PROCEEDINGS OF THE EATSA CONFERENCE 2016

Euro-Asia Tourism

Studies Association

A PATHWAY FOR THE

NEW GENERATION OF

TOURISM RESEARCH

Proceedings of the EATSA Conference 2016

Lisbon, Peniche & Coimbra, Portugal

EDITED BY FRANCISCO DIAS

A PATHWAY FOR THE

NEW GENERATION OF

TOURISM RESEARCH

CONTENTS

WEllCOmE mESSagES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

abSTraCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

[3] Urban Design as a Practical Vehicle for a Sustainable Tourism Development . . . . . .27

Mona Erfanian Salim and Ali Afshar

[8] The cultural influences of an ever present past in regional gastronomy . . . . . . . . . . .28

Carlos Fernandes, Alexandra Correia and Goretti Silva

[17] regional tourism dynamics in Japan: an exploratory spatial analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .29

João Romão

[24] Domestic Tourists’ motivation, Overall attitude, Place attachment

and behavioural Intentions: The Case of Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Girish Prayag, Chris Chenand Giacomo Del Chiappa

[26] Foreign direct investment in the accommodation sector in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Cristina Barroco, Eduardo Anselmo Castro and Carlos Costa

[41] body, Sexuality and Eroticism in leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Catarina Nadais and Norberto Santos

[43] Dissemination of Dancesport Competitions as a Determinant of Travel

geography of Participants and Spectators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Audrius Armas

[46] Tourism policy, regional development and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Simon Teoh

[50] National consciousness development through domestic tourism advertisements .35

Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė and Lina Pilelienė

6

[53] Jessica Holding Fund and Tourism gentrification:

Hotel Santiago de alfama as a case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

João Safara and Eduardo Brito-Henriques

[60] Competitiveness of Polish cities in the international meetings industry . . . . . . . . .37

Natalia Piechota and Piotr Zmyślony

[71] Visualizing Tourists’ Imaginings: Consuming Portuguese Cuisine in macau . . . . . . .38

Kate Mingjie Ji and Brian King

[72] Slow Cities movement: an opportunity for the city of Viseu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Pedro Filipe Ferreira, Cristina Barroco and Cláudia Seabra

[81] The relationship between adolescents’ Tourist motivation and Their Influence

in Family Vacation Decision: The moderating role of Conflict resolution modes . . . . .40

Che-Jen Su and Hsin-Hsing Liao and Chung-Wei Ma

[109] Economic impact analysis of a surfing sport event:

the case of the moche rip Curl Pro Portugal 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

João Paulo Jorge, Ana Sofia Viana, Dulcineia Ramos, Fernanda Oliveira, Sofia Eurico,

José Miguel Nunes, Sérgio Leandro, Susana Mendes

[110] The Importance of Networks for regional Development in Sustainable Tourism .42

Dulcineia Ramos, João Paulo Jorge, Ana Sofia Viana

[111] The French piece for the “magic Cube” of brand Equity of Tourism Destinations .43

Francisco Dias and Anne-Marie Lebrun

[112] a Polish piece for the “magic Cube” of brand Equity of Tourism Destinations . . .44

Francisco Dias and Joanna Kosmaczewska

[115] The brand equity of tourism destinations - The Indian piece of “magic cube” . . .45

Francisco Dias and Madhuri Sawant

[116] The brand equity of tourism destinations for Japanese tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Francisco Dias and Hirofumi Miyagi

[118] The brand equity of Indonesian destinations – a new research approach . . . . . . .47

Francisco Dias and Yanki Hartijasti

FUll PaPErS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

[2] Is authenticity really important? The case of archaeological festival visitors . . . . . . .51

Marek Maciej Nowacki

[4] The current situation and issues with accommodation legislation in Japan . . . . . . . .67

Yuichi Hirooka

7

[6] Peace, risk and Safety in international tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Claudia Seabra, Elisabeth Kastenholz, José Luís Abrantes and Manuel Reis

[7] Tourism and Terrorism: Strange links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

Claudia Seabra, José Luís Abrantes and Odete Paiva

[11] The Enhancement of the archaeological Heritage in the qualification

of the Touristic Experience: the case of bracara augusta (braga) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

Olga Matos, Eduarda Duarte and Sandra Vasconcelos

[12] Cross-national and experiential comparison

in natural parks (France versus Taiwan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123

Anne-Marie Lebrun, Che-Jen Su, Lhéraud Jean-Luc, Marsac Antoine and Bouchet Patrick

[13] When tourism meets education - the tourist route

“Cultural remnants of the middle ages in Penela” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

Vivina Carreira and Joana Azeredo

[15] Company differentiation in the single-asset tourism

city of antalya: a quantitative analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147

Hilal Erkuş-Öztürk

[16] Innovations of restaurants in a mass-Tourism City: Evidence from antalya . . . . .161

Hilal Erkuş-Öztürk

[19] Study on Possibilities of Expansion of Japanese Type Ecotourism

– Focusing on Nature-based Daytrip Tourists to Ecotourism regions in Nabari-City . . .175

Sangjun Kim

[20] business Tourism in the Central region of Portugal:

analyzing the results of a Delphi study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191

Jorge Marques and Norberto Santos

[22] Investigating transportation mode choice behaviors

at a tourist destination with low-carbon images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205

Tsung-Hsien Tsai and Ya-Ling Hsu

[27] Hostels quality services and booking website reviews: e-WOm really matters . . . . . .219

Márcio Ribeiro Martins, Susana Rachão and Rui Costa

8

[28] The Comparative Study of Five mediterranean Countries of Cruise Tourism:

Spain, Italy, greece, Cyprus and Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241

Asli Ozge Ozgen Cigdemli, Kemal Kantarci and Murat Alper Basaran

[29] The South-South Cooperation in the perspective of Education in Tourism: a report

about the experience in the School of Hospitality and Tourism of Cabo Verde . . . . . .255

Juliana Vieira de Almeida and Carlos Cabral Tavares de Lima

[32] risk management policy and its importance in the competitiveness

of tourism destinations strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265

Marica Mazurek

[33] guided tours: a performance, from script to interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275

Sofia Mendonça and Cristina Barroco

[35] Outing activities and Programs to improve QOl in patients with Knee Surgeries . . . . . . . . .283

Yasunobu Iwasaki MD, MBA

[36] The relationship between local resident Eco-consciousness

and governance in the Provision of Ecotourism Hainan, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289

Zhen WEI

[37] Innovation in b to b trade shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305

Aude Ducroquet and Malgorzata Ogonowska

[39] residents’ Influence on the adoption of Environmental Norms in Tourism . . . . . .315

Malgorzata Ogonowska and Dominique Torre

[40] assessment of Influence of European Union Funds

in the Tourism Industry on Volume of Tourism movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337

Aleksander Panasiuk

[45] Value Creation in Tourism Destination for Experience based Perspective:

The Case of Okinawa Prefecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351

Miyagi, Hirofumi

[48] Emotional labor and Emotional Exhaustion: The Case Study

of Flight attendants at the Full-Service airline Company in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363

Herlina, Riani Rachmawati, and Monica Devina

[49] Promoting the Domestic Tourism: modelling advertising layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377

Lina Pilelienė and Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė

[51] Wine Culture, Territory/landscape and Tourism, the Enotourism key Pillars.

How to get business success and territorial sustainability

inside Wine Tourism Ecosystem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391

Josefina Salvado

[54] benchmarking wine regions: the core wine product dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415

Ilinka Terziyska and Desislava Pavlova

9

[56] Tourism activity in Urban Space on the Example of Szczecin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431

Beata Meyer

[57] relationship between Emotional Intelligence

and Entrepreneurship Competencies of Tourism Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443

Kevser Cinar, Ercan Yilmaz

[62] Why don’t tourism firms use academic knowledge for innovation?

a conceptual framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453

Marcin Olszewski and Marlena A. Bednarska

[65] Volatility of Tourism Demand: a review of recent research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463

Alexandra Mendes and Ana Brochado

[73] The impact of terrorism on tourism consumption behavior of romanians . . . . . .477

Puiu Nistoreanu and Ana-Maria Nica

[76] Evaluating Chinese Female College Students’ Experience

towards on b&b Hostel: a Case of Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487

Jingyi Li and Yang Zhang

[77] Socio-Economic impacts of Tourism development at aurangabad District . . . . . . .501

Madhuri Sawant

[79] Investigating factors affecting Job performances of Tour guides, Thailand . . . . . .515

Nealnara Wongkerd

[80] Intentions to use a pilgrimage app: Which features really matter? . . . . . . . . . . . . .525

Angela Antunes and Suzanne Amaro

[82] Crossing frontiers between tourism and demography.

an empirical analysis based on European travellers’ behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537

Jaime Serra, Filipe Ribeiro, Lídia Patrícia Tomé, Maria Filomena Mendes

[83] The Development of Sustainable Tourism

as a means of Intercultural Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551

Manya Melkonyana and Ana Luisa Pires

A PATHWAY FOR THE NEW GENERATION OF TOuRISM RESEARCH — PROCEEDINGS OF THE EATSA CONFERENCE 2016

[85] Consideration on Perceptions of Young People and Travel agents . . . . . . . . . . . . .577

Masayuki Maruyama

10

[89] Importance bias in business hotel quality surveys:

the role of travelers’ heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585

Annalisa Stacchini and Andrea Guizzardi

[94] Investigating the phenomenon of medical tourism: South Korean context . . . . . .597

Eunhee Sung and Dr. Jonathan A. J. Wilson

[97] Creative Tourism based on Indonesian local Wisdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609

Yanki Hartijasti and Danny I. Yatim

[99] USalI adapted to the small independent hotels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621

Henrique Correia, Luís Lima Santos, Conceição Gomes and Raúl Ribeiro Ferreira

[100] Performance evaluation of small independent hotels

through management accounting indicators and ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639

Nuno Casqueira, Conceição Gomes, Luís Lima Santos, Cátia Malheiros, and Raúl Ribeiro

Ferreira

[101] museum of the Tourist: an-other perspective of reproducing national artefacts . . .653

Desmond Wee

[102] The Impact of gaming Tourism growth On The Income Distribution In macau .663

Luis Cunha

[103] Evaluation of tourism routes’ governance – Case study: mainland Portugal . . . .687

Carlos Vilela da Mota and Fernando F. Gonçalves

[105] Online purchase of peer-to-peer accommodation services:

definition and proposal of a conceptual framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .699

Luis Sousa, Elisabeth Kastenholz and Lourdes Barbosa

[106] Financial balance of small independent hotels: the management view . . . . . . .713

Diana Vieira Alves, Luís Lima Santos, Cátia Malheiros, and Raúl Ribeiro Ferreira

[107] Food motivation, Hedonic Value, and behavioral Intention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .727

Janet Chang and Mei-Yen Chao

[113] Changing patterns of voluntourism in pondicherry a french colony in India . . . .731

Y.Venakata Rao

[114] Success factors of small tourism units in Serra da Estrela region . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739

Ana Teodoro, Isabel Dinis, Orlando Simões and Gonçalo Gomes

[117] residents’ attitudes towards casinos: The role of positive experiences . . . . . . . .753

Carlos Peixeira Marques and Sónia Rodrigues

[119] What Determines the Competitiveness of a Tourism Destination?

The Case of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763

Cristina Estevão, Sara Nunes and João Ferreira

11

[120] The key factor of developing the Japanese hotel industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785

Shunsaku Hashimoto

[122] measurement of Infrastructure Profitability in air Transport.

a review of Investment in the Project to Expanding airport Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797

Vânia Costa

WELCOME MESSAGES

15

Welcome to the 2nd Annual Conference of the Euro-Asia Tourism Studies Association!

Welcome to Portugal!

On behalf of the EATSA Direction Board, I would like to thank IGOT - university of Lisbon,

CiTuR - Polytechnic Institute of Leiria and CEGOT - university of Coimbra for the competent

organization of this international meeting and for supporting EATSA efforts to connect

tourism researchers from many countries of Europe and Asia.

In a global world, the networking cooperation among researchers is the first necessary

step for embracing global phenomena. Tourism stands as one of more complex and globalized

industry and it is also a highly globalized sociocultural phenomenon. Its scientific study required

the implementation of more broaden and holistic approaches that only can be

achieved through the international cooperation of academia.

EATSA’s mission consists of creating the more appropriate context in tourism research

community leading the following outcomes:

1. Promoting research and education in the field of tourism, hospitality and recreation

in Asia and Europe, with special focus on the comparative international studies.

2. Promote the dialogue among scholars of all scientific disciplines engaged in the

tourism studies, in order to move from the current multi-disciplinary approach to a

more integrated and trans-disciplinary one.

3. Foster more close connections between tourism academia and tourism industry.

4. Encourage the exchange of research results, practical experience, and ideas by organising

conferences, meetings and developing research networks among members

and institutions.

5. Promote a more intensive cooperation between European and Asian scholars in the

fields of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation.

6. Disseminate research results through various channels.

The annual conferences of EATSA, that go side-by-side with the General Assembly, is a

high spot of this volunteer and enthusiastic dynamic that is ruled by a common will of constructing

a new world in tourism research academy.

In our conferences we are paving a new pathway for encouraging and consolidating new

international projects. Since the EATSA Inaugural Conference, last year in Taiwan, EATSA gave

its patronage to the following multinational or worldwide) projects:

BACK TO CONTENT |


• The Commonwealth Research Project, coordinated by Ch-Jen Su, from Taiwan;

• The Tower of Babel Project, coordinated by Francisco Dias, from Portugal;

16

• The Conference Attractiveness Project, coordinated by Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė and

Lina Pilelienė, from Lithuania.

To encourage new networking projects, we created in our conferences a specific forum

– the International Collaborative Forum (ICF) - where participants can share their innovative

projects with other participants. In the EATSA Conference 2016 two interesting projects will

be presented at the ITC, namely:

• Coastal and maritime destinations: between attractiveness and preservation, by

Patrick Bouchet, from France;

• Performance evaluation of small independent hotels, by a team of Portuguese researcher

coordinated by Luís Lima Santos.

In the very short period of its existence, EATSA networking approach has been demonstrated

its effectiveness, that consists of (1) discuss and co-create common research methodologies

at global level; (2) carrying out international studies based on common

methodologies; (3) coordinating efforts to make more credible the voice of tourism research

community inside the academia and in relationship with the industry.

Those above facts that are aligned with the EATSA’s mission make EATSA members much

more confident in the international cooperation and are the main motivational driver of its

Direction Board.

Francisco Dias

President of Direction Board of EATSA

| BACK TO CONTENT

17

Welcome to EATSA Conference

The promotion of international scientific meetings is itself an asset. Not only the exchange

of experiences as well as by the approach of people and institutions, fostering partnerships,

projects and essentially communication and friendship to both institutional and

personal. The EATSA has this virtue and brings together people, institutions, countries, cultures

and continents and congratulations to the entire organization and to all participants.

The Polytechnic of Leiria (IPLeiria), and specifically its School of Tourism and Maritime

Technology (ESTM), as a partner of this organization, see the institutional and international

partnerships as a strategic option for sustainability and growth. The universality that the genesis

of a higher education institution must have, based perfectly in the strategy that IPLeiria

has followed in the field of training, research and extension, demonstrating their visionary

capacity for future and involvement.

In terms of educational offer, currently IPLeiria offers a hundred Portuguese courses, undergraduate,

masters and Tesp, directed not only to national students but also to the Portuguese-speaking

countries. It also offers nine specific masters in English, looking for other

international student’s want of Europe and the rest of the world. Specifically we are one of the

few national institutions that have a degree of Portuguese-Chinese and Chinese-Portuguese,

in partnership with higher education institutions in China and Macau. This year the IPLeiria has

close to a thousand international students in its various schools, either in educational offer or

in research and the future goal is to grow and through strategic partnerships.

The tourism industry is extremely important to Portugal and ESTM attentive to this opportunity

based part of their educational offer in tourism, hospitality and catering. About

60% of teachers are PhD and this has allowed the development of applied research in the

area, based on the CITuR-Applied tourism Research Center. Partnerships with several countries

such as Oman, China, Macau, Brazil, Cape Verde, Lithuania, Italy, Poland, Taiwan, Spain,

among others, have allowed the ESTM is internationally involved with mobility of teachers

and students, organizing conferences and international meetings and development international

research projects.

Thus, it is for the IPLeiria and particularly for ESTM an honor to receive such an important

conference and as distinguished speakers, presenting, discussing and promoting new

ideas, new cultures and innovative methodologies that foster more research in tourism, en-

BACK TO CONTENT |


18

courage participation and sharing skills, promote knowledge and establish friendly professional

relations, institutional partnerships and creative relationships making tourism the industry

of friendship. As lovers of this fantastic area that is tourism, and interested in creating

science, we are available to find out more and available to embark on new challenges, so

challenge us!

Be Welcome to Portugal, experience the Portuguese culture and I hope you have a good

time in this Western Region and be happy in the ESTM.

Paulo Almeida

Dean ESTM

| BACK TO CONTENT

19

Dear EATSA 2016 delegates,

Contemporary society is structured upon change, everything happens very fast. Distances

are measured in hours rather than in kilometres, allowing the concept of tourist destination to

expand and consolidate new development models as leverage of economic benefits for beneficiary

communities.

The relevance of tourism activity is usually measured by the impact on exports, by the

weight of revenues in GDP and also by their contribution in creating jobs, benefiting countries,

business dynamics and family economy. These are the main reasons that support the importance

of tourism in countries’ economies. For these reasons, in the early XXI century it is fair

to praise the tourism activity that, because of its multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and consequently

transversal nature in its social dynamics, presents itself as leverage for the sustainable

development of many countries, particularly those considered to be developing.

However, the importance of tourism to a country’s economy cannot be dissociated from

its geopolitical reality, which states the economic and financial sovereignty and guides the

establishment of major strategic axes for the tourism sector. In this particular case, there cannot

be doubts that one of the strategic priorities for the tourism sector should go through applied

research on tourism as an economic and social phenomenon, by the suppression of regional

needs at national level or by the understanding of global scale phenomena.

The Polytechnic of Leiria, through the Centre of Tourism Applied Research (CiTUR),

seeks to position itself as an applied research key partner by participating on scientific research

projects involving the training of 2nd and 3rd cycles, by publishing scientific papers in national

and international peer-reviewed journals and by presenting papers at scientific meetings. For

these reasons, CiTUR adopts applied research, production and transfer of scientific knowledge

in tourism as its mission and develops studies and work oriented to meet the needs of the academic,

corporate and national institutional community.

To motivate highly qualified researchers in multidisciplinary areas for international cooperation

is essential, particularly in association with tourism knowledge dissemination projects

in cooperation with other international research units. The global dimension of tourism as a

study object requires a worldwide response from researchers, grounded in knowledge networks.

CiTUR welcomes the three research units for their joint organization, and for promoting

EATSA 2016 as an event which will allow the tourism phenomenon to be discussed with

BACK TO CONTENT |


global partners, structured in thematic areas such as regional development and planning, hotel

management, tourism marketing, cultural heritage and leisure, practices of sustainable tourism,

ecology and innovation, among others.

20

Serious work and networking research is the chosen path by many of those who will attend

this great meeting between researchers and international experts.

Just as Portugal is committed to tourism development, Leiria Polytechnic teachers and

CiTUR researchers are seriously dedicated to advanced training and to quality tourism research

as an essential phenomenon of social sciences for the individual’s well-being, the companies’

competitiveness and the nations’ prosperity.

Luís Lima Santos

CiTUR Coordinator

| BACK TO CONTENT

21

Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning (http://www.igot.ulisboa.pt/)

IGOT is an organic unity of education and research at the university of Lisbon in the

fields of Geography and Spatial Planning. It was established in 2009, following an institutional

reform of Portuguese higher education system, as a new autonomous body of the university

of Lisbon, incorporating a teaching and training unit - the Geography Department (created

in the 50’s) and a research unit - the Centre for Geographical Studies (created in 1943), of

the same university.

The IGOT mission is to ensure higher education, conduct research, disseminate knowledge

and provide technical and specialized scientific consulting to the community in the

fields of geography, spatial planning and management, development and territorial cohesion

policies, urban planning, environment, resources and risks, the dynamics and socio-spatial

organization. Thus, the mission of IGOT articulates the three functions of universities - Education,

Research and Connection to society - in order to stimulate innovation, disseminate

knowledge and contribute to development. The IGOT has approximately 750 students, considering

all levels of education, a full-time teaching staff of 43 people (80% with a PhD) and

180 researchers (40% with a PhD).

In nowadays the IGOT is the leading Portuguese institution in geographical research and

teaching developing diverse projects, either coordinated by its professors and researchers or

in partnership with others, which include in their teams many PhD and Master students as well

as young undergraduates who benefit from the applied research, very often working closely

with policy makers both at the municipal and central level. The international reputation of the

IGOT´s professors and researchers is furthermore highlighted by a number of invitations for

visiting professors at other institutions; present lectures at leading institutions, keynote speakers

at international conferences and memberships of editorial boards and boards of directors.

Benefiting from the beginning of a close cooperation relationship with the Geography

Department, the IGOT offers actually 2 Bachelor degree programs: “Geography”; and “Spatial

Planning”. In addition to this, it actively cooperates in the degrees of “European, African and

Asian Studies” offered by the Faculty of Leters, university of Lisbon. Regarding to post-graduate

education, IGOT has 5 Master degree programs (“Physical Geography and Spatial Planning”;

“urban Management and urbanism”; “Population, Society and Territory”; “European

Policies”; “Geographical Information Systems Applied to Spatial Planning and Management”)

and is institutionally involved in the joint Master degree of “Demography”; “History and Geography

Teaching”; and “Tourism and Communication”. In addition to this, it also conducts

BACK TO CONTENT |


a PhD program in “Geography”, which is open to the various disciplinary fields, and a PhD

program in “Tourism” (with the collaboration of the Higher Institute of Hospitality and

Tourism Studies of Estoril); and is also partner of 2 other PhD programs: “Migrations”; and

“Territory, Risk and Public Policies”.

22

IGOT comprises the CEG - Centre for Geographical Studies, (http://www.ceg.ul.pt/), the

most important center of R&D within the Portuguese Geography and rated internationally

as a center of excellence.

The CEG was founded in 1943 by Professor Orlando Ribeiro. For over seven years, the

CEG has been the main Portuguese institution carrying out research on Geography and promoting

the progress of the geographical science in Portugal, achieving a remarkable position

in the international geographical context. The CEG received the highest classification of “Excellent”

in the last 3 evaluation periods by the official panels of international experts nominated

by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology.

The scientific activity of CEG is being now developed by 180 researchers (40% PhD graduates),

and is focused on the development of the geographical science and on the application

of geographical knowledge in Portugal, Europe and other territories. It is also often visited

by researchers from other countries and all its senior researchers have been invited to cooperate

in international teams, as well as to teach and give lectures in foreign universities.

The CEG is now organized in 7 Research Groups: MIGRARE - Migration, Spaces and Societies;

MOPT - Modelling, urban and Regional Planning; RISKam - Environmental Hazard

and Risk Assessment and Management; SLIF - Coastal and Fluvial Systems: Dynamics, Environmental

Changes and Management ; TERRITuR - Tourism, Culture and Space; ZEPHYRuS

- Climate Change and Environmental Systems; and ZOE - urban and Regional Change and

Policies.

| BACK TO CONTENT

23

The CEGOT (Centre of Studies on Geography and Spatial Planning) brings together the

majority of researchers/teachers of Portuguese Geography based on the universities of the

North and Center of Portugal (Coimbra, Porto and Minho), as well as a large number of researchers

associated with research projects, completing PhD or post-doctoral projects in

these universities.

Thus, this R&D unit, approved for funding by the Science and Technology Foundation,

corresponds to a large space of collaboration, in which individual interests of scientific research

are articulated with collective goals, gathered around the geography, both in its theoretical

approaches and in its articulation with the spatial planning. CEGOT research is

structured around three main groups:

• Group 1 – Nature and environmental dynamics

• Group 2 – Cities, competitiveness and well-being

• Group 3 – Cultural landscapes, tourism and development

In addition to the research that is developed internally, CEGOT is open to cooperation

with other scientific disciplines of the earth and social sciences, as well as with colleagues

from all relevant institutions of geographical research in the country and from abroad, notably

from Brazil and other Portuguese-speaking countries, also electing as priority relations

with Spain and other European countries.

In Group 3 we try to give value to the use of space and of time, assuming that they play

a decisive role in the organization of our society. The demand for territorial identities and

the marketing of places gain special importance and intersect the value of development at

different scales with the activities associated with leisure and tourism.

This multidimensionality projects a territorial cohesion requiring depth knowledge of

local and regional resources, on its tangible and intangible aspects, and provide special expression

to researches on competitiveness, innovation, positioning, and destinations management.

The processes of monitoring and diagnosis are invariably present and are seen as

fundamental methodology in scientific research of mobility, leisure activities and tourism,

cultural landscapes and the processes of development. Considering tourism as a strategic

domain, to which natural and built heritage, material and immaterial culture and development

are associated, this group privileges the study of two areas articulated among themselves,

for which several objectives and research strategic guidelines have been established

for the next years:

BACK TO CONTENT |


24

TOuRISM: Heritage(s), culture and innovation in the construction of touristic territories;

Environmental, economic, social and cultural sustainability in tourism; Tourism and culture

as strategic factors to local/regional development. SPACE DYNAMICS AND DEVELOPMENT

Leisure and promotion of well-being in populations; Social inequalities in low density territories;

Cultural landscapes and development.

The CEGOT welcomes the EATSA 2016 delegates and wishes everyone a great scientific

work that contributes to a better scientific understanding of tourism, promoting its development

and sustainability.

Lúcio Cunha

Scientific Co-ordinator of CEGOT

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

UrbaN DESIgN aS a PraCTICal VEHIClE FOr a SUSTaINablE

TOUrISm DEVElOPmENT

Mona Erfanian Salim 1

and Ali Afshar 2

27

abSTraCT

Sustainable tourism can be considered as one of the concerns while tourism is changing to a main economic

sector for urban tourism destinations. urban design supports urban development to balance

the social, environmental and economic aspects of urban spaces. This paper introduces urban design

as a proper tool that influences sustainable tourism through creating urban open public space. In fact,

it enquires a linkage between two bodies of knowledge: tourism and urban design. Therefore, the concepts

of “urban open public space” and “urban design” will be considered and investigated among the

concerns of the sustainable development. This paper also will pay attentions to the concept of urban

design as a process of making superior place for people in urban open public space. It will show that

how urban design can economically control the marketing in the process of development. Then will

explain about decreasing the social pressures of communities since it shows sensitivity to people’s

needs in the short- and long-terms. Subsequently, it will reveal that urban design can be recognized as

a process which facilitates the cooperation between urban and environmental planners and good design

as a key element in achieving sustainable development. Finally, findings of this study can be associated

in different fields like: the process of creating an urban open public space, tourists’ public education of

the potential attractions of the urban open public space, and the strategies used in improving urban

open public space design towards a sustainable tourism development.

KEYWOrDS

urban Design, Sustainable Tourism, urban Open Public Space

1

Faculty of Architecture and urban Planning, Institute of Higher Education of Eqbal Lahoori. Sarafrazan 9, Sarafrazan

Blvd, Mashhad, Iran. Tel: +98 912 898 5609, Fax: +98 21 2288 8873, E-mail: monaerfanian@gmail.com

2

Faculty of Architecture and urban Planning, Institute of Higher Education of Eqbal Lahoori. Sarafrazan 9, Sarafrazan

Blvd, Mashhad, Iran. Tel: +98 912 186 5642, Fax: +98 21 2288 8873, E-mail: alafshar@gmail.com

BACK TO CONTENT |


THE CUlTUral INFlUENCES OF aN EVEr PrESENT

PaST IN rEgIONal gaSTrONOmY

28

Carlos Fernandes 1 , Alexandra Correia 1

and Goretti Silva 1

abSTraCT

Geographical regions are developing gastroregions based on culinary traditions. For Dennis-Jones

(1971), “gastrogeography is the geography of cooking and eating habits and is dictated by climate, soil,

crops, tradition, history, psychology, commerce and national character. It is this geographical diversity

which provides for the regional distinctiveness in culinary traditions and the evolution of a characteristic

heritage (Hughes, 1995). This link between location and gastronomy has been used in a number of

ways in tourism, including promotional efforts based on distinctive or ‘typical’ regional or national

foods and the restaurants that rely on local ingredients. However, the comfortable association of certain

foods with certain regions is being challenged by the growing mobility of food, culinary styles and the

increasing de-differentiation of dishes and cuisines. Far from producing a homogenised gastronomic

landscape, the tension between globalisation and localisation keeps producing ever more variations

(lyer, 2000) and also raising the debate between the conservation and innovation in gastronomy. It is

argued that given current lifestyles and consumer trends the conservation of gastronomy may be too

great a burden particularly for rural areas. In this paper, Minho is used as a case study to demonstrate

the difficulties faced in the conservation of its culinary “treasured heritage” and the increasing trend

towards retroinnovation. The designation of Minho-2016 European Region of Gastronomy, represents

an extraordinary opportunity for a long-term commitment to the development of this peripheral region,

facilitate the micro forms of agricultural production to improve added value of rural products, and to

showcase regional gastronomy and demonstrate how it could contribute to further the process of sustainability

in regional rural development. We hope the experience of Minho will be useful to other regions

interested in exploring the potential of its gastronomic heritage for tourism development

purposes.

1

Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Portugal. cfernandes@estg.ipvc.pt, acorreia@estg.ipvc.pt,

goretti@estg.ipvc.pt

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

rEgIONal TOUrISm DYNamICS IN JaPaN:

aN ExPlOraTOrY SPaTIal aNalYSIS

João Romão 1

abSTraCT

Assuming tourism as a place oriented activity, where tourism flows often cross regional borders, spatial

analysis and spatial econometric models can be useful tools to identify and explain different patterns

of regional tourism dynamics and their determinants. These techniques recently became widely used

in applied economic studies, as a result of their useful insights to understand spatial phenomena and

benefiting from the existence of geo-referenced data and adequate software tools. This tendency is

also observed in the tourism sector in the last few years, although the application of these methodologies

is still scarce in tourism studies. In this work, these methodologies are applied to the case of

the Japanese Prefectures, leading to the identification of different patterns of spatial heterogeneity

and agglomeration processes related to regional tourism dynamics in Japan. With a view on policy and

managerial recommendations, the existence of such spatial effects is tested by using Global and Local

Indicators of Spatial Autocorrelation and complemented by a regression including spatial effects, in

order to provide an overall quantified explanation for the spatial processes arising from Japanese

tourism activities and its determinants.

29

1

university of Algarve and CEFAGE - uE

BACK TO CONTENT |


DOmESTIC TOUrISTS’ mOTIVaTION, OVErall aTTITUDE, PlaCE

aTTaCHmENT aND bEHaVIOUral INTENTIONS:

THE CaSE OF SarDINIa

30

Girish Prayag 1 , Chris Chen 1

and Giacomo Del Chiappa 2 , 3

abSTraCT

The study evaluates a theoretical model that postulates relationships between tourist motivation, place

attachment, overall attitude towards the destination and behavioural intentions. Place attachment has

been described as the functional and emotional bond that tourists can develop with a place or destination.

Several studies examine the antecedents of place or destination attachment in the tourism literature.

Factors such as destination image, personal involvement, satisfaction, destination

attractiveness, emotions and service quality have been shown to influence place attachment. However,

previous studies fail to examine the role and influence of tourists’ motivation and overall attitude on

place attachment. The model was tested on a sample of 275 domestic tourists to Sardinia, Italy. Initially,

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to establish the reliability, convergent and discriminant validity

of the model. This was followed by structural equation modelling (SEM) to identify relationships

between the various constructs. The results reveal significant relationships between dimensions of motivation

such as socialization, self-development, family bonding, novelty and learning and overall attitude

of tourists toward the destination. Significant relationships were also found between tourist

motivation and place attachment. Implications for theory and managerial practices are offered.

KEYWOrDS

Place attachment, Attitude, Tourist Motivation, Behavioural Intentions, Italy

1

Department of Management, Marketing and Entrepreneurship, university of Canterbury, Christchurch, New

Zealand, Tel:+64 33642987, Email: girish.prayag@canterbury.ac.nz

2

Department of Business and Ecconomics, university of Sassari, Sardinia, Italy, Email:gdelchiappa@uniss.it

3

School of Tourism and Hospitality, university of Johannesburg, South Africa

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

FOrEIgN DIrECT INVESTmENT IN THE aCCOmmODaTION

SECTOr IN POrTUgal

Cristina Barroco 1 , Eduardo Anselmo Castro 2

and Carlos Costa 3

31

abSTraCT

Surprisingly, even though the number of studies addressing Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is large, a

very limited number of them are applied to the tourism industry. Furthermore, none of them examines

FDI in the Portuguese tourism industry. However, as important as identifying and analyzing the reasons

for travelling and the reasons that influence tourists visiting Portugal, is to identify the pull factors that

influence foreign investors to choose the Portuguese accommodation sector. Although much has been

written to date on the attractiveness of Portugal as a tourist destination, there were no studies on the

attractiveness of Portugal in attracting foreign investment to the tourism sector. The current study intends

to fill this gap by identifying the key factors influencing FDI in the Portuguese accommodation

sector. With this purpose, a theoretical model was developed which was validated through semi-structured

exploratory interviews and questionnaire surveys applied to foreign investors exploiting accommodation

units in mainland Portugal. Fifty three questionnaires were considered valid, representing

63.9% of the universe of foreign investors in Portuguese accommodation sector and that account for

the exploitation of 20.999 beds. The results obtained indicate that Portugal’s geographical location, its

image/brand as a tourist destination and the Portuguese tourism offer are considered the key factors

influencing FDI. This study also identifies that the main barriers to FDI are bureaucracy, tax burden and

Portugal’s current economic situation.

KEYWOrDS

Foreign Direct Investment, Attractiveness Factors, Accommodation Sector

1

CI&DETS - Polytechnic Institute of Viseu. Campus Politécnico, 3504-510 Viseu - Portugal. Tel: +351- 232 480 500,

Fax: +351 232 424 651, E-mail: cbarroco@estgv.ipv.pt

2

GOVCOPP - university of Aveiro. Campus universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro - Portugal. Tel: +351- 234 370

200, Fax: +351 234 370 985, E-mail: ecastro@ua.pt

3

GOVCOPP - university of Aveiro. Campus universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro - Portugal. Tel: +351- 234 370

200, Fax: +351 234 370 985, E-mail: ccosta@ua.pt

BACK TO CONTENT |


bODY, SExUalITY aND ErOTICISm IN lEISUrE

Catarina Nadais 1

and Norberto Santos 2

32

abSTraCT

The term “sexuality” is recent, having been used for the first time in the context of technical terminology

for biology and zoology at the beginning of the 19th century. Beyond what involves the physical act,

sexuality represents a preponderant place in the social structure and organization, being central in the

political system and a part of the human experience, characterized and influenced by a culture. Even

in the absence of the concept itself, the importance of sexuality is visible from the early beginnings.

Different forms of social organization, cultures and beliefs have dictated different ways of understanding

the body. What do we know about the erotic and sexual practices in different periods of history? How

did these themes fell in the leisure time and spaces? In what ways did we use the body as a means of

expression? Our work aims to reflect on these issues, in an historical perspective, and infer what parallel

it may have with contemporary practices.

KEYWOrDS

Sexuality, Eroticism, Body, History, Leisure

1

CEGOT – Centro de Estudos de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território – universidade de Coimbra. Faculdade de

Letras, Colégio de S. Jerónimo, 3004–530 Coimbra – Portugal. Tel: +351- 912875673 Fax: +315- 239 836 733, E-

mail: catnadais@hotmail.com

2

CEGOT – Centro de Estudos de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território – universidade de Coimbra. Faculdade de

Letras, Colégio de S. Jerónimo, 3004–530 Coimbra – Portugal. Tel: +351- 239 859 900, Fax: +315- 239 836 733, E-

mail: norgeo@ci.uc.pt

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

DISSEmINaTION OF DaNCESPOrT COmPETITIONS aS a

DETErmINaNT OF TraVEl gEOgraPHY OF

ParTICIPaNTS aND SPECTaTOrS

Audrius Armas 1

33

abSTraCT

Worldwide dancesport is becoming a very popular sports and leisure activity. Since the initial dancesport

competitions in the beginning of the twentieth century and the first official dancesport competition

in London on 1960, the dancesport conception and its coverage has unrecognisably changed. Currently,

The Wold DanceSport Federation unifies all the dancers’ unions having a commonly accepted dance

program for the entire world. During its more than fifty years of existence, this branch of sports having

also show elements has gained its share of mind not only among dancers, spectators and fans admire

it as well. The show genre is often considered in line with luxury or prestige-related product. Naturally,

the dancesport is more popular in economically developed countries; however, country’s economic

development does not often lead to dancesport’s spread and popularity in the country. An ordinary

dancesport competition counts an average of a 1000 dancers; dancesport competitions are provided

every weekend in various countries and cities of the world, attracting participants, their team members

and spectators. This way, the geography of competitions extends the destination-related knowledge

and cultural horizon of dancers, team members, and fans. This research aims at assessing the dissemination

of dancesport competitions worldwide, resulting in the determination of travel geography of

participants and spectators. Achieving to accomplish the aim, the statistical analysis of the historical

data was performed. The research results indicate that the geography of dancesport competition induced

tourism mainly spreads through the Europe and Asia, less important continents are Australia

and North America.

KEYWOrDS

Competition, Dancesport, Sport Tourism

1

Department of Sport Management, Economics and Sociology, Faculty of Sport Education, Lithuanian Sports university,

Sporto st. 6, Kaunas 44221, Lithuania, Phone: +370 37 302 621, Fax.: +370 37 204 515; E-mail:

audrius.armas@lsu.lt

BACK TO CONTENT |


TOUrISm POlICY, rEgIONal DEVElOPmENT aND PlaNNINg

Simon Teoh 1

34

abSTraCT

background: Bhutan has caught the World’s attention through its unique concept of Gross National

Happiness (GNH) based on the four pillars of: sustainable and equitable socio-economic development,

conservation and preservation of the natural environment, cultivation and promotion of culture, and

good governance promoted by Bhutan’s 4th King in 1979. Objective: This paper investigates Bhutan’s

GNH Tourism Policy of ‘high value, low impact’ where a tariff system is used to regulate international

tourists through restrictive entry visa, route permit, but exempting regional tourists. International

tourism receipts grossed uS$73.29 million in 2014, and is the highest foreign revenue earner. Consequently

it is a significant revenue source. The paper argues the McKinsey Report, as part of the Accelerate

Bhutan’s Socio-Economic Development (ABSD) Plan to increase tourist numbers was too

ambitious, too greedy. methodology: A qualitative methodology using semi-structured interviews with

36 Bhutanese tourism stakeholders provides empirical data. results: The study reveals that the Bhutan

regional tourists doubled compared to international tourists arrivals. The outcome was ‘no value, high

volume, high impact’. The study concludes that Bhutan’s tourism policy faces challenges in sustaining

GNH. Further research is recommended to develop the Tourism Satellite Accounts (TSA) in order to

capture the impacts of regional tourists’ socio-economic contributions.

KEYWOrDS

Gross National Happiness, high value, low impact

1

Murdoch university, Part-time tutor, 90 South Street, Murdoch, W.A. 6150, Australia. 48/1 Rowe Avenue, Rivervale,

W.A. 6103, Australia. Telephone number: +61-418 184 80. E-mail: simonteoh@iinet.net.au

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

NaTIONal CONSCIOUSNESS DEVElOPmENT THrOUgH

DOmESTIC TOUrISm aDVErTISEmENTS

Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė 1

and Lina Pilelienė 2

35

abSTraCT

The intensifying globalization leads to the situation where people are surrounded by international organizations,

the promotion of western culture, lifestyle being determined by the advertisements of

global brands. Scholarly researches find ongoing processes of national consciousness weakening. It can

be argued that in these days, the problem of maintaining and developing national consciousness becomes

more acute. The aim of this study is to provide guidelines for Lithuanians’ national consciousness

development through domestic tourism advertisements. In order to form the guidelines, following research

stages will be applied: 1) the theoretical determination of visual symbols, representing national

identity; 2) the questionnaire research based on the determined visual symbols will be provided in

order to identify well recognized visual symbols, thus revealing the most characteristic visual symbols

of national identity; 3) content analysis of Lithuanian domestic tourism advertisements, revealing

whether the most characteristic visual symbols of national identity are currently used in the domestic

tourism advertisements. Finally, guidelines for Lithuanians’ national consciousness development

through domestic tourism advertisements will be provided.

KEYWOrDS

Advertising, National Consciousness, National Identity, Tourism.

1

Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Management, Vytautas Magnus university. S. Daukanto 28, LT-

44246 Kaunas, Lithuania. Tel: +370- 37 327 856, Fax: +370- 37 327 857, E-mail: v.grigaliunaite@evf.vdu.lt

2

Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Management, Vytautas Magnus university. S. Daukanto 28, LT-

44246 Kaunas, Lithuania. Tel: +370- 37 327 856, Fax: +370- 37 327 857, E-mail: l.pileliene@evf.vdu.lt

BACK TO CONTENT |


JESSICa HOlDINg FUND aND TOUrISm gENTrIFICaTION:

HOTEl SaNTIagO DE alFama aS a CaSE STUDY

36

João Safara 1

and Eduardo Brito-Henriques 2

abSTraCT

The end of industrial age led to huge urban changes. Deindustrialization left cities with fewer people,

less money and a great quantity of vacant and ruined buildings. In order to deal with those changes,

cities shifted their focus from production to consumption at the end of the 20th century. urban regeneration

has emerged as a priority and tourism became an essential part of the post-industrial urbanization.

Public policies were actively used to promote urban regeneration and to boost new industries

like tourism. In Eu, Jessica initiative makes up the last generation of public policies for urban development

and regeneration, working through financial engineering mechanisms. In this paper, a biography

of a building will be used to investigate the aforementioned urban changes. Santiago de Alfama is a 5-

stars boutique hotel that has recently opened in a former palace built in the 15th century. A shirt factory

and a worker’s village were installed in the building in the 1930s and 40s. Later, it was abandoned and

remained ruinous for a long period. Supported by Jessica Holding Fund Portugal, about 3,5 million

euros were invested in the recovering of the building to tourism in the last 3 years. In Hotel Santiago

de Alfama, built heritage and urban space have been commodified into a tourism product for the consumption

of a cosmopolitan class. using it as a case study, topics such as tourism gentrification and

the role that public policies play in the commodification of the city will be discussed.

KEYWOrDS

urban tourism; urban regeneration; tourism gentrification; Jessica Holding Fund; Lisbon

1

PhD student in Tourism, IGOT – Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, universidade de Lisboa. Edifício IGOT,

R. Branca Edmée Marques, 1600-276 Lisboa - Portugal, Tel: 916995251, E-mail: joao.safara@campus.ul.pt

2

Associate Professor, IGOT – Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning / CEG – Centre for Geographical Studies,

universidade de Lisboa. Edifício IGOT, R. Branca Edmée Marques, 1600-276 Lisboa - Portugal, Tel: 210442953, E-

mail: eduardo@campus.ul.pt

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

COmPETITIVENESS OF POlISH CITIES IN THE INTErNaTIONal

mEETINgS INDUSTrY

Natalia Piechota 1

and Piotr Zmyślony 1

37

abSTraCT

There have been an increasing number of cities which bid to host international meetings. There is a

need of different kinds of local resources to go through this process successfully. Therefore, the aim of

the paper is to investigate the potential of Polish cities for competing in the international meetings

market. A desk research was conducted to analyse critical resources, divided into eight categories:

meetings, accessibility, venue, accommodation, business, entertainment, local support and others. On

the basis of this research, the overall index of competitiveness and the classification of cities were

made. Moreover, the cluster analysis was used to recognise, which cities have similar potential in developing

meetings industry. The results show, that most competitive Polish cities are Warsaw and Cracow.

KEYWOrDS

cities competitiveness, meetings industry, Poland

1

Department of Tourism, Faculty of International Business and Economics, Poznan university of Economics. Al. Niepodległości

10, 60-875 Poznań, Poland. Tel: +48 61 854 37 63, E-mail: natalia.piechota@ue.poznan.p. Tel: +48 61

854 35 27, E-mail: p.zmyslony@ue.poznan.pl

BACK TO CONTENT |


VISUalIzINg TOUrISTS’ ImagININgS:

CONSUmINg POrTUgUESE CUISINE IN maCaU

38

KATE Mingjie Ji 1

and Brian King 2

abSTraCT

Eating local food has become an important means for tourists to gain insights about a destination. As

a representation of culture (Boniface, 2003; Long, 2004) and having a strong connection with place

(Feagan, 2007), food disseminates cultural cues through its ingredients and through the immediate social

environment. Given the unfamiliar nature of these cultural cues, if they are to develop an appreciation,

human beings should rely on their imaginative faculties to overcome ontological limitations and

to collate fragmented sensory data into a single meaningful whole (Kant & Pluhar, 1987). On this basis,

one might expect tourists to engage an imaginative experience that bring their own configurations of

the cues, together with their fantasies, memories, past experiences, emotions and day-dreaming.

Such imaginative dimension of dining experiences, however, has been largely ignored by tourism researchers

(Barthes, 1997; Lugosi, Lambie-mumford, & Tonner, 2014). This is regrettable. As has recently

been noted, culinary tourism has moved from the study of food related motivations (e.g. Kim, Eves, &

Scarles, 2013) and foodie cultures to a “third generation” of inquiry involving explorations of the intertwined

relationship between place, identity, culture and tourism (Richards, 2015). It is evident that

imagination merits greater recognition as a vehicle for bridging such concepts and for generating knowledge.

unfortunately, according to Roe (2006, p. 107), “little so far has been understood about how the

metabolic, material and fleshy connections consumers make with foodstuffs inform their embodied

knowledge”. Simultaneously, there have been numerous calls for greater focus on the corporal, namely

at an “emotional, physical, intellectual or spiritual level” (Pine & Gilmore, 1998, p. 99); on the symbolic,

hedonic and esthetic nature of consumption (Agapito, Mendes, & Valle, 2013); and on daydreaming,

imaginations, fantasy, feelings and emotions accompanied by consumption (Crouch, Jackson, & Thompson,

2005). The purpose of this study is to answer these calls and to explore the tourist imaginative

experiences that have an association with the consumption of the food in destination settings. It examines

the way in which tourists negotiate the cultural symbols that are associated with food and how

dining experiences are transformed into place-related imaginings. It adopts visual methods to illustrate

tourists’ various imaginings. Different from traditional application of the methods that are mainly for

interview elicitation, hence is exposed to the criticism of disparaging the meanings and contents of the

picture (Caroline, 2010). The visual methods in the present study is applied in a way to represent closely

of tourists’ embodied knowledge. Therefore, this study contributes to the embodied experience of

tourists’ food consumptions as well as advancing the current use of visual methods.

1

School of Hotel and Tourism Management. The Hong Kong Polytechnic university, 17 Science Museum Road, TST

East, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Email: ji.mingjie@connect.polyu.hk

2 Associate Dean. The School of Hotel and Tourism Management. The Hong Kong Polytechnic university. 17 Science

Museum Road, TST East, Kowloon, Hong Kong

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

SlOW CITIES mOVEmENT: aN OPPOrTUNITY FOr THE CITY OF VISEU

Pedro Filipe Ferreira 1 , Cristina Barroco 2 and Cláudia Seabra 3

abSTraCT

Contemporary society is experiencing a critical phase, being constantly exposed to pressure and massification

and an increasing tendency for products’ and services’ standardization. The way we live in

community is more and more individualized and therefore individuals are losing their social and cultural

identity. Tourism industry reflects the developed Western societies’ lifestyle. Consumed as a mass product,

there is an over-exploitation of the natural, social and cultural resources, directly affecting the local

populations and creating a clear imbalance in the destination. In 1986 the Slow Movement emerges

and tries to counter this prevailing phenomenon, promoting socio-economic, cultural and environmental

sustainability in small towns. With this, new Slow movements emerged, such as Slow Tourism and

Slow Cities, being increasingly valued, not only by the cities that promote them, but also by the tourists

that choose to practice a more sustainable and ecological type of tourism. The Slow concept is important,

seen as a contribution to the residents’ life quality increase and also the cities and tourist valorization.

The Slow Cities Movement couples the ideals of the Slow Movement to the urban context,

promoting in the cities a sustainable development. In Portugal, this movement is recent, existing only

six Portuguese cities in the Slow Cities network. This paper main aim is to analyze the potential and

specificities that the city of Viseu offers in order to formalize a future application to the international

Slow Cities network.

39

KEYWOrDS:

Slow Movement, Slow Tourism, Sustainable Development, Slow Cities

1

Higher School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu. Campus Politécnico, 3504-510 Viseu

- Portugal- Tel: +351- 232 480 500, Fax: +351 232 424 651, E-mail: pedroferreira@webmail.ipv.pt

2

Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health, ESTGV - Polytechnic Institute of Viseu. Campus

Politécnico, 3504-510 Viseu - Portugal.Tel: +351- 232 480 500, Fax: +351 232 424 651, E-mail: cbarroco@estgv.ipv.pt

3

Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health, ESTGV - Polytechnic Institute of Viseu. Campus

Politécnico, 3504-510 Viseu - Portugal- Tel: +351- 232 480 500, Fax: +351 232 424 651, E-mail: cseabra@estgv.ipv.pt

BACK TO CONTENT |


THE rElaTIONSHIP bETWEEN aDOlESCENTS’ TOUrIST mOTIVaTION

aND THEIr INFlUENCE IN FamIlY VaCaTION DECISION: THE mODEraTINg

rOlE OF CONFlICT rESOlUTION mODES

40

Che-Jen Su 1 and Hsin-Hsing Liao 2 and Chung-Wei Ma 3

abSTraCT

Tourists’ motivation explains their behavior in consumption situations. We examine the relative influence

of the components of adolescents’ tourist motivation in their influence on family vacation decisions.

We also look at the moderating role of conflict resolution modes used in their family life. Data

from 571 responses of adolescents in Taiwan revealed that seeking force is positively related to their

perceived influence in family vacation decisions across the stages. In contrast, adolescents’ escape

force is unrelated to these outcomes. Furthermore, problem-solving as a conflict resolution mode in

family life appears to reinforce the relatedness of seeking force to adolescents’ perceived influence

across the stages. Politicking as a conflict resolution mode appears to weaken the relationship between

escape force and the perceived influence at the search stage.

KEYWOrDS:

Adolescent influence, Conflict Resolution Mode, Family Vacation Decisions, Tourist Motivation.

1, 3

Department of Restaurant, Hotel and Institutional Management – Fu Jen Catholic university. No. 510 Zhongzheng

Rd , Xinzhuang Dist., New Taipei City, 24205 - Taiwam. Tel: +886- 2- 2905 2154, Fax: +886- 2- 2906 3832, E-mail:

040084@fju.edu.tw

2

Department of Hospitality Management, Taoyuan Innovation Institute of Technology

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

ECONOmIC ImPaCT aNalYSIS OF a SUrFINg SPOrT EVENT: THE CaSE

OF THE mOCHE rIP CUrl PrO POrTUgal 2015

João Paulo Jorge 1 , Ana Sofia Viana 2 , Dulcineia Ramos 3 , Fernanda Oliveira 4 ,

Sofia Eurico 5 , José Miguel Nunes, Sérgio Leandro 6 , Susana Mendes 7

41

abSTraCT

The importance given to waves sports has been increasing over the past years, mainly as a stimulus in

the fostering of some regions and as a promotional feature in the international markets. Tourist attractiveness

and socio-economic dynamics in coastal regions can actually be stimulated by their natural

characteristics allowing the practice of this kind of sports. The Portuguese case is no exception and the

importance of sport events is recognized by the government and local authorities, especially those linked

to the sea. Moreover, this has been expressed in the national development strategies, such as the National

Strategy for the Sea 2013-2020 (Government of Portugal, 2013). The municipality of Peniche is a

good example of how waves sports can promote the development of the local economy and

the enhancement of an international positioning of the city based on the sea as a resource.

