another characteristic of an endorser as communicator
is his attractiveness: the source attractiveness model states that for a message to be
effective the source depends on its familiarity, likability, similarity, physical appearance
and presentation style (McGuire, 1985; Kardes, 1999). A disliked source can

22 Literature Survey
bring about greater message processing than a liked source (White and Harkins,
1994).
The message is affected by various factors such as its complexity, the usage
of either one-sided or two-sided messages, rational and emotional appeals, the order
of presentation, etc. (Kardes, 1999). The message can be executed utilizing various
styles: slice of life, mood or image, technical expertise, lifestyle, musical, scientific
evidence, fantasy, personality symbol or testimonial and endorsement (Kotler,
2012).
Receiver characteristics also play a role in persuasion and can be explained
through the theory of personality and persuasion (McGuire, 1976). This theory puts
forth that there is a relation between personality on the one hand and reception and
yielding as mediators on the other. Reception stands for a subjects capacity to perceive
and comprehend a message whereas yielding stands for a subjects likeliness
to succumb to the persuasiveness of a message. It is shown that persuasion is optimal
at average levels of reception and yielding (McGuire, 1976; Kardes, 1999). Medium
characteristics can influence the persuasiveness of a message depending on
the usage of either audiovisual, audio or written media and depending on the message
complexity. Persuasion tends to be high either when using a simple message
through audiovisual or audio-only media or when using a complex message through
a written medium (Chaiken and Eagly, 1976).
The next segment will specifically describe the endorsement process as a
message style to transfer meaning through a message.
3.2 Product placement
3.2.1 Product placement definition
Product placement is by most authors perceived as a type of promotion which is a
component of the promotion mix. Advertising can be defined as any paid form of
non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified
sponsor (Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008, p. 230). The types of media used in
advertising include among others television, radio and magazines. It is specifically
within this advertising context that the concept of product placement will be clarified
as a means to communicate and persuade as well as how the communicators
characteristics can be employed within this communication process.
Product placement can be defined as the paid inclusion of branded products
or brand identifiers, through audio and/or visual means, within mass media programming
(Karrh, 2003, p. 138). Product placement or embedded marketing is defined
by the European Union as any form of audiovisual commercial communication
consisting of the inclusion of or reference to a product, a service or the
trademark thereof so that it is featured within a program, in return for payment or
for similar consideration.
The usage of product placement by marketers as an advertising form is attributed
to the fragmented and oversaturated media landscape. A context in which
these communication types might be more impactful than usual advertisements on

Literature Survey 23
the condition that viewer does not have the feeling he is being persuaded through
these communications (Balasubramanian, 1994). The reason for this can be found
in the nature of the medium selected movies, television, …: as these are considered
to be entertainment and not persuasive communications, it is less likely the audience
will develop counterarguments which in turn will strengthen the persuasive
impact of the communication (Solomon and Englis, 1994). Moreover, when taking
the example of movies, product placement can potentially reap additional rewards
from using such an arousal-inducing medium to obtain higher levels of attention intensity
(Kardes, 1999).
It is claimed that there is no consensus regarding what is considered to be
product placement (Scott and Craig-Lees, 2006). It is questioned if just showing a
product is considered as promotion (Rothenberg, 1991). Such differences are about
the types of media which are counted as platforms for product placement, if the advertiser
paid for the placement and the execution of the product placement. For example,
it happens that product placement is a result from a trade or is not being paid
for. Examples include Nike which has been known to provide products to the production
companies, potentially appearing in the entertainment types at no added
product placement fee (Keller, Apéria and Georgson, and FedEx featured in
the movie Castaway, merely due to creative requirements in terms of story, equally
without product placement fee (Lippman and Brooks, 2000). It might thus be that
one assumes that a product which appears in entertainment was paid for though in
reality it was just a prop giving the setting a higher degree of realism.
The European Union (2012) further indicates that product placement, in
contrast to sponsorship messages, is built into the action of a program whereas
sponsor references may be shown during the program but are not part of the plot.
It is challenging to distinguish product placement from sponsorship, endorsement
and advertainment. For example: is an actor using a brand in a certain context to be
considered product placement or an endorsement? Solving a part of the confusion,
it is suggested to classify product placement and advertainment in one category,
brandcasting (Scott and Craig-Lees, 2006). Following this definition, product placement
regards the usage of a product in support of content. Advertainment on the
other hand is about content in support of a product or brand.
Product placement is not restricted to movies and television (Keller, Apeŕia
and Georgson, 2008). According to Ferraro and Avery (2000) one of the main reasons
why advertisers are directing their attention to product placement is the level
of commercial clutter. Product placement has the benefit that it is subtler and less
intrusive than other types of advertising. The consumer considers traditional advertisements
also to be less trustworthy. Various media, which can be used for the purpose
of product placement, will be discussed further on.
Product placement is not new however. The next section will briefly cover its
origins.

24 Literature Survey
3.2.2 Product placement origins and evolution
First examples of product placement originate from the nineteenth century (Lehu,
2007). It was usual for dancers at cabarets to use some makeup brands for their
performances. Literature was also a platform for product placement: the novel
Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne was known to contain product
placement. Painter Éduard Manet showed the brand Bass Pale Ale in his work A Bar
at the Folies-Bergére. In 1949, Camel sponsored the series Man against Crime
(Turner, 2004). Such product placement was not limited to entertainment shows:
news programs were also known to use this type of advertising. For example, Camel
News Caravan news commentator John Cameron Swayze promoted Camel. Moreover,
a cigarette was visible on the desk during the entire show. One of the first movies
to use product placement was Lumiere films, containing the name of British soap
manufacturer Lever brothers (Lehu, 2007). Around the 1930s product placement
became more common and movie studios and marketers joined forces to look for
promotional opportunities (Galician and Bourdeau, 2004). One of the biggest product
placement successes is attributed to Reeses Pieces product placement in Steven
Spielbergs blockbuster E.T. in 1982. Sales was reported to have increased dramatically
resulting from the placement (Buss, 1998). Ever since the amount of media
types available to product placement have increased in numbers.
3.2.3 Product placement media types
It is expected by practitioners that media available for product placement will further
broaden (Russell and Belch, 2005). What follows is a non-exhaustive list of media
types which can be used for product placement.
One of such media are movies. A main benefit of product placement in movies
compared to television, lies in its higher level of attention due to lesser sources of
distraction dAstous and Chartier, 2000). Such involvement is further strengthened
as consumers need to do a financial effort to view a movie in a cinema. Furthermore,
movies benefit from additional exposure through pay-per-view, sales or rental of
videos, as well as from television and cable reruns (Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen,
2007).
Another common platform for product placement these days are music videos.
Placements in music videos are not restricted to visual forms: brands are also
being used in the lyrics of certain songs (Lehu, 2007). For example, rap-artists are
particularly known to feature brand names in their lyrics. Considering this music
category, 93% of hip-hop music videos are claimed to contain branded products
(Burkhalter and Thornton, 2014).
Video games are also known to feature product placement, a practice which
became more common as from the mid-nineties (Nelson, 2002). Videogames have
an increased potential to involve consumer with the brand due to the engagement
in an active experience, the ability to perform micro-targeting as well as a longer
shelf-life due to the time consumers spend playing video games. Games are a fast
growing entertainment form, increasing by 25% every year (Kretchmer, 2004).

Literature Survey 25
However, one must distinguish product placement in video games from advergames.
In the case of product placement, the video game exists not because of the
product placement: the brand is just a part of experience of the game. Advergames
however, are created for the purpose of promoting the brand. Advergames have the
advantage that they can include brand interactivity, higher traffic and the ability to
obtain market information through the character selected and the psychographic
and demographic information about the gamer.
Finally, novels are also known to contain product placement though it is difficult
to assess to which extent these placements are commercial in nature (Brennan,
2008). In certain cases, the author is known to have received a financial compensation
for including a brand in the story. Fay Weldon indicated having received a fee
from the brand Bulgari to include its product in the novel The Bulgari Connection. It
is claimed that such practice is on the rise (Lehu, 2007).
Other than the types of media available to product placement, a company
needs to make choices regarding the way the message is encoded into the product
placement.
3.2.4 Product placement types
There are several ways how to define types of product placement. As will be shown
below, the various definitions of these types contain quite some similarities among
each other. A first way to categorize product placements is through how the brand
is being communicated, the modality of the message (Kardes, 1999): visually, verbal
or a combination of these two (Karrh, 2003). A more specific description of these
product placement types are screen placements visually presenting the brand in
the background, script placements mentioning the brand verbally and plot placements
where the brand is an actual part of the storyline (Russell, 1998). A similar
description of such types are background, concerning placements shown with the
character but lacking interaction between brand and the character, used by character
where the character does interact with the product and story connection where
the brand is an active component of the storyline (Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen,
2007). Such differences in types of stimuli can have an impact on the level of involvement
and learning process among consumers. In this regard, product placement
types as described previously respectively represent lower and higher levels of involvement.
Low-level involvement product placement is expected to be insufficient
to result in changes in persuasion or attitude, despite its ability to overcome a resistant
attitude, and merely reinforce existing attitudes over time through repetition
(Krugman, 1965). Message source characteristics as previously described, carried
by the endorser, are particularly important when the source is highlighted (Andreoli
and Worchel, 1978, Kardes, 1999), which is common for television, a medium using
product placement. In particular, in terms of message modality, the source attractiveness
is important for audiovisual or audio-only media whereas it is not important
for a written medium (Chaiken and Eagly, 1983). This will be further on
elaborated when describing the endorsement process.
Another categorization of product placement can be based on the nature of
the information being transferred (Gupta and Lord, 1998): visual only (VIS), audio

26 Literature Survey
only (AUD) and combined audio-visual (AV). The first type (VIS) refers to a situation
where the brand is shown but without any audio support to attract attention to
the brand. In this case, when repeated, iconic rote memory learning takes place
(Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). The second type (AUD) refers to a situation
where the brand is being communicated through audio directly or when a character
communicates messages related to the brand. For example, this could be the case
when a character mentions the brand name of a product and/or refers to its product
benefits, without showing the product or brand in a visual way. The third type, combined
audio-visual (AV) refers to a situation where the brand is being presented in
a visual way and in the same time through a brand mention or by communicating a
message relevant to the brand through audio. It is noteworthy that studies indicated
incongruence in visual and audio stimuli could lead to increased learning (Krugman,
1965).
Implicit, integrated explicit and non-integrated explicit product placements
are another way of categorizing product placement dAstous and Séguin,
1999). An implicit product placement refers to a situation where the brand is presented
in the program but not expressed in a formal way. )n this way its merely
passive, contextual. For example, a scene happens to take place in a branded clothes
shop or the character wears clothes of a certain brand. In this situation the product
benefits are not explicitly communicated. In the case of integrated explicit product
placement, there is a formal expression and its role is active. This could be when the
character resorts to the clothes of a certain brand in order to make a good impression
during a job interview. In this case there is a direct link between showing the
product and communicating the products advantages. Lastly, non-integrated explicit
product placement refers to a situation where the brand is expressed in a formal
way without integrating it in the plot or content of the program. Following the
aforementioned example, this could be the preceding announcement that a fashion
program is being sponsored by brand of clothes or that the brand name is incorporated
in the programs name.
The level of involvement of a product regarding the plot a story can have a
downside: the more important the role a product plays in this way, the more likely
the audience might find its presence suspicious, undermining the naturalness of
product placement, giving the viewers the feeling they are being influenced on purpose.
As a result, this might evoke counterarguments similar to the ones common
for traditional advertising messages (Russell, 2002).
3.2.5 Product placement regulations, ethics and criticism
The ethicality of product placement has been a long-time concern. Attempts to force
on-screen disclosure of products advertised in movies date back to the previous century
(Rothenberg 1991). One study by showed that American consumers believe
that brands visible in movies are usually part of an advertising campaign (Karrh,
Frith, and Callison, 2001). Americans are usually more accepting to product placement
than other nationalities (Gould, Gupta, and Grabner-Krauter, 2000).

Literature Survey 27
Ethically-charged products, such as cigarettes, alcohol and weapons, evoke
less favorable levels of acceptance than other product categories (Gupta and Gould,
1997).
A study performed by DeLorme and Reid (1999 indicated that consumers
foster positive attitudes to product placement due to its increased level of realism.
However, an excessive amount of repetition as well as blatant commercial motives
has a negative influence on consumers attitudes towards the practice (Belch, 1982).
3.2.6 Product placement effectiveness
It is claimed that it is difficult to assert the effectiveness of product placement due
to the dynamic nature of this field of advertising (Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007).
Research regarding the effectiveness of product placement has often relied on intuitive
categories (Scott and Craig-Lees, 2006; Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007). Fearing accountability
for potentially bad results of product placement effectiveness, some
product placement practitioners shy away from establishing objective measurement
tools (Russell and Belch, 2005).
Past research regarding the effectiveness product placement is oftentimes
aimed at determining brand responses such as brand awareness and brand recall.
Little attention is given to conative responses (Kozary and Baxter, 2010). Commonly
accepted factors affecting brand recall are prominence, modality and plot connection.
Analyzing the relationships between the characters, the products and the
consumers are also key in evaluating the effectiveness of product placement (Russell
and Stern, 2006). Product placement strategies link up products with pleasing
characters who might endorse these products in an explicit (by their actions or verbally)
or implicit way (in the case the product is included in the set) (Solomon and
Englis 1994). This is important from a branding viewpoint: brands are concepts that
exist in the minds of the consumers that are made up from various characteristics
associated with the brand (Keller, 2008). How do the relations between characters
and the product they use, as well as the relations between the characters and the
consumers, affect the relationship between the products and the consumers? How
do the associations made to a character transfer onto the brand and how does this
in turn influence the perception of the consumer? The next section will describe the
role characters play in product placement as celebrity endorsements and how product
placement serves as an endorsement process.
3.2.7 Product placement as endorsement process
Product placement can help create positive associations with a brand, for instance
through the choice of a spokesperson who carries the message (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998). This is a common practice for a celebrity endorsement, which is
defined as "using well known and admired people to promote products" Keller, Apéria
and Georgson, 2008, p. 330). The benefit of such practice is that a celebrity can
attract attention to the brand and create impressions about the brand through inferences
that one makes based on the existing knowledge about the celebrity (Keller,

28 Literature Survey
Apéria and Georgson, . Models and spokespeople are commonly chosen for
such endorsements based on their attractiveness or based on their similarity as target
audiences can relate to similar people (Kardes, 1999). Familiarity and appeal
play a role in the selection of the appropriate celebrity for endorsements and can be
measured by certain scoring mechanisms (Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . Associating
brands with such famous people can result in higher levels of arousal
among the consumer (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). Using celebrities as
spokespeople is a practice common across various cultures, both collectivistic and
individualistic (Praet, 2001). Such endorsements are often seen on TV commercials:
for instance, according the Independent (2011), tennis champion Roger Federer,
golfer Tiger Woods and former footballer Thierry Henry are known to have endorsed
the Gillette Fusion Power razor. Such a type of environmental stimulus helps
in reaching focal attention from the consumer (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998).
Using celebrity endorsements to create brand associations comes with certain challenges:
firstly, if a celebrity endorses too many products, it can lead to loss of meaning
or even create negative associations due to perceived insincerity Keller, Apéria
and Georgson, 2008). Another issue regards the compatibility between the celebrity
and the brand: a mismatch might exist between despite high levels of familiarity and
appeal, due to conflicting associations between the intended knowledge structures
of the brand and source knowledge structures of the celebrity (Misra and Beatty,
1990). In addition, celebrities might lose familiarity or appeal, for instance due to
scandals altering the celebritys existing knowledge structures in the minds of the
consumer negatively, in turn potentially negatively impacting the brands associated
with the celebrity. In order to avoid such unwanted meaning transfers, companies
have been known to abruptly terminate long-lasting celebrity endorsement agreement
(Wei 2010, Rotunno 2012). On a side note, media owners and entertainment
creators themselves have been known to terminate such contracts to avoid negative
associations (Kaplan, 2018). Finally, a mismatch might also exist in the recall generated
on the level of the celebrity and on the level of the brand: in certain cases, the
recall of the celebrity is much higher than the recall of the brand Keller, Apéria and
Georgson, 2008).
Given the character-product interaction, which is typical for the used by
character type of product placement (Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007), product
placement of this type carries a lot of resemblance to the definition of a celebrity
endorsement. In this way, brand equity can be built through secondary associations:
this is the process where primary brand associations are connected to entities having
associations of their own. A brand association can thus be created through the
linkage of the brand to memory which transmits meaning to consumers. In short:
the brand borrows associations to complement its own in order to build brand equity
Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . It is stated the endorsement process depends
on the symbolic properties of the celebrity endorser (McCracken, 1989).
Through a meaning transfer perspective, the properties are a part of the celebrity
and transfer from the celebrity to the product and in turn from the product to the
consumer.

