E-mobility Technology Winter 2020
Electric vehicle technology news: Maintaining the flow of information for the e-mobility technology sector
Electric vehicle technology news: Maintaining the flow of information for the e-mobility technology sector
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VOL 7 | WINTER <strong>2020</strong><br />
FUTURE MOBILITY:<br />
THE INNOVATION SPACE<br />
BEYOND THE VEHICLES OF<br />
TODAY.<br />
THE NEED FOR TRANSPORT<br />
DECARBONISATION<br />
CONTINUES PAGE: 72<br />
SPACES NOT VEHICLES<br />
PAGE: 30<br />
THE USE OF GLASS IN EV’S<br />
NOW GOES WAY BEYOND<br />
THE WINDSCREEN PAGE: 86<br />
THE SMART<br />
BATTERY<br />
INNOVATION<br />
PAGE: 78<br />
5G CRITICAL TO<br />
THE GROWING<br />
CONNECTED CAR<br />
MARKET<br />
PAGE: 8<br />
SEMICONDUCTOR<br />
CHOICES ENABLE<br />
POINT AND<br />
SYSTEMIC E-MOBILITY<br />
INNOVATION<br />
PAGE: 20<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net | Never Miss an Edition Subscribe Today Free at www.e-motec.net
Editors Note<br />
MARK PHILIPS<br />
EDITOR<br />
A NOTE - WINTER <strong>2020</strong><br />
Editor: Mark Philips<br />
Associate Publishers:<br />
Rachael McGahern<br />
Ujjol Rahman<br />
Ryan Hann<br />
Anthony Stewart<br />
Designer: Carly Jackson<br />
Published by:<br />
CMCorporation Ltd<br />
234 Whitechapel Road<br />
London E11BJ UK<br />
info@cmcorp.co.uk<br />
www.e-motec.net<br />
COPYRIGHT<br />
(ISSN) ISSN 2634-1654.<br />
All rights reserved<br />
Images courtesy of dreamstime.com,<br />
unless otherwise stated.<br />
No resposibility can be accepted by CMCorporation Ltd,<br />
the editor, staff or any contributors for actions taken<br />
as a result of the information and other materials<br />
contained in our publications. In addition, the views<br />
expressed in our publications by any contributor are<br />
not nessarily those of the editor, staff or CMCorp. We<br />
therefore disclaim all liability and responsibility arising<br />
from any reliance placed on such materials by any reader.<br />
Published October <strong>2020</strong>.<br />
The market share of<br />
electrically-chargeable vehicles<br />
increased to 7.2% of total<br />
EU car sales, in the second<br />
quarter of <strong>2020</strong>, compared to<br />
a 2.4% share during the same<br />
period last year. The decline<br />
in passenger car registrations<br />
due to the COVID-19 pandemic<br />
affected petrol and diesel<br />
vehicles in particular, although<br />
these two sectors accounted<br />
for more than 80% of car sales,<br />
according to CLEPA.<br />
The traditional obstacles to<br />
adopting electric vehicles are<br />
disappearing. Range anxiety<br />
has always been a big obstacle<br />
for potential EV owners, but<br />
charging infrastructure is<br />
increasing and becoming more<br />
widespread.<br />
Cost is a major consideration<br />
when making the switch to<br />
EV, and batteries – the most<br />
expensive part of the car – are<br />
continuing to fall in price. Due<br />
to economies of scale and<br />
technological improvements,<br />
these technologies will become<br />
cheaper as the innovators in<br />
the supply chain continue to<br />
invest in R&D.<br />
The economic and health<br />
challenges of the past months<br />
have re-emphasised the<br />
important role that transport<br />
has for society at large. We<br />
need to plan for a future that<br />
will provide accessible and<br />
affordable <strong>mobility</strong> for all.<br />
At this moment EVs are more<br />
expensive to buy, although<br />
their running and maintenance<br />
costs over time should prove<br />
lower, and once buyers become<br />
more aware of this fact, the<br />
shift towards EVs will be even<br />
greater.<br />
There is increasingly a great<br />
deal of activity in this segment<br />
which will carry forward its<br />
momentum<br />
As showcased within these<br />
pages new technologies are<br />
constantly being developed and<br />
implemented<br />
Along with electrification<br />
planning across our major<br />
cities and increasing charging<br />
infrastructure, we are now<br />
seeing major advances in ADAS<br />
and vehicle connectivity<br />
These technologies, developed<br />
for us by the smartest and<br />
most passionate engineers will<br />
ensure the EV becomes the<br />
obvious choice for car buyers in<br />
the years ahead.<br />
In these stressful times<br />
I would like to thank all<br />
our contributors who have<br />
supported us during these last<br />
months. Thank you for your<br />
help with maintaining the flow<br />
of information.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net 1
CONTENTS<br />
4<br />
ELECTRIFICATION PLANNING<br />
4<br />
8<br />
12<br />
16<br />
20<br />
Riding the wave of electrification: Why<br />
public transport and logistic fleets need<br />
‘smart homes’.<br />
Jean-Christoph Heyne, Global Head of Future Grids,<br />
Siemens AG<br />
5G critical to the growing connected car<br />
market.<br />
Uwe Pützschler, Head of Automotive & Mobility<br />
Solutions, Nokia<br />
LiDAR Integration in Autonomous<br />
Electric Vehicles<br />
Robert Baribault, Ph.D. Principal Systems Architect,<br />
LeddarTech<br />
Driving change: How materials science<br />
is allowing e-Mobility to shift to the next<br />
gear.<br />
By Dr. Pradyumna Goli, Business Development<br />
Manager Battery Systems North America & Holger<br />
Schuh, Global <strong>Technology</strong> Lead Thermal, Henkel<br />
Adhesive Technologies<br />
Semiconductor choices enable point and<br />
systemic e-<strong>mobility</strong> innovation.<br />
Stephan Zizala, head of the Automotive High Power<br />
Business Line at Infineon Technologies<br />
40<br />
44<br />
48<br />
54<br />
56<br />
An application for automotive<br />
battery management<br />
Introducing new Sensing technologies for BMS<br />
and SOC measurements<br />
As automakers strive to reach goals<br />
for longer range, faster charging and<br />
lower costs, adhesives stick as one of<br />
the best solutions.<br />
Nicole Ehrmann, Market Manager for<br />
Transportation, Lohmann GmbHv<br />
In search of the ideal battery, what is<br />
a better battery?<br />
Eric Verhulst CEO/CTO Altreonic-Kurt.energy<br />
Novel Current Sensor Solutions for<br />
Automotive Battery Monitoring<br />
Systems<br />
Lorenz Roos, Senior Application Engineer,<br />
Maglab AG, Switzerland<br />
Successful Thermal Management with<br />
Liquid Cooling<br />
Alexander Wey, Manager Product Unit Industrial<br />
Thermal at FRÄNKISCHE Industrial Pipes (FIP)<br />
22<br />
The EV as a clean slate<br />
Information technology and the car amalgamate,<br />
Stefan Wagener Product Manager Infotainment at<br />
Continental<br />
60<br />
Bridging the Future Integrating and<br />
refining charging technology.<br />
Jim Chen & Vern Chang, Phihong <strong>Technology</strong><br />
26<br />
30<br />
Moving e-<strong>mobility</strong> forward using<br />
specialised PVD coatings<br />
Dr. Mayumi Noto, Head of Global Business<br />
Development for E-Mobility, Oerlikon Balzers.<br />
Autonomus rideshares are coming<br />
‘Q Car’ monolithic in its exterior design, choosing<br />
interior volume over slick aerodynamics, Jonny<br />
Culkin, Jeremy White, Richard Seale of Seymour<br />
Powell the London-based industrial design studio<br />
64<br />
68<br />
EV Performance and Safety Demands<br />
Drive Changes to Hardware and<br />
Software<br />
Rolland Dudemaine, VP Engineering, eSOL<br />
Europe<br />
Big Data Logging<br />
Efficient validation of e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
Bernhard Kockoth, Advanced Development Lead<br />
at ViGEM GmbH<br />
34<br />
Advancing EV Electronics with Light-<br />
Curing <strong>Technology</strong><br />
Chris Morrissey, Sr. Manager, Automotive Electronics<br />
BD, Dymax Corporation<br />
72<br />
Future <strong>mobility</strong>: The innovation space<br />
beyond the vehicles of today. The need<br />
for transport decarbonisation continues<br />
Professor David Greenwood, Advanced<br />
Propulsion Systems lead at WMG, University of<br />
Warwick<br />
2 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
30<br />
SPACES NOT VEHICLES<br />
76<br />
Lidar-powered ADAS is happening now<br />
Sally Frykman, VP of communications, Velodyne<br />
Lidar, and Dieter Gabriel, marketing manager<br />
EMEA, Velodyne Europe<br />
108<br />
What is Parylene technology?<br />
Enhancing reliability of e-<strong>mobility</strong> through<br />
Parylene. Rakesh Kumar Ph.D. at SCS Coatings<br />
explains<br />
78<br />
The smart battery innovation<br />
A pioneering innovative technology for a more<br />
sustainable and efficient EV battery production,<br />
insight from Rolf Hock IP PowerSystems GmbH<br />
112<br />
Assembly solutions in e-Mobility<br />
Jürgen Hierold, Sales Director at Deprag<br />
presents the Use of Screwdriving Systems in the<br />
Automotive Industry<br />
82<br />
86<br />
90<br />
Unlocking Next-Generation Vehicle<br />
<strong>Technology</strong> with 5GV<br />
Peter Stoker, Chief Engineer – Connected and<br />
Autonomous Vehicle at Millbrook, lifts the lid on<br />
the ground-breaking work enabled by the AutoAir<br />
project<br />
The use of glass in EVs now goes way<br />
beyond the windscreen<br />
The R&D team at Schott explain how glass is<br />
shaping the future<br />
Adhesives and Sealants in Battery and<br />
Hybrid Electric Vehicles<br />
Where are adhesives and sealants used? Rebecca<br />
Wilmot at Permabond<br />
116<br />
120<br />
124<br />
Design constraints for EV cooling<br />
systems<br />
Fritz Byle Project Manager at TLX Technologies<br />
explains the Discrete Proportional Valve System<br />
Trends and innovations in Electric<br />
Drive Units for lower cost and<br />
improved performance<br />
Thomas Frey Head of E-drive/ Innovation, AVL<br />
P2 hybrid modules enable flexible<br />
customer solutions and easy<br />
hybridization<br />
Eckart Gold Engineering Director at Borg Warner<br />
Transmission Systems<br />
94<br />
Long term stability of Thermal<br />
Interface Materials.<br />
Ralf Stadler, R&D Polytec PT<br />
128<br />
Intelligent Power Modules accelerate<br />
transition to SiC-based Electric Motion<br />
By Pierre Delatte, CTO, CISSOID<br />
98<br />
102<br />
106<br />
Creating a cost-and quality-optimized<br />
battery value chain in Europe<br />
Alexander Schweighofer, Business Development<br />
Manger LIB, Rosendahl Nextrom<br />
Impact of sensor technologies on the<br />
e-vehicle powertrain performance<br />
The resolution and accuracy of the rotor position<br />
sensor has an influence on the performance of<br />
an electric drive. Dipl.-Ing Ulrich Marl Lenord +<br />
Bauer<br />
Autonomous Vehicle Accidents Test<br />
Human Trust<br />