Over recent years, the organization of the international surfing event MOCHE RIP CURL

PRO, a stage of the World Championship Tour (WTC), has contributed to this reality.

The present paper aims to examine the 2015 edition of the Moche Rip Curl Pro Portugal,

(which occurred in Peniche, between 20 and 31 October), in socio-demographic terms,

analysing visitor expenditure and estimating the overall economic impact of the event. This

study was based on surveys to the event attendants, using a structured questionnaire in Portuguese

and English. The survey was conducted on a sample of 983 (n) individuals of both

sexes, representative of the visitors who attended the surf competition.

Keywords: sport events, regional development, visitor spending, economic impacts

1

GITuR - Tourism Research unit, ESTM - Polytechnic Institute of Leiria. Santuário Nª Senhora dos Remédios, 2520–

641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: jpjorge@ipleiria.pt

2


641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: sviana@ipleiria.pt

3


641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: dulcineia.ramos@ipleiria.pt

4


641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: foliveira@ipleiria.pt

5


641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: sofia.eurico@ipleiria.pt

6

MARE- Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, ESTM - Polytechnic Institute of Leiria. Santuário Nª Senhora

dos Remédios, 2520–641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +968-24 141 111, Fax: +968-24413391, E-mail:

sleandro@ipleiria.pt

7

MARE- Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, ESTM - Polytechnic Institute of Leiria. Santuário Nª Senhora

dos Remédios, 2520–641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +968-24 141 111, Fax: +968-24413391, E-mail:

susana.mendes@ipleiria.pt

BACK TO CONTENT |


THE ImPOrTaNCE OF NETWOrKS FOr rEgIONal DEVElOPmENT IN

SUSTaINablE TOUrISm

Dulcineia Ramos 1 , João Paulo Jorge 2 , Ana Sofia Viana 3

42

abSTraCT

The sustainable paradigm in tourism is increasingly important at the local level. Tourism strategies imply

relations with territory management, economic development and welfare. The study of networks point

to a trend of land management increasingly holistic and integrated, able to increase economic development,

the nature preservation and the quality of life of local populations. It appears that collaborative

networks can be a solution with benefits for all stakeholders, as these stimulate inter-organizational

learning, induce a sense of community and provides the achievement of common and participated

goals. The present paper aims to examine the importance of partnerships between public and private organizations,

more properly concerning relations between municipalities and universities, for the study

and tourism development. The objective is to analyse several cases of this type of partnership and observe

the results for sustainable tourism in the regions.

KEYWOrDS:

Sustainable tourism, Networks, Regional Development.

1 GITuR - Tourism Research unit, ESTM - Polytechnic Institute of Leiria. Santuário Nª Senhora dos Remédios, 2520–

641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: dulcineia.ramos@ipleiria.pt


641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: jpjorge@ipleiria.pt


641 Peniche - Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +315- 262 783 088, E-mail: sviana@ipleiria.pt

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

THE FrENCH PIECE FOr THE “Magic cube” OF braND EQUITY

OF TOUrISm DESTINaTIONS

Francisco Dias 1 and Anne-Marie Lebrun 2

abSTraCT:

Metaphorically, tourism destinations have been approached in a very simple manner, as contiguous

territorial entities, reminding a Tetris puzzle, as if all the phenomenological field of this subject could

be placed in a single plane. The novelty of our methodology to assess the comparative performance of

tourism destinations brands, that are competing in the world market, consists in replacing the Tetris

metaphor with that one of Rubik’s Cube, approaching tourism destination as a 3-D concept, encompassing

a space dimension (destinations can be considered at local, regional, country and multinational

levels), a content dimension (tourist experiences are related to specific tourism products, such as cultural,

sun and sea, mountain, rural, ecotourism, etc.) and a consumer behavior’ dimension (diversity

of motivations and expectations, differences of purchase power, previous visits, behavior at destination,

distance from home to destination, destination choice set, cultural diversity, etc.). Consequently, assessing

the attractiveness of destinations is akin to know how this complex puzzle is being solved in

the consumers’ mind. This paper presents the “French piece” of this global puzzle. using the top-ofmind

approach, the respondents (N = 1110 French citizens) received an online questionnaire to inform

by free recall their “dream destinations” and their “favorite destinations” (the former are destinations

that they did not visit yet but they desire to visit in the near future, and the latter are destinations that

they have visited and liked the most) related to the specific tourism products that respondents usually

purchase. Results confirm the hypotheses underlying our research program and are totally consistent

with the data obtained in the other national samples, namely: (1) “dream destinations” are located

too far away from the country of residence, in other continents. 87% of respondents point out non-

European destinations, with Australia, uSA, Canada, NZ and Tahiti positioned in the top of the ranking;

(2) in turn, most of “favorite destinations” are domestic or located in the neighboring countries. Favorite

destinations for ecotourism, wellness, rural, mountain and city tourism are more frequently domestic

locations; and favorite destinations for cultural tourism and shopping tourism are more frequently located

in other European countries; (3) each tourism products shapes in a specific way the space taxonomy

of tourism destinations, however, except for sun and sea tourism destinations, whose more

frequent geographic scale is the regional one, for the other tourism products the local level (i.e., names

of cities) is used as the more frequent cognitive strategy of categorization. However, dream destinations

are frequently related to the country scale. (4) Finally, the study presents the rankings of popularity

for domestic, European and non-European destinations and also the rankings of destinations related

to the tourism products most frequently purchased by French tourists.

43

KEYWOrDS:

Dream destination, favorite destination, brand equity, tourism products.

1

School of Tourism and Maritime Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Portugal- E-mail:

francisco.dias@ipleiria.pt

2

university of Burgundy, France. E-mail: anne-marie.lebrun@u-bourgogne.fr

BACK TO CONTENT |


a POlISH PIECE FOr THE “Magic cube”

OF braND EQUITY OF TOUrISm DESTINaTIONS

Francisco Dias 1 and Joanna Kosmaczewska 2

44

abSTraCT:

The conception of an adequate methodological approach to assess the comparative performance of

tourism destinations brands that compete in the world market is probably so complex as the Magic

Cube. Indeed, like Ernő Rubik’s Cube, each tourism destination is a 3-D concept, with space dimension

(destinations can be considered at local, regional, national and multinational levels), content dimension

(tourist experiences are related to specific tourism products, etc.) and consumers’ dimension (diversity

of motivations and expectations, previous visits, behavior at destination, distance from home, cultural

diversity, etc.). Consequently, assessing the attractiveness of destinations is to know how this complex

puzzle is being solved in consumers’ mind. This paper presents a “Polish piece” of this global puzzle.

using the top-of-mind approach, the respondents (N = 365 Polish citizens) received an online questionnaire

to inform by free recall their “dream destinations” and their “favorite destinations” (the former

are destinations that they did not visit yet but they desire to visit in the near future, and the latter

are destinations that they have visited and liked the most) related to the specific tourism products that

respondents usually purchase. Results confirm the hypotheses underlying our research program and

are totally consistent with the data obtained in the other national samples, namely: (1) “dream destinations”

are located far away from the country of residence, in other continents (Australia, NZ and

India are in the top of this ranking); (2) in turn, most of “favorite destinations” are domestic or located

in neighboring countries (Australia, NZ and India are absent of this second ranking); (3) the distinct

tourism products (mountain, ecotourism, cultural, sun & sea, etc.) shape differently the geographic

taxonomy of tourism destinations: for example, 68% of respondents use the country-based category

to designate dream destinations; destinations related to cultural tourism and gastronomy are mostly

categorized as cities or as countries, and mountain tourism destinations are mostly related to cities

and regions. (4) Finally, the study presents the Polish rankings of popularity for domestic, European

and non-European destinations and also rankings of destinations related to the tourism products most

frequently purchased by Polish tourists.

KEYWOrDS:


1

School of Tourism and Maritime Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria. Santuário Nossa Senhora dos Remédios,

2520–641, Peniche, Portugal. Tel: +351- 262 783 607, Fax: +351-262 783 088, E-mail: francisco.dias@ipleiria.pt

2

Department of Tourism Management, university of Economy. 85-229 Bydgoszcz, ul. Garbary 2, Poland. Tel: + 48 -

tel. 52 567 00 83, joanna.kosmaczewska@byd.pl

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

THE braND EQUITY OF TOUrISm DESTINaTIONS

- THE INDIaN PIECE OF “Magic cube”

Francisco Dias 1 and Madhuri Sawant 2

45

abSTraCT:

This study is part of a wider research program that aims to validate a new methodological approach to

investigate the brand equity of tourism destinations competing in the globalized world. Metaphorically

speaking, we are replacing the Tetris puzzle by the Rubik’s Cube model in the study of tourism destinations;

that is, instead of conceptualizing destinations as contiguous territorial entities, we are developing

a more realistic approach, conceiving tourism destination as a three dimensional concept, whose

three dimensions interact permanently: the space dimension (destinations can be considered at local,

regional, country and multinational levels), the content dimension (tourist experiences are related to

specific products, such as cultural, sun and sea, mountain, rural, ecotourism, etc.) and the consumer

behavior’ dimension (diversity of motivations and expectations, differences of purchase power, previous

visits, behavior at destination, distance from home to destination, destination choice set, cultural diversity,

etc.). In light of this complexity, assessing the attractiveness of destinations is akin to know how

this complex puzzle is being solved in the consumers’ mind. This paper presents the “Indian piece” of

this global puzzle. using the top-of-mind approach, the respondents (N = 339 Indian citizens) were

asked by an online questionnaire to inform by free recall their “dream destinations” (destinations that

they did not visit yet but they desire to visit in the near future) and their “favorite destinations” (destinations

that they have visited and liked the most). Results confirm the hypotheses underlying our research

program: (1) in the top 10 of “dream destinations” are destinations brands located too far away

from India, namely: Switzerland, uSA, Australia, Germany, Japan, Europe, Dubai, London, Paris and NZ.

(2) the top 10 of “favorite destinations” consists of Indian destinations brands or foreign brands located

in the neighboring countries, namely: Goa, Mumbai, Kerala, India, Dubai, Delhi, Thailand, Hyderabad,

Himalaya and Rajasthan. Furthermore, the study shows that local (municipal) scale is more frequently

used to categorize destinations related to the following motivations: ecotourism, cultural, rural, mountain,

creative tourism, city tourism, and shopping tourism; but sun and see is more frequently framed

by regional scale; however, the country scale is more frequently used to designate dream destinations

as well as wellness tourism destinations.

KEYWOrDS:


1

School of Tourism and Maritime Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Portugal. E-mail:


2

Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada university, India. E-mail: drmadhurisawant@gmail.com

BACK TO CONTENT |


THE braND EQUITY OF TOUrISm DESTINaTIONS FOr JaPaNESE TOUrISTS

Francisco Dias 1 and Hirofumi Miyagi 2

46

abSTraCT:

Nowadays, all destinations are competing in the global tourism market. Consequently, all they have a

certain probability of being included in the tourists’ destination choice set, for a future choice. Depending

on who is doing a specific choice, a given destination can enter or not the tourists’ awareness set,

and if so it can further be moved along the process to the next stages of the destination choice set, or

be ignored in any of the stages of this flowchart. By definition, the higher awareness and the higher

loyalty a destination achieves among consumers (that is, the higher his brand equity), the higher likelihood

it has to be considered in a future choice. This study is part of a wider research program aiming

to assess the brand equity of all tourism destinations competing in the globalized world. Furthermore,

we define destination concept using a three dimensional approach: along with the space dimension

(destinations can be at local, regional, country and multinational levels), we consider the content dimension

(destinations are shaped by tourism products - cultural, sun and sea, mountain, rural, ecotourism,

etc.) and the consumer behavior’ dimension (motivations, expectations, purchase power,

previous visits, behavior, distance to destination, cultural diversity, etc.). In light of this complexity, assessing

the brand equity of destinations is akin to solve the Rubik’s Cube. This paper presents the

“Japanese piece” of that global puzzle. using the top-of-mind approach, the respondents (N = 627

Japanese citizens) inform by free recall their “dream destinations” in the world (destinations that they

did not visit yet but they desire to visit in the near future) and their “favorite destinations” in the world

(destinations that they have visited and liked the most). This methodology allows to assess destination

awareness, associations to the destination brands, destinations preferences and destination loyalty,

covering all relevant dimensions of the brand equity construct. And, as expected, most of “dream destinations”

(9 in 10 destinations in the top 10) are brands located too far away from Japan, namely: uSA,

Hawaii, Italy, Egypt, Machu Picchu, France, Australia, Spain and uK (just Hokkaido appears in this list,

in the 8th position). In turn, the favorite destination category is more frequently related to domestic

destinations: Kyoto, Tokyo, Okinawa, Osaka and Hokkaido; but, the following five international brands

also stand in the short list of destination loyalty: Hawaii, Italy, Korea, Paris and New York.

KEYWOrDS:


1

GITuR – Centre of Applied Research in Tourism of the Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Portugal. E-mail:


2

Osaka university of Commerce, Japan. E-mail: miyagi@daishodai.ac.jp

| BACK TO CONTENT

ABSTRACTS

THE braND EQUITY OF INDONESIaN DESTINaTIONS

– a NEW rESEarCH aPPrOaCH

Francisco Dias 1 and Yanki Hartijasti 2

47

abSTraCT:

This paper is an outcome of a wider research program known as Babel Tower of Favorite Destinations

Worldwide (http://favouritedestinations.com/en/) that aims to assess the costumer based brand equity

of tourism destinations worldwide (CBBETD). It is also proposed a new empirical approach to the study

of destination attractiveness, replacing the narrow perspective that consists in considering each destination

in isolation. Our approach adopts the perspective of consumers asking them to inform by free

recall their “dream destinations” and “favorite destinations” from all destinations among all existing

destinations in the world, and results are organized as top-of-mind rankings. The term “dream destinations”

refers to destinations that respondents did not visit yet but they desire to visit in the near future,

and “favorite destinations” are these destinations that they have visited and liked the most.

Additionally, underlying this new approach is a new conceptualization of tourism destination: instead

of conceptualizing destinations as contiguous territorial entities (like a Tetris puzzle), we conceive

tourism destination as a tridimensional concept (like a Magic Cube), whose distinct dimensions are interacting

permanently: the space dimension (destinations can be considered at local, regional, country

and multinational levels), the content dimension (tourist experiences are related to specific products,

such as cultural, sun and sea, mountain, rural, ecotourism, etc.) and consumers’ behavior dimension

(plurality of motivations and expectations, distinct purchase power, previous experience, distance from

home to destination, destination choice set, cultural diversity, etc.). In light of this complexity, assessing

the attractiveness of destinations is akin to know how this complex puzzle is being solved in the consumers’

mind. This paper presents the “Indonesian piece” of this global puzzle. Results confirm our

hypotheses, namely: firstly, the top 10 of “dream destinations” for Indonesian tourists are mostly destinations

brands located far away from Indonesia (Paris, Japan, Europe, Mecca, Maldives, Raja Ampat,

England, NZ, France and Greece); secondly, the top 10 of “favorite destinations” for Indonesian tourists

include mostly domestic destination brands (Bali, Yogyakarta, Singapore, Bandung, Bromo, Raja Ampat,

Hong Kong, Jakarta, Europe and Japan); thirdly, results also show that Bali achieves a very high brand

equity in the international market, being placed at the top positions of worldwide rankings (in the 5th

position as favorite destinations, and in the 22nd position as dream destination).

Keywords:


1

School of Tourism and Maritime Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Portugal. E-mail:


2

Faculty of Economics and Business of universitas Indonesia. E-mail: yankihartijasti@yahoo.com

BACK TO CONTENT |

FULL PAPERS

IS aUTHENTICITY rEallY ImPOrTaNT?

THE CaSE OF arCHaEOlOgICal FESTIVal VISITOrS

Marek Maciej Nowacki 1

abSTraCT

The article presents the empirical research results of the authenticity perception of archaeological festival

visitors and its connections with the general assessment of the festival. The study was conducted

among visitors of XV Archaeological Festival in Biskupin (Poland). Three types of authenticity were distinguished:

objectivist/essentialist, constructivist/negotiated and existential. As a result of the survey

conducted among visitors (N = 405) four hypotheses were verified. No association was found between

socio-demographic characteristics and the perception of authenticity. The influence of authenticity importance

on authenticity was found. The author also found the association of authenticity perception

with the quality assessment of the festival, and association of the overall quality assessment with visitors’

behavioural intentions.

51

KEYWOrDS

Authenticity, Archaeological Festival, Quality, Visitors, Behavioural Intentions.

Introduction

The quality of services, tourist destinations and experiences as well as their authenticity

attract considerable interest among theorists and practitioners of tourism recently. For many

of them, those terms are even synonymous. It can, however, be noted that in many cases

the attention paid to the quality of services precludes the authenticity of the tourist experience

and vice versa. It is so because of commodification, standardization and staging of

tourist sites and events ‒ actions that are needed to ensure a high quality of services. The

ambiguity of understanding the concept of authenticity, as well as various ways of determining

the quality results in additional complications when trying to answer the question posed

in the title. It should also be emphasized that, so far, in the literature in the field of tourism,

there have been very few studies concerning interactions between the perception of quality

and authenticity.

The notion of authenticity is a frequent subject of discussion in the literature in the field

of tourism and begins to be seen as one of the main factors contributing to undertaking

tourist trips (Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Kim & Jamal, 2007; Kolar & Zabkar, 2010; McIntosh &

Prentice, 1999; Taylor, 2001) as well as one of the determinants of the quality of visitor attractions

(Drummond, 2001; Moscardo & Pearce 1986; Yeoman et al. 2007). Researchers try

to answer the questions about the importance of authenticity in the visitors’ experiences

and whether the search for authenticity is an important motive for undertaking tourist trips.

Some of the researchers attempt to classify places due to their authenticity (Brida, Disegna

& Scuderi, 2012; Chhabra, 2008; Cohen, 1979; Pearce & Moscardo, 1986; Salamone, 1997).

Some researchers, however, question the need for an a priori classification of tourist sites,

1

Economy and Social Science Institute, WSB university in Poznań, ul. Ratajczaka 5/7, 61-874 Poznań – Poland, Tel.

+ 48 61 655 33 33, Fax + 48 61 655 32 27, E-mail: marek.nowacki@wsb.poznan.pl

BACK TO CONTENT |


52

as more or less authentic, instead proposing the evaluation of accuracy or honesty of tourist

representations (Silver, 1993; Taylor, 2001, Pearce 2005). Intensive development of theme

parks around the world, also calls into question the need for the authenticity of mass tourists.

For visitor attractions managers the important problem is to answer the question

whether interest in authenticity is important for visitors of these objects and what kind of

authenticity visitors experience. Another questions are: is it possible to separate segments

of visitors due to the degree of perception of various dimensions of authenticity and what is

the relationship of authenticity perception with attractions and overall evaluation and behavioural

intentions of the visitors? And further what is the role in that process of the perception

of quality of attraction product? The purpose of this article is to attempt to answer

the above questions.

The meaning of authenticity

The word ‘authenticity’ is of Greek origin - authenticus means ‘guaranteed’ (from authéntēs

- offender or murderer) - and means: real (e.g. authentic characters, authentic difficulty),

which is the original (e.g. an authentic document, authentic recordings) (Kopaliński,

2013). L. Trilling (1973) brought the concept of sincerity, which was understood as the absence

of deception in social situations: sincere was man who claimed to be. In the literature

in the field of tourism, authenticity was initially associated with the primitive folk art goods,

not mass produced and used for traditional activities (Bamossy & Costa 2001). For example,

the authentic African art was described as “... anything made of traditional materials by local

artisans for use by local people, rather than to use this item by the Europeans and other foreigners”

(McLeod 1976, p. 31 according to Cohen 1988). Accordingly, products made for sale

to tourists were not considered as authentic. Authentic was considered to be something that

is not artificial, not a copy or a forgery.

Among the authors there is a disagreement as to whether tourists are motivated by the

desire to seek authenticity, as D. MacCannell (1976) convinces, or - on the contrary - the authenticity

of the visited places is of no interest to them, as D. Boorstin (1964). According to

MacCannell, “sightseers are motivated by a desire to see life as it is really lived, even to get

in with the natives” [1976, p. 94]. Tourists are interested in real life of the foreigners, which

takes place in Goffman’s back regions (1964). However, they do not have access to the back

regions, they are only watching the front region - the authenticity which is specially staged

for them. Even the distinction between the front region from the back region is very difficult

and practically impossible: “It is always possible that what is taken to be entry into a back

region is really entry into a front region that has been totally set up in advance for touristic

visitation” (MacCannell 1976, p. 101]. In turn, D. Boorstin (1964) argues that the authenticity

of visited places is of no interest to the tourist. The modern tourist, a travel agency customer,

satisfies his needs by participating in “pseudo-events”. These are carefully designed, arranged

and completely safe activities, providing the participants with standardized experiences. They

rarely seek genuine expressions of other cultures, because they prefer their own ideas,

formed on the basis of information obtained from newspapers, television and films.

| BACK TO CONTENT

IS AuTHENTICITY REALLY IMPORTANT?THE CASE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL FESTIVAL VISITORS

Dimensions of authenticity

In the literature there have been many attempts of authenticity classification. T. Selwyn

(1999) proposed two dimensions of authenticity: cold and hot, R. Wang (Wang, 1999) identified

three dimensions of the understanding of authenticity: objective, constructivist and

existentialist. Chhabra added another dimension of authenticity ‒ negotiated (Chhabra, 2008)

and Belhassen et all. (2008) another one, which they called ‘theoplacity’.

Objective or essentialist authenticity relates to places, objects or events which can be

verified in an objective manner, using previously accepted criteria. The authenticity of the

objects in the objectivist sense (their genuineness) can be determined only by professionals

in the fields of art, ethnology or archaeology, usually after detailed studies. Tourists are usually

not able to make the distinction. It is assumed that the artefacts that do not meet a certain

criterion of authenticity cannot be regarded as authentic, even if tourists assess them

as authentic. This position has been criticized by Cohen (1988) arguing that authenticity is a

social construct. According to him, a tourist can even see as authentic souvenirs made for

tourists or dances or rituals staged specially for tourists by local artists. The first and foremost

weakness of the objectivist concept is that in many cases it is difficult to formulate clear criteria

of authenticity. It is not possible, for example, to determine the authenticity of an Italian

pizza or German strudel. In different regions and historical periods, these two regional dishes

have evolved to form different varieties. Now all these foods, regardless of the region’s production,

are true and authentic (Kolar & Žabkar 2007). Objectivist/essentialist authenticity

is associated with cultural continuity, originality, genuineness (made locally by ethnic communities)

and pristinity (Chhabra, 2008; Cohen, 1988; Theobald, 1998 cit. in Chhabra 2010)

and is treated as the frozen heritage (Chhabra, 2010).

According to the constructivist (symbolic) concept, authenticity is a relative construct,

socially created by tourists, as a result of comparisons between their expectations and perceptions

of visited sites (Cohen 1988, Wang 1999, Reisinger & Steiner 2006). Perception of

constructivist authenticity depends largely on the context, situation and intersubjective conditions

under which it is experienced by tourists. N. Wang (1999) quoted a number of arguments

for the existence of constructivist (symbolic) authenticity only: (1) there are no

absolute and unchanging originals or patterns, with which one can compare the observed

objects to determine their authenticity, (2) practices of “inventing traditions” (Hobsbawn &

Ranger 1992) show, that the traditions and customs are created on an ongoing basis depending

on the current demand of the contemporaries, (3) a sense of authenticity is dependent

on the tourist himself and his experience and understanding of authenticity (if the visitor

finds something to be authentic, it is so, not what is the opinion of experts as Cohen (1988)

argues, (4) authenticity is a label that is given to the tourist sites (it is influenced by both past

experiences, media, travel companions and especially by a group’s tour guide), (5) often,

though at a first glance something seems inauthentic, over time it becomes authentic (emerging

authenticity as Cohen called). This was the case of, among others, Disneyland, which at

first was regarded as a classic example of an imaginary place of amusement, and is now regarded

by many as an authentic part of American heritage (Cohen 1988).

The concept of existential authenticity, which Tom Selwyn (1996) calls ‘hot’, takes the

discourse away from the analysis of visited places, into the authenticity of the tourist experience.

A. Wieczorkiewicz (2008) convinces, that the need for authentic experiences is cre-

53

BACK TO CONTENT |


54

ated, as a result of alienation, which the individual experiences in everyday life. In the search

of them, tourists are engaged in various forms of tourist activity. An example of such form

can be an active participation in dance performance organized by the natives (Daniel 1996).

However, the essential precondition for the authentic experience is to take an active part in

it. If such performance is viewed in a passive way, it can cause at most (though not always)

a sense of authenticity in the objectivist or - even more often - in a constructivist sense. Wang

(1999) also distinguished between two types of existential authenticity: intra-personal and

inter-personal. The intrapersonal authenticity is caused by bodily feelings related to self-making.

An example of the activity that provides such experiences may be practicing adventure

tourism (sea sailing, paragliding, parachuting, and mountain climbing) or even sunbathing.

The interpersonal authenticity takes place when a tourist is looking for authenticity in dealing

with others. In this way, a tourist trip can be an opportunity to create or strengthen family

ties or an opportunity for exploring exotic places in a specific group of people (Bruner 1994,

urry 1990). Visited places only serve as a medium, through which they come together and

experience the authentic experience in their company.

D. Chhabra (2008) has added the fourth state to the spectrum of authenticity ‒ negotiation.

Quoting S. Pearce, she writes that “pure essentialism in its original form does not exist

because nature ‘itself is a result of historical and social construction “(Pearce, 1992, p. 6, cit.

in. Chhabra, 2008, 432). So “essentialism is negotiated to address the fluidity of authenticity”

(Chhabra, 2008, p. 432). She locates negotiation between essentialism and constructivism

states. This is, according to Adams ( 1996), co-created process between suppliers and consumers.

According to this line of thought authenticity can be “sustained in the re-creation

process while focusing on the requirements of the market” (Chhabra 2010, p. 34). Then if it

will be commoditized in the careful way, it can help to “preserve traditions by generating demand

or attributing value to them” (Medina, 2003, p. 354).

Y. Belhassen, K. Caton and W. Stewart (2008), who studied Protestant pilgrims visiting

the Holy Land found that the perception of authenticity is affected by three components:

beliefs, visited sites and activity undertaken by visitors. This relationship was called “theoplacity”

from the Greek word “theos” (God) and the Latin “placea” (place). This concept combines

all three discussed earlier means of authenticity. The authenticity experienced by the

pilgrims is, without a doubt, existential in nature. However, objective authenticity of the visited

buildings or rather sites associated with the life of Christ is equally important. We are

dealing with constructivist authenticity here, as pilgrims “bring with them preconceived understandings

of the sacred spaces they visit” and we are also faced with “the notion of collective,

social authoring of the meaning of these spaces” (p. 684). Then socially constructed

meanings are not only places visited by pilgrims but also the importance of their own behaviour.

a sense of authenticity, quality perception of overall satisfaction

As noted by many authors a sense of authenticity in tourist settings has a strong impact

on visitors’ satisfaction (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010; Kolar & Żabkar, 2007; Moscardo & Pearce,

1986). This impact will be particularly strong in the case of persons for whom authenticity is

one of the main determinants of attractiveness of a visited place.

| BACK TO CONTENT


The ability to trigger the need to re-participate in an activity, repeat visits to attractions

and encouraging others to do so is considered to be an important factor for success in the

market of visitor attractions (Bowen & Chen, 2001; Som et al. 2012; Ritchie, Mules, & uzabeaga,

2008). Although the relationship between satisfaction with the service and loyalty

to them is often taken for granted (Conlon & Murray, 1996; Yavas, 1998), some authors have

questioned this relationship (Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Danaher & Arweiler, 1996). While others

argue that this relationship has a certain asymmetry: loyal consumers are generally satisfied,

but satisfaction does not always transform into loyalty (Wojnarowska, 2005)

This article proposes that the importance that visitors attach to the authenticity of the

visitor attractions will have a significant impact on the perception of the quality of the experience

gained during the visit as well as satisfaction with the sight and behavioural intentions

in relation to the museum. This purpose of the paper is to answer the following questions:

1. What characteristics of visitors are related to the perception of the authenticity of

the visited attraction?

2. What is the relationship between perception of the quality and the authenticity of

the visited attraction?

3. What is the relationship between perception of authenticity and the overall assessment

of visited attraction and visitors’ behavioural intentions?

55

The relationships between certain tourist attractions visitors’ characteristics and the

perception of authenticity were pointed by some authors. For example, D. Chhabra (2010)

stated, that the objective and negotiated authenticity is an inspiration for generation Y to

undertake activities in the field of heritage tourism. However, in the work from 2005, Chhabra

found no significant between-group differences in perception due to income, gender, education.

The concept of existential authenticity (Wang 1999, Steiner and Reisinger 2006) as

well as the authenticity of the hot may suggest that susceptible to this kind of authenticity

will be young people looking for more exciting experiences and getting involved in events

rather than older people. In turn, better educated and more experienced tourists can pay

more attention to authenticity (Cohen 1998). That is, those who are more experienced and

educated are more sceptical (will evaluate places and events as less authentic) than the others.

The above assertions allow us to formulate the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: The perception of authenticity will be determined by the socio-demographic

characteristics of attraction visitors.

There is little research on the relationship between perception of quality and authenticity.

For example, Moscardo and Pearce (1986) found, that the majority of people visiting

the historic theme park believe, that it should be the most true and consistent with the history

even at the expense of some facilities for visitors. Also, the vast majority of the public

does not agree that it should improve the comfort and convenience of visitors at the expense

of losing some historical details. Similar results were obtained by Nowacki (2011) in studies

carried out among visitors at XV Archaeological Festival in Biskupin in 2009. In these studies,

up to 74% of visitors agreed that the authenticity of the visited sites is very important, even

at the expense of higher fees for sightseeing. Furthermore 83% of respondents stated that

such attractions as Biskupin should be the most authentic, even at the expense of the convenience

for visitors. Then, it can be concluded that:

BACK TO CONTENT |


56

Hypothesis 2: Visitors who attach high importance to authenticity will highly evaluate the

authenticity of the festival.

Relationships between perception of authenticity and assessment of visitor attraction

quality have not previously been the subject of discussion in the literature. However, some

findings suggest that a positive evaluation of the authenticity may affect the positive assessment

of the quality of the attraction product. Moscardo and Pearce (1986), who studied the

perception of historical theme park authenticity found that 95% of the visitors believed that

the park should be as true and consistent with the story even at the expense of some facilities

for visitors, and 88% disagreed that it should improve the comfort and convenience of visitors

at the expense of losing some historical details. Similar results were obtained by Nowacki of

people visiting the Archaeological Festival in Biskupin (Nowacki, 2011). When asked “Rate

how important it is for you the authenticity of the places visited” 74% of respondents agreed

that the authenticity of the visited sites is very important to them, even at the expense of

higher fees for sightseeing. And 83% of respondents stated that such places as Biskupin

should be the most authentic, even at the expense of the public convenience. This allows us

to formulate hypothesis no. 3:

Hypothesis 3: High perception of authenticity is associated with high assessment of

quality elements which are connected with authenticity.

The influence of authenticity perception on the visitors’ satisfaction already has been confirmed

by a number of authors (Moscardo & Pearce, 1986, Kolar & Zabkar 2007, 2010, Nowacki

2011). For people who attach great importance to the authenticity of visited sites, the impact

of a sense of authenticity on the satisfaction will be even stronger. In other words, the impact

of authenticity perception on the quality of experience, satisfaction and behavioural intentions

will be moderated by the individual importance of authenticity. The larger the importance of

site authenticity, the greater the satisfaction will be induced by his perception.

Hypothesis 4: High assessment of authenticity will have a positive impact on the overall

quality assessment and on the behavioural intentions of Festival visitors.

archaeological Festival in biskupin

Archaeological Festival in Biskupin is the largest such event in Central and Eastern Europe.

It takes place on the territory of the Museum and the archaeological reserve which

protect the ancient defensive settlement of Lusatian culture. The leading theme of the Festival

is different every year. In 2013, the main theme was “Archaeology - profession or adventure?”

Within nine days of the Festival, from 14th to 22th September 2013, it was visited

by 30,110 people. The Festival is full of presentations of craft techniques, fights, music and

dance performances. Visitors have the opportunity to taste regional and historical cuisine,

and to purchase a variety of souvenirs. Dance and music ensembles perform on the festival’s

scene, and historical re-enactment groups present the fights of the early Middle Ages’ warriors.

In addition, visitors have the opportunity to participate in dance workshops, competitions

of pot modelling, art and ceramic painting contests. In addition, in 2013, visitors could

learn about methods of excavation and documentation of their results, as well as the ways

of conservation of artefacts. Aviation and submarine archaeology shows, archeozoology, anthropology,

geophysics and others took place on a daily basis. Moreover, in the building of

| BACK TO CONTENT


the museum where the permanent exhibition of the history of the settlement and the archaeological

excavations was displayed, a temporary exhibition titled “The phenomenon of

Nidajna” was opened. It presented the results of archaeological research conducting at the

site of the former lake in north-eastern Poland, where a remarkable discovery was made.

The plated fittings and applications richly decorated with unusual representations of mythical

animals, which were prepared in the best workshops of the ancient world on the Black Sea

and the Mediterranean were presented in the exhibition in a very realistic way.

57

methods

The survey was conducted among the visitors to 19th Archaeological Festival at Biskupin,

Poland. The estimated size of the survey sample was based on attendance at previous festivals.

Observing the decreasing attendance at the festival in the last ten years it was assumed

that attendance in 2013 would not exceed 40,000 visitors. So for a confidence level of 0.95

and the maximum error p = 0.05 the minimum sample size of N = 381 respondents was considered.

Interviews were conducted by two trained interviewers among visitors leaving the

festival in the reception area and museum exhibition. Four hundred and five completed questionnaires

were collected (N = 400), with 35 refusals, giving a very high rate of return of 91%.

Questionnaire

The questionnaire included scales to measure the perception of authenticity, attraction

product quality, the importance of authenticity, overall attraction evaluation, behavioural intentions

and socio-demographic characteristics. Authenticity was operationalized using the

typology proposed by Wang (1999) with modifications suggested by Chhabra (2010). Accordingly,

it was decided to use a three-dimensional structure of authenticity: object-based (essentialist),

negotiated and existential. Measurement scales were developed based on

previously conducted qualitative and quantitative research on the perception of authenticity

at the Festival in Biskupin carried out in 2009 (Nowacki, 2011) and analysis of the literature.

As a result, three sentences were chosen regarding the object-based authenticity, three sentences

concerning the existential authenticity and three sentences concerning negotiated

authenticity (Tab. 3). The importance of authenticity was assessed using three statements

taken from Pearce and Moscardo (1986) and Nowacki (2011). The scale to assess the attraction

product quality consisted of 17 statements adapted from McDowall (2011), Baker &

Crompton (2000), Crompton & Love (1995) and Yoon, Lee & Lee (2010).

The importance of authenticity for the visitors of Biskupin was evaluated based on the

answers to the question: Rate how important for you is the authenticity (genuineness) of the

visited places. Respondents evaluated sequentially, using a five-point Likert scale (from definitely

yes to definitely not), the three statements: The authenticity of the visited places is very

important to me even at the expense of higher charges for entrance. Such places as Biskupin

should be as authentic, even as the convenience of visitors could be lost, and I do not pay attention

to the authenticity of visited places and objects. These statements were evaluated

using a five-point Likert scale (from definitely yes to definitely not). The α-Cronbach coefficient

BACK TO CONTENT |


58

of the scale - 0.33 was insufficient. However, after the removal of the last statement from the

scale I do not pay attention to the authenticity of visited places and objects, the value of α-

Cronbach’s coefficient was 0.708 and proved to be satisfactory (Hair et all. 2007).

The overall satisfaction with the visit at the Festival was assessed with three statements

concerning behavioural intentions, recommendation of visiting the festival to others and

quality of the festival compared with similar events. Behavioural intentions were assessed

using a statement: Do you intend to visit the Festival again? Recommendations of visiting

the festival were assessed with: Will you recommend visiting the Festival to your friends or

family? and quality of performance was assessed using a question: In general, how would

you rate the Festival compared to the other attractions of this type? All claims were evaluated

using a five-point Likert scale (α-Cronbach = 0.708). The questionnaire also contained questions

about socio-demographic characteristics, features of the trip and tour group. Data analysis

was performed using the statistical software STATISTICA 8.0.

research results

The profile of respondents. In the study group there were 58.2% female respondents

and 41.8% males (N = 405). The most numerous age group was the youngest group (15–18

years old) - 29.8% and people aged 35–44 years (17.5%). The smallest age groups represented

in the study consisted of the oldest persons: over 64 years old – 5.1%, 45-54 years – 7,6 and

55–64 years – 9.4%. Most numerous were those with college education (29.1%), secondary

education (28.8%), with college education (25.0%) and students (26.4%). Only 16.3% of the

respondents were tourists (during the overnight trip). The remaining 83.7% of those were

people living in the area or on one-day excursions. Only 18.0% of respondents had a guide

in the Festival area. Most of them, 37.7% of respondents, came to the Festival with family

groups (with children) (37.8%) and with a group (35.8%).

authenticity perception

In order to verify the three-dimensional concept of authenticity the confirmatory factor

analysis (CFA) was carried out. Latent variables (authenticity factors) were defined in such a

way that each was loaded by at least one item. The analysis confirmed the existence of three

factors of authenticity: essentialist-objectivist, existentialist and negotiated (Tab. 1). The values

of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the measurement scales ranged from 0.61 to 0.71

and therefore were within the required minimum of 0.60-0.70 (Hair at al. 2010). The obtained

factors from 0.527 to 0.558 of the average variance explained (AVE) and confirmed sufficient

consistency and reliability of the tested model. Factor loadings obtained factors ranged from

0.597 to 0.798. The chi-square ratio to the degrees of freedom (χ2 / df) was 2.32, and with

the other indicators, which were: RMSEA = 0.055; CFI = 0.945; NFI = 0.951; GFI = 0.971 allows

to accept the proposed measurement model.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Table 1: Confirmatory factor analysis of authenticity items.

Factors/ items α aVE Cr λ t

Essentialists-objectivist

Iron Age settlement on the peninsula looks authentic

Exhibits on display in the museum pavilion look authentic

I really liked the exhibits on display at the museum

0.61 0.52 0.76

0.69

0.72

0.74

11.0

11.4

11.0

59

Existential authenticity

Festival allowed me to empathize with the period of the

Iron Age

Festival really revived the past

I was able to feel the real atmosphere of this place

0.71

0.57

0.79

0.85

0.79

0.59

12.5

11.9

7.91

Constructivist authenticity /negotiated

I really like places where history can be almost touched

Information about the history and archaeology was very

interesting

Reconstruction of the settlement from the Iron Age and

early medieval settlement really inspired me

0.64

0.55

0.78

0.77

0.78

0.66

11.0

10.5

8.25

Note: χ2 = 55.88; χ2/df = 2.32; RMSEA = 0.055; CFI = 0.945; NFI = 0.951; GFI = 0.971;

Clustered segments of authenticity perception

In order to obtain clusters of people perceiving authenticity of the Festival in Biskupin

in a similar way two subsequent cluster analyses were performed. The first analysis with a

tree clustering algorithm was performed. The purpose of this algorithm is to join together

objects (visitors) into successively larger clusters, using some measure of similarity or distance.

A typical result of this type of clustering is the hierarchical tree (StatSoft, Inc. 2007).

Nine items of authenticity as variables in analysis perception were taken. The tree clustering

analysis revealed the existence of three clusters of people clearly differentiated due to perception

of authenticity. In the next step K-means grouping procedure was performed, where

as a criterion for the segmentation were nine authenticity items. Clustering cases, sorting of

distances and taking observations at a fixed interval algorithm was selected. The aim was to

achieve three clusters of cases (visitors of the festival), to the greatest extent differ from each

other in terms of the perception of authenticity. The significance of differences in the perception

of authenticity between segments was tested with non-parametric H Kruskall-Wallis

test. Analysis showed that the obtained clusters are significantly different between each

other due to all items of authenticity (Table 2, next page).

Cluster I is the largest segment of Festival visitors (n = 237, 58.5%). This group has a high

perception of all three dimensions of authenticity: all items of authenticity were rated highest

(the highest mean in the sample). Therefore we can call them “highly authentic”. Cluster II

(58 persons, 14.3%), is a small group which highly evaluated the existential authenticity (highest

in the sample), average evaluated constructivist authenticity and quite low essentialist.

Than we can call them “really existentialists”. Cluster III which included 110 persons (27.2%)

comprises people with lowest perception of authenticity in the sample. All items of authenticity

were rated lowest by them - significantly lower than in the other two segments. Mem-

BACK TO CONTENT |


Table 2: mean scores of authenticity items by and differences between clustered authenticity groups.

60

Factors/ items

Essentialists-objectivist

Iron Age settlement on the peninsula looks authentic

Exhibits on display in the museum pavilion look authentic

I really liked the exhibits on display at the museum

I

237,

58.5%

4.67

4.69

4.55

Custers

II

58,

14.3%

4.56

2.79

2.86

III

110,

27.2%

4.07

3.88

3.70

p

0.001

0.001

0.001

Existential authenticity

Festival allowed me to empathize with the period of the

Iron Age

Festival really revived the past

I was able to feel the real atmosphere of this place

4.41

4.52

4.55

4.25

4.62

4.67

2.93

3.64

3.98

0.001

0.001

0.001

Constructivist authenticity /negotiated

I really like places where history can be almost touched

Information about the history and archaeology was very interesting

Reconstruction of the settlement from the Iron Age and

early medieval settlement really inspired me

4.46

4.48

4.37

4.27

4.31

4.22

3.34

3.51

3.60

0.001

0.001

0.001

Note: values above mean are bolded

bers of that cluster are therefore people who see the festival as an event artificially fabricated

for tourists, in a staged environment and were in the slightest felt genuinely and inspired by

the authenticity of the festival. We can call them “inauthentic”.

Socio-demographic characteristics versus authenticity perception

The analysis of intergroup differences between segments obtained due to socio-demographic

characteristics and features of the trips did not show any significant differences.

The importance of authenticity

The importance of authenticity for visitors of Festival in Biskupin were tested using three

items. All of them significantly differentiate the identified visitors segments (Tab. 3). The first

two items: the importance of authenticity even at the expense of higher fees for sightseeing

and importance of authenticity even some facilities for visitors are lacking were rated much

higher by people with clusters of high and medium perception of authenticity than by people

with low perception of authenticity. The third assertion concerning importance of authenticity

instead of comfortable connection with attractions substantially differentiates the segment

of high authenticity of the low segment of authenticity that confirms the 2 nd hypothesis

(high perception of authenticity is connected with high importance to authenticity).

| BACK TO CONTENT


Table 3: Importance of authenticity and authenticity segments.

Importance of authenticity items

Custers

I II III

p

Authenticity of the visited sites is very important even due

to higher entrance fees

Such sites as Biskupin should be very authentic even at the

expense of facilities for visitors

Authenticity of the visited sites is very important even at the

expense of the more difficult directions to them

4.21 a

4.26 a

4.12 a 4.05 a

4.40 a 4.29

0.001

3.66 b

4.08 b 0.010

3.53 b 0.001

Note: a, b, c – indicates differences between two groups tested with u Mann-Whitney test.

61

Quality of the Festival

Respondents from three clusters significantly differ due to assessment of 8 out of 17

quality attributes of the festival: three attributes of the aesthetics of the festival (appearance

of the objects, shows and performances as well as exhibitions in the museum pavilion) and

the single attributes of other factors: atmosphere during the Festival, sites for rest, food &

beverages and stands (souvenirs and level of congestion) (Table 4).

Table 4: Quality of festival attributes and authenticity segments.

Quality of Festival atributes

Aesthetics of the Festival

The general appearance of the reconstructed buildings

and settlements

Shows and performances

The exhibition in the museum pavilion

4.66

4.46

4.36

Custers

I II III

4.70

4.32

4.17

4.45

4.18

3.95

p

0.003

0.02

0.001

The organization of the festival

Information concerning the program of the Festival

Safety in the Festival area

The program of the Festival

The atmosphere during the Festival

4.53

4.20

3.83

4.37

4.67

4.27

3.75

4.44

4.41

4.03

3.68

4.15

0.18

0.17

0.16

0.01

Cleanliness and tidiness

Cleanliness in the Festival area

Sites for rest

Stands in the Festival area

3.83

4.33

4.43

3.72

4.39

4.37

3.70

4.10

4.24

0.40

0.009

0.11

Gastronomy, orientation and staff

Food & beverage

4.05 4.13 3.79 0.03

Orientation in the Festival area/ directional signs

4.57 4.51 4.39 0.11

The attitude of the staff in the Festival area

4.24 4.22 4.17 0.88

Stands

Souvenirs 3.26 3.01 2.84 0.01

The level of congestion and queues to the stands 4.34 3.10 3.79 0.001

Parking and toilets

Toilets 3.94 3.55 3.96 0.14

Parking 3.69 3.72 3.64 0.77

BACK TO CONTENT |


62

Individuals with a strong perception of authenticity rate significantly higher attributes

which can affect the assessment of the quality, that is: objects, shows and exhibitions (intensity

of these differences is significant and ranges from p = 0.001 to p = 0.02), that allows

to accept hypothesis no. 3, that high perception of authenticity is positively associated with

high assessment of quality elements. In addition, people with the strongest perception of

authenticity perceived significantly higher the atmosphere of the festival, the quality of the

sites for rest, foot & beverage and stands (souvenirs and the level of congestion and queues

to the stands).

Satisfaction and behavioral intentions

There were no significant differences between the clusters due to desire of recommending

to friends and family visiting the festival (Tab. 5). However, the segment with strong perception

of authenticity (really authentic) has a significantly higher willingness to re-visit the

festival than people with the lowest perception of authenticity (H = 11.62, p = 0.003). Similarly,

the segment of the high and the average perception authenticity rate higher the festival

in their overall assessment in comparison with other similar attractions than those with low

perception of authenticity (H = 41.87, p < 0.001). That allows to accept the 4 th hypothesis,

that high assessment of authenticity has a positive impact on the overall quality assessment.

Table 5: Satisfaction and behavioral intentions by authenticity segments.

Satisfaction and behavioral intentions items

Do you recommend visiting the Festival to your friends or

family?

Do you want to visit the festival again?

In general, how would you rate the Festival in Biskupin

compared to the other attractions of this type?

4.32

4.48

4.27

Custers

I II III

4.26

4.48

4.09

4.35

4.22

3.73

p

0.52

0.003

0.001

Conclusions

The study’s aim was to empirically examine the multidimensional concept of authenticity

and to identify the determinants of the perception of authenticity by the attraction visitors

as well as the relationship between the perception of authenticity and visitors’ satisfaction

and their behavioural intentions. Based on a literature review a three factorial structure of

authenticity was identified, which was verified and empirically confirmed in the study performed

during the Archaeological Festival in Biskupin among 405 visitors. The study confirmed

the high internal reliability of the scales used for measuring the perception of authenticity.

Research showed that the tested group of people visiting the archaeological festival is

significantly diverse in terms of the perception of authenticity. However, the results forced

to reject the first hypothesis: there were no significant differences in the perception of authenticity

among groups of people of different ages, different backgrounds, as well as among

groups with different characteristics excursion group (tourists / visitors), experience (first /

next), etc. Lack of linkages between socio-demographic characteristics and the perception

| BACK TO CONTENT


of authenticity, also identified by Kolar and Zabkar (2007) indicates the need to incorporate

into the model the authenticity conditions and other variables such as psychometric characteristics,

motivations and perhaps expectations of attractions that better explain variation

in the perception of authenticity.

The study confirmed that the importance of authenticity significantly differentiates visitors

due to perception of authenticity (second hypothesis). Individuals with high perception

of authenticity are much more interested in the authenticity of tourist attraction: they are

able to pay more for admission, they are able to tolerate the lack of facilities for visiting such

places and spend more effort reaching them. In practice, it means that managers need to

ensure a high degree of authenticity or at least provide a gradation accuracy or authenticity

of such zones (for example according to the model proposed by C. Gunn in 1988). Accordingly,

“nucleus” of attraction could remain totally authentic. Access to it would be restricted e.g.

by a buffer zone, available only for those visitors who need authenticity mostly. This impairment

may have to rely both on having to incur additional costs and take a longer walk in

order to reach the nucleus. Such zoning would ensure better protection of historic and sensitive

nucleus and improve the quality of visitors’ experiences.

It was found also, that perception of authenticity has a significant relationship with the

assessment of the archaeological festival quality (third hypothesis was confirmed). However,

that applies not only to all attributes of the festival, but especially those whose quality is related

to their authenticity, namely: reconstructed elements of the settlement, shows and

performances (interpreters dressed in authentic costumes and presenting authentic dances,

songs and art handicraft), the exhibition in the museum pavilion, stalls with souvenirs (looking

very authentic). Although several studies have shown that authenticity is important even at

the expense of quality (Moscardo & Pearce 1986, Nowacki 2011, 2013), the present study

shows that a positive perception of authenticity is conducive to the high assessment of the

quality of services provided.

The perception of authenticity is also linked with a sense of loyalty to the Festival. It

was found that there is a significantly higher willingness to re-visit the Festival expressed by

people from groups highly authentic (segment I) and really existentialists (segment II) - that

is, with higher perception of authenticity - than inauthentics. This is perhaps the most important

observation of this study because repeat visits, as claimed by many authors (Swarbrooke

2002, um et al. 2006) are the key to the success of visitor attractions. That relationship

indicates the need for attraction managers to care not only about adequate display of original

artefacts, create atmosphere corresponding to the interpreted historical periods but also revitalize

exposure and zooming inspiring story almost at the doorstep.

As other studies show (e.g. Nowacki, 2011), the impact of existential authenticity on

behavioural intentions also runs through the quality of experience and satisfaction, but most

affected - directly, which confirms earlier findings by Boulding et al. (1993) and Baker and

Crompton (2000). Active participation of the visitors in the festival is the strongest factor influencing

the willingness to revisit. Only later that affects satisfaction. This relationship should

prompt managers of attractions, testifying the need to engage visitors in a variety of forms

of activity and perhaps even to stimulate creativity through the organization of various workshops

in the attractions area.

63

BACK TO CONTENT |


64

The above-mentioned research showed, that people who strongly perceive existential,

hot, actively constructed by them authenticity - depended greatly on the visitors themselves

(Cohen, 1988, Wang 1999, Reisinger and Steiner 2006), rate significantly higher the festival

and show greater loyalty to it. This is probably due to the fact that the festival is an event

created artificially, especially for guests. Although the festival takes place at the authentic

Lusatian culture settlement and shows revitalized times of settlement existence, the interpreted

themes often differ from historical and geographical realities. For a variety of festivals

different foreign cultures such as Native Americans, Japanese or Egyptian Pharaonic culture

period in the settlement are interpreted. Although those themes very far from the place of

its presentation, authentic costumes used by interpreters, props and their behaviours affect

authenticity of these representations in the perception of the visitors.

Although the above-mentioned study was conducted among the participants of the archaeological

festival, further research should be carried out in other tourist attractions such

as museums, theme parks and historical places, even in areas of natural heritage to verify

the hypotheses wider.

references

Adams, V. (1996). Tigers of the Snow and Other Virtual Sherpas: An Ethnography of Himalayan Encounters.

Princeton: Princeton university Press.

Baker, D., & Crompton, J. (2000). Quality, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions. Annals of Tourism Research,

27(3), pp. 785-804.

Bamossy, G., & Costa A. (2001). Le parc Disney: Creating an “authentic” American experience”. Advances

in Consumer Research, 28, pp. 398-402.