Literature Survey 29
It is important to note that the initial attitude consumers have towards the
communicator, the endorser in this case, strongly affects the effectiveness of the
communication, product placement in this case (Hovland and Weiss, 1951). However
it is not explained why some endorsers are more or less successful in achieving
the communication objectives in the endorsement process: they do not unveil the
underlying meanings of the endorsers with which the consumers identify themselves.
This will be further elaborated on later on through the source attractiveness
model. The aforementioned meanings are diverse, ranging from status, class, gender
and age to personality and lifestyle. Examples of personality types included John
Cleese as the irritable incompetent or David Letterman as the irascible. The meaning
and personality of a character cannot, however, be stereotyped and brought down
to one feature only as exemplified previously: characters are made up from a connected
set of meanings. An endorsement is successful in this regard when the meanings
contained within the character are transferred onto the product and in turn
onto the consumer (McCracken, 1989). This process starts by identifying which cultural
meanings the advertiser wishes to be transferred to the product, see figure 4.
As part of this stage, the advertiser will search for objects, persons and contexts
which inherently contain such meanings and combine these through the endorsement
process. The usage of celebrities as persons instead of anonymous models
does not limit the advertiser to relatively imprecise, demographic meanings (gender,
age, status) but also lifestyle and personality meanings. Next, depending on how
successfully the advertiser encodes these meanings into the communication, the
consumer will, or will not, identify the same cultural meanings within the objects,
persons and contexts in the product. Finally, these meanings transfer to the consumer
himself, in an attempt to complete ones self-view and contribute to how the
consumer feels about himself through the brand (McCracken, 1986; Mooij, 2011).
Owning a product will transfer this meaning from the product to the consumer, becoming
part of the extended self, contributing to the consumers self-concept (Barone,
Shimp and Sprott, 1999).
Fig. 4 Meaning movement and the endorsement process
Source: McCracken, 1989, p. 315 (own adaptation)
A similar interaction between character, consumer and product, particular to product
placement as an advertising practice, has been identified through the Balance
Model of Product Placement Effects (Russell and Stern, 2006), see figure 5. Using
this model, the authors attempt to predict the relationship between the consumer
and the product through the relationship between the character and the consumer

30 Literature Survey
and the character and the product. The model draws from the balance theory (Heider,
1958) and showed that if the consumer has a liking to a character and if the
character has a liking to a product, the consumer will also align its liking to the product.
Fig. 5 Balance Model of Product Placement Effects
Source: Russell and Stern, 2006, p. 8 (own adaptation)
The attributes of a character can serve as source of secondary brand associations in
support of brand equity. The way these attributes affect existing brand knowledge
depend on awareness and knowledge of the character, the meaningfulness of the
knowledge of the character and the transferability of the knowledge of the character
Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . The awareness and knowledge of the character
refers to whether or not the character is known to the subject: if the character is not
known, it is not possible for a transfer of meaning to take place. The meaningfulness
of the knowledge of the character refers to how relevant the knowledge about the
character is to the brand, depending on the context. The transferability of the
knowledge of the character refers to the extent to which the knowledge will create
strong, favorable and unique band associations.
Self-view plays thus an important role in the effects of product placement as
an advertising form and will be further described in the next section.
3.2.8 The self-concept
The self-concept is both important to brand equity as to consumer behavior (Mooij,
2011). The self-concept is defined as all the thoughts and feelings about the self; it
combines self-esteem and self-image (the knowledge an individual has about himself
or herself). Self-esteem is the evaluative aspect of the self-concept; it concerns how
worthwhile and confident an individual feels about himself or herself (Eysenck, 2000,
p. 458). This self-concept regards in what terms people describe themselves, their
personalities, traits, and identities (Mooij, 2011, p. 109) and is the basis for behavior.
Using certain products enable consumers to distinguish themselves from others
through the unique attributes of these products and enable them to improve their
ideal self-concept (Mooij, 2011). The better the brand is presented in such a fashion
that it aligns with the self-concept of a consumer, the more positive the attitudes
towards the brands which will be created (Wang, Bristol, Mowen and Chakraborty,
2000). It is important to note that cultures tend to differ quite a lot, for instance in

Literature Survey 31
their individualistic or collectivistic nature (Hofstede, 2003): in collectivistic cultures
advertising highlighting in-group benefits have shown to be more effective,
contrarily to individualistic countries where highlighting individual benefits are
more effective (Han and Shavitt, 1994). On a similar line, individualistic cultures
value self-enhancement and self-esteem more than collectivistic cultures (Twenge
and Crocker, 2000). As for how one can reach self-enhancement, it is noteworthy
that differences exist within individualistic cultures (Mooij, 2011).
The next section will describe personality and personality traits as a type of
meaning which can be transferred through product placement as an endorsement
process.
3.2.9 Personality traits as components of meaning transfer
Personality concerns the totality of characteristics and qualities of an individual
which results in stable and lasting responses to the environment (Mooij, 2011) and
the person is an independent self-contained, autonomous entity who comprises a
unique configuration of internal attributes (e.g., traits, abilities, motives, and values)
and who behaves primarily as a consequence of these internal attributes (Mooij,
2011, p. 120). The study of personality can be used to predict and control behavior
(Mooij, 2011).
The study of personality traits has been the subject of numerous researches
dating back to the first half of the 20th century in search of universal trait dimensions
(Church and Lonner, 1998). A trait can be defined as dimensions of differences
in tendencies to show consistent thought patterns and behavior (Allport, 1937;
McCrae and Costa, 2003). However, the ways to describe a person are numerous: in
an attempt to scope the available traits, Allport and Odbert (1936) derived from the
, terms in Websters New )nternational Dictionary . terms which was
able to distinguish human behaviors. These terms were classified in four categories
of traits. Building on these results and in an attempt to deal with its size and complexity,
various studies came to similar results in establishing an overarching taxonomy.
Five personality factors were discovered remaining relatively invariant across
various analyses and thus proper criteria when studying differences in personality
(Tupes and Christal, 1958). Further research of trait categories showed significant
alignment (Cattell, Eber and Tatsuoka, 1970; Costa and McCrea, 1992; Goldberg,
1992) and became known as the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and is one of the models
which is the most often used in the organization of personality traits (Mooij, 2011),
see the table 1.

32 Literature Survey
Tab. 1 Alignment among the three main five factor models
16PF (Catell) NEO-PI-R Big Five (Goldberg)
Extraversion/Introversion
Low Anxiety/High Anxiety
Tough-Mindedness/Receptivity
Independence/Accommodation
Self-Control/Lack of Restraint
Extraversion
Neuroticism
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Source: Boyle, Matthews and Saklofske, 2008, p. 141.
Surgency
Emotional stability
Intellect or culture
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness or
dependability
These trait factors are comprised of components which give meaning to the multitude
of personality characteristics as shown in table 2.
Tab. 2 Five Factor Model of Personality Traits
Openness to
Neuroticism Extraversion
Experience
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Anxiety Warmth Fantasy Trust Competence
Angry hostility Gregariousness Aesthetics Straightforwardness Order
Depression Assertiveness Feelings Altruism Dutifulness
Self-consciousness Activity Actions Compliance Achievement striving
Impulsiveness Excitement seeking Ideas Modesty Self-discipline
Vulnerability Positive emotions Values Tender-mindedness Deliberation
Source: Allik, 2002, p. 203 (own adaptation)
It is noteworthy that in Western culture, personality traits are considered as fixed,
describing persons out of context, whereas Eastern societies tend to view these as
dependent on and variable according to the situation, describing persons in context
(Kashima, Kashima, Kim and Gelfand, 2005).
Brands can also described in terms of having a personality (Plummer, 2000).
Brand personality is defined as the way in which the consumer perceives the brand
on dimensions that typically capture a person’s – extended to the domain of brands
(Singh, 2013, p. 84). In doing so, the personality of a human is used metaphorically
for branding strategies, describing the brand personality in terms of human characteristics
(Mooij, 2011). Brand personality is formed through a multitude of marketing
efforts, but advertising is expected to be particularly of influence because of the
conclusions consumers make regarding the user or situation of usage shown. The
advertising techniques to create such meaning in terms of brand personality range
from anthropomorphization, personification with brand characters, user imagery
Fournier, as well as the usage of the actors and tone and style Keller, Apéria
and Georgson, 2008). However, the problem in using the previous models to describe
personality for the purpose of identifying the transfer of meaning from characters
onto products and its brands to shape brand personality, is that they apply to
the description of the human personality and not products and brands. The lack of

Literature Survey 33
parallel research on brand personality led to another theoretical framework: the Dimensions
of Brand Personality (Aaker, 1997). This model defined the following personality
categories for brands: sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication
and ruggedness. Three of these dimensions, namely sincerity, excitement and competence,
are similar to dimensions of personality of human personality such as the
Big Five model, respectively in relation to the dimensions agreeableness, extraversion
and conscientiousness (Aaker, Benet-Martinez and Garolera, 2001).
Though such dimensions, both for human personality as for brand personality,
have the benefit to provide a high and broad level of significance, they also are
rather abstract and their significance level in colloquial language is reduced. Aaker
(1997) defined a number of lower-level personality traits, see table 3. As companies
seek out to create strong, long-lasting brands it is possible that through various marketing
activities, the brand personality might be changed to change current brand
knowledge to desired brand knowledge Keller, Apéria and Georgson, . It is
noteworthy in this regard that consumers will have a tendency to more easily accept
and store in memory new trait information if it is congruent with existing, accessible
trait information than when it is incongruent (Johar, Sengupta and Aaker, 2005).
Tab. 3 Five dimensions of brand personality
Name
Traits with the Highest Item-to-Total Correlations
Sincerity
Excitement
Competence
Sophistication
Ruggedness
Source: Aaker, 1997, p. 351 (own adaptation)
Domestic, honest, genuine, cheerful
Daring, spirited, imaginative, up-to-date
Reliable, responsible, dependable, efficient
Glamorous, pretentious, charming, romantic
Tough, strong, outdoorsy, rugged
The next section will explain which cognitive, affective and conative processes in
consumer behavior affect product placement stimuli as inputs into achieving brand
equity effects as outcomes.
3.3 Consumer behavior
In an increasingly competitive market it is imperative for a company to understand
the behavior of its consumers to gain competitive advantage (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998; Kardes, 1999). The theoretical foundations of consumer behavior
theory are based both on psychology as well as sociology, respectively in the study
of human behavior on individual level and group level (Mooij, 2011). Consumer behavior
is defined as the study of human responses to products, services, and the marketing
of products and services (Kardes, 1999, p. 5). This understanding of the market,
through marketing and consumer research comes down to the way, the reason,
the place where and what consumers buy (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). Consumer
behavior goes beyond the buying process itself and includes how consumers
use and dispose not only in terms of physical products, but also of services, ideas

34 Literature Survey
and experiences. In other words, it is a process which includes behavior before, during
and after the purchase Mooij, . Such variations will be referred to as the
product further on.
The marketing of products and services towards a target group utilizes the
marketing mix which is defined as the controllable variables the company puts together
to satisfy this target group (Perreault and McCarthy, 2002, p. 46). The target
group refers to the customers whose wants and needs the marketer attempts to satisfy.
Marketers ought to divide the total market into homogeneous segments, chose
one or more of these segments as a target market and position the brand in the
minds of the consumers of that target market (Ries, 1981) through the effect of the
four Ps of the marketing mix (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). According to Perreault
and McCarthy these Ps are product, price, place and promotion.
Behavioral sciences have been called upon to get a better understanding of
the purchasing behavior of consumers, in particular whether or not psychological
backgrounds and its factors, such as attitudes, motives and personality traits, have
an effect on this behavior (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). This behavior comes
down how people are identified, their attributes and traits and how they feel, think
and learn (Mooij, 2011). The study of consumer behavior is in its finality aimed at
understanding the stages within buying process, from need detection to product
purchase (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). Consumer behavior expressed as
stages of consumption includes the development of a need or want, pre-purchase
planning and decision making, the purchase act itself and post-purchase behavior
which may lead to repeat buying, repeat sales, and disposition of the product after
consumption (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998, p. 25) see figure 6.

Literature Survey 35
Fig. 6 The buying process in outline
Source: Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998, p. 26 (own adaptation)
Consumer behavior is an information processing activity, as described in figure 7,
reflecting cognition-affect-conation hierarchy (Hilgard, 1980, Kardes, 1999, Mooij,
2011, Huitt and Cain, 2015). The aforementioned hierarchy is the source of cognitive
responses (thoughts), affective responses (feelings) and behavioral responses (actions)
(Kardes, 1999). This entails receiving, interpreting and searching eventually
additional external information, evaluating alternatives for satisfying a need, the development
of beliefs, attitudes and intentions related to a purchase, the purchase
itself and finally re-evaluating and storing new attitudes upon consumption of the
good purchased (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). The creation of such
knowledge can happen through information from firsthand experience (product
trial) or secondhand experience through exposure to company-provided and other
sources of information (Kardes, 1999).

36 Literature Survey
Fig. 7 A model of the consumer choice process
Source: Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998, p. 29 (own adapation)
3.3.1 Attention
Consumer behavior starts thus as a cognitive process where buying decisions are
driven by how our senses pick up perceptions of brands through stimuli shaping
brand characteristics, leading to eventual attitudes and behaviors (Foxall, Brown
and Goldsmith, 1998). These perceptions and our cognitive capacity, which is defined
as the ability to attend to and think about information (Kardes, 1999, p. 38),
depend on attention, in amount and intensity (Kahneman, 1973), is given to a stimulus.
Attention is key to the transfer of information from sensory register to shortterm
memory (Kardes, 1999). The intensity of attention is influenced by the level of
arousal which is defined as a state of wakefulness or alertness (Kardes, 1999, p. 36)
where low arousal results in low attention intensity and high arousal results in high
attention intensity. As arousal increases, it eventually reaches a tipping point where
further increased arousal diminishes the attention intensity due to overstimulation
of the subject (Pavelchak, Antil and Munch, 1988). A marketer therefore aims to
reach a moderate level of arousal resulting in an optimal cognitive capacity the handle
information. Such increased arousal levels can be produced through exciting
events such as for instance movies (Kardes, 1999).
In the case of an advertisement as stimulus, the attention given to, and thus
the importance of, an attribute of the advertisement will depend on the characteristics
of the advertisement, response opportunity factors and the characteristics of the
message recipient (Mackenzie, 1986) as shown in figure 8. For instance, it is proven
that regarding the characteristics of the message recipient, prior knowledge and expertise
increases the information handling capability of the subject (Alba and
Hutchinson, 1987).

Literature Survey 37
Fig. 8 Factors influencing the amount of attention given to an ad
Source: Mackenzie, 1986, p. 177
The interpretation process of these stimuli is influenced by the motives of the consumer
and selective (Hastorf and Cantril, 1954) in the sense that it aims to
strengthen the worldview and self-view of the consumer before being stored in
memory. The social, business, political and economic environment are the basis for
the stimuli in advertisements or interpersonal observations (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998). These stimuli are made up from small, single units of information
such as words, letters, etc. or large, strings thereof (Newell and Simon, 1972).
The consumer goes through stages of preattention, focal attention, comprehension
and elaboration when subjected to advertising stimuli (Greenwald and
Leavitt, 1984) as shown in figure 9.
Fig. 9 Four levels of involvement
Source: Greenwald and Leavitt, 1984, p. 585 (own adaptation)
Preattention uses the lowest amount of attentional capacity and advertising is expected
not to have enduring effects. Focal attention allocates a moderate level of attentional
capacity to decipher the sensory content of the message into categories

38 Literature Survey
(words, objects, … lacking context Greenwald and Leavitt, and partially
store the information obtained into memory (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998).
Focal attention can be voluntary, a selective type of attention when the consumer
experiences a need to which the stimulus relates and which thus have relevancy to
current intentions (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998, Kardes, 1999). Attention
can also be drawn from the environment in which the message take shape through
different styles of messaging (Kotler, 2012), potentially more disruptive in nature,
which can as such serve as salient, sometimes involuntary, stimuli (Kardes, 1999).
The concepts of comprehension and elaboration will be discussed further on.
The level of consumer involvement in the product strongly affects information
processing (Krugman, 1965): in the case of high involvement, consumers
have a high level of attention and evaluation to arguments proposed through the
message, contrarily to low involvement where little information is being processed
(Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998).
The next section describes how the consumer gives meaning to the message
which is in turn stored in memory.
3.3.2 Comprehension and memory
Memory is an information processing system (Kardes, 1999) where information
goes from perception to transferal in a sensorial register before eventually being
transferred to short-term memory and long-term memory (Atkinson, 1968) as show
on figure 10.
Fig. 10 Structure of the memory system
Source: Atkinson, 1968, p. 93 (own adaptation)
Information is kept in short-term memory for very short periods of time and that
this tendency to forget information is affected by failure to rehearse (Peterson and
Peterson, 1959). Short-term memory information is acoustically encoded whereas

Literature Survey 39
long- term memory is semantically encoded (Kardes, 1999). Table 4 summarizes
how short-term memory properties differs from those of long-term memory.
Tab. 4
Short-term
memory
Properties of Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory
Information
Capacity
Duration
loss
seven plus or minus
two
Long-term
unlimited
memory
Source: Kardes, 1999, p. 63
18 seconds
permanent
rehearsal
failure
retrieval
failure
Coding
acoustic (sound
related)
Semantic (meaning
related)
Contrarily, people can store large quantities of information in long-term memory.
Such information is however not readily available and must be activated in shortterm
memory to be consciously aware of this information and to be utilized. This
conscious awareness is, however, affected by our limited ability to consider large
number of units of information (Kardes, 1999).
Comprehension might happen in different ways, as well as the consumer's
responses to it (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998) and can differ from the meaning
intended by the advertiser Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008). At the highest level
of attentional capacity, elaboration, the consumer integrates the content of the message
with existing knowledge based on experience (Greenwald and Leavitt, 1984;
Alba and Hutchinson, 1987), creating complex networks of ideas and feelings associated
to the brand (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998).
Transferring information from short-term memory to long term memory is
regulated by processes of rehearsal and coding. The first implicates the repetition of
information multiple times in the mind whereas the latter implicates relating shortterm
information and long-term information. As a result, the coding process denotes
a two-way transfer of information between short-term and long-term memory
(Kardes, 1999). Information can be stored in long-term memory through repetition,
symbolic or verbal representations, the organization of information and retrieval
(Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). This information is stored in memory as associations,
for instance associations to brands through advertising (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998) as previously discussed.
The next section describes how the information stored in memory serves as
a basis for beliefs, attitudes and preferences.
3.3.3 Beliefs, attitudes and preferences
Information stored in memory through stimuli end up in different cognitive categories,
containing symbols that represent these stimuli. These categories can in turn
be broken down into attributes (Wyer, 1976). Though there are different interpretations
about the overarching category of beliefs, attitudes and preferences, it is
agreed upon that information in memory is the basis for a multidimensional model
which can be broken down into a cognitive component (knowledge and beliefs), an

40 Literature Survey
affective component (a degree of liking or disliking) and a conative component (a
level of intent) (Wyer, 1976; Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998; Kardes, 1999).
Beliefs, or nonevaluative judgments, apply for instance to product attributes,
and can be expressed as a position on a continuous dimension (Kardes, 1999). Such
beliefs are sometimes also expressed as values (Mooij, 2011). For instance, a consumers
belief about the size of a product can range from not large to very large.
Such beliefs can be descriptive, informational and inferential. The first are based on
firsthand experience, the second on secondhand information and the third on inferences
resulting from missing information (Kardes, 1999).
Based on what the consumer learns, attitudes are created. Attitude is defined
as the overall favorable or unfavorable evaluation of one object and its attributes
(Hughes, 1971; Fazio, 1990; Fiske, Gilbert and Gardner, 1997). Such evaluation has
both direction (e.g. good vs. bad) as well as extremity (Kardes, 1999). Attitudes are
important when it comes to predicting buying decisions as well as for the evaluation
of advertising (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). Attitudes are often described as
the following functions: an instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian function which
serves to develop favorable and unfavorable attitudes to objectives which respectively
support or thwart the satisfaction of needs or reaching goals, an ego-defensive
function which serves to protect oneself from internal conflicts stemming from insecurities
which might affect one's self-view, a value expressive function to express
oneself positively regarding the person he is and a knowledge function to give meaning
to the unorganized world around him (Katz, 1960). This multitude of functions
are ascribed to the fact we are driven by various motives (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith,
1998).
Preferences differ from attitudes in the sense that it concerns evaluations
about two or more objects put into contrast instead of an evaluation of solely one
object. These preferences can be, but are not always, influenced by attitudes and are
known in this case as attitude-based preferences. This requires of course familiarity
with the object. If there is no such familiarity, the subject will evaluate both objects
on one attribute. This process is known as attribute-based preferences (Kardes,
1999).
The next section describes how intention judgement and behavior is formed
and if and how this is affected by attitudes.
3.3.4 Intention judgment and behavior
Intention judgment regards making predictions of future behavior. Research has
shown however that consumers have difficulties in accurately predicting their own
behavior, one reason among others being oversimplification potentially occurring
as information in support of one prediction can support other predictions as well
(Kardes, 1999). For a long time, it was assumed that attitudes influence purchasing
behavior (Kardes, 1999). Research has however indicated that this effect does not
necessarily exist (Wicker, 1969) and that it depends on the cultural background
(Mooij, 2011). This is because behavior is influenced by not only attitudes but also
by norms, individual differences and personality processes as well as the properties
of attitudes.