Jeff Davis, Senior Director, Government Relations<br />
and Public Policy at BlackBerry<br />
132<br />
136<br />
143<br />
Virtual Testing of ADAS & AV Systems<br />
Edge Case Simulations, Mike Dempsey M.D.<br />
Claytex<br />
Highlighting the possibilities of PCB<br />
technology in the field of power<br />
electronic substrates.<br />
T. Gottwald, Director Next Generation Products,<br />
Dr. Manuel Martina, Christian Rößle of Schweizer<br />
Electronics’<br />
A New Online Energy Prediction<br />
Model with an accuracy close to 99%<br />
Kristian Winge Sycada CEO explains the<br />
algorithmic approach behind CYB<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
3
ELECTRIFICATION PLANNING<br />
The smart, integrated depot of the urban e-vehicle fleet of<br />
the future.<br />
RIDING THE WAVE OF ELECTRIFICATION:<br />
WHY PUBLIC TRANSPORT AND LOGISTIC FLEETS<br />
NEED ‘SMART HOMES’<br />
By embracing full<br />
decarbonization in the<br />
<strong>mobility</strong> sector, a decisive<br />
contribution can be made to<br />
combatting the climate crisis<br />
– while drastically improving<br />
the quality of life in our<br />
cities.<br />
In countries all over the world,<br />
electrification targets in public<br />
transport – and <strong>mobility</strong> in<br />
general – are very ambitious, and<br />
as I intend to argue, rightly so.<br />
Globally, <strong>mobility</strong> accounts for one<br />
third of the energy demand and<br />
a quarter of carbon emissions.<br />
In the <strong>mobility</strong> sector, public<br />
transport and urban logistics<br />
with their buses, trucks, and<br />
commercial vehicles represent<br />
a major lever for winding down<br />
emissions if renewable energy<br />
is used to fuel the electrified<br />
vehicles.<br />
We know that full decarbonization<br />
in all areas is vital for combatting<br />
the climate crisis and achieving<br />
the goals of the Paris Agreement.<br />
As outlined in the IPCC Special<br />
Report on Global Warming of<br />
1.5°C, we not only need to flatten<br />
the carbon curve; we need to turn<br />
it around fast in the next couple<br />
of years. There is no Planet B, and<br />
we really cannot afford to mess<br />
this up.<br />
Make no mistake, this will<br />
involve disruptive change for all<br />
players in the <strong>mobility</strong> market:<br />
public transport operators<br />
(PTO), logistics providers, local<br />
governments, private investors in<br />
urban infrastructure, and original<br />
equipment manufacturers (OEM).<br />
However, this change is not as<br />
painful as it may sound. We have<br />
nothing to lose, but everything to<br />
gain by embracing this next cycle<br />
of disruptive innovation: Cleaner<br />
air, more livable cities, and a<br />
better quality of life for everyone<br />
are within our reach.<br />
The good news is that the<br />
solutions for the electrification<br />
of public transport are already<br />
available, and the first large-scale<br />
electro<strong>mobility</strong> projects have been<br />
successfully implemented.<br />
The Chinese megacity of Shenzhen<br />
stands out as one of the early<br />
adopters, becoming the world’s<br />
first major city to run an entire<br />
bus fleet – of over 16,000 buses<br />
– completely on electricity. As a<br />
result, the city has been able to<br />
avoid 440,000 tonnes of carbon<br />
4 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
emissions per year and curb<br />
its notorious pollution, while<br />
also reducing its fuel bill by<br />
50 percent. Further megacities<br />
in the Pearl River Delta and the<br />
rest of China are set to follow in<br />
Shenzhen’s footsteps.<br />
Trailblazers and drivers in<br />
bus fleet electrification<br />
Going forward, megacities and<br />
their electro<strong>mobility</strong> strategies<br />
will play a major role in driving<br />
the intelligent management<br />
of public and private fleets of<br />
electric vehicles, as well as the<br />
smart electrification of urban<br />
logistics and public transport. But<br />
international initiatives such as<br />
C40 Cities have also made strong<br />
commitments by signing the Fossil<br />
Fuel Free Streets Declaration.<br />
In this context, PTOs and logistics<br />
providers are emerging as natural<br />
trailblazers for electrification due<br />
to their limited daily range, as<br />
well as their predictable stops and<br />
standstill times. All of these factors<br />
lend themselves to recharging.<br />
Already today, more than half<br />
of newly purchased buses are<br />
electric. By 2040, two thirds of the<br />
entire global bus fleet are expected<br />
to be electric,<br />
which amounts<br />
to a tripling of<br />
electro<strong>mobility</strong><br />
in the public<br />
transport<br />
sector. Twenty-four percent of light<br />
commercial vehicles, like delivery<br />
vans, will become electric, too.<br />
While we are obviously seeing<br />
some momentum, it is also<br />
important to ask: What has<br />
been holding PTOs and logistics<br />
providers back from fully<br />
transitioning to electro<strong>mobility</strong> so<br />
far?<br />
Of course there is the hurdle of<br />
the initial CAPEX of procuring new<br />
vehicles – currently, the price of<br />
e-buses can be nearly twice that<br />
of conventional diesel buses.<br />
However, this is quickly offset by<br />
a lower total cost of ownership,<br />
reduced downtime, and lower<br />
fuel costs. Most importantly in<br />
terms of cost, an increase in the<br />
size of electric fleets requires the<br />
establishment of viable, affordable<br />
charging infrastructure.<br />
Whether this infrastructure is<br />
funded by the public sector, as in<br />
the case of PTOs, or by the private<br />
sector, as in the case of logistics<br />
depots, any investments will have<br />
to be carefully deliberated and<br />
must pay off in the medium or<br />
long term. Subsidies or incentives<br />
should also be considered so<br />
that PTOs and logistics providers<br />
can decrease their emissions and<br />
still increase their profitability,<br />
because there is an – albeit not<br />
always quantifiable – added<br />
value in transforming cities into<br />
sustainable, livable spaces. In the<br />
case of Shenzhen, the Chinese<br />
government invested US$1 billion<br />
in order to successfully electrify<br />
the city’s bus fleet in only eight<br />
years.<br />
The depot reimagined as a microgrid merging<br />
generation, storage, consumption<br />
While opportunity charging<br />
solutions exist en route, most of<br />
the charging of e-buses will take<br />
place overnight in depots. The<br />
depots we have today, however,<br />
are not designed to supply an<br />
electric vehicle fleet with energy.<br />
The standard grid connection of a<br />
bus depot with around 200 diesel<br />
buses will run at 100 kW. However,<br />
the grid connection of a bus<br />
depot with around 200 e-buses<br />
will require 10 MW, with peak load<br />
increasing demand by a factor of<br />
100.<br />
What are the solutions? One option<br />
would be a costly grid expansion,<br />
which might attract higher charges<br />
from the power supplier; another<br />
would be to install a storage unit<br />
as a buffer, which would store<br />
power during the day for load<br />
balancing at night. Either way, it<br />
is important to choose a solution<br />
that balances grid limitations<br />
with the high load needs of<br />
depot charging. In addition, it is<br />
worthwhile to reimagine the depot<br />
as a location not only for energy<br />
storage and consumption, but<br />
also for onsite power generation.<br />
Most depots feature large roof<br />
areas that are ideally suited for the<br />
installation of photovoltaics.<br />
Madrid is one of the cities taking<br />
into account all three aspects<br />
of generation, storage, and<br />
consumption in planning the<br />
replacement of its La Elipa depot<br />
with a capacity for 330 electric<br />
buses. The futuristic building with<br />
an area of 40,000 square meters,<br />
32,000 of which will be dedicated<br />
to bus parking, will be covered<br />
with solar panels and generate<br />
photovoltaic energy for its own<br />
consumption. Furthermore, a 40-<br />
MW substation will be installed.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
5
Smart depots:<br />
Why software integration is key<br />
As this example clearly shows,<br />
simply putting charging points<br />
in place will not be sufficient<br />
on its own – when electrifying<br />
a depot, the whole energy<br />
supply and demand will need to<br />
be considered, encompassing<br />
renewable generation, storage<br />
integration, and charging potential<br />
on location.<br />
Such a holistic approach to depot<br />
charging will need to be coupled<br />
with intelligent load management<br />
in order to increase energy<br />
efficiency and ensure reliable<br />
power supply. In fact, depots<br />
can be designed as intelligent<br />
microgrids, effectively turning<br />
them into smart infrastructures.<br />
On the charging level, intelligent<br />
charging management software<br />
will offer seamless, optimized<br />
operations – e.g., to ensure that<br />
the individual e-vehicles have<br />
reached the desired state of charge<br />
by the time they are ready to<br />
leave the depot. Dynamic charging<br />
helps to prioritize charging<br />
processes accordingly. On the<br />
general level, energy monitoring<br />
and management software could<br />
be implemented to control all<br />
energy assets, such as buildings,<br />
renewable power generation,<br />
storage, and charging systems.<br />
These solutions should be cloudbased<br />
with multi-directional<br />
data exchange and predictive<br />
load management to balance the<br />
depot’s overall energy needs in<br />
the most efficient and economic<br />
way. Thus, there would not only<br />
be a flow of information from the<br />
power generation units to the grid<br />
control unit, but also a connection<br />
that provides data from and to<br />
the building management system<br />
and the charging infrastructure,<br />
for example. Furthermore, such a<br />
system could integrate data from<br />
external sources, such as weather<br />
data or energy tariffs, to forecast<br />
loads or charge when power<br />
is cheaper. Basically, software<br />
integration is the brain of the<br />
smart depot.<br />
Future-proof solutions<br />
show the way forward<br />
With the wave of electrification swelling on a global<br />
scale, eased along by smart solutions, depots with<br />
more than 100 buses or commercial vehicles will play<br />
an increasing role in future cities and megacities.<br />