Belhassen, Y., Caton, K., & Stewart, W.P. (2008). The search for authenticity in the pilgrim experience.

Annals of Tourism Research, 35(3), pp. 668-689.

Boorstin, D. (1964). The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. New York: Harper and Row.

Boulding, W., Kalra, A., Staeling, R., & Zeithaml, V. A. (1993). A dynamic process model of service quality:

from expectations to behavioural intentions. Journal of Marketing Research, 30, pp. 7-27.

Bowen, J. T., & Chen, S. (2001). The Relationship Between Customer Loyalty and Customer Satisfaction.

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 5, pp. 213-217.

Brida, J. G., Disegna, M., & Scuderi, R. (2012). The visitors’ perception of authenticity at the museum:

archaeology versus modern art. Current Issues in Tourism, iFirst article, pp. 1-21.

Bruner, E. M. (1994). Abraham Lincoln as Authentic Reproduction: A Critique of Postmodernism. American

Anthropologist, 96, pp. 397–415.

Chhabra, D. (2005). understanding authenticity and its determinants. Journal of Travel Research, 44(1),

pp. 64-73.

Chhabra, D. (2008). Positioning museums on an authenticity continuum. Annals of Tourism Research,

35(2), pp. 427-447.

Chhabra, D. (2010). Sustainable Marketing of Cultural and Heritage Tourism. London and New York:

Routledge.

Cohen, E. (1988). Authenticity and Commodification in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 15, pp.

371-386.

Cohen, E., & Cohen S. (2012). Authentication: Hot and cool. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(3), pp.

1295-1314.

Cohen, E. (1979). Rethinking the Sociology of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(1), pp. 18-35.

Conlon, D. E, & Murray, N.M. (1996). Customer Perceptions of Corporate Responses to Product Complaints:

The Role of Explanations. Academy of Management Journal, 4, pp. 1040-1056.

Crompton, J., & Love, J. L. (1995). The Predictive Validity of Alternative Approaches to Evaluating Quality

of a Festival. Journal of Travel Research, 34(1), pp. 11-24.

Cronin, J., & Taylor, S. (1992). Measuring service quality: a re-examination and extension. Journal of

Marketing, 56(3), pp. 55-68.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Danaher, P. J., & Arweiler, N. (1996). Customer satisfaction in the tourist industry: a case study of visitors

to New Zealand. Journal of Travel Research, 35(1), pp. 89-93.

Daniel, Y. P. (1996). Tourism Dance Performances: Authenticity And Creativity. Annals of Tourism Research,

23(4), pp. 780-797.

Drummond, S. (2001). Critical success factors for the organization. In S. Drummond, & J. Yeomann,

(Eds.), Quality Issues in Heritage Visitor Attractions (pp. 16-27). Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth

Heinemann.

Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in Public: Microstudies of the Public Order. New York: Basic Books.

Gunn, C. (1988). Vacationscape: Designing Tourist Regions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B., Anderson, R.L., & Tatham, R.L. (2007). Multivariate Data Analysis. New

Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Hobsbawm, E, & Ranger, T. (1992). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, Cambridge university Press.

Kim, H., & Jamal, T. (2007). Touristic Quest for Existential Authenticity. Annals of Tourism Research,

34(1), pp. 181-201.

Kolar, T., & Žabkar, V. (2007). The meaning of tourists’ authentic experiences for the marketing of cultural

heritage sites. Economic and business review, 9(3), pp. 235-256.

Kolar, T., & Žabkar, V. (2010). A consumer-based model of authenticity: An oxymoron or the foundation

of cultural heritage marketing? Tourism Management, 31, pp. 652-664.

Kopaliński, W. (2013). „Słownik wyrazów obcych i zwrotów obcojęzycznych”. http://www.slownik-online.pl.

(access 15.08.2013)

MacCannell, D. (1976). The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books Inc.

McDowal, S. (2011). The Festival in My Hometown: The Relationships Among Performance Quality, Satisfaction,

and Behavioral Intentions. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration,

12(4), pp. 269-288.

McIntosh, A., & Prentice, R. (1999). Affirming Authenticity: Consuming Cultural Heritage. Annals of

Tourism Research, 26(3), pp. 589-612.

McLeod, M. D. (1976). Limitations of the Genuine. African Art, 9(3), pp. 48-51.

Medina, L. (2003). Commoditizing Culture: Tourism and Maya Identity. Annals of Tourism Research, 30,

pp. 353-368.

Moscardo, G., & Pearce, P. (1986). Historic Theme Parks. An Australian Experience in Authenticity. Annals

of Tourism Research, 13, pp. 467-479.

Nowacki, M. (2011). The Authenticity of Perception of the Visitors to the Archaeological Festival at

Biskupin. Journal of Tourism and Services, 3, pp. 23-39.

Nowacki, M. (2013). The determinants of satisfaction of tourist attractions’ visitors. Poznań: Active.

Pearce, S. (1992). Museums, Objects and Collections. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Pearce, P. (2005). Tourist Behaviour. Themes and Conceptual Schemes. Aspects of Tourism. Bristol: Channel

View Publications.

Pearce, P., & Moscardo, G. (1986). The Concept of Authenticity in Tourist Experiences. Australian and

New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 22, pp. 121-132.

Reisinger, Y., & Steiner, C. (2006). Reconceptualising Object Authenticity. Annals of Tourism Research,

33(1),, pp. 65-86.

Ritchie, B., Mules, T., & uzabeaga, S. (2008). Visitor attraction satisfaction benchmarking project. Gold

Coast: Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd.

Salamone, F.A. (1997). Authenticity in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(2), pp. 305-321.

Selwyn, T. (1996). The Tourist Image: Myths and myth making in tourism. Chichester: Wiley.

Silver, A. (1992). Marketing authenticity in Third World countries. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2),

pp. 302-318.

Som, A. P. M., Marzuki, A., Yousefi, M., & AbuKhalifeh, A.N. (2012). Factors influencing visitors’ revisit

behavioral Intentions: A case study of Sabah, Malaysia. International Journal of Marketing Studies

4(4), pp. 39-50.

StatSoft, Inc. (2007). STATISTICA (data analysis software system), version 8.0. www.statsoft.com.

Swarbrooke, J. (2002). The Development and Management of Visitor Attractions. New York: Routledge.

Taylor, J. P. (2001). Authenticity and Sincerity in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(1), pp. 7-26.

Theobald, W. (1988). Global Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Trilling, L. (1973). Sincerity and Authenticity. Cambridge: university Press.

um, S., Chon, K., Ro, Y. (2006). Antecedents of Revisit Intention. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(4), pp.

1141-1158.

urry, J. (1990). The Consumption of Tourism. Sociology, 24(1), pp. 23-35.

65

BACK TO CONTENT |


66

Wang, N. (1999). Rethinking Authenticity in Tourism Experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2),

pp. 349-370.

Wieczorkiewicz, A. (2008). Apetyt turysty. O doświadczaniu świata w podróży. Kraków: universitas.

Wojnarowska, H. (2005). Wyznaczniki lojalności klientów indywidualnych. Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii

Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, 677, pp. 85-101.

Yavas, u. (1998). Service Quality Sentiments as Correlates of Behavioral Intentions and Satisfaction: A

Study of Turkish Consumers. Journal of Customer Service in Marketing and Management, 1, pp.

31-45.

Yeoman, I., Brass, D., McMahon-Beattie, u. (2007). Current issue in tourism: The authentic tourist.

Tourism Management, 28(4), pp. 1128-1138.

Yoon, Y.-S, Lee J.-K., & Lee C.-K. (2010). Measuring festival quality and value affecting visitors’ satisfaction

and loyalty using a structural approach. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(2),

pp. 335-342.

| BACK TO CONTENT

THE CUrrENT SITUaTION aND ISSUES

WITH aCCOmmODaTION lEgISlaTION IN JaPaN

Yuichi HIROOKA 1

abSTraCT

The accommodation business in Japan is regulated by the Inns and Hotels Act and is defined under the

Act as ‘the inn and hotel business’. The law stipulates that any person(s) or organisation planning to

run a inn or hotel business must obtain a prior permission. The establishment must comply with the

structural and equipment requirements mandated by the ordinance in order to obtain the authorisation.

However, the inn or hotel business should also satisfy other requirements such as those stipulated

in the Building Standard Law and the Fire Service Act. The present study outlines the current situation

and further discusses the issues arising from situations such as the difference in the criteria for judgement

between the inn or hotel business and the real-estate rental business. It also analyses the role of

mediation in the Travel Agency Law, and individuals who offer their own house for accommodation to

travellers for remuneration are not necessarily recognised as running a inn or hotel business.

67

KEYWOrDS

The Inns and Hotels Act, inn or hotel business, accommodation in private homes

Introduction

It is considered that visitors to Japan are interested in the Japanese way of life and want

to have exchanges with Japanese people. It is conceivable that one way of satisfying this

want is for them to stay in the private home of an ordinary individual. However, not limited

to travel to Japan, it is quite difficult to use this method to stay in a place where the traveller

has no connection to that individual. Therefore, businesses have been established by creating

a system to accommodate travellers in the private homes of ordinary individuals by matching

guests to hosts. As a business in which travellers find accommodation in private homes via

the Internet, the host receives a lodging fee for providing the accommodation and the intermediary

takes a commission fee. The leading example of such as an intermediary business is

Airbnb, whose concept is “travel while living like a local.” [1] This is currently called “accommodation

in private residences” but in Japan’s The Inns and Hotels Act, if a lodging fee is received

from guests, it is necessary to obtain permission to run a hotel and inns business. But

it is considered that many of the hosts listing their properties on the Airbnb website have

not obtained this permission. [2] As this sort of condition was not envisaged in the existing

legal system [3], it is thought possible that some hosts who list their property on Airbnb are

actually unaware of the need to obtain permission to run an inns or hotels business once

they offer their home as accommodation, and confusion has arisen over this issue. Therefore,

the government is investigating the methods of providing “accommodation services.”

up until recently, there has been little discussion in Japan about its accommodation-related

laws, but due to this problem, they have unexpectedly become the focus of attention

1

Wakayama university, Faculty of Tourism. Sakaedani 930, Wakayama-city 640-8510, JAPAN. Tel: + 81-73-457-8578,

Fax: + 81-73-457-8578, E-mail: yhirooka@center.wakayama-u.ac.jp

BACK TO CONTENT |


and have been discussed in government study groups and elsewhere. Therefore in this paper,

after providing an overview of Japan’s current legal system for accommodation, this issued

is discussed.

68

The provisions of the Inns and Hotels act

An accommodation business is defined in the Inns and Hotels Act as “a business in which

facilities are established and a lodging fee is received for providing accommodation for people

staying in those facilities,” while “accommodation” is defined as “the use of facilities that provide

bedding.” Here, the judgment of whether or not it is a “business” is based on whether the

provision of facilities “has sociality and is continuously repeated.” [4] Article 3 of the Inns and

Hotels Act stipulates that any person intending to run an inns and hotels business must receive

the permission of the relevant administrative agency. The inns and hotels business is divided

into the categories of hotel business, inns business, simple lodging business, and boarding

house business. The specific criteria for a structural facility to be included in one of these categories

is provided for by the Inns and Hotels Act Enforcement Ordinance Article , with the

criteria for a structural facility to be a hotel business being stipulated as Western-style bedding

and 10 or more guest rooms, for the inns business as 5 or more guest rooms, and the simple

lodging business as a total area of 33 square meters or more for the guest room(s).

Inns and hotels business may not refuse anyone accommodation, with the exception

of such cases as when the potential guest has an infectious diseases or when they may commit

an illegal act (Article 5). They must also prepare a guestbook and write items such as the

name of the guest within it (Article 6). In both the hotel business and the inn business, the

facility must be equipped with a front reception desk or equivalent that is suitable for receiving

people wanting to stay in that facility (Ordinance Article 1) [5].

restrictions other than those provided for by the Inns and Hotels act

The regulations in the Building Standards Act on a building of 2 floors or less with an

area of no more than 200 have been relaxed, but as inns and hotels are classified as special

buildings, they are required to meet higher builder standards than ordinary buildings, such

as meeting requirements for partition walls and as fire-resistant buildings. Also, the urban

Planning Act stipulates that hotels and inns cannot be built in zones defined as a category

exclusive low building residential zone, a category II exclusive low building residential zone,

a category I exclusive medium and high building residential zone, a category II exclusive

medium and high building residential zone, an industrial zone, or an exclusive industrial zone.

Conversely, the Fire Service Act stipulates that within inns, there must be installed and

maintained fire extinguishing equipment, fire alarm equipment, and evacuation equipment

that is deemed to have the necessary performance.

Exceptions to the Inns and Hotels act

Article 5 of the Inns and Hotels Act Enforcement Regulations provides for exceptions to

the standards for the structural facility. Specifically, the standards such as for the number of

| BACK TO CONTENT

THE CuRRENT SITuATION AND ISSuES WITH ACCOMMODATION LEGISLATION IN JAPAN

guest rooms, the area of the guest rooms, and having a front reception desk do not apply in

the case of facilities only open during a specific season; facilities that are infrequently used

and that are particularly inconvenient to access by public transport; facilities that are only

temporarily open, such as for sports meetings or exhibitions; and traditional buildings located

in an important traditional building preservation zone. Also, the standard for the area of

guest rooms does not apply in the case of inns that are run for agriculture, forestry, and fishing

experiences.

The exceptions to the application of the Inns and Hotels Act were described above. However,

facilities within a National Strategic Special Zone that satisfy certain requirements are

exempted from the application of the Inns and Hotels Act, with accommodation for visitors

from overseas over a period of time specified in the regulations being provided in the form

of a rental agreement.

69

Issues with the current accommodation legal system

1) The Inns and Hotels act and contradictions in its interpretation

In the Inns and Hotels Act, a business receives a lodging fee for providing its guests with

accommodation. But dormitories, such as of companies and factories; membership-system

accommodation facilities; and other accommodation facilities for specified persons are subject

to the application of the Ministry of Health and Welfare Public Health Director-General

Notification sent to each prefectural governor on October 17, 1949. Permission to run an

inns and hotels business is still required in these cases, but if the owners of these facilities

acquire permission and run them as a inns and hotels business, then the restriction on refusing

accommodation provided for by the Inns and Hotels Act Article 5 should be applied,

which prohibits them for providing accommodation only to specified people. Originally, the

Ministry of Health and Welfare Public Health Director General Notification sent to each prefectural

governor on April 26, 1950, included the interpretation that facilities providing accommodation

to a large number of specified people were not bound by the provisions of

Article 5, and reasonably and as a matter of course, they could refuse accommodation to

persons other than these specified people. But this contradiction also suggests that there

are limits to the application of the Inns and Hotels Act to facilities providing accommodation

for a large number of specified people.

2) Impediments to the development of private residences temporarily taking lodgers

As a business that receives a lodging fee in return for providing accommodation to

guests must obtain permission to run an inns and hotels business, people providing such accommodation

in their own homes must obtain this permission to run an inns and hotels business.

In addition, even though it is the easiest business to open within the inns and hotels

businesses, a simple lodging business still requires that the guest room(s) have an area of at

least 33 square meters. [6] Also, as the simple lodgings business is an inns and hotels business,

the Building Standard Laws stipulates that such businesses cannot be run in an exclusive

residential zone. This means that travellers who want to stay in an exclusive residential zone

so they can experience living like a local cannot have this want fulfilled. Even if a person obtains

permission to run a inns and hotels business, while it is possible in the Airbnb system

BACK TO CONTENT |


for them to choose guests and approve reservations[7], in accordance with the provisions

of Article 5 that restricts refusing accommodation to certain people, in principle it is not possible

for a host offering accommodation on Airbnb to refuse anyone accommodation.

70

The future for accommodation business and accommodation legislation in

Japan

Based on above facts and issues, this chapter discusses the future for accommodation

business and accommodation legislation including the issue of accommodation in private

homes in Japan.

The type of accommodation in private homes is sorted by whether a detached house

or an apartment house, or whether the landlord live together or not, or a vacant house. However

in current legislation at least all type must be received by the permission of simple lodging

business. But accommodation in private homes which the landlord live together and

greet the traveler who enjoy the local life and the landlord exchange with guests will be admitted

by the study Group of accommodation in private homes which carried by the Ministry

of Health, Labour and Welfare, and Japan Tourism Agency. Because the way is fitted by the

idea of accommodation in private homes. So middle report of the study Group is writing that

type of accommodation in private homes will be relax form restriction of the Inns and Hotels

Act. On the other hand there are accommodations in private homes which appeal for cheap.

The reason of cheap is not satisfy of required condition for legislation. They use vacant apartment

houses or the caretaker is not allotted. Then they can cost cut and maintain bossiness

as accommodation in private homes.

Broadly speaking, there are two different accommodations. One has value which cannot be

found in conventional accommodations but has not compatibility with current legislation. The

other has value that is cheap which can be by not satisfy of required condition for legislation.

Thought border cases must be examined, in the former regulations should be relaxed

to be able to accept independent travelers in order to promote tourism development. While

in the latter regulations must be kept in order to guarantee current standard which is the

purpose of the Inns and Hotels Act, the view of the sound management for hotels business

and developing sanitation.

The former can provide the values which aren’t provided by conventional accommodations

such as old folk houses or traditional architectures including accommodation in private

homes. So the former will be ruled off provisions of the Inns and Hotels Act and other regulations.

The case to be ruled off provisions, for example, is that an accommodation service

provider is a natural person who doesn’t aim at profit for this service or a non-profit organization.

Even in this case the provider should be obligated to report to the administrative

agency with jurisdiction. The reason is consideration of public security and sanitation. Those

standards will be made newly.

The other hand, the latter, the accommodation which has advantage in term of price

by not satisfy of required condition for legislation should be instructed and crack down by

administration. Those accommodations have advantage in term of price, so they compete

among conventional accommodations especially low-end accommodations. In this case as

conventional accommodations obey the regulations, they are loaded with cost to obey the

| BACK TO CONTENT

THE CuRRENT SITuATION AND ISSuES WITH ACCOMMODATION LEGISLATION IN JAPAN

regulations, and they are disadvantageous in price competition. Consequently those lowend

accommodations will be defeated in price competition and eliminated. If the circumstances

will be neglected, accommodations relatively low price but no problem will disappear.

And the standard of Japanese accommodation level will fall down. The fact means the standard

of Japanese tourism level will fall down.

The former, however, there is the subject about the relation with intermediate agency.

In Japan any person who intends to intermediate concerning accommodation services shall

be registered with Commissioner of the Japan Tourism Agency. And under Japanese travel

law system those Travel Agents are not liable for accidents about accommodations generally.

The reason seems travel agents have not ability of liability for compensation but accommodations

have the ability. But it is a question that such the former accommodation in private

homes who doesn’t operate as business can be loaded the liability for compensation as same

as the accommodation to operate as business. This matter will be solved to load the liability

for compensation onto intermediate agency jointly and severally with the host of accommodation

in private home. This way makes guarantee the safety and relief. But if the intermediate

agency is considered as the travel agent legally in Japan, and the law system impose

on the intermediate agency to load the liability for compensation, it have the question

whether the force restrict the operator of matting site in overseas substantially.

In this paper the course of action can be shown about the issue of accommodation in

private homes practical, although it is impossible to abolish accommodation in private homes

as now spread.

Needless to say the reason of development of accommodation in private homes is they

can offer values which cannot be offered by conventional accommodations. In accommodation

business especially inns business are decreasing. Now the supply of accommodations is

tightness, and there is an opinion the tightness will be recovered by accommodation in private

homes. But such situation is caused by not to supply values by conventional accommodations.

The industry of accommodation must make innovation and build up strategy to

improve the own value while the chance such as high demand now time. It is especially call

to inns business.

71

references

Airbnd soogokenkyukai 2016 , Internet mimpaku shukai service Airbnb nyumon guide, Socym

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare http://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/shingi/othersyokuhin.html?

tid=312986 (2016.3.29)

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare http://wwwhourei.mhlw.go.jp/hourei/html/tsuchi/

contents.html (2016.3.29)

[1] Airbnd soogokenkyukai, Internet mimpaku shukai service Airbnb nyumon guide , Socym,2016, p16.

[2] Inns and hotels may not be built in an exclusive residential area zone, which is discussed later, but

even so there are properties whose addresses are in these zones listed on the website.

[3] The Inns and Hotels Act came into force on 1948.

“Ryokangyoho no junshu no tetteinituite” on 27 Nov. 2015. notice by Seikatsueishi Kacho.

[4] There is no legal criteria in the simple lodging business, but in an administrative notification, businesses

were requested to establish a front reception desk or equivalent, and there have been cases

where this has been standardized in the ordinance (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare,

“Ryokangyo ni kakusuru Kiseinitsuite” November 2015 http://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/05-Shingikai-

11121000-Iyakushokuhinkyoku-Soumuka/ 0000105312.pdf

[5] This regulation was relaxed 1.Apr.2016

[6] Airbnd soogokenkyukai. op.cit., p.29.

BACK TO CONTENT |

PEaCE, rISK aND SaFETY IN INTErNaTIONal TOUrISm

Claudia Seabra 1 , Elisabeth Kastenholz 2 ,

José Luís Abrantes 1 and Manuel Reis 1

73

abSTraCT

The present study analyses sensitivity towards risk and international travel behavior amongst a sample

of 600 international tourists from 49 countries travelling by air. Specifically, it studies the impact of

peacefulness at home on this behavior, by dividing the sample according to each respondent’s belonging

to countries whose peacefulness condition was assessed through the Global Peace Index (Institute

for Economics and Peace, 2015). This index defines country profiles in terms of level of peacefulness,

based on indicators derived from three broad themes: i) ongoing domestic and international conflict;

ii) societal safety and security; and iii) militarisation. The study includes a tourists’ segmentation, according

to their country of origin and corresponding GPI index, revealing different levels of peacefulness.

Several facets determining travel behavior were evaluated, namely involvement with tourism and

dimensions of risk perception (both general and travel related), specifically risk perceptions, interest

in and attention to terrorism and safety/unsafety sensation. Results contribute to our understanding

of the role of previous exposure to the lack of peace and safety at home in determining international

tourist attitudes, and behaviors, which is further discussed in terms of tourism management and marketing

implications. This should particularly interest tourism services and destinations more affected

by terrorism, war, political turmoil, crime and other safety risks.

KEYWOrDS

Peace, Safety, Risk Perception, International Travel, Involvement

Introduction

The tourism activity contributes largely to the economic development of many countries.

It presently represents the major source of income for about 40% of countries around the

world. The interdependence with a lot of activities, including hotels, transportation, catering,

trade, but also real estate and food production, makes tourism a business multiplier of employment,

foreign exchange and welfare for the people in general [Taylor, 2006; WTO, 2015].

At the same time, tourism moves people between countries and directly contributes to

a better understanding among people. Tourism is the single biggest peaceful movement of

people across cultural boundaries [Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007] and as a “center of international

human interaction” [Göymen, 2000, p. 1026]. Indeed, it is as a peace activity [D’Amore,

2010; Litvin, 1998; McClonaghy, 2012; Moufakkir & Kelly, 2010; Pratt & Liu, 2016].

According to the International Institute for Peace through Tourism (IIPT), founded in

1986, Travel and Tourism is the world’s first ‘‘Global Peace Industry’’ – “an industry that promotes

and supports the belief that every traveler is potentially an ‘Ambassador for Peace’”

[D’Amore, 2010, p.566]. However, besides this belief and research on the causal relationship

1

Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health. Campus Politécnico

Repeses,3504-510 Viseu - Portugal. E-mail: cseabra@estv.ipv.pt; jlabrantes@estv.ipv.pt; manuelreis@estv.ipv.pt

2

university of Aveiro. Campus universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal. E-mail: elisabethk@ua.pt

BACK TO CONTENT |


74

between peace and tourism [Litvin, 1998; Pratt & Liu, 2016], a question still remains: peace

leads to tourism or otherwise tourism leads to peace? And, if there is a link between peace

at home and tourism, how does it specify in behaviors and attitudes, particularly attitudes

towards risk in international travel? The increase of the tourism activity, leads to the increase

of risks associated with travelling; in turn, travel safety is becoming a critical issue to tourists

[Cui, Liu, Chang, Duan, & Li, 2016]. Also tourists are concerned and aware of safety and security

matters in their planning process [Lepp & Gibson 2003].

The research on tourism and peace started in the 80’s [D’Amore, 1988], however over

the time the study on the tourism’s role in consolidating peace was scarce [Moufakkir, 2010;

Pernecky, 2010]. Recently, there has been a new investment in the research on the “possibilities

for tourism to act as an agent for peace in post-conflict social reconciliation” [Causevic

& Lynch, 2013, p. 146].

The present study analyses the impact of peacefulness in tourists’ country of origin,

using the Global Peace Index [Institute for Economics and Peace, 2015] on several aspects

of travel behavior, specifically: i) behavior in travel planning: involvement; and ii) risk and

safety perceptions: risk perception, safety/unsafety sensation and terrorism perception.

literature review

behavior in Travel Planning

The study of consumer behavior in the services’ context is much more complex mainly

because of their intangibility, inseparability of production and consumption, heterogeneity

and perishability [Zeithaml, Parasuraman & Berry, 1985]. Additionally, the decision to travel

abroad and acquire tourist services is even more complex, due to their intrinsic characteristics,

creates a high degree of uncertainty and perceived risk in the consumers’ minds

[Hugstad, Taylor & Bruce, 1987], last but not least due to not only geographical, but also cultural

distances that need to be overcome [Kastenholz, 2010]. First, given its intangibility,

tourist services are consumed both at the time of production and are poorly standardized,

so the risk perceived by other travelers is high [Zeithaml, 1981]. Second, it is a purchase with

an extremely important emotional component, also is the culmination of a long process of

planning, selection, evaluation and comparison of alternatives. The acquisition is planned

and prepared for a considerable period of time for a large number of individuals [Seabra,

Abrantes & Lages, 2007]. Third, the tourists set the choices related to their travel without

economic and/ or material return expectations. The trip generally represents an investment

that contributes to only intangible satisfaction [Moutinho, 1987], desirably to unique, involving

and memorable experiences [Mossberg, 2007] and, last but not least, to, quality of life.

Last, when travelling internationally, safety and security are critical aspects for tourists. Anxiety,

worry and risk are frequent feelings in international tourists, mainly due to the fact of

being outside their “comfort zone” [Amir, Ismail, & See, 2015].

Tourists are more and more demanding in their travel choices. Tourism products purchase

requires high involvement decision-making processes, due to the involvement and intangibility

underlying it. The purchase and consumption of tourism products involve multiple

steps and variables [Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007]. Object of sociodemographic and psychographic

influences, the travel decision is the result of personal, social and commercial variables

[Sönmez & Graefe, 1998b].

| BACK TO CONTENT

PEACE, RISK AND SAFETY IN INTERNATIONAL TOuRISM

Depending on the product or purchasing situation, individuals may be more interested,

concerned and involved in the decision process. Involvement influences purchasing decisions

and allows distinguishing types of consumers [Kassarjian, 1981]. Purchase involvement refers

to the relationship of an individual with the decision process from the pre-purchase to the

post-purchase behavior [Slama & Tashchian, 1985].

Involvement is the basis of the purchase decision [Zaichkowsky, 1986b] and deeply affects

products’ perceived value and their evaluation [Bolton & Drew, 1991]. It is, in fact, a

central aspect in the consumer behavior study [Broderick & Mueller, 1999], both generally

[Zaichkowsky, 1985, 1986a] and especially when analyzing the purchase decision of tourism

products [Dimanche, Havitz & Howard, 1991]. Involvement is the degree of commitment,

with which consumers engage in different aspects of the consumption process: product,

search for information, decision-making and purchase [Broderick & Mueller, 1999; Seabra,

Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2014; Zaichkowsky, 1985]. “The purchase involvement is influenced

by the interaction of three variables: individual characteristics, product and context”

[Hawkins, Best & Coney, 1995, p.425].

The purchase of tourist products is very engaging, since decisions with high-perceived

risk are at stake, due to the high monetary and non-monetary costs associated [Sirakaya &

Woodside, 2005]. This also makes consumers spend considerable effort and time in the decision

process [Seabra, Abrantes & Lages, 2007].

Some researchers use the concept “product involvement” to define the relationship between

an individual and a product [Engel & Blackwell 1982]. More specifically, the products

have relevance in satisfying and addressing consumers’ needs and values [Engel & Blackwell,

1982; Zaichkowsky, 1986a].

Engagement occurs at the individual level and results from a person’s interaction with

products [Chaudhuri, 2000; Zaichkowsky, 1985]. In this perspective, involvement with a product

corresponds to the relevance the individual assigns to the object based on his inherent

needs, values and interests [Zaichkowsky, 1985] and it relates also with the consumers’ selfconcept

[Dholakia, 2001].

In this study involvement is considered as a multidimensional concept divided in five

main dimensions, as in previous studies: knowledge, pleasure/interest, risk probability, risk

importance and prestige [Gursoy & Gavcar, 2003; Park, Mothersbaugh & Feick, 1994].

75

risk, Safety Perceptions and Terrorism

Markets are more and more global due to a combination of economic, socio-cultural,

political, and technological factors [Douglas & Craig, 1995]. The world is becoming a single

market [Levitt, 1983], in which an increasing number of products is offered simultaneously

and similarly in different countries [Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007]. Tourism products are eminently

global products and the globalization of tourism has led to its expansion on an international

scale [Levitt, 1983]. The globalization of tourism markets entails increasing global

risks that are inherent to businesses that grow on a global scale. Tourism, in fact, is one of

the activities most susceptible towards these global risk factors [Ritchie, 2004]. Small-scale

crises in a part of the world can have profound repercussions elsewhere, or events in one

destination can affect other destinations.

BACK TO CONTENT |


76

Stability is in fact, a key factor for tourism development [Fletcher & Morakabati, 2008].

If some event causes a disruption in this balance, it causes a feeling of risk in tourists, causing

a powerful negative impact on demand [Pizam & Mansfeld, 1996]. When people travel, they

do not want to be exposed to threats. Safety and security are key concerns for most tourists

[Bohnam, Edmonds & Mak, 2006]. Tourists travel to a destination, in order to satisfy their

desires with the least complications and threats to their safety and well-being [Beirman,

2003]. Clearly, the perceived or real risk in a trip, in which could be compromised the basic

need of the personal safety [Maslow, 1943], that it affects tourists’ decisions and behaviors

[Fletcher & Morakabati, 2008].

Tourist demand is particularly sensitive to the tourists’ safety, health and well-being concerns

[Blake & Sinclair, 2003]. So, the perception of and sensitivity to risk in tourist markets

need to be understood to effectively use this knowledge for communicating and delivering

more appealing tourist experiences, perceived as safe, despite factors of uncertainty and risk

increasingly associated to travel, particularly international travel. Perception of risk has been

mostly associated with factors, like political instability, threats to health, crime, violence, war,

natural disasters and terrorism in destinations or in its surrounding area [Kozak, Crotts & Law

2007]. Those events dominate the discourse of contemporary media. Its impact on tourism

demand started to become increasingly prominent at the same time as the importance of

communication and crisis management in organizations and tourist destinations [Frisby, 2002].

Simultaneously, individual sensitivity towards risk in travel may be determined by the perceived

safety and peacefulness experienced in the home environment [Pratt & Liu, 2016].

The perception of risk is a function of the amount and types of risk associated by tourists

to travel and international tourism. Two subscales could measure this perception: the generic

types of perceived risk and perceptions of unsafety. Risk perception is a construct that involves

multiple dimensions. Many studies adopted the five dimensions of risk suggested by

Jacoby and Kaplan [1972]: financial performance, physical, social and psychological risk

(Mitra, Reiss & Capella, 1999). Roselius added weather risk for the tourism context [1971].

Other studies have used these six dimensions [Stone & Gronhaug, 1993]. Additionally, satisfaction

risk first appeared in studies of leisure [Cheron & Ritchie, 1982]. Rohel and Fesenmaier

[1992] used these seven dimensions in their research. Finally, recent studies have analyzed

and added other dimensions, such as political Instability (possibility of being involved in the

political unrest in the visited country) [Seddighi, Nuttall & Theocharous, 2001; Sönmez &

Graefe, 1998b], health risk (possibility of getting ill while traveling or already at the destination)

and terrorism risk (possibility of being involved in a terrorist act [Sönmez & Graefe,

1998a, 1998b].

In the present study, those 10 dimensions of risk are in an aggregate form. A separate

measurement would add unnecessary complexity, as far as only to the evaluation of the effect

of certain variables on the global risk perception was the aim here, similar to other studies

[Laroche, Bergeron & Goutaland, 2003]. The general safety/unsafety perception in

national or international trips is also part of risk perceptions that individuals associate with

the tourist experience [Floyd & Pennington-Gray, 2004].

In the travelling decision-making, some destinations or products can be not taking in

account. This could occur because of their potential cost, or perceived risk, especially if the

media link them to terrorism or other insecurity situations. The threat of danger that accompanies

terrorism or political instability deters more tourists than any other human or natural

| BACK TO CONTENT


disaster [Sönmez, 1998]. The psychological impact of terror may have less to do with its destructive

power than with its ability to evoke fear and anxiety [Spilerman & Stecklov, 2009].

Random terrorist activities intimidate tourists.

The terrorist activity in a given destination increases the perceived level of risk in tourism

and consequently has negative effects on tourism demand. In consequence, a decline number

of tourist visits could occur in that destination [Bar-On, 1996; Blake & Sinclair, 2003; Enders

& Sandler, 1991; Rohel & Fesenmaier, 1992; Mansfeld, 1996; Sönmez, 1998; Sönmez &

Graefe, 1998a; 1998b]. However, fear of terrorism is irrational and the likelihood of a tourist

being involved in a terrorist incident is minimal [Sönmez, Apostolopoulos & Tarlow, 1999],

but both real and perceived physical threats are factors clearly influencing the overall travel

risk perceptions of individuals.

Additionally, media coverage and exploration of terrorist attacks can condition the public

opinion, damaging destination images, particularly in international travel [Sönmez, 1998].

The power of media may even change and precondition pre-existing images and attitudes

towards destinations considered safe before. This happens because, in many cases, media

information is the only source available to the audience [Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz,

2012] or because they are considered as sources with sufficient knowledge to realistically

interpret facts [Weimann & Winn, 1994]. Tourists, in turn, reveal high levels of interest in

and attention to news regarding terrorism, especially regarding destinations that they could

consider visiting, retaining in their memory information about this type of events [Jin, 2001;

Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2012; 2014].

77

methodology

For the empirical component of the present study, a survey approach was used. First, a

measurement instrument with scales, which had previously been established in relevant literature,

was developed. The scales used intend to capture the concepts analyzed:

• The involvement concept was measured with adapted scales from Park, Mothersbaugh

and Feick [1994] and Gursoy and Gavcar, [2003]. Respondents were asked to

rate their level of agreement with statements related with tourism products, namely

tourism and travelling regarding five dimensions: i) knowledge, ii) pleasure/interest,

iii) perception of risk probability, iv) importance attributed to risk importance and v)

prestige.

• Risk Perception was accessed for 10 types of risks in international travel, on a scale

ranging from 1 (very low risk) to 7 (extremely high risk) ling: i) financial, ii) performance,

iii) physical, iv) social, v) psychological risk, vi) risk of time, vii) risk of (in)satisfaction,

viii) political instability/unrest, ix) health, and x) terrorism [Mitra, Reiss &

Capella, 1999; Seabra, Dolnicar, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2013; Sönmez & Graefe

1998a].

• Attention to and Interest in Terrorism in the media was measured with a scale developed

by Jin [2003] and Seabra, Abrantes and Kaspenholz [2014]. Tourists pointed their

level of agreement with statements regarding their level of interest in and attention

to (1= strongly disagree; 7= strongly agree) information about terrorism acquired in

the media.

BACK TO CONTENT |


• To measure Safety/unsafety perceptions, a scale from Floyd and Pennington-Gray

[2004] was adapted, where tourists had to rate their level of agreement (1=strongly

disagree; 7=strongly agree) with statements regarding safety in travelling.

78

These scales were then discussed with experts. The initial scales were translated into

three languages: Portuguese, French and Spanish and then the instrument was back-translated

to English. All the items were assessed through a seven-point Likert-type scale (see appendix

1). After revisions, and a pre-test sample of 30 international travelers, the scales’

reliability was tested through Cronbach alpha and considered sufficiently sound for final survey

application.

The final data was collected from January 2009 to March 2009. Tourists, who had undertaken

an international trip, were randomly selected in loco across 3 international airports:

Madrid/Barajas, Lisbon/Portela and Milan/Malpensa, from those agreeing to participate in

the study. These three countries were chosen because they have different levels of terrorism

and risk associated. Two of the authors of this study administered the questionnaires to travelers

at the airport after the check in of their return trip. The questionnaires were self-administrated

to ensure the data was not biased. A final sample of 613 questionnaires and a

total of 600 valid responses was obtained, equally divided among the 3 international airports..

Tourists are from 41 countries, 56% are men. Their ages are 56% under 35 years. About

74% have higher education, 22% are middle and senior managers, 20% were executives, 19%

are freelancers/self-employed, and 15% are students. The average income range is from 2000

to 3000 Euros. The respondents are mainly frequent travelers that had undertaken in average

seven international trips in the last three years, of nine days each. They have a high degree

of familiarity with the destinations, since they had, on average, visited the destination 3.5

times. Each tourist needs on average 15 days to plan the trip, and had booked the accommodations

with a period of 25 days in advance.

To analyze the mentioned dimensions, the sample was divided according to each respondent’s

belonging to countries whose peacefulness condition was assessed through the

Global Peace Index (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2015). The Global Peace Index incorporates

data of 23 indicators from different sources and is elaborated by the Economist Intelligence

unit, regarding: level of safety and security in society, extent of conflict and the

grade of militarization (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2015). The indicators are revised

each year by a group of specialists and are used then to rank 162 independent states.

The GPI assigns a weight of 60% to internal and 40% to external peace conditions. The

experts allocate a heavier weight to internal peace conditions because they claim that the

latter is likely to lead to lower degrees of external conflict. The lower the index score the

more peaceful is the country, while high GPI scores are associated to less peaceful countries

The GPI has five categories of country peace conditions: very high, high, medium, low

and very low. The most peaceful countries have a very high GPI and the less peaceful have a

very low GPI. Europe is the most peaceful region in the world and their countries have a very

high and high GPI.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Table 1: Countries included in the sample by gPI index

global Peace Index

GPI very-high

GPI high

GPI medium

GPI low

GPI very-low

Countries

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic,

Denmark, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal,

Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland

Argentina, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,

Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,

Romania, Slovakia, Spain, united Kingdom

uSA, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Morocco

Guinea, India, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, Mexico, South

Africa, Turkey, Venezuela

Russia

79

The respondents are mostly from countries with a high (50%) or a very high GPI (26.1%),

and 19.2% are from countries with a medium GPI. Only 5.2% are from countries with a low

or very low GPI.

rESUlTS

Regarding the factors and the items used in the study - involvement, risk perception,

interest and attention to terrorism and safety/unsafety perceptions -, some of the variables

had already been validated in previous literature. For the present study, all factor dimensions

were subjected to the analysis of Cronbach alfas to measure their internal consistency

[Cronbach, 1951]. All the factors presenting Cronbach alfas lower than .7 were removed from

the analysis [Nunnally, 1978].

The factors in the Involvement concept were knowledge, pleasure and interest, risk

probability, risk importance, and prestige, as suggested by other authors [Gursoy & Gavcar,

2003; Park, Mothersbaugh & Feick, 1994]. The factors risk importance and prestige presented

a low internal consistency with a cronbach alfa lower than 0.7, and were, in consequence,

excluded from this analysis. Ten Risk Perception dimensions were considered in the study, as

presented before: financial, performance, physical, social, psychological risk, risk of time, risk

of (in)satisfaction, political instability/unrest, health, and terrorism risk [Mitra, Reiss & Capella,

1999; Seabra, Dolnicar, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2013; Sönmez & Graefe 1998a), assessed by

single items that were all included in the analysis. Interest in and Attention to Terrorism

measures are included in only one factor [Jin, 2003; Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2014],

which presents a high Cronbach alfa, and was therefore included in the analysis. As for the

safety and unsafety dimensions [Floyd & Pennington-Gray, 2004], only the safety importance

dimension presented a good internal consistency and was thus included in further analysis.

Appendix 1 highlights these results and the items that are included in each factor.

The analysis proceeded with the evaluation of possible associations between the GPI

and the different involvement dimensions; that is, it was evaluated if the tourists’ country

GPI exerts a significant influence on their perception of each involvement dimension. To

evaluate this relation, nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis tests were performed, testing differences

between country groups with distinct peacefulness levels regarding each involvement

BACK TO CONTENT |


80

dimension. As a result, tourists from countries with different levels of GPI have no significant

differences in terms of the knowledge (p=0.547), pleasure and interest (p=0.868) involvement

dimensions. However, the “risk probability dimension” shows a statistically significant

difference (p=0.004). That is, belonging to a country with a particular level of peacefulness

has a significant influence on the tourist’s perception of probability of risk.

A more specific analysis of these results, that is a pairwise comparison to analyze

between which pairs of GPI defined categories there are significant differences in respect to

risk probability perception within the involvement construct, shows us that significant

differences exist among tourists from countries with low GPI and those from countries with

medium or high GPI. Tourists that are coming from low GPI index countries show a higher

risk probability perception when compared to the other two groups Figure I highlights these

results. The figure shows in its vertices the mean rank of risk probability perception in the

different categories of GPI. Significant differences are visible between the medium as well

as the high and low category, categories, while all other relations are not significant. The

higher the value of the mean-rank, the greater the tourists risk probability perception

regarding travel to destination countries. The mean rank of tourists with a low GPI (388.92)

is higher than that of tourists coming from countries with a medium GPI (261.20), or high

GPI (280.60), respectively. This indicates that the risk perception of tourists is higher for those

from countries with a low GPI.

Figure 1: Pairwise comparisons of gPI

(Each node shows the sample average rank of GPI)

Also, the interest in and attention to terrorism (p=0.179) does not depend significantly

on the value of the tourists’ country of origin GPI. Instead, the safety importance ratings of

respondents depend significantly (p=0.028) on the GPI value of their country origin. There

are only significant differences in the importance attributed to security between tourists

from countries with medium GPI and those from countries with high GPI. Those coming from

countries with medium GPI assigned relatively greater importance to the security attributes

of a destinations than those with higher GPI, i.e. peacefulness. Figure 2 illustrate these

results.

| BACK TO CONTENT



81


The results show interestingly no influence of the tourist’s country of origin GPI on most

travel risk perceptions.

The perception of the possible risks: neither regarding the existence of mechanical,

equipment, and organizational problems during travel or at the destination (p=0.153); nor

on the possibility that travel experience will not provide value for money spent (p=0.889);

of becoming sick while traveling or at the destination (p=0.713); of physical danger or injury

detrimental to health (p=0.753); of the travel experience not reflecting the individual’s

personality or self-image (p=0.652); on the perception of the risk of the travel experience

not providing personal satisfaction (p=0.108); on the possibility that travel choice/experience

will affect other’s opinion of individual (p=0.719); nor on the possibility of being involved in

a terrorist act (p=0.760). That is, tourists that are from countries with different GPI level have

not different perceptions of travel risk in the previous indicators.

Only the perception of the risk of becoming involved in political turmoil of the country

being visited varies with the GPI of the country where the tourist lives (p=0.037), with those

coming from more peaceful countries (higher GPI) showing significantly less perception of this

risk than those from less peaceful countries (low GPI) (p=0.027), as observable in Figure 3.

BACK TO CONTENT |



82


Additionally, the perception of the risk of wasted time through the tourist experience

differs with the GPI level of their country of residence (p=0.021), with those coming from

medium GPI countries perceiving more this risk than those coming from high GPI countries

(p=0.017), as visible in figure 4.



| BACK TO CONTENT


Conclusions and Implications

Travel safety is a critical issue to tourists; however, their country of origin could be an

important key to understand the different behaviors and safety perceptions when undertaking

an international trip. The main objective of the present study was to establish the relationship

between a peaceful home context and international travel. Specifically the aim was

to analyze the impact of peacefulness in tourists’ country of origin on the travel behavior

variables involvement, risk perception, and safety/unsafety perceptions.

Results reveal that tourists who come from countries with a medium and high GPI or

peacefulness indicator have a lower risk probability perception regarding their buying process

than those who come from countries with a low peacefulness indicator. These low GPI countries

are mostly underdeveloped countries, where people tend to travel less, making them eventually

more so they are more unsecure in their buying processes. So they are more aware of the risks

involved in buying a satisfactory trip. They may be thus less certain of their choice and find

choosing a vacation destination more complicated. When they face a variety of vacation

choices, they may feel a bit lost. On the other hand, the higher and medium GPI indexes are

mostly composed by developed and rich countries. Residents from those countries travel more,

being more experienced and knowledgeable tourists, so they are more secure of their choices.

Regarding risk perceptions, the only dimensions where it was possible to find differences

were political instability/unrest and time risk. Tourists who come from countries with a low

GPI have more the perception that they can be involved in political turmoil of the country

they are visiting when travelling than those tourists coming from countries with a high GPI.

This should be linked to the fact that these tourists come from countries that are not peaceful

and safe, making them project the fear of unsafety lived in their home country to the visited

destinations. The level of safety and security in a society, the extent of conflict, and the grade

of militarization of the country where tourists come from might thus also influence their sensitivity

regarding risk when travelling abroad.

Interestingly, tourists coming from countries with a high GPI reveal a lower perception

of the risk that their travel experience will be a waste of time, when compared to tourists

from countries with a medium GPI. This may be related to the fact that countries with a high

level of peace and security tend to be highly developed and organized as well as travel experienced,

with devices available permitting greater objectivity in trip planning, which is not

necessarily true for some of the countries with medium level of GPI (especially those in our

sample, with many Brazilian tourists). In all the other risk perception dimensions: financial,

performance, physical, social, psychological risk, risk of (in)satisfaction, health, terrorism, it

was not possible to find any significant differences. This is an interesting result that may suggest

that differences in risk perception regarding these mostly tourism supply-related factors

do not differ according to peacefulness at home. However, as far as importance attributed

to safety is concerned, there were significant differences between individuals coming from

countries with high and medium GPI. Tourists from countries with a medium GPI are more

concerned with their safety and with the safety and security measures of the countries they

visit. They consider that is important to have additional security measures at airports that

permit to make traveling safer, they think that safety is the most important attribute that a

destination can offer, thus revealing a high level of sensitivity towards safety in travel, as concluded

before. They consider that safety is a serious consideration when they choose a des-

83

BACK TO CONTENT |


84

tination. This probably occurs because they feel risk and uncertainty in their home countries,

so they expect that those measures should exist in the countries they visit.

Another interesting result of the present study is that there were no differences in the

attention to and interest in terrorism among the tourists of all GPI index segments, confirming

the importance of media as the primary sources of terrorism news, since media guarantee

that any terrorist act reaches immediately a global audience [Sönmez, 1998]. In fact, tourists

from all countries are very interested in news on terrorism and the media exploration of terrorist

attacks has the power to transform the public opinion on tourism, particularly in international

travel [Sönmez, 1998] and also at the destinations where those attacks take place

validating other studies [Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz 2012; 2014].

These results bring important insights to management of tourism firms and destinations.

Mainly factors like involvement – especially risk probability that is related directly with the

confidence of tourists when buying tourist products, risk perception, interest and attention

to terrorism and safety/unsafety perceptions are very important attributes to consider attracting

tourists from all over the world. In addition, this study showed that peacefulness in

the origin countries has impact on tourists’ involvement, some risk perception dimensions

and the importance attributed to safety, with particularly countries with medium peacefulness

index showing highest level of safety concern. Results of this study show that it is very

important to distinguish between the different levels of GPI, so as to recognize those countries

that are most sensitive regarding safety in their travel decision making process. This is

a very important insight to destinations and tourism firms for identifying and correctly targeting

strategically selected markets.

Thus, destinations that want to attract tourists from countries ranked in low GPI index

comparing to markets of medium and high GPI index should invest in good promotion and

informational strategies to limit these tourists’ risk perception when buying tourist products.

Here, the image of security and political stability is critical, so promotion campaigns should

focus on that stability and safe image. Also attracting tourists from countries with medium

GPI index is a challenge, since they are more concerned with safety measures, meaning authorities

and managers should consider this. Those safety and security measures should be

visible in airports and in the destinations promotion strategies. To those tourists safety is indeed,

the most important attribute that a destination can offer.

limitations and Future research

The present research has some limitations. First, the questionnaire may have created common

method variance that could have inflated construct relationships. This could be particularly

serious, if the respondents were aware of the framework. However, it was not told the

respondents this study specific purpose, also the scale items were separated and mixed to

avoid bias. The second limitation is the study setting; data are from tourists of three international

airports so, included only tourists travelling by plane, which may limit the generalizability

of the results. Thus, in order to establish the data generalizability, could be an

opportunity to gather data in other destinations and with tourists using different transportation

means.

Also the number of respondents in all categories could be increased to validate the here

identified results. Future research is encouraged to test our instrument across other tourism

| BACK TO CONTENT


settings. To do so, we encourage researchers to add new items and factors applicable to the

research setting. Also, antecedents of involvement and risk perceptions in international travelling

should be researched. Finally other indexes could be used such as the OECD safety

index [OECD, 2015]. It is also interesting to explore the possibility of the analysis of behaviour

and with the trip planning between tourists that come from countries with a high and a

medium GPI.

85

acknowledgments

Acknowledgments: Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and Center for Studies

in Education, Technologies and Health.

references

Amir, A., Ismail, M., & See, T. (2015). Sustainable tourist environment: Perception of international

women travelers on safety and security in Kuala Lumpur. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,

168, 123–133.

Bar-On, R. (1996). Measuring the effects on tourism violence and of promotion following violent acts.

In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld (Edits.), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 159-174).

New York: Wiley.

Beirman, D. (2003). Marketing of tourism destinations during a prolonged crisis: Israel and the Middle

East. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8, 167-176.

Blake, A., & Sinclair, M. (2003). Tourism crisis management: uS response to September 11. Annals of

Tourism Research, 30(4), 813-832.

Bolton, R., & Drew, J. (1991). A multistage model of customers’ assessments of service quality and

value. Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 375-384.

Bonham, C., Edmonds, C., & Mak, J. (2006). The impact of 9/11 and other terrible global events on

tourism in the united States and Hawaii. Journal of Travel Research, 45(August), 99-110.

Broderick, A., & Mueller, R. (1999). Theorectical and empirical exegesis of the consumer involvement

construct: The psychology of the food shoper. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 7, 97-

108.

Causevic, S., & Lynch, P. (2013). Political (in)stability and its influence on tourism development. Tourism

Management, 34, 145-157.

Chaudhuri, A. (2000). A macro analysis of the relationship of product involvement and information

search: The role of risk. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Winter(8), 1-14.

Cheron, E., & Ritchie, B. (1982). Leisure activities and perceived risk. Journal of Leisure Research, 14(2),

139-154.

Cronbach, L. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297-334.

Cui, F., Liu, Y., Chang, Y., Duan, J., & Li, J. (2016 ). An overview of tourism risk perception. Nat Hazards,

(online).

D’Amore, L. (2010). Peace through tourism: The birthing of a new socio-economic order. Journal of

Business Ethics, 89, 559–568.

D’Amore, L. (1988). Tourism – a vital force for peace. Annals of Tourism Research, 15(2), 269–270.

Dholakia, u. (2001). A motivational process model of product involvement and consumer risk perception.

European Journal of Marketing, 35(11/12), 1340-1360.

Dimanche, F., Havitz, M., & Howard, D. (1991). Testing the involvement profile scale in the context of

selected recreational and touristic activities. Journal of Leisure Research, 23, 51-66.