Literature Survey 41
Regarding the first influence, it is possible that, for instance, despite a favorable
attitude towards a product, both personal as social norms might incite the subject
not buy a product. Regarding the second influence, sensitivity to either social or
internal cues, differences in locus of control and other personality variables might
impact behavior. Finally, regarding the third influence, the stronger the attitude, the
greater the impact on behavior (Kardes, 1999).
Moreover, in the activation of attitudes, motivation and opportunity play an
important role. Motivation concerns the extent to which behavior is personally relevant
whereas opportunity concerns the extent to which one can take the time and
carefully think about an action. If both are low, attitudes are activated when exposed
to the object (Fazio, 1990).

42 Methods and materials
4 Methods and materials
This chapter describes the theoretical background, samples, research designs and
procedures used as part of this thesis. It also describes the research questions and
hypotheses as stated in the objectives of the thesis.
4.1 Theoretical background of methods used
In order to meet its research objectives, the thesis engages in both descriptive and
causal research (Kotler, 2012). In terms of descriptive research, it aims to describe
the effects of product placement and its possible causes. Survey research, which is
elaborated on further on, is considered a proper method to engage in descriptive
research. In terms of causal research, it aims to test hypothesis and cause-and-effect-relationships.
Experimental research is considered a proper method to obtain
causal information: this regards the selection of matched groups of subjects, subjecting
them to various treatments, the control of factors which are not related, and
verifying differences in responses of the groups (Kotler, 2012).
In order to do so, the thesis utilizes several research methods to obtain primary
data. Primary data concerns information which is gathered for a specific research
goal, contrarily to secondary data which regards already existing data, which
was gathered to meet a different goal (Kotler, 2012).
The theoretical background of the methods used to obtain the primary data
needed to comply with the thesis research objectives will be briefly described below.
4.1.1 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument used in survey research. Survey research
regards collecting data through asking people question regarding the knowledge,
attitudes, preferences, and buying behavior, by asking them questions directly related
to these aforementioned matters (Kotler, 2012). It is considered the most commonly
used method to collect primary data, particularly suited to obtain information
which is descriptive in nature. Advantages of this research can be found in its flexibility
as it can be utilized to gather different kinds of information in varying situations:
questionnaires can employ both open-end questions and close-end questions.
Open-end questions allow the subject to answer to questions in their own words
and thus there are no limitations imposed as to what the subject answers. Closedend
questions on the other hand have a pre-defined set of answers defined among
which the subject can choose to respond to the questions. The wording and ordering
of questions is key in using questionnaires: these ought to be simple, unbiased and
direct. Questionnaires can be conducted through various media, ranging from
phone, to e-mail, to personal contact or event through the internet (Kotler, 2012).
Survey research also comes with its disadvantages. These include an unwillingness
to respond to interviewers they are not familiar with or due to the fact the responses
queried might be too personal for the subject. The quality of the data might also be

Methods and materials 43
negatively influenced by subjects answering the questions without knowing the answers
or answering to appear more knowledgeable than they are. Time is also oftentimes
a constraint why surveys are not filled out properly (Kotler, 2012).
4.1.2 Eye-tracking
Eye-tracking is a research instrument which is part of the mechanical instruments
of research, utilized for the monitoring of consumer behavior. This is part of neuromarketing,
where researchers measure the activity within a brain to get insights in
how subjects feel and respond. Other mechanical instruments utilized in neuromarketing
include MRI scans and EEG devices, which specifically track brain electrical
activity and blood flow (Kotler, 2012).
Though utilizing neuromarketing techniques provide the benefit of measuring
the involvement of consumers and their emotions, it provides the challenge in
interpreting these data. It is therefore common to combine this research with other
types of research (Kotler, 2012). Eye-tracking, as a research instrument part of neuromarketing,
has the additional benefit of measuring behavior (what people do) instead
of goals and attitudes (what people say) (Portigal, 2013), behavior which is
not easily controllable (by the subjects of the study themselves) or observable (by
the researchers) (Bojko, 2013).
Eye tracking specifically is the process of identification of where a person is
looking and how this person is looking. Particularly, it is the measurement of eye
movement characteristics and the eye itself (Bojko, 2013). Eye tracking happens
with a mechanical instrument called an eye tracker. It operates by shining infrared
light onto the face of a subject followed by two measurements: firstly, it records the
reflection of the infrared from the retina in order to locate the center of the eye pupil.
Secondly, it records the reflection of the infrared light from the cornea, also known
as corneal reflection. In order to do so, an eye tracker contains a near-infrared light
source, creating the reflection on the eye, as well as camera which has a focus on the
eye of the subject, recording the reflection. Eye tracking software consequently calculates
the gaze location, superimposing it on a stimulus the subject was looking at
(Bojko, 2013).
There are three types of eye trackers: firstly, static eye trackers, putting both
illumination and camera on the table, before the subject. This category further
breaks down in tower-mounted eye trackers, which utilize a headrest, fixating the
head of the subject and limiting movement and remote eye trackers, which have limited
or no tools to put the head in a fixed position. Secondly, head-mounted eye
trackers, putting both illumination and camera on the subjects head through for instance
a helmet or glasses. Thirdly, a head-tracker, which can be added to the headmounted
eye tracker to calculate the position of the head in space (Holmqvist et al.,
2011). As such this last category will be considered a part of the head-mounted eye
tracker type.
Static eye trackers differ from head-mounted eye trackers, in terms of setup,
application, obtrusiveness, freedom of movement and ease of analysis. Regarding
their application, static eye trackers are best suited for research where the subject

44 Methods and materials
can stand or sit in one place and the stimulus is shown on a stationary surface. Examples
include websites, images and videos. Head-mounted eye trackers on the
other hand, are best suited for research where subjects need to have freedom of
movement or are required to interact with their environment. Examples include
wayfinding and shopping experiences (Bojko, 2013).
Further exploring the application of static eye trackers, the main advantage
of tower-mounted eye trackers is that they provide data of better quality in terms of
accuracy and precision. This goes at the expense of a less natural experience as the
subject is strongly aware of the presence of the eye tracker. Contrarily, remote eye
trackers have the disadvantage of providing data of lower quality. The benefit is that
this mechanical instrument provides a more natural experience as the subject is less
aware of the eye trackers presence Holmqvist et al., 2011). The choice between one
of the two mechanical instruments comes down to a trade-off between ecological
validity and scientific control and ease of analysis. The first relates to attempting to
create a study environment which is as similar as possible to a real-life situation,
allowing the results to be more generalized to a real world setting. Scientific control
on the other hand allows to modify the study environment in such a way to minimize
the effect of undesired variables on the results (Bojko, 2013).
An area of interest (AOI) is a region within the stimulus presented to the subject
which is of particular interest to the research to gather data about. This can uncover
whether or not the subject looked at the area, which properties the eye movements
had and define specific events taking place. AOIs are created through an AOI
editor, a tool for spatial segmentation (Holmqvist et al., 2011). The minimum size of
an AOI is dependent on the accurateness and precision of the eye tracker. It is advised
that the minimum AOI size is at least 2,54 cm x 2,54 cm. To further compensate
lack of accuracy and precision, it is advised to use padding when applying an AOI.
This is an additional margin in terms of size of the AOI around the region of interest,
so that fixations which might have fallen out of the region of interest, due to imperfect
accuracy offset, would be captured. This amount of padding is considered arbitrary
due to degrees of variety of available whitespace around the stimulus (Bojko,
2013).
A non-exhaustive list of aforementioned events or KPIs an eye tracker can
measure are shown in table 5 below (SMI, 2014, p. 281):

Methods and materials 45
Tab. 5 AOI KPIs
KPI name unit Description
Dwell Time ms and % Dwell time average ms = sum (all fixations and
saccades within an AOI for all selected subjects) /
by number of selected subject.
Dwell time average % = dwell time average * 100
/ (current time - start time).
Hit Ratio count and % How many subjects out of the selected subjects
looked at least one time into the AOI - "total hit
count" / "number of selected subjects"
Revisits count Average Revisits = Number of revisits divided by
number of selected subjects with at least one
glance
Glances = Increments the counter each time a
fixation hits the AOI if not hit before
Revisitors count Revisitors is a number n out of m subjects (e.g. 3
revisitors out of 7 visitors) where:
- n is the number of subjects with more than one
visit in an AOI
- m is the total number of subjects with at least one
visit into an AOI
Source: SMI, BeGaze Manual, p. 281 (own adaptation)
Eye tracking software also utilizes different ways how to visualize data. Two of
such visualization techniques are heat maps and focus maps. Heat maps uses various
color levels to indicate the amount or duration of eye fixations to which focus
maps are an alternative visual representation (Bergstrom and Schall, 2014).
4.1.3 Interviews
Interviews are part of the personal interviewing methods. These break down in two
types of interviewing: individual interviewing and group interviewing. Such interviewing
can be conducted in various places, ranging from the interviewees homes,
offices, on the street or even shopping malls (Kotler, 2012). Interviews provide qualitative
information (insights specifically about subjects goals and attitudes. )nterviewing
entails a few specific steps in a process: firstly, regarding a profound study
of people. Secondly, it regards not just the exploration of the behavior of subjects,
but also what behaviors mean. Thirdly, it regards understanding the data through
interfering, interpreting, analyzing and synthesizing these data. Finally, it concerns
the utilization of these data at the benefit of a product, service or another solution
(Portigal, 2013). Group interviewing in particular consists in inviting up to ten people
to discuss a certain matter, for instance a product. This process is guided by a

46 Methods and materials
moderator, who aims at focusing the discussion, and is therefore also known as focus
group interviewing. One of the advantages of interviewing lies in its flexibility:
the interviews can be guided, offering a possibility to explain complicated questions
or even show actual stimuli in the form of products or advertisements (Kotler,
2012). The challenges presented in using both individual interviewing and group
interviewing are the inability to generalize results due to low sample sizes (Kotler,
2012, Portigal, 2013) and the focus on measuring current buying behavior and a
weaker ability to predict future buying behavior as well as the research taking place
in an unnatural context (Portigal, 2013). A particular issue with group interviewing
is that subjects are not always willing to be open and honest, in particular towards
other subjects of the focus group interview (Kotler, 2012).
4.2 Overview of the samples
Table 6 summarizes the various samples used in the practical part in terms of age,
gender and nationality. These will be detailed further on.

Methods and materials 47
Tab. 6 Summary samples
Sample 1: self-reported effects of product placement (n = 164)
Demographic Categories # of respondents
Age spread 20 years 11
21 years 107
22 years 40
23 years 5
25 years 1
Gender spread Male 29
Female 135
Country of origin Czech Republic 125
Slovakia 32
Other 7
Sample 2: differences in effects between visual and audiovisual product placements (n = 80)
Demographic Categories # of respondents
Age spread 20 years 4
21 years 26
22 years 38
23 years 9
25 years 3
Gender spread Male 61
Female 19
Country of origin Czech Republic 64
Slovakia 14
Other 2
Sample 3: differences in effects between exposure and non-exposure to product placement (n = 55)
Demographic Categories # of respondents
Age spread 19 years 2
20 years 6
21 years 7
22 years 7
23 years 19
24 years 9
25 years 2
26 years 1
31 years 2
Gender spread Male 25
Female 30
Country of origin Czech Republic 17
Slovakia 4
Other 34
Source: questionnaire survey and experiments, 2014 - 2015

48 Methods and materials
4.3 Self-reported effects of product placement
4.3.1 Sample description
The convenience sample of the research was sourced from a pool of 368 students
enrolled in the Marketing Communication course at Mendel university in the academic
year 2014–2015. As the research was conducted on three different moments
in time, the sample size varied: the first, second and third part of the experiment had
a sample size of respectively 214, 296 and 291 subjects. The final dataset contained
only subjects which gave complete answers to all three instances of the research,
amounting to a total sample size of 164 subjects. The age from the subjects varied in
between the range of 20 years old and 25 years old, respectively born in between
1994 and 1989, which is in line with the age ranges typically defined for Generation
Y (Finn and Donovan, 2013, Yu and Timmerman, 2014, Shugerman, 2018). The gender
of the subjects was predominantly female with 135 female and 29 male subjects.
The spread in nationality was predominantly Czech with 125 subjects.
4.3.2 Research design and procedure
The research took place in an auditorium of Mendel university on 3 separate occasions
from October to November 2014. The subjects were not informed about the
research objective in advance. The subjects were asked to view a video clip projected
on the auditoriums screen. The clips chosen for each of the 3 occasions had
sound support in their original English language. The video clips were clips from
their original full-length versions, to avoid view fatigue. Three video clips in total
were shown, each containing a brand shown as product placement. The sequence in
which the video clips were shown across the 3 occasions as well as their description
can be found in table 7.
Tab. 7 Questionnaire survey: overview of video clips
Sequence Video clip name Type Category Brand
1 Heart to heart Music video
Consumer
electronics
Sony
2 Skyfall Movie Beer Heineken
3 The Big Bang Theory Television series Yoghurt Activia
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
Upon viewing each of the video clips, the subjects were handed over a printed questionnaire,
were asked to complete it and to hand it back over to the course lecturer
at the end the course as incentive. As an incentive, the subjects were informed by
the lecturer that the completion of the questionnaire would contribute to their
course credits. Due to a predominantly Czech audience and as the subjects were all
part of the Czech study program, the questionnaire was provided in the Czech language.
The answers would later on be translated into their English equivalents as a
part of the data analysis.

Methods and materials 49
The questionnaire was kept brief on purpose in an attempt to gather as many
responses as possible and contained therefore only 4 questions. The first two questions
were aimed to measure the cognitive responses to the product placements as
stimuli shown in the video clips. It firstly evaluated if the subjects were able to identify
the product category to which the brand placed belonged. Secondly, it evaluated
if the subjects were able to recall the brand itself with its brand name. The third
question was aimed at measuring the conative responses on a 3-point scale: the subjects
could indicate if their opinion about the brand changed positively, negatively
or if it had neither a positive nor a negative effect. Finally, the subjects were asked
to indicate their student ID, which provided a database key to extract demographic
data about the individual subjects. The questionnaire survey can be found in appendix
A.
4.3.3 Research questions and hypotheses
The aim of this research was to understand the relation between product category
awareness and brand awareness. The following null hypothesis to test dependency
was formulated:
H0: Product category recall and brand recall are independent from each
other.
Additionally, the aim of the research was to understand the relation between brand
awareness and brand attitude. The following null hypothesis to test dependency was
formulated:
H0: brand recall and attitudes towards brands are independent from
each other.
4.4 Differences in effects between visual and audiovisual
product placements
4.4.1 Sample description
The convenience sample of this research was sourced from a pool of 114 students
enrolled in the Marketing of Services course at Mendel university in the academic
year 2014–2015. The age range at the subjects varied in between 20 years old and
24 years old, respectively born in between 1991 and 1995, which is in line with the
aforementioned age ranges typically defined for Generation Y. The gender of the
subjects was predominantly female with 61 female and 19 male subjects. The spread
in nationality was predominantly Czech with 125 subjects.
4.4.2 Research design and procedure
An experiment was conducted at Mendel University in Brno, the Faculty of Business
and Economics, in the eye tracking laboratory.

50 Methods and materials
As the aim of the experiment was to analyze the differences in responses between
visual and audiovisual types of product placement, two experiment groups
were created. For both groups, the research conditions were the same, except that
the one group was subjected to visual product placement stimuli whereas the other
to audiovisual ones. Each of the 80 subjects was randomly assigned to one of the two
experiment groups, amounting to a total of 40 subjects for each group.
The subjects were invited into the Eye-tracking laboratory separately. As incentive,
the subjects had been informed in advance that participation in the experiment
would contribute to their course credits. The subjects were not informed
about the nature and the goal of the research. This was due to the importance of
subjects not to be preconditioned upon starting the experiment and avoiding bias
throughout the experiment.
The subjects were requested to be seated in front of a computer screen. The
subjects were explained that the computer screen was equipped with an eye tracker
which would record the eye movements of the subjects as they would watch the
stimuli. It was decided to use a static eye tracker for this research, specifically a remote
eye tracker. This choice was motivated by the conditions under which the subjects
usually would be subjected to the entertainment media stimuli outside of a research
context: movies, music videos and TV serials are often watched on a screen.
This does not require the subject to be mobile (Holmqvist et al., 2011). In addition,
the choice of a remote eye tracker was motivated by a desire to improve the ecological
validity of the research (Bojko, 2013).
Next, the subjects were informed about the procedure of the experiment and
its duration, which was estimated at 20 minutes in total. The procedure of the experiment
was as follows: each subject was shown the video clip as stimulus corresponding
to the experiment group to which he or she belonged. Both clips were composed
of different clips of videos within the entertainment categories music videos,
TV shows and movies. The choice for using clips instead of full-length videos was to
avoid viewer fatigue which might negatively influence the sitting position of the subject
in which in turn, the data captured by the eye-tracker (Bojko, 2013). To avoid
the subject from being over-subjected to product placement messages, which might
not reflect a real-life setting, the video clip was composed of 3 videos containing
product placement messages and 10 videos without product placement messages,
see table 8.