It is clear that for electro<strong>mobility</strong> to succeed, and<br />
for full decarbonization in the <strong>mobility</strong> sector<br />
to beembraced, we need this kind of smart<br />
infrastructure. On the one hand, we will have to<br />
combine flexible charging systems with renewable<br />
energy sources and storage solutions; on the other<br />
hand, we will need to harness the opportunities<br />
of digitalization: Software to intelligently manage<br />
charging processes as well as the whole energy<br />
system of future depots will be key.<br />
This urban charging<br />
infrastructure will need<br />
to be designed with<br />
a holistic, end-to-end<br />
perspective and adapted<br />
to the local requirements.<br />
It can be assembled<br />
Jean-Christoph Heyne,<br />
and optimized in order<br />
Global Head of<br />
to become the most<br />
Future Grids,<br />
economically viable<br />
Siemens AG<br />
solution for e-vehicle fleet<br />
operators. Think of it as a<br />
smart home for the e-bus fleets that will make our<br />
cities more livable.<br />
1<br />
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C, https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ 2 Matthew Keegan (2018):<br />
Shenzhen’s silent revolution: world’s first fully electric bus fleet quietens Chinese megacity, https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/<br />
dec/12/silence-shenzhen-world-first-electric-bus-fleet (accessed July 12, <strong>2020</strong>); Mordor Intelligence (2019): Electric bus market – growth,<br />
trends, and forecast (<strong>2020</strong>–2025), available online at: https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/automotive-electric-bus-market<br />
(accessed July 12, <strong>2020</strong>) 3 C40 Cities (<strong>2020</strong>): List of signatories having committed to the C40 Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration, available<br />
online at: https://www.c40.org/other/green-and-healthy-streets (accessed July 12, <strong>2020</strong>)<br />
4<br />
EMT Madrid: Nuevo centro de operaciones de La Elipa, http://www.nuevocentroelipaemt.com/ (accessed July 12, <strong>2020</strong>)<br />
6 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
CONNECTIVITY<br />
CRITICAL TO<br />
THE GROWING<br />
CONNECTED<br />
CAR MARKET<br />
The freedom of the open road has been<br />
cherished by many people for decades,<br />
yet with increasing environmental<br />
pollution, growing road accidents<br />
and the sheer waste of time spent<br />
in traffic jams, it’s no wonder people<br />
are beginning to re-think how we get<br />
around.<br />
Many of us are hoping that automated<br />
driving and connected cars will help<br />
address some of these issues. In<br />
fact, the automotive industry already<br />
accepts that vehicles will need to<br />
communicate with each other, as well<br />
as with roadside infrastructure and<br />
network services, to keep traffic safe,<br />
efficient and comfortable.
ne of the big challenges in<br />
making the connected car<br />
a partof our everyday lives<br />
is that the automotive and<br />
telecommunications industries<br />
must work closely together to<br />
make it a reality alongside telco<br />
service providers, equipment<br />
manufacturers, car manufacturers, map providers<br />
and road operators and many others. To kick-start<br />
this eco-system, the leading car manufacturers and<br />
telecommunications companies, including Nokia,<br />
founded the “5G Automotive Association” (5GAA) in<br />
2016.<br />
Global market analysis from Omdia outlined that<br />
there will be 180 million connected vehicles on our<br />
roads by the end of <strong>2020</strong> with this number growing<br />
rapidly. Indeed, all new cars are expected to be<br />
connected by 2022 using cellular connectivity and<br />
supporting cloud-based telematics, infotainment<br />
and other services to improve comfort and safety.<br />
This connectivity will allow vehicles to interact<br />
with the cloud, with each other and with the road<br />
infrastructure - making roads safer, allowing traffic<br />
to flow more easily and making driving more<br />
comfortable.<br />
Some manufacturers already use mobile networks to<br />
warn their own cars about congested roads, broken<br />
down vehicles, accidents or bad weather, a method<br />
known as vehicle to network (V2N). Now projects are<br />
underway in several European countries to exchange<br />
warnings between vehicles of different manufacturers.<br />
The industry recognises that the processing of<br />
rapidly growing volumes of sensors and other data<br />
needs to happen as close to the vehicles as possible.<br />
This can be enabled by edge cloud which increases<br />
the reliability and security of network services for<br />
connected cars and reduces the latency and can also<br />
enable new applications.<br />
At the same time, LTE based short range<br />
communication which is an important element of the<br />
3GPP C-V2X (Cellular-V2X) technology has become a<br />
reality and tested in large areas, such as China and<br />
the US. Several on-board units and RSU products<br />
with LTE V2X technology have become commercially<br />
available. The combination of both short range<br />
and network-based communication (V2N) provided<br />
by C-V2X is a powerful instrument to address the<br />
needs of the automotive industry as well as the road<br />
operators.<br />
10<br />
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5G boosts<br />
benefits for connected vehicles<br />
The introduction of 5G New Radio (based on 3GPP<br />
Release 15 specification) enables higher data rates<br />
and lower latencies for V2N network communications.<br />
The first deployments in commercial vehicles are<br />
expected to start as early as 2021. The following 5G<br />
phase (3GPP Release 16), expected to happen from<br />
2023 onwards, will provide even lower latency and<br />
high reliability to support V2V (Vehicle-to-vehicle) and<br />
V2I (Vehicle to Infrastructure) type communication,<br />
often referred to as 5G-V2X.<br />
This offers key features that support higher levels of<br />
cooperative automated driving. A recent 5GAA white<br />
paper looked at the new functions it makes possible,<br />
including areas such sharing sensor data, such as<br />
video from the car in front; control information to<br />
allow vehicles to drive in close formation, saving road<br />
space; exchanging vehicle trajectories to prevent<br />
collisions and protecting vulnerable road users like<br />
pedestrians and cyclists. These advanced examples of<br />
V2V and V2I communications are clearly only feasible<br />
thanks to 5G technology. Although the physical radio<br />
layers of LTE releases and 5G NR are very different, the<br />
chipsets and associated communication stacks will<br />
integrate the different radio technologies, supporting<br />
smooth operation and backward compatibility of<br />
services.<br />
Nokia has played key role in these connected vehicle<br />
test projects focused on the verification of 5G based<br />
new network capabilities and Multi-access Edge<br />
Computing (MEC) to support the advanced needs of<br />
automotive related use cases. The first MEC based use<br />
cases was held in 2015 with Deutsche Telekom at the<br />
National German test bed motorway A9 with partners<br />
Continental and Fraunhofer. Since then tests have<br />
been extended to more complex use cases in various<br />
countries with other partners around the globe<br />
such as in Japan, China and Germany. The ongoing<br />
EU funded projects such as 5G Carmen includes the<br />
analysis and verification of functions distributed<br />
between edge clouds deployed in networks of<br />
different operators even across borders. In the MEC-<br />
VIEW project Edge computing is used to complement<br />
local information generated by sensors in the vehicle<br />
with information generated by road side cameras<br />
with the objective to support automated driving in<br />
challenging urban situations.<br />
5G technology elements have been in the focus of<br />
other projects like the EU financed 5GCar focused<br />
on testing coordinated lane merge, the cooperative<br />
perception of connected vehicles and protection of<br />
vulnerable road users. Nokia, together with Seat,<br />
Telefonica, FICOSA and other partners also tested<br />
Vulnerable road discovery in Segoviav – utilizing<br />
MEC. The 5G NetMobil project included the use of<br />
network slicing technology to support different<br />
Quality of Service (QoS) requirements when vehicles<br />
use communication infotainment and safety critical<br />
applications in parallel. Nokia has also supported<br />
SoftBank with the construction of a 5G verification<br />
environment for connected vehicles at Honda<br />
Research and Development site in Japan.<br />
With several industries on board, driven by the<br />
telecom and automotive industries, the connected<br />
car is really going places. However, the global<br />
commercialisation of connected automated driving<br />
will not only depend on the successful verification<br />
and introduction of technologies in networks,<br />
vehicles and road infrastructure. New business and<br />
cooperation models between the ecosystem partners<br />
will have to be developed and complemented with<br />
the evolution of the regulatory framework related<br />
to driving, data handling and management. This is<br />
an industry challenge that we will solve by working<br />
closely and collaboratively with our ecosystem<br />
partners.<br />
Uwe Pützschler, Head of Automotive & Mobility<br />
Solutions, Nokia and Vice-Chair of the 5G<br />
Automotive Association<br />
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11
LiDAR<br />
Integration in Autonomous<br />
Electric Vehicles<br />
ADAS<br />
Electric vehicles (EV) are leading the<br />
way towards safer<br />
transportation and cleaner<br />
environments. Deployment<br />
of EVs is accelerating<br />
as novel applications become even more rapidly<br />
available. Driverless transport or Autonomous Driving<br />
(AD) applications which include robotaxis, delivery<br />
vehicles, cleaning units, are becoming the norm.<br />
One of the main goals of AD is to maximize fast<br />
service in a targeted location with minimum impact<br />
on everyday life and little human interaction. In all<br />
AD applications, detecting and classifying objects in<br />
the surroundings is required and can be done using<br />
LiDARs as one of the sensors.<br />
Automated Driving and Driving Functions<br />
A driverless vehicle has the same requirements as<br />
human-driven ones. They have to stay in the driving<br />