Douglas, S., & Craig, C. (1995). Global marketing strategy. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (1991). Causality between transnational terrorism and tourism: The case of

Spain. Terrorism, 14(1), 49-58.

Engel, J., & Blackwell, R. (1982). Consumer behavior. New York: Dryden Press.

Fletcher, J., & Morakabati, Y. (2008). Tourism activity, terrorism and political instability within Commonwealth:

The cases of Fiji and Kenya. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10, 537-556.

BACK TO CONTENT |


86

Floyd, M., & Pennington-Gray, L. (2004). Profiling risk perceptions of tourists. Annals of Tourism Research,

31(4), 1051-1054.

Frisby, E. (2002). Communicating in a crisis: The British tourist authority’s responses to the foot-andmouth

outbreak and 11th September, 2001. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9, 81-88.

Göymen, K. (2000). Tourism and governance in Turkey. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 1025-1048.

Gursoy, D., & Gavcar, E. (2003). International leisure tourists’ involvement profile. Annals of Tourism

Research, 30(7), 906-926.

Hawkins, D., Best, R., & Coney, K. (1995). Consumer behavior: Implications for marketing strategy (6ª

Edição ed.). Homewood: Irwin Publishing.

Hugstad, P., Taylor, J., & Bruce, G. (1987). The effects of social class and perceived risk on consumer information

search. Journal of Services Marketing, 1(1), 47-52.

IEP - Institute for Economics and Peace. (2015). Global Peace Index 2015 - Measuring peace, its causes

and its economic value. Sidney: Institute for Economics and Peace.

Jacoby, J., & Kaplan, L. (1972). The components of risk perception. In M. Venkatesan (Ed.), Proceedings

of the 3rd Annual Conference (pp. 382-393). Champaign: Association for Consumer Research.

Jin, H. (2003). Compounding consumer interest. Journal of Advertising, 32(4), 29-41.

Kassarjian, H. (1981). Low involvement: A second look. In K. Monroe (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research

(Vol. 8, pp. 31-34). Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research.

Kastenholz, E. (2010). “Cultural proximity” as a determinant of destination image. Journal of Vacation

Marketing, forthcoming.

Kozak, M., Crotts, J., & Law, R. (2007). The impact of perception of risk on international travellers. International

Journal of Tourism Research, 9, 233-242.

Laroche, M., Bergeron, J., & Goutaland, C. (2003). How intangibility affects perceived risk: The moderating

role of knowledge and involvement. The Journal of Services Marketing, 17(2/3), 122-140.

Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2003). Tourist roles, perceived risk and international tourism. Annals of Tourism

Research, 30(3), 606-624.

Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of marketing. Harvard Business Review, 7(3), 92-102.

Litvin, S. (1998). Tourism: The world’s peace industry? Journal of Travel Research, 37(1), 63–66.

Mansfeld, Y. (1996). Wars, tourism and the “MIddle East” factor. In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld (Edits.),

Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 265-278). New York: Wiley.

Maslow, A. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.

McClonaghy, C. (2012). The Global Peace Index and the structure of peace. In B. C., M. Chatterji, & ..

Chaoyan (Edits.), In Cooperation for a Peaceful and Sustainable World Part (pp. 1–33). Bingley,

uK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Mitra, K., Reiss, C., Capella, & L. (1999). An examination of perceived risk, information search and behavioral

intentions in search, experience and credences services. Journal of Services Marketing,

13, 208-226.

Mossberg, L. (2007). A marketing approach to the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality

& Tourism, 7(1), 59-74.

Moufakkir, O. (2010). Peace through domestic tourism and tourism rights: Inclusion of Muslim ethnic

minority in the context of social tourism. International Journal of Peace Through Tourism Research,

1(1), 42-59.

Moufakkir, O., & Kelly, I. (2010). Tourism, Progress and Peace. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, uK: CABI.

Moutinho, L. (1987). Consumer behavior in tourism. European Journal of Marketing, 21(10), 5-44.

Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

OECD - Organization for Economic and Cooperation Development. (2015). OECD Better Life Index. Obtido

em 27 de April de 2015, de http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/safety/

Park, C., Mothersbaugh, D., & Feick, L. (1994). Consumer knowledge assessment. Journal of Consumer

Research, 21, 71-82.

Pernecky, T. (2010). The being of tourism. The Journal of Tourism and Peace Research, 1(1), 1-15.

Pizam, A., & Mansfeld, Y. (Edits.). (1996). Tourism, crime and international security issues. Chichester:

Wiley.

Pratt, S., & Liu, A. (2016). Does tourism really lead to peace? A global view. International Journal of

Tourism Research, 18, 82–90.

Ritchie, B. (2004). Chaos, crises and disasters: A strategic approach to crisis management in the tourism

industry. Tourism Management, 25(5), 669-683.

Rohel, W., & Fesenmaier, D. (1992). Risk perceptions and pleasure travel: An exploratory analysis. Journal

of Travel Research, 2(4), 17-26.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Roselius, T. (1971). Consumer ranking of risk-reduction methods. Journal of Marketing, 31(1), 56-61.

Seabra, C., Abrantes, J., & Kastenholz, E. (2012). TerrorScale: A scale to measure the contact of international

tourists with terrorism. Journal of Tourism Research & Hospitality, 1(4), 1-8.

Seabra, C., Abrantes, J., & Kastenholz, E. (2014). The influence of terrorism risk perception on purchase

involvement and safety concern international travellers. Journal of Marketing Management, 30(9-

10), 874-903.

Seabra, C., Abrantes, J., & Lages, L. (2007). The impact of external information sources in expectations

formation and future use of media. Tourism Management, 28(6), 1541-1554.

Seabra, C., Dolnicar, S., Abrantes, J., & Kastenholz, E. (2013). Heterogeneity in Risk and Safety Perceptions

of International Tourists. Tourism Management, 36, 502-510.

Sedighi, H., Nuttal, M., & Theocarous, A. (2001). Does cultural background of tourists influence the

destination choice? An empirical study with special reference to political instability. Tourism Management,

22, 181-191.

Sirakaya, E., & Woodside, A. (2005). Building and testing theories of decision making by travellers.

Tourism Management, 26(6), 815-832.

Slama, M., & Taschian, A. (1985). Selected socioeconomic and demographic characteristics associated

with purchasing involvement. Journal of Marketing, 49, 77-82.

Sönmez, S. (1998). Tourism, terrorism and political instability. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 416-

456.

Sönmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998a). Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions. Annals of


Sönmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998b). Determining future travel behavior from past travel experience and

perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 171-177.

Sönmez, S., Apostolopoulos, & Tarlow, P. (1999). Tourism and crisis: Managing the effects of terrorism.

Journal of Travel Research, 38(1), 13-18.

Spilerman, S., & Stecklov, G. (2009). Societal responses to terrorist attacks. Annual Review of Sociology,

35, 167-189.

Stone, R., & Gronhaug, K. (1993). Perceived risk: Further considerations for the marketing discipline.

European Journal of Marketing, 27(3), 39-50.

Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2007). Consumer behaviour in tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Taylor, P. (2006). Getting them to forgive and forget: Cognitive based marketing responses to terrorist

acts. International Journal of Tourism Research, 8, 171-183.

Weimann, G., & Winn, C. (1994). The theater of terror: Mass media and international terrorism. New

York: Longman.

WTO - World Tourism Organization. (2015). UNWTO - Tourism Highlights - 2015 edition. World Tourism

Organization.

Zaichkowsky, J. (1985). Measuring the involvement concept. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(December),

341-352.

Zaichkowsky, J. (1986a). Conceptualizing involvement. Journal of Advertising, 15(3), 4-34.

Zaichkowsky, J. (1986b). The emotional aspect of product involvement. Advances in Consumer Research,

14, 32-35.

Zeithaml, V. (1981). How consumer evaluation processes differ between goods and services. In J.

Donelly, & W. George (Edits.), Marketing of Services (pp. 186-190). Chicago: American Marketing

Association.

Zeithmal, V., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. (1985). Problems and strategies in services marketing. Journal

of Marketing, 49, 33-46.

87

BACK TO CONTENT |

TOUrISm aND TErrOrISm: STraNgE lINKS

Claudia Seabra 1 , José Luís Abrantes 1

and Odete Paiva 1

89

abSTraCT

Terrorism became an important and recurring topic in in the XXI century public discourse since in the

last decades the world assisted to the growing of terrorist attacks. In its domestic and international

form is practiced by revolutionary groups, being a constant in modern life. The terrorist groups are increasingly

sophisticated, dangerous and destructives.Paradoxically, international terrorism and tourism

share some characteristics. They both cross national borders, involve citizens from different countries

and use the new travel and communications technologies. Terrorists often use tourism to gain publicity

and support to achieve their goals. Tourists are chosen as targets for their symbolic value representing

Western capitalism, consumption, and values such as wealth, freedom of choice and independence.

For terrorists, the symbolism, high profile, and news coverage brought by international tourists makes

them too valuable to leave to be explored. This paper tries to gather research and data on the last 35

years based on these strange connections between terrorism and tourism.

KEYWOrDS

Terrorism, Tourism, International Travel

Introduction

Terrorism has become an important and recurring topic in public discourse in the XXI

century. In its domestic and international form is practiced by revolutionary groups and vigilantes,

and it is constant in modern societies [Feichtinger, Hartl, Kort, & Novak, 2001]. In the

last decades, terrorism entered in the media discourse, meaning in the public opinion causing

a general insecurity and unsafety feeling in the daily life everywhere, anytime [Seabra,

Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2012; 2014].

In fact, terrorists are very conscious of the public opinion importance to their strategy

and plan their attacks “choosing the time, location or target that will make the strongest impact

on the public” [Malečková & Stanišić, 2014, p. 632; Hassan 2006; Krueger 2007]. Terrorists

continue to select vulnerable and defenseless targets [Atkinson, Sandler & Tschirart,

1987]. Tourists have been examples, in recent years, of these vulnerable but more and more

desirable targets for terrorists [Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2012; 2014].

A terrorist attack targeting tourists can help their authors to achieve several objectives:

advertising, economic threat, ideological opposition to tourism, among others [Sönmez,

1998]. Terrorist attacks on tourists, due to massive coverage, by the media, began to be seen,

by terror groups, as having a close relationship between tourism and terrorism. This relationship

has gained international notoriety in 1972 during the Berlin Olympics [Sönmez &

Graefe, 1998b].

1

Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health Campus Politécnico

Repeses,3504-510 Viseu - Portugal. E-mail: cseabra@estv.ipv.pt; jlabrantes@estv.ipv.pt; odetepaiva@gmail.com

BACK TO CONTENT |


90

The awareness of the human costs associated with the recent terrorist events and the

redirection of the economic resources, presumably driven by perceived risks associated with

future terrorist incidents, have led to a concentration of efforts, by various organizations, to

improve their understanding on terrorism and on its consequences [Blomberg, Hess & Orphanides,

2004; Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2014]. The increased exposure to significant

political, economic, social and technological forces guides tourism companies and managers

to become more vigilant in order to deal with impending crises. The understanding of the

terrorism phenomenon and of its impacts makes it possible to develop more effective strategies

to stop or reduce the severity of their impacts both on the economy and on the society

[Ritchie, 2004].

It is probably impossible to control terrorism, but nations cannot ignore it. Governments,

companies and tourism institutions need to focus their attention on this threat in order to

create effective marketing strategies [Hall & O’Sullivan, 1996]. Based on an extensive literature

and data analysis from the 70’s until 2014 [last year with complete data available], this

work has as main goal to make an important contribution to science and management analyzing

the terrorism phenomenon, specifically its connection with the tourist industry.

The present work starts with the definition and evolution analyses on the terrorism phenomenon

specifically the changes on the frequency, geography and targets. On a second section,

the linkage between terrorism and tourism is presented, namely the reasons that make

tourists important targets to terrorists and the effects of terrorism activity in tourism. In the

conclusions some implications for management and science are presented.

Terrorism

Terrorism is a puzzling phenomenon that has attracted researchers in various study fields

attention. Hoping to understand and control these occurrences, as well as their adverse effects,

governments, organizations and academic communities made efforts to understand it. However,

this is not a simple task. The topic is so troublesome and studied in so many perspectives

that conceptually there is no universally accepted definition for terrorism [Poland, 1988].

The often quoted cliché that “for some is a terrorist, for others is a freedom fighter”

shows the different point of views and the definition problems that this concept entails [Sönmez

& Graefe, 1998b]. The definition of terrorism has raised quite a buzz among researchers

and organizations over the years, including the discussion between what is a terrorist and a

freedom fighter. The following table systematizes various definitions that have been proposed

over the last three decades for the terrorism concept (see Table 1).

| BACK TO CONTENT

TOuRISM AND TERRORISM: STRANGE LINKS

Table 1: Definitions of Terrorism

Year author Definition

2016

2016 FBI

National

Counterterrorism

Center

Terrorist incidents are occurences in which sub national or clandestine

groups or individuals deliberately or recklessly attacked civilians or noncombatants.

Terrorism acts means activities with the following characteristics: i) Involve

violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that violate federal or

state law; ii) Appear to be intended [i] to intimidate or coerce a civilian

population; [ii] to influence the policy of a goverment by intimidation or

coercion; or [iii] to affect the conduct of a goverment by mass destruction,

assassination, or kidnapping.

91

2016 Dictionary.com

2010

2006 Scheffler

2004 Tavares

Fenstermacher, Kuznar,

Rieger & Speckhard

2004 uN Security Council

2003

2002 Radu

Fullerton, ursano,

Norwood &Holloway

2002 Enders & Sandler

2002 Hirsch, Kett & Trefil

2002 European union

2000 Pizam & Smith

The use of violence and threats to intimidate or coerce, especially for political

purposes.

Fundamentally, terrorism occurs when non-state organizations employ violence

for political purposes and when the target of that violence is civilian

[or military in non-combat settings], and the immediate purpose is to instill

fear in a population.

Terrorism is a prima fcie evil, and that the use of terrorist tactics is presumptively

unjustified, it may sometimes be a response to policies that are also

unjustified and which may be as objectionable as the terrorist response itself.

Terrorism activities are expressions of the demand for change of certain

groups who are dissatisfied with the political status-quo and who have abandoned

the constitutional means.

Criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause

death or serious bodily injury, or taking of the hostages, with the purpose

to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons, intimidate

a population or compel a govermment or an international organization

to do or to abstain from doing any act.

The most powerful way to generate psychological fear, apprehension and

disruption in the functioning of societies and communities.

Any attack or threat of attack against unarmed targets with the objective of

influence, change or condition major policy decisions. The attacks are mostly

against large civilians targets to create fear.

use or threat of use of premeditated violence or unusual brutality by subnational

groups to achive political, religious or ideological goals through intimidation

of a huge audience, usually not directly involved with the

politicians that terrorists aim to influence.

Acts of violence committed by groups that view themselves as a victimized

by some notable historical wrong. Although these groups have no formal

connections with goverments, they usually have the financial and moral backing

of the sympathetic goverments. Typically, they state stage unexpected

attacks on the civilian targets, including embassies and airlines, with the aim

of sowing fear and confusion.

Terrorism acts given their nature or context, may seriously damage a country

or an international organization where committed with the aim of: seriously

intimidating a population; or unduly compelling a Goverment or international

organization to perform or abstain from performing any act; or seriously

destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic

or social structures of a country or an international organization.

Persistent and systematic strategy practiced by a country or political group

against another country or group through campaigns of violence to achieve

political, social or relious goals.

BACK TO CONTENT |


92

1998

1996

Council of Arab

Ministers of the

Interior and the

Council of Arab

Ministers of Justice

uS Department

of State

1994 united Nations

Any act or threat of violence, whatever it’s motives or purposes, that occurs

in the advancement of an individual or collective criminal agenda and seeking

to snow panic among people, causing fear by harming them, or placing their

lives, liberty or security in danger, or seeking to cause damage to the enviroment

or to the public or private installations or property or to occupying or

seizing them, or seeking to jeopardize national resources.

An act or premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against

unarmed civilian targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, which

aim to influence an audience” and international terrorism as an action that

“involves citizens or territory of more than one country.

Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general

public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in

any circumstance unjustified, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical,

idiological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that ay be

invoked to justify them.

Besides the various definitions there are some common points. Terrorist main goals and

motivations when perpetrating an attack are accepted by researchers as a useful tool to classify

terrorist activities. Broadly, terrorism attacks can be classified as revolutionary [antigovernment,

including the overthrow of the current government] or sub-revolutionary [political changes,

social or personal, for example, the release of prisoners] [Sönmez, 1998]. In a more specific

way, the terrorist purposes can be considered ideological, strategic and tactical [Richter &

Waugh, 1986]. Also is possible to broaden the topic and include the targets and intended audience

as criteria to consider terrorism [Ruby, 2002]. In this case four criteria should be included

to define a terrorist activity: i) Motivation for the terrorist act: political or otherwise; ii) Target

against which it is directed: sub-national groups or clandestine agents; iii) Main goal: creating

an atmosphere of fear; and iv) Intended audience: greater than the immediate victims.

Terrorism: a New reality

The economic, social, technological and cultural globalization influenced the evolution

of terrorism in the field of national and transnational countries. Since the late 60s, terrorist

attacks have become more severe, better organized, more specialized, violent, and geographically

dispersed [Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005]. In fact, international or domestic terrorism

has become a fact of modern life since the 70s. The Palestinian attack in 1972 during the

Munich Olympics that caused the deaths of 11 Israeli athletes and reached an audience of

800 million viewers [Schmid & DeGraaf, 1982] catalysed terrorism to the international scene

[Sönmez & Graefe, 1998b] and changed the face of terrorism from that point.

In the 80s and 90s of last century, researchers have predicted a substantial increase of

terrorist attacks in the future [D’Amore & Anuza, 1986, Jenkins, 1987, 1988]. Experts speculated

that terrorist groups would continue to select vulnerable targets, the attacks would be

more indiscriminate, and terrorism would become more institutionalized and geographically

wider as a method of armed conflict. On the other hand, they argued that thanks to media

coverage the public would assist to more terrorist attacks than ever [Atkinson, Sandler, &

Tschirart, 1987]. Some authors have even said that extraordinary security measures would

become a permanent way of life and that terrorism would become almost a routine and

something ‘tolerable’ [Jenkins, 1988].

| BACK TO CONTENT


Indeed, terrorism numbers showed that reality. Terrorism attacks increased from 650

incidents in 1970 to more than 17 600 in 2014, in total there were 141 966 terrorist incidents

in those 44 years. Terrorist attacks rose from an average of 1 650 per year between 1973 and

1982 to 3 827 between 2003 and 2012. Despite a slight decrease of terrorism numbers in

the 90’s and the first decade of 2000 in the present decade the number raised enormously.

Presently, the public fears terrorism more than ever (see Graph 1).

93

graph 1: Terrorist Incidents between 1970 and 2014

Source: the authors based on GTD [2016]

Along with the variation of attacks, the mortality caused by terrorism rose in the last

decade, there is a substantial increase in deaths and injuries caused by the attacks [see

Table 2].

Table 2: Terrorism between 1970 and 2014: number of events, deaths and injuries

Year Events [No] Deaths [ No] Injuries [No]

1970-1979 5634 9601 5501

1980-1989 31165 20089 15004

1990-1999 28780 20359 16078

2000-2009 24992 12315 11513

2009-2014 50884 23816 21956


Contrary to expectations, the end of the Cold War was not the beginning of peace. There

has been a proliferation of armed conflicts around the world in recent years. The global configuration

and geopolitics changed after the fall of the Berlin Wall and are largely related to

the evolution of terrorism we see today [Cutter & Wilbanks, 2003].

Also, there was a phenomenon of globalization. It is possible to find a shift looking to

the world geography of terrorism. The phenomenon has been growing since the 70s. With

BACK TO CONTENT |


large variations among the different regions in the world and fluctuations over time, it is possible

to observe a spread of terrorism from the underdeveloped regions, such as Africa and

South America, to more developed regions, such as Europe and Asia in the last decades (see

Graph 2).

94

graph 2: Terrorist Incidents by regions between 1970 and 2014


The belief of many researchers is that during the 90s the world has entered a new phase

of terrorism dramatically different from the previous times. It is called by some the ‘new terrorism’

[Jenkins, 2001], or ‘new types of terrorists post-Cold War’ [Hudson, 1999], ‘a new

type of terrorists’ [Stern, 1999], ‘new terrorists’ generation’ [Hoffman, 1999], ‘Terror in the

name of God’ [Jurgensmeyer, 2000]; ‘a clash of fundamentalisms’ [Ali, 2002], or simply a’

new wave of terrorism ‘ [Rapoport, 1999]. Generally, the argument is the same, terrorism

changed on its main characteristics [Bergesen & Han, 2005]:

The organization has changed to a network. Terrorist organizations left the structured

format with a group of members trained on a central command to move on to a more flexible

and anonymous structure.

Between the 60s and the 80s, terrorist groups clearly took a nationality, nowadays new

organizations and transnational groups emerged, like Al-Qaeda or Daesh, that have members

of various nationalities and cells outside the origin country or region.

The identities of transnational terrorist groups are more difficult to identify, once not

always someone claims responsibility for the attacks, the most visible example was the

September 11, 2001.

The terrorists’ demands are vaguer, sometimes non-existent.

There seems to be a change on terrorist motivations, before clearly political, now, clearly

religious. The so-called religious terrorism or “sacred” demonstrates the prevalence of religion

in the origins of the new terrorism, particularly Islamic fundamentalism, Christian, messianic

Zionism, religious cults.

Also there seems to be an increase in groups with vaguer and ancient religious ideologies.

| BACK TO CONTENT


There seems to be a more global dispersion of targets. While in the 60s and 70s international

terrorism was more concentrated in Europe and Central and South America, in the

90s it spread to Africa, North America and the u.S. It is being extended to Asia since 2000.

Violence seems to be happening at random. The collateral damage is higher than previously.

In the 60s and 70s most of the targets were businessmen or politicians, nowadays

terrorism attacks are aimed mainly at civilians, including tourists.

In fact, it is possible to observe a shift also in the terrorism targets, since the beginning

of the new millennium, terrorism attacks are mainly targeted to Private Citizens & Property

and also Authorities (see Table 3).

95

Table 3: Targets of terrorists attacks between 1970 and 2014

Targets 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 2009-2014

Business 2387 4812 4400 2682 3747

Political targets 2148 5673 6205 5529 9161

Authorities 2086 8858 6553 6081 16805

Civil Infrast. 1542 3226 1899 1663 2906

Journalists & Media 266 697 562 347 613

Private Citizens & Property 1524 5133 6227 8801 13464

Tourism and Transpor. 579 2189 2135 1456 1457

unknown 139 225 632 333 1692

2Source: the authors based on GTD [2016]

Terrorism suffered thus a process of profound change accompanied by a strong globalization

[Bergesen & Han, 2005; Hoffman, 2002], turning terrorism an international issue and

reality. When a terrorist incident involves citizens, targets, institutions or governments from

another country, terrorism assumes an international nature. In this case, the actions taken in

one country inflict costs to people and property on other countries [Enders & Sandler, 2004].

Terrorism and Tourism

The growth of terrorism, crime and violence in the world brought a larger problem: international

terrorism which makes tourists as preferred targets of violence [Cavlek, 2002].

Paradoxically, international terrorism and tourism share some characteristics. Both cross national

boundaries, involving citizens of different countries and use new technologies associated

with travel and telecommunications [Schlagheck, 1988; Sönmez & Graefe, 1998a]. The

words tourism and terrorism can be placed at opposite ends of a quality of life continuum.

Tourism suggests life, relaxation, fun, while terrorism readily recalls feelings of death, destruction,

fear and panic [O’Connor, Stafford & Gallagher, 2008].

BACK TO CONTENT |


96

Terrorists find in tourism destinations, infrastructures and consumers important targets

since they guarantee several goals and purposes [Sönmez, Apostoloupos & Tarlow, 1999].

Since the 80’s, researchers found several linkages between terrorist activity and tourism, trying

to explain that strange connection. Although several authors describe the goals of terrorists

differently, they agree that the terrorists have much to gain by attacking tourists

[Sönmez, 1998]. In fact is possible to find three main dimensions to explain the relationship

between tourism and terrorism: i) strategic goals achieved by terrorists; ii) ideological goals

achieved by terrorists; iii) tourists are easy targets.

Strategic goals achieved by terrorists

The target attack on tourists ensures terrorists international media attention and limits

the ability of particular political elites to control the media messages content. The involvement

of citizens from other countries means international coverage for the terrorist cause.

When tourists are kidnapped or killed, the situation is immediately dramatized in the media,

which helps make the conflict globally visible. The terrorists achieve the exposure they need

and media raise their audiences [Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2012; 2014].

Terrorists also use tourists and tourism facilities to meet their funding needs. Large

groups of citizens who speak another language with different aspect of local residents allow

camouflage and shield while offering various opportunities for the choice of targets. Terrorists

may circulate among tourists and make financial transactions without arousing suspicion

[Richter & Waugh, 1986].

Also, the perception that tourism development does not really benefit the local population

and that, instead, exploits and destroys indigenous cultures and industries, can provoke

violence [Richter & Waugh, 1986]. The failure of tourism entrepreneurs in the design, location

and management of their projects in a way that ensures community support, can lead to a

violent opposition [Lea, 1996]. So, the fact that tourists are foreigners can also increase the

support of locals, as also is less likely to achieve domestic targets [Richter & Waugh, 1986].

Finally, tourism sector is an important economic activity, terrorist attacks cause a decline

in foreign exchange inflows, allowing terrorists to impose indirect costs and gain political advantage

on the aimed governments and countries [Hall & O’Sullivan, 1996; Richter & Waugh,

1986]. For many countries such as Egypt, Israel, Greece, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, the tourism

industry is an extremely important activity for the GDP, that is why the terrorists have come

together to stop the national economy and their governments [Aziz, 1995; & Paraskevas Beverley,

2007]. Finally, when attacking tourists to achieve ideological goals, they punish local

citizens for supporting their national governments and they also increase their power and

legitimacy, making local governments more fragile [Hall & O’Sullivan, 1996].

ideological goals achieved by terrorists

Tourists are regarded as having symbolic value as indirect representatives of hostile or

opposed governments [Richter, 1983; Richter & Waugh, 1986; Sönmez & Graefe 1998a]

Tourists are effective tools to convey a message of ideological opposition [Sönmez, Apostolopoulos,

& Tarlow, 1999]. Tourism means capitalism and consumption, so an attack on

| BACK TO CONTENT


that activity signifies ideological opposition to the Western values [Lepp & Gibson, 2003].

The loss of attractiveness of the targeted tourism destination means loss of income for the

local government, sending also a message of ideological opposition to the tourism activity

[Blake & Sinclair, 2003; Sönmez, 1998].

Cultural, socio-economic and communication discrepancies, between tourists and residents

can create resentments [Aziz, 1995; Lea, 1996]. Sometimes, tourists are regarded as

a movement of aliens which is a form of neo-colonialism or a threat to the social rules and

established values and religious beliefs [Wahab, 1996]. The cultural, social, religious habits

and tourist consumption are so different in certain destinations, which can be considered as

an insult, generating situations of violence [Richter, 1983]. The difference between local

poverty and tourists’ pride and wellness on their own clothing, accessories and equipment

causes unavoidable shocks [Aziz, 1995].

Some studies concluded that terrorism attacks on tourism may be seen as an attempt

to protect the local status quo in relation to modernity, because the mere contact with the

tourists that bear the marks of this change can “speed up” the process [Wahab, 1996]. So,

the terrorist attacks on tourists can thus be considered as justifiable acts for protecting sacred

beliefs, social norms, value systems and religious beliefs [Tarlow, 2005].

97

Tourists are easy targets

Tourists are vulnerable and easy targets for terrorists because they are obvious in their

behavior and appearance, move in large groups, are relaxed and not at all cautious [Ryan,

1993]. Traditional targets [politicians and embassies] are less attractive to terrorists because

they are able to increase security measures, while tourists, by contrast, are soft targets

[Lehrman, 1986].

There are several reasons why tourists are chosen as targets [Richter & Waugh, 1986]:

i] They are easily identifiable: the tourists have habits, behaviors, specific dress codes which

are sometimes different from the locals [Aziz, 1995]; ii] usually, they carry many electronic

devices like camcorders, cameras, cell phones, that identify themselves as tourists; iii] Attend

crowded public places such as museums, tourist attractions...; iv] The nature of tourism services

places tourists in easily attackable settings like hotels, tourist attractions or markets

[Brunt, Mawby & Hambly, 2000].

The effects of terrorism on tourism

Tourists’ decisions to change their plans, particularly in the choice of other destinations,

may involve significant losses for the tourism industry especially in the regions where terrorist

attacks occur [Coshall, 2003]. The decline in tourist arrivals and economic effects arising from

the results are well documented [Mansfeld, 1994, Hall & O’Sullivan, 1996; Wahab, 1996].

Perceptions of risk, especially of terrorism, influence the tourism demand patterns, because

the destination image is a key criterion when choosing a destination [Dann, 1993; Seabra,

Dolnicar, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2013; Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2014]. Many countries

and regions saw their revenues on tourism activity dramatically affected due to terrorism

activity (see table 4).

BACK TO CONTENT |


Table 4: Destinations dramatically affected by terrorist activity

98

Country/ region

China

Cyprus

Egypt

Europe

Fiji

Description

After the incident in Tiananmen Square, in Beijing, in 1989, the majority of

tour operators canceled their packages and voyages to that country. Tourism

revenue, that year, fell 430 million u.S. dollars [Hall & O’Sullivan, 1996; Sönmez,

1998]. Hotel occupancy fell below 30%. About 11,500 tourists canceled their

visit to Beijing in 1989 [Gartner & Shen, 1992]. In subsequent years, China has

made great efforts to attract international tourists. Although there was an increase

of 55% of foreign tourists in 1991 and 48% in 1992 [Hall & O’Sullivan,

1996]. In recent years, there are no records of terrorism activity in this country

[GTD, 2016]

It is the third largest Mediterranean island and very popular as a tourist destination

beach for European tourists. Between 1986 and 1998 there was a very

strong growth of the tourism industry in the country, meaning, in the 90s, 50%

of total service revenues. The two Gulf wars caused drastic falls in international

tourist arrivals in that destination, mainly the terrorist activity in the region

[Hoti, McAleer & Shareef, 2007]. Recently there are no records of terrorist incidents

in the country, however, the proximity of Eygpt, Turkey and Iraq stills a

major concern for many travelers.

More than 120 tourists have been targeted by Islamic terrorist attacks only

between 1992 and 1994. In the second half of the 90s, Egypt suffered a 22%

decrease in international tourist arrivals, 30% in sales and 43% of beds in tourist

revenue [Aziz, 1995; Wahab, 1996]. From the mid-90s, the situation stabilized

and revenues rebounded. However, after the attack in Luxor, in 1997, in

which 64 tourists were killed, most operators withdraw this destination from

their lists again. In the summr of 1998. After the Spring Arab this destination

safety and security image suffered serious damages. The terrorist activity in

the region also raised. Created in 2011 following the Egyptian uprisings, Ansar

Bayt al-Maqdis [ABM] is responsible for attacks on Israel and security services

and tourists in Egypt [uS D, a bombing attack in the city of Taba killed 5 and injured

14 residents and tourists [GTD, 2016].

After the kidnapping of the cruise ship Achille Lauro in the Mediterranean [October

1985], the capture of the Egyptian Boeing from Athens to Cairo [November] and the

attacks of armed Palestinians towards passengers at airports in Rome and Vienna

[December], Europe, in generic terms was considered a dangerous and insecure destination.

The number of American tourists, in 1986, going to uK and to Germany fell

20%, to Italy it fell 23% and to Greece it fell 53% [Ryan, 1993]. ETA in the 90’s also

used tourists targets to send their message, which damaged the image of safety in

regions like Biarritz and Paris [GTD, 2016]. The July 22nd terror attacks in Norway,

Oslo in 2011, perpetrated by a Norwegian called the attention for domestic terrorism,

however this incident didn’t changed the safety image of that country [Wolff & Larsen,

2014]. However, Central and Eastern Europe suffered a decline of 5% in tourists arrivals,

making this the only subregion in the world suffering a decline in arrivals in 2014,

following three consecutive years of strong growth, mainly due to the weaker Russian

outbound demand, the drop in arrivals to ukraine [-48%] [WTO, 2015].

At the end of the 80s, after the election of a majority foreign government, Fiji

experienced two revolutions. Because the media presented these two rebellions

in such a sensational manner, Australian and Neo-Zeeland authorities advised

their citizens not to go to this destination [Hall & O’Sullivan, 1996; Lea,

1996, Scott, 1988]. In 2000 there was another takeover and the arrivals and

tourism revenues fell 28% and 35%, respectively, when compared to the previous

year. Hotel occupancy declined between 25-30% when compared to the

expectations they had before the takeover. The 2006 revolution resulted in

even greater falls in what concerns the international tourism.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Florida

global

Indonesia

Israel

Kenya

After many deaths between 1992 and 1994 foreign tourists in different parts

of Florida, European tour operators have allowed its customers to replace this

by another destination. Many took advantage of this opportunity causing enormous

damage to tourism on this uSA destination [Cavlek, 2002]. British and

German tourists, the main Florida European supply markets, fell 22% in 1994

[Pizam & Mansfeld, 1996].

The first Gulf War caused a decline from 21.5% [in 1990] to 3.2% [in 1991], in

the global tourism revenues. In April 2002, the International Association of Air

Transport estimated that the second Iraq war caused reductions in 10 billion

dollars in air travel [in Taylor, 2006].

In the period 1997-2002 the country suffered a series of shocks that received

international attention and resulted in a drastic reduction of tourist entries.

Among them are the following: civil conflict after the fall of President Suharto

[1997-1998], ethnic conflict, including attacks on Chinese businessmen [1997-

1999]; religious conflicts between Christians and Muslims [1997-2000]; separatist

movements in East Timor, Aceh and Irian Jayra [90s]; the effects of El

Niño; the offensive on East Timor was condemned by many countries, namely

Australia, and led to a cut of businesses between them [1999-2000]. However,

it was the terrorist attack with a disco explosion in Bali [2002] killing 101 and

injuring 150 mainly tourists [GTD, 2016] caused serious damages in the security

image [Prideaux, Laws & Faulkner, 2003].

Since its foundation, in 1948, Israelis and Palestinians living in the occupied

territories experienced constant insecurity. In 1987, the Palestinian conflict intensified

itself and the Islamic Resistance Movement [Hamas] joined the movement

for restoration of an Islamic Palestinian state in Israel. The attacks by

the Israelis and Palestinians caused many deaths since. Between 2000 and

2005 there were about 135 attacks which resulted in 588 deaths [Spilerman &

Stecklov, 2009]. The arrival of tourists, since the 70s, has fallen, especially due

to the images and news provided by the media and the constant terrorist activity.

It is one of the most popular destinations in Africa, especially the safaris. In

August 1998, a terrorist attack against the uSA and Tanzania embassies, by a

massive car bomb, nearly caused 231 deaths. In November 2002, new terrorist

attacks with tourist targets. The attacks began with two-air missiles fired at a

757 Boeing, carrying almost 271 Israeli tourists. This attack had no victims, because

the plane was diverted and landed safely. 20 minutes after three suicide

bombers launched an attack in a hotel on the Kenyan coast. 15 people died in

the hotel. A group named “Army of Palestine”, in Lebanon, claimed responsibility

for the attack. Although the number of tourists has decreased between

2000 and 2001, tourism revenues increased. The fall of tourist arrivals continued

in 2002, this time accompanied by the tourism revenues [Fletcher & Morakabati,

2008]. In the last years Al-Shabaab terrorist group as perpetrated

several attacks to civilian, tourists and transportation targets [GTD, 2016] reinforcing

the unsafety image of this country.

99

libya

It is a country seriously affected by political instability and armed conflicts.

Due to armed confrontation with the uSA, in 1985, about 2 million Americans

canceled their travel plans to the country in the following year, which resulted

in a fall of 30% of total tourist holidays [Qi, Gibson & Zhang, 2009].

After accusations that the Libyan government sponsored the Lockerbie attack

in 1989 and the after the uN sanctions that followed, there was a serious damage

to the tourism image of this country, which led to the prohibition of international

tourism in and from Libya [Gray, 2000].

BACK TO CONTENT |


100

mexico

From the establishment of NAFTA [Northtern American Free Trade Agreement],

the Zapatista National Liberation Army launched a rebellion against the Mexican

government. The first 12 days of rebellion resulted in about 500 deaths.

In 1994, the death of the favorite presidential candidate Donaldo Colosia created

a climate of great instability in Mexico. Some of the spots affected by the

incident, and which were highly sought by the tourists, as San Cristobal in Chiapas,

suffered a major decline in terms of international tourist arrivals. In the

first two months of 1994, tourists decreased 70% when compared to the previous

year [Pitts, 1996]. The last years have been more peaceful regarding tourist

targets [GTD, 2016], making Mexico an important tourism destination,

reentering the top 10 worldwide in 2014 [WTO, 2015].

Nepal

In the 90s tourism in Nepal had an exceptional growth. In 1998 there was an

increase of about 42,000 arrivals. Between 1983 and 2000 the contribution of

this activity rose from 1.4% to 3.2% of GDP. In 2000 total revenues with international

tourism exceeded 166 million uSD. After an attempted of deviation

of an Indian Airlines plane, in December 1999, and after the negative publicity

of this fact, entries fell dramatically, 6% in 2000 and 22% in the following year.

The Indian airline canceled flights to that country. Being India the main outbound

market and an important spot on the route of American and European

tourists, the entry in Nepal became compromised [Baral, Baral & Morgan,

2003]. Recently, several terrorist attacks perpetrated by the Communist Party

of Nepal-Maoist [Baidya] to transportations, civilians and tourists [GTD, 2016]

make this destination a place to avoid by tourists.

North Ireland

Sinn Fein, an armed movement named ‘Provisional Republican Army’ [PIRA],

formed in 1969, is a legal political movement that aims to remove the British

jurisdiction from Northern Ireland and unify it with the Republic of Ireland.

The targets of the armed movement included British police officers in the Northern

Ireland. The terrorist activity and retaliation by British troops banned

the tourist activity. Between 1969 and 1999 there were 3740 [54% civilian]

deaths attributed to conflicts linked to terrorism in that country. The arrival of

visitors fell from 1,080,000 in 1967 to 321,000 in 1976 as a result of the negative

image [insecurity] associated with this destination [Buckley & Klemm,

1993; Wall, 1996; Witt & Moore, 1992]. The ceasefire, between 1994 and 1996,

led to significant improvements in tourism: 11% increase of hotel occupancy,

18% of visitors from other states and 68% of tourist arrivals [O’Neill & Fitz,

1996]. In the recent years, this region doesn’t register significant terrorist activity

[GTD, 2016].

Peru

The Shining Path is a Maoist terrorist group, formed in the late 60s, which aims

to restore the Peruvian institutions with a revolutionary government and free

the territory of foreign influences. The terrorist attacks caused a decrease of

international visitors. While in 1989 they were 350,000, in 1991 they were only

33,000 [Wahab, 1996]. In the second half of the 90’s important destinations

as Cusco, Lima and Chachani were targeted by this group [GTD, 2016] creating

a fear atmosphere among tourists. Recently there has been a decrease in terrorist

activity increasing tourist arrivals [WTO, 2015].

russia and

Ukraine

The recent events in ukraine and the instability with Russia, brought the attention

of domestic terrorism in this region, creating a strong impact in tourism

arrivals. In 2014 the arrivals in ukraine fell -48% due to the ongoing conflict

[WTO, 2015].

| BACK TO CONTENT


Spain

Thailand

Tunisia

Turkey

USa

ETA, created in 1959, is an independence movement in the Basque region of

Spain. Members of the Spanish army and government are their traditional

targets; however, ETA also pointed their attacks to the tourist industry,

mainly between 1984 and 1987. Hotels and travel agencies were bombarded.

Over 200 letters were sent to embassies, travel agencies and foreign

media grasping terrorist intentions [Enders & Sandler, 1991]. In the “Summer

Campaign”, in 1996, ETA bombed several airports and hotels along the Gold

Coast, which caused a major recession in tourism [Bar-On, 1996]. Between

1970 and 1988, the estimated decline was of 140,000 tourists [Enders & Sandler,

1991]. ETA continues to be engaged in terrorist activity, but their targets,

recently, are politics. On March 11, 2004, an attack claimed by an arm

of al-Qaeda brought about 60 dead people and more than 500 injured in the

bursting of several bombs, in carriages and stations of the railway system in

Madrid. Presently, Spain is one the most important destinations all over the

world, it was the second country in tourism earnings worldwide, and 1st in

Europe [WTO, 2015].

Thailand is an important destination in South East Asia. The separatists and

the Runda Kumpulan Kecil [RKK] are responsible for several terrorist attacks

in the region in the last decade [GTD, 2016], in turn Thailand recorded string

decrease in tourist arrivals [-7% in 2014], weighing down the tourist numbers

in South-East Asia after several years of fast growth [WTO, 2015].

This country has gained in the last decade a strong position as a destination

in the Mediterranean region. However, Al-Qa`ida in the Lands of the Islamic

Maghreb [AQLIM] has been perpetrated several attacks to tourists, civilians

and transportation [GTD, 2016] has a negative impact on this destination

decreasing in tourist arrivals [WTO, 2015].

The PKK [Kurdistan Labor Party] a Marxist-Leninist group was formed in 1974

with the aim of establishing an independent Marxist state in southeastern

Turkish territory. The PKK, initially attacked government forces and civilians.

Since 1991, this party has become more active against tourist targets either

by kidnapping tourists either by laying bombs on hotels. The tourist industry

has been seriously damaged since. For example, between 1993 and 1994

one of the largest European operators, TuI, had a 47% sales decrease to this

country. Between 1997 and 1998 there was a decrease of 11.1% of German

passengers [Göymen, 2000]. In the last decade Turkey has been a destination

with a strong growth, in 2014 was positioned in 6th in arrivals and 12th in receipts

[WTO, 2015].

One of the most significant episodes of disruption in tourism demand was

the attacks of September 11, 2001 in the uSA. In the following year there

was a decrease of 6.8% of international tourists in that country [Qi, Gibson &

Zhang, 2009]. Air traffic fell about 17% in the month of September and did

not grow in the first nine months of the following year. This attack led to an

overall decline in the international tourism activity. In addition, the September

11th became known as the incident which led to a global economic

downturn, mainly because of the fast decrease of air transport [Drakos,

2004].

101

Conclusions and Implications

The main objective of terror is to achieve an emotional fear, more than to achieve the

target military defeat. Terrorists achieve that objective by choosing civilian targets or national

society’s symbols. Therefore, while the number of casualties is lower than the number of

BACK TO CONTENT |


102

wars, keeping structures and institutions largely intact, terrorism can generate deeper fear

and anxiety, causing changes in the individual and organization’ s behavior (Spilerman &

Steckov, 2009).

The growth of terrorism, crime and violence throughout the world has raised new problem:

tourists as terrorism targets and criminal acts (Cavleck, 2002). Tourists are chosen as

targets for their symbolic value: they represent Western capitalism, consumption, and values

such as wealth, freedom of choice and independence (Richter & Waugh, 1986). For the terrorists

the symbolism, high profile, and media coverage brought by international tourists

makes them too valuable to be left out of their terrorist acts (Sönmez, Apostolopoulos, &

Tarlow, 1999). On the other hand, tourists’ attacks signify attacks to their governments

(Richter & Waugh, 1986).

The social nature of violent crimes (murder, rape and armed robbery) and political

crimes (terrorism, political confrontations) resulted, in many individuals, in fear of traveling,

especially abroad, and specifically to destinations perceived as unsafe. The violence directly

affects the image of a country internally and internationally, destroying the functioning of

society and interfering with the free flow of people and ideas (Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz,

2014). Few people travel to places where they feel threatened. When people are afraid of

travelling isolation and xenophobia begins and cooperation and cultural exchange ends

(Pizam, Tarlow & Bloom, 1997).

Although terrorism is a political weapon since the beginning of history, this form of

struggle in contemporary periods has an impact and frequency never witnessed before. Terrorism

in the present day is almost a commonplace (D’Amore & D’Anuza, 1986; Richter &

Waugh, 1986). Most terrorist attacks are difficult to prevent. They are different and difficult

to solve with simple formulas, however, the tourist destinations should be prepared in order

to build their own specific action plan. Having this device, you can save yourself time, energy

and valuable resources. In light of social and global the complexities, no target is immune to

negative occurrences and thinking that “it only happens to others” may be dangerously immature

and may be catastrophic (Sönmez, 1998). Crises resulting from terrorist attacks, which

have become increasingly frequent, put enormous pressure on staff and managers (Ritchie,

2004). Marketers, especially, need to understand the behavior and decision-making mechanisms

of tourists in order to pool resources with managers in an attempt to attract tourists

in a world where fear is global (Yeoman, Munro & Beattie, 2006). Since the paper of Sönmez

(1998) few researches tried to make a deep analysis on the tourism and terrorism connections.

With this work it is our aim to close this gap.

acknowledgments

Acknowledgments: Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and Center for Studies

in Education, Technologies and Health.

references

Ali, T. (2002). The clash of fundamentalisms: Crusades, jihads and modernity. London: Verso.

Atkinson, S., Sandler, T., & Tschirart, J. (1987). Terrorism in a bargaining framework. The Journal of Law

and Economics, 30(1), 1-21.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Aziz, H. (1995). understanding terrorist attacks on tourists in Egypt. Tourism Management, 16, 91-95.

Baral, A., Baral, S., & Morgan, N. (2003). Marketing Nepal in an uncertain climate: Confronting perceptions

of risk and insecurity. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10, 186-192.

Bar-On, R. (1996). Measuring the effects on tourism violence and of promotion following violent acts.

In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld (Edits.), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 159-174).

New York: Wiley.

Bergesen, A., & Han, Y. (2005). New directions for terrorism research. International Journal of Comparative

Sociology, 46, 133-151.

Blake, A., & Sinclair, M. (2003). Tourism crisis management: uS response to September 11. Annals of


Blomberg, S., Hess, G., & Orphanides, A. (2004). The macroeconomic consequences of terrorism. Journal

of Monetary Economics, 51, 1007-1032.

Bravo, A., & Dias, C. (2006). An empirical analysis of terrorism: Deprivation, islamism, and geopolitical

factors. Defence and Peace Economics, 17(4), 329-341.

Brunt, P., Mawby, R., & Hambly, Z. (2000). Tourist victimization and the fear of crime on holiday. Tourism

Management, 21(6), 417-424.

Buckley, P., & Klemm, M. (1993). The decline of tourism in Northern Ireland: The causes. Tourism Management,

14, 184-194.

Cavleck, N. (2002). Tour operators and destination safety. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 478-496.

Chomsky, N. (2001). A leading terrorist state. Monthly Review, 53, 10-19.

Coshall, J. (2003). The threat of terrorism as an intervention on international flows. Journal of Travel

Research, 42(4), 4-12.

Council of Arab Ministers of the Interior and the Council of Arab Ministers. (1998). Terrorism definition.

The Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism. Cairo, Egypt: Council of Arab Ministers of

the Interior and the Council of Arab Ministers.

Cutter, S., & Wilbanks, T. (2003). The geographical dimensions of terrorism. New York: Routledge.

D’Amore, L., & Anuza, T. (1986). International terrorism: Implications and challenge for global tourism.

Business Quarterly, 4(November), 20-29.

Dann, G. (1993). Tourists’ images of a destination: An alternative analysis. In D. Fesenmaier, J. O’Leary,

& M. uysal (Edits.), Recent Advances in Tourism Marketing Research (pp. 41-55). New York: The

Haworth Press.

Dictionary.com. (30 de March de 2016). Obtido de Dictionary.com: http://www. dictio nary .com/ -

browse/terrorism

Drakos, K. (2004). Terrorism-induced structural shifts in financial risk: Airline stocks in the afternath of

the September 11th Terror Attacks. European Journal of Political Economy, 20, 435-446.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (1991). Causality between transnational terrorism and tourism: The case of

Spain. Terrorism, 14(1), 49-58.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (2002). Patterns of transnational terrorism, 1970-1999: Alternative time-series

estimates. International Studies Quarterly, 46, 145-165.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (2004). After 11 Sept: Is it all different now? The Lisbon Conference on Defence

and Security (1-2 July), IDN. Lisbon.

European union. (2002). Terrorism for legal/official purposes definition. Art.1 of the Framework Decision

on Combating Terrorism. Brussels: European union.

Evans, N., & Elphick, S. (2005). Models of crisis management: An evaluation of theirs value for strategic

planning in the international travel industry. International Journal of Tourism Research, 7, 135-150.

Feichtinger, G., Hartl, R., Kort, P., & Novak, A. (2001). Terrorism control in the tourism industry. Journal

of Optimization Theory and Applications, 108(2), 283-296.

Fenstermacher, L., Kuznar, L., Rieger, T., & Speckhard, A. (Edits.). (2010). White paper: Counter terrorism.

Current multi-disciplinary perspectives on root causes, the role of ideology, and programs for

counter-radicalization and disengagement. online at

https://www.start.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/publications/u_Counter_Terrorism_White_P

aper_Final_January_2010.pdf.

Fletcher, J., & Morakabati, Y. (2008). Tourism activity, terrorism and political instability within Commonwealth:

The cases of Fiji and Kenya. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10, 537-556.

Fullerton, C., ursano, R., Norwood, A., & Holloway, H. (2003). Trauma, terrorism, and disaster. In R. ursano,

C. Fullerton, & A. Norwood (Edits.), Terrorism and Disaster (pp. 1-22). Cambridge: Cambridge

university Press.

Gartner, W., & Shen, J. (1992). The impact of Thienamen Square on China’s tourism image. Journal of

Travel Research, 30(4), 47-52.

103

BACK TO CONTENT |


104

Göymen, K. (2000). Tourism and governance in Turkey. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 1025-1048.

Gray, M. (2000). The political economy of tourism in North Africa: Comparative perspectives. Thunderbird

International Business Review, 42, 393-408.

Gupta, S., Clements, B., Bhattacharya, R., & Chakravarti. (2004). Fiscal Consequences of Armed Conflict

and Terrorism in Low and Middle-Income Countries. European Journal of Political Economy, 20,

403-421.

Hall, C., & O’Sullivan, V. (1996). Tourism, political stability and violence. In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld

(Edits.), Tourism, Crime and Security Issues (pp. 105-123). Chichester: Wiley.

Hassan, N. (2006). Suicide terrorism. In L. Richardson (Ed.), The Roots of Terrorism (pp. 29–42). New

York: Routledge.

Hirsch, E., Kett, J., & Trefil, J. (2002). The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. New York: Houghton Mifflin

Company.

Hoffman, S. (2002). Clash of globalizations. Foreign Affairs, 81, 104-115.

Hofman, B. (1999). Inside terrorism. New York: Columbia university Press.

Hoti, S., McAlee, M., & Shareef, R. (2007). Modelling international tourism and country risk spillovers

for Cyprus and Malta. Tourism Management, 8, 2-13.

Hudson, R. (1999). Who becomes a terrorist and why: The 1999 government report on profiling terrorists.

Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press.

Jenkins, B. (1987). The future course of international terrorism. In A. Kurz (Ed.), Contemporary Trends

in World Terrorism (pp. 150-159). New York: Praeger.

Jenkins, B. (1988). Future trends in international terrorism. In R. Slater, & M. Stohl (Edits.), Current Perspectives

on International Terrorism (pp. 246-266). London: MacMillan.

Jenkins, B. (2001). Terrorism and beyond: A 21st century perspective. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism,

24, 321-327.

Juergensmeyer, M. (2000). Terror in the mind of God: The global rise of religious violence. Berkeley:

university of California Press.

Koopman, R. (1993). The dynamics of protest waves: West Germany, 1965 to 1989. American Sociological

Review, 58, 637-658.