Methods and materials 51
Tab. 8 Experiment 1: video clips
Scenario 1: visual product placements
Videos with product placement
Captain America - Winter Soldier (movie)
James Bond - Skyfall (movie)
Dexter (TV series)
Scenario 2: audiovisual product placements
Videos with product placement
Modern Family (TV series)
Twin Peaks (TV series)
Yes Man (movie)
Video without product placement
Birdman (movie)
Breaking bad (series)
Californication (series)
Carly Rae Jespen - Call Me Maybe (music video)
Eminem - The Monster (music video)
Herbar (commercial)
Avicii - Wake me up (music video)
Kamenak 3 (movie)
Transformers (movie)
Nicki Minaj (Starships)
Psy - Gangnam Style (Music video)
Brand
Apple
Heineken
Red Bull
Brand
Apple
Heineken
Red Bull
Source: experiment visual and audiovisual product placements, 2015, n = 80
Brands placed in these videos and their respective product categories were as
shown in table 9. These brands presented as product placements had to comply with
the aforementioned types: visual or audiovisual, respectively also defined as visual
only (VIS) or/and combined audio-visual (AV) (Gupta and Lord, 1998).
Tab. 9
Experiment 1: brands
Product category 1:
Consumer electronics
Product category 1:
Beers
Product category 1:
Energy drinks
Source: experiment visual and audiovisual product placements, 2015, n = 80
Thus, the two versions of the video clip were identical except in terms of video excerpt
sequence, the filler music videos used, but were not identical in terms of the
videos containing product placement.

52 Methods and materials
Before exposing each subject to the video clips, the subjects gaze was calibrated
during three calibration rounds from which the optimal values were kept. If
for a subject each of the three rounds reported unusable calibration values, the subject
would not be included in the final dataset.
Upon completion of watching the video clip, the subjects participated in a
guided interview. The answers to the questions of these interview were introduced
to a questionnaire form on the computer by the subject, see appendix B. This interview
started by asking the subjects which brands they remembered from the video
clip to measure brand recall. This allowed to measure the extent to which the subject
could recall a brand excluding clues to brands in question (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith,
1998). It is important to note however that brand recall was measured in this
case without presenting the subject with a purchase or usage situation relevant to
the brand, a required mentioned in some definitions of brand recall Keller, Apéria
and Georgson, 2008).
This contrasts with the second question, where the subjects were given cues
to the brands shown by subjecting them to a consecution of 12 brand images, to
measure brand recognition. These images were randomized to avoid primacy and
recency effects on recall due to systematic early or late serial positioning of items in
a list of brands (Kardes, 1999). These brand images each belonged to one of the
three aforementioned product categories: one brand per product category appeared
as product placement (total 3) and three brands per product category didnt appear
as product placement (total 9). The aim of showing brand images which did not appear
in the video clip was to avoid guessing on behalf of the subjects in case true
brand recall was not achieved. Recognition, a method through which a consumer is
presented with an advertisement after a certain time period and asked whether or
not he remembers it, was not used during the study as a measure of recall due to
potential confusion with similar advertisements (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith,
1998).
Thirdly, the subjects were shown an image of actual products from the product
categories from the brands shown in the clips through product placements. This
reflects the reality of the consumer choice where several similar brands exist with
attributes which are difficult to discriminate one from another (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998). For each product category, the subjects were asked to indicate a
product they preferred as a measure of their affect to the brand. In other words,
which product contains a relative advantage over the other by providing more benefits
than the other (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). Only one choice per product
category could be made. This question was followed by an open-ended question
allowing the subject to freely express themselves as to why they preferred one
brand over another.
Fourthly, the subjects were asked to express their attitude about the products
belonging to the product categories from brands shown in the video clip
through product placement as another measure for the consumer's affect within
their attitude (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). To assess such attitudes, it is
common to use rating scales, allowing the subject to express his feeling within a continuum
of ordered categories of feelings (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998;

Methods and materials 53
Kardes, 1999). Such semantic differential scales, or bipolar adjective scales, describe
adjectives from one evaluative extreme (positive) to another (negative) (Kardes,
1999). An alternative to such scale is the Likert scale (Likert, 1932), which allows a
subject to indicate the extent to which one agrees or disagrees with a statement.
Scale interpretations can be hampered, however, as values on such a scale offer a
challenge from the viewpoint of perspective theory as one subject may interpret one
value differently than another (Kardes, 1999) and due to alignment with answers to
previous questions (Feldman and Lynch, 1988). For this purpose, the subjects were
able to indicate their opinion through a semantic differential scale. Such scale is validated
as measure which suits survey research (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998).
For this research the following statements were utilized: very good, good, neither
good, nor bad, bad and very bad. This question was followed by an open-ended
question allowing the subject to freely express themselves on the reasons behind
their attitude towards the brands.
Fifthly, the subjects were asked about their past consumption behavior by
indicating which brand they previously consumed or own. The subjects could indicate
only one brand per product category.
Finally, the subjects were asked to fill-out personal data including name, surname,
gender, age, postal code and nationality.
In order to avoid subjects who took part in the experiment to influence and
raise expectations among the subjects who did not take part in the experiment
through suggestions (Maier, 1965), they were asked not to disclose the nature and
the goal of the research upon completing the individual experiment.
4.4.3 Research questions and hypotheses
The aim of this research was to understand the differences in brand recall, attitude
and preference to brands between exposure to visual and audiovisual types of product
placement. Additionally, it aimed to understand if product preference has an effect
on attention to product placement. Regarding the relation between dwell time
and product preference, the following null hypothesis was formulated:
H0: There is no significant difference in dwell time between product
preferences.
Regarding the relation between brand recall and product placement type, the following
null hypothesis was formulated:
H0: Brand recall and product placement type are independent from
each other.
In terms of attitude, the research wished to describe if there are differences in attitude
between visual and audiovisual types of product placement as well as its causes
on a qualitative level.
In terms of preference, the research wished describe if there are differences
in product preference between visual and audiovisual types of product placements

54 Methods and materials
and its causes on a qualitative level. Regarding the relation between product placement
type and product preference, the following null hypothesis was formulated:
H0: Product placement type and product preference are independent
from each other.
4.5 Differences in effects between exposure and non-exposure
to product placement
4.5.1 Sample description
The convenience sample of this research was sourced from a pool of 63 students
enrolled in the Marketing II course at Mendel university in the academic year 2014–
2015. The age range from the subjects varied between 19 years old and 26 years old,
respectively born in between 1990 and 1997, which is in line with the aforementioned
age ranges typically defined for Generation Y, with the exception of one outlier
of 31 years old. In total, 25 males and 30 females participated in the experiment.
The sample was composed of various nationalities, predominantly from European
countries with 46 subjects (92% of the total sample size) and the largest national
segment originating from the Czech Republic with 17 subjects (31% of the total sample
size).
4.5.2 Research design and procedure
The procedure of the experiment was planned as follows: to avoid influence from
individual differences among subjects, each subject was randomly assigned to either
the experiment group or the control group. These groups would be subjected to respectively
a randomized sequence of videos containing product placement stimuli
or a randomized sequence without product placement stimuli.
Both clips were composed of different clips of videos within the entertainment
categories music videos, TV shows and movies. The choice for using clips instead
of full-length videos was to avoid viewer fatigue which might negatively influence
the sitting position of the subject in which in turn, the data captured by the eyetracker.
To avoid the subject from being over-subjected to product placement messages,
which might not reflect a real-life setting, the video clip was composed videos
containing product placement messages and videos without product placement
messages. To compensate for any U-curve learning process, where stimuli first and
last shown in a sequence would result in higher recall, the sequence of the movie
clips was randomized for each subject (Krugman, 1965).
The characters chosen for the clips used in the experiment had to fulfill the
following conditions: either being famous for one particular role, to which they bring
"the creation of a self that is new or innovative", or being famous for various roles
for which they were typecast. After all, typecasting is the very reason why celebrities
are such strong vehicles in transferring meaning to products: a celebrity which is
deprived of typecasting is not able to provide unambiguous and clear meanings to

Methods and materials 55
products (McCracken, 1989). Another criteria was the popularity of the chosen movies
or series: given the fact the sample contained subjects with various national
backgrounds, the movies or series had to be previously broadcast internationally,
increasing the likelihood the subjects were exposed to these series. Such prior exposure
would enable them to make judgments about personality trait associations
of the characters concerned based on long-term memory. Table 10 provides an overview
of the movies or series and their respective characters.
Tab. 10 Experiment 2: movies/series and characters
Movie/Series 1 Movie/Series 2 Movie/Series 3
Title: The Big Bang Theory Title: Breaking Bad Title: Captain America
Character: Sheldon Cooper Character: Walter White Character: Black Widow
Movie/Series 4 Movie/Series 5 Movie/Series 6
Title: Skyfall Title: Yes Man Title: Sex and the City
Character: James Bond Character: Carl Allen Character: Carrie Bradshaw
Source: experiment exposure and non-exposure to product placement, 2015, n = 55
Such international deployment is a common practice in terms of international product
development where the product, in this case the movie or series, must appeal to
an audience larger than the domestic market to recuperate the production cost.
Brands themselves as well are increasingly being advertised internationally. Doing
so in a standardized way could be beneficial in terms of cost reduction, quality control
and consistency, but less effective as consumer values and behavior tend to dif-

56 Methods and materials
fer across cultures (Mooij, 2011). It is interesting to note that this provides the producers
of movies and series to fund their productions with product placement of
brands which are not only marketed in the domestic market or dont appeal to the
domestic market at all, in favor of a target market.
The experiment started by welcoming in the subject and explaining the purpose
and procedure of the experiment. As incentive, the subjects had been informed
in advance that participation in the experiment would contribute to their course
credits.
The subject was asked to participate in the first part of a guided interview, see
appendix C (this excludes the measures regarding aided and unaided brand recall,
which were embedded in the eye tracking software). This started with asking the
subject to fill out his or her student identification from Mendel University. This
would serve to gather general data about the subjects student profile in the university
database. Next for each of the 6 aforementioned series or movies, the three
questions were asked.
The first question asked the subject which of the 6 movies and series previously
mentioned he or she knew. These movies and series were visualized through a
presentation poster as well as the name of the movie or TV series. This was a closeended
question which could be answered with answer options yes or no.
The second question asked the subject which of the characters from the respective
movies or series the subject liked, as an indicator of affection expressed for a
certain character. This was a close-ended question which could be answered with
answer options yes, no or ) do not know this character.
The third question asked the subject to describe the personality features by arranging
10 personality traits which the subject deemed the most descriptive for a
character by order of importance, from high to low. The personality traits presented
to the subjects were based on the five personality trait categories for brand personality
(Aaker, 1999): sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication and ruggedness.
To increase their descriptive value, these five categories were broken down
into sets of two lower-lever personality traits which are descriptive for each of the
5 respective categories (Aaker, 1999): honest, daring, reliable, glamorous, tough,
genuine, imaginative, responsible, charming and strong. These traits serve as attributes
to categorize the stimulus, being the character. It was expected that subjects
will assign stimuli to different subsets of attributes (Wyer, 1974). Though some
studies agree (Raad, 2006) and some disagree (Paunonen et al., 1992) language and
culture have an impact on the reliability of personality traits, it was decided for this
research to validate the meaning given to each of the personality traits by each student,
to account for eventual discrepancies in meanings, as the sample of subjects
contained a variety of national backgrounds: firstly, the subject was asked if the English
variants of the traits presented were understandable. When the subject answered
negatively for one or more of the traits, he or she was presented with a list
of respective translations of the traits in his or her native language. In this case, upon
viewing the translated list, the subject was asked to describe the personality trait or
traits in his or her own words to validate their meaning. If a discrepancy remained

Methods and materials 57
between the intended meaning and the perceived meaning of a trait or traits, the
researcher would clarify and validate the meaning with the subject.
The benefit of the breakdown of the previous questions is that it allowed to
filter out subjects which had either no previous long-term memory information
(Kardes, 1999) of the movies or series or of its characters, not enabling them to
make elaborate by associating this long term information with newly acquired
knowledge in short-term memory (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998) through the
Balance Model of Product Placement Effects (Russell and Stern, 2006).
Once this first part of the survey was concluded, the subjects were asked to
watch a series of video clips as previously described. The first group of subjects, the
experimental group, would view a series of video clips in random order containing
the product placements. The product placements paired one of the previously described
characters with a brand as shown in table 11.
Tab. 11 Experiment 2: pairing characters and brands
Brand 1 Brand 2
Activia
Coca-Cola
Paired with character 1 Paired with character 2
Sheldon Cooper
Walter White
Brand 3 Brand 4
Apple
Heineken
Paired with character 3 Paired with character 4
Black Widow
James Bond
Brand 5 Brand 6
Red Bull
Starbucks
Paired with character 5 Paired with character 6
Carl Allen
Carrie Bradshaw
Source: experiment exposure and non-exposure to product placement, 2015, n = 55

58 Methods and materials
The second group, the control group, would view a series of video clips in random
order not containing the product placement. The clips containing product placements
not shown to the control group, were replaced with clips containing the same
characters performing the same actions: for instance, if the experimental group was
exposed to a clip showing a character consuming a beverage from one brand, the
control group would see another clip with the same character consuming a beverage
from another brand.
Upon completion of watching the sequence of video clips, the subjects were
asked to complete the second part of the survey on the computer. The subjects
would first be asked which brands they remembered from the video as a measure
of unaided of brand recall. Secondly, they were presented with the various brands
placed and ask to describe the personality of the brands in a similar fashion as they
were asked previously for the characters. Thirdly, they were asked to give their
opinion about the various brands on a 5-point scale ranging from very positively to
very negatively. Fourthly, they were asked to express their buying intention on a -
point scale ranging from very much to not at all. The experiment was concluded
by asking the subjects about their consumer behavior toward the product categories.
4.5.3 Research questions and hypotheses
The aim of this research was to understand the differences in attitude, brand personality
and purchase intention to brands between exposure to product placement
and in the absence of product placement. The relation between attitude and exposure
to product placement, the following null hypothesis was formulated:
H0: There is no significant difference in attitude between exposure and
non-exposure to product placement.
In terms of brand personality, the research wished to describe if there are differences
in perceived brand personality between exposure to product placement and
in absence of product placement.
Regarding the relation between purchase intention and product placement
exposure, the following null hypothesis was formulated:
H0: There is no significant difference in purchase intention between exposure
and non-exposure to product placement.
4.6 Statistical methods used
4.6.1 Pearson Chi-square statistic
The chi-square statistic is part of the method to analyze dependency within categorical
data. These regard to counts of frequencies regarding various categories which
are nominal in nature. Such data is shown in the r (rows) x c (columns) contingency
table. The cell frequency, pertaining the number of observations, is nij, i = , …, r, j =

62 Results
5 Results
In this section, the results for the questionnaire survey and the two experiments will
be presented with an outcome for the research questions and data regarding the
hypothesis testing. These findings will be summarized per partial objective at the
end of this section, breaking the data down in findings regarding cognitive, affective
and conative responses to product placement.
5.1.1 Self-reported effects of product placement
5.1.2 Product category recall
Across product categories, a higher percentage of subjects reported to recall the
product category related to the product placements than the percentage of subjects
which could not. Figure 11 summarizes product category recall across product categories
in percentages.
It is interesting to note that despite the stimuli were presented on three different
occasions in time, and thus a learning effect could have taken place as the
marketing agent was known to the audience by the 2 nd occasion (Friestad, Marian
and Wright, 1995), no increase in product category recall was observed. Contrarily,
recall decreased for each occasion. It is more likely however that recall was influenced
by for instance the variation in execution style of the product placement (type,
duration, visibility, … rather than the sequence in which the stimuli were presented
over time.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
85% 82% 78%
15% 18% 22%
Sony Heineken Activia
Aware
Not aware
Fig. 11 Product category recall
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
5.1.3 Brand recall
Across product categories, a higher percentage of subjects reported to recall the
brand related to the product placements than the percentage of subjects which
could not. Figure 12 summarizes brand recall across product categories in percentages.

Results 63
Overall, brand recall was lower than product category recall. These results
seem to indicate that recalling a product category does not necessarily result in recalling
the brand. Contrarily, in certain cases, the subjects which could not recall the
brand, often attributed the product placement to a competing brand. In terms of execution
style, it is noteworthy that the product placement styles of all stimuli were
visual only (VIS) lacking the extra audio dimension and interaction with the visual
which is typical for the combined audio-visual (AV) type (Gupta and Lord, 1998).
Moreover, among the three stimuli, only for the consumer electronics product
category, the brand name was shown and readable. Both the results of this research
as well as theory (Keller, Apéria and Georgson, indicate that the visibility of a
brand name is not the only determinant of brand recall. In addition to brand names,
brands are after all also made up from logos, packaging, etc. as brand elements. Despite
the visibility of the brand name for the consumer electronics category only, the
difference in brand recall compared to the categories yoghurt and beer seem respectively
limited and non-existent.
As the data for brand recall were gathered in a self-reported manner, it is however
not possible to ascertain if the subjects gaze was indeed on the brand name or
another brand element instead.
80%
60%
40%
63% 63%
37% 37%
59%
41%
20%
0%
Sony Heineken Activia
Aware
Not aware
Fig. 12 Brand recall
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
Across product categories, the following null hypothesis was stated regarding the
dependency of brand recall and product category recall:
H0: Product category recall and brand recall are independent from each
other.
A Chi-square test using two nominal variables was applied to test this dependency.
Table 12 summarizes the respective crosstabulation with the counts and expected
counts of category awareness and brand awareness.