lane or change lanes, accelerate, brake as well as<br />
perform other functions. The AD behavior, as seen<br />
from the sidewalk, should be similar to vehicles with<br />
drivers, even though the absence of a person is quite<br />
obvious. To allow safe driving, an AD EV requires the<br />
same functions as assigned to a driver to position<br />
itself within its environment as it moves along its<br />
itinerary and predicts the safest route to take.<br />
Sensing is the capacity to determine what is outside<br />
the vehicle, where these “objects” are relative to the<br />
EV. Analyzing is using the sensing data and the EV’s<br />
known reacting capacity to determine the correct<br />
path prediction<br />
to direct the EV<br />
where it needs<br />
to go safely<br />
while protecting<br />
the internal<br />
load and the<br />
integrity of the<br />
Figure 1 – Driverless car high-level<br />
functions<br />
vehicle. Reacting<br />
corresponds to braking, accelerating, and turning the<br />
wheels or, simply put, driving. The three functions<br />
interact continuously to drive the EV, Sensing,<br />
Analyzing, and Reacting do not have the same<br />
complexity but share the same basic requirements:<br />
they all need to be swift, precise, and reliable.<br />
Sensing technologies and key parameters<br />
Sensing is crucial for AD. Reacting depends on<br />
Analyzing, which depends on the correct knowledge<br />
of the environment, near and far, in all directions.<br />
Common and reliable AD sensors are cameras, radars,<br />
and solid-state LiDARs. The main specifications are<br />
object distance and angular position relative to the<br />
EV.<br />
Cameras have the highest angular resolution and<br />
can detect color and useful attributes to detect<br />
road signs and streetlights, for example. Cameras<br />
do not provide intrinsic time-based object distance<br />
information. Radars and LiDARs are both selfcontained<br />
distance measurement devices due to<br />
the emission and reception of electromagnetic light<br />
or radio waves. LiDARs hold the advantage in range<br />
accuracy and field-ofview<br />
resolution, while<br />
radars perform better in<br />
inclement weather and<br />
have a more extended<br />
daytime range. Both<br />
LiDARs and radars<br />
operate very well at<br />
night but offer less<br />
Figure 2 – Example of full<br />
angular resolution than sensing coverage of the<br />
cameras. Since cameras surroundings with four 180°<br />
sensors<br />
rely on outdoor light, they<br />
operate better in the daytime than at night Finally,<br />
both LiDARs and cameras can offer an ultra-wide field<br />
of view, which is more difficult with radars.<br />
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In all cases, it is desirable to have detection all around the vehicle, as shown in Figure 2, with a 180° sensor<br />
deployed on each side of an AD EV.<br />
The maximum detection distance, or range, should cover the maximum braking distance, as defined by the<br />
vehicle’s maximum speed, the reaction time, and the maximum deceleration. As an example, an AD vehicle<br />
travelling at a speed of 40 km/h has a braking distance of 24 meters when the reaction time is half a second,<br />
and the deceleration is 3.5 m/s². Other EV types without passengers may have a higher deceleration rate, in<br />
which case the braking distance will be shorter.<br />
Sensing Distance, Time of Flight, Distance<br />
Resolution, and Full Waveform<br />
LiDARs and radars use time-of-flight (ToF)<br />
measurements to determine the position of objects.<br />
They are self-contained distance and position<br />
measurement sensors. ToF is based on echoes of<br />
short-duration pulses. The sensor emits a brief,<br />
high-intensity pulse and measures the time it takes<br />
to receive a reflection from an external object. The<br />
farther an object is from the sensor, the longer the<br />
delay is between the emission and the reception<br />
of the pulse. The main difference between radars<br />
and LiDARs is the emitted pulse duration. A LiDAR<br />
can emit a pulse duration in the nanoseconds scale,<br />
shorter than radar pulses, with a higher position<br />
precision.<br />
ToF is applied to each pixel in the field of view.<br />
LiDARs use a combination of multi-channel lasers and<br />
photodiodes to increase the number of pixels in the<br />
scene. Most interestingly for the EV path prediction,<br />
ToF LiDAR provides the distance of the two objects in<br />
the same pixel with high precision.<br />
Figure 3 shows how multiple pulses can be received<br />
in the same pixel. The first small detected pulse<br />
corresponds to a low-reflectivity or semi-transparent<br />
object.<br />
The light transmitted “through”<br />
the first object propagates towards<br />
the second object, which reflects<br />
light back to the LiDAR, creating a<br />
second peak in the detection data.<br />
Pulse shape information can also<br />
be used to determine the object<br />
type, as may be inferred from<br />
Figure 4. In this figure, we see that<br />
multiple reflection types lead to<br />
different shapes in the detection<br />
data. The size and shape of objects<br />
can then be inferred to help object<br />
classification.<br />
Figure 3 – Full waveform data of a LiDAR pixel.<br />
The peaks are reflections from two objects at<br />
different distances. The horizontal scale is in<br />
data points.<br />
Figure 4 – Impact of object type on full<br />
waveform data. Different object types lead to<br />
different peak shapes in the full waveform.<br />
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13
Sensing Singular Resolution<br />
and Object Classification<br />
4<br />
Figure 5 – High- and low-resolution image comparison. All images provide the critical information to determine the<br />
vehicle’s optimal path.<br />
Determining the nature of objects outside the<br />
vehicle is critical to predicting the correct EV path<br />
and sending the correct instructions to Reacting. Our<br />
experience of object classification is based on size<br />
evaluation, color, speed and other factors. We chiefly<br />
use angular resolution for this purpose, but our eyes<br />
have so many functions that they should not be the<br />
reference for AD.<br />
The optimal sensor resolution for object classification<br />
is considerably lower than human vision. Figure 5<br />
shows an example of different simulated resolutions<br />
for the same object at the same distance. In the<br />
leftmost image, we immediately recognize a woman<br />
running with a dog. There are details such as<br />
the ponytail, the leash, the baseball cap that are<br />
significant to human perception but irrelevant to<br />
AD. This is due to a relatively high resolution of 480<br />
x 320 pixels that creates a very clear image, which<br />
would seem like a clear requirement for AD. The<br />
central image has only 15 x 10 pixels and does not<br />
provide as much information. We distinctly see two<br />
objects, one taller and one shorter, with a good<br />
idea of the horizontal size of the objects. Based<br />
on this image, we can predict that the AD EV needs<br />
to react and steer the EV away from these objects.<br />
It is apparent that the position uncertainty from<br />
the pixel size will make the EV move slightly more<br />
than minimum to avoid the objects. This margin<br />
needs to be embedded in the Analyzing function to<br />
reduce the risk of accidents. Over a few acquisition<br />
frames, the Analyzing function will determine that<br />
it is slow-moving and will predict a safe path. The<br />
rightmost image of Figure 5 shows the same data as<br />
the central image, enhanced with some interpolation<br />
to increase the number of pixels done before the AF<br />
to increase classification probability. The content<br />
of the rightmost image is much clearer, and we can<br />
distinguish a human and a small animal. We may<br />
conclude that a lower resolution is sufficient for AD<br />
applications.<br />
Another example of the combination of the full<br />
waveform data and the lower resolution for object<br />
classification is shown in Figure 6. In this use case,<br />
the truck behind the cyclist is clearly seen and<br />
the resolution is sufficient for classification of<br />
both objects. The full waveform data of Figure 3 is<br />
extracted from this scene. The first peak corresponds<br />
to the bicycle, while the second peak is light reflected<br />
from the truck.<br />
Figure 6 – LiDAR data from Leddar Pixell<br />
superimposed on a camera image. LiDAR fullwaveform<br />
data detects two objects (bicycle and<br />
truck) at different distances.<br />
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Classification and Analysis Function Training<br />
For object classification, the Analysis function is<br />
based on neural networks that require training.<br />
Known objects tagged in images are used to<br />
teach the AI the ability to classify objects. LiDARs<br />
can provide the distance of detections and help<br />
build a three-dimensional map that facilitates<br />
the data sorting for classification.<br />
Figure 7 shows classification results using the raw<br />
data from a LeddarTM Pixell LiDAR. The resolution<br />
of a few pixels per object is sufficient for correct<br />
identification.<br />
AI Learning can start with<br />
simulations, but the final training<br />
needs to come from real-life<br />
situations. The next step towards<br />
the final implementation is<br />
prototyping and data collection on<br />
a moving vehicle. Figure 8 shows<br />
a quick and efficient prototype for<br />
data collection before the full AD<br />
EV integration is completed.<br />
Figure 7 – Pedestrian classification using LeddarPixell and AI,<br />
with full waveform raw data<br />
Figure 8 – From prototype to full integration<br />
Conclusion<br />
Automated-driving Electric Vehicles are the short-,<br />
medium-, and long-term future of transportation.<br />
Emerging applications are being developed to<br />
facilitate services such as public transport, goods<br />
delivery, and other specialized applications. The<br />
ability to position and classify objects in the<br />
vehicle surroundings is key to path prediction<br />
and increased safety. AD uses sensors and LiDAR,<br />
as one of the sensors, provides intrinsic distance<br />
measurement and offer sufficient angular resolution<br />
for object detection and classification. The current<br />
successful demonstrations of AD with EVs are critical<br />
steppingstones opening mass volume markets, and<br />
LiDARs are a critical part of the solution.<br />
Robert Baribault, Ph.D.<br />