Krueger, A. (2007). What makes a terrorist: Economics and the roots of terrorism. Princeton: Princeton

university Press.

Le Billon, P. (2001). The political ecology of war: Natural resources and armed conflicts. Political Geography,

20(3), 561-584.

Lea, J. (1996). Tourism, realpolitik and development in the South Pacific. In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld

(Edits.), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 123-142). New York: Wiley.

Lehrman, C. (1986). When fact and fantasy collide: Crisis management in the travel industry. Public Relations

Journal, 42, 25-28.

Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2003). Tourist roles, perceived risk and international tourism. Annals of Tourism

Research, 30(3), 606-624.

Malečková, J., & Stanišić, D. (2014). Changes in public opinion and the occurrence of international terrorism.

Peace Economics, Peace Science, & Public Policy, 20(4), 631–653.

Mansfeld, Y. (1994). The Middle East conflict and tourism to Israel. Middle Eastern Studies, 30(3), 646-

667.

National Counterterrorism Center. (30 de March de 2016). National Counterterrorism Center. Obtido

de National Counterterrorism Center: http://www.nctc.gov/

O’Connor, N., Stafford, M., & Gallagher, G. (2008). The impact of global terrorism on Ireland’s tourism

industry: An industry in perspective. Tourism and Hospitality Reserach, 8(4), 351-364.

O’Neill, M., & Fitz, F. (1996). Northern Ireland tourism: What chance now? Tourism Management, 17(3),

161-163.

Paraskevas, A., & Beverley, A. (2007). A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in

tourism destinations. Tourism Management, 1, 1-14.

Pitts, W. (1996). uprising in Chiapas Mexico - Zapata lives: Tourism falters. In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld

(Edits.), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 215-227). New York: Wiley.

Pizam, A., & Smith, G. (2000). Tourism and terrorism: A quantitative analysis of major terrorist acts and

their impact on tourism destinations. Tourism Economics, 6(2), 123-138.

Pizam, A., Tarlow, P., & Bloom, J. (1997). Making tourists feel safe: Whose responsability is it? Journal

of Travel Research, 3(3), 23-28.

Poland, J. (1988). Understanding terrorism. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Prideaux, B., Laws, E., & Faulkner, B. (2003). Events in Indonesia: Exploring the liimits to formal tourism

trends forecasting methods in complex crisis situations. Tourism Management, 24, 475-487.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Qi, C., Gibson, H., & Zhang, J. (2009). Perceptions of risk and travel intentions: The case of China and

the Beijing Olympic Games. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14(1), 43-67.

Radu, M. (2002). Terrorism after the cold war: Trends and challenges. Orbis, 46(2), 275-287.

Rapoport, D. (2001). The fourth wave: September 11in the history of terrorism. Current History, December,

419-424.

Reisinger, Y., & Mavondo, F. (2005). Travel anxiety and intentions to travel internationally: Implications

of travel risk perception. Journal of Travel Research, 43, 212-225.

Richter, L. (1983). Tourism politics and political science: A case of not so benign neglect. Annals of


Richter, L., & Waugh, W. (1986). Terrorism and tourism as logical companions. Tourism Management,

7(4), 230-238.

Ritchie, B. (2004). Chaos, crises and disasters: A strategic approach to crisis management in the tourism

industry. Tourism Management, 25(5), 669-683.

Ruby, C. (2002). The definition of terrorism. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2, 9-14.

Ryan, C. (1993). Crime, violence, terrorism and tourism: An accidental relationship or intrinsic relationship?

Tourism Management, 14(3), 173-183.

Scheffler, S. (2006). Is terrorism morally distinctive? The Journal of Political Philosophy, 14(1), 1–17.

Schlagheck, D. (1988). International terrorism. Lexington MA: Lexington Books.

Schmid, A., & DeGraaf, J. (1982). Violence as communications: Isurgent terrorism and the western news

media. Berverly Hills: Sage.

Seabra, C., Abrantes, J., & Kastenholz, E. (2012). TerrorScale: A scale to measure the contact of international

tourists with terrorism. Journal of Tourism Research & Hospitality, 1(4), 1-8.

Seabra, C., Abrantes, J., & Kastenholz, E. (2014). The influence of terrorism risk perception on purchase

involvement and safety concern international travellers. Journal of Marketing Management, 30(9-

10), 874-903.

Seabra, C., Dolnicar, S., Abrantes, J., & Kastenholz, E. (2013). Heterogeneity in Risk and Safety Perceptions

of International Tourists. Tourism Management, 36, 502-510.

Smith, V. (1996). War and its tourist attractions. In A. Pizam, & Y. Mansfeld (Edits.), Tourism, Crime and

Security Issues (pp. 247-264). Chichester: Wiley.

Sönmez, S. (1998). Tourism, terrorism and political instability. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 416-

456.

Sönmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998a). Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions. Annals of


Sönmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998b). Determining future travel behavior from past travel experience and

perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 171-177.

Spilerman, S., & Stecklov, G. (2009). Societal responses to terrorist attacks. Annual Review of Sociology,

35, 167-189.

Stern, J. (1999). The ultimate terrorists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard university Press.

Tarlow, P. (2005). Dark tourism: The appealing “dark” side of tourism and more. In M. Novelli (Ed.),

Niche Tourism: Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases (pp. 47 -58). Oxford: Elsevier.

Tavares, J. (2004). The open society assesses its enemies: Shocks, disasters and terrorist attacks. Journal

of Monetary Economics, 51, 1039-1070.

u.S. government, u.S. Department of Justice. (30 de March de 2016). Definitions of Terrorism in the

U.S. Code. Obtido de Federal Bureau Investigation: https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/terrorism/terrorism-definition

uN Security Council. (2004). uN Security Council Resolution 1566. UN Security Council Resolution. New

York: united Nations.

united Nations. (9 de December de 1994). Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. The UN General

Assembly Resolution 49/60 (adopted on December 9, 1994). New York: united Nations.

uS Department of State. (1996). Patterns of global terrorism. Washington, DC: uS Department of State.

uS Department of State. (9 de April de 2014). Terrorist designation of Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis. Obtido de

Media Note: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/04/224566.htm

Wahab, S. (1996). Tourism and terrorism: Sinthesis of the problem with emphasis on Egypt. In A. Pizam,

& Y. Mansfeld (Edits.), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 175-186). New York:

Wiley.

Wall, G. (1996). Terrorism and Tourism: An Overview and an Irish Example. In P. A., & Y. Mansfeld (Edits.),

Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (pp. 143-158). New York: Wiley.

Witt, S., & Moore, S. (1992). Promoting tourism in a face of terrorism: The role of special events in

Northern Ireland. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 4(3), 63-75.

105

BACK TO CONTENT |


106

Wolff, K., & Larsen, S. (2014). Can terrorism make us feel safer? Risk perceptions and worries before

and after the July 22nd attacks. Annals of Tourism Research, 44, 200–209.

WTO - World Tourism Organization. (2015). UNWTO - Tourism Highlights - 2015 edition. World Tourism

Organization.

Yeoman, I., Munro, C., & McHahon-Beattie, u. (2006). Tomorrow’s: World, consumer and tourist. Journal

of Vacation Marketing, 12(2), 174-190.

| BACK TO CONTENT

THE ENHaNCEmENT OF THE arCHaEOlOgICal HErITagE IN THE

QUalIFICaTION OF THE TOUrISTIC ExPErIENCE:

THE CaSE OF braCara aUgUSTa (braga)

Olga Matos 1,2 , Eduarda Duarte 1 , Sandra Vasconcelos 1

107

abSTraCT

Braga has a rich archaeological heritage with about 2,000 years of history. As a result of the growing

interest shown in the city touristic market, the study of the conditions of the archaeological heritage

of Bracara Augusta has revealed itself of significant importance to enhance its contribution to tourism

development. Many of the remains found have suffered extensive damage due to the expansion of

Modern Braga. Thus, the following study aims to show how the appreciation of the Roman ruins can

contribute to improve the touristic experience. A survey of a representative sample of visiting tourists

was conducted between May and September 2015, in order to study their opinion regarding the city,

with special focus on its archaeological heritage. The results showed that the vast majority of visitors

recognise Braga as the ‘’City of Churches’’, highlighting the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus. Only a small percentage

knows the name Bracara Augusta and is able to associate it to the archaeological heritage. The

Roman Baths of Alto da Cividade and Fonte do Ídolo are the two most visited sites. It is known that

there is still a long way to go with regard to the touristic development of Braga and, particularly, its archaeological

heritage has several aspects that need to be improved: an interpretation plan tailored to

different audiences that values heritage and makes it more attractive; more accessible information by

increasing the number of languages made available; the design of maps and routes to more effectively

show the archaeological heritage and thus improve the touristic experience.

KEYWOrDS

Bracara Augusta, Archaeological Heritage; Touristic Experience

Introduction

The tourism industry attracts millions of people every year. Based on information made

available, every individual will develop different aspirations, wishes and expectations towards

a destination. The industry is, therefore, able to develop products and offer services that

make tourists dream, catering for an ever-growing range of segments. Each tourist experiences

something that will live on in his or her memory forever.

The concept of tourist experience is complex and warrants attention, as understanding

what makes up touristic experiences and the different elements that influence them are key

to determine their ultimate success.

Currently, there is a lack of consensus on the concept of experience. Many authors agree

that an experience is an individual process that takes place in the mind of the tourist. However,

questions remains as whether this experience is entirely individual, or if it entails greater levels

of complexity. From the time of preparing a trip, to returning home, tourists interact with dif-

1

ESTG - Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Avenida do Atlântico, 4900-348 Viana do Castelo - Portugal, Tel:

+351- 258 819 700, Fax: +315- 258 827 636, E-mail: duduarte90@hotmail.com; sandra.torreca@gmail.com

2

Lab2pt – Landscape, Heritage and Territory Laboratory - university of Minho, Escola de Arquitectura, Campus de

Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães - Portugal, Tel: +351 - 253 510526, E-mail: omatos@estg.ipvc.pt

BACK TO CONTENT |


108

ferent agents: family, friends, other tourists, and members of the local community or tourism

staff. Throughout this process, different relationships are established and different moments

are shared, which has prompted us to question the individuality of the touristic experience.

The city of Braga was the destination selected to try to understand the importance of

archaeological heritage in the qualification of the touristic experience. With a history of about

2000 years, in the last few years, as the market expanded, the city has experienced a boost

in tourist interest and demand. Braga is a rich heritage site, which offers a wide range of resources

that can enhance touristic experience, with the archaeological heritage of Bracara

Augusta being especially noteworthy.

Many of the remains found have suffered extensive damage due to the expansion of

Modern Braga. Thus, the current study aims to demonstrate how appreciating and valuing

archaeological heritage can enhance the touristic experience.

The Touristic Experience

Specialized tourism literature has often approached the concept of touristic experience.

However, even though there is a lack of consensus, many authors consider touristic experience

to be a psychological, subjective and personal process (Otto, J., E. et al.; 1996; Ryan, C.;

2002; Larsen, S.; 2007; O’dell, T.; 2007; Anderson, T.; 2007; Tung, V. W. et al.; 2011; Pine, J.

et al.; 1998). These authors argue that touristic experience is a process that takes place in

the tourist’s mind, a definition that is short of what an experience can actually become.

Otto (1996) have defined touristic experience as a subjective state, felt by an individual.

Pine & Gilmore (1998) explain that experiences are personal, thus taking place solely in the

consumer’s mind. As a result, no two people can share the exact same experience. Tom O’Dell

(2007) supports this concept and argues that touristic experiences are subjective, unattainable

and continuous, making up a broad personal phenomenon. The author makes reference

to a continuous action, also describing an experience as a production and consumption process

that people intentionally carry out, and not a mere extension of everyday life. Tung &

Ritchie (2011), state that a touristic experience is a subjective assessment, associated with

the activities carried out at the destination, a process that begins with planning the trip, continues

at the destination, and comes to an end when the tourist returns home. When studying

the different concepts, even though many authors allude to the individual nature of

experiences, one cannot base an analysis solely on individuality. There is a wide range of activities

that can be carried out throughout a trip, and many of those activities can be shared

with other individuals. Therefore, in many cases, touristic experiences are the result of shared

activities, which has led us to the belief that, even though each tourist recounts his or her

experience based on a personal assessment and construct, it can also be shared.

Edensor (2001; cit in Heimtun et al. 2011) believes that the touristic experience results

of performances and scenarios partially adjusted by those involved: tourists travelling together,

other tourists, staff and local communities. This has caused us to consider that an

experience is constantly being influenced by external factors. All those involved find themselves

sharing the same space and, even if they come to different opinions, they have also

influenced each other mutually.

The touristic experience is understood as a set of activities that take place from the moment

a tourist decides to travel up until his or her return. Throughout this process different

| BACK TO CONTENT

THE ENHANCEMENT OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE IN THE QuALIFICATION OF THE TOuRISTIC EXPERIENCE:

THE CASE OF BRACARA AuGuSTA (BRAGA)

relationships are established. Concurrently, there is a wide range of elements - external and

intrinsic to the individual - that can influence the experience as a whole.

Yiping Li (2000) puts forward a model (figure 1), suggesting that the touristic experience

begins prior to the trip – anticipation – at planning. After arriving at the destination, the

tourist sets out on a series of on-site activities: tours, walks, going to restaurants, acquiring

souvenirs. At the end of the trip, the tourist returns home where he or she recollects and

assesses his or her feelings. Based on these premises, the author suggests five stages: anticipation

and planning; travel to destination; on-site experiences; travel back; and recollection

of experience.

The model presented by Yiping Li is very basic as it only illustrates the different stages

and how the traveller can assess his or her trip. The industry has the ability to influence that

assessment by creating resources that make the experience memorable.

109

Figure 1: Tourism Experience Transition model (li, Y.; 2000)

Cutler & Carmichael (2010) on the other hand, put forth a more developed model. Figure

2 depicts the Tourist Experience Conceptual Model. Besides making reference to the different

stages, the authors identify external factors and people that influence the experience,

and suggest new concepts, such as motivations, expectations and satisfaction.

BACK TO CONTENT |


Figure 2: Tourist Experience Conceptual model (Cutler & Carmichael; 2010)

110

In this particular case, the experience is divided into five stages: anticipation; travel to

destination; on-site experiences; travel back; and recollection. There are two sets of factors

that have a direct or indirect influence on the final outcome: internal factors and external

factors. As the name suggests, external factors are external to tourists and do not depend

on them. As for internal factors, they take place in the tourists’ mind. Hence, when a tourist

takes part in on-site activities, he or she evaluates the outcome taking into consideration internal

factors (personal) and external factors (setting). When assigning the outcome to internal

factors, tourists tend to encourage and improve their skills and increase their efforts

in order to get a better result. However, if they realize they have very little or no control over

their experience, assigning outcomes to external factors, there is no reason for them to

change their behaviour (Jackson, M.; et al. 1996).

The tourism industry has the ability to control external factors, developing them as it

sees fit. Those factors include physical aspects, products and services, and also social features

(Cutler, Q. et al; 2010).

First of all, physical aspects are a destination’s physical features that can facilitate onsite

activities or promote social interaction. Tourist attractions can be natural (landscapes,

climate, vegetation, fauna, flora) or man-made (history, arts and culture) (Cooper, C.; et al.;

1996). The adequate development of the physical environment from tourist managers, can,

therefore, influence tourists and play an important role in achieving a positive qualification

of the experience (O’Dell, T.; 2007; Cutler, Q. et al; 2010; Tung, V. et al.; 2011). The adequate

development of the destination will add value to all agents involved (tourists, local community),

improves the tourist’s stay and can even benefit the local community.

Secondly, we have products and services. According to Anderson (2007), touristic experience

is the final outcome of products and services produced to promote touristic experiences

(accommodation, transportation, musical performances). Products are the most

physical side of the experience, whereas services tend to be more abstract. Both make up

and complement an experience. The attraction itself is not enough to draw tourists, as it is

necessary to come up with different elements that help them enjoy the space.

| BACK TO CONTENT



Finally, social aspects that allude to the personal relationships people establish and how

they are influenced by them. Tourists tend to favour personal relationships and the contact

with people from other cultures and that have different customs. Cutler & Carmichael (2010)

consider that social aspects refer to the different social influences that take place throughout

a tourist’s stay, including the social setting, personal relationships, interactions with other

tourists and hosts (local community, hotel staff, and other workers – at restaurants and monuments,

among others). In this particular case, throughout the experience, there is a great

deal of interaction between individuals. These interactions are extremely important and can

influence the final outcome.

Personal factors, on the other hand, include knowledge, memory, perception, emotions

and self-identity (Cutler, Q. et al; 2010). These features pertain to the experience’s subjectivity,

as they depend solely on the tourist.

Before expanding these concepts, it is important to understand what is meant by motivations

and expectations in this context. It is also crucial to elaborate on the concept of satisfaction,

as these are the key aspects behind travelling. First of all, motivations and

expectations are what prompt tourists to travel. Motivations are the reasons why tourists

make the decision to go somewhere and from which his or her needs and wishes arise (Cutler,

Q. et al; 2010; Holloway, J. C.; 1998). There is a wide range of constantly changing reasons

why people travel, as tourist profiles have been changing in recent years.

Motivations are deeply linked to expectations. Maddux (1999) defines expectations as a

tourist’s ability to anticipate and create beliefs about what will happen in the future, throughout

his or her stay at a certain destination (cit in Larsen, S.; 2007:9). Expectations, on the other

hand, influence an individual’s ultimate satisfaction. This satisfaction is achieved when a tourist’s

expectations are met or exceeded, i.e., when there is a positive variation between a tourist’s

pre-travel expectations and his or hers post-travel experiences (Beeho & Prentice; 1997; Vittersù,

J.; et al.; 2000). Satisfaction is a result that involves both expectations and the ultimate

experience. If the experience is better than what was expected, satisfaction is achieved.

Personal factors can influence the assessment that leads to satisfaction.

The first personal factor is knowledge. For Cutler & Carmichael (2010), knowledge is a

cognitive aspect that involves learning and education. In the particular case of tourism,

knowledge also comprises an experiential involvement. Currently, tourists ate looking for

doing things themselves, challenging and testing themselves, seeking to grow and evolve.

The more a tourist travels, the more sophisticated he or she becomes and the more their

educational level increases (Holloway, J. C. (1998). Similarly, the more someone travels, the

more demanding they become and the harder it is to meet their expectations.

Then, in second place, there are memories. After a trip comes to an end, tourists develop

memories based on everything they have learnt and felt throughout their stay at a

destination. Memories involve both a retention and a reconstruction process, through which

tourists individually analyse and access different events (Larsen, S.; 2007; Santos, D. S. et al;

2014). It is this personal construction of memories that, once again, takes us back to an experience’s

individuality.

Memories are based on the set of tourist’s perceptions towards the destination. Perception

is another personal factor. According to Larsen (2007:19), perception is a process

through which information is interpreted and organized, depending on an individual’s emotions

and state of mind.

111

BACK TO CONTENT |


112

Emotions also influence experience by acting directly on the tourist’s perception towards

the destination. An attraction must appeal to emotions and feelings (Beeho & Prentice; 1997;

Otto, R.; et al. 1996). These emotions and feelings can be positive (happiness, enthusiasm)

or negative (fear, anger, frustration) (Tung, V. W. et al.; 2011). In Rome, for example, tourists

will find themselves surrounded by rich heritage values. The excitement of being in such a

historically rich place generates a positive feeling. On the other hand, if for some reason that

heritage would not be properly preserved, a feeling of frustration could arise. All these emotions

influence the tourists’ perceptions and reflect on their memories of the experience.

Lastly, personal identity can also be connected to knowledge. Touristic experience can

help trigger changes in a tourist’s life and his or her identity. For the duration of a trip, tourists

tend to test themselves and develop new skills. The aim is that you learn from the trip, that

you grow and get to know yourself better. Experience plays an important role in personal

growth. At the same time, contact with other cultures is also a way of building one’s own

identity (Cutler & Carmichael; 2010).

In sum, touristic experience is a set of activities that take place from the moment a

tourist decides to travel to the moment he or she comes home. Several authors argue that

experiences are individual. However, to consider that the whole process is solely individual

can be restrictive and hinder the understanding of what a touristic experience truly is. Tourists

develop a set of relationships at a given destination and are influenced by both internal and

external factors that determine their ultimate satisfaction.

bracara augusta

With a history of more than 2000 years, Braga is actually the oldest Portuguese municipality,

with its foundation dating back to Emperor Augustus (Martins, M.; et al. 2007-08). Once

called Bracara Augusta, it was one of the three foundations of Augustus in the peninsular northwest,

between the years 3 a.C. and 4 d.C, having become an important trading post and road

junction. The arrival of the Roman people brought many changes to the region, as different infrastructures

were built, bestowing it with an important role within the Roman Empire.

Its remains surfaced between the 60s and the 70s, as the city’s urbanization developed.

Thereby, in what concerns archaeological heritage, the city holds some noteworthy examples,

such as the Roman Baths of Alto da Cividade and Fonte do Ídolo, which represent its only

two musealized sites.

By preserving and conserving heritage it is possible to preserve the history of a place

and of a people. Even after a certain people is gone, its history is eternalized through the remains

that withstand the passing of the centuries. Even though the Roman people is gone,

its legacy lives on in the city’s ruins, which also give us an idea of its grandeur.

Presently, Braga’s tourist offer is very diversified, ranging from the richness of its religious

heritage, which includes such noteworthy sites as the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus and Sameiro,

as well as museums, archaeological heritage, handcraft, typical northern gastronomy, and

other events such as the Holy Week and the Roman Fair (a festival that recreates the setting

and customs of the Roman era).

| BACK TO CONTENT



methods

In order to achieve these goals, it was necessary to collect primary and secondary data.

The data collection process was divided into two different research stages. At a first stage, researchers

conducted a literature review that allowed them to collect secondary data and

gather theoretical information regarding key concepts. The second stage consisted of collecting

primary data in order to try answering the question on the practical case being discussed.

The collection of secondary data was firstly carried out through reading books and scientific

papers, which made it possible to expand on the concepts of touristic experience, its

stages and the elements that influence it. These concepts are the starting point for the practical

case’s analysis. Within the scope of this case study, the city of Braga, and more specifically

the archaeological heritage of Bracara Augusta, was selected. As mentioned before,

the main goal of the study was to understand how the qualification of archaeological heritage

could improve the touristic experience.

In order to collect primary data, a survey was carried out with a random sample of

tourists visiting the city in the period between May and September 2015. The onset of the

survey coincided with the Braga Roman Fair, an event celebrating the city’s historical origins.

Its main goals were to draw the profile of tourists visiting the city and mostly understand the

relevance given to archaeological heritage in this context. The survey was conducted in person.

The sample was intentional and was made up of 271 tourists (male and female – from

a recorded total of 177000 tourists a year), all over the age of 18. On average each questionnaire

took 15 minutes to answer.

The first set of questions aimed at drawing the tourists’ profile (age, gender, nationality

and educational level). In addition to this set, researchers developed another group of questions

that would make it possible to analyse the importance of archaeological heritage in

the city. Tourists were asked if they knew Bracara Augusta and whether archaeological heritage

had played any role in their decision to visit the city. They were also asked about the

archaeological sites they visited and the advantages of archaeological heritage. Their opinion

regarding the quality of monuments, the conditions each site had in order to welcome

tourists, and aspects that should be improved (signposting, brochures, maps, guides) were

later cross-referenced and analysed. Finally, the questionnaire also included a set of questions

regarding respondents’ general perceptions of their experience while visiting the city (the

most important elements in their experience, the overall quality of the tourist offer in Braga,

and the least positive aspects throughout their stay).

The comprehensive analysis if the data gathered aimed at understanding the importance

of qualification of archaeological heritage in improving the touristic experience.

113

results

From a total of 271 tourists enquired, 30% were between 18 and 25 years old, 17% between

26 and 35 and 16% were between 56 and 65 years old. More than half (52%) is in

salaried employment; 26% are students and 13% are retired. The respondents were mostly

female (61%). As for nationality, most respondents are of European descent: 20.9% are

French; 13.4% are Spanish; 7.9% are British; and 7.8% are German. On the other hand, 13.4%

BACK TO CONTENT |


114

of respondents are Portuguese (domestic tourism). If you consider the total, 14% of respondents

are originally from America: 9.7% are Brazilian; and 2% Canadian. Tourists from Asia

represent only 2% of respondents. As for educational level, 38.7% are degree holders, 23,

6% are secondary school graduates; and 21.8% have completed a Masters.

We can observe that 47% of respondents travel 2 to 3 times a year, 28% travel only once

a year and 25% travel more than 3 times a year. Respondents that are in salaried employment

and students are among those who travel more than 3 times a year (21 responses in each

group), closely followed by retired tourists (19 responses). This can be explained by low cost

tourism and the emergence of short breaks (weekend getaways). Students and pensioners

have more free time and are thus more available to travel, even though the latter are considered

to have a higher purchasing power.

Figure 3: Who are you travelling with/ travel companions

More than half the tourists surveyed (66%) travelled together were their families and

43% travelled with friends (figure 3). Most respondents cited culture as the main reason for

travelling (figure 4) – 61%. Culture is associated with the past, something the tourists are interested

in getting to know. Respondents also mentioned other reasons for travelling: visiting

a new place (47%); getting to know local traditions (18%); and escape their daily routine (17%).

Figure 4: reasons for travelling

| BACK TO CONTENT



When they travel, tourists tend to engage activities they wouldn’t usually do in their

everyday lives. Archaeological heritage was mentioned only by 12%. If you cross-reference

respondents’ ages with their motivations, it is possible to determine that culture is the main

incentive for travelling, regardless of how old the tourists are. Archaeology, on the other

hand, is very important for tourists aged 56 to 65. Therefore, archaeology is particularly relevant

for senior travellers. According to McKercher & Du Cros (2002), older people traditionally

show more interest in their cultural background and roots, as well as history and

understanding the past.

115

Figure 5: methods used to prepare the trip

Regarding travel arrangements, 64% (figure 5) resorted to the Internet; 43% based their

choices on family and acquaintances’ opinions; and 32% used travel guides. It can be established

that the Internet is becoming more and more important, as it streamlines and expedites

the access to information.

When asked about the main feature of the city of Braga, 64% made reference to the

fact it was “the City of Churches”. Braga holds an extensive religious heritage, with a significant

number of respondents citing the excellence of the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte.

Only 15% made a reference to Bracara Augusta. Hence, when asked about Bracara Augusta,

68% stated they had no previous knowledge of it. As the survey was being carried out, it became

perceptible that the respondents were aware of city’s archaeological heritage, however,

they did not immediately associate that with the name Bracara Augusta. When the question

“Do you know Bracara Augusta?” was correlated with the archaeological heritage sites visited,

it was established that even the tourists who were not familiar with the name Bracara

Augusta, did indeed visit Braga’s archaeological heritage.

Only 38% of the tourists acknowledged archaeological heritage as one of the reasons

for visiting Braga; and only 32% were aware of Bracara Augusta. It is, therefore, reasonable

to question the existence of problems regarding archaeology heritage and its promotion.

In Braga there are several Roman remains, spread out across the city. As depicted in figure

6, the Roman Baths of Alto da Cividade are the most visited monument (36%). The Roman

Baths of Alto da Cividade are the largest musealized monument in the city. Next to the ruins

you find the Roman Theatre, which is currently being excavated. Fonte do Ídolo is the second

most cited monument by tourists (23%) and is located in the city centre.

BACK TO CONTENT |


116

The Roman Baths and Fonte do Ídolo are the city’s only musealized spaces. There are

other ruins that can be visited upon request. On the other hand there are other sites where

you can observe roman remains, as, for example, the Archaeological Ruins of Frigideiras do

Cantinho or the Archaeological Ruins of the Paularte shop.

It was once again established that tourists aren’t aware of what Bracara Augusta really

is. Some made reference to the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte as another monument

they have visited, others mentioned the Cathedral, the streets, and the Historical Centre. As

for state and conditions found, tourists believe that the Roman Baths of Alto da Cividade are

better equipped to welcome visitors (17% , 47 tourists). This can be explained not only by

the site’s dimension, but also its state of conservation and how it is presented to the public.

Following this monument, there is the Fonte do Ídolo (7%, 18 tourists).

Figure 6: Which bracara augusta monuments did you visit?

A significant number of tourists surveyed did not answer this question, claiming they

had not visited all the monuments and sites.

As for the questions “Do you think each site is adapted to welcome different kinds of

tourists?” and “Do you believe that the available information is understood by different audiences?”

62% believes that the monuments are prepared to welcome tourists, whereas 11%

disagree. As for the question “Do you think that the staff at the different sites is adequately

trained to help and advise visitors?” 72% consider that the staff is adequately prepared, with

only 8% saying they are not.

As for the question “Do you think there is enough information regarding Bracara Augusta?”

21% did not answer, 53% believe there is enough information available and 26% say

no. When establishing a connection between this question and aspects that must be improved

concerning Bracara Augusta, the answers were somewhat contradictory. From the total number

respondents that claimed that there was enough available information on Bracara Augusta,

47 believe that the brochures focusing on archaeological heritage should be improved.

As you can see in figure 7, 49% of respondents believe that the most important feature

to improve are the brochures that focus on the history of the Roman town and the existing

monuments; 42% consider that the brochures should be available in a wider variety of languages

(Italian, French, for example). Besides that, the Spanish/Castilian brochures presented

some spelling mistakes that should be corrected. The maps should also be improved.

| BACK TO CONTENT



In addition, some respondents also suggested having brochures more directly aimed at

children (city friendly); that maps shouldn’t be limited to the Tourist Information Centre, but

also be made available throughout the city. There should also be a website with all the touristic

information.

Figure 7: aspects related to archaeological heritage that should be improved

117

On account of the reasons mentioned above, 18% of respondents did not answer the

question concerning monuments’ conditions. From the remaining, 63% believe that the conditions

were adequate as they allowed tourists to interact with the monuments. 19% disagree.

We understand that heritage is a connection with the past that must be valued and conserved.

Preservation and conservation are one of the first steps towards tourism development.

Preserving traces and remnants is the only way of preserving memories from the past. As a

result, heritage is only relevant for tourism if it is preserved. As we can conclude from the

analysis of figure 8, 58% of respondents believe that the preservation of heritage leads to preserving

local identity and traditions. 48% deems it important to get to know local history. We

can therefore establish a connection between heritage and the past and our ancestors’ legacy.

Figure 8: advantages of preserving archaeological heritage

BACK TO CONTENT |


118

Almost 50% (48.7%) from the total of respondents rate the preservation and enhancement

work carried out by the Braga municipality as good. It should, however, be noted that

19.6% described that work as being satisfactory, which is a higher percentage than those

that rated it as very good (17.3%).

In one of the questions tourists were asked to rank a set of elements based on their importance

for the touristic experience. In figure 9 we have the average importance rate

awarded to those elements. Since not all respondents addressed all the topics listed,

analysing this particular question and each item required some extra time.

Figure 9: ranking of each element’s importance for the touristic experience (average)

The scale ranged from 1 (not important) to 4 (very important). As it can be seen in the

previous analysis, tourists believe that the most important elements are: commodities and

facilities of the visited sites (WCs, shops, information desks/offices and resting areas), as well

as having readily available information in different languages, with each of these elements

achieving an average of 3.4 average on the importance scale. Respondents have repeatedly

made reference to the fact it is important to have information available in several languages.

The researchers also felt this need when they began carrying out the survey, for example, as

they had to translate it into French. Signposting and language (the fact that information was

laid out clearly and that it was easily understood by children) each had a 3.3 average, which

evidences their importance.

Based on tourists’ opinions, the least important elements are: Interactive Games; Virtual

Reality; Educational Material; and Audio Guides, each respectively achieving the averages of

2, 2.3, 2.6 and 2.6.

It can, therefore, be concluded that tourists do not consider the use of technology as

being particularly relevant. This can be explained by the lack of sensitivity of tourists regarding

the use of technology in this particular setting.

| BACK TO CONTENT



A comprehensive analysis of the experience as a whole reveals that 54% of tourists rate

the city of Braga’s tourist offer as good, with 19% rating it as satisfactory and other 19% as

very good. If you break down tourists’ motivations, most tourists are attracted by culture.

Drawing a parallel between the ranking of the tourist offer and the number of annual leisure

trips, it becomes apparent that the more tourists travel, the more their satisfaction level decreases:

tourists travelling 3 or more times a year tend to rate the tourist offer as satisfactory

rather than as very good. A trend that is also noticeable in tourists travelling 2 to 3 times a

year. As tourists travel more, they become more demanding regarding the destinations they

select. In addition, they also have a wider range of experiences from which to draw comparisons.

As a result, their satisfaction level tends to be lower. From the total of respondents,

9% did not answer this question claiming that they had only been in the city for a very short

period of time or had just arrived.

In order to be able to compare their experience in Braga with previous experiences,

tourists were asked rate their experience on a scale from 1 (bad) to 5 (very good). 8% of respondents

did not answer the question. The final average (based on a total of 248 responses)

was 3.81. 50% awarded a 4, 27% a 3, 13% a 5, and only 2% a 2. We could, therefore, confirm

that the more a tourist travels, the harder to please he or she becomes. There are several

reasons that support this assumption. First of all, the more you travel, the more your expectations

grow. This means it is harder to meet experienced tourists’ expectations. On the other

hand, because they are more knowledgeable of the world and themselves, tourists also become

more demanding and observing.

By correlating the satisfaction level of this experience with the reasons why they decided

to visit Braga, we can observe that of the 28 tourists that made a reference to archaeological

heritage, 12 awarded the experience a 4; 11 a 3; and only 5 awarded it a 5.

Finally, tourists were asked about what they liked and disliked the most about their experience.

The positive points highlighted by tourists were the people, and the fact they were

polite, helpful and welcoming, as well as the preservation of monuments and other sites in

the city. Tourists stressed the fact that the city was clean, and that there were relevant monuments,

including the Historical Centre. Tourists also highlighted the city’s Churches and the

role played by Religion, specially the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus and the surrounding area; Gastronomy,

cafés and restaurants. Only a small percentage of respondents (about 10 people)

mentioned Archaeological Heritage, Bracara Augusta and the Roman Fair, that took place in

May. Throughout the 4 days in which the Roman Fair took place, tourists were pleasantly

surprised by Roman Braga. Many of the tourists visiting the city at this time had no previous

knowledge of the event, and were caught by surprise (which can be considered a communication

problem and brings on the question of whether the city is adequately promoting and

advertising its events).

As for negative points, tourists refer the lack of information on monuments, namely

opening and closing schedules and background/history. Tourists also complained about the

lack of accessibility in certain areas of the city and the fact that some of the monuments visited

were not child friendly. Some tourists also showed their dissatisfaction towards the fact

they had to pay €2 to get into the Cathedral. The lack of public transport, signposting and

the need for more appropriate maps were also mentioned. Tourists believe that the number

of foreign languages spoken is insufficient. There is a general lack of knowledge regarding

119

BACK TO CONTENT |


120

other languages, and most particularly English, as the local community and people working

in cafés and restaurants have problems communicating in that language. Some tourists considered

the city to be very small, with some areas being underused: infrastructures, houses,

abandoned shops. Traffic, parking and the existence of parking meters are other negative

points mentioned.

With regards to Bracara Augusta, tourists believe it is not being promoted correctly and

that there are problems in communication, as no references to the Roman City are to be

found in Guides such as the Michelin Guide, which is the most popular guide amongst cultural

and archaeological tourists. Notwithstanding, tourists believe that the city’s heritage is well

preserved and were positively impressed by the Roman Baths of Alto da Cividade.

Following this analysis, it can be inferred that there is general lack of awareness of the

public regarding the existence of archaeological ruins. Bearing in mind that the tourists that

visit Braga are mostly Cultural Tourists, and considering that archaeological heritage is within

the scope of this type of tourism, it can be considered that the city’s municipality has been neglecting

the development and preservation of these elements. Taking into account the touristic

benefits of archaeological heritage, more attention should be given to these elements.

As for the heritage of Bracara Augusta, an adequate Interpretative Plan should be put

into place, as to make the roman remains more appealing and accessible to a wider variety

of public. The fact that there is a considerable amount of remains is not enough to make the

area appealing from a touristic point of view. It is essential to find ways to get tourists involved

and get their attention.

Therefore, besides improving certain basic conditions in order to make the experience

more enjoyable for tourists (by improving maps, informative brochures and signposting), it

is believed that the city still has a long way to go concerning the improvement of the state

of its archaeological heritage.

Conclusion and recommendations

This study is only a part of a more in-depth research that is currently being carried out.

It aims at questioning and helping to understand important concepts, mostly those related

to tourism experience. The authors have elaborated on the concept of experience by highlighting

the different stages that make up the process, the role played by stakeholders, as

well as external and internal factors that exert influence on the final outcome. Touristic experience

is a complex process that should not be analysed solely from the tourist’s perspective,

regardless of its unequivocal relevance.

As mentioned earlier, archaeological heritage is within the scope of cultural tourism.

However, the simple fact that it exists is not enough. It is essential to find ways to make archaeological

heritage more appealing to tourists.

The new trends in the industry have shown a growing interest in this kind of tourism.

Moreover, cultural tourists are commonly expected to be more demanding and aware of

their surroundings. That is the case of Braga, where culture is considered to be the prime

driving force of tourism. Tourists are increasingly more interested in having contact with cultures,

traditions and ways of living that are different from their own. They long to understand

and connect to their past through their ancestor’s heritage. As a result, heritage, the link between

the past and the present, becomes even more relevant.

| BACK TO CONTENT



Future research and studies should focus on developing actions that make it possible

to qualify touristic experience, such as the creation of an adequate Interpretative Plan, that

focus on improving Bracara Augusta archaeological heritage’s conditions. The qualification

of Roman remains encompasses a wide range of actions: improving existing signs, developing

more comprehensive maps that include appropriate routes, developing informative materials,

and creating a strong image for Bracara Augusta. The image of the Roman city and its

promotion should not be neglected, as it is essential to send out the right message to tourists.

As we have determined, even though tourist visit the musealized areas, they are not familiar

with the name Bracara Augusta. Braga has a wide range of resources available and holds the

potential of having an excellent tourist offer. However, it is vital that those resources are

qualified, as to enhance visitor’s touristic experience in the city.

These will be the issues to explore in future research.

121

references

Anderson, T., D. (2007). The tourist in the experience economy. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and

Tourism, 7(1), 46-58.

Beeho, A., J.; Prentice, R. C. (1997): Conceptualizing the experiences of heritage tourists. Tourism Management.

18 (2), pp. 75-87.

Cutler, S., Q.; Carmichael, B., A. (2010). The Dimensions of the Tourist Experience. The Tourism and

Leisure Experience: Consumer and Managerial Perspectives, Chapter 1, 3-26.

Delgado, M.; Martins, M. e Lemos, F., S. (1989). Dossier-Salvamento de Bracara Augusta (1976-1989.

Braga: Forum 6, 3-39.

Heimtun, B.; Abelsen, B. (2011). The Tourist Experience and Bonding. Current Issues in Tourism, 15 (5),

425-439.

Holloway, J., C. (1998). The business of tourism. Harlow: Longman.

Jackson, M., S.; White, G., N.; Schmierer, C., L. (1996): Tourism experiences within an attributional

framework. Annals of Tourism Research, 23 (4), 798-810.

Jafari, J. (2000). Encyclopedia of Tourism. London: Routledge.

Larsen, S. (2007). Aspects of a Psychology of the Tourist Experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality

and Tourism, 7(1), 7-18.

Leask, A.; Yeoman, I. (1999). Heritage visitor attractions an operations management perspective. London:

Continuum. Chapter 8, pp. 110-126.

Li, Y. (2000). Geographical consciousness and Tourism Experience. Annals of Toursim Research, 27 (4),

863-883.

Maddux, James E. (1999). Expectancies and the social–cognitive perspective: Basic principles, processes,

and variables, in How expectancies Shape Experience. , Kirsch, Irving (Ed), Washington, DC, uS:

American Psychological Association, XIV, 17-39.

Martins, M. (1992-93). História e Memória de Bracara Augusta: um difícil diálogo passado-presente.

Braga: Fórum, 12/13, 3-15.

Martins, M.; Fontes, L. (2007-08). Uma estratégia para o Património Bracarense: a criação de um Parque

Cultural Europeu. Braga: Forum, 42/43, 255-286.

MeKercher, B.; Cros, D., H. (2002). Cultural Tourism: the partnership between tourism and cultural heritage

management. New York: THHP.

Nuryanti, W. (1996): Heritage and Postmodern Tourism. Annals of Tourirm Research. 23 (2), 249-260.

O’Dell T. (2007). Tourist experiences and academic junctures. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and

Tourism, 7(1), 34-45.

Otto, J., & Richie, J. (1996). The service experience in tourism. Tourism Management, 17 (3), 165 174.

Pine, J., & Gilmore, J. H. (1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 97-

105.

Raj, R.; Griffin, K.; Morpeth, N. (2013). Cultural Tourism. London: Cabi. Chapter 6,163-177.

Ryan, C. (2002). The Tourist Experience. London: Continuum.

BACK TO CONTENT |


122

Santos, D. S. Abreu, I. B. Cutrim, K. D. G. (2014). Tour pedagógico nos lugares memória. Revista Turismo

& Desenvolvimento. 21/22. 67-79.

Tung, V., W., S. Ritchie, j., R., B. (2011). Exploring the essence of memorable tourism experiences. Annals

of Tourism Research, 38 (4), 1367–1386.

Vittersù, J.; Vorkinn, M.; Vistad, O., I.; Vaagland, J. (2000). Tourist Experiences and attractions. Annals

of Tourism Research, 27(2), 432-450.

| BACK TO CONTENT

CrOSS-NaTIONal aND ExPErIENTIal COmParISON

IN NaTUral ParKS (FraNCE verSuS TaIWaN)

Anne-Marie Lebrun 1 , Che-Jen Su 2 ,

Lhéraud Jean-Luc 3 , Marsac Antoine 4 , Bouchet Patrick 5

123

abSTraCT

The aim of this article is to compare protected natural parks such as experiential contexts in France

(Morvan) and in Taiwan (Yangmingshan) providing two different experiences for visitors: extraordinary

and memorable versus ordinary and customary (Carù and Cova, 2006, 2007). Each experiential context

enables the distinction of real visitors’ experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) inside each park. We draw

theoretical support from the concept of experience to analyze both parks with different experiential

contexts - company driven vs co-driven based on geophysical characteristics, actors and stakeholdersand

different visitor experiences - education, esthetic, entertainment, escapism and bodily. A previous

qualitative study showed that the Yangmingshan Park could be characterized as an “extra-ordinary”

company driven experiential context while the Morvan Park could be characterized as a more “ordinary”

co-driven experiential context being basically forest. The quantitative study analyzed real visitors’ experiences

(similarities and differences) in both parks with 500 for each. Based on Pine and Gilmore’s

realms of experience (1999) as well as Bouchet and Lebrun’s sought experiences frameworks (2004)

the quantitative results showed the moderator effect of country on the relationship between experiences

and satisfactory on one hand and between experiences and memorability on the other hand.

The results underlined the link between experiential context and real experiences and highlight the interest

in an analysis framework of experiences, adapted on one hand from Carù and Cova (2006, 2007)

and on the other hand from Pine and Gilmore (1999) and Bouchet and Lebrun (2004).

KEYWOrDS

Experiential context; real experiences; protected natural parks; France; Taiwan

Introduction

For a decade, the analyses of protected natural parks have been mostly focusing either

on the development of their attractiveness in terms of attendance by residents and/or

tourists, or on the preservation of their resources in a sustainable development perspective.

Public enthusiasm for active leisure activities raises the problem of regulating the flow of

people and managing both the activities and the protected areas. Today, protected natural

parks are promotes as a unique site destination for visitors living or searching for more “extraordinary

or non-ordinary” experiences highly heterogeneous in terms of motivations and

services. The importance given to the concept of experience, both by those providing the

experiential context and by the visitors themselves, is an important object of study in the

field of tourism research. The study of real visitors’ experiences (tourists and excursionists)

1

SPMS Research Laboratory, university of Burgundy, Dijon, France, anne-marie.lebrun@u-bourgogne.fr

2

Department of Restaurant, Hotel and Institutional Management, Fu Jen Catholic university, New Taipei City, Taiwan

040084@mail.fju.edu.tw

3

SPMS Research Laboratory, university of Burgundy, Dijon, France, jean-luc.lheraud@u-bourgogne.fr

4

SPMS Research Laboratory, university of Burgundy, Dijon, France, antoine.marsac@u-bourgogne.fr

5

SPMS Research Laboratory, university of Burgundy, Dijon, France, patrick.bouchet@u-bourgogne.fr

BACK TO CONTENT |


124

in protected natural parks has never been approached by considering each park as a unique

experiential context in terms of geophysical environment, recreational practices and product

and service offer management.

The theoretical support of this article is based on Caru and Cova’s experiential context

continuum (2006, 2007) to categorize protected natural park and on Pine and Gilmore’s four

realms of experience framework (1998, 1999) as well as Bouchet and Lebrun’s sought experiences

frameworks (2004) analyzing real visitors’ experiences. According to Carù and Cova

(2006, 2007), three categories allow differentiating consumer experiences by experiential

contexts: two are controlled by organization (company-driven and co-driven) and one by consumers

(consumer-driven). When producing specific experiences, private or public organizations

can orchestrate or produce experiential contexts in which consumers can live different

kinds of experiences. These categories are named company-driven and co- driven in the Carù

and Cova’s continuum (2006, 2007). The consumer-driven dimension does not apply to the

experiential context such as a protected natural park because experiences are developed by

the park manager with all stakeholders.

The experiential context is the gathering of stimuli such as products, geophysical environment

and recreational practices enabling the experience to occur. Experiential contexts

are provided by a public or/and private managers in the field of company-driven or co-driven

according to the level of production of experiences to visitors (Figure 1). According to Carù

and Cova’s continuum (2006, 2007), each protected natural park can be considered as a specific

assembly of stimulus (product and service offers by providers) and stimuli (geophysical

environment and recreational practices). Depending on the experiential context offered by

the protected natural park, the visitors’ experiences (tourists and excursionists) will thus be

more or less extraordinary (and memorable) or ordinary (and customary).

This article compares two protected natural parks, the Yangmingshan Park in Taiwan

and the Morvan Park in France, as two specific experiential contexts providing two different

experiences for visitors: extraordinary and memorable versus ordinary and customary (Carù

and Cova, 2006, 2007). The Yangmingshan Park is an example of a company-driven experiential

context while the Morvan Park is an example of co-driven experiential context.

Theoretical Framework

Protected natural parks as an experiential context

To a certain extent, protected natural parks are thematized as “natural” and “certified”

by a label whether national (State), continental (e.g., Europe) or international (e.g., uNESCO).

Governments and/or private agencies manage them, ensure the entry price, the accessibility

of areas, tourist traffic, etc., promote and sustain them. Depending on local resources and

specific management arrangements, each protected natural park appears as a single experiential

environment encouraging visitors (tourists and day visitors) to multiple experiences.

The experiential context is “an assembly of stimulus (products) and stimuli (environment,

activities) designed to create an experience” (Carù and Cova, 2006, 44). This definition considers

the concept of experiential context even in non-commercial activities or the dimension

of private consumption. To offer specific experiences, the organization produces experiential

contexts such as company-driven or co-driven in which the customers can immerse themselves

to access the experience (Carù and Cova, 2006, 2007).

| BACK TO CONTENT

CROSS-NATIONAL AND EXPERIENTIAL COMPARISON IN NATuRAL PARKS (FRANCE VERSuS TAIWAN)

If the experiential context is a place, the physical and spatial planning will be completed

by natural and/or artificial sensory stimulations as well as by more or less formalized scripts

codifying the interactions of client-facing staff (Orsingher, 2006). Caru and Cova (2006, 2007)

suggest ranking the experiences produced through classifying the experiential contexts in

three categories. Two experiential contexts are controlled by the organization such as company-driven

(more controlled) or co-driven (less controlled). In the case of a company-driven

experiential context, consumers are immersed in hyper-real, thematized, closed or locked

and secure contexts (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995), amusement parks and flagship stores being

the prototypical examples of the company-driven category. In the co-driven category, experiences

are produced by the organization and the customers. The organization provides an

experience platform to offer a large variety of experiences but the consumers shape their

own experience from the offered elements (Carù and Cova, 2006, 2007). The consumers’ active

participation is essential to the production of experiences, sports tourism and live shows

being the prototypical examples of the co-driven category.

In the case of protected natural parks, experiential contexts are either company-driven

for highly controlled contexts or co-driven for less controlled contexts along the Carù and

Cova’s continuum. On one hand, parks are closed and filtered (or paying), thematized (mountains,

volcanoes, water zones, etc.) and monitored by police and secure for visitors. On the

other hand, parks are highly accessible and open (and free), thematized around iconic fauna

or flora (such as a reserve) yet not quite safe for visitors and with little police supervision.

The link between the experiential context and the experience can be established by

keeping three dimensions of experience (person, object and situation) (Roederer, 2012). The

experiential context matches with the dyad Object-Situation while the experience consists

in the interaction among the three components. The daily life can be seen as a succession of

experiential contexts enabling any kinds of experiences more or less extraordinary and memorable

or more ordinary and customary. Depending on the kinds of experiential contexts offered

by the protected natural park, the visitors’ experiences are more or less extraordinary

or ordinary.

Based on specific recreational practices, geophysical characteristics and product and

service offer management resources, a previous qualitative study shows that the Yangmingshan

Park (Taiwan) provides an experiential context with more extraordinary and memorable

experiences while the Morvan Park (France) provides an experiential context with more ordinary

and customary experiences (Lebrun, Su, Lheraud, Marsac & Bouchet, 2015). These

results enable to differentiate real experiences lived by visitors in each protected natural

park (Figure 1). The Yangmingshan Park is characterized as an enclaved and secured scenery

with extraordinary and memorable experiences for visitors such as esthetics (flowers) and

escapism (a change from somehow artificial and polluted urban life) but also cultural (education),

physical activity (bike, trail) and entertainment (volcanic eruptions) characteristics.

This extraordinary positioning of the Yangmingshan Park explains the importance of the visitors’

experience.

In contrast, the Morvan Park is characterized as an unsecured and non enclaved place

and a more ordinary or customary forest experiences for visitors in Europe such as entertainment

activities related to lodging, restaurants and festivals, and education activities offered

by the park house for environmental aspects and physical activities such as outdoor

leisure activities for urban residents from Paris or Dijon.

125

BACK TO CONTENT |


Figure 1: analysis framework of experiences in a protected natural park (adapted from Carù & Cova, 2006,

2007; and Pine & gilmore, 1999)

126

Study of real experiences in a protected natural park

The study of tourist experience and hospitality has been a subject of particular attention

in research. Certain empirical studies have confirmed that tourists’ memory and customer

satisfaction affect tourist experience positively. According to Jennings and colleagues (2009),

the term experience is not new in the understanding of human interactions with people,

places, spaces, products, services, organizations, governments and cultures. For them, the

newest fact has been the increased emphasis on experience, especially within the tourist

and leisure sectors: authenticity, motivations, gender, identity, cultural differences, activities,

satisfaction, etc. In addition, Bouchet and Lebrun (2004) also suggested refining the analysis

based on physical activity in outdoor tourism in order to better understand, on one hand,

the prevailing desires and choices before the stay and, on the other hand, the behaviors during

the stay. The number of natural parks has been growing worldwide in all potential environments

including inside or near major cities or capitals. Indeed, natural parks are

increasingly used for more or less active or adventurous outdoor recreation like rock climbing,

mountain biking, kayaking, rafting or skiing (Hardiman and Burgin, 2011).