64 Results
Tab. 12 Crosstabulation: product category recall x brand recall
Sony
Brand recall
No Yes Total
Category awareness No Count 26.0 0.0 26.0
Expected count 9.7 16.3 26.0
Yes Count 35.0 103.0 138.0
Expected count 51.3 86.7 138.0
Total Count 61.0 103.0 164.0
Expected count 61.0 103.0 164.0
Heineken
Brand recall
No Yes Total
Category awareness No Count 30.0 0.0 30.0
Expected count 11.0 19.0 30.0
Yes Count 30.0 104.0 134.0
Expected count 49.0 85.0 134.0
Total Count 60.0 104.0 164.0
Expected count 60.0 104.0 164.0
Activia
Brand recall
No Yes Total
Category awareness No Count 29.0 7.0 36.0
Expected count 14.7 21.3 36.0
Yes Count 38.0 90.0 128.0
Expected count 52.3 75.7 128.0
Total Count 67.0 97.0 164.0
Expected count 67.0 97.0 164.0
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
With an α value lower than .05 across all product categories, the null hypothesis
was rejected, accepting the alternative hypothesis that product category recall and
brand recall are dependent on each other, see table 13.
Tab. 13 Chi-square test: product category recall x brand recall
Brand Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square Sony 30.1 1 0.001
Heineken 63.6 1 0.001
Activia 52.2 1 0.001
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
To assess the level of significance of the association between product category recall
and brand recall, the Phi value of the respective Chi-square test was calculated, as
shown in table 14. Both brands Sony and Heineken showed a value higher than 0.5,

Results 65
indicating a medium to large magnitude of effect size. Activia showed a value between
0.3 and 0.5, indicating a small to medium magnitude of effect size (Murphy,
2014). This might be because unlike the brands Sony and Heineken, the name of the
Activia brand was not clearly shown in the video. Therefore, brand name knowledge
purely relied on associating the shape of the product packaging to the brand name
and to the actor description of the product. Regarding the latter, it is noteworthy
that despite not having a brand name visible, the Activia product placement was the
only one that had a story connection: the character explicitly mentioned both the
product category and the product benefit as an essential part of the storys script.
Tab. 14 Phi values: product category recall x brand recall
Brand Value
Phi Sony 0.564
Heineken 0.623
Activia 0.428
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
5.1.4 Attitude
Across product categories, a higher percentage of subjects reported to feel a positive
attitude to the brand related to the product placements than the percentage of subjects
which did not. Figure 13 summarizes attitude towards brands across product
categories in percentages.
It seems not possible to attribute these results merely to the exposure to the
product placement as previous exposure to the brand, for instance through previous
brand communications or product ownership, could influence the attitude.
80%
60%
60%
51%
48%
40%
20%
24%
32% 29%
16% 17%
23%
0%
Sony Heineken Activia
Positive Neutral Negative
Fig. 13 Attitude towards brands
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
Across product categories, the following null hypothesis was stated regarding the
dependency of attitude towards brands and brand recall:
H0: Attitude towards brands and brand recall are independent from
each other.

66 Results
A Chi-square test using two nominal variables was applied to test this dependency.
Table 15 summarizes the crosstabulation with the counts and expected counts of
brand recall and attitude towards brands.
Tab. 15 Crosstabulation: brand recall x attitude towards brands
Sony
Attitude towards brands
Negative Neutral Positive Total
Brand recall No Count 10.0 24.0 27 61.0
Expected count 9.7 14.9 36.5 61.1
Yes Count 16.0 16.0 71 103.0
Expected count 16.3 25.1 61.5 102.9
Total Count 26.0 40.0 98.0 164.0
Expected count 26.0 40.0 98.0 164.0
Heineken
Attitude towards brands
Negative Neutral Positive Total
Brand recall No Count 7.0 35.0 18 60.0
Expected count 10.2 19.0 30.7 59.9
Yes Count 21.0 17.0 66 104.0
Expected count 17.8 33.0 53.3 104.1
Total Count 28.0 52.0 84.0 164.0
Expected count 28.0 52.0 84.0 164.0
Activia
Attitude towards brands
Negative Neutral Positive Total
Brand recall No Count 17.0 32.0 18 67.0
Expected count 15.5 19.6 31.9 67.0
Yes Count 21.0 16.0 60 97.0
Expected count 22.5 28.4 46.1 97.0
Total Count 38.0 48.0 78.0 164.0
Expected count 38.0 48.0 78.0 164.0
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
With an α value lower than .05 for all product categories, the null hypothesis was
rejected accepting the alternative hypothesis that brand recall and attitudes towards
brands are dependent on each other, see table 16.
Tab. 16 Chi-square test: brand recall x attitude towards brands
Brand Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square Sony 12.8 2 0.002
Heineken 31.1 2 0.001
Activia 23.7 2 0.001
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164

Results 67
To assess the level of significance of the association between brand awareness and
brand attitude, the Cramers V value was calculated as shown in table 17. Heineken
and Activia showed a medium to large magnitude of effect size with Cramers values
between 0.3 and 0.5. Sony showed small to medium magnitude of effect size with a
Cramers value between 0.1 and 0.3 (Murphy, 2014). It is not possible to conclude
however from these results if one product placement was more successful than another
in evoking positive affective responses as the initial affection towards the
product category and brand was not known. It is noteworthy however, that of the
three product placements, the Sony product placement was the brand most prominently
placed both in terms of size and duration.
Tab. 17 Cramers V values: brand recall x attitude towards brands
Cramers V Sony 0.280
Heineken 0.435
Activia 0.380
Source: questionnaire survey, 2014, n = 164
5.2 Differences in effects between visual and audiovisual
product placements
5.2.1 Brand recall
Across product categories, visual types of product placement elicited a higher unaided
brand recall than audiovisual types. Figure 14 summarizes unaided brand recall
across product categories for both visual and audiovisual types of product placement
in absolute numbers.
40
30
20
24
21
26
32
22
10
8
0
Heineken Apple Red Bull
Visual
Audiovisual
Fig. 14 Unaided brand recall
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
A higher amount of subjects recalled the brands upon presenting them with cues for
the respective brands. Figure 15 summarizes aided brand recall across product categories
for both visual and audiovisual types of product placement in absolute numbers.

68 Results
50
40
30
20
10
0
39
34
31
32
32
18
Heineken Apple Red Bull
Visual
Audiovisual
Fig. 15 Aided brand recall
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The following null hypothesis was stated regarding the relation between brand recall
and product placement types:
H0: Brand recall and product placement type are independent from
each other.
A Chi-square test using two nominal variables was applied to test this dependency.
Table 18 summarizes the crosstabulation with the counts and expected counts of
product placement type and brand recall.

Results 69
Tab. 18 Crosstabulation: product placement type x brand recall
Heineken
Brand recall
No Yes Total
Product placement type Visual Count 16.0 24.0 40.0
Expected count 17.5 22.5 40.0
Audiovisual Count 19.0 21.0 40.0
Expected count 17.5 22.5 40.0
Total Count 35.0 45.0 80.0
Expected count 35.0 45.0 80.0
Apple
Brand recall
No Yes Total
Product placement type Visual Count 14.0 26.0 40.0
Expected count 23.0 17.0 40.0
Audiovisual Count 32.0 8.0 40.0
Expected count 23.0 17.0 40.0
Total Count 46.0 34.0 80.0
Expected count 46.0 34.0 80.0
Red Bull
Brand recall
No Yes Total
Product placement type Visual Count 8.0 32.0 40.0
Expected count 13.0 27.0 40.0
Audiovisual Count 18.0 22.0 40.0
Expected count 13.0 27.0 40.0
Total Count 26.0 54.0 80.0
Expected count 26.0 54.0 80.0
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The null hypothesis stated that across product categories, brand recall is independent
from product placement type. With an α value lower than , for the product
categories consumer electronics and energy drinks, the null hypothesis was rejected
accepting the alternative hypothesis that brand recall and product placement type
are dependent on each other. The null hypothesis could not be rejected however for
the product category beer. See table 19.
Tab. 19 Chi-square test: product placement type x brand recall
Brand Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square Heineken 0.46 1 0.499
Apple 16.57 1 0.001
Red Bull 5.70 1 0.017
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
To assess the level of significance of the association between product placement
type and brand recall, the Phi value was calculated as shown in table 20. Apple

70 Results
showed a medium to large magnitude of effect size with Phi values between 0,3 and
0,5. Red bull showed a small to medium magnitude of effect size with a Phi value
between 0,1 and 0,3.
Tab. 20 Phi values: product placement type x brand recall
Brand Value
Phi Apple 0.455
Red Bull 0.267
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The results are peculiar as brand recall was expected to be higher for audiovisual
types than for merely visual types as in the case of the former the message appeals
to two senses (visual and hearing) instead of one (visual). Regarding the brand recall
of visual product placements, the lack of dependency for the beer product category
could be explained by the execution style: lacking the visibility of the brand name,
the Heineken product placement merely relied on recognizing the product category
and having it evoke the brand in the mind of the consumer. This contrarily to the
product categories consumer electronics and energy drinks, which showed clearly
the brand name of respectively Apple and Red Bull.
5.2.2 Attitude
To determine the effect of product placement type on attitude towards brands, the
results only took into account subjects who recalled the brand (unaided).
Across product categories, the results seem to indicate no extreme changes
in attitude, neither positive nor negative, for both types of product placement: with
the exception of one, none of the subjects indicated either the very positive or
very negative attitude. Respectively 71%, 88% and 64% of the subjects attitudes
towards the brands of the product categories beer, consumer electronics and energy
drinks remained unchanged after exposure to audiovisual product placements. Similar
results can be observed for visual types of product placements with 58%, 77%
and 88% of subjects indicating no change in attitude.
The product categories beers and consumer electronics seem to indicate a
slightly more positive attitude for visual versus audiovisual product placements
with respectively 38% and 19% indicating a positive change towards beers and consumer
electronics versus 24% and 13% indicating a more negative attitude. Given
the small sample sizes it is however not possible to generalize these findings for the
entire population. There is a chance the results are influenced by other variables
such as previous exposure to advertising or consumption patterns.
Figure 16, 17 & 18 summarize attitude respectively for the product categories
beer, consumer electronics and energy drinks for both visual and audiovisual
types of product placement in absolute numbers.

Results 71
20
15
10
5
0
15
14
9
5
0 0
1 1
0 0
Very positive Positive Neutral Negative Very negative
Heineken audiovisual
Heineken visual
Fig. 16 Product placement prominence: affection (Heineken)
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
25
20
15
10
5
0
20
7
5
0 1
1
0 0 0 0
Very positive Positive Neutral Negative Very negative
Apple audiovisual
Apple visual
Fig. 17 Product placement prominence: affection (Apple)
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
28
14
4 4
4
0 0
0 0 0
Very positive Positive Neutral Negative Very negative
Red Bull audiovisual
Red Bull visual
Fig. 18 Product placement prominence: affection (Red Bull)
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The interviews following the experiment gave an insight in the reasons why the subjects
experienced either a positive or negative attitude change. Due to the low
amount of subjects, these are merely indications and cannot be generalized. For both
product placement types the reasons evoked resulted both from product placement
as a promotion form as well as external reasons not related to this promotion form.

72 Results
For visual types of product placement, positive associations with the character,
the scene or the movie at large seem to determine a positive judgement about a
brand. These associations seem to be the strongest for the Heineken brand, which
placed its product in the movie Skyfall featuring James Bond. This might be explained
by a higher notoriety of the character in comparison to the characters used
by the brands Apple and Red Bull, respectively Black Widow (Captain America) and
Dexter (Dexter), one subject stating: )f James Bond drinks the beer, it must be good.
External factors influencing the positive opinion cannot be disregarded however,
ranging from previous exposure to advertisements to past experiences with the
brand. Table 21 summarizes these findings, indicating the amount of respondents in
absolute numbers who gave an answer of a certain type.
Tab. 21 Interview output attitude visual product placement
Product category beer (Heineken)
Positive
Negative
I associate it with the character. (3) I associate it with the advertising
form. (1)
I associate it to the movie. (3)
I associate it with the scene. (1)
I like the taste of the beer. (1)
Previous exposure to an ad (1)
Product category consumer electronics (Apple)
Positive
Negative
I like with the quality of the brand. (2) No subjects
I associate it to the movie. (1)
I like the design of the brand. (1)
Product category energy drink (Red Bull)
Positive
Negative
I associate it with the character. (1) No subjects
I associate it to the series. (1)
I associate it with the product
performance. (1)
I want to try out the product. (1)
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80

Results 73
Audiovisual types of product placement indicate similar reasons for positive judgements
related to the product placement (character, scene or movie associations).
Character association does not by definition need to have a positive effect as one
subject explicitly indicated not to like Jim Carrey as a typecast actor, a judgement
which potentially spilled over onto a negative attitude towards the brand. It is also
noteworthy that repeating the brand too often might have a negative effect on the
judgement as it might create an unnatural feeling among the subjects. Table 22 summarizes
these findings, indicating the amount of respondents in absolute numbers
who gave an answer of a certain type.
Tab. 22 Interview output attitude visual product placement
Product category beer (Heineken)
Positive
Negative
I associate it to the movie. (2)
Constant repetition of the brand. (1)
I associate it with the character. (1)
I associate it to the fame of the brand.
(1)
I want to try out the product. (1)
Product category consumer electronics (Apple)
Positive
Negative
I associate it to the series. (1)
No subjects
Product category energy drinks (Red Bull)
Positive
Negative
I associate it to the movie. (1)
I associate it with the character. (1)
I associate it with the scene. (1)
I associate it with the product benefit.
(1)
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
5.2.3 Product preference
Constant repetition of the brand. (1)
The movie shows a negative product
feature. (1)
I do not like the product. (1)
To evaluate differences in product preference among subjects either subjected to
visual or audiovisual types of product placement, the results only took into account
subjects who indicated they recalled the brand. For the product categories beer and
consumer electronics, product preference was higher for subjects subjected to visual
types of product placement. For the product category energy drinks, only a

74 Results
slightly higher preference was elicited by visual types of product placement. However,
the product category energy drinks evoked the highest overall preference,
across product placement types. Figure 19 summarizes preference across product
categories for both visual and audiovisual types of product placement in absolute
numbers.
20
15
10
5
0
16
15
11
4
4
1
Heineken Apple Red Bull
VIS
AV
Fig. 19 Product placement prominence: preference (audiovisual)
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The following null hypothesis was stated regarding the relation between product
placement type and product preference:
H0: Product placement type and product preference are independent
from each other.
A Chi-square test using two nominal variables was applied to test this dependency.
Table 23 summarizes the crosstabulation with the counts and expected counts of
product placement type and preference.

Results 75
Tab. 23 Crosstabulation: product placement type x preference
Heineken
Preference
No Yes Total
Product placement type Visual Count 20.0 4.0 24.0
Expected count 21.3 2.7 24.0
Audiovisual Count 20.0 1.0 21.0
Expected count 18.7 2.3 21.0
Total Count 40.0 1.0 45.0
Expected count 40.0 2.3 45.0
Apple
Preference
No Yes Total
Product placement type Visual Count 15.0 11.0 26.0
Expected count 14.5 11.5 26.0
Audiovisual Count 4.0 4.0 8.0
Expected count 4.5 3.5 8.0
Total Count 19.0 15.0 34.0
Expected count 19.0 15.0 34.0
Red Bull
Preference
No Yes Total
Product placement type Visual Count 16.0 16.0 32.0
Expected count 13.6 18.4 32.0
Audiovisual Count 7.0 15.0 22.0
Expected count 9.4 12.6 22.0
Total Count 23.0 31.0 54.0
Expected count 23.0 31.0 54.0
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The Chi-square test could not be used for the product categories beers and consumer
electronics as 2 cells (50%) within its contingency tables had expected counts
of less than 5. The exact significance (2-sided of Fishers exact test was therefore
calculated. Table 24 and 25 respectively show the results of the Chi-Square test and
Fishers exact test.
Tab. 24 Fishers exact test: product placement type x preference
Brand Value Exact Sig. (2-sided)
Fisher's Exact Test Heineken 0.352
Apple 1.000
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
Tab. 25 Chi-square test: product placement type x preference (energy drinks)
Brand Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square Red Bull 1.763 1 0.184
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80

76 Results
With a α value higher than .05 for both measures for the aforementioned product
categories, the null hypothesis could not be rejected, concluding product placement
type and preference are not dependent on each other.
Through the interviews with the individual subjects, it was possible to get a
deeper insight in the reasons why a subject preferred one product to another. Overall,
product preference could not be attributed to the product placements to which
the subjects were subjected, both for visual and audiovisual product placements.
This should not be surprising for visual types of product placement as it does not
communicate any of the product benefits as it is limited to showing the product
and/or the brand name. Such brand resonance might be expected however when
subjected to audiovisual types of product placement: not only were these examples
audiovisual in nature but they also fit the criteria of plot placements (Russell, 1998)
where the brands placed contributed to the advancement of the storyline, tapping
into the products benefits. Though the subjects did not actively state their preference
was ignited by the product placement, it is possible to assume that among some
subjects, it served as a form of reminder advertising (Kotler, 2012) deepening the
relationship a customer fosters with a brand.
Only a limited amount of subjects subjected to visual product placements indicated
to prefer Heineken as a beer brand over the alternatives. Interestingly, none
of these subjects actually indicated to (commonly) drink beer themselves. Their responses
were therefore given in a context where they are supposed to buy a beer
for somebody else or if they were to try out the brand. Reasons were quality, taste
and peer referral. The experiment group audiovisual product placement did not
have sufficient subjects to draw conclusions. However, it is noteworthy to mention
that this product placement was embedded in the original series Twin Peaks might
not be sufficiently familiar to the subjects to evoke positive associations. The scene
itself also did not communicate any particular product benefits and mainly relied on
repeating the brand name multiple times.
The amount of positive responses towards the product category consumer
electronics (Apple) was higher for the experiment group subjected to visual product
placements. The most commonly mentioned reasons among this group were quality,
performance, design and the brand notoriety itself, despite a negative brand association,
being its costly price. These qualities could not mainly be attributed to
firsthand experience as only 9% of the subjects indicated to be a brand owner. Peer
referral was oftentimes mentioned as a reason for preference. The experiment
group subjected to audiovisual product placements indicated similar preference
reasons (quality and brand). 25% of this group indicated to be brand owner. Though
at the time a contemporary series, it might be expected that Modern Family as a series
did not to resonate sufficiently to evoke positive associations. Just as it was the
case with the Heineken audiovisual placement, no cues were given in regards to the
products performance.
Though the amount of positive responses towards the energy drinks product
category (Red Bull) were nearly equal for both visual and audiovisual types of product
placement, they did overall evoke the most positive responses. This might be
explained however due to the highest percentages in brand usage, respectively 56%

Results 77
and 60%. The amount of subjects indicating not to consume the product category at
all was lower than for the beer category: respectively 44% and 20%. Firsthand experience
seems to play a crucial role as taste was the most commonly mentioned
reason within the visual product placement category. Other reasons included design,
brand notoriety and advertising. The latter indicating that previous exposure
to advertising types plays an important role in product preference. Similar reasons
were given for the audiovisual product placements. Only within this category the
product performance was evoked as a reason for preference. That is peculiar as
through the way the product placement message was encoded, it heavily invested in
not only repeating the brand name, but also emphasizing the product benefit. It is
therefore possible that this product placement had the ability to evoke or remind
the consumer about the brands performance.
Tab 26 and 27 respectively provide a transcript of qualitative responses
given as a motivation for product preference towards the brands placed.