Principal Systems Architect, LeddarTech<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
15
Driving change:<br />
How materials science is allowing<br />
e-Mobility to shift to the next gear<br />
MATERIALS<br />
RESEARCH<br />
Overcoming the safety and lifetime cost challenges that<br />
come with EVs requires reliable, innovative and serviceable<br />
materials from a dedicated partner. The effective use of<br />
thermal interface materials (TIMs), adhesives and sealants is<br />
fundamental.<br />
Dr. Pradyumna Goli, Business Development Manager Battery Systems North America &<br />
Holger Schuh, Global <strong>Technology</strong> Lead Thermal, Henkel Adhesive Technologies<br />
Drving Change<br />
Electric vehicles (EVs) are a major driver for<br />
innovation within the automotive sector, but<br />
their commercial success will depend on<br />
whether they can achieve true mass market<br />
appeal. The key factors governing whether<br />
mainstream consumers will opt for an EV over<br />
an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle<br />
relate to safety, efficiency, and affordability, as<br />
well as the presence of innovative features such<br />
as autonomous driving. All the while, OEMs must<br />
ensure that EV parts remain compliant with the<br />
evolving safety standards.<br />
The key components powering EVs are the<br />
power storage, power conversion and e-drive<br />
systems. Choosing and optimizing materials<br />
for these units that deliver on affordability,<br />
reliability and regulatory compliance, in terms of<br />
design and assembly, is therefore essential. As<br />
the industry and the regulations governing EVs<br />
continue to evolve, formulating materials that<br />
meet these objectives is becoming challenging,<br />
but with the right dedicated partner, not<br />
impossible.<br />
Protection against<br />
thermal propagation<br />
The safety requirements for a compliant EV are<br />
completely different from those required from<br />
a conventional ICE vehicle. Since batteries are<br />
the key component in an EV, lithium-ion (Li-Ion)<br />
technology is the primary technology used when<br />
designing battery packs.<br />
Current Li-Ion technology delivers many<br />
advantages over other systems, including higher<br />
energy density and charge retaining capacity,<br />
as well as longer operating life. However, one<br />
of the major limitations for this technology<br />
is operating temperature. When Li-Ion cells<br />
are exposed to elevated temperatures of over<br />
80˚C, they become explosive in nature due to<br />
the limitations of electrolyte chemistry. This<br />
phenomenon is called “thermal runaway” and<br />
poses a major limitation on the optimal design<br />
for EV battery packs.<br />
Manufacturers must comply with varying<br />
regulations in different countries around the<br />
world, in order to ensure that their battery pack<br />
designs to be approved for local use. In China,<br />
for example, EV systems must be designed in<br />
such a way that passengers will have a minimal<br />
5 minute window for escape1. In order to meet<br />
these requirements, thermal management<br />
is critical and the effective use of thermal<br />
interface materials (TIMs) is fundamental.<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
The role of<br />
TIMs in thermal<br />
management<br />
TIMs are fundamental to thermal<br />
management, since they optimize<br />
heat transfer from components<br />
such as batteries in power<br />
storage systems, insulated-gate<br />
bipolar transistor (IGBT) modules,<br />
MOSFETS, and transformers in<br />
power conversion systems, to<br />
heat sinks. Power density is what<br />
defines the amount of heat that<br />
densities that can range anywhere<br />
from 10KW/module to 350KW/<br />
module, implying they require very<br />
high performance TIMs.<br />
As the name suggests, high<br />
performance TIMs require high<br />
thermal conductivity. This is an<br />
increasingly important issue, as<br />
these power electronics devices<br />
are being miniaturized and at<br />
the same time becoming more<br />
powerful than ever before.<br />
Higher thermal conductivity<br />
will lead to higher TIM density<br />
and thus slower dispense<br />
performance, since more filler<br />
is required. This is where<br />
materials innovation such<br />
as Henkel’s new BERGQUIST<br />
GAP FILLER TGF 7000 can be<br />
used to address a real market<br />
need for high thermal transfer<br />
without compromising on<br />
dispense rates. This material<br />
offers the best in its class<br />
thermal performance (7<br />
W/mK), as well allows<br />
for achieving a maximum<br />
possible tested dispense<br />
rate of up to 18g/second.<br />
Henkel also offers gap pads<br />
of up to 12W/mK to address<br />
thermal management issues<br />
for devices that demand high<br />
thermal performance (image<br />
2).<br />
For the power storage systems<br />
(image 3), the requirements are<br />
completely different. A typical<br />
4-in-1 IGBT module has a surface<br />
area of 14 in2, whereas a typical<br />
battery pack has a footprint of<br />
5000 in2). Furthermore, batteries<br />
have low power densities (6 watts/<br />
cell-600 watts/cell), as well as a<br />
limited operating temperature. As<br />
a result, the thermal management<br />
requirements for battery systems<br />
are driven by factors such as<br />
conformability, lightweighting, fast<br />
flow rates for high throughput and<br />
cost. Henkel APS series<br />
products (image 4) are<br />
engineered specifically<br />
for power storage<br />
applications to give<br />
flow rates up to 80cc/<br />
second. Furthermore,<br />
the solutions succeed<br />
in terms of thermally<br />
conductivity and density,<br />
3<br />
3D model showing the<br />
inside of an EV battery<br />
pack with<br />
cylindrical battery cells<br />
while still offering a silicon-free<br />
advantage.<br />
The overall implication is that no<br />
single TIM can solve every thermal<br />
management issue, and that<br />
materials supplier should have a<br />
broad portfolio to give maximum<br />
flexibility to their customers.<br />
Henkel GAP PAD® applied<br />
2<br />
Image 4: trial dispense of the<br />
Henkel BERGQUIST GAP FILLER<br />
3010 APS<br />
1<br />
illustrated inverter (power<br />
conversion system) visibily<br />
applied Henkel GAP FILLER®<br />
in the lower area<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
17
Further critical factors to<br />
EV safety<br />
While the thermal conductivity coefficient for<br />
heat transfer efficiency still remains the primary<br />
requirement, there are other factors that should<br />
be considered critical for optimizing EV safety.<br />
Treatment of the battery pack surface is required to<br />
protect it against corrosion, which can amongst others<br />
damage the battery pack gasket. As a result, external<br />
influences such as dust and moisture could interfere<br />
with the components inside the pack, leading to<br />
reliability and failure risks.<br />
hurdles, it’s essential that OEMs work together with<br />
their materials suppliers from the very beginning<br />
of the design phase, in order to achieve the best<br />
possible result. Success demands the reliance on a<br />
supplier with a broad available technology portfolio<br />
in order to ensure maximum flexibility. Henkel is the<br />
ideal partner for component design, with dedicated<br />
customer support in place, as well as the broadest<br />
TIM, adhesive and sealant portfolio available on the<br />
market.<br />
Furthermore, adhesives provide structural integrity<br />
for ensuring strength during the robust operation of<br />
the battery pack. EV batteries go through the harshest<br />
of environmental and operational conditions, e.g.<br />
temperature and humidity could vary from anywhere<br />
between -40˚C to 49˚C and 0 to 85%. All of these<br />
aspects will place a vast amount of stress on the<br />
structural strength, meaning that any adhesive<br />
designed for this application will have to perform<br />
flawlessly under these extreme conditions.<br />
As the TIMs should be compatible with the chosen<br />
adhesive & sealant solutions, significant complexity<br />
comes into play in terms of design. Given these<br />
“thermal management is<br />
critical and the effective<br />
use of thermal interface<br />
materials (TIMs) is<br />
fundamental”.<br />
18<br />
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Total lifetime cost reduction<br />
Battery efficiency and economics is what will<br />
differentiate one EV automotive manufacturer over<br />
another, as the technology moves further mainstream.<br />
Battery costs have come down from US$1000/KWH in<br />
2010 to just US$156/KWH today. The projections are<br />
that these costs will drop even further to US$73/KWH<br />
by 20302.<br />
One key factor influencing the total lifetime cost<br />
of EV battery packs concerns assembly speed. In<br />
general, to optimize throughput, material solutions<br />
should have high flow rates, allow for fast curing<br />
and be compatible with large-scale manufacturing.<br />
In particular battery cell architecture can create a<br />
bottleneck in the assembly process: around 4,000<br />
cylindrical cells are required to make a typical 80KW<br />
battery pack. Since some OEMs are already producing<br />
over 0.5 million cars a year in North America alone,<br />
simple math dictates that over 2 trillion cells will<br />
have to be manufactured and assembled to meet this<br />
demand. In order to allow for the superfast assembly<br />
of EV battery cells, Henkel collaborated with Covestro<br />
on the development of a total system solution.<br />
Hereby cells can be fixated in a UV-translucent carrier<br />
within 5 seconds, through the use of a Loctite AA 3963<br />
cure-on-demand adhesive (image 5).<br />
It’s clear that TIMs, adhesives and sealants are<br />
of substantial importance for the assembly and<br />
operation battery packs. All materials should be<br />
manufacture friendly, economical, compatible and<br />
compliant when used together in line with relevant<br />
local regulations. Henkel’s broad portfolio as such<br />
is helping to drive change so that EVs can go even<br />
further into the mainstream.<br />
Image 5: 3D model of fixed cylindrical cells inside<br />
a plastic carrier using the LOCTITE AA 3963 battery<br />
assembly adhesive<br />
The total cost of an EV will also depend on how<br />
easily serviceable the design of the battery system<br />
is, which is influenced by whether the gasket used<br />
to seal the battery is reopenable or not. Since the<br />
battery is the most expensive part of the EV,<br />
having the ability to rework it easily without<br />