The influence of tourist experience in the highly diversified tourist offer is recognized

by the literature and underpins the qualitative approaches. However, the lack of quantitative

validation limits acceptation by providers. Certain research studies (Borrie & Roggenbuck,

2001; Hull, Stewart & Yi, 1992; etc.) or conferences like Tourist Experiences: Meanings, Motivations,

Behaviors (2009) nonetheless focus on measurement models of the tourism experience.

The effectiveness of the typology of the four realms of experience put forward by

| BACK TO CONTENT


Pine and Gilmore (1998, 1999) seems to depend on the contexts associated with the tourist

offer, such as accommodation (Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007), festivals, historical sites and museums

(Kim, Borges & Chon, 2006; Lee, 2013; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011). Measuring the

relative effectiveness of Pine and Gilmore’s experiential realms seems relevant in a naturebased

destination such as a protected natural park where diverse experiences coexist in a

single space to respond to different tourist preferences (Kang & Gretzel, 2012; Musa & Kassim,

2012). Therefore, in addition to Pine and Gilmore’s four realms of experiences (1998,

1999), it seems appropriate to examine and compare how the physical activity dimension

affects or alters the experiences of visitors, hikers or tourists in protected natural parks today.

Tourists’ experiences at the destination are a more powerful driver of future behavior

because these experiences determine customer satisfaction and memorable experiences

(Kim, 2014; Oh et al. 2007). Two outcomes of experiences should be used. On one hand

tourist satisfaction, which is a typical outcome of tourist experience research (Oh et al. 2007;

Hosany and Witham, 2010; Pine and Gilmore, 2002), and on the other hand the memorability

of the experience (Andersson 2007; Larsen 2007; Oh et al. 2007). Accordingly, the following

hypotheses can be submitted (Figure 1):

H1) the more the experiential context produced is extraordinary and memorable (thematized

and secure), the more the resulting visitors’ experiences produced have a positive

impact on satisfaction and memory. The visitors’ experiences are “closed and more secure”

with entertainment and escapism dominant dimensions;

H2) the more the experiential context produced is ordinary and customary (non-thematized

and unsecured), the more the resulting visitors’ experiences produced have a less

positive impact on satisfaction and memory. The visitors’ experiences are “open and less secure”

with education and physical activity dominant dimensions.

H3) based on both previous hypotheses the profile of visitors’ dominant real experiences

could be different in each protected natural park.

127

methods

The selection and comparison of both natural parks, the Morvan Park in France and the Yangmingshan

Park in Taiwan, were based on several criteria. The parks should be protected

(label) and natural, located near major capitals (Paris vs Taipei) or national cities (Dijon) to

generate a potentially significant flow of visitors. The experiential context of each park should

be different and should provide different kinds of experiences for visitors: one more extraordinary

(Yangmingshan Park) and the other more ordinary (Morvan Park) (Lebrun et al, 2015).

The quantitative study analyzed the effect of specific experiential context through a comparison

of real visitors’ experiences on five dimensions (esthetics, escapism, education, entertainment

and physical activity) in both countries. A total of 1,000 usable responses were

obtained, 500 in Taiwan and 500 in France. A sample profile is summarized in table 1.

Three sections compose the survey questionnaire. The first section consists in questions

regarding visits such as the first visit or the multiple visits to the park and the visitors’ source

of information. The second section measures the experience at the park by means of a five

dimension scale referring to the four realms of experience adapted from Pine and Gilmore

(1998, 1999) and one dimension relates to «bodily involvement »: education, esthetic, en-

BACK TO CONTENT |


Table 1: Profile of survey respondents

128

Variables Frequency Variables Frequency

First Visit

Yes

No

Gender

Male

Female

Taiwan

(N=500)

7%

93%

54%

46%

France

(N=500)

5%

95%

51%

49%

Age

- 20

21/30

31/40

41/50

51/60

61 and more

Taiwan

(N=500)

5%

24%

29%

23%

14%

5%

France

(N=500)

13%

33%

15%

17%

16%

6%

tertainment, escapism and physical activity. The construction of this second section is based

on previous research (Czegledi, Su, Lebrun, Lheraud,, Marsac, & Bouchet, 2013; Hallman et

al., 2012; Hosany & Witham, 2010; Lebrun, Su & Bouchet, 2014; Oh et al., 2007; Ryan & Glendon,

1998). The scale includes twenty experience items evaluated on a 7-point-Likert-type

scale. The third section collects demographic information including gender, age, marital status

and education background. Exploratory Factorial Analyses and Confirmatory Factorial Analyses

were conducted by using SPSS 22 and AMOS 22 to validate this scale of protected natural

park experience in both countries. The Exploratory Factor Analysis using the PCA (principal

component analysis) method with a varimax rotation was conducted for both studies. The

number of factors was determined by using an eigenvalue greater than 1, and the percentage

of variance was explained. In both cases, KMO>0.7 and Bartlett’s test is significant.

results

validation of park experiences in Morvan (France)

In the analysis of the French park, the varimax exploratory factor analysis loaded items

on five factors. The reliabilities of the five dimensions of the scale were determined by means

of the Cronbach’s alphas. Neither loading nor the Cronbach’s alphas of the esthetics dimension

were significant. With the deletion of the esthetics dimension, the experience scales for

the park sample achieved structurally reliable measurement properties. As shown in Table

2, all indicators of the four dimensions show significant extractions higher than 0.5 and factor

loadings higher than 0.7. The Cronbach’s alphas of the four dimensions are between .90 and

.95 (Hair et al., 1998). A confirmatory factor analysis was then used for the results (Table 3).

The measurement model used in this study results in a good fit (X 2 = 340.52; d.f. = 98, CFI =

.97, RMSEA = .070), based on the selected approximation fit indices (e.g., CFI and RMSEA).

validation of park experiences in Yangmingshan (Taiwan)

As shown in Table 4, all indicators have significant extractions higher than 0.5 and factor

loadings higher than 0.7. The Cronbach’s alphas of the four dimensions are between .84 and

.95 (Hair et al., 1998). A confirmatory factor analysis was then conducted (Table 5). The measurement

model used in this study results in a good fit (X2 = 340.088; d.f. = 98, CFI = .97,

RMSEA = .065), based on the selected approximation fit indices (e.g., CFI and RMSEA).

| BACK TO CONTENT


Table 2: results of exploratory factorial analysis for the morvan regional Park (France)

EDuCATION

7.1 The experience has made

me more knowledgeable

7.2 I learned a lot

7.3 It stimulated my curiosity to

learn new things

7.4 It was a real learning experience

Factor

loading

.867

.886

.876

.876

Extraction Means CR AVE Alpha

.837

.854

.835

.839

4.61

4.50

4.52

4.67

.926 .759 .926

129

ENTERTAINMENT

79 Activities of others were

amusing to watch

710 Watching others perform

was captivating

711 I really enjoyed watching

what others were doing

712 Activities of others were

fun to watch

.903

.917

.891

.861

.866

.880

.838

.797

4.96

4.89

4.78

4.88

.949 .824 .949

ESCAPISM

713 I felt I played a different

character here

714 I felt like I was living in a different

time or place

715 The experience here let me

imagine being someone else

716 I completely escaped from

reality

.754

.848

.797

.828

.660

.750

.702

.731

4.23

4.29

4.01

4.50

.906 .709 .903

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

717 Just doing physical activities

here was very pleasant

718 Physical activities presents

were very attractive

719 Physical experiences here

provides pleasure to my senses

720 I practiced physical activities

to enjoy myself

.900

.934

.947

.941

.832

.892

.907

.890

5.23

5.18

5.30

5.31

.938 .791 .937

Total variance explained :

KMO

Barlett’s test for sphericity

83.1%

0.895

X2 = 1396.507*

Note: Principal components analysis with varimax rotation. *p<0.001.

Table 3: results of confirmatory factorial analysis for the morvan regional Park (France)

Chi-square d.f P Cmin/df GFI AGFI RMSEA NFI CFI TLI

340.524 98 .000 3.475 .922 .892 .070 .954 .967 .960

BACK TO CONTENT |


Table 4: results of exploratory factorial analysis for Yangmingshan Park (Taiwan)

130

Your experience at the park

EDuCATION

7.1 The experience has made me

more knowledgeable

7.2 I learned a lot

7.3 It stimulated my curiosity to

learn new things

7.4 It was a real learning experience

ENTERTAINMENT

79 Activities of others were amusing

to watch

710 Watching others perform

was captivating

711 I really enjoyed watching

what others were doing

712 Activities of others were fun

to watch

ESCAPISM

713 I felt I played a different character

here

714 I felt like I was living in a different

time or place

715 The experience here let me

imagine being someone else

716 I completely escaped from

reality

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

717 Just doing physical activities

here was very pleasant

718 Physical activities presents

were very attractive

719 Physical experiences here

provides pleasure to my senses

720 I practiced physical activities

to enjoy myself

Total variance explained :

KMO

Barlett’s test for sphericity

Factor

loading

.865

.882

.881

.871

.901

.916

.891

.860

.752

.841

.799

.824

.898

.929

.939

.939

Extraction Means CR AVE Alpha

.839

.854

.845

.839

.866

.880

.840

.797

.661

.751

.708

.731

.833

.892

.907

.891

82.0%

0.8679

X2 = 6986.200*

4.61

4.50

4.52

4.67

4.96

4.89

4.78

4.88

4.23

4.29

4.01

4.50

5.23

5.18

5.30

5.31

Note: Principal components analysis with varimax rotation. p<0.001.

.937 .787 .938

.937 .789 .938

.862 .609 .860

.954 .838 .954

Table 5: results of confirmatory factorial analysis for the Yangmingshan National Park (Taiwan)

Chi-square d.f P Cmin/df GFI AGFI RMSEA NFI CFI TLI

340.524 98 .000 3.107 .930 .903 .065 .957 .970 .964

| BACK TO CONTENT


results of the comparative analysis of protected natural parks in France and in Taiwan

Before conducting hierarchical regression analyses we factor-scored all of the predictors

and the moderator to avoid multicollinearity caused by the creation of the interaction term

(Su et al, 2015). Table 6 summarizes the results of a series of hierarchical regression analyses

conducted to test whether, as hypothesized, the experiential components explained the

experience outcomes and interacted with the country. In model 1, the following were

controlled for in the regression due to their possible confounding effects on the visitors’

experience outcomes: respondents’ gender, age, and residency; their previous visit to parks;

the length of their stay in nights; and the size of the travel party in number of participants.

131

Table 6: results of hierarchical regression analyses

Variables Memory Satisfaction

Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Controls

First visit

People

Nights

Gender

Age

Resident

.090**

.093**

.011

.059+

.076*

.071*

.028

.079***

.018

.053*

-.007

.039

.035

.076**

.025

.060*

.001

.031

.082*

.067*

.007

.029

.157***

.060+

.041

.060*

.012

.018

.105***

.034

.048+

.055*

.024

.025

.093**

.021

Predictors

Physical activiy exp

Education exp

Entertainment exp

Escapism exp

Country (moderator)

.292***

.377***

.292***

.314***

.193***

.310***

.259***

.362***

-.061*

.293***

.284***

.236***

.233***

.172***

.176***

.238***

.334***

-.094**

Interactions

Physical activity x

country

Education exp x

country

Entertainment exp x

country

Escapism exp x country

.132***

.080**

.003

-.085*

.166***

.151***

-.062+

-.161**

Overall R2

R2

Model F-value

.028***

4.79

.431***

.403***

74.97

.450***

.019***

53.57

.038***

6.540

.318***

.272***

44.43

.342***

.042***

35.68

+ p< .1, * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 (two-tailed)

In Model 2, testing H1 and H2, which concerns the main effects of the experience, we

added the four independent variables— physical activity, education, escapism and

entertainment—to the regression. As shown in Table 6, Model 2 was significant overall

(memory, F = 74.97, p < .001; satisfaction, F = 44.43, p < .001) and the four variables explained

a significant amount of the variation in experience outcomes beyond that of the control

BACK TO CONTENT |


132

variables (memory, R2 = .403, p < .001; satisfaction, △R2 = .2723, p < .001). To test H3,

which concern the moderating effect of country offering different contexts, we included

country and the four possible two-way interaction terms (physical activity × country,

education × country, escapism × country, and entertainment × country) in the same

regression model (model 3) so that the effect of each interaction term was revealed

simultaneously and compared with others accordingly (Su et al., 2012). As shown in Table 6,

Model 3 was significant overall (memory, F = 53.57, p < .001; satisfaction, F = 35.68, p < .001)

and the entered interaction terms significantly increased the amount of variation explained

by the model (memory, △R2 = .020, p < .001; satisfaction, △R2 = .042, p < .001).

comparing the main effects of experiential components and testing and comparing

the moderating effects of country

Model 2 (Table 6), to test H1 and H2, shows that all of the four predicting terms were

significant and positive for experience outcome measures. Based on the positivity of the experience

outcomes on satisfaction they generated, more bodily and intellectual experiences,

that is, physical activity (satisfaction, b = .29, p<.001) and education (satisfaction, b = .28,

p<.001) appeared to be more effective than less bodily and intellectual experiences, that is,

escapism (satisfaction, b = .23, p<.001) and entertainment (satisfaction, b = .24, p<.01). Based

on the positivity of the experience outcomes on memory they generated a more intellectual

experience that is education (memory, b = .38, p<.001) appeared to be more effective than

escapism (memory, b = .31, p<.001), physical activity (memory, b = .29, p<.01) and entertainment

(memory, b = .29, p<.01). So H1 and H2 are validated.

Model 3 (Table 6), to test H3, shows that country significantly moderated three of the

fourth relationships between experiential components and experience outcomes in the predicted

direction: education (memory, b = .08, p<.01; satisfaction, b = .15, p<.001); escapism

(memory, b = -.08, p<.05; satisfaction, b = -.16, p<.01); physical activity (memory, b = .13,

p<.001; satisfaction, b = .17, p<.001); and entertainment (memory, b = .003, p>.05; satisfaction,

b = -.06, p<.1). The positive beta weights of the interaction terms state that the relationships

between visitors’ experiences and experience outcomes are stronger for visitors

from France rather than Taiwan. In the same vein, the negative beta weights of the interaction

terms suggested that the relationships between visitors’ experiences and experience outcomes

were weaker for visitors from France rather than Taiwan. In addition, physical activity

x country, escapism x country and education x country had greater effects (i.e., in terms of

the absolute value of the beta weights) than entertainment x country on satisfaction. Physical

activity x country had greater effects (i.e., in terms of the absolute value of the beta weights)

than escapism x country, education x country and entertainment x country on memory. Some

differences exist between both parks providing support for H3.

Discussion

comparison of the visitors’ experiences in both natural parks

Depending on the experiential context offered by the protected natural park, the visitors’

| BACK TO CONTENT


experiences (tourists and excursionists) will thus be more or less extraordinary (and memorable)

or ordinary (and customary). A previous study (Lebrun et al., 2015) showed that the

Yangmingshan Park in Taiwan provides an experiential context with more extraordinary and

memorable experiences while the Morvan Park in France provides an experiential context

with more ordinary and customary experiences. The results of the quantitative study indicated

the distinction of real visitors’ experiences (Pine & Gilmore, 1999) inside each park with entertainment

and escapism in Taiwan and education and physical activity in France. The main

findings showed that the experiences in both parks were based either on the secure side or

on the open side of the continuum of the visitors’ experience. Based on experiential contexts

the “active-reactive” dimension is less important than the “secure-open” dimension.

Based on the findings, a framework (Figure 2) is proposed to identify the profiles of visitors’

dominant real experiences in each park. This framework which is adapted from Carù

and Cova (2006, 2007), Pine and Gilmore (1999) and Bouchet and Lebrun (2004) shows that

the visitors’ experience is comprised of two axis representing four components including entertainment,

escapism, education and physical activity. Three of the four experiences came

from Pine and Gilmore’s realms of experience (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) and the fourth came

from Bouchet and Lebrun’ sought experiences (Bouchet and Lebrun, 2004).

The esthetics dimension which is the fourth component of Pine and Gilmore’s realms

of experience doesn’t differentiate both parks adequately because esthetics is everywhere

in a natural park that’s why this dimension is not a component of this framework. In this

sense, Pine and Gilmore’ scale (1998, 1999) is less efficient in some protected natural parks

such as the Morvan Park being an ordinary and customary experiential context. Both previous

studies using the four realms of experience (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Oh et al., 2007) were

carried out in closed and artificial or hyper real areas, B&B establishments and cruise boats,

where the esthetics dimension is highly important.

Both axis refer to individual perspective with one intellectual dimension and one bodily

dimension. Along the intellectual dimension axis, less intellectual experience characterizes

entertainment while more intellectual experience characterizes education. The bodily dimension

axis posits on one hand less bodily experience described by escapism and on the

other hand more bodily experience described by physical activity (Bouchet and Lebrun, 2004;

Walls et al., 2011).

Figure 2: Profile of visitors' dominant real experiences in each protected natural park.

133

BACK TO CONTENT |


134

Conclusion-Perspectives

The results of this cross-country comparison of experiential contexts and visitors’ experiences

in protected natural parks (France versus Taiwan) underline the link between experiential

context and real experiences and highlight the interest in an analysis framework of

experiences, adapted on one hand from Carù and Cova (2006, 2007) and on the other hand

from Pine and Gilmore (1999) and Bouchet and Lebrun (2004). Experiential contexts such as

natural parks would be either company-driven for highly controlled contexts or co-driven for

less controlled contexts along the Carù and Cova’s continuum. On one hand, parks are closed

and filtered, thematized (mountains, volcanoes, water zones, etc.) and monitored by police

and secure for visitors. On the other hand, parks are highly accessible and open (and free),

thematized around iconic fauna or flora (such as a reserve) yet not quite safe for visitors and

with little police supervision. This article compares both protected natural parks as two specific

experiential contexts providing two different experiences for visitors: extraordinary and memorable

versus ordinary and customary (Carù and Cova, 2006, 2007). Each experiential context

enables the distinction of real visitors’ experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) inside each park.

These results question the scale based on Pine and Gilmore’s research (1998, 1999) for

protected natural parks, firstly through the removal of the esthetics dimension as discussed

previously and secondly because of the lack of social dimension. using the consumer experience

framework of Walls et al. (2011) enables to include social and physical dimensions as

well as extraordinary versus ordinary experiences. Based on these two backgrounds a framework

is proposed (figure 2) to depict the profile of visitors’ experiences in natural parks (protected

or not).

Finally, new studies should be conducted on other protected natural parks in the same

countries, as well as in other countries, to provide external validity of these results and also

to confirm the interest in using the experiential contexts continuum of Carù and Cova (2006,

2007) in the analysis of visitors’ experiences. It would first allow better identifying the visitors’

real experiences and the axis such as more active-more reactive and more secure and closed

versus more open and unsecure. Secondly, it would validate this new framework. These qualitative

and quantitative studies have to take into account two main characteristics of the experiential

contexts: firstly space can be more or less open and more or less regulated

(regulations can be more or less coercive and more or less supervised by the police or by

park rangers) and secondly the experiential context should be extraordinary or ordinary.

references

Anderson, T.D. (2007). The Tourist in the Experience Economy. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and

Tourism, 7(1), 46–58.

Borrie, B. & Roggenbuck, J. (2001). The dynamic, emergent, and multi-phasic nature of on-site wilderness

experiences. Journal of Leisure Research, 33, 202–228.

Bouchet, P. & Lebrun, A.M. (2004). Intérêt d’une approche par expériences recherchées dans la segmentation

de la clientèle : le cas du tourisme sportif d’action. Décisions Marketing, 35, pp. 39-48.

Carù, A. & Cova, B. (2006). Expériences de marque: Comment favoriser l’immersion du consommateur.

Décisions Marketing, 41, 43-52.

Carù, A. & Cova, B. (2007). Consuming experience. London, England: Rourtledge.

Czegledi, O., Su, O., Lebrun, A.M., Lheraud, J-L., Marsac, A. & Bouchet, P. (2013). Sustainable development

of tourism and leisure activities in Natural Parks in rural areas. Proposal of an international

comparative program, Sport Tourism and Local Sustainable Development Conference, Lille.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Firat, A. F., & Venkatesh, A. (1995). Liberatory postmodernism and the reenchantment of consumption.

Journal of consumer research, 22(3), 239.

Frochot, I. & Batat, W. (2013). Marketing and designing the tourist experience. Oxford, u.K.: Goodfellow

Publishers.

Hair, J.F., William, C., Black, Barry J. Babin, & Rolph E. Anderson (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis. Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Hallmann, K., Feiler, S., Müller, S. & Breuer, C. (2012). The interrelationship between sport activities

and the perceived winter sport experience. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 17(2), 145-163.

Hardiman, N. & Burgin, S. (2011). Canyoning adventure recreation in the Blue Mountains World Heritage

Area (Australia): The canyoners and canyoning trends over the last decade, Tourism Management,

32, pp. 1324-1331.

Holbrook, M.B. & Hirschman, E.C. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies,

feelings and fun, Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 132-140.

Hosany, S. & Witham, M. (2010). Dimensions of cruisers’ experiences, satisfaction, and intention to

recommend. Journal of Travel Research, 49(3), 351-364.

Hull, R., Stewart, W. & Yi, Y. (1992). Experience patterns: Capturing the dynamic nature of a recreation

experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 24, 240–252.

Jennings, G., Lee, Y., Ayling, A., Lunny, B., Cater, C. & Ollenburg, C. (2009). Quality tourism experience:

reviews, reflexions and research agendas. Journal of hospitality marketing and management, 18,

294-310.

Kang, M. & Gretzel, u. (2012). Effects of podcast tours on tourist experiences in a national park. Tourism

Management, 33(2), 440–455

Kim, H., Borges, M. C., & Chon, J. (2006). Impacts of environmental values on tourism motivation: The

case of FICA, Brazil. Tourism Management, 27(50), 957-967

Larsen, S. (2007). Aspects of a psychology of the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality

and Tourism, 7(1), 7-18.

Lebrun, A.M., Su C.S, & Bouchet, P. (2014). Comment mesurer et comparer les expériences touristiques

vécues par les visiteurs dans les Parcs Naturels en France et à Taiwan ?, Actes des 13èmeJournées

Normandes de Recherche sur la Consommation, Rouen, CD-Rom.

Lebrun, A.M., Su, C.J, Lheraud, J-L., Marsac A. & Bouchet, P. (2015). An international study of tourism

consumption in protected natural parks (France versus Taiwsalernoan), 9th Consumer Psychology

of Tourism, Hospitality, and Leisure Symposium, Namur, Belgique.

Lee, H.M. (2013). A Visitor Experience Scale: Historic Sites and Museums, A Ph. D. thesis presented to

the university of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.

Mehmetoglu, M. & Engen, M. (2011). Pine and Gilmore’s Concept of Experience Economy and Its Dimensions:

An Empirical Examination in Tourism. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality &

Tourism, 12, 237–255.

Musa, R. & Kassim, R.M. (2012). Factorial Structure and Psychometric Validation of Ecotourism Experiential

Value Construct: Insights from Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia. World Academy of

Science, Engineering and Technology, 69, 738-746.

Oh, H., Fiore, A. M., & Jeoung, M. (2007). Measuring experience economy concepts: Tourism applications.

Journal of Travel Research, 46(2), 119-132.

Orsingher, C. (2006). Le script de service: fondements du concept et applications au marketing des services.

Recherche et Applications en Marketing, 21(3), 115-128.

Pine, J. & Gilmore, J. (1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 76(4), 97–105.

Pine, J. & Gilmore, J. (1999). The experience economy: Work is theatre and every business is a stage.

Boston, united States: Boston Harvard Business School Press.

Gilmore, J. H., & Pine, B. J. (2002). Customer experience places: the new offering frontier. Strategy &

Leadership, 30(4), 4-11.

Roederer, C. (2012). Marketing et consommation expérientiels. Cormelles le Royal, France: EMS Management

& Société.

Ryan, C. & Glendon, I. (1998). Application of leisure motivation scale to tourism. Annals of Tourism Research,

25(1), 169-184.

Su, C. J., Lebrun, A. M., Bouchet, P., Wang, J. R., Lorgnier, N., & Yang, J. H. (In press). Tourists’ participation

and preference-related belief in co-creating value of experience: a nature-based perspective.

Service Business, 1-24.

Walls, A. R., Okumus, F., Wang, Y. R., & Kwun, D. J. W. (2011). An epistemological view of consumer experiences.

International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 10-21.

135

BACK TO CONTENT |

WHEN TOUrISm mEETS EDUCaTION - THE TOUrIST rOUTE

“CUlTUral rEmNaNTS OF THE mIDDlE agES IN PENEla”

Vivina Carreira 1 and Joana Azeredo 2

137

abSTraCT

This work aims at bringing to fruition for tourism the natural and cultural heritage of Penela municipality

through the proposal of a tourist route for cultural interpretation, anchored on the topic “cultural remnants

of the Middle Ages” and intended for young visitors. Penela is part of the territory of the urban

Network of the Castles and Medieval Town Walls of Mondego, displaying a considerable diversity of

ecosystems and landscapes and most particularly an impressively well conserved cultural built heritage.

Methodological resources encompassed literature review, particularly with regard to issues of interpretation

in Tourism and the Middle Ages. An inventory was made which covers natural and cultural resources,

and other infrastructure and services in Penela municipality, specifically those that in some way

serve the tourism sector. This identification of resources was conducted through bibliographical and in

situ research. The tourist route “Cultural Remnants of the Middle Ages in Penela”, while challenging the

young visitors to know the most relevant cultural aspects of Penela municipality, supporting them in the

recreation of the imaginary medieval world by way of interpretation, will also allow them to effectively

contribute to local development, as it invites visitors’ interaction with the local community.

KEYWOrDS

Culture, Interpretation tourism, Middle Ages, Penela, Tourist routes for children

Introduction

Tourist routes with cultural interpretation are considered a privileged means of awareness

and education for culture, because, as stated by Carter (s.d.: 4), the various forms of interpretation

help visitors to understand a little more about the places they visit, adding depth

to their experience, making the visit something more than a simple walk. They are also, and

above all, a way to get everyone to do their own reading of the heritage.

This is a fundamental idea of the theoretical framework that permeates the study presented

here and sustains the project which allows for the demonstration of the relationship

between tourism and the learning processes by streamlining interpreted tourist activities.

The tourist itinerary “Cultural Remnants of the Middle Ages in Penela” challenges the visitors

to know the most important cultural aspects of Penela municipality, supporting them in the

recreation of the imaginary medieval world by way of interpretation.

The territory of the urban Network of the Mondego Medieval Castles and Town Walls,

in addition to its diversity of landscapes and ecosystems, is a reference territory in the Portuguese

cultural heritage, among other features, for its vast archaeological and architectural

heritage. The county of Penela, part of the territory of this network, is one of the municipal-

1

Higher School of Agriculture, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra. Bencanta, 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal. Tel: +351-

239802940, Fax: +351- 239 802 979, E-mail: vivina@esac.pt

2

Higher School of Education, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Rua Dom João III – Solum, 3030-329 Coimbra,

Portugal. Tel: +351- 239793120, Fax: +351-239 401 461, E-mail: joanaazeredo@esec.pt

BACK TO CONTENT |


138

ities of all this territory, which very well kept preserved over the centuries, the vestiges of its

Romanization and subsequent medieval occupation.

This huge abundance of resources, on the one hand, made it difficult to design the route,

but, on the other, worked as an incentive because the work has evolved as a contribution to the

poor tourist offer of thematic routes in the region, particularly those aimed at young visitors.

Alongside the new frameworks of sustainable development, we considered appropriate

to integrate in the itinerary activities such as visits to cheese factories of artisan production

of Rabaçal Cheese, meals in local restaurants and overnight stay in the county. We now know

that the benefits of tourism projects applied to these territorial scales go beyond the economic

interests of the tourism industry, representing numerous advantages to the host community,

where the population is actively involved in these projects.

The methodology used for the design of the route, the textbook to support the visit and

the activity guide consisted essentially in a review of the literature, particularly with regard

to issues of interpretation in Tourism and the Middle Ages. Later we made a survey of natural

and cultural resources as well as of other infrastructures and services in Penela municipality,

specifically those that in some way serve the tourism sector. This identification of resources

was conducted through bibliographical and in situ research.

Cultural tourism as driver of local development

The tourism sector covers “a wide range of economic activities that are characterized

by their enormous potential to produce direct, indirect and induced impacts on the economy,

either through employment or by the dynamics of other companies already established”

(Carvalho et al, 2008: 15). Quantifying these impacts on the development of destinations

goes far beyond the analysis of tourist spending.

Cooper, Fletcher and Shepherd (2008: 138-139) state that the determination of tourism

impact, when based solely on spending, tends to be ambiguous and that only when we take

into account the multiplier effect of tourism can we reach its true dimension.

When addressing the question of tourism impacts it is essential to address the multiplier

effect of tourism as it represents the scope of its benefits to different sectors of the economy.

The multiplier effect goes beyond the direct expenditure made by tourists throughout their

stay, either with accommodation, transport or food.

Cooper et. al. (ibidem: 140) summarize the multiplier effects in the following five categories;

(i) transactions or sales, (ii) output, (iii) income, (iv) employment and (v) government

revenue.

One of the most important effects of the tourism sector in the economy and local development

is its ability to generate and stimulate employment at three levels: direct (tourist

enterprises), indirect (companies that provide the tourism sector) and induced (other sectors

of economy benefiting from tourism). Regarding the distribution of revenues, for its intrinsic

characteristics, the tourism sector displays a great capacity for directly linking other industries

as well as propitiating investment of micro and small enterprises.

According to Canário (1999: 63), the concept of local development is based on three

basic principles: multidimensionality, that is, development should not be limited to the economic

aspect, but linked to other sectors such as health, the environment and culture; qual-

| BACK TO CONTENT

WHEN TOuRISM MEETS EDuCATION - THE TOuRIST ROuTE “CuLTuRAL REMNANTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES IN PENELA”

itative rationale, a view that invokes taking attention to indicators such as employment rates

and improving health care to the population, and valorization of the site, which endorses

development models according to local territorial specificities. These new models of local

development based on participatory policies and providing for the needs and expectations

of local populations, the economic dynamics of the regional production systems and the

specifics of the territory, allow the implementation of sustainable tourism projects (in the

economic, sociocultural, political, administrative and environmental senses) aimed to overcome

territorial asymmetries. It is therefore agreed that tourism can be one of the strategic

vectors for local development, in particular in low-density areas.

139

Tourism and recreation in rural and natural areas

Currently a reflection on tourism and its multiplying effect and impact on environmental

conservation and promotion and local development leads to the concepts of Ecotourism and

Sustainable Tourism.

For a long time tourism was considered a sector with no negative impacts, however, we

now know that tourism has a dual aspect. When poorly managed, tourism is one of the sectors

that more negative impacts can generate.

In fact, Cooper et al. (op. cit .: 162) even claim that as soon as the tourist activity takes

place, the environment is “inevitably changed or modified either to facilitate tourism or

through the tourism production process”.

Nevertheless, in view of its close relationship with nature and its resources, tourism can

be a means to raise public awareness (of tourists, host communities, employees of tourism

businesses, etc.) for the preservation of nature.

The projects developed in rural and natural areas are examples of practices that, when

developed within a sustainability matrix, can take place in order to ensure their continuity

and the continuity of the resources thy feed on.

Tourism can contribute decisively to the recovery and preservation of the natural and

architectural heritage of destinations, habits and mores long forgotten, and to the promotion

of various regional products which are the differentiating factor of each of the regions.

As stated by Simões (2003: 15), a huge variety of terms is used to describe the tourist

activities in rural and natural areas, such as “Rural Tourism”, “Nature Tourism”, “Sustainable

Tourism”, “Ecotourism”, “Active Tourism” or “Adventure Tourism”. We should, however, distinguish

these concepts as they represent different realities. For example, while Ecotourism

and Sustainable Tourism relate to each other, Rural Tourism and Adventure Tourism are two

concepts that may have nothing to do with each other.

We can practice tourist activities in rural areas that are not necessarily adventure activities.

On the contrary, Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism are two practices that approach

since Ecotourism means tourism activities with a strong ecological appeal covering, however,

a much broader reality that also includes the social, cultural and economic dimensions, that

is, practices that require sustained development in a holistic dimension.

Ecotourism is even one of the main alternatives for sustainable development of tourist

destinations, particularly in countries and regions with weaker economies.

Rural Tourism and Nature Tourism have different characteristics and the legal instruments

that regulate them also vary among different countries. Nevertheless, both tourism

BACK TO CONTENT |


140

products have guidelines that promote tourist activities within the framework of sustainable

development and can thus be great vehicles for the promotion of destinations at the environmental,

socio-cultural and economic levels.

With regard to Rural Tourism, we can say in simple terms that it is the tourism which is

practiced in rural areas. This statement is, however, highly ambiguous in so far as, in addition

to the general difficulty in defining “rural”, the criteria used to classify rural areas are very

distinct among different countries, and it is nearly impracticable to circumscribe these areas

to a universal definition. Despite those difficulties, we can say that rurality is the focal point

of rural tourism.

Sharpley and Roberts (2004: 121) argue that the definition of rurality is not dependent

on the combination of elements (such as population density) but is fundamentally subject

to the socio-cultural models that reflect the perceptions of individuals about what is rurality

and what it represents, as a result of its cultural limits.

In contrast, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development has defined

a methodology to classify the different types of areas of the territories of its member countries,

based on two major criteria: population density and size of urban centers in the regions.

Educational tourism

Technological, economic, demographic and socio-cultural changes in recent decades

make irrefutable the saying that “tourists are increasingly perceptive, demanding and informed”.

Tourists seek in their tourist experiences more than just visits to particular destinations,

but rather experiential learning.

Carvão (2008: 30) states that one of the tourist consumption trends is therefore the

“growing demand for experiences that represent for tourists a chance to increase and expand

their knowledge.”

In today’s competitive market, tourism destinations cannot stop reinventing themselves,

materializing into new forms of tourism that satisfy those tourists who look for knowledge.

Educational Tourism is precisely a tourist practice that responds to this demand. In most

cases, the learning activities are a secondary part of the purpose of travel, for example, visits

to museums or monuments during a tourist trip where the main motivation is the Sun and

Sea. In other situations, the purpose of the trip is the learning itself, as is the case of study

visits, which seek to show in practice the contents studied in class.

Being education one of the basic principles of development of societies and considering

the possibilities that this demand trend provides in terms of combating seasonality (as it can

be promoted and developed throughout the year), it makes sense that Educational Tourism

be one of the strategic development policies of destinations.

One of the most pressing issues with regard to the objectives of Educational Tourism

has to do with the critical view of the visited reality. If “we remember 90% of what we do,

74% of what we see and 20% of what we hear” (Vallejo-Nágera and Colom Marañón, 2004

apud Robertson, 2008: 70), it is essential that tourists actively participate in their own process

of learning.

The complexity of this process requires, on the part of those who promote the visit, the

adoption of effective methodologies in order to provide tourists with enough autonomy for

| BACK TO CONTENT


the understanding of the object. One of these learning mediation strategies between the

tourist object and the tourist is interpretation. Hence, Educational Tourism should promote

interpretation as a tool.

The role of private-public partnerships and the third sector in education

through and for tourism

The conservation of cultural and natural heritage requires a multidisciplinary approach

with the involvement of various parts of the public, private and nongovernmental sectors.

Most governments face significant challenges in the conservation and management of their

assets, and few have the necessary resources to do it. Conservation actions need to be incorporated

into strategies for social, environmental and economic development, which include

financial mechanisms to encourage and facilitate public-private and third sector contributions.

The third sector, also known as the voluntary sector or community, comprehends usually

non-profit organizations representing social interests, and may also include community residents.

The primary motivation of this sector is the conservation of the heritage site. As Macdonald

et al (2014:2) state, “(…) community commitment and private engagement are

needed in order to help gov ernments retain heritage assets for future generations. The private

and third sectors are thus becoming more involved in delivering conservation outcomes

that have traditionally been achieved by government”.

The growing awareness of the role of communities in heritage conservation means that

there is a perception that this task is not the exclusive responsibility of governments. Given

the growing recognition of heritage as a community asset of collective interest, there is considerable

interest in the role of the third sector in public-private partnerships. The relationship

between the private sector and the third sector is ready to grow as an emerging

mechanism for carrying out conservation projects, particularly for urban sites and monumental

heritage places. The same authors (ibidem: 32) argue that “As identity-building public

assets, heritage buildings, sites, and areas play a vital role in the community’s social, cultural,

and economic health (…) when the third sector is involved, PPPs may also pro vide a mechanism

for engaging local communities in the care and conservation of their heritage places

(Macdonald et al., 2014: 32).

But the role of the third sector is not limited to partnerships between the public and

private sector. The sustainability of a region depends not only on the resident community,

but also on tourists, who have their role to play in sustainable development, aimed at minimizing

the environmental impacts and promoting benefits to the community.

Tourists’ behavior has a great impact on the destinations they visit. This impact can be

positive or negative depending on the attitudes and behavior of those involved. There is a

strong need for responsible conduct in the destinations visited, since their conservation is

essential to the continuity of tourist activity.

We cannot continue to deal with the management of tourism impact simply as a matter

of number of visitors, rather we have to take into account the attitudes and behaviors of

tourists.

The urban Network of the Mondego Medieval Castles and Town Walls is part of a nonprofit

association which congregates other partners, namely, seven municipalities, the uni-

141

BACK TO CONTENT |


142

versity of Coimbra, the Pedro Nunes Institute, the Regional Directorate of Culture and the

Regional Tourism Authority. Together, they give life to the Agency for the Development of

the Network of the Mondego Medieval Castles and Town Walls, whose purpose is to promote

cultural, touristic and economic development of the territory. It is then a suitable example

of a public-private partnership that within its many assignments develops work in the area

of education through tourism. This Agency intends to promote innovation and enhance the

competitiveness of the territory corresponding to the defensive line of the Mondego, through

education-oriented strategies based on the history of the territory and its heritage. Noteworthy

is also the work done in improving the tourist offer of the various monuments that

are part of the territory of the Network, particularly the recent intervention in order to provide

them with audio guides.

Heritage interpretation products for young visitors

Cunha (2013: 177) defines tourism as the set of natural and artificial resources, equipment,

goods and services that cause the movement of visitors and meet the needs arising

from their displacement and stay. Resources are then one of the most important elements

of tourism supply since they promote the movement of visitors by their push effect.

Regarding the importance of resources for tourism, Cooper (1991: 224) considers that

the attractions are the “raison d’être” of tourism and Vinuesa (2005: 1) states that heritage

is a basic pillar of tourism and heritage needs tourism to benefit from increased visibility and

projection. It is precisely this complicity that justifies the need for proper management of

tourist heritage.

Moreover, much of the tourist heritage of destinations represents by its rarity or its exclusive,

endogenous or typical character, a valuable legacy that demands to be preserved.

One of the strategies that tourism may resort to for the safeguarding of heritage is to

link the tourists and the host communities to tourism projects, appealing to conscience and

civic responsibility. These links include, among others, the active participation of host communities

throughout the design and implementation process of tourist activities and the

adoption of visitor management measures. Kastenholz (2004: 388) believes that a balanced

tourism development of destinations requires the attention of management, not only as regards

the resources, but also with regard to visitors.

Durão (2009: 6) writes that the management of visitors, as a management philosophy,

promotes “maximizing the visitor experience and the preservation of the visit object, thereby

ensuring the sustainability of the enjoyment of resources.”

Kuo (2002: 89) considers the physical strategies, the regulatory strategies and the economic

strategies as hard strategies of visitor management and the educational strategies as

soft strategies of visitor management.

For Kastenholz (op. cit.: 388) interpretation is one of soft measures of visitor management.

Interpretation is a theme well documented in the literature. Let us focus on the definition

developed by Freeman Tilden, a reference author in this matter, who considers

interpretation of heritage as an educational activity “which aims to reveal meanings and relationships

through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative

media, rather than simply to communicate factual information (1977: 9). From this definition

| BACK TO CONTENT


it is easy to understand that interpretation is closely related to communication; that is, with

both the way we communicate and the respective communication media.

A propos interpretation and its contribution to the sustainability of tourism resources

(via accountability of visitors), Tilden (ibid: 8), supports the idea that “Through interpretation,

understanding, through understanding, appreciation; through appreciation, protection” and

Lane (1991: 2) states that “the visitor will gain an in depth understanding and knowledge of

the area, its landscapes and peoples. The tourist will become concerned and, therefore, protective

of the host area”. We can then consider that interpretation has a double aspect: on

the one hand, it valorises heritage, on the other, it valorises the tourist visit experience.

However, despite the fact that some authors defend the idea that, by controlling certain

information provided to visitors, we can deny access to other potentially important information,

it is generally agreed that interpretation techniques are an integral part of the experience

of a visit to tourist attractions and, when properly planned and implemented, support

the visitors in the perception of the visited heritage, and are a way to get everyone to do

their own reading of the heritage.

The type and characteristics of interpretation techniques depend on the nature of the

attractions and visiting goal. Thus, in the design process of interpretation projects it is fundamental

to adapt contents and ways of conveying them. Moscardo (2003: 112) confirms

this idea and also says it is important to know the characteristics of the target audience.

Regardless of the nature of the attractions, the purpose of the visit or the profile of visitors,

Tilden (op. cit.: 9) considers that there are six principles in interpretation, three of which

are particularly important: to provoke, to relate and to reveal. As for Moscardo (op. cit.: 116)

interpretation acts, among others, as a way to influence the places of visit of tourists and inform

them about appropriate behavior. In this context it is important, however, to realize

that interpretation cannot be purely informative and visitors have to make their own reading

of the place they visit; the role of interpretation should be merely one of mediation.

Interpretation techniques can be applied to any tourist project, being particularly important

in activities such as guided tours, visits to museums, art galleries, zoos or other theme

parks, protected areas, historic buildings and archaeological sites.

Regarding the case of tourist routes, either guided or autonomous, and considering that

these projects are not just a sequence of visits, but can be an important reading framework

of the site, the value of interpretation is paramount. In both cases, mediation between the

tourist and the tourist heritage is essential; in guided tours the guide is fundamental, in autonomous

visits, the material supporting the visit, either in digital form or written support,

are very important.

Specifically with regard to projects targeted at children, interpretation should follow a

different approach from that of adults, as Tilden states (op. cit.: 9): “Interpretation addressed

to children (…) should not be a dilution of the presentation to adults (…). To be at its best it

will require a separate program.”

Given the right to recreation inscribed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child and

being tourism a recreation activity we can say that children have the right to practice tourism.

Moreover, given the issue of access to culture, if designed in an educational perspective,

tourism can provide them with cultural activities. In addition to this, another issue also arises

to the fore: in travel and family holidays children are determinant in decision-making. They

143

BACK TO CONTENT |


144

exert a tremendous influence on parents and their satisfaction is therefore an argument to

take into account when scheduling tourist activities. For this reason, and also because the

children will be the consumers of the future, Children and Youth Tourism is a central and current

topic.

Nevertheless, this niche market has yet to be discussed in the academic world so that

its definition, limits and boundaries might be established. The greatest need is not related

to the issue of the age of the children who practice children tourism, but with a definition

indicating that children tourism is tourism carried out by children and should be designed

specifically according to their specificities.

Regarding interpretation specifically designed for Children Tourism, interpretative communication

programs can be presented in different ways: dramatized guided visits, distribution

of scripts or small reading manuals to support visits, design of practical activities related

to the theme, either in digital or physical support or promotion of games such as “treasure

hunt.”

The most important is that these conveying elements are able to motivate the audience

and link it to the project. Ham (1992: 7, 8) brings us to the topic of motivated or not motivated

public for learning, addressing the issue through recommendations that influence the

performance of interpretation; to this scholar interpretation has to be enjoyable, relevant,

organized and focused on a theme.

The tourist route and the activity guide

The project “Cultural Remnants of the Middle Ages in Penela” is an interpreted cultural

tourist itinerary, anchored in the cultural remnants of the Middle Ages in Penela county and

intended for families with children between 9 and 13 years.

It is a linear tour that can be made autonomously, with an approximate duration of 6

hours, including several meals and activities, and a visit to a cheese artisanal production unit.

With a length of approximately 20 km, part of it can be made by car, but some sections

are to be made on foot as a short section of the Central Road to Santiago and the way up to

Germanelo Castle and Penela Castle. It is therefore an itinerary with a medium difficulty degree.

The design of the route was based on visits to heritage and cultural elements of the localities

of Alfafar, Rabaçal, Germanelo and Penela which, somehow, have medieval origin. It

also comprises a visit to Podentes, in particular to the late medieval pillory.

Regarding the materials to support the interpretation of the route a manual and an activity

guide were drawn. This guide or manual is a comprehensive repository of allusive information

on the Middle Ages, the Middle Ages Warriors, particularly the peonage and their

clothing, the function and characteristics of the Castles and Pillories in the Middle Ages as

well as Agriculture, Food and Fairs of the Middle Ages. The activity guide covers a wide range

of entertainment and educational games, such as subtitling images or crosswords as a way

of interpreting the actual itinerary.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Conclusion

The success of the tourist experience associated with tourist itineraries is largely based

on the type of resource, on which the itinerary is built, as well as on its features. According

to Costa (2011: 17), the design of tourist routes “needs a strategy to study the physical territory

and its special features, identifying and creating a hierarchy of resources and pull factors

into primary and secondary.”

Only then can we identify “clusters offer, which will then allow for the marketing of

[tourist] products properly structured and with commercial value” (ibid: 79).

However, to position the routes as economic leverage instruments requires a link to

local economic activities, hence the project presented here includes a visit to local producers

of Rabaçal cheese and, since the itinerary can be made autonomously, there are also some

suggestions for hotels and restaurants in the county.

In addition to the resources, the tourist experience also depends on the very motivations

of consumers. The knowledge of the motivations in a highly competitive activity such as

tourism is important to realize if the features of the destination meet or not the needs of

visitors (Fodness 1994 apud Cunha, op. cit.: 95). In this sense, we conducted an analysis of

the study programs of environment and history subjects of the target age group. All programs

include content related to the Middle Ages in the world and in Portugal.

The results of this study permit the suggestion of some guidelines towards the possibility

of streamlining for tourism, in the Penela municipality, projects aimed at market niches such

as young people and children or other groups with specific motivations.

Regarding the project presented here, it raised appreciation and interest from both the

urban Network of the Mondego Medieval Castles and Town Walls and the municipal entities.

This means it can later be implemented and included in the tourist offer of the municipality.

The complete file is ready to be submitted to the official entities for registration and approval.

145

references

Canário, R. (1999). Educação de Adultos: um campo e uma problemática. Lisboa: Educa.

Carter, J. (s.d.). A Sense of Place: An interpretive planning handbook. [Accessed 10-05-2015]. Available

at http://www.jamescarter.cc/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/A_Sense_of_Place_James_Carter.pdf.

Carvalho, Pedro G. e Matos, A.F. (2008). O sector do Turismo no PROT Centro. Covilhã: CCDRC/uBI.

Carvão, S. (2009). Tendências do Turismo Internacional. Revista Exedra, Turismo e Património, 17-31.

Cooper C., Fletcher J., Fyall, A., Gilbert, D. e Wanhill S. (2008). Principles and Practice. 4. th ed. Harlow:

Prentice Hall Financial Time.

Cooper, C. (1991). The technique of interpretation. In S. Medlik (org). Managing Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinmann,

224-230.

Costa, C. (2011). Roteiro Turístico - desenhar produtos sustentáveis. Roteiro do Tejo, Conference Proceedings,

pp. 1-22. [Accessed 12-12-2015]. Available at http://www.apambiente.pt/_zdata/Divulgacao/Projectos/exARH_Tejo/Sessoes_Debate/

Cunha, L. (2013). Economia e Política do Turismo. 3. ª ed. Lisboa: Lidel.

Durão, M. (2009). “Gestão de visitantes: uma perspetiva sobre os museus de Portugal”. Tese de Mestrado,

Departamento de Economia, Gestão, Engenharia Industrial e Turismo, universidade de Aveiro.

Ham, S. (1992). Environmental interpretation: A practical guide for people with big ideas and small budgets.

Golden, CO: North American Press.

Kastenholz, E. (2004). Management of Demand as a Tool in Sustainable Tourist Destination Development.

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12(5), 388-408.

Kuo, I-Ling (2002). The Effectiveness of Environmental Interpretation at Resource-Sensitive Tourism

Destinations. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4(2), 87-101.

BACK TO CONTENT |


146

Lane, B. (1991). Sustainable tourism: A new concept for the interpreter. Interpretation Journal, 49, 1-4.

Macdonald, S.; Cheong, C. (2014). The Role of Public-Private Partnerships and the Third Sector in Conserving

Heritage Buildings, Sites, and Historic Urban Areas. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation

Institute.

Moscardo, G. (2003). Interpretation and Sustainable Tourism: Functions, examples and principles. The

Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(1), 112-121.

Robertson, M. (2008). El museo: archivo o activador permanente? Nuevas modalidades de exhibición

en la Edad de las TIC. In H. Betancout (coord.). Turismo, Patrimonio y Educación: Los museus como

laboratorios de conocimientos y emociones. Lanzarote: Escuela universitaria de Turismo de Lanzarote

– universidade de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 63-73.

Sharpley, R. e Roberts, L. (2004). Rural Tourism – 10 Years On. International Journal of Tourism Research,

vol. 6, 119-124.

Simões, O. (2003). Turismo em espaços rurais e naturais: um ponto de partida. In A. Cristóvão e O. Simões

(org.). TERN - Turismo em Espaços Rurais e Naturais. Coimbra: Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra,

15-22.

Tilden, F. (1977). Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill: The university of North Carolina Press.

Vinuesa, M. (2005). Patrimonio y Turismo: una relación compleja pero necessária. Jornadas de Patrimonio

y Turismo: Divergencias, convergencias y propuestas, Conference Proceedings, pp.1-3. [Accessed

02-11-2015]. Available at http://ipce.mcu.es/pdfs/PatrimonioTurismo.pdf.

| BACK TO CONTENT

COmPaNY DIFFErENTIaTION IN THE SINglE-aSSET TOUrISm CITY OF

aNTalYa: a QUaNTITaTIVE aNalYSIS 1

Hilal Erkuş-Öztürk 2

abSTraCT

In the long term, single-asset tourism places seem to be more vulnerable than multi asset tourism

cities in terms of tourism growth because (i) it is based on localization economies and (ii) the “Tourism

Area Life Cycles” debate. It is doubted whether a high urban tourism growth implies an ever stronger

specialization and less diversification. Some recent works show the contrary by showing empirical evidence

on increasing sectoral economic diversification even in single asset cities. It is claimed in this

paper that growth of tourism, by time, stimulates tourism companies to differentiate their products

which is not only influenced by related and unrelated variety connections of these companies but also

influenced from areal variety that are strongly affected by tourism growth. Antalya tourism city from

Turkey is selected as a case study area not only by its dominant tourism role as a single asset city, but

also by its economic diversification tendency at the city-sectoral level. For selected case, factors defining

differentiation of tourism companies are defined with a special focus on related, unrelated and areal

variety. Differentiation strategies of tourism companies are elaborated based on some indepth-face to

face primary data taken from hotels, restaurants and indirectly tourism related trade companies (jewelry,

clothing) and their areal differences are evaluated by using probit regression and correspondance

analysis.

147

KEYWOrDS

Differentiation, related variety, unrelated variety areal differentiation, innovation, tourism cities

Introduction

It is argued in economic-geography literature that the growth of specialized small- and

medium cities is fragile because it is vulnerable to economic fluctuations and is based on

localization economies instead of urbanization economies (Jacobs, 1967 and 1984; Romer,

1987; Staber, 1997; Frenken et al., 2007). This applies particularly to mass-tourism cities, the

growth of which is based on a single asset (sun, sea, and sand). The growth of mass-tourism

places fits very well to the fordist model of tourism development in which there seems to

be less room for innovation, variety, and diversification, because it is accompanied with ever

more standardization, passive consumers who have lost all individuality (Shaw and Williams,

1994; Ioannides and Debbage, 1998; Hiernaux-Nicolas, 2004). The same applies to Butler’s

(2006) model of tourism area development, according to which, in the long term, tourism

places follows the same life cycle as that of products, and it is not until the stagnation phase

of the life cycle has set in that tourism entrepreneurs become interested in differentiation,

innovation and diversification in such (mass-) tourism areas. This paper aims to explore the

factors that influence the differentiation of tourism companies in a single-asset tourism city.