78 Results
Tab. 26 Product placement prominence: reasons preference (visual)
• Product category beer (Heineken)
• The brand looks good and the product seems to have a high quality.
• From the different options, I would prefer to try out this brand.
• This brand was referred to me by a friend.
• It is the only beer that tastes good to me. ) dont drink other beers.
Product category consumer electronics (Apple)
• The quality and uniqueness of the brand. Working on this laptop is a true experience.
• Despite the cost, its probably worth it due to the quality, even though ) dont own a
laptop of the brand, but I do own a tablet about which I am very satisfied.
• The design, minimalism, production quality and features.
• The brand and style.
• The design.
• My friends recommend it. And I would buy it, if it were not for the cost.
• I prefer it because all my other friends have it but due to the cost I purchased Lenovo.
• The quality, nice design, tradition, renowned brand.
• The quality and company image.
• I already own a mobile phone from this brand and I am convinced a laptop would also
perform well.
• )ts cool to own this brand.
Product category energy drinks (Red Bull)
I tried the brand before and the quality is better than the other brands.
I hate energy drinks, but if I would need to make a choice, it would be Red Bull. I love
their advertising.
Due the brand and taste.
)ts the most famous energy drink. )t has the least amount of sugar.
) dont drink energy drinks myself, but if ) would have to buy it for somebody else, I
would choose this brand. I like the advertising.
I am the most familiar with this brand and trust it the most. The design is interesting.
I know this brand the most due to the advertisements.
Due to the advertising, its embedded in my mind.
) like the taste and the slogan Red Bull gives you wings.
The tradition and friendliness of the brand. Because it sponsors events.
)ts the most famous, though ) have no experience with this brand.
) like the taste and its popular.
It has the best taste.
I tried different brands and this brand tastes the least artificial.
I prefer the taste of Red Bull over the other brands.
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80

Results 79
Tab. 27 Product placement prominence: reasons preference (audiovisual)
Product category beer (Heineken)
• )ts the beer which ) like the most.
Product category consumer electronics (Apple)
• The brand is well-known and offers a high quality.
• The brand offers the highest quality.
• I have a positive experience with the brand.
• The other brands look like plastic.
Product category energy drinks (Red Bull)
• The image of the brand and past experience.
• ) have the best experience with it. )t tastes the best and its effective.
• I know this brand the best.
• )ts the most famous and it has the highest quality.
• It has the best design.
• )f ) had to choose, it would be Red Bull as ) presume its the least disgusting.
• )ts the most well-known to me and I like the ads.
• It has a cool brand.
• I know the brand and I like the taste.
• Due to the packaging and the advertising.
• The brand is well-known. I tasted it before. The quality is high.
• It has the best taste and I trust its effectiveness.
• )ts the most famous energy drink.
• )ts the only energy drink ) tried and ) prefer to keep drinking what I know.
• I like the design and I buy it every time.
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
5.2.4 Attention
Complementing the date regarding brand recall, the research wanted to also analyze
attention to visual types of product placement. This section will describe the results
of the basic key performance indicators for the AOIs defined for each brand. Firstly,
the visual product placements will be discussed and secondly, the audiovisual product
placements.
The visual Heineken product placement had a 100% hit ratio, as well as 100%
revisitors, indicating all 40 subjects looked at the brand element more than once,
see figure 20. The term brand element is emphasized as due to how the message is
encoded (the actor holds the bottle, partially covering the brands logo with his
hand), it is not possible to say the brand itself was fully visible. However, it is possible
a brand name was deduced from another brand element such as the packaging,
colours or even a partially visible logo. The lack of logo visibility might in part explain
why the hit ratio did not fully translate into brand recall (see above). However,
the data gathered from the interviews revealed that those who did not recall the
brand, also did not wrongly attribute the product category to a competing brand
unlike the results from the questionnaire survey about overall brand recall (see
above). Of all the visible product placements used as part of this experiment, the

80 Results
Heineken brand had the highest dwell time as percentage of the total AOI visibility
(4735,8 milliseconds). This might also be explained through the way the message
was encoded: the particular scene had no dialogue, potentially avoiding the product
placement having to compete with other sources of information. Moreover, the
scene itself contained only one sequence of actions, namely the character lifting up
the bottle, consuming it and putting it back down: as such the product placement
complies with the criteria to be described as the used by character placement (Yang
and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007), giving it a higher level of prominence than merely
background placements. This could have contributed to the elevated dwell time. On
a side note, due to the sequence of actions in this particular scene, it would be possible
for the AOI of the bottle to overlap with a fictitious AOI (Bojko, 2013), being
the face of the actor: the heat map, shown on figure 21, shows at lower kernel size
that the gaze is indeed primarily focussed on the bottle as brand element.
Fig. 20 Visual product placement (Heineken) - AOI KPIs
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80

Results 81
Fig. 21 Visual product placement (Heineken)- heat map
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The visual Apple product placement was peculiar in the sense that the scene encoding
the message contained two brand elements: the product and the brand name.
Both were shown separately and on different moments: first the product, then the
brand. With 32 subjects having glanced at the brand elements, the Apple brand had
a hit ratio of 80%, see figure 22. The amount of revisitors was however significantly
lower (21 subjects). Despite the fact 26 subjects indicated unaided brand recall (see
above), it does not seem correct to conclude glancing at the AOI significantly results
in recalling the brand. Brand recall might also have been evoked by other elements
of the scene. After all, it was set in an Apple Store, which due to its design contains
brand elements, could potentially evoke the Apple brand. These brand elements include,
but are not limited to, the wooden tables, the presentation style of the consumer
electronics, the monitors on the wall or even the Apple Store managers, see
figure 23. Of all the visual product placements as part of this experiment, the Apple
brand had the lowest dwell time as percentage of the total AOI visibility (1190,3
milliseconds). This might be due to the fact that the product placement might have
had to compete with other sources of information, being in this case the characters
which actively engaged into dialogue. In addition, while the AOIs were active and
gathering data, the brand elements were not always fully exposed: either the product
was shown in an unclear way, due to the angle of the camera or the brand name
was partially visible as it was oftentimes cut off by the camera frame. On the other
hand, the AOIs were during certain frames of the video relatively large, reaching up
to 19% of total screen coverage.

82 Results
Fig. 22 Visual product placement (Apple)- AOI KPIs
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
Fig. 23 Visual product placement (Apple) - heat map
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
Similarly to the visual Heineken product placement, the visual Red Bull product
placement had no dialogue but was encoded as a used by character type of placement
(Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007). It is however likely that the 100% hit ratio
and percentage of revisitors can be explained by the prominence of the product
placement: the AOI had a 25% screen coverage during certain timeframes, see figure

Results 83
24. With 32 subjects indicating unaided brand recall (see above), the Red Bull product
placement seems the most successful in translating hit ratio into brand recall.
The sequence of the action taking place was similar to the Heineken product placement:
the actor picks up the product, consumes it and puts it down. In both cases,
the hit ratio achieved already 100% at the moment the actor consumes the product,
with the difference that for Red Bull, the brand name was partially visible at that
moment, see figure 25. This could be a reason why the unaided brand recall was
higher for the category energy drinks. The brand also needed a lower dwell time
than Heineken product placement to achieve this result (2933,5 milliseconds representing
1,5% AOI visibility).
Fig. 24 Visual product placement (Red Bull) - AOI KPIs
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80

84 Results
Fig. 25 Visual product placement (Red Bull) - focus map
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The audiovisual product placement for Heineken was similar to the visual one in the
way that the logos of the brand were merely hinted upon and not clearly visible. As
audio component, the brand name Heineken was repeated 4 times during a 6 seconds
time period (of a total duration of the clip of 31 seconds). The message was
encoded as a script placement, as the brand name was merely mentioned, without
significantly contributing to the advancement of the storyline, which would have
made it a plot placement (Russell, 1998). The characters do engage in a dialogue
about the brand however, but without evoking specific brand benefits. Moreover a
competing beer is mentioned Bud, even complimenting it to be The king of beers,
which is a peculiar way to encode the message given no true comparison is provided
(Kotler, 2012). However, the interviews revealed none of the subjects recalled this
competing brand. With a hit ratio of 92,5%, 37 out of 40 subjects glanced at the AOI,
which is lower than the visual product placement of Heineken, see figure 26. With a
dwell time of 2775,3 milliseconds, the subject seemed to visually have engaged less
with the brand through this product placement. This is further supported by the
amount of revisitors, which with 35 subjects was 14% lower than for the visual
product placement. This might explain why the unaided brand recall was lower for
the latter. )ts noteworthy that before the characters engaged in the dialogue, and
thus mentioning the brand, 32 of the subjects had already contributed to the AOI hit
ratio. From this moment, most of the attention seemed to have been given to the
actors, resulting in different information sources potentially competing for attention,
see figure 27. Moreover, from this moment, the brand elements (beer bottles)
were only partially visible.

Results 85
Fig. 26 Audiovisual product placement (Heineken) - AOI KPIs
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
Fig. 27 Audiovisual product placement (Heineken) – heatmap
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The audiovisual product placement for Apple was particular in the way the audio
component and visual component were presented separately: firstly, the audience
hears the character mentioning the brand name (only once) and secondly, they see
him using the product. The message was encoded as a plot placement as the brand
actively contributes to the advancement of the plot the characters exorbitant love
for brand is central to the scene as well as how it makes his birthday better) (Russell,
1998). With a hit ratio of 95%, 38 of the subjects saw the brand element at least

86 Results
once, see figure 28. This was 18% higher than the hit ratio for the visual product
placement of Apple. With a dwell time of 3072,4 milliseconds, the audiovisual product
placement also seemed to be more successful on the level of subject engagement.
This is further supported by the revisitors to hit ratio, which was for the visual product
placement lower compared to the audiovisual. Despite a better performance of
the audiovisual product placement vs. the audiovisual one on all these KPIs, it did
not translate in a higher unaided brand recall. This might be due to the fact the audiovisual
product placement was not supported by showing the actual brand name,
contrarily to visual product placement which did show the brand name.
Fig. 28 Audiovisual product placement (Apple) - AOI KPIs
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The audiovisual product placement for Red Bull was particular in the way that the
visual component was only briefly visible. This whereas the audio component was
dominant with the brand name mentioned 15 times during a 43 seconds time period
(of a total duration of the clip of 86 seconds). The message was encoded as a plot
placement as the brand actively contributed to the advancement of the plot (Red
Bull being the reason why the character could party all night with friends and still
join in the next morning to go for a run with his girlfriend) (Russell, 1998). In this
way, not only the brand name was referred to during the video but also one of the
main product benefits. This might be the reason why the audiovisual product placement
of Red Bull evoked the most qualitative responses regarding Red Bull as their
preferred product due to product benefits. Though only shown briefly, 39 of the 40
subjects saw the brand element, resulting in hit ratio of 97,5%, see figure 29. The
main reason is probably because during certain screen frames, the AOI covered 37%
of the screen, which is significantly higher than any other of the AOIs which were
part of this experiment, automatically resulting in hits. The brief visibility of the

Results 87
brand is likely the reason why the revisits are relatively low compared to the other
brands with a count of 13. The dwell time amounted to 1312,5 milliseconds.
Fig. 29 Audiovisual product placement (Red Bull) - AOI KPIs
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
A particular aim of this part of the research was to test the difference in attention
between product preferences. In order to test this difference, an ANOVA test was
conducted. The section below provides an overview of the results for each product
category tested.
The ANOVA test firstly assumes normally distributed data. In order to test
this assumption, a Shapiro-Wilk test was conducted for each data set per product
category. At α values lower than , the null hypothesis was rejected for all product
categories, concluding the data were not normally distributed. A Box-Cox transformation
was therefore applied to the data sets of these product categories. Conducting
the Shapiro-Wilk test on these transformed data set accepted the null hypothesis
at α values higher than ,, concluding the transformed data are normally distributed.
A second assumption of the ANOVA test regards the homogeneity, where
population variances are presumed to be equal. In order to test this assumption,
Levenes Test for Equality of Variances was conducted for each data set per product
category. At α values higher than , the null hypothesis could not be rejected, concluding
the data are homogeneous, see table 28.
Tab. 28 Levenes Test: dwell time and product preference
Statistic Sig.
Heineken 0.700 0.503
Apple 0.471 0.498
Red Bull 3.087 0.058

88 Results
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
The null hypothesis of the ANOVA test stated:
H0: There is no significant difference in dwell time between product
preferences
However, at an α value higher than .05, the null hypothesis could not be rejected
for any of the product categories, see table 29. The null hypothesis is therefore accepted,
stating that there is no significant difference in dwell time between product
preferences.
Tab. 29 ANOVA test between groups: dwell time and product preference
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Heineken 398.883 2 199.441 2.105 0.136
Apple 19.519 2 9.759 0.073 0.930
Red Bull 17.601 2 8.800 2.041 0.144
Source: experiment 1, 2015, n = 80
5.3 Differences in effects between exposure and non-exposure
to product placement
5.3.1 Brand recall
Regarding brand recall, only the data measured regarding the 6 brands which were
part of the research scope were of relevance. The control group were not subjected
to these brands and therefore brand recall measures for this group were not relevant
to this part of the research. However, under otherwise identical research conditions
and instructions, the control group felt incited to recall brands which were
not part of this research scope, but which might or might not have been present in
the stimuli presented to them. Though this information was recorded, it was of no
relevance to this research and thus omitted. Figure 30 displays therefore the selfreported
brand recall only of the experiment group. It indicates how often a brand
was recalled and how often it wasnt in absolute numbers. Table 30 summarizes the
results both in absolute number as in percentage of the total sample.

Results 89
Starbucks
15
14
Red Bull
19
10
Heineken
17
12
Apple
17
12
Coca Cola
26
3
Activia
11
18
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fig. 30 Brand recall counts
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
Tab. 30 Brand recall percentages
# subjects recalling the brand # subjects not recalling the brand
Brand Recall Activia Coca Cola Apple Heineken Red Bull Starbucks
# subjects recalling the brand 11 26 17 17 19 15
% of subjects recalling the brand 38% 90% 59% 59% 66% 52%
# subjects not recalling the brand 18 3 12 12 10 14
% of subjects not recalling the brand 62% 10% 41% 41% 34% 48%
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
From all the brands, Coca Cola attained the highest self-reported brand recall with
26 subjects claiming to have seen the brand (90% of the total sample of the experiment
group) whereas Activia had the lowest brand recall with 11 subjects claiming
to have seen the brand (38% of the total sample of the experiment group). The results
for Activia are surprising as the product placement was connected to the story.
The low brand recall might be explained by the lack of audio support for the brand
name. It is clear however, that brand meaning communicated in the scenes script
was not sufficient to activate existing brand knowledge in long term memory.
Aided brand recall was for all brands higher than brand recall as shown in
absolute numbers as frequency table in figure 31. Coca Cola attained the highest selfreported
brand recognition with 28 subjects recognizing the brand (97% of the total
sample of the experiment group) whereas Starbucks attained the lowest aided
brand recall with 20 subjects recognizing the brand (69% of the total sample of the
experiment group). Comparing unaided brand recall and aided brand recall, Activia

90 Results
attained the highest percentage growth. This might indicate that Activias brand
name as brand element is not salient whereas its shape and color are.
Starbucks
20
9
Red Bull
23
6
Heineken
25
4
Apple
23
6
Coca Cola
28
1
Activia
27
2
Fig. 31 Aided brand recall
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
5.3.2 Attitude
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
# subjects recognizing the brand # subjects not recognizing the brand
The opinion about the brands from subjects of the experiment group remained relatively
invariant for the brands Apple and Coca Cola when compared to the control
group (respectively 2.59 vs 2.54 and 2.83 vs. 2.81). The brands Starbucks, Red Bull,
Heineken and Activia noted a decreased opinion among subjects of the experiment
group when compared to the control group (respectively 2.66 vs 2.96, 2.97 vs. 3.27,
2.59 vs. 2.92 and 2.79 vs. 3.12). The average opinion across all brands was lower for
the experiment group when compared to the control group (2.94 vs. 2.74). Figure
32 summarizes attitude as averages for each brands.

Results 91
Starbucks
2.66
2.96
Red Bull
2.97
3.27
Heineken
Apple
Coca Cola
2.59
2.54
2.59
2.92
2.81
2.83
Activia
2.79
3.12
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
Opinion (control group)
Opinion (experiment group)
Fig. 32 Attitude to brands: experiment group vs. control group
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
The following null-hypothesis was formulated regarding the relationship between
attitude and exposure to product placement:
H0: There is no significant difference in attitude between exposure and
non-exposure to product placement.
Conducting a Mann-Whitney U test provided insights in the difference between
these two groups. Table 31 provides an overview of the ranks and of the Mann-Whitney
test for the aforementioned variables.