having to take the battery out of the car body<br />
can reduce these costs significantly, which is<br />
where advanced gasketing technologies come<br />
into play (image 6). Sustainability is another<br />
key consideration to bear in mind. Ultimately<br />
all materials that have been scraped off after<br />
the battery has been repaired or serviced<br />
will need to be disposed of with minimal<br />
environmental impact. This is again where an<br />
innovative materials supplier has a role to<br />
play.<br />
Image 6: 3D model of a gasketing material being applied<br />
on the flange of a battery pack<br />
Sources:<br />
http://www.miit.gov.cn/n1146285/n1146352/n3054355/n3057585n3057592/c7590708/part/7590715.pdf<br />
2.<br />
https://www.forbes.com/sites/siladityaray/<strong>2020</strong>/06/30/fcc-calls-chinese-telecom-giants-huawei-zte-threats-to-nationalsecurity/#68828f9378d5<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
19
POWER ELECTRONICS<br />
Semiconductor choices<br />
enable point and systemic<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> innovation<br />
Stephan Zizala is head of the Automotive High Power<br />
Business Line at Infineon Technologies<br />
The automotive combustion engine has been a<br />
huge success over the past 150 years. Decades of<br />
development have turned the crude engines invented<br />
in the 1800’s into the highly efficient and reliable<br />
power plants of today. Engine developers have also<br />
made impressive progress in reducing emissions over<br />
the past few decades. Today, however, the automotive<br />
industry is shifting on to a new innovation path:<br />
building zero-emission cars by electrifying vehicle<br />
power trains.<br />
Why is this happening now? First and foremost,<br />
governments worldwide are trying to slow climate<br />
change by reducing CO2 emissions. They are<br />
tightening emission rules and offering incentives such<br />
as subsidies and tax breaks for low-emission vehicles.<br />
Secondly, there’s growing pressure on consumers<br />
to choose eco-friendly <strong>mobility</strong> options. Even the<br />
COVID-19 pandemic may accelerate the adoption of<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong>, as people try to stay away from public<br />
transport yet still want to reduce their carbon<br />
footprint. Thirdly, electric cars will soon offer a better<br />
user experience than traditional vehicles, because<br />
their drive trains are more responsive and charging<br />
points are becoming more common than petrol<br />
stations. Studies already show that most electric car<br />
owners would buy another.<br />
Within the next ten years, I expect the majority of new<br />
cars sold to have a partially or fully electric drivetrain.<br />
Carmakers are devoting billions of dollars, and their<br />
top experts, to developing cars with electrification<br />
strategies ranging from mild, full or plug-in hybrid<br />
architectures through to full battery electric vehicles.<br />
The transition to e-<strong>mobility</strong> may be so gradual as<br />
to be almost unnoticeable for many consumers, if<br />
their next car is equipped with mild hybrid features.<br />
These use a starter-generator and a small battery to<br />
help the engine during stop-start motoring, cruising<br />
and, in more powerful set-ups, to smooth out engine<br />
response during regular driving.<br />
Full hybrid electric vehicles can drive using<br />
electric traction alone, and charge their battery by<br />
recuperating energy from braking and using the<br />
engine as a generator. A significant step beyond<br />
that, plug-in electric vehicles have enough batterypowered<br />
range for the typical daily commute and can<br />
be charged from (ideally green) power grid sources.<br />
Finally, at the upper end of the electrification ladder,<br />
battery electric vehicles are being introduced that<br />
have enough performance and range to compete with<br />
traditional rivals.<br />
As with the development of petrol and diesel cars,<br />
the shift to e-<strong>mobility</strong> will involve multiple cycles<br />
of technological innovation, optimization and<br />
maturation. Some of these will be so narrowly focused<br />
on innovating one aspect of e-<strong>mobility</strong> that other<br />
possible innovations will be set aside for later.<br />
Semiconductors can be used in both point and<br />
systemic innovations that address the three key<br />
challenges of electric vehicle development: range,<br />
charging time and system cost.<br />
Many reports on e-vehicles focus on battery capacity<br />
as a proxy for range, but do not mention how<br />
efficiently the energy that those batteries store<br />
is converted to movement. It is like judging the<br />
performance of a traditional car on the size of its fuel<br />
tank. It is here that semiconductors can have a crucial<br />
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Chip Embedding<br />
Infineon offers both silicon and silicon carbide<br />
components in all form factors, from bare chips<br />
and discretely packaged chips through to modules.<br />
Customers can select the power semiconductors<br />
that best fit their innovation strategy. Together with<br />
Schweizer Electronic, Infineon is also working on “chip<br />
embedding”, a way of integrating power MOSFETs into<br />
PCBs rather than soldering them on top. This technology<br />
will increase power-conversion density and reduce<br />
systemic complexity. It should be particularly useful for<br />
increasing the performance of 48V mild hybrid electric<br />
vehicles.<br />
impact on an e-vehicle’s range and cost. Even<br />
a small change in the efficiency with which a<br />
vehicle’s main inverter turns the battery’s DC<br />
power into AC to drive the motor can increase<br />
vehicle range by tens of kilometers.<br />
Chip embedding is just one example of our systemic<br />
approach to e-<strong>mobility</strong> innovation: rather than focusing<br />
on single chips or functions, we try to understand and<br />
address challenges at the system level. We believe<br />
that the most significant contributions to innovation in<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> in the automotive industry will come from<br />
systemic innovations enabled by close cooperation<br />
along the value chain. We offer more than a decade of<br />
experience in e-<strong>mobility</strong>, a scalable e-<strong>mobility</strong> chip set<br />
including sensors, microcontrollers, gate drivers and<br />
dedicated power semiconductors, a clear roadmap of<br />
new technologies in development, and a good track<br />
record in volume production.<br />
The efficiency of power conversion is governed<br />
in part by circuit architecture and in part by<br />
the device physics of the semiconducting<br />
material used in the switching elements.<br />
Most manufacturers of full hybrid, plug-in<br />
hybrid and battery electric vehicles use silicon<br />
IGBTs and diodes, because they are well<br />
proven, widely available and have the lowest<br />
component cost. However, for certain cars,<br />
there may be a better solution. Silicon carbide<br />
MOSFETs can be used to build inverters that<br />
have greater conversion efficiencies than<br />
silicon-based alternatives. They cost more, but<br />
while it is fair to compare component costs<br />
doing so misses the systemic advantages of<br />
the newer technology. For example, it may be<br />
possible to use the greater efficiency of silicon<br />
carbide inverters to reduce the size, mass and<br />
cost of the battery while achieving the same<br />
vehicle range. This might quickly lead to a<br />
positive business case for adopting this more<br />
advanced technology.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
21
INFOTAINMENT AND CONNECTIVITY<br />
Information technology and the car<br />
amalgamate<br />
The EV as a clean slate<br />
Electric vehicles (EVs) have come of age:<br />
Instead of being conventional cars with a<br />
squeezed-in electric drivetrain, oncoming<br />
generations of EVs are specifically designed<br />
to be electrified. This brings the chance for<br />
a clean sweep. OEMs are beginning to utilize<br />
this opportunity to leave behind the burden<br />
of the established electric and electronic<br />
architecture (E/E architecture). With 50<br />
to 100 microcontrollers spread all over a<br />
conventional vehicle, you are looking at a<br />
complex network of heterogeneous embedded<br />
hardware, connected via several types of<br />
physical interfaces. This stands in the way of a<br />
fresh start. Designing a new type of EV offers<br />
endless design and architectural beginnings.<br />
In order to prevent these endless beginnings<br />
from turning into lost opportunities, there is<br />
one particular issue that is worth addressing:<br />
It is time to say goodbye to the underlying<br />
“one box per function domain” E/E<br />
architecture philosophy for several reasons.<br />
This kind of network is a nightmare to<br />
update, it stubbornly refuses installing new<br />
functions after the end-of-the line, and the<br />
wire harness has grown into another bother<br />
weight-wise and complexity-wise. Plus,<br />
where do you host the enormous amounts<br />
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of software, which will be shaping tomorrow’s cars?<br />
Due to the increasing amount of software that gives<br />
the vehicle its functionality, safety, efficiency and<br />
comfort, a conventional premium car is likely to<br />
reach an impressive 750 million lines of code per car<br />
by 2025. Mind you – that is just “programmed code”,<br />
i.e., without factoring in the algorithms to come<br />
with artificial intelligence (AI). The timing is right for<br />
cleaning up the E/E architecture.<br />
There is yet another rationale behind this: Car makers<br />
traditionally perceive the engine (and sometimes<br />
the transmission) as key unique selling propositions<br />
for their brand. In times of digitalization, however,<br />
the variety of functions is particularly exciting<br />
for electro<strong>mobility</strong> and its users as it is precisely<br />
them who have a great affinity for technology.<br />
Accordingly, the cockpit and human-machine<br />
interface are becoming more and more important.<br />
Drivers and users expect a “digital vehicle”. This has a<br />
correspondingly high influence on their perception of<br />
the vehicle and thus on the purchase decision.<br />
Having said that, “the cockpit” means more and bigger<br />
displays, natural language conversation, haptics<br />
(e.g. haptic feedback with 3D shaped displays), full<br />