Some economic geographers (Frenken et al. 2007; Boschma and Iammarino, 2009) argue

1

This paper is the product of TuBİTAK 1001 Project, named as; “Economic Diversification and Homogenization In

Tourism Cities: The Case Of Antalya”, Project No:112K443

2

Associate Professor Dr. at Akdeniz university, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of

Public Administration, urbanization Problems e-mail: herkus@akdeniz.edu.tr, hilalerkus@yahoo.com

BACK TO CONTENT |


148

that “related industries” have an advantageous position in terms of product differentiation

and innovation because they have a higher capacity to absorb innovations from neighboring

sectors. They made the important distinction between related variety and unrelated variety

to explain that innovations are more likely the result of knowledge spillover between

companies that belong to different industries with a low cognitive distance, such as the

automobile and motorcycle industry, than between companies that belong to the same

industry or a different industry with a high cognitive distance. Related variety refers to the

variety of firms/industries in a region that are cognitively related (Frenken et al., 2007)

whereas unrelated variety refers to industries in a region that have a high cognitive distance.

Diversification through unrelated variety can be defined as firms in sectors that originally

nothing to do with tourism try to enter, integrate to the tourism market. For instance, cut

flower, jewelry industry, cultural industries and some types of trade sectors which have

originally nothing to do with tourism but try to organize itself by the help of tourism

development (Erkuş-Öztürk&Terhorst, 2013). Thus differentiation and innovation strategies

can also be followed via unrelated variety through opening new markets. However, economic

geography literature is weak on which milieus in a city have a stronger influence on

differentiation/innovation than others.

In this paper, it is doubted whether a high urban tourism growth in single-asset cities

implies less innovation in products and services of tourism entrepreneurs. It is claimed in

this paper that not only differentiation and innovation strategies of tourism companies are

influenced by related and unrelated variety but also by the specific urban milieu in which

they are located. So the aim of the paper is firstly to define factors of differentiation strategies

of companies in a single-asset tourism city, and secondly to explore whether some areas with

specific functions matter more to innovation than other areas.

To reach this aim, different tourism companies in different related and unrelated sectors

are taken into account to define the factors of differentiation. Antalya, the first largest masstourism

city of Turkey, —its number of visitors has continuously grown from one million to

eleven million in the period between 1990 and 2014— is selected as a case study area (T.C.

Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2014). Although its tourism is based on a single asset (sun, sea,

and sand), it simultaneously shows a tendency to economic diversification at the sectoral

level which makes it a good case to study the factors determining that diversification of

tourism companies. Tourism companies (such as 2,3,4,5-star hotels and boutique hotels),

tourism related companies (restaurants) and tourism unrelated companies (jewelry and retail

trade companies) located in the city center of Antalya, were interviewed and the following

question was scrutinized: Which factors stimulate innovation and/or strategies of

differentiation in tourism companies? The factors of differentiation of Antalya’s tourism

companies are analyzed by quantitative methods of analysis namely multivariate regression

analysis and correspondence analyses.

The organization of this paper is as follows. To get a better grip on the factors of

differentiation/innovation of tourism companies, we first review evolutionary economic

geography literature on innovation, (un)related variety, and areal variety (section 2), followed

by a review of tourism literature on differentiation of tourism companies and tourism places

(section 3). In section 4, the case-study area, the design of the study and methodology are

described, and in section 5 the empirical results of the multi-variate analyses are presented.

| BACK TO CONTENT

COMPANY DIFFERENTIATION IN THE SINGLE-ASSET TOuRISM CITY OF ANTALYA: A QuANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

In the conclusion, the empirical results of this study will be evaluated in the light of the

related literature.

literature review

Differentiation is crucial for sustaining the competitive advantage of tourism companies

and tourist places. As tourism is a highly fragile and risky market, companies working in the

sector are forced to be different in products and services. Although discussions on strategies

of differentiation in tourism literature are not broad, there are some authors (Russo&Van

Der Borg 2002, Winter 2007, Wang&Lee 2008, Firman 2009) who stress the advantages of

differentiation in tourism cities. However evolutionary economic geography literature gives

important hints on situations when differentiation emerges in firms based on the concepts

of related and unrelated variety. These concepts can be applied to tourism companies and

so a novel contribution could be made for tourism literature by applying the concepts of

evolutionary economic geography to tourism.

“Related variety” means that there exists a relationship, a relatedness (Lazzeretti, 2009),

among industrial sectors. A variety of closely related activities stimulates for interaction,

leading to gains in productivity and innovation (Frenken, et.al. 2007). The main advantage

for “related industries” is the higher capacity to absorb innovations from neighboring sectors.

Being insider or outsider in the economic activity is very important in providing cognitive

proximity and successful cognitive relationships (Frenken and Boschma, 2007; Frenken et al.,

2007). However, in many cases and for different sectors it is not so obvious whether cognitive

distance between related industries are low or not. For instance, defining cognitive distance

between actors of different sectors, in our case the tourism sector, is not so easy. Is the

cognitive distance between hotels and restaurants high or low? Running a hotel and running

a restaurant are very different economic activities. Nevertheless if there is labor mobility

between sectors, the cognitive distance reduces.

If knowledge spill-overs are generated between firms in different industries that do not

share complementary competences (their cognitive distance is high), a relation of unrelated

variety emerges. According to Boschma and lammarino (2009), a broad range of unrelated

sectors in a region is beneficial for regional growth because unrelated variety spreads risk.

Diversification through unrelated variety can be defined for tourism sector as firms in sectors

that have originally nothing to do with tourism try to enter in and integrate to the tourism

market. For instance, the cut-flower-, jewelry industry, cultural industries, and some types

of trade sectors which have originally nothing to do with tourism, try to make profit out of

tourism development.

Economic geographers point to the role of networks and collaboration in producing

innovations (Amin 2000; Cooke, 1997, 1998; Porter, 1990, 2000; Scott, 1995; Eraydin and

Fingleton, 2006). However, they hardly discuss whether strategies of differentiation and

innovation in different parts of an urban area make a difference or not. It is highly likely that

in some areas more innovative firms will be found than in others.

Different than what evolutionary economic geography claims, tourism literature mainly

discusses differentiation strategies in types of tourism in a destination ranging from mass

tourism to niche tourism (Markwick, 1999; Farmaki, 2012) and various types of alternative

149

BACK TO CONTENT |


150

tourism that are more sustainable such as ecotourism, community tourism and so on (see

works of Clarke, 1997; Bramwell, 2004; Novelli, 2005; Weaver, 2001). There is limited indepth

research on conceptualizing and analyzing strategies of differentiation in tourism

except some works on tourism-product development in tourism area life cycles (Butler, 1980),

specific thematic and spatial linkages between some attractions of some destinations

(Weidenfeld, Butler and Williams, 2011), developing innovation to promote opportunities

for the tourism sector (Nordin, 2003; Novelli et.al.,2006), and destination-based product

concentration and diversification (Benur& Bramwell, 2015). Weaver (2001) defines such

diversification as the combinations of products in destinations, new products, such as by

connecting established mass tourism products, such as beach resorts, with new niche tourism

products, such as wildlife safaris and cultural tourism.

Discussions on (destination) marketing have pointed to problems caused by economic

homogenization and discuss how to cope with vulnerability stemmed from homogenization

(Lee and Miller, 1999). Rejuvenation is put forward as a solution to the disadvantages of

homogenization in the stagnation phase of tourism destinations (Butler, 2006). More than

ten years, innovation has been taken as an important indicator of differentiation in tourism

literature. There are different classifications of types of innovation in tourism. Hjalager (2002)

describes sub-divisions of innovations in tourism in five categories (Hjalager, 1994) as:

product, process, management, logistics and institutional innovations. Another perspective

comes from Abernathy and Clark (1985), who developed a model and applied that model,

to innovations in tourism that illustrates four types of innovations—regular, niche,

revolutionary and architectural.

Becerra et. al.(2013) say that differentiation in tourism including innovation and

marketing with respect to hotels can vary according to its category (such as number of stars)

and its membership to a chain or not. To evaluate factors defining differentiation in tourism,

Becerra et. al. (2013) use the variables: type of tourism companies (number of stars of hotels,

type of resorts such as mountain resorts, private resorts, beach resorts etcetera), and

whether or not being member of a group or chain.

To evaluate differentiation strategies in products and services, some previous works on

innovation would give some hints about its influencing factors. The influence of size of a

company, starts of hotels, being a chain or not on a company’s innovative behavior has been

outlined in some previous works by Cohen and Levin (1989), Orfila-Sintes et.al.(2005) and

Erkus-Ozturk (2010). The human capital skills adjustment approximates the effort put into

successful innovation implementation (Orfila-Sintes et.al., 2005). They use education level

as an indicator of human capital in their work. Collaboration and partnerships are also

emphasized as important factors for stimulating innovation in the tourism sector (Go and

Govers, 2000; Tremblay, 2000). Examining these factors would help to understand the factors

that influence the differentiation of tourism companies.

Design of the Case Study: Case Study area and methodology

The case study area, the city of Antalya, is located on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey,

and is the leading tourism destination of the country attracting yearly more than 12 million

tourists (Erkuş-Öztürk, 2011). Due to the city’s fast tourism growth, tourism employment

| BACK TO CONTENT


and the number of tourism- and tourism-related companies have increased by time. The

Herfindahl diversification index results confirm this process of diversification between 1990

(0.26) and 2011 (0.20) for tourism and its complementary companies. These decreasing

Herfindahl-index values in time mean an increase in diversification of Antalya’s tourism

economy that includes not only accommodation companies but also restaurants, jewelry

companies, wholesale and retail trade, arts, entertainment, culture, recreation and sports,

social and related public services, and real estate and supportive activities (Erkuş-Öztürk and

Terhorst, 2016). The increase in economic diversification in tourism and tourism related

complementary companies makes Antalya a good case study area for exploring the factors

of differentiation of tourism companies.

In the literature, the factors that influence differentiation of tourism companies have

not been examined in detail. To examine these factors, primary data (survey, in-depth

interviews) of hotels, restaurants and retail-trade companies indirectly related to tourism

(jewelry, clothing) are used. For defining the universe, three different types of companies

were selected to make in-depth interviews, namely, first, hotels (such as 2,3,4,5-star hotels

and boutique hotels), secondly restaurants, and thirdly jewelry- and retail-trade companies

which have appeared around tourism zones of the city. To define the sampling, the universe

data were collected from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the Antalya Province Culture

and Tourism Head Office, the Antalya Jewelry Association, Antalya Industry and Trade

Association (ATSO) between January and March 2014.

A total of 578 tourism companies from across the different urban tourism areas in

Antalya city center were covered in this study. Of the total number of tourism companies,

185 (35 hotels, 54 restaurants, 46 jewelry companies, 50 retail trade company such as carpet,

leather and textile selling) were interviewed at the 95% confidence level. While choosing the

samples for each type of company, an equal distribution was tried to be made on the location

of each company type along the coast. The questionnaire survey was carried out between

January and March 2014. The survey questionnaire included dichotomous, open-ended as

well as multiple-choice questions.

After having collected the data from the companies, a quantitative multivariate

technique, namely a probit regression, is used to evaluate the factors that influence company

differentiation. Codes are given to distinguish the level of differentiation of the selected

companies, and to the factors that are supposed to the differentiation strategies of

companies, and to the different types of areas in which the companies are located. In addition

to a probit-regression analysis which shows which independent variable are statistically

significant, a correspondence analysis is also applied to understand similarities between

variables (Erkuş-Öztürk, 2009). It is a grouping technique and differs from other

interdependence techniques in its ability to accommodate both non-metric and non-linear

relationships. A correspondence analysis mainly utilizes the coordinates on the bi-plot which

is the basic outcome of the analysis showing the correspondence between the items of two

basic categories according to their distance to each other (Beyhan, 2006).

To determine the level of differentiation of the selected companies, the interviewees

were asked, in accordance which new arrangements, modifications, improvements, and

innovations in products and services, as discussed in the theoretical part, they have made.

Although the services hotels, restaurants, jewelry companies and retail-trade companies

151

BACK TO CONTENT |


152

provide are different, a strategy of differentiation is considered in this paper as the offering

of one or more new products and services that are not or rarely offered in other companies.

For evaluating the role spatial differentiation plays in company differentiation, two types

of spatial indicators are used. In the first one, the name of the neighborhood or district where

the company is located are used such as Lara, Konyaaltı, Kundu tourism zone, Kaleiçi historic

harbor district, the Center and the road to the airport. In the second one, the different areas

are defined according to their economic functions. With this aim, four types of urban tourism

areas were defined, namely (i) homogeneous tourism areas, (ii) diversified tourism areas, (iii)

mixed areas with strong tourism functions, and (iv) mixed areas with strong urban functions.

By homogenous tourism areas is meant special tourism districts that have mainly only

one or two tourism functions. Diversified tourism areas have variegated mix of small

companies that are directly and indirectly related to tourism, such as restaurants and small

hotels and jewelry-, souvenir shops, and shops selling clothes, bags, shoes mainly to foreign

tourists respectively. By mixed areas with strong tourism functions is meant areas that are

dominated by both tourism functions and other economic functions. By mixed areas with

strong urban functions is meant areas that are dominated by businesses and housing, some

local oriented restaurants and some tourism functions like medium-sized city hotels scattered

over the area.

As can be clearly seen from economic geography and tourism literatures, there is a

strong relation between the differentiation/innovation strategies of companies and their

characteristics, namely company size, company type, the share of skilled manpower in the

workforce, the collaboration with other tourism companies, recruitment of workers and

investment of different but related sectors. In addition to these variables, type of customers

(tourists versus locals) and type of area in which a tourism company is located (areal

differentiation) are added to the model to explore what is claimed in this paper. These factors

are analyzed in the following section by applying an econometric model and a

correspondence analysis.

Findings

In this section, the factors that influence the differentiation of tourism companies are

defined and tested on the basis of a probit-regression model and correspondence analyses.

Defining Indicators and Variables of Differentiation of Tourism Companies

Factors that influence differentiation of tourism companies: a Probit-regression analysis

and Correspondence analyses

A probit regression is used because the major indicator of differentiation of tourism

companies is a dichotomous non-metric and categorical variable. The dependent variable is

a binary variable defined as the differentiation of tourism companies: ‘0’ denotes a tourism

company without any strategy of differentiation whereas ‘1’ denotes a tourism company

with a strategy of differentiation.

| BACK TO CONTENT


The independent variables in the model that are assumed to influence company

differentiation are (1) company size, (2) company type, (3) type of urban area in which a

company is located, (4) share of skilled manpower in the workforce, (5) collaboration with

other tourism companies, (6) intra-industry recruitment of workers (7) intra-industry

investments, (8) type of consumers (locals or tourists). All these variables are discussed in

the literature of tourism and economic geography. In the following, they will be clarified and

how they are used in the probit-regression model (see for an overview table 2).

The data on behalf of these variables were collected by a survey questionnaire on 185

tourism companies in the city center of Antalya. The independent variables contain different

types of data, namely categorical, continuous, dichotomous, non-metric and metric data.

153

Table 1: list of Variables Used in the Probit-regression analysis

Variables Variable Name Definition

Y

(dependent)

Differentiation

_Dependent

Differentiation yes:1, no:0

x1

Company Size

Categorical variable; small sized:1, medium sized:2, big

sized:3

x2

Type

1:Hotel, 2:Restaurant, 3: Jewelry company, 4: Retail trade

company

x3

1. Homogeneous tourism areas, 2. diversified tourism areas,

Spatial

3. mixed areas with strong urban functions 4. mixed areas

Differentiation

with strong tourism functions

x4-model

1:Lara, 2. Kundu, 3: Konyaaltı, 4: Kaleiçi, 5: Merkez, 6: Havaalanı

bölgesi

Spatial Location

removed

x5 Skilled worker university graduate:1, no university Graduation:0

x6 Collaboration Number of Collaboration

x7

Level Within

sector worker

1: WRV, 2: WuRV ,3: WOTHER 0: Worker no history

x8

Related-unrelated

variety 1: INRV, 2: INuRV, 0: NIN

investment

x9_model Investment

removed relatedness

1: INRV, 2: INuRV,3: INOTHER 0: NOIN

x10

Turist oriented

customer

1: Locally dense, 2: Local, 3: Mix 4: Tourist

1. Company size. Small tourism companies have 0-9 employees, medium-sized tourism

companies have 10-49 employees, and big tourism companies have more than 50 employees.

2. Type of company. The following dummy variables are used: (1) for hotels, (2) for

restaurants, (3) for jewelry companies and (4) for retail trade companies.

3. Type of urban area 3 . The following dummy variables are used: (1) for homogeneous

tourism areas, (2) for diversified tourism areas, (3) for mixed areas with strong urban

functions, and (4) for mixed areas with strong tourism functions

3

Initially 6 different areas were also included in the model, namely 1:Lara, 2. Kundu, 3: Konyaaltı, 4: Kaleiçi, 5:

Merkez, 6: Havaalanı bölgesi, but due to the problem multicollinearity they have been removed.

BACK TO CONTENT |


154

4. Share of skilled workers. A binary variable is used according to which 0 represents no

workers with a university degree and 1 one or more workers with a university degree.

5. Collaboration with other tourism companies. The number of companies each

company collaborates with.

To measure the influence of related variety, two variables are used, namely intraindustry

recruitment of workers and intra-industry investments.

6. Recruitment of workers from the same industry and from (un)related industries. The

following dummy variables are used: (1) for companies that have recruited workers from

related sectors, such as hotels that have recruited workers from other hotels and restaurants,

(2) for companies that have recruited workers from other unrelated tourism sectors, such as

hotels that have recruited workers from jewelry and retail-trade companies, (3) for tourism

companies that have recruited workers from other unrelated sectors, such as manufacturing

industries, and (0) for companies that have recruited starters on the labor market.

7. Intra-industry investments and extra-industry investments in related and unrelated

sectors 4 . 1 indicates companies that have invested in related sectors, such as hotels that have

made an investment in another hotel or a restaurant, 2 indicates companies that have

invested in unrelated sectors such as hotels in jewelry and retail-trade companies whereas

3 denotes to tourism companies that made no investment.

8. Type of consumers. Tourism companies that are visited by 80-100% by foreign tourists

are categorized as 4 (‘tourist-oriented companies’), tourism companies that are visited by

50-80% by foreign tourists are categorized as 3 (‘mixed companies’), tourism companies that

are visited by 50-20% by foreign tourists are categorized as 2 (‘local companies’), and the

remaining tourism companies are categorized as 1 (‘companies strongly oriented to locals’).

In analyzing the probit model, STATA software has been used. The model is significant

even though only 77 observations could be used due to missing values. The model

probability>Chi 0.07, is lower than 10% and the R-square is 0.2316. Thus the results are

significant (Table 2).

Probit Model à Y: iX1 iX2 iX3 iX5 X6 iX7 iX8 iX10 robust

i: dummy variables

As can be seen in table 1, there are five independent variables that influence company

differentiation. The first variable (X2) is a company type with code 4, which means retailtrade

companies. Retail-trade companies (selling leather products, bags, shoes, and clothes)

have a negative effect on company differentiation. The basic reason for this negative effect

stems from their selling of imitation products of famous brands which leads to economic

homogenization instead of differentiation. Even though touristic retail-trade companies

located in the historic Kaleiçi area, an area characterized by a mix of hotels, restaurants,

jewelry companies, and retail-trade companies, are somewhat differentiated, many touristic

retail-trade companies located in Antalya city are very similar in selling predominantly

imitation products.

The second variable (X3) effecting company differentiation is spatial differentiation

which consists of four codes. So-called code 2 and code 4 areas (diversified tourism areas

and mixed areas with strong tourism functions respectively) influence the dependent variable

4

Initially, the variable intra-industry investments was similar to that of recruitment of workers but due to the problem

of multicollinearity this variable has been changed into the one mentioned above.

| BACK TO CONTENT


Table 2: model of Diversification

Probit regression Number of obs = 77

Wald chi2(18) = 27.40

Prob > chi2 = 0.0717

Log pseudolikelihood = -40.966825 Pseudo R2 = 0.2316

———————————————————————————————————————

| Robust

y | Coef. Std. Err. z P>|z| [95% Conf. Interval]

———————————————————————————————————————

155

_Ix1_2 | .0930606 .4587858 0.20 0.839 -.8061431 .9922643

_Ix1_3 | .6231148 .6014418 1.04 0.300 -.5556894 1.801919

_Ix2_2 | -.041896 .6380714 -0.07 0.948 -1.292493 1.208701

_Ix2_3 | .743047 .6724727 1.10 0.269 -.5749752 2.061069

_Ix2_4 | -1.587226 .8641173 -1.84 0.066 -3.280864 .1064134

_Ix3_2 | 1.609908 .8753646 1.84 0.066 -.1057754 3.325591

_Ix3_3 | 1.396959 .8999875 1.55 0.121 -.3669845 3.160902

_Ix3_4 | 2.138128 .9076005 2.36 0.018 .3592637 3.916992

_Ix5_1 | .3143132 .3674098 0.86 0.392 -.4057969 1.034423

x6 | .0133098 .0201503 0.66 0.509 -.0261841 .0528037

_Ix7_1 | -.0573371 .8242934 -0.07 0.945 -1.672922 1.558248

_Ix7_2 | -1.311555 .9036937 -1.45 0.147 -3.082762 .459652

_Ix7_3 | -.2655346 .7105045 -0.37 0.709 -1.658098 1.127029

_Ix8_1 | -.4970866 .4947753 -1.00 0.315 -1.466828 .4726552

_Ix8_2 | -.8410904 .4817486 -1.75 0.081 -1.7853 .1031194

_Ix10_2 | .494405 .4432594 1.12 0.265 -.3743674 1.363177

_Ix10_3 | .7155487 .5561945 1.29 0.198 -.3745725 1.80567

_Ix10_4 | 1.981485 .8452147 2.34 0.019 .324895 3.638076

_cons | -1.929933 1.25221 -1.54 0.123 -4.38422 .5243537

———————————————————————————————————————

in a statistically significant way (Table 2). The results of the correspondence analysis point to

the same relation (see Figure 1). All these results show that a high company differentiation

(3) is strongly associated with companies located in diversified tourism areas, and a medium

company differentiation (2) is strongly associated with mixed areas with strong tourism

functions.

BACK TO CONTENT |


Figure 1: Correspondence between Company type and level of Differentiation

156

Note: Rows: 0: No diversification, 1: (low) Companies having 1or 2 differentiated products and services, 2:

(medium) Companies having 3 or 4 differentiated products and services, 3: (high) Companies having 5 and above

differentiated products and services.

Columns: Mix_D(F): mixed areas with strong tourism functions, T_H: homogenized tourism areas, T_D(F):

Diversified tourism areas, u_D(F): mixed areas with strong urban functions

Thus diversified tourism areas seem to contribute to company differentiation in a

positive way. Kaleiçi historical port area is a good example of such an area, in which hotels,

restaurants, jewelry companies and retail-trade companies predominantly visited by tourists

are located. It suggests that being co-located in this diversified tourism area seems to

contribute positively to differentiation of tourism companies.

It is also found that mixed areas with strong tourism functions also contribute positively

to company differentiation. Konyaalti-west and Konyaalti-east are good examples of such an

area characterized by a mix of housing, hotels, restaurants, museums, entertainment parks,

shopping malls and some retail-trade companies. Especially the 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-star hotels

in this area do not offer an all-inclusive service which stimulates tourists to dine out, to go

out for shopping and to see the city. That is why the 5-star hotels in this area try to distinguish

themselves from others by offering services such as a spa, hamam, sport facilities, and

restaurant services including breakfast to consumers who do not stay in their hotel. In

addition, not only people living in this residential area but also people living in other

residential areas as well as businessmen regularly visit this coastal zone which stimulates the

formation of tourism related functions such as cafes, restaurants, entertainment parks, open

air museums like mini-city, aquariums, and some touristic shops.

Restaurants located in this area are visited not only by tourists but also by local people

and, especially, businessmen, which stimulates them to serve different meals for different

tastes. It is not surprising to see such mix of functions in the area stimulates tourism and

tourism-related companies to diversify their products and services. This is also in line with

| BACK TO CONTENT


the argument of Jane Jacobs who claims that differentiation of companies in one and more

sectors positively contributes to diversification of urban areas and stimulates urbanization

economies. This area with its mix of urban (tourism) functions positively contributes to

company differentiation in this area.

The third variable that influences company differentiation is intra-industry investments

and extra-industry investments in related and unrelated sectors (X8). Code 2 of the X8

variable that indicates investments in sectors unrelated to tourism negatively affects company

differentiation. Hotels, restaurants, jewelry- and retail-trade companies that invest in other

sectors not related to tourism seem to affect company differentiation negatively. This finding

is in line with the claims of economic geography literature.

By contrast, the correspondence analysis shows a strong association between

investments in sectors related to tourism and company differentiation as can be seen in the

correspondence plot (figure 2). In total, when all companies are taken into account, there

seems to be a relation between company differentiation and investments in sectors related

to tourism. However, when tested separately, the results are different for hotels, restaurants,

jewelry companies and retail-trade companies.

157

Figure 2: Correspondence between related-Unrelated Variety Investment and Economic Diversification

Columns: I: Differentiated Companies, NI: Non differentiated companies

Rows: IV_uRV: Investment in unrelated variety sectors, IV_RV: Investment in related variety sectors, N-IV: No

investment

There is not only an association between company differentiation and investments in

related sectors but also between company differentiation and workers recruited from related

sectors. Tourism companies which employ personnel who worked previously in the same

industry or in an industry related to it (such as a hotel worker previously worked in another

hotel or a restaurant employee who worked previously in a restaurant of a hotel) are more

differentiated (see Erkuş-Öztürk, 2015, figure 3). This expected finding can be explained by

BACK TO CONTENT |


the positive role of specialization and knowledge spillovers by labor mobility on company

differentiation with respect to innovation.

Figure 3: Correspondence between related-Unrelated Variety Employment background and Differentiation

158

Columns: I: Differentiated Companies, NI: Non-differentiated companies

Rows: W_uRV: Employee coming from unrelated variety sectors, W_RV: Employee coming from related variety

sectors, W-S: Employee coming from the same sector

The fourth variable that influences company differentiation in a statistically significant

way is type of consumers (X10, code 4), namely companies that are predominantly visited

by tourists. It is an expected to see that companies predominantly visited by tourists sell

more differentiated products and services. The positive influence of tourist consumer to

company differentiation can be explained by the adaptive flexibility of company managers.

These companies who attract and serve more for tourists adapted their products and services

to tourist’s demands which make them differentiated.

Conclusive remarks

It is claimed in this paper that strategies of differentiation and innovation of tourism

companies is not only influenced other companies in related and unrelated sectors but also

by other factors, particularly the specific urban sub-milieu in which a tourism company is

located. That is why the increasing importance of the role of differentiation in the singleasset

tourism city of Antalya and the factors that influence the differentiation and innovation

of tourism companies is evaluated. In this respect, this paper attempted to challenge tourism

literature by exploring recent concepts economic geography literature (such as related

variety, unrelated variety and spatial differences caused by tourism growth), and by using

quantitative techniques (a multivariate analysis) to identify the factors that influence the

differentiation of tourism companies.

| BACK TO CONTENT


It is shown in this paper that, firstly, type of consumers (tourists versus locals) has a

positive effect on company differentiation. Companies that sell their services mainly to tourists

in Antalya are more differentiated than companies that sell their services mainly to locals.

Secondly, it is shown that spatial differentiation created by a variety of functions directly and

indirectly related to tourism contributes positively to the differentiation of companies. These

areas are diversified tourism areas and mixed areas with strong tourism functions in the case

of Antalya. Although retail-trade companies strongly imitate each other (having obviously a

negative effect on company differentiation), the results from in-depth interviews show that

retail-trade companies located diversified tourism areas have some differentiation (low in

number). It confirms the idea that areas with a variegated mix of functions directly and

indirectly related to tourism stimulates a differentiation of tourism companies.

Lastly, in line with economic geography literature, investments in unrelated sectors affect

company differentiation in a negative way. This result is different when each type of

company such as only hotels, restaurants evaluated separately. Labor mobility between related

sectors (employees who previously worked in a related sector) matters, so some extent,

in the differentiation of companies. Even though there is, when all tourism firms are aggregated,

no significant relation between related variety and company differentiation, the relation

between related variety and company differentiation becomes stronger in a separate

analysis of different sectors such as hotels and restaurants.

In future work, it could be interesting to explore the arguments of this paper for hotels,

restaurants and other tourism related companies separately to get more grip on the relation

between company differentiation on the one hand and related and unrelated variety as well

as spatial differentiation as a context variables on the other. It would also be interesting to

compare different single-asset tourism cities of the same country (for different cities of the

same national context) and other countries (for global context) to explore whether other

factors influencing in differentiation of companies.

159

references:

Amin, A. (2000). An Institutionalist Perspective on Regional Economic Development. uK: Oxford Joint

Editors and Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

Becerra, M, Santaló, J. & Silva, R. 2013. ‘Being better vs. being different: Differentiation, competition,

and pricing strategies in the Spanish hotel industry’, Tourism Management, 34, 71-79.

Benur, A.M.& Bramwell, B (2015) Tourism product development and product diversification in

Destinations, Tourism Management, 50,213-224.

Bramwell, B. (2004). Mass tourism, diversification and sustainability in Southern Europe’s coastal

regions. In B. Bramwell (Ed.), Coastal mass tourism. Diversification and sustainable development

in southern Europe (pp. 1e31). Clevedon: Channel View Publications.

Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area life cycle of evolution: implications for management

of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24(1),5-12.

Camagni, R. (1991). Innovation networks; spatial perspectives. London: Belhaven Press.

Cooke, P. (1997). Regions in a global market: the experiences of Wales and Baden-Wu¨ttemberg. Review

of International Political Economy, 4(2), 349–381.

Cooke, P. (1998a). Introduction: Origins of the concept. In H. J. Braczyk, P.Cooke, & M. Heidenreich

(Eds.), Regional innovation systems: The role of governance in a globalised world (pp. 2–27).

London: uCL Press

Cohen, W. M., & Levin, R. C. (1989). Empirical studies of innovation and market structure. In R.

Schmalensee, & R. D. Willig (Eds.), Handbook of industrial organization. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Science Publishers B.V.

BACK TO CONTENT |


160

Eraydın, A., & Fingleton, B. (2006). Network relations and local economic development: some causes

of differentiated network structures and intensities among Turkish industrial firms. Environment

and Planning A, 38, 1171–1186.

Erkus-Ozturk &Terhorst, (2013) Jewelry Retail and Tourism: A Relation Of unrelated Variety, In Kozak,

M. And Kozak, N. (Eds.) Tourism Research: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, Cambridge Scholars

Publishing: Cambridge. Chapter 9, (pp.124-141).

ERKuŞ ÖZTÜRK, H. and TERHORST, P. (2016) Economic Diversification of a Single Asset Tourism City:

Evidence From Antalya, Current Issues in Tourism.

Farmaki, A. (2012). A supply-side evaluation of coastal tourism diversification: the case of Cyprus.

Tourism Planning and Development, 9(2), 183-203.

Go, F., & Govers, R. (2000). Integrated quality management for tourist destinations: A European

perspective on achieving competitiveness. Tourism Management, 21(1), 79–88.

Novelli, M., Schmitz, B., & Spencer, T. (2006). Networks, clusters and innovation in tourism: a uK

Experience. Tourism Management, 27(6), 1141–1152.

Novelli, M. (2005). Niche tourism: Contemporary issues, trends and cases. Oxford: Butterworth-

Heinemann.

Orfila-Sintes, F., Crespí-Cladera, R. & Martínez-Ros. E.2005. ‘Innovation activity in the hotel industry:

Evidence from Balearic Islands, Tourism Management, 6, 851-865.

Scott, A. J. (1995). The geographic foundations of industrial performance. Competition and Change,

1(1), 51–66.

Tremblay, P. (2000). An evolutionary interpretation of the role of collaborative partnerships in

sustainable tourism. In B. Bramwell & B. Lane (Eds.), Tourism collaboration and partnerships;

politics, practice and sustainability. Channel View: Clevedon.

Weaver, D. (2001). Ecotourism in the context of other tourism types. In D. Weaver (Ed.), The

encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 73-83). Wallingford: CABI.

Weidenfeld, A., Butler, R., & Williams, A. (2011). The role of clustering, cooperation and

complementarities in the visitor attraction sector. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(7), 595-629

| BACK TO CONTENT

INNOVaTIONS OF rESTaUraNTS IN a maSS-TOUrISm CITY:

EVIDENCE FrOm aNTalYa 1

Hilal Erkuş-Öztürk 2

abSTraCT

This paper is about innovations of restaurants in the single-asset (sun-sea-sand) mass-tourism city of

Antalya, and focuses on the supply side of the restaurant market. The aim of the paper is to find out

what innovation strategies restaurateurs have followed, given their resources they have at their disposal,

the specific sub-market they are oriented to. The empirical research is based on interviews with

54 managers and chefs, the results of which are analysed with quantitative methods of relational analysis

such as correspondence- and chi-square analysis. The main result of the empirical research is that

restaurants of high quality, visited by a mix of locals and tourists, and are located in a specific urban

milieu, are most innovative.

161

KEYWOrDS

Restaurants, innovation, mass-tourism cities, diversification, area differentiation

Introduction

The growth of mass tourism seems, at first look, to be at odds with strategies of innovation

and differentiation of tourism firms because they stand for flexible specialization, i.e.

niche markets, small-scale production, economies of scope, quality uncertainty, buyers markets,

active consumers, and distinction according to class and life-style. That is why it is easily

assumed that strategies of innovation and differentiation of tourism firms are doomed to

fail in mass-tourism areas. However, during the last decade, tourism researchers have begun

to doubt that there is no room for innovation, differentiation, and variety in mass-tourism

areas, notwithstanding the strong forces leading to standardization. Firstly, there are strong

doubts whether we can speak of mass-tourism at all because the mass in mass tourism is

not necessarily a homogeneous entity but can be made up of a large number of heterogeneous

tourists. In addition, mass tourism is not something of all times and all places but is

historically and geographically specific (Singh, 2007; Vainikka, 2013; and see for various types

of mass tourists Cohen, 1972). Secondly, most tourism researchers interpreted the development

of tourism in terms of the dichotomy of mass tourism and alternative tourism. Whereas

the former is associated with fordism, the latter is associated with flexible specialization.

However, some tourism researchers have argued that the fordist model of tourism production

and consumption has become more specialized and flexible while retaining its mass scale,

and that fordism and flexible specialization in tourism often co-exist in space and time (Ioannides

and Debbage, 2008; Torres, 2002; Bramwell, 2004; Benur and Bramwell, 2015). Thirdly,

evolutionary economic geography has recently been brought in tourism studies (Brouder

1

This paper is the product of TuBİTAK 1001 Project, named as; “Economic Diversification and Homogenization In

Tourism Cities: The Case Of Antalya”, Project No:112K443

2

Associate Professor Dr. at Akdeniz university, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of

Public Administration, urbanization Problems e-mail: herkus@akdeniz.edu.tr, hilalerkus@yahoo.com

BACK TO CONTENT |


162

and Eriksson, 2013; Brouder, 2014). One of the key characteristic of evolutionary economic

geography is that the growth of an industry or place is associated with an ever larger variety

of firms. Fourthly, mass tourism destinations often show a low of level of spatial differentiation

in the production and consumption of tourism services but many of them are more

differentiated than one is inclined to believe at first thought (Bramwell, 2004; Benur and

Bramwell, 2015). In addition, mass tourism is often accompanied by tourism urbanization,

and the export base of many mass-tourism cities, including the ones with only one asset

such as sun-sea-and- sand, is driven by more industries than only tourism. The resulting

growth of the local population stimulates the growth and differentiation of services for locals

such as, for instance, restaurants that are in course of time also used by tourists.

This paper is about innovations of restaurants in the ‘sun-sea-sand’ mass-tourism city

of Antalya, and focuses on the supply-side of the restaurant market. The reason for having

chosen restaurants as object of research is that, as will be shown later, they are more innovative

than hotels and a few other tourism related sectors. Innovations in the restaurant industry

are the opposite of McDonaldization (rationalization) that stands for efficiency,

calculability, predictability, ‘irrationality of rationality’ (fast food leads to obesitas), and disenchantment

of consumption (Ritzer, 1998; Ritzer, 1999). It is precisely by means of innovations

that restaurateurs try to escape from cut-throat price competition and disenchantment

of consumption in standardised markets. At first look, one does not expect many innovative

restaurants in Antalya because its growth is almost exclusively based on ‘sun-sea-and-sand’

mass-tourism that fits very well to the fordist model of tourism development. Almost all visitors

— nearly all of them come from abroad, — make a package tour to the city offered by

international tour operators, and a significant number of them makes an all-inclusive trip

(including food and drinks) to a hotel in one of the city’s tourism enclaves. Given the relatively

low prices of those trips, the majority of visitors are lower-middle- and middle-class lowbudget

tourists (Erkuş-Öztürk and Terhorst, 2010).

Yet, the general point of this paper is that the restaurant market of Antalya is much

more innovative than one might expect in such a city. The specific aim of the paper is to show

on the basis of our empirical research that high-quality restaurants (that are assumed to

have more resources at their disposal), which are visited by a mix of locals and tourists, are

more innovative than other restaurants.

The paper is organized as follows. In the first section, literature is reviewed on innovative

restaurants on the basis of very different theories, namely Schumpeter’s (1934) innovation

theory, Schmookler’s (1966) demand-pull theory of innovation that goes back to Adam Smith,

Ritzer’s thesis on disenchantment and re-enchantment of consumption, and Bourdieu’s

(1980, 1984 and 1996) theory of the production and consumption of symbolic goods. In the

second section, methods of analysis and research design are given. Lastly, empirical findings

are elaborated and conclusive findings are discussed.

Innovations of restaurants in a mass-tourism City

Standardization or McDonaldization (Ritzer, 1998) is a powerful force in the restaurant

industry because of its efficiency, calculability, and predictability of dishes and services. The

latter reduces quality uncertainty which is a precondition for a well-functioning market (Ak-

| BACK TO CONTENT

INNOVATIONS OF RESTAuRANTS IN A MASS-TOuRISM CITY: EVIDENCE FROM ANTALYA

erlof, 1970; Beckert, 2009). Yet, restaurateurs try to escape from the cut-throat price competition

that goes with it by means of innovations. As Schumpeter (1934) argued a long time

ago, the biggest profits are made by innovations because they generate a temporary

monopoly until imitators enter the market. It is not competition that makes capitalism so

dynamic but attempts to escape from it, he argued.

Innovations in the restaurants industry can take many forms, as we shall see later, but

almost all of them can be labelled as a culinary innovation or a service innovation. This distinction

is important because the service and ambiance of a restaurant are important constituent

parts of dining out. According to Ritzer (1999), McDonaldization has led to a

disenchantment of visiting restaurants which has, paradoxically, triggered a process of reenchantment.

Because the rationalization of food production and consumption leads to a

standardized, and, at best, mediocre food quality, growing numbers of consumers can only

be attracted to restaurants by creating spectacles through extravaganzas and simulations

that masks the fact that the food consumed is ultimately dissatisfying. Thus restaurateurs

try to escape from declining rates of profit as a result of standardized food production by an

ever more extravagant theming of restaurants (Beardsworth and Bryman, 1999). It is in line

with the idea of the rise of the experience economy in which firms realise ever more value

added by transforming the consumption of standard goods into an extraordinary experience

(Pine & Gilmore, 1999).

For making a successful innovation one needs to have resources at one’s disposal

such as, to use Bourdieu’s concepts, economic capital, culinary specific cultural capital, social

capital, and symbolic capital. Because restaurateurs and chefs of high-quality restaurants

have more resources to innovate, it is plausible to assume that high-quality restaurants are

more innovative than lower-quality ones. Owners and chefs of high-quality restaurants have

more culinary specific cultural capital, and they know better what is going on in the world or

field of restaurants by monitoring other restaurants locally, nationally, and supra-nationally.

In addition, they have more social capital because they participate more in networks of

restaurateurs and chefs to pick-up new culinary trends and to find good chefs or cooks (Ottenbacher

and Harrington, 2007; Olders, 2013). In addition, chefs and restaurateurs of high

quality restaurants have a higher reputation (symbolic capital) in the world of restaurants

(locally, nationally, or supra-nationally) which eases to attract loans to finance innovations.

Restaurateurs and chefs of basic restaurants, on the other hand, lack not only the resources

to innovate but are also less stimulated to do so because they compete on the basis of low

prices on the standardized market rather than on the basis of quality (see Fantasia (2010)

for an analysis of the French gastronomic field based on Bourdieu’s theories of the production

and consumption of symbolic goods, and Terhorst and Erkuş-Öztürk (2015) for the Amsterdam

field of restaurants).

Schumpeter’s innovation theory is a supply-side theory according to which the growth

of industries, in our case the restaurant industry, is driven by innovations of ‘heroic’ entrepreneurs

that are finally accepted by consumers. But innovations can also be stimulated

by a growing demand, an idea that goes back to Adam Smith. Ritzer’s McDonaldization has

not only led to a disenchantment of consumption followed by a re-enchantment but also to

an ‘irrationality of rationality’ (standardised food is the prima causa of obesitas). According

to Johnston and Baumann (2010), American ‘foodies’ who prefer authentic and exotic food,

163

BACK TO CONTENT |


164

do not only have an aversion to the snobbishness of the French haute cuisine but also, and

even more so, to fast-food. According to the so-called demand-pull theory (Schmookler,

1966), a fast growing market is more favourable to innovations than a slow growing one. Fast

growing industries are more innovative because they make more investments in new capital

goods than slow growing ones (in our case, for instance, a new kitchen equipment, new furniture

and a new interior design), and supplying industries are more stimulated to spend resources

to develop new products for fast growing industries (for instance, firms making

interior designs for restaurants or importers of ‘exotic’ ingredients). In addition, a fast growth

of the market offers better opportunities for new entrants that, according to evolutionary

economic geographers, often are more innovative than incumbent firms because they make

a ‘new combination’ of the routines of their parent firm and those of the newly founded firm

(Stam, 2007; Boschma and Wenting, 2007). The innovations of new entrants subsequently

forces incumbent firms to react by introducing their own innovations.

Does the specific sub-market at which restaurants in tourism places are predominantly

oriented to influence the innovativeness of restaurants? In other words, are restaurants that

are predominantly visited by tourists more or less innovative than restaurants that are predominantly

visited by locals, or a mix of locals and tourists? If the growth of tourists in a

tourism place is much higher than the growth of the local population, then one would expect

that restaurants predominantly oriented to tourists are more innovative than restaurants

predominantly oriented to locals. However, the tourism market is a seasonal market with a

high (and often yearly growing) demand during the season and a low demand in the off-season.

That is why restaurants that are visited by a mix of locals and tourists are in a favourable

position. They are visited all year by (a growing number of) locals and take advantage of the

growth of the tourism market in the high season. Thus the less volatile growth of restaurants

visited by a mix of locals and tourists is the most favourable condition for innovations.

However, it could be counter-argued that it is more plausible to assume that restaurants

predominantly visited by locals are more innovative, notwithstanding their slower growth.

All entrepreneurs are always uncertain whether an innovation will be successful or not but

owners of restaurants that are predominantly visited by tourists are more uncertain about

their innovations than owners of restaurants that are predominantly visited by locals. The

restaurant industry is a cultural industry because it produces goods of an aesthetic and symbolic

value. Food and drinks served in restaurants have an aesthetic value for the tongue and

for the eyes, and have a status-bestowing value too. Classes and life-style groups distinguish

themselves by food consumption and restaurant visits (Bourdieu, 1984, pp. 175-208; Warde

& Martens, 2000), and many foods in restaurants are often part of a national, ethnic or regional

identity (DeSoucey, 2010; Everett and Aitchison, 2008). The quality standards of the

dishes served in restaurants are not objectively given (except in case of spoiled food and unhygienic

conditions in the kitchen) but are, like all other symbolic goods (Bourdieu, 1980;

Bourdieu, 1984; Bourdieu, 1996), the result of a (fragile) consensus of key actors in the field

of restaurants such as restaurateurs, chefs, culinary journalists, and different classes and lifestyle

groups. The key actors are predominantly national and local, and, to a lesser extent,

global (think of the Michelin Guide and top chefs who move all over the globe, see Lane,

2011). Most of the restaurateurs and chefs in tourism places know much better the local and

national quality standards of the dominant national kitchen (for instance, the Ottoman/Turk-

| BACK TO CONTENT


ish kitchen in Turkey) than the foreign ones, and know much better new local and national

culinary fashions than foreign ones. Given the fact that culinary innovations do not come

out of the blue but are mostly strongly based on former culinary traditions (Rao et al, 2003;

Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2008), chefs and restaurateurs of restaurants predominantly

visited by locals are less uncertain to introduce innovations than those of restaurants predominantly

visited by tourists. This is the more so, because foreign tourists come from different

countries with different food cultures and food identities, and the way classes

distinguish themselves varies from country to country (Daloz, 2010). It is much more difficult

for restaurants with such a large variety of visitors to be innovative. Thus from the perspective

of uncertainty restaurants predominantly visited by locals are more innovative than restaurants

predominantly visited by foreign tourists. However, if our first hypothesis that higherquality

restaurants are more innovative than lower-quality restaurants is correct, then it is

highly likely that restaurants that are predominantly visited by higher middle-class and higherclass

locals are more innovative than restaurants visited by lower-middle-class and lowerclass

locals. Thus from the perspective of stable growth restaurants visited predominantly

by a mix of locals and tourists are most innovative whereas from the perspective of uncertainty

restaurants predominantly visited by higher middle-class and higher-class locals are

more innovative than restaurants predominantly visited by lower-middle class and lowerclass

locals. To this we could add that it is plausible to assume that innovative restaurants

that are initially oriented to the market for higher middle-class and higher-class locals are, in

course of time, ‘discovered’ by adventurous foodies. Middle-class tourists from high-income

countries often have an equal, if not higher, income as higher-middle class and higher-class

locals, and among the large number of middle-class tourists in a mass-tourism city there are

always a significant number of adventurous foodies.

165

Setting of the Case and methods of analysis

Setting of the case

Antalya is by far the largest ‘sun-sea-sand’ mass-tourism city of Turkey. Its number of

tourists has grown from three and a half million in 2000 to more than ten million in 2015.

Around 90% of all tourists are foreigners (unpublished statistics of TuIK, the Turkish Statistical

Institution). The city’s strong tourism growth of tourism has gone hand-in-hand with investments

in a variety of tourism-related activities such as hotels, restaurants, retail trade predominantly

oriented to tourists, particularly jewellers, arts, and culture among many others,

as well as a strong growth of employment and population (the city’s population has grown

from 714.129 to 1,203.994 in the period 2000-2015).

Antalya’s tourism economy has become more diversified in course of time. The city’s

restaurant industry has also become more diversified. The Herfindahl-index for restaurants

was 0.45 in 1990 against 0.39 in 2011 (Erkuş-Özturk, 2015). After having made interviews

with various tourism-related sectors, it turns out that the restaurant industry has introduced

more innovations in products and services (on which more below) than other tourism-related

sectors, as is shown in the correspondence analysis bi-plot in figure 1. That is why the restaurant

industry is selected for our study.

BACK TO CONTENT |


Figure 1: Firm types and level of innovation: Correspondence analysis

166

rows: J= Jewellers, H= Hotels, T= Retail-trade tourism firms, R: Restaurants

Columns: Level of Innovation. I= Innovative firms, R= Firms that only make a renovation, NI=

Firms without innovation

Sampling

On behalf of the field study a sampling of restaurants in Antalya had to be drawn first.

The total number of restaurants, registered at ATSO (Antalya Trade and Industry Association),

in various tourism areas along the coast in the city centre was 152 in 2012. Especially the

restaurants that are also mentioned in tripadvisor (www.tripadvisor.com) were selected. Thus

simple fast-food restaurants and kebab houses that are visited by locals only as well as cafes

are excluded from the sample. In the end, interviews with 54 restaurants (z-margin of error:

0.10, distribution ratio: 0.5 at a 95% confidence level) were made by one of the authors between

January and March 2014. Although a large number of restaurants with a different type

of kitchen are included in the sample, they could not be distinguished according to type of

kitchen in the analysis due to the many different types of kitchen and the small number of

each type.

Due to the small number of restaurants with a foreign kitchen, the diversity of restaurants

according ethnicity of kitchen is low in Antalya. Antalya is not a city of foreign immigrants,

except a small number of Russians and Germans. Although the number of Italian

restaurants has increased, the Turkish Ottoman kitchen dominates Antalya’s restaurant industry.

Thus most restaurants in Antalya have to find other strategies to distinguish themselves

than by starting a restaurant with a foreign kitchen.

The required data were collected through a survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews

with restaurateurs in Antalya city, i.e. excluding the sub-provinces. The survey questionnaire

included dichotomous, open-ended as well as multiple-choice questions.

| BACK TO CONTENT


levels of innovativeness

The restaurants in the empirical research are, apart from location, distinguished according

to three criteria: (i) level of innovation, subdivided in innovations in dishes, services, and

renovation of the interior and/or exterior of the building, (ii) quality levels of the restaurants,

and (iii) type of visitors, i.e. predominantly visited by tourists, locals or a mix of both.

An innovation is broadly defined as the introduction of a new product or service, and incremental

forms such as modifications and improvements of facilities (Freeman, 1995). In this

research innovations in restaurants should be seen as ‘soft innovations’ such as new products,

new dishes, new ways of distributing culinary knowledge and techniques (for instance, workshops

given by Michelin-star chefs), and new services. Examples of culinary innovations are

dishes prepared in a molecular kitchen, meat dried in a special meat drier, fine-dining concepts,

invitations to Michelin-star chefs, a new combination of creative dishes that had not

been served before in Antalya, a fusion kitchen by combining different national kitchens,

dishes based on ecological ingredients, specially made sauces, a sous-vide cooking system as

seen in Michelin-star restaurants, fish kebabs, Japanese beer sake, wakame salads, sushi covered

with flowers. By new services is meant special plates (like Churchill plates), live music,

special cameras on each table to monitor the kids playground, special tablet menus, small

flags put on meals with different types of advertisement for the restaurant, vip saloons in

restaurants, wooden menus, special karaoke rooms for guests, a special big aquarium as interior

design, cartoon shows, and special care for kids. By renovation of the interior and/or

exterior of the building is meant new furniture, the painting walls and floors, a new landscape

design around the building, the building of child entertainment areas, and new terraces.

Four levels of innovativeness of restaurants are distinguished on the basis of the total

number of innovations over the last five years. Restaurants without any change at all in products,

services, and renovation get 0 points, and restaurants with one or two renovations get

1 point. The remaining restaurants with have a minimum of three to four innovations in products

and services are called innovative restaurants and get 3 points whereas the ones with a

minimum of five or more innovations in products and services are the most innovative restaurants

and get four points.

167

Three quality levels

On the basis of the studying of menus, in-depth interviews with restaurateurs, and our

own dining experience, three quality levels of restaurants are distinguished, namely basic,

medium, and high quality. High-quality restaurants serve dishes of top quality, while mediumquality

restaurants show their craftsmanship in their dishes but are nevertheless somewhat

standard (some franchise restaurants). Basic restaurants are, for instance, Turkish fish and meat

restaurants that serve industrially made food, serve meat, pizza, steaks, French fries and salads.