92 Results
Tab. 31 Mann-Whitney test: ranks (opinion brands)
Brand Group N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
Activia Control group 26 21.27 553.00
Experiment group 11 13.64 150.00
Total 37
Coca Cola Control group 26 25.67 667.50
Experiment group 26 27.33 710.50
Total 52
Apple Control group 26 22.08 574.00
Experiment group 17 21.88 372.00
Total 43
Heineken Control group 26 25.25 656.50
Experiment group 17 17.03 289.50
Total 43
Red Bull Control group 26 23.56 612.50
Experiment group 19 22.24 422.50
Total 45
Starbucks Control group 26 24.33 632.50
Experiment group 15 15.23 228.50
Total 41
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
With α values lower than .05 the null-hypothesis was rejected for the product categories
yoghurts, beers and coffee houses, accepting the alternative hypothesis stating
that for these product categories, there is a significant difference attitude between
exposure and non-exposure to product placement, see table 32. With α values
higher than 0.05 the null-hypothesis could not be rejected for the product categories
soft drinks, consumer electronics and energy drinks, accepting the null hypothesis
stating that for these product categories, there is no significant difference attitude
between exposure and non-exposure to product placement. The results are therefore
not conclusive across product category.
Tab. 32 Mann-Whitney test: test statistics (opinion brands)
Brand Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Activia 84.000 -3.056 0.002
Coca Cola 316.500 -0.485 0.628
Apple 219.000 -0.056 0.955
Heineken 136.500 -2.340 0.019
Red Bull 232.500 -0.375 0.708
Starbucks 108.500 -2.727 0.006
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55

Results 93
The results regarding the meaning transfer of personality traits from characters to
the brand personality of the brands varied across the product categories. Each brand
will be discussed separately.
The experiment group seemed to align its perception of the personality of the
Activia with that of the character on 8 out of 10 personality traits, see figure 33. By
order of importance, the personality traits honest, genuine and imaginative were
rated as the most descriptive for the character. However, among these, the brand
seems to only align itself on one of the three traits (imaginative). Therefore, despite
an overall strong alignment of traits, the product placement seems to fail to do so on
its most descriptive traits. Failing to improve its score on honesty as a personality
trait seems particularly relevant for the brand in the light of past lawsuits regarding
allegedly false advertising of Danone for its yoghurts (Mcmullen, 2010). This is particular
as the product placement took special care of communicating the products
main health benefit. As the experiment group and the control group rated Activia
nearly in the same way on the honest personality trait, it seems not possible assume
the way the message was encoded (humor) might have negatively affected the rating.
Activia (control group) Sheldon (experiment group) Activia (experiment group)
Honest
9.00
Charming
Strong
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Daring
Reliable
Responsible
Glamorous
Imaginative
Tough
Fig. 33 Transfer of personality traits (Activia)
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
Genuine
The experiment group seemed to align its perception of the personality of Coca Cola
with that of the character on 4 out of 10 personality traits, see figure 34. On 5 out of

94 Results
10 personality traits, the experiment group gave scores which are less aligned with
the character than the scores of the control group. The personality traits daring and
tough were tied for being the most descriptive personality trait of the character, followed
by strong. Both on the traits daring and tough, the experiment group gave
scores which are less aligned with the character than the scores of the control group.
It seems therefore that the product placement creates confusion among consumers
about Coca Colas brand personality. )t is noteworthy that the particular scene does
not show the character in a tough nor daring position. Some practitioners claim
however that there was no intention to align brand and character attributes for this
product placement case (Baskin, 2013).
Coca Cola (control group) Walter (experiment group) Coca Cola (experiment group)
Honest
9.00
Charming
Strong
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Daring
Reliable
Responsible
Glamorous
Imaginative
Tough
Genuine
Fig. 34 Transfer of personality traits (Coca Cola)
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
The experiment group seems to align its perception of the personality of Apple with
that of the character on 6 out of 10 personality traits, see figure 35. On 2 out of 10
personality traits, the experiment group gave scores which are less aligned with the
character than the scores of the control group. By order of importance, the personality
traits daring, glamorous and charming were rated as the most descriptive for
the character. Both the personality traits daring and glamorous become more descriptive
for the brand among the experiment group. The personality trait charming

Results 95
became less descriptive. It is noteworthy that as Apple is claimed not to pay for product
placement, except for providing its products props for free, despite receiving
among the highest exposure in movies (Heisler, 2015), it is difficult to predict any
desired product placement effects.
Apple (control group) Widow (experiment group) Apple (experiment group)
Honest
9.00
Charming
Strong
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Daring
Reliable
Responsible
Glamorous
Imaginative
Tough
Fig. 35 Transfer of personality traits (Apple)
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
Genuine
The experiment group seems to align its perception of the personality of Heineken
with that of the character on 2 out of 10 personality traits, see figure 36. On 4 out of
10 personality traits, the experiment group gave scores which are less aligned with
the character than the scores of the control group. By order of importance, the personality
traits strong, tough and daring were rated as the most descriptive for the
character. Both the personality traits strong and tough became less descriptive for
the brand among the experiment group. Overall, the product placement seems to
perform rather weakly in terms of transfer of personality traits. It could be questioned
if the character James Bond is the correct vehicle to shape brand personality,
given its strong association with the consumption of high-end products (Barber,
2015) and regarding beverages specifically, its preference for the spirits product
category instead of beers (Spary, 2015), both which might be a mismatch for the
Heineken brand.

96 Results
Heineken (control group) Bond (experiment group) Heineken (experiment group)
Charming
Strong
Honest
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Daring
Reliable
Responsible
Glamorous
Imaginative
Tough
Fig. 36 Transfer of personality traits (Heineken)
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
Genuine
The experiment group seems to align its perception of the personality of Red Bull
with that of the character on 3 out of 10 personality traits, see figure 37. On 2 out of
10 personality traits, the experiment group gave scores which are less aligned with
the character than the scores of the control group. Overall, for this product category,
the brand personality as rated by the experiment group seemed to differ the least
from the rating of the control group. By order of importance, the personality traits
imaginative, daring and charming were rated as the most descriptive for the character.
The personality trait imaginative became less descriptive for the brand among
the experiment group when compared to the experiment group.

Results 97
Red Bull (control group) Carl (experiment group) Red Bull (experiment group)
Charming
Strong
Honest
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Daring
Reliable
Responsible
Glamorous
Imaginative
Tough
Fig. 37 Transfer of personality traits (Red Bull)
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
Genuine
The experiment group seems to align its perception of the personality of Starbucks
with that of the character on 6 out of 10 personality traits, see figure 38. On 2 out of
10 personality traits, the experiment group gave scores which are less aligned with
the character than the scores of the control group. By order of importance, the personality
traits glamorous, charming and honest were rated as the most descriptive
for the character. Glamorous, which received the highest rating in terms of descriptive
power of a personality trait, seemed also successful in transmitting this trait
onto the brand. The trait charming experienced a similar alignment whereas the
trait honest became less descriptive when compared to the control group. It is noteworthy
that Starbucks is known to have appeared multiple times in the series Sex
and the City (Ferrier, 2014), which might contribute to higher levels of association
of personality traits due to previous exposure.

98 Results
Starbucks (control group) Carrie (experiment group) Starbucks (experiment group)
Charming
Strong
Honest
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Daring
Reliable
Responsible
Glamorous
Imaginative
Tough
Fig. 38 Transfer of personality traits (Starbucks)
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
5.3.3 Purchase intention
Genuine
The purchase intention about the brands among subjects from the experiment
group were lower than the control group for the brands Red Bull and Coca Cola (respectively
3.24 vs. 3.88 and 2.66 vs. 3.04). The purchase intention about the brand
Starbucks remained invariant comparing the experiment group to the control group
(respectively 2.86 vs. 2.85). The purchase intention about the brands Heineken, Apple
and Activia were higher for the experiment group than for the control group (respectively
3.10 vs. 3.04, 2.79 vs. 2.62 and 3.45 vs. 3.31). The average purchase intention
across all brands was lower for the experiment group when compared to the
control group (3.02 vs. 3.12). Figure 39 summarizes purchase intention as averages
for each brands.

Results 99
Starbucks
2.85
2.86
Red Bull
Heineken
3.04
3.10
3.24
3.88
Apple
Coca Cola
2.62
2.79
2.66
3.04
Activia
3.31
3.45
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
Purchase intention (control group)
Purchase intention (experiment group)
Fig. 39 Purchase intention: experiment group vs. control group
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
The following null hypothesis was formulated regarding the relation between purchase
intention and exposure to product placement:
H0: There is no significant difference in purchase intention between exposure
and non-exposure to product placement.
Conducting a Mann-Whitney U test provided insights in the difference between
these two groups. With α values higher than .05 the null-hypothesis was accepted
for all product categories, stating that there is no difference in purchase intention
between exposure and non-exposure to product placement. The results are therefore
conclusive across product category. Table 33 and 34 provide an overview of
respectively the ranks and test statistics of the Mann-Whitney test for the aforementioned
variables.

100 Results
Tab. 33 Mann-Whitney test: ranks (purchase intention brands)
Brand Group N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
Activia Control group 26 18.40 478.50
Experiment group 11 20.41 224.50
Total 37
Coca Cola Control group 26 27.96 727.00
Experiment group 26 24.04 651.00
Total 52
Apple Control group 26 20.48 532.50
Experiment group 17 24.32 413.50
Total 43
Heineken Control group 26 23.00 598.00
Experiment group 17 20.47 348.00
Total 43
Red Bull Control group 26 25.37 659.50
Experiment group 19 19.76 375.50
Total
Starbucks Control group 26 21.77 566.00
Experiment group 15 19.67 295.00
Total 41
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
Tab. 34 Mann-Whitney test: test statistics (purchase intention brands)
Brand Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Activia 127.500 -0.535 0.593
Coca Cola 300.000 0.718 0.473
Apple 181.500 -1.020 0.308
Heineken 195.000 -0.671 0.502
Red Bull 185.500 -1.464 0.143
Starbucks 175.000 -0.563 0.574
Source: experiment 2, 2015, n = 55
5.4 Practical implications
5.4.1 Cognitive responses
Attention
Attention to product placement seems a fairly good predictor of brand recall. However,
this relation is not absolute: paying attention to a product placed does not always result
in recalling the brand. Contrarily, not paying attention to a product placed does not always
result in failure to recall the brand: the context in which a product is placed can also lead

Results 101
to evoking and recalling the brand. The study revealed no differences in dwell time between
product preferences, indicating that previous usage or preference of brands does
not bring the consumer in a heightened state of attention when subjected to product placement
stimuli of the preferred brand.
Brand recall
The study indicates that product category recall and brand recall are dependent on each
other. Despite brand names not or partially visible, consumers seem capable to deduct the
brand rather well based on other brand elements such as the shape and colour of the product.
The study also indicates that brand recall and product placement type are dependent
on each other for certain product categories. Visual types of product placement seem to
perform better than audiovisual product placements in terms of brand recall, both aided
and unaided.
Recommendations
In order to use product placement as a marketing tool to support brand recall, it seem
therefore advisable to take special care of encoding the product category clearly in the
message. This does not seem to require showing the brand name completely. It seems that
placements can therefore be placed within the scene in a subtle matter. Placing the product
in a context with brand elements related to brand can further benefit brand recall. If brand
recall is a main objective for the marketer, visual product placement seem to elicited
higher rates of brand recall and could be the encoding form of choice.
5.4.2 Affective responses
Attitudes towards brands
The study indicates that brand recall and attitude are dependent on each other across product
categories. However, attitudinal changes due to product placement as a communication
medium specifically, seem weak and moreover do not seem to depend on the type of
product placement, either visual or audiovisual. Qualitative data indicate that attitudes
can be shaped both by recent exposure to product placement as well as previous exposure
to the brand. The study further indicates that attitudes and exposure or non-exposure to
product placement differ according to the product category.
Brand personality
The meaning transfer of personality traits from characters to brands differ between product
categories and the characters used. The stronger a trait is associated with a character
does not seem to increase the chance of the trait being more strongly associated with the
brand. Additionally, associating a trait with a character seems in certain cases to have an
adverse effect on how brand is perceived, by decreasing the level of association of the
brand with the trait. Overall, product placement seems to perform rather weakly and erratic
as an endorsement process aimed at transferring personality traits.

102 Results
Product preference
The study indicates product preference and product placement type are independent from
each other. Qualitative data indicate that preferences seem to be shaped solely by previous
exposure to the brand. Product placements encoded by embedding its benefits into the
script seem to only weakly resonate among the consumers who indicate preference.
Recommendations
The implications for the usage of product placement as a marketing tool are therefore
multiple. Though attitudes towards the brand and brand recall after exposure to product
placement seem dependant on each other, the study was not able to relate this solely product
placement as a practise nor to its type. It would seem that other factors such as previous
exposure to advertising or first-hand experience influence the overall attitude
strongly. An integrated marketing approach might in this context be beneficial to make
the most out of product placement as a vehicle to shape attitudes. Key factors for the
marketer to take care of when encoding the product placement message are the liking the
consumer takes to the character, the movie type or the scene type. However, taking the
character as a way to shape attitudes, it seems to do so weakly in the meaning transfer of
personality traits to shape brand personality. As it seems personality trait association is
influenced in a rather erratic way, it would be advisable to test in advance which personality
traits are most likely to be influenced through product placement and in which manner
before associating a brand to a certain character, to avoid weak or even unwanted
outcomes. As for its ability to influence product preferences, product placement seems
not a proper choice in the communication mix, regardless of product placement type, even
when clearly communicating product benefits.
5.4.3 Conative responses
Purchase intention
Overall, the study indicates there is no significant difference in purchase intention between
exposure and non-exposure to product placement. Looking at the results per product
category, even though weak, the influence of product placement on purchase intention
does not necessarily seem to be positive as intentions seem to also have the possibility to
decrease. Moreover: it seems that when a purchase intention decreases, it seems to decrease
by percentage higher than in case of an increase.
Recommendations
Product placement seems not a proper choice within the communication mix to directly
influence purchase intention. This does not mean product placement has no part to play
in shaping purchase intention. As brand equity is shaped by the consecution of evoking
recall, shaping attitudes and preferences and finally purchase intentions, it might have an

Results 103
influence. It does not seem to be however the right vehicle to shape purchase intentions
on the short-term.

104 Discussion
6 Discussion
Previous research indicate that factors affecting cognitive responses, in terms of
brand recall, are prominence, modality and plot connection (Gupta and Lord, 1998),
elements which shape the product placement type. It was concluded that prominent
placements result in a higher brand recall than do subtle placements. In addition, it
was concluded that product placements that are only supported by audio, evoke a
higher recall than placements that are only visual in nature. This was further supported
by other research, indicating that brands that have a high connection to the
plot of a movie have a higher recognition than brands that have a lower connection
(Russell, 2002). Similar findings were found for the Czech Republic regarding brand
recall and product placement type Slováčková and Souček, 2016). The results from
this thesis cannot conclusively validate the effect of these factors on all product categories.
As for how product placement type influences brand recall, the findings of
this thesis seem to contradict previous research as results indicate a higher recall
for product placements which only have a visual component. However, it should not
be forgotten that every product placement is encoded in a unique way. It is therefore
possible that the manner of encoding per brand (for instance, in terms of duration
and visibility), given a certain product placement type, might have a stronger influence
on recall than the choice of one type of product placement or another. Other
research indicates that background product placements in movies are less effective
if the consumer dislikes the movie (Redker, Gibson and Zimmerman, 2013). Such
relation was not explored in this thesis and could provide interesting opportunities
for future studies.
Regarding affective responses, research has shown that product placements
which do not fit the context in which they are placed, have negative effects on attitudes
(Russell, 2002; DeLorme and Reid, 1999). Though the findings of this thesis
did not particularly compare congruence between product placement and context,
the subjects of the research evoked incongruence only in a limited way as a factor
determining attitude changes. Other research on advertising effectiveness at large
indicate that the amount of times the message is repeated, can potentially create
negative associations (Cacioppo and Petty, 1979). Message repetition was only
evoked in a limited way in the results of this thesis as a factor influencing attitude.
Though further product placement effectiveness studies in the Czech Republic
are limited, marketing practitioners in the Czech Republic are convinced of its
overall efficiency (Kramoliš and Kopečková, 2013).
The thesis should also account for a number of limitations. Firstly, the results
of the study were aimed understanding the outcomes of different types of product
placement stimuli as situational variables, not if any difference in effects exist among
consumers with different person variables which are specific to the individual (Foxall,
Brown and Goldsmith; 1998, Kardes, 1999), except for their product preference.
The study is therefore not able to discern one group of consumers from another, for
instance on demographic factors such as gender, age or income, and predict whether
there exist differences in responses to product placement among these groups.