connectivity, and lots of software to provide it all!<br />
The future cockpit is fully networked, and a Digital<br />
Assistant will be able to take on different roles<br />
and responsibilities such as a driver’s companion<br />
or coach. Now, this working relation is developing<br />
into a genuine relationship as the EV becomes<br />
fully connected and turns into a member of the<br />
global Internet of Everything. Can that be done with<br />
the existing E/E architecture? No. The<br />
answer lies in centralization, and higher<br />
integration. The answer is: in-vehicle<br />
servers.<br />
There is a great opportunity in the EV as a clean slate.<br />
Freed from all the legacy traditions of conventional<br />
vehicles, an EV is the natural choice to make a stepchange.<br />
Why should an EV offer anything less than a<br />
user experience (UX) that tops the expectations of an<br />
online generation? An EV offers more space and fewer<br />
design restraints. So why not seize this opportunity<br />
to introduce new technologies such as pillar-to-pillar<br />
displays? They offer maximum freedom to display<br />
whatever content, app, service, or entertainment<br />
to the driver and passengers. Connectivity, flexible<br />
allocation of contents, and context-oriented user<br />
interfaces will give any vehicle a new UX; which will<br />
strongly influence the driver’s appreciation of his/<br />
her car. 3D display technology and curved surfaces<br />
will help to guide the user’s attention, help her/him<br />
to control functions and to enjoy high-resolution<br />
viewing quality.<br />
What we need to make all that possible is to alter the<br />
E/E architecture. In order to bring all the elements of<br />
human-machine interaction together and to offer a<br />
seamless combination of information, entertainment,<br />
apps and services, the many strings of entertainment<br />
and information need to come together in one<br />
hardware.<br />
In the cockpit domain, this trend towards a new UX<br />
means changing over to a server-based architecture<br />
that supports a systematic separation of hardware<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
23
and software, smooth (firmware) updates over the<br />
air (F)OTA), cyber security, the safe use of ASIL and<br />
non-ASIL functions (and various operating systems)<br />
on a single hardware, higher functional safety, fast<br />
interconnection to other on-board servers, memory<br />
and processing power for future flashing and hosting<br />
of updated features and new functions. All of which<br />
translates into a future-proof system.<br />
Is this just an attempt to conjure up a future<br />
development? No, the change is already underway!<br />
Volkswagen uses a server concept for ID. vehicle<br />
models based on the modular electric drive matrix<br />
(MEB). The conceptual framework for one of these<br />
servers (the in-car application server ICAS1) is a<br />
high-performance computer platform developed by<br />
Continental in cooperation with Elektrobit. It is called<br />
HPC (High Performance Computer), and the ID. Vehicle<br />
models with the ICAS 1 HPC showcase the move<br />
forward to a new E/E architecture based on server<br />
technology.<br />
As a Cockpit HPC, the server integrates functions<br />
previously split up between several electronic control<br />
units (ECUs), including the instrument cluster ECU<br />
and the ECU, controlling the center panel display and<br />
infotainment world. However, the cockpit HPC does<br />
a lot more. Based on its capabilities, the cockpit<br />
and multi-modal human-machine interface are<br />
turning from what we once knew as the “driver<br />
workplace” into a dialogue partner, which adapts<br />
to the needs of drivers or their instantaneous<br />
role. In an automated EV, the driver may well be a<br />
passenger for long phases of the journey. During<br />
these phases, he or she will want to make good use<br />
of the time in the car. Screens will therefore have to<br />
display different types of information, provide the<br />
environment for different apps and pursuits, both<br />
private and business – and maybe they have to offer<br />
more display surface to meet that requirement.<br />
Natural language exchange between human and<br />
machine will have to be supported, and new elements<br />
such as Augmented Reality head-up displays require<br />
sufficient computing power for models that are<br />
equipped with it.<br />
Higher integration levels and standardized hardware<br />
along with scalability of computing power and<br />
memory provide<br />
the possibility<br />
to adapt an HPC<br />
to the differing<br />
requirements of<br />
various models<br />
and vehicle<br />
segments. It<br />
is true that<br />
rather a lot of<br />
the computing<br />
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power of an<br />
HPC will not be<br />
utilized when<br />
the car begins<br />
its service life.<br />
Probably even<br />
the biggest<br />
amount of<br />
computing power<br />
and memory may<br />
be reserved for<br />
the installation<br />
of new functions<br />
and feature<br />
upgrades over<br />
the service life of<br />
the vehicle – and<br />
new business<br />
models that come with it. Of course, this will only<br />
work, if the HPC provides cyber security and (F)OTA<br />
updates. The two make an inseparable pair anyway:<br />
There is no cyber security without OTA updates,<br />
but there can also be no OTA update without cyber<br />
security.<br />
Some may consider this new level of, e.g., above 10<br />
kDMIPS computing power per server in the vehicle a<br />
luxury but think again: Today, each and every one of<br />
the 50…100 ECUs has its own embedded periphery.<br />
They all have a housing, they all have connectors, and<br />
they all require thermal management, and they are all<br />
cabled. However, quite a few of these ECUs will never<br />
be active at the same time because their activity is<br />
restricted to certain driving or operating conditions<br />
that may be mutually exclusive. So, who’s wasting<br />
now?<br />
The features of the HPC create optimal conditions<br />
for the integration of software from many sources.<br />
As an example, Continental uses the HPC capabilities<br />
for a strategic partnership with Pioneer. During the<br />
development of a Cockpit HPC, a complete Pioneer<br />
infotainment solution can be integrated into the<br />
server, if an OEMs requests it.<br />
Meanwhile, while the server-based approach offers<br />
the chance for vehicle manufacturers to reduce<br />
complexity with a leaner vehicle architecture, it<br />
increases the complexity for Tier 1 suppliers. Manual<br />
software development, for instance, is no longer an<br />
answer to worldwide development with ever more<br />
internal and external partners. To handle this complex<br />
process efficiently and to ensure the quality of the<br />
server and the software a new approach is required:<br />
It takes a highly automated software factory and<br />
a cooperation portal providing the security, tools,<br />
automated testing and validation, and managing<br />
documents for hundreds of software developers all<br />
over the world, who are working on functions and<br />
features. It is not only the E/E architecture that is<br />
changing dramatically – beginning with the EV – it<br />
is the complete automotive industry as information<br />
technology and the car amalgamate.<br />
Stefan Wagener<br />
Product Manager Infotainment at Continental<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
25
MATERIALS RESEARCH<br />
Moving e-<strong>mobility</strong> forward using<br />
specialised PVD coatings<br />
Dr. Mayumi Noto, Head of Global Business Development for E-Mobility, Oerlikon Balzers.<br />
The variety of small to large electric vehicles and their hybrid variants is<br />
constantly increasing, and vehicle manufacturers can no longer afford not to<br />
have electric vehicles in their range. But how can they optimise this<br />
technology? Are there other ways to improve efficiency and range, protect<br />
components from premature failure, and reduce maintenance costs for the end<br />
user as a result? Specialised PVD coatings are key design elements that reduce<br />
friction and wear, improving the efficiency of drivetrain technologies in electric<br />
vehicles.<br />
Producing more efficient engines has become<br />
an important issue as the automotive<br />
industry seeks to reduce CO2 emissions from<br />
petrol and diesel engines. Specialised PVD<br />
coatings have become key design elements<br />
for reducing friction and wear in engine<br />
components and minimising mechanical<br />
loss, which boosts engine efficiency and<br />
performance. And as manufacturers develop<br />
increasingly advanced electric vehicles,<br />
Oerlikon Balzers one of the world’s leading<br />
suppliers of surface technologies has been<br />
working closely with leading technology<br />
companies to design and optimise<br />
components for electric drive systems.<br />
A typical electric car is equipped with an electric<br />
motor with a maximum power of 30 to 70 KW, a<br />
maximum torque of 130 to 200 Nm and a maximum<br />
rotational speed of 7,000 to 20,000 rpm. Key adjacent<br />
components such as gears, bearings and shafts need<br />
to be optimised to satisfy various complex objectives<br />
such as noise reduction and efficiency during more<br />
demanding operating conditions. Gears in electric<br />
car transmissions experience higher rotational<br />
speeds and are subjected to various driving styles,<br />
increasing the chances of wear, pitting, tooth failure<br />
and scuffing due to repetitive friction at high speeds.<br />
Poor lubrication or the presence of contaminants can<br />
significantly reduce the service life of gears.<br />
Specialised PVD coatings for the<br />
automotive industry<br />
A coating with a thickness of just 0.5 to 4 micrometres<br />
considerably reduces friction and increases<br />
surface hardness to protect gears and reduce gear<br />
losses, thereby increasing the efficiency of electric<br />
drivetrains.<br />
PVD is typically used to coat components at relatively<br />
low coating temperatures of 200-500 °C. These<br />
temperatures are ideal because they are below the<br />
tempering temperature of steels, which means that<br />
the fundamental material properties are not affected.<br />
The BALINIT C coating from Oerlikon Balzers is a WC/C<br />
ductile carbide/carbon coating that offers particularly<br />
high resistance to adhesive wear (scuffing). It has a<br />
multi-layered structure where fine WC crystals are<br />
embedded into an amorphous carbon matrix (Image<br />