Differentiation according to three types of visitors

Restaurants that are visited by 70-100% by tourists are called as tourist oriented restaurants,

restaurants that are visited by 40-70% by tourists are called mixed restaurants, and

the remaining restaurants that are called restaurants oriented to locals

BACK TO CONTENT |


168

Cross tables, chi-squares and correspondence analysis have been applied to analyse the

association between the spatial distribution of restaurants and their level of innovativeness.

In fact, a correspondence analysis is a tool of network analysis and is an ‘interdependence

technique’ (Hair et al., 2006) that has become popular for dimensional reduction and perceptual

mapping. It differs from other interdependence techniques in its ability to accommodate

both non-metric and non-linear relationships. Correspondence analysis mainly

utilizes the coordinates on the bi-plot which is the basic outcome of the analysis showing

the correspondence between the items of two basic categories according to their distance

to each other (Beyhan, 2006). Correspondence analysis is a grouping analysis employed for

understanding similarities between variables (Erkuş-Öztürk, 2009).

Innovations of restaurants in antalya: an Empirical analysis

Quality of restaurants and level of innovation

The quality of restaurants can be analytically distinguished from their level of innovativeness.

High-quality restaurants can be successful for some time without making any innovation

at all —they are resting on their laurels—, and low-quality restaurants can improve

their quality by making innovations. Yet, it is more likely that high-quality restaurants are

more innovative than lower-quality restaurants, as argued before.

Higher-quality restaurants are indeed more innovative than basic restaurants. There is

a strong correlation between level of quality of restaurants and their level of innovativeness.

The results of a chi-square analysis show a significant relation between those two variables

(chi-square: 11,209 significant at 0.004 level) (table 1).

Table 1: Quality levels of restaurants and Innovations in Products and Services

restaurant Quality Innovation No innovation grand Total Chi-Square P-value

basic 4(18%) 18(56%) 22(41%) 11,209 0,004*

medium Quality 7(32%) 10(31%) 17(31%)

High Quality 11(50%) 4(13%) 15(28%)

grand total 22(100%) 32(100%) 54(100%)

The number of innovations in new products and services of high-quality restaurants is

significantly higher than that of basic restaurants. According to cross-table shares (Table 1),

50% of all restaurants that made an innovation are high-quality restaurants. While 73% (11

of 15) of all high-quality restaurants made an innovation, 82% (18 out of 22) of all basic

restaurants made no innovation at all. The only innovations basic restaurants made are the

serving of dishes that are not mentioned in the menu, or the serving of fish kebabs, crab

burgers, and creamy steaks.

| BACK TO CONTENT


The strong association between the level of quality of restaurants and their level of innovativeness

is clearly seen in the correspondence plot (figure 2). It confirms empirically that

the higher the quality of restaurants, the more innovative they are.

Figure 2: Correspondence bi-plot of Quality of restaurants and Innovation in Products and Services

169

Note: Rows HQ= High-Quality Restaurants, MQ= Medium-Quality Restaurants, C= Basic Restaurants

Columns I= Innovative Restaurants, NI= Restaurants with no innovation

Type of Visitors in restaurants and level of Innovation

Does the specific sub-market at which restaurants are predominantly oriented influence

the innovativeness of restaurants? In other words, are restaurants that are predominantly

visited by tourists more or less innovative than restaurants that are predominantly visited

by locals, or a mix of locals and tourists? The results of our empirical research show that only

restaurants predominantly visited by locals and restaurants predominantly visited a mix of

locals and tourists are innovative (17 out of 46), although their shares are low (Table 2). The

share of restaurants visited by a mix of locals and tourists that are innovative, is higher (9

out of 16 = 56%) than that of restaurants predominantly visited by locals. The correspondence

bi-plot shows a strong association between restaurants predominantly visited by a mix of

tourists and locals and their level of innovativeness (figure 3). Thus restaurants visited by a

mix of locals and tourists are more innovative than other ones.

BACK TO CONTENT |


Table 2: Innovativeness of restaurants according to Different Sub-markets

Innovative products and

service in restaurant

local mix Tourist grand Total

170

Yes 8(47%) 9(53%) 0(0%) 17(100%)

No 18(58%) 6(19%) 7(23%) 31(100%)

N/a 4(67%) 1(16,5%) 1(16,5%) 6(100%)

grand Total 30 16 8 54

Figure 3: Correspondence bi-plot of restaurants according to Types of Visitors and level of Innovativeness

Note: Rows: I= Innovative Restaurants, NI= Restaurants without Innovations

Columns T= Tourist restaurants, M= Mixed Restaurants, L= Local restaurants

It is surprising that restaurants predominantly visited by tourists are not innovative at

all. It suggests that this market segment is most standardized. It is in accordance with the

results of the empirical research of Terhorst & Erkuş-Öztürk (2015) on the restaurant market

in Amsterdam. They show that (highly educated) tourists are more inclined to reduce their

quality uncertainty by visiting standardized restaurants than locals are. This offers opportunities

for restaurateurs with a low amount of symbolic and culinary-specific cultural capital

to start up standardized restaurants at the lower end of the tourism market.

| BACK TO CONTENT


relation between restaurant quality and sub-markets somewhat diffuse

Even though there is no significant relation between quality level and their different

sub-markets, most of the restaurants predominantly visited by a mix of locals and tourists

(81%) consist of high-quality and medium-quality restaurants (Table 3). This is consistent

with the fact shown before that restaurants oriented to the mixed sub-market are the most

innovative ones.

171

Table 3: levels of Quality of restaurants and Sub-markets

restaurant

Type

Standardized

low

local mix Tourist grand Total

15(50%) 3(19%) 4(50%) 22(41%)

High-Quality 7(23%) 6(37%) 2(25%) 15(28%)

medium Quality

8(27%) 7(44%) 2(25%) 17(31%)

grand Total 30(100%) 16(100%) 8(15%) 54(100%)

Apart from the fact that restaurants oriented to the mixed sub-market are predominantly

of medium- and high-quality, we see that 50% of the restaurants predominantly visited

by tourists and 50% of the restaurants predominantly visited by locals are standardized ones.

Or reversely formulated, 50% of the restaurants mainly visited by tourists and 50% of the

restaurants mainly visited by locals are of medium- and high-quality. Thus the picture of

restaurants oriented to these two sub-markets is more complex. This has, to some extent,

to do with the following factors. Firstly, given the skewed income distribution in Antalya (as

well as in Turkey as a whole), there is both a market for cheap basic restaurants and a market

for higher-quality restaurants for locals. Secondly, tourists (even those with a higher income)

are inclined to visit standardised low-quality restaurants on passers-by streets (see for the

case of Amsterdam, Terhorst & Erkuş-Öztürk, 2015). Quality levels of restaurants are strongly

related with where they are located: in passers-by-streets, tourism districts or other residential

areas. In other words, geography matters in the differentiation of restaurants, as will

be shown in the next section.

Conclusion

The reason for writing this paper is that we doubt whether ‘sun-sea-sand’ mass-tourism

cities are really so fordist or McDonaldized as was widely believed in tourism literature until

recently. Antalya is a good example of such a ‘sun-sea-sand’ mass-tourism city with its strong

growth of foreign tourists who make a package tour to the city offered by tour operators at

relatively low prices. In such a place one does not expect to find much innovation, variety,

and diversification. Innovations of restaurants in a mass-tourism city are, at first look, a contradictio

in terminis. Yet, at a closer look, there is much more innovation and, therefore, differentiation

in Antalya’s restaurant industry than one might expect.

BACK TO CONTENT |


172

The major aim of this paper is to test four hypotheses, based on Schumpeter’s innovation

theory, Ritzer’s thesis of de-enchantment and re-enchantment, Adam Smith and

Schmookler’s demand-pull theory, and Bourdieu’s theory of the production of symbolic

goods, namely:

higher-quality restaurants are more innovative than lower quality restaurants;

restaurants visited by a mix of tourists and higher-middle-class- and higher-class locals

are more innovative than restaurants visited by either by (lower) middle-class locals or

tourists;

innovative restaurants are predominantly found in areas that are visited by both locals

and tourists.

Our empirical research shows, firstly, that higher-quality restaurants are significantly

more innovative than lower-quality restaurants. A plausible explanation for this difference

of innovativeness is, as we hypothesized, that chefs and restaurateurs of the former have

more culinary specific cultural, social, symbolic, and economic capital than the latter. Secondly,

restaurants that are visited by a mix of locals and tourists are more innovative than

restaurants either visited by locals or tourists. Our explanation for the high level of innovativeness

of mixed restaurants is threefold. The growth of their market is higher than that of

restaurants mainly visited by locals and more stable than of restaurants mainly visited by locals.

Thus their market position is more favourable to innovations. In addition, their quality

is higher and, as we have just concluded, higher quality restaurants are more innovative. Finally,

the fact that they are, to a large extent, visited by locals reduces the uncertainty that

is always associated with innovations. Culinary innovations are almost always rooted in culinary

traditions. Because chefs and restaurateurs know much better the national and local

quality standards of the Ottoman/Turkish kitchen (dominant in Antalya) than the foreign

ones, they are less uncertain to introduce innovations for locals than for tourists who have

grown up in different food cultures. Because our research is focused on the supply-side, we

cannot say whether the locals who visit mixed restaurants belong to the higher-middle- and

higher classes but the fact that the quality of mixed restaurants is higher suggests so.

Finally, given these research results we believe that the following development process

in the mass-tourism city of Antalya has taken place. The innovative restaurants are (probably)

initially visited by locals and subsequently by ‘foodie-tourists’ which is an extra stimulus for

restaurateurs to be innovative. In this way, the restaurant industry of a mass-tourism city becomes

more diversified. More research is needed whether mass-tourism cities become indeed

more diversified during their growth phase, whether innovative restaurants are first

oriented to the market of locals and are subsequently visited by ‘foodie tourists’.

references

Akerlof, G.A. (1970). The market for “lemons”: quality uncertainty and the market mechanism. Quarterly

Journal of Economics, 84(3), 488-500.

Beckert, J. (2009). The social order of markets. Theory and Society, 38, (3), 245-269.

Benur, A.M. & Bramwell, B. (2015). Tourism product development and product diversification in destinations.

Tourism Management 50, 213-224.

Beyhan, B. (2006). The role of labor mobility in the cognitive architecture of an industrial cluster: the

case of siteler in Ankara, unpublished PhD thesis, Department of City and Regional Planning, Middle

East Technical university, Ankara.

Beardsworth, A. & Bryman, A. (1999. Late modernity and the dynamics of quasification: the case of

| BACK TO CONTENT


the themed restaurant. The Sociological Review, 47 (2), 228-257.

Bourdieu, P. (1980). The production of belief: contribution to an economy of symbolic goods. Media,

Culture, and Society, 2(3), 261-293.

Bourdieu, P. (1996). The rules of the art. Genesis and structure of the literary field. Redwood City: Stanford

university Press.

Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Boschma, R. & Wenting, R. (2007), Spatial evolution of the British automobile industry: does location

matter? Industrial and Corporate Change, 16 (2), 213-238.

Bramwell, B. (2004). Mass tourism, diversification and sustainability in Southern Europe’s coastal regions.

In B. Bramwel (Ed.), Coastal Mass Tourism (1-31). Clevedon: Channel View.

Brouder, P. (2014). Evolutionary economic geography and tourism studies: extant studies and future

research directions. Tourism Geographies, 16 (4), 540-545.

Bryman 2006.

Cohen, E. (1972). Toward a sciology of international tourism. Social Research, 39 (1), 164-182.

Daloz, J-P. (2010). The sociology of elite distinction. From theoretical to comparative perspectives. London:

Palgrave.

De Soucey, M. (2010). Gastronationalism: food traditions and authenticity politics in the European

union. American Sociological Review, 75 (3), 432-455.

Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (2009). The role of cluster types and firm size in designing the level of network relations:

the experience from Antalya tourism region. Tourism Management, 30 (4), 589-597.

Erkuş-Öztürk, H. & Eraydin, A. (2010). Environmental governance for sustainable tourism development:

collaborative networks and institution-building in the Antalya tourism cluster. Tourism Management,

31 (1), 113-124.

Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (2010). The significance of Networking and company size in the level of creativeness

of tourism companies: the Antalya Case. European Planning Studies, 18(8), 1247-1266.

Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (2015). Turizm kentlerinde ekonomik farklılaşma-aynilaşma: Antalya örneği (Economic

Homogenization and Diversification in Tourism Cities: The Case of Antalya) (1001 Project No:

112K443).

Everett, S. & Aitchison, C. (2008). The role of food tourism in sustaining regional identity: a case study

of Cornwall, South West England. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16 (2), 150-167.

Fantasia, R. (2010). ‘Cooking the books’ of the French gastronomic field. In E. Silva & A.Warde (eds.),

Cultural Analysis and Bourdieu’s Legacy. Setting Accounts and Developing Alternatives (28-44).

London, Routledge.

Freeman, C. (1995) The national system of innovation in historical perspective, Cambridge Journal of

Economics, 19(1), 5–24.

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E. & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate Data Analysis.

upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.

Hjalager, A-M, A review of innovation research in tourism. Tourism Management, 3 (1), 1-12

Ioannides, D. & Debbage, K. G. (1998). The economic geography of the tourist industry: A supply-side

analysis. Routledge: London.

Johnston, J. & Baumann, S. (2010). Foodies. democracy and the gourmet foodscape. New York: Routledge.

Lane, C. (2011). Culinary culture and globalization. An analysis of British and German Michelin-starred

restaurants. The British Journal of Sociology, 62 (4), 696-717.

Ottenbacher, M.C. & Harrington, R.J. (2007). The innovation process of Michelin-starred chefs. International

Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(6), 444-460.

Ottenbacher, M.C. & Harrington, R.J. (2008). Institutional, cultural and contextual factors: potential

drivers of the culinary innovation process. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9 (3), 235-249.

Olders, P. (2013). Continuity and change. Essays on economic geography and good food. Ph.D. uppsala

university.

Pine, B.J. and Gilmore, J. (1999). The Experience Economy. Cambridge, M.A.: Hravard Business School

Press.

Rao, H., Monin, P. & Durand, R. (2003). Institutional Change in ToqueVille:

nouvelle cuisine as an identity movement in French gastronomy’. American Journal

of Sociology, 108(4), 795-843.

Ritzer, G. (1998). The McDonaldization Thesis. London: Sage.

Schmookler, J. (1966). Invention and economic growth. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard university Press.

Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development. An inquiry into profits, capital, credit,

interest, and the business cycle. Oxford: Oxford university Press.

173

BACK TO CONTENT |


174

Singh, S. (2007. Is there such a thing as ‘mass tourism’? Tourism Recreation Research, 32 (1), 107-111

Stam, E. (2007). Why butterflies don’t leave. Locational behaviour of entrepreneurial firms. Economic

Geography, 83, 1, 27-50.

Svejenova, S. Mazza, C. and Planellas, M. (2007). Cooking up change in haute cuisine: Ferran Adria` as

an institutional entrepreneur. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 539–561.

Terhorst, P. & Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (2010). Variety of modes of governance of a global value chain. The case

of tourism from Holland to Turkey. Tourism Geographies, 12 (2), 217-245.

Terhorst, P. & Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (2015). urban tourism and spatial segmentation in the field of restaurants:

the case of Amsterdam. International Journal of Culture, Tourism, and Hospitality Research,

9 (2), 85-102.

Terhorst, P. & Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (forthcoming). Reducing quality uncertainty in the Amsterdam field of

restaurants. In N. Beerepoot, B. Lambregts, J. Kleibert, & R. Kloosterman (eds.), Globalisation and

New Patterns of Services Sector Driven Growth.Farnham: Ashgate

Torres, R. (2002). Cancun’s tourism development from a Fordist spectrum of analysis. Tourist Studies

vol 2 (1) 87-116.

Vainikka, V. (2013). Rethinking mass tourism. Tourism Studies,13 (3), 268-286.

Warde, A. and Martens, L. (2000). Eating out: social differentiation, consumption and pleasure. Cambridge:

Cambridge university Press.

| BACK TO CONTENT

STUDY ON POSSIbIlITIES OF ExPaNSION OF JaPaNESE TYPE ECOTOUrISm

– FOCUSINg ON NaTUrE-baSED DaYTrIP TOUrISTS

TO ECOTOUrISm rEgIONS IN NabarI-CITY

Sangjun Kim 1

175

abSTraCT

This paper is an expedition study analyzing features of trips of “nature-based tourists” from among

daytrip tourists in Japan with the aim of seeking for expansion possibilities of Japanese type ecotourism.

Approximately 400,000 people visit Nabari-City in Mie Prefecture, the target destination in this paper,

on an annual basis with the aim of enjoying the nature. Samples used for analysis in this paper have

been collected from 437 day trip visitors from among 500 visitors to major sight-seeing spots of Nabari-

City from October to December 2014. It has been found through analysis that while nature-based

daytrip visitors in Japan were satisfied with natural environments themselves, they there less satisfied

with regards to activities and services during their trips. Cluster analyses for grasping tendencies per

markets were performed and disclosed.

KEYWOrDS

Nature-based tourists; Japanese type ecotourism, daytrip visitors

Introduction

According to the “Annual Report on the Tourism Trends Survey 2014” issued by the

Japan Travel Bureau Foundation, the total numbers of Japanese domestic tourists amount

to 320,416,000 (overnight trips) and 310,534,000 (daytrips). While there are differences depending

on destinations, one of the most popular events people enjoy to do during domestic

trips are “going to hot springs”, “seeing landscapes”, “visiting cultural sites” and “eating delicious

foods”. Irrespective of age ranges, surveys show that “hot spring trips” and “naturebased

tourism” head the list of types of trips people would like to make. This clearly indicates

features of basic Japanese domestic travels; in other words, “beauty”, “hot springs” and “delicious

foods” are the three basic elements of Japanese domestic travels.

Looking at the results of “local activities depending on destinations” related to the “Japanese

type ecotourism” of this paper, the least popular destination of the item “outdoor experience/ecotour”

was Osaka Prefecture (1.3%) while the most popular one was Saitama Prefecture

(14.0%). Though the Japanese ecotour market appears to be rather small when considering

these results, the results will vary when the type of trip “nature-based trips” is considered to

be part of the Japanese ecotourism market. It is difficult to comprehend features of the Japanese

ecotourism market based on currently provided statistical data. For solving this problem,

it is, first of all, necessary to review concepts and definitions of ecotourism. This is especially

true in case of countries such as Japan, South Korea or Taiwan in which large cities and naturebased

sightseeing spots (such as national parks and ecotour spots) are close.

According to Weaver (2005), it is possible to classify ecotourism into one of comprehensive

type and of minimalist type. He states that the minimalist type includes features

1

Kindai university Faculty of Business Administration Associate Professor. 3-4-1, Kowakae,Higashiosaka,Osakafu

577-8502 Japan. Tel:+81-6-4307-3321 Fax: +81-6-6729-2493. E-mail:ksjum@bus.kindai.ac.jp

BACK TO CONTENT |


176

such as “elemental natural-based”, “superficial understanding” and “status-quo based”, and

their travel patterns are short trips, physically passive trips and multi-purpose visits. Namely,

tourists from among Japanese domestic tourists who prefer and select travel patterns such

as “nature-based tourism” and “visiting hot springs” are approximate to minimalists of ecotourism

as put forward by Weaver. An approach from the view of Weaver would indicate an

increase in the Japanese ecotourism market.

Next, Japanese domestic travels trips are characterized by the shortness of overnight

stays, and according to the above “Annual Report on the Tourism Trends Survey 2014”, the

only two prefectures which average number of overnight stays exceeded three days were

Okinawa (3.04 stays) and Miyazaki (3.04 stays). As for the remaining regions, people stay for

about two nights. On the other hand, while the number of daytrips from among Japanese

domestic trips is of the same level as the number of overnight trips, the ratio of people whose

purposes are “sightseeing and recreation” from among major types of trips of daytrip tourists

is higher than that of people making overnight trips. It can be understood that daytrip

tourists enjoy minimalist type trips by visiting “sites where nature is beautiful”, making passive

physical activities such as hiking and going to hot springs on daily basis. An approach to

such patterns of daytrip tourists from the view of Weaver would indicate an increase in the

Japanese ecotourism market.

This paper proceeds based on the idea that features of the ecotourism markets of regions

and countries change depending on how concepts and definitions of ecotourism and

ecotourists are set. The term “ecotourism” first appeared in the 1980s and considered an

independent field of study in 2002, when the united Nations designated this year as the International

Year of Ecotourism and the Journal of Ecotourism was first issued as an exclusive

magazine (Weaver and Lawton, 2007). However, considering the diversity of conventional

studies related to ecotourism, studies are still not sufficient. It is considered that it is not

only due to the shortness of its history of approximately 10 years but also to the closed nature

of the concepts and definitions of ecotourism. In other words, the diversity of studies of

ecotourism might have been restricted by limits of the concepts of ecotourism; for instance,

whether possible sites of ecotourism are regions or sites requiring preservation and conservation,

whether ecotourism causes educational effects, and whether sustainable developments

are to be expected through ecotourism. Prior art studies referred to important places

such as national parks and preservation areas in Africa and South America. Accordingly, the

both of the number of researchers as well as the market of ecotourism were limited, and

this might have caused the researchers to set boundaries of studies themselves.

As mentioned above, concepts of ecotourism and ecotourists can be understood in a

broader sense when approached from Weaver’s point of view. It should be noted that it is not

the aim to broaden the market scale of ecotourism and ecotourists. It means that it is necessary

to reconfirm the importance of diverse research methods and approaches in considering markets

of ecotourism and ecotourists. Ecotourism which was first suggested as a measure for introducing

new wind into regions while preserving their nature, history and culture is in fact a useful

subject for future studies in the field of tourism. Accordingly, it is required to change viewpoints

which have been studied based on features of ecotour spots and management organizations to

viewpoints of revealing features of markets of ecotourism and ecotourists. Particularly naturebased

daytrips which are popular in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan are worth studying.

| BACK TO CONTENT

STuDY ON POSSIBILITIES OF EXPANSION OF JAPANESE TYPE ECOTOuRISM

– FOCuSING ON NATuRE-BASED DAYTRIP TOuRISTS TO ECOTOuRISM REGIONS IN NABARI-CITY

In the present paper, features of tourists from among nature-based daytrip tourists will

be analyzed in order to perform exploratory studies of the ecotourism market in Japan. It is

expected that possibilities of expansion and the necessity thereof can be suggested by this

approach as future subjects.

literature reviews

While concepts and definitions of ecotourism have been advocated by many researchers

and organizations, there is still no consensus of its contents. This is because various types of

ecotourism are being provided by various parties concerned as well as by many tourists. Some

of the definitions of ecotourism would be as follows. TIES (The International Ecotourism Society)

has made a definition that it is a “responsible travel to natural areas that converses the

environment and sustains the well-being of the local people” (TIES, 1990) in view of the necessity

of interchange and mutual cooperation among countries with nature sites worth worldwide

preservation. On the other hand, definitions from academic aspects include more

concrete elements. After Fennel (2001) first formed 85 definitions related to ecotourism,

Donohoe and Needham (2006) suggested six elements 2 of ecotourism. Weaver (2001) also

suggested, based on studies of Fennell (2001), three elements of “attractiveness of natural

environment”, “educational effects caused by the interaction of ecotourists and natural environment”

and “socio-culturalism and economic sustainability” and made a definition that

ecotourism is “a type of nature-based tourism aiming for ecological, socio-cultural and economically

sustainable efforts by providing chances of appreciating and studying natural environments

and their specific elements”. In contrast thereto, the definition of Shikita (2008)

says that it is “a system and approach of creating and executing tours through which tourists

can experience and study natural environments while minimizing load applied thereon and

which benefit and contribute to object regions”. His definition is based on the three concepts

of environmental conservation, regional development and tourism promotion which are the

backgrounds of the birth of ecotourism and refers to the difference thereof from general

tourism and the necessity of a system for specific travel commodities of ecotourism.

As stated above, there are various approaches to the definition of ecotourism depending

on purposes of related organizations and viewpoints of researchers. However, what all of

these definitions and viewpoints have in common is the importance of how activation of natural

resources might contribute to developments of regions.

On the other hand, there are not many studies related to ecotourism which focus on ecotourists

as subjects of studies. Particularly, there are even less studies exploring behavior patterns

of ecotourists and features of the ecotourist market. The primary reason thereof is that it is not

easy to define ecotourists which are particular tourists in the presence of various concepts and

definitions of ecotourism 1 . Another reason might be that the scope of the market of ecotourists

who can participate in ecotours generally acknowledged as highly valuable travel commodities is

limited and is thus considered to be of less importance in the tourist industry. Nevertheless, studies

about ecotourists and their markets have been advanced by several researchers.

177

2.

Donohoe and Needham (2006) have suggest six key normative tenets of ecotourism including “nature-based”,

“preservation/conservation”, “environmental education”, “sustainability”, “distribution of benefits” and

“ethics/responsibility”.

BACK TO CONTENT |


178

Wight (1996) explains features of the ecotourism market in North America upon grouping

them into two groups “general tourist market with interest in ecotourism” and “experienced

ecotourist market” depending on findings such as “popular activities”, “fun activities

among experiences during ecotourism”, “lodging facilities used”, “important services of ecotourism”

and “reasons of selecting ecotourism”. He found out that the former group preferred

“cultural experiences” and “wildlife observation” with motivations such as “revisit

accustomed sites” and “education of nature and culture” while the latter groups preferred

“backpacking and special experiences” and “nature- and water-based activities” with motivations

such as “observing the wild” and “experiencing the wild”. Hiking was the most popular

activity in the ecotourism market in North America.

In the studies of “overstay ecotourist market segmentation” of Weaver and Lawton (2002)

asking visitors to Gold Coast Hinterland, survey subjects were grouped into three and features

thereof were analyzed. They analyzed differences in evaluation of the three groups with respect

to six dimensions of “action”, “opinion”, “social environment”, “motivation”, “source information”

and “preferred activity”, and based on the results thereof, ecotourist markets were

respectively named “harder”, “softer” and “structured”. The harder market was characterized

as “strong environmental commitment”, “enhance sustainability”, “specialized trips”, “long

trips”, “small groups”, “physically active”, “few if any services expected” and “emphasis on

personal experience”. The softer market was characterized as “moderate environmental commitment”,

“steady state sustainability”, “multi-purpose trips”, “short trips”, “larger groups”,

“physically passive”, ”services expected” and “emphasis on interpretation”.

Further, Weaver (2005) explained ecotourism upon grouping it into comprehensive type

and minimalist type. In case of minimalist type, features similar to the softer market such as

“elemental natural-based”, “superficial understanding”, “status quo-based”, “short-trips”,

“physically passive” and “multi-purpose visit” were observed.

Fig. 1

Weaver and Lawton (2002), see p. 279. Edited by author

In the geographic segmentation of ecotourism, Weaver and Lawton (2007) asserted that

the ecotourist market in East Asia where several millions of tourists visit protected areas

every year differs from traditional ecotourist markets. They note that the East Asian ecotourists

are characterized by their preference of attractive plants and geographically unique

| BACK TO CONTENT



sites (such as flower gardens and waterfalls) over giant animals, and by their strong psychological

and philosophical relationship to those regions. Apart from that, Thurau et al. (2015)

analyzed features of ecotourists utilizing cruise tours. According to their studies, ecotourists

utilizing cruise tours enjoyed shopping and sightseeing tours around ports which is a completely

different pattern compared to those of general ecotourist activities (like hiking and

camping). While tourists of diverse ecotourism tend to pay more for their tours, their studies

refer to ecotourism offered as a part of programs of cruise tours, and thus differs from the

features of the ecotourism market as discussed in this paper.

As mentioned so far, while some prior art studies related to the ecotourist market have

been made, their contents are diverse, and approaches might still be insufficient. Accordingly,

it is necessary to confirm features of the ecotourist market of Japanese taking part in Japanese

style ecotourism for the development in studies related to ecotourism.

179

method of Study

Study areas

Nabari City of Mie Prefecture, which is the study area in this paper, is a smaller city with

a population of approximately 80,000 and located between Osaka and Nagoya. Approximately

400,000 visitors (Nabari City, 2014) come to see natural sites such as Akame Shijuuhachi-taki

Falls, Kochi-dani Valley and Shorennji-ko Lake. Visitors come to view the autumn leaves around

the end of November and the beginning of December and almost all of the travel pattern is

hiking. Exploration courses include an approximately two-hour tour visiting woods and waterfalls,

and a tour vising cultural and historical remains located in Nabari City. Most of the visitors

are from Osaka and Nagoya, which are closely located large cities, and most of the groups are

either family, spouses or friends coming over on weekends. Due to the favorable location of a

two-hour range from Osaka and Nagoya, most of the visitors come as daytrips.

Nabari City aims to grow into a representative ecotourism region in Japan while establishing

various plans for supporting development.

Table 1: Number of annual visitors to major sightseeing sites in Nabari City

Study areas Total ratio ( )

Akame Shijuuhachi-taki Falls 163,948 13.0%

Kochi-dani Valley 128,446 10.2%

Shorennji-ko Lake 80,851 6.4%

Shorennji-ko Lake Tourist Farm 55,421 4.4%

Former villa of Hosokawa Yanase-shuku 21,089 1.7%

Toretate Nabari Exchange Hall(Town Station Nabari) 127,875 10.2%

Iyashino Sato Nabari-no-Yu (public bath) (Town Station Nabari) 332,084 26.4%

Nabari Cherry blossom Festival 30,000 2.4%

Nabari Firework Festival 67,000 5.3%

Nabari Autumn Festival 10,000 0.8%

Yooka Ebisu (shrine festival) 50,000 4.0%

Toretate ! Nabari 20,000 1.6%

Town Renewal through Local Cuisine in Nabari 90,000 7.2%

Charm of Mie - Cheer up Nabari Fair 43,000 3.4%

Nabari Road Marketplace 37,000 2.9%

Total Number of Visitors to Nabari 1,256,714 100.0%

Reference: Nabari City, 2014

BACK TO CONTENT |


180

research Design

Prior to research of the present paper, it is necessary to set a concept of survey subjects.

This is due to the fact that the present paper proceeds on the basis of the concept “Japanese

type ecotourists” rather than general ecotourists. Kaizu (2008) says that “In Japan which has

many secondary natural sites which people have taken care of and maintained, ideas related

to revitalization of local cities by passing down local treasures from person to person and

the coexistence of preservation, utilization and economy which is an aim of ecotourism have

many things in common” and called it “Japanese type ecotourism”. The important point here

is “the coexistence of preservation, utilization and economy”. As pointed out by Weaver and

Lawton (2007), activity patterns of East Asian ecotourists and those of ecotourists in Europe

and the uS differ from each other. It seems that the East Asian ecotourism in countries such

as Japan, Korea and Taiwan is interested in economic effects caused through the relationship

of tourist activities and local areas. Accordingly, information related to ecotourism provided

from Japanese local governments are diverse and concrete. Travel commodities include

many short trips (daytrips) besides overnight commodities. For local governments, attracting

as many as visitors is an important policy task in view of economic effects of local cities. On

the other hand, it is not general in Japan to spend a lot of time for traveling since vacation

times are short in Japan. Accordingly, in the present paper, “Japanese type ecotourists” are

defined to be “a type of travelers whose main purpose is to explore the nature on daytrips,

characterized by general commitment to preserving natural environment and passive physical

activities”. In other words, it is a concept close to the “softer ecotourists” as proposed by

Weaver and Lawton (2002). A questionnaire was made based on such a concept for research.

The survey questionnaire of the present paper included “(1) degree of satisfaction of

nature-based tours experienced in Japan”, “(2) consideration images of destinations of nature-based

daytrips”, “(3) loyalties of nature-based daytrips in Japan” and “(4) general features

of survey subjects”.

A total of seventeen measuring items which were determined to be necessary for measuring

images of Nabari City were extracted for the “(2) consideration images of destinations of

nature-based daytrips” by referring to studies of Beerli and Martin (2004a, 2004b) and Ignacio

and Marin (2008). Question items (1) to (3) were set to be of Likert seven-point scale, and ten

questions including gender, age, place of residence, number of visits, fellow travelers, annual

income, educational background, transportation, motive and occupation were provided as (4).

The survey was conducted for seven times from November to December 2014, during

which students of the Management Department of Kinki university conducted a survey asking

survey subjects, that is, visitors to major sightseeing spots in Nabari City (such as Akame

Shijuuhachi-taki Falls, Kochi-dani Valley and Shorennji-ko Lake) to answer the questionnaire.

490 out of 500 questionnaires could be collected, and results of 437 which were of daytrip

type were used. SPSS 22.0 for Windows was used for analysis.

analysis results

Characteristics of Survey Subjects

Characteristics of survey subjects who answered the questionnaire of the present paper

are as indicated in Table 2.

| BACK TO CONTENT



Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of Survey Subjects

group Contents Number % group Contents Number %

Gender

Place of

residence

Number

of visits

Fellow

traveler

Professionals (law,

TOTAL 437 100.0

18 4.1

Occupation

medicine etc.)

Less than 4 million

231 52.9 Homemakers 121 27.7

yen

Between 4 to 6

Related fields of

112 25.6

1 .2

million yen

culture/art

Educational

background

Annual income

Male 179 41.0

20s or less 108 24.7

Female 258 59.0 30s to 40s 101 23.1

TOTAL 437 100.0

Age

Over 50 228 52.2

Osaka City/ Osaka

Pref.

Nagoya City/ Aichi

Pref.

105 24.0 TOTAL 437 100.0

110 25.2

Kintetsu Railway 93 21.3

Mie 122 27.9 Transportation

Others (bus, ren-

Private car 257 58.8

Others (Nara,

100 22.9

87 19.9

Hyogo etc.)

tal cars etc.)

Graduated college

or higher

279 63.8

Doing self-owned

business

35 8.0

TOTAL 437 100.0 TOTAL 437 100.0

First time 235 53.8

Magazines/newspapers

31 7.1

Second time 110 25.2 Internet 51 11.7

Three times or

more

92 21.1 Travel brochures 27 6.2

TOTAL 437 100.0 TV/radio 24 5.5

Recommended by

Alone 41 9.4

73 16.7

friends

Motive

Was nice on the

Family 38 8.7

85 19.5

last visit

Spouses 109 24.9 Never been there 91 20.8

Couple 64 14.6

Business/homecoming

4 .9

Friends 117 26.8 Others 51 11.7

Co-workers or

groups

51 11.7 TOTAL 437 100.0

Others 17 3.9

Students 41 9.4

TOTAL 437 100.0

Office workers/

civil servants

145 33.2

Graduated high

school

158 36.2 Teachers 4 .9

Between 6 to 8

million yen

More than 8 million

yen

40 9.2

Related fields of

technology/science

2 .5

54 12.4 Others 70 16.0

TOTAL 437 100.0 TOTAL 437 100.0

181

As for gender, 179 (41.0%) were men and 258 (59.0%) were women; as for age, 108

(24.7%) were in the 20s or less, 101 (23.1%) were in the 30s to 40s, and 228 (52.2%) were

BACK TO CONTENT |


182

over 50. As for place of residence, 122 (27.9%) were from Mie, 110 (25.2%) from Nagoya

City and Aichi Prefecture, followed by 105 (24.0%) from Osaka City and Osaka Prefecture.

As for transportation, 257 (58.8%) came by private car, 93 (21.3%) used the Kintetsu Railway.

As for the number of visits, it was the first visit for 235 (53.8%), outnumbering the number

of repeated visitors (second time and more). 117 (26.8%) said that their fellow travelers

were friends, 109 (24.9%) came with spouses, 64 (14.6%) as couples, and 51 (11.7%) came

with co-workers or in groups. As for motives, 91 (27.7%) answered “never been there”, 85

(19.5%) said “was nice on the last visit”, 73 (16.7%) said that “recommended by friends/acquaintances”,

and 51(11.7%) surfed the Internet. As for occupation, educational background

and income, 145 (33.2%) were office workers and civil servants and 121 (27.7%) were homemakers;

279 (63.8%) were graduates with college or higher degrees, and 231(52.9%) had an

annual income of 4 million yen or less.

grouping based on degrees of satisfaction of nature-based domestic trips in Japan

Cooperators of the survey of the present paper were travelers visiting Nabari with nature-based

purposes. A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted using evaluation of satisfaction

of nature-based activities such visitors usually enjoy domestically in order to narrow

down to three to five groups, and the groups were finally classified into three groups which

are deemed to clearly explain characteristics of the respective groups.

From among 437 survey subjects, a group with a high level of satisfaction was defined

as “high satisfied group (average 6.45)”, a group with a medium level of satisfaction as

“medium satisfied group (average 4.50)” and a group with the lowest level of satisfaction as

“low satisfied group (average 2.52)”.

Table 3: grouping depending on degrees of satisfaction of nature-based activities

Name of group Evaluation value (average) Number of people

Group 1 High satisfied group 6.45 190

Group 2 Medium satisfied group 4.50 203

Group 3 Low satisfied group 2.52 44

TOTAL - - 437

Differences in importance of images of nature-based regions

In order to find out how survey subjects grouped into three evaluated “consideration

images of destinations of nature-based daytrips” and to verify that these evaluations are statistically

significant, an ANOVA (analysis of variance) was conducted. Out of seventeen image

measurement variables, eleven variables showed significant differences among the three

groups (F, p < 0.01 to p < 0.05), while the remaining six variables showed no significant results.

More particularly, variables related to nature such as safety, cleanliness/neatness, calmness/quietness,

abundant nature and beautiful scenery and variables related to characteristics

of Japanese ecotourism such as healing hot springs or refreshing atmosphere showed

| BACK TO CONTENT



Table 4: Difference in importance of images of nature-based regions

No

Variable

Name of

group

average

Standard

Deviation

Standard

Error

F

Sig.

1 Safety

2 Cleanliness/neatness

3 Calmness/quietness

4

Abundant nature (Mountains,

valleys, parks, lakes etc.)

5 Beautiful scenery

6 Existence of beautiful nature

7 Interesting festivals and events

8

Historical and cultural remains

with distinctive features

9 Prestigious buildings

10

Various restaurants and accommodations

11 Fund of shopping

12

Provision of accurate traffic

information and parking information

13 Convenience of transportation

14 Healing hot springs

15 Refreshing atmosphere

16 Enjoyable leisure sports

17

Enjoyable outdoor sports (camping

etc.)

***P<0.01, **P<0.05

High 4.753 1.275 0.093

Medium 4.054 0.891 0.063

Low 3.977 1.023 0.154

High 4.742 1.239 0.090

Medium 4.118 0.871 0.061

Low 3.841 0.888 0.134

High 5.363 1.272 0.092

Medium 4.493 1.031 0.072

Low 4.114 1.017 0.153

High 5.926 1.367 0.099

Medium 4.990 1.231 0.086

Low 3.932 1.500 0.226

High 5.974 1.274 0.092

Medium 4.911 1.178 0.083

Low 3.841 1.346 0.203

High 5.816 1.445 0.105

Medium 4.857 1.119 0.079

Low 3.818 1.435 0.216

High 3.526 1.198 0.087

Medium 3.616 1.025 0.072

Low 3.545 1.247 0.188

High 3.979 1.361 0.099

Medium 3.833 1.030 0.072

Low 3.477 1.191 0.180

High 3.616 1.171 0.085

Medium 3.591 0.942 0.066

Low 3.614 1.205 0.182

High 3.521 1.229 0.089

Medium 3.369 0.963 0.068

Low 3.386 1.280 0.193

High 3.105 1.199 0.087

Medium 3.286 1.116 0.078

Low 3.273 1.370 0.207

High 3.647 1.171 0.085

Medium 3.493 0.951 0.067

Low 3.318 1.325 0.200

High 3.647 1.424 0.103

Medium 3.512 1.096 0.077

Low 3.250 1.349 0.203

High 4.342 1.307 0.095

Medium 3.842 0.962 0.068

Low 3.568 1.169 0.176

High 4.989 1.425 0.103

Medium 3.970 1.000 0.070

Low 3.614 1.243 0.187

High 3.800 1.277 0.093

Medium 3.680 0.965 0.068

Low 3.318 1.116 0.168

High 4.584 1.536 0.111

Medium 3.867 0.994 0.070

Low 3.409 1.041 0.157

23.140 0.000***

23.391 0.000***

38.281 0.000***

50.635 0.000***

68.526 0.000***

52.931 0.000***

0.321 0.726

3.223 0.041**

0.028 0.973

0.951 0.387

1.226 0.294

2.016 0.134

1.860 0.157

13.374 0.000***

43.407 0.000***

3.309 0.037**

23.858 0.000***

183

BACK TO CONTENT |


184

significant differences among the three groups. On the other hand, no significant differences

could be seen in view of variables of services related to culture and history or general sightseeing

activities such as prestigious buildings and various restaurants and accommodation

facilities and fun of shopping. Moreover, variables related to ecotourism activities such as

enjoyable leisure sports or enjoyable outdoor sports also showed significant differences

among the three groups. Differences related to the seventeen image measurement variables

were analyzed and evaluated (average) by high satisfied group, medium satisfied group and

low satisfied group in this order.

It can be understood from the results of analysis that the higher the degree of satisfaction

of “domestic nature-based activities in Japan” is, the higher people consider the importance

of places they have visited before and images of nature-based regions they want to

visit, and that they particularly make much account of nature as it is such as “beautiful

scenery” and “existence of beautiful nature”.

Differences of current loyalties of nature-based travels in Japan

According to results of ANOVA for verifying what kind of loyalties survey subjects of the

three groups have with respect to nature-based daytrips in Japan, all measurement variables

showed significant results (F, p<0.01).

More particularly, significant differences were seen among the three groups with respect

to three variables, namely “sufficiently enjoying nature in Japan”, “want to continue making

nature-based trips” and “want to recommend nature-based trips to friends/acquaintances”.

All of the measurement variables were evaluated (average) by high satisfied group, medium

satisfied group and low satisfied group in this order. It could be understood from the results

of analysis that the higher the degree of satisfaction of “nature-based domestic trips in Japan”

are, the higher loyalties people have to current nature-based trips in Japan.

Table 5: Difference in loyalties to current nature-based trips in Japan

No

Variables

Name of

group

average

Standard

Deviation

Standard

Error

F

Sig.

1

Sufficiently enjoying nature in

Japan

High 5.7053 1.05282 .07638

Medium 4.4433 0.79634 .05589

Low 3.5455 1.13002 .17036

136.152 0.000***

2

Want to continue making

nature-based trips

High 5.5526 1.21493 .08814

Medium 4.2906 .93833 .06586

Low 3.6364 1.34840 .20328

89.056 0.000***

3

Want to recommend naturebased

trips to friends/acquaintances

***P<0.01

High 5.6158 1.24500 .09032

Medium 4.2906 .83800 .05882

Low 3.6591 1.37998 .20804

99.277 0.000***

| BACK TO CONTENT



Differences in importance of images of nature-based regions

In order to confirm sociodemographic characteristics of the three groups which participated

in the survey of the present paper, a cross-tabulation analysis was made. According

to the results of analysis, significant differences in incidences were seen among the three

groups with regards to gender, fellow traveler, motive, occupation, age and annual income

(Pearson, x 2 , p<0.01 to p<0.1).

As for gender, the incidence of women was higher for the high satisfied group while

that of men was higher for the medium satisfied group. Results of fellow travelers showed

that ratios of couples and co-workers/groups were higher in the high satisfied group while

those of lone travelers, families and spouses were higher in the medium satisfied group. As

for motives, media other than TVs such as magazines/newspapers, Internet, travel brochures,

recommendations of friends/acquaintances were higher in the high satisfied group. On the

other hand, in cases of motives which are related to one’s own experiences such as “was

nice on the last visit” or “never been there”, higher incidences where seen in the medium

satisfied group. While office workers/civil servants, those doing self-owned business, professionals

(law, medicine etc.) were mostly seen in the high satisfied group, students and

homemakers were mostly in the medium satisfied group. As for age, younger generations

were in the high satisfied group. No significant differences were observed with respect to

educational background, number of visits, transportation and place of residence.

185

Variables

Gender

Motive

Fellow traveler

Occupation

Table 6 : Difference in sociodemographic characteristics of the three groups

low

High medium

Satisfaction

groups

Satisfaction group Satisfied group

group

Total

N % N % N % N

Male 66 36.9% 89 49.7% 24 13.4% 179

Female 124 48.1% 114 44.2% 20 7.8% 258

Alone 16 39.0% 20 48.8% 5 12.2% 41

Family 15 39.5% 21 55.3% 2 5.3% 38

Spouses 36 33.0% 54 49.5% 19 17.4% 109

Couples 39 60.9% 20 31.3% 5 7.8% 64

Friends 53 45.3% 54 46.2% 10 8.5% 117

Co-workers or groups 26 51.0% 23 45.1% 2 3.9% 51

Others 5 29.4% 11 64.7% 1 5.9% 17

Magazines/newspapers 20 64.5% 9 29.0% 2 6.5% 31

Internet 24 47.1% 21 41.2% 6 11.8% 51

Travel brochures 14 51.9% 9 33.3% 4 14.8% 27

TV/radio 9 37.5% 12 50.0% 3 12.5% 24

Recommended by

friends/acquaintances

39 53.4% 30 41.1% 4 5.5% 73

Was nice on the last visit 34 40.0% 41 48.2% 10 11.8% 85

Never been there 36 39.6% 46 50.5% 9 9.9% 91

Business/homecoming 4 100.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 4

Others 10 19.6% 35 68.6% 6 11.8% 51

Students 17 41.5% 19 46.3% 5 12.2% 41

Office workers/civil servants 72 49.7% 61 42.1% 12 8.3% 145

Teachers 3 75.0% 1 25.0% 0 0.0% 4

Doing self-owned business 19 54.3% 12 34.3% 4 11.4% 35

Professionals (law, medicine etc.) 9 50.0% 6 33.3% 3 16.7% 18

Homemakers 49 40.5% 66 54.5% 6 5.0% 121

Related fields of culture/art 0 0.0% 1 100.0% 0 0.0% 1

Related fields of technology/science

1 50.0% 1 50.0% 0 0.0% 2

Others 20 28.6% 36 51.4% 14 20.0% 70

Sig.

0.029**

0.020**

0.014**

0.065*

BACK TO CONTENT |


186

Variables

Table 6: Difference in sociodemographic characteristics of the three groups (cont)

groups

High medium

Satisfaction group Satisfied group

low

Satisfaction

group

N % N % N % N

20s or less 67 62.0% 35 32.4% 6 5.6% 108

Age 30s to 40s 48 47.5% 45 44.6% 8 7.9% 101

over 50 75 32.9% 123 53.9% 30 13.2% 228

less than 4 million yen 102 44.2% 99 42.9% 30 13.0% 231

Annual income

between 4 to 6 million yen 49 43.8% 55 49.1% 8 7.1% 112

between 6 to 8 million yen 11 27.5% 25 62.5% 4 10.0% 40

more than 8 million yen 28 51.9% 24 44.4% 2 3.7% 54

Osaka City/Osaka Pref. 44 41.9% 52 49.5% 9 8.6% 105

Place of Nagoya City/Aichi Pref. 46 41.8% 54 49.1% 10 9.1% 110

residence Mie Pref. 59 48.4% 50 41.0% 13 10.7% 122

Others (Nara, Hyogo etc.) 41 41.0% 47 47.0% 12 12.0% 100

Transportation

Kintetsu Railway 37 39.8% 50 53.8% 6 6.5% 93

Private cars 115 44.7% 112 43.6% 30 11.7% 257

Others (buses, rent-a-cars) 38 43.7% 41 47.1% 8 9.2% 87

Number

of visits

First time 112 47.7% 103 43.8% 20 8.5% 235

Second time 44 40.0% 53 48.2% 13 11.8% 110

Third time 34 37.0% 47 51.1% 11 12.0% 92

Educational

Graduated high school 59 37.3% 82 51.9% 17 10.8% 158

back-

ground

Graduated college or higher

degree

131 47.0% 121 43.4% 27 9.7% 279

***P<0.01, **P<0.05, *P<0.1

Total

Sig.

0.000***

0.077*

0.826

0.426

0.377

0.147

Conclusion

Features of nature-based daytrip tourist market in Japan

The results of analysis of data collected in the present paper indicate the followings.

First, results of analyzing “difference in importance of images of nature-based regions”

from among the three groups divided on the basis of “degrees of satisfaction of nature-based

domestic trips in Japan”, features of nature-based domestic trips in Japan could be acknowledged.

As shown in Fig. 2, measurement items of “images of nature-based regions” were

classified into six dimensions of “natural environment”, “healing”, “outdoor activity”, “traffic

convenience”, “culture and history” and “service and amenity”. The three groups were considered

as viewpoints of markets, wherein the low satisfaction market was positioned on the

vertical axis, the high satisfaction market on the vertical axis and the medium satisfaction

market intermediate of the two groups. Positions and sizes of the “circles” representing

overall conditions merely refer to average value levels with respect to each of the items and

do not have any numerical meanings.

In making predictions based on data of the subjects of the present survey, current “nature-based

domestic trips in Japan” are generally considered to be of the “medium satisfaction

market” in view of the six dimensions. In other words, considering images of

destinations and travel commodities of “nature-based domestic trips in Japan”, the six dimensions

(utilities) which can be expected from those destinations and travel commodities

are of “normal” level. However, it was found that the level of satisfaction of the dimension

of “natural environment” was higher than those of other dimensions. Comprehensively, it

can be judged that while the nature-based daytrip tourist market in Japan is “sufficiently satisfied”

with the natural environment, other elements (dimensions) related to activities and

services of trips other than natural environments remain at a “somewhat satisfactory” level.

| BACK TO CONTENT



Fig. 2: Conditions of nature-based daytrip tourist market in Japan

187

Next, for visually representing sociodemographic features of the respective three markets,

fellow travelers were grouped into “family/couple/friends type” and “individual/group

type”, motives into “personal information seeking type” and “media dependent type”, occupations

into “professional type” and “regular service type” and annual incomes into “high

income” and “low income”. Summarizing sociodemographic features of the respective markets,

those who are sufficiently satisfied with current nature-based domestic daytrips are

tourists who come with family, couples and friends and who personally seek for required information.

The medium satisfaction market mainly consists of individual and groups type

visitors with relatively high annual incomes. The low satisfaction market is a market mainly

consisting of regular service type tourists with relatively low annual incomes who seek for

information in a media-dependent manner.

Fig. 3: Sociodemographic features of nature-based daytrip tourists in Japan

BACK TO CONTENT |


188

limits of studies and future considerations

Studies have been made based on the idea that features of ecotourism markets of regions

and countries differ depending on how concepts and definitions of ecotourism and

ecotourists are set.

Accordingly, it has been tried to discover features of the ecotourism market in Japan by

defining subjects to be “nature-based tourists” from among daytrip tourists in Japan and analyzing

features of their trips. It aims to submit the possibility of expansion and necessity

thereof as future research subjects rather than a theoretical contribution to ecotourism.

Therefore, attention has been paid to “nature-based daytrips” as representatives of

Japanese type ecotourism. Survey subjects have been classified into three groups depending

on measurement variables which were degrees of satisfaction of nature-based domestic trips

in Japan, and it has been analyzed what kind of differences exist among these groups with

respect to “image of nature-based regions”, “loyalties” and “sociodemographic features”.

Lastly, features of the three groups from viewpoints of markets have been summarized based

on information obtained from the results of analysis. Based on these processes of study,

features of Japanese type ecotourism, ecotourists and their markets could be confirmed.

However, there are several limits in the present paper. The first one is the problem of

representativeness of Nabari City, the subject of study of the present paper, as a naturebased

region. In fact, Nabari is not a nationwide well-known city from among existing ecotourism

regions in Japan. The meaning of studies based on analysis of data obtained from

survey subjects of the present paper might become weak. However, such a limit of representativeness

of survey subjects can be complemented by further studies.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EATSA CONFERENCE 2016

Create successful ePaper yourself