Discussion 105
Regarding product preference, when a subject is asked to judge a product by
comparing it to other products, it is likely that he will judge the product either positively
or negatively, depending on whether he judges the other products inversely
as respectively negative or positive as a whole. This inverted relationship is also
known as the contrast effect (Kardes, 1999). Such contrast effects might also occur
through other contextual stimuli (Brickman, Coates and Janoff-Bulman, 1978). Indeed,
the study does does not take into account situational influences (e.g. an unexpected,
sudden need to buy a product) which influence the buying behavior (Foxall,
Brown and Goldsmith, 1998).
It is difficult to make correct predictions of behavior based on attitudes and
intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977), often lacking information regarding, for instance,
the time and context in which an action is to be taken (Foxall, Brown and
Goldsmith, 1998). The larger the time interval between intention and behavior, the
lower the predictive potential of intention (Fishbein, 1973). This reality is not provided
by the research setting.
Regarding the transfer of personality traits of celebrities onto products, it is
noteworthy that many actors used in the research of this thesis do not suffer from
typecasting and assume various roles during their life and career. As a result, a consumer
might have an attitude towards a certain role of a celebrity and ascribe certain
personality traits to this celebrity. There is thus a chance there is a spillover
effect of attitudes and personality traits ascribed to previous roles, as celebrities
draw these meanings from the roles they take on in their careers (McCracken, 1989).
Exposure or non-exposure to these roles might result in different attitudes and perceptions
among consumers. In addition, it can be expected that attitudes towards
certain characters are influenced by the intensity of the parasocial relationship consumers
foster: TV series provide due to long-term viewing a better basis for intense
relationships (and thus stronger meanings conveyed through the characters) than
movies as well as the effectiveness of product placement resulting from such relationships
(Russell and Puto, 1999).
Using a heterogeneous group of subjects composed of various nationalities
brings along the challenge of a proper interpretation of personality traits, even
though language specific personality traits were used in obtaining data on personality
traits for this research, one personality trait in one language might not carry
the same weight as in another language (Wyer, 1974, De Raad, 2006) or might not
even have an equivalent in a target language. Cultural differences might have as a
result that overarching personality dimensions might only partially share the same
meaning across languages (Mooij, 2011).
Similar cultural differences exist when it comes to the definition of the dimensions
of brand personality. As a result, when a company attributes one personality
trait to a brand, there is a possibility this will result in different personalities
attached to this brand depending on the cultural background of the audience, leading
to a discrepancy in personality as a perceived by the audience and the personality
the company wants the audience to perceive (Aaker, Benet-Martinez and Garolera,
2001; Mooij, 2011). Other research has proven however the dimensions of hu-

106 Discussion
man personality to remain reliable across cultures (Paunonen et al., 1992). In conclusion:
it might be possible that due to different interpretations of personality
traits, different brand personalities might be perceived. It might therefore be advisable
to work with different subsets of personality traits in order to safeguard and
control a consistent brand personality across cultures (Mooij, 2011).
Another limitation concerns the difference in overarching categorization of
personality traits due to working with both personality traits of characters and traits
of brands. This might mpact on meaning transfer: as there is a gap between traits
which are considered descriptive for human personality (Cattell, Eber and Tatsuoka,
1970; Costa and McCrea, 1992; Goldberg, 1992) and the ones which are descriptive
for brand personality (Aaker, 1997), using one model over another results in either
lack of descriptive quality at the source of the meaning transfer (the character) or
at the target (the brand).
Furthermore, the study primarily focused on the transfer between personality
traits from the character onto the brand, but it does not unveil if such traits are
transferred onto the consumer (Russell and Stern, 2006), which is a relevant field of
study as consumers have a preference for brands which are congruent with their
self-concept (Dolich, 1969).
The research does not account for limitations resulting from previous exposure
to other marketing communications for one brand nor for the synergetic effects
that might result from these (McCarthy, 2002 and Kotler, 2012): by aligning the
communication objectives of the various promotional activities, a company can indeed
reach better results through the synergies created across the media used.
The research does not know which marketing objectives were to be achieved
through product placement of the various brands. After all, marketers and media
owners are not legally obliged to unveil whether or not product placement is used
(Russell and Belch, 2005). It is therefore only possible to assume which meanings
were desired to be transferred from a celebrity to a product (Russell and Stern,
2006).
The study focused on a select number of product categories. It is therefore
not possible to predict the effects of product placement in different product categories,
even though previous research indicated that some of the product categories
used for this thesis are among the ones most used for product placement, particularly
for the Czech Republic (Kramolis and Drabkova, 2012). It also does not account
for differences in consumer decision making depending on the initial strength of the
attitude from the consumer towards a certain category of products (Howard and
Sheth, 1969).
Furthermore, the study does not consider the stage in the product life cycle
of the product (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998) and whether this affects the
product placement effectiveness. As such it can for instance not discern between
newly-launched products and products which already exist on the market for a
longer time.
Though the research of this thesis attempted to recreate a real-life setting in
which consumer behavior could be observed, the amount of distractions or noise

Discussion 107
(Kotler, 2012) in the communication process cannot be underestimated. Such response
opportunity factors (Mackenzie, 1986) include, but are not limited to, the
presence of the researcher, the physical environment of the laboratory and the potentially
unnatural way to be exposed to the advertising stimuli to facilitate the data
collection. These factors create additional sources of information which might make
it more difficult for the subject to process the totality of the information than if they
would do under a normal context containing fewer sources of information (Miller,
1956).
The results of the experiments might also be influenced by the expectations
(Maier, 1965) set by the very research setting, not in the least due to it being in the
field of marketing and trade. In other words: the subjects might have a more than
average attention to the stimuli proposed as they knew they were being monitored.
On the other hand, through the ability of a consumer to be aware of the existence of
a marketer as a persuasion agent and its attempts to influence behavior through
media (Friestad, Marian and Wright, 1995), it can be expected that consumers increase
their knowledge of product placement over time, potentially decreasing their
attention and changing their responses.

108 Benefits of the thesis
7 Benefits of the thesis
The results of this thesis can be beneficial on the theoretical and scientific level, the
practical level and pedagogical level. As such they can be used within academic and
business environments. These benefits will be discussed below.
7.1 Benefits for the theory and science
The benefit of the thesis for theory and science lies in its attempt to evaluate the
effects of product placement on consumer behavior at the various levels of the buying
process instead of singling out one effect.
It also attempts to evaluate the effects and marketing outcomes of product
placement by comparing different types of product placement as well evaluating and
comparing these effects and outcomes in the presence or absence of product placement
as marketing stimuli.
It further attempts to contribute to improving the measurement of individual
effects on consumer behavior by complementing measures of attention and recall
such as self-reported awareness with eye tracking KPIs.
It finally attempts to provide insights in the matters described above across
product categories and specifically for consumers of generation Y.
7.2 Benefits for practice
The benefits for practice lies in its attempt to provide a holistic framework which
can be used to predict which marketing outcomes can and cannot be expected from
product placement as a marketing instrument and assess if these are proper to reach
the companys communication objectives.
It further attempts to provide data for specific industries active within fastmoving
consumer goods and consumer electronics to benchmark and evaluate existing
product placement efforts or predict future outcomes.
It also attempts to provide product placement practitioners, such as advertising,
communication and other miscellaneous media agencies with instructions regarding
how marketing messages can be encoded in the most effective way to reach
desired communication objectives.
7.3 Benefits for pedagogy
The benefits for pedagogy go beyond its usage at the Faculty of Business and Economics
at Mendel University in Brno. Below a non-exhaustive list of courses is provided
to which the thesis results can be beneficial as pedagogical material:
• Marketing courses (Marketing 1, Marketing 2, Marketing Communication,
International Marketing, Media Strategy, Brand Building, Promotion
and Media);

Benefits of the thesis 109
• Management courses (Management, Strategical management, Operational
management);
• Humanities and Law Courses (Consumer Protection, Sociology and Social
Psychology);
• Applied research courses.
Given the international nature of the research in terms of product placement media
and messages researched, the international commercialization of the brands researched
as well as the research subjects national backgrounds, the thesis results
can also be beneficial to the international programs of Mendel University in Brno as
well as pedagogical facilities beyond the Czech Republic.

110 Conclusion
8 Conclusion
The thesis aimed to understand the effects of product placement on consumer behavior.
Specifically it aimed to understand which cognitive, affective and conative
responses can be expected from product placement. In doing so, the thesis wanted
to understand how product placement contributes to building brand equity at large.
Current scientific literature has not sufficiently approached the understanding of
such effects in a holistic way. The findings of the thesis are limited by the research
conditions in which the research took place. Despite these limitations, the research
brings insights which can be beneficial to scientific, practical and pedagogical purposes.
The thesis firstly explored the various theoretical concepts related to its research
objectives. It introduced the concept of brand equity as an overarching model
to build brands from evoking attention and brand recall, to fostering attitudes, preferences
and building relationships inciting purchase behavior. It further described
promotion and the communication process as a way to build brand equity. Secondly,
it described product placement as a specific promotion vehicle. It briefly described
its origins to further elaborate on its most common media platforms and types
which are used to encode product placement messages. These were the basis to
elaborate on particular effects which can be expected from product placement as
well as its criticisms regarding its usage. It then tied the concept of product placement
to the concept of celebrity endorsement, given its similar characteristics as a
communication tool. The benefits of celebrity endorsements and product placements
were in doing so elaborated in terms of personality traits as a source of brand
personality. Finally, it described the various consumer behavior processes affecting
the effects of product placement. In doing so, it introduced processes of cognition,
affection and conation, as a way how product placement inputs result in possible
brand equity outcomes.
In order to reach the objectives of the thesis, several researches were conducted.
Firstly, a survey (n = 164) was conducted after exposure to product placement
to gather overall insights in the effects of product placement on cognitive and
affective responses across different product categories. Secondly, 2 experiment
groups were subjected to an eye tracker research to measure differences in attention
among visual product placements across different product categories (n = 80).
This was followed by an interview (n = 80) which aimed to understand the differences
in cognitive and affective responses to either visual or audiovisual product
placements as well as their reasons. Finally, a second interview was conducted with
a different experiment group and control group (n = 54) to understand the differences
in affective and conative responses to product placement across different
product categories.
The results regarding the cognitive responses to product placement indicate
the following: attention is a fairly good measure to predict brand recall. However,
paying attention to a brand does not guarantee the consumer will recall it. On the
other hand, not paying attention to a brand name or product can in certain cases

Conclusion 111
evoke brand recall through other, contextual brand elements. Preferring a product
does not seems to influence the amount of attention given to a product placement.
A consumer who owns a certain product or prefers it does therefore not seem to pay
more attention to product placement stimuli than others. Product category recall
and brand recall are dependent from each other. Product placement type and brand
recall are also dependent from each other, but only for certain product categories.
Visual types of product placement and audiovisual types of product placement elicit
higher levels of brand recall, though it is likely this results from the unique way how
individual product placement messages are encoded rather than from the choice of
product placement type itself.
The results regarding the affective responses to product placement indicate the
following: brand recall and attitude are dependent on each other across product categories.
These attitudinal changes do not appear to be extreme however, only moderately
influencing attitude. Furthermore, qualitative feedback from the subjects indicate
that these attitudinal changes seems to be caused by both the product placement
as well as previous exposure to the brand. However, visual and audiovisual
types of product placement do not seem to perform differently in shaping attitudes.
Attitudes to brands differ between exposure and non-exposure to product placement
depending on the product category. Product placement performs poorly in the
meaning transfer of personality traits from characters to brands. A stronger association
of a trait to a character does not seem to imply a higher success in transferring
this trait association onto the brand. Overall, the results regarding the transfer of
personality traits seem rather erratic: whereas some personality traits of characters
seem to influence brand personality by strengthening the association, other traits
seem rather to influence brand personality by weakening the association. Finally,
product preferences are independent from the product placement type. Product
placement preferences could almost solely be attributed to previous exposure to the
brand.
The results regarding the conative responses to product placement show overall
no significant difference in purchase intention between exposure and non-exposure
to product placement. Though differences in effects seem weak, purchase intention
after exposure to product placement varies across product categories: when
compared to the control group, in certain cases purchase intention increases
whereas in certain cases purchase intention decreased. Though short term effects
on purchase intention were not shown, it is possible that on the long term, product
placement does influence purchases by shaping brand awareness and attitudes as
part of building brand equity.
Based on these results, the thesis fulfilled its general objective to assess the effects
of product placement on consumer behavior. It also fulfilled its partial objectives
to assess the effects of product placement in terms of cognitive, affective and
conative responses.
This holistic approach to evaluating the effects of product placement can be
beneficial to marketing practitioners. Through these results they can make a more
educated prediction about the marketing effects they can expect from product placement
as well as, in certain cases, benchmark their performance to a given product

112 Conclusion
category. These results also further contribute to the scientific research in the field
of product placement effectiveness and provide new materials which can be used in
pedagogical contexts.
The research and the results of this thesis were made possible through the resources
and expertise provided by the department of Marketing and Trade and related
departments of the Faculty of Business and Economics at Mendel University in
Brno.

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126 List of tables
10 List of tables
Tab. 1 Alignment among the three main five factor models ............................... 32
Tab. 2 Five Factor Model of Personality Traits .................................................. 32
Tab. 3 Five dimensions of brand personality....................................................... 33
Tab. 4 Properties of Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory ................ 39
Tab. 5 AOI KPIs ................................................................................................... 45
Tab. 6 Summary samples ..................................................................................... 47
Tab. 7 Questionnaire survey: overview of video clips ......................................... 48
Tab. 8 Experiment 1: video clips .......................................................................... 51
Tab. 9 Experiment 1: brands ............................................................................... 51
Tab. 10 Experiment 2: movies/series and characters ............................................ 55
Tab. 11 Experiment 2: pairing characters and brands ......................................... 57
Tab. 12 Crosstabulation: product category recall x brand recall ......................... 64
Tab. 13 Chi-square test: product category recall x brand recall .......................... 64
Tab. 14 Phi values: product category recall x brand recall .................................. 65
Tab. 15 Crosstabulation: brand recall x attitude towards brands ....................... 66
Tab. 16 Chi-square test: brand recall x attitude towards brands......................... 66
Tab. 17 Cramer’s V values: brand recall x attitude towards brands ................... 67
Tab. 18 Crosstabulation: product placement type x brand recall ........................ 69
Tab. 19 Chi-square test: product placement type x brand recall ......................... 69
Tab. 20 Phi values: product placement type x brand recall.................................. 70
Tab. 21 Interview output attitude visual product placement ................................ 72

List of tables 127
Tab. 22 Interview output attitude visual product placement ................................ 73
Tab. 23 Crosstabulation: product placement type x preference............................ 75
Tab. 24 Fisher’s exact test: product placement type x preference ........................ 75
Tab. 25 Chi-square test: product placement type x preference (energy drinks) .. 75
Tab. 26 Product placement prominence: reasons preference (visual)................... 78
Tab. 27 Product placement prominence: reasons preference (audiovisual) ......... 79
Tab. 28 Levene’s Test: dwell time and product preference ................................... 87
Tab. 29 ANOVA test between groups: dwell time and product preference .......... 88
Tab. 30 Brand recall percentages ........................................................................... 89
Tab. 31 Mann-Whitney test: ranks (opinion brands) ............................................ 92
Tab. 32 Mann-Whitney test: test statistics (opinion brands) ................................. 92
Tab. 33 Mann-Whitney test: ranks (purchase intention brands) ........................ 100
Tab. 34 Mann-Whitney test: test statistics (purchase intention brands) ............. 100

128 List of figures
11 List of figures
Fig. 1 Customer-based brand equity model ....................................................... 17
Fig. 2 Sub-dimensions of brand building blocks ................................................ 20
Fig. 3 Elements in the communication process................................................... 21
Fig. 4 Meaning movement and the endorsement process .................................. 29
Fig. 5 Balance Model of Product Placement Effects .......................................... 30
Fig. 6 The buying process in outline ................................................................... 35
Fig. 7 A model of the consumer choice process .................................................. 36
Fig. 8 Factors influencing the amount of attention given to an ad .................... 37
Fig. 9 Four levels of involvement ........................................................................ 37
Fig. 10 Structure of the memory system ............................................................... 38
Fig. 11 Product category recall ............................................................................. 62
Fig. 12 Brand recall ............................................................................................... 63
Fig. 13 Attitude towards brands ........................................................................... 65
Fig. 14 Unaided brand recall ................................................................................ 67
Fig. 15 Aided brand recall .................................................................................... 68
Fig. 16 Product placement prominence: affection (Heineken) ............................ 71
Fig. 17 Product placement prominence: affection (Apple) .................................. 71
Fig. 18 Product placement prominence: affection (Red Bull) ............................. 71
Fig. 19 Product placement prominence: preference (audiovisual) ...................... 74
Fig. 20 Visual product placement (Heineken) - AOI KPIs .................................. 80
Fig. 21 Visual product placement (Heineken)- heat map..................................... 81
Fig. 22 Visual product placement (Apple)- AOI KPIs ......................................... 82

List of figures 129
Fig. 23 Visual product placement (Apple) - heat map .......................................... 82
Fig. 24 Visual product placement (Red Bull) - AOI KPIs .................................... 83
Fig. 25 Visual product placement (Red Bull) - focus map .................................... 84
Fig. 26 Audiovisual product placement (Heineken) - AOI KPIs .......................... 85
Fig. 27 Audiovisual product placement (Heineken) – heatmap............................ 85
Fig. 28 Audiovisual product placement (Apple) - AOI KPIs ................................ 86
Fig. 29 Audiovisual product placement (Red Bull) - AOI KPIs ........................... 87
Fig. 30 Brand recall counts .................................................................................... 89
Fig. 31 Aided brand recall ..................................................................................... 90
Fig. 32 Attitude to brands: experiment group vs. control group.......................... 91
Fig. 33 Transfer of personality traits (Activia) ..................................................... 93
Fig. 34 Transfer of personality traits (Coca Cola) ................................................ 94
Fig. 35 Transfer of personality traits (Apple) ....................................................... 95
Fig. 36 Transfer of personality traits (Heineken) ................................................. 96
Fig. 37 Transfer of personality traits (Red Bull) ................................................... 97
Fig. 38 Transfer of personality traits (Starbucks) ................................................ 98
Fig. 39 Purchase intention: experiment group vs. control group ......................... 99

130 Appendix
A Questionnaire survey
Sequence Answer type Question
1 Open ended Which product type do you recall from the video clip?
2 Open ended Which brand do you recall from the video clip?
3 Multiple-choice How did your opinion change about this brand?
▢ Positive
▢ Neither positive nor negative
▢ Negative
4 Open ended Write down your student ID:

Appendix 131
B Questionnaire interview experiment 1
1. Which brands do you remember from the video?
2. Which of the following brands do you remember from the video

132 Appendix
3. Which of the following products do you prefer?
4. What is the reason for your choice?
5. Which of the following products do you prefer?
6. What is the reason for your choice?

Appendix 133
7. Which of the following products do you prefer?
8. What is the reason for your choice?
9. What is your opinion about this brand?
Very good
Good
Neither good,
nor bad
Bad
Very bad
10. What is the reason for your score?
11. What is your opinion about this brand?
Very good
Good
Neither good,
nor bad
Bad
Very bad

134 Appendix
12. What is the reason for your score?
13. What is your opinion about this brand?
Very good
Good
Neither good,
nor bad
Bad
Very bad
14. What is the reason for your score?
15. Which beer do you drink?
16. Which laptop do you own?
17. Which energy drink do you drink?
18. Please fill out the following personal data

Appendix 135
Name
Surname
Gender
Age
Postal code
Nationality

136 Appendix
C Questionnaire interview experiment 2

Appendix 137

138 Appendix

Appendix 139

140 Appendix

Appendix 141

142 Appendix

Appendix 143

144 Appendix

Appendix 145

146 Appendix

Appendix 147

148 Appendix

Appendix 149

150 Appendix

Appendix 151

152 Appendix

Appendix 153

154 Appendix

Appendix 155

156 Appendix

Appendix 157

158 Appendix

Appendix 159

160 Appendix

Appendix 161

162 Appendix

Appendix 163

164 Appendix

Appendix 165

166 Appendix

Appendix 167

168 Appendix