1). This unique structure enhances the load-bearing<br />
capacity and ductility of the coating even when there<br />
is little or no lubrication.<br />
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The standard FZG C test shows that fatigue<br />
strength is increased by 10-15% over case-hardened<br />
but uncoated gears (Figure 1).<br />
The low friction coefficient of BALINIT C contributes<br />
to lower local surface pressure (Hertzian<br />
pressure) and offers superior running-in characteristics.<br />
A scuffing test shows that gears coated<br />
with BALINIT C have a longer service life of over 2<br />
million tooth contact cycles (Figure 2).<br />
“By incorporating BALINIT<br />
coatings into component<br />
design, our partners have<br />
improved electric drivetrain<br />
performance without<br />
compromising other<br />
requirements, such as having<br />
a lightweight, compact design<br />
and reducing overall production<br />
costs”, explained Dr. Mayumi Noto, Head of<br />
Global Business Development for E-Mobility, Oerlikon<br />
Balzers.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
27
Surface solutions for a wide range of<br />
automotive industry applications<br />
Compact, lightweight and highly integrated<br />
design of electric car components requires<br />
production technologies which offer higher<br />
precision and quality despite low tolerances<br />
and highly complex production processes.<br />
primeGear is a customised and highly<br />
integrated service which delivers unbeatable<br />
gear cutting tool performance. A team of<br />
experts at Oerlikon Balzers determines the<br />
critical improvements which can be made<br />
in the gear production chain by conducting<br />
detailed tool surface failure analyses and<br />
consulting with the customer. Improving the<br />
tool life cycle requires a holistic approach,<br />
whether in surface treatment, cutting<br />
processes, tool handling or reconditioning,<br />
and this can lead to more sustainable and<br />
higher-quality gear production processes.<br />
“This is possible due to our learning curve<br />
of 70 years as leading supplier for surface<br />
solutions, and the integral concept of<br />
primeGear”, Dr Mayumi continued.<br />
For large battery boxes and electric motor<br />
housings, Oerlikon Balzers provides<br />
solutions to improve aluminium die casting<br />
and steel sheet forming tools. In high<br />
pressure die casting, BALINIT coatings reduce<br />
soldering, heat cracks, erosion and abrasion<br />
on moulds, mould inserts and cores. This<br />
results in a longer service life and reduced<br />
waste, giving manufacturers higher-quality<br />
cast parts and reduced costs. For large<br />
forming dies, Pulsed-Plasma Diffusion<br />
(PPD) technology helps tools last longer by<br />
hardening their surfaces and increasing their<br />
wear resistance. PPD means tools need to<br />
be maintained less frequently and is a more<br />
environmentally-friendly process than hard<br />
chrome coating.<br />
Lightweight plastic parts are key components<br />
in car interior and exterior design. As<br />
plastics become stronger (higher glass<br />
fibre content), more functional (sensors<br />
and lighting) and more attractive in design<br />
(texture and colour), forming technologies<br />
to produce plastic parts need to overcome<br />
new challenges. BALINIT coatings can prevent<br />
corrosion and wear and reduce polymer<br />
sticking, enabling easy release and scratchfree<br />
products for injection moulding and<br />
extrusion.<br />
Providing customised solutions to<br />
special requirements<br />
We use our strong R&D capabilities to<br />
tailor coating solutions to meet customer<br />
requirements. In addition to coating<br />
thickness and hardness, properties such<br />
as structure, chemical and temperature<br />
resistance and adhesion can be optimised to<br />
suit individual needs.<br />
With almost 75 years of expertise in coatings,<br />
we have customised pre- and post-surface<br />
treatments to produce the best possible<br />
surfaces in order to achieve optimum<br />
performance of coated parts and tools.<br />
“Together with our automotive<br />
partners, Oerlikon Balzers will<br />
continue to provide solutions<br />
and innovation to support<br />
electric vehicles in order to give<br />
the automotive industry a more<br />
environmentally-friendly and<br />
sustainable future,” Dr Mayumi<br />
concluded.<br />
28 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
Automotive Sensors for the Electric Drivetrain<br />
The alternative for current resolver systems!<br />
Your vehicle will:<br />
• accelerate absolutely smoothly in every situation<br />
• eliminate all stuttering, even when starting<br />
• always sound like a car, never like a tram<br />
• achieve an increased battery range<br />
Lenord + Bauer position sensor:<br />
For all motors, especially synchronous and reluctance<br />
New<br />
Generation<br />
Replacement for current resolver technology – based on inductive sensing<br />
• Significantly more precise measurements by a factor of 5<br />
• More flexible mounting options on- and off-axis<br />
• Smaller space requirements<br />
• Increased robustness against stray electromagnetic fields<br />
• Compatibility with all automotive inverter systems<br />
• High mechanical robustness (airgap and eccentricity tolerance up to ± 1 mm)<br />
• No offset or amplitude error<br />
• ASIL C or D capable<br />
Get a customised kit for your motor today!<br />
www.lenord.com<br />
info@lenord.de
INFOTAINMENT AND CONNECTIVITY<br />
Autonomus rideshares are coming<br />
‘Q Car’ monolithic in its exterior design, chooses interior<br />
volume over slick aerodynamics<br />
In the first decade of the Digital Ride Hailing economy, service providers have<br />
used existing hardware to move people from A to B. However, in the context<br />
of Autonomous, Connected, Electrific and Shared <strong>mobility</strong>, we will see the<br />
emergence of vehicles like Quarter Car, designed from the ground up with<br />
these services in mind and pioneering new behavioural trends such as the<br />
‘Private Shared’ vehicle.<br />
Jonny Culkin, Seymour Powell’s Transport Designer<br />
told us “A key issue we identified within the digital<br />
ride hailing business model is the inefficiency<br />
generated from the number of empty seats during<br />
journeys. We have labelled this as the ‘Uber Pool’<br />
problem, where despite cost based incentives,<br />
passengers are unwilling to share their journey with<br />
other users. It is a significant challenge for vehicle<br />
manufacturers and ride hailing services to overcome<br />
in order to unlock revenue and efficiency growth<br />
potential.<br />
“With the onset of autonomous, connected, electric<br />
and shared <strong>mobility</strong>, it’s time to start defining the<br />
first generation of vehicles designed specifically<br />
for <strong>mobility</strong> services. Vehicles like Quarter Car will<br />
lead the way in defining a trend of ‘Private Shared’<br />
vehicles; adaptable spaces that will improve business<br />
metrics and passenger experience in one hit.”<br />
Quarter Car will help achieve profitability by offering<br />
flexibility for service providers to drastically drive up<br />
passenger occupation rates in each vehicle.<br />
30<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Jeremy White, Seymour Powell’s Director of<br />
Transport continued “By leaning on our wealth of<br />
experience within the aviation and rail industries,<br />
we have designed Quarter Car with passenger<br />
experience at the very core of its purpose as an<br />
interior led vehicle, prioritising internal volume<br />
over traditional aerodynamic design. The space<br />
is defined by retractable partitions through<br />
two central axes of the vehicle, which allow the<br />
segmentation of the interior into four individual<br />
and sellable ‘spaces’, giving service providers<br />
the ability to address the needs of a variety of<br />
passengers simultaneously within one vehicle.”<br />
The interior partitions would allow passengers to<br />
book an individual quarter to themselves for a<br />
private journey. Alternatively, friends, colleagues<br />
or couples can book spaces face to face or side by<br />
side, with the potential to hire the whole vehicle<br />
and enjoy a convivial ride with a group. Booking<br />
spaces in partially full vehicles, as well as waiting<br />
longer for your pick up, will be incentivised to<br />
ensure the occupancy rate is always as high.<br />
Quarter Car also enables additional revenue<br />
streams for <strong>mobility</strong> service providers through the<br />
application of in-car digital technology such as<br />
transparent glazing displays, gestural interaction<br />
capability and artificial intelligence. These provide<br />
operators with the tools they need to create a<br />
cutting edge, personalised and engaging digital<br />
experience. Depending on the service provider,<br />
customers could have the option of cost premium,<br />
ad-free journeys, while cheaper rides will contain<br />
curated and contextually aware advertising.<br />
Passengers might also choose to pay for tailored<br />
digital experiences for purposes ranging from<br />
entertainment, retail and education, which could<br />
include descriptive educational content of famous<br />
landmarks, or entertaining video content tailorable<br />
to the passenger’s requests.<br />
Interior Volume vs<br />
Aerodynamics<br />
Quarter Car is delibaritely monolithic in its exterior<br />
design, choosing interior volume over slick<br />
aerodynamics by leveraging underfloor electric<br />
architecture packaging to reduce the overall<br />
footprint whilst also increasing the perception of<br />
interior space.<br />
We can justify this volume change by speculating<br />
that we may view aerodynamic efficiency through<br />
a different lens by the time Level 4/5 autonomous<br />
vehicles arrive. Quarter Car will be a Battery Electric<br />
Vehicle using clean energy to operate inbetween<br />
urban and suburban environments at relatively low<br />
speeds. Aerodynamic efficiency will not be the way<br />
we define the shape of this vehicle, rather, improved<br />
passenger experience will lead to efficiency gains<br />
through increased vehicle occupation levels<br />
Spaces Not Vehicles<br />
By prioritising this drive towards interior volume,<br />
a vehicle’s interiors can be led by domestic and<br />
interior influences, enabling them to be considered<br />
as moving ‘spaces.’ We will change the way we spend<br />
our time in them, which we believe will lead to a<br />
host of corporations, previously unattached to the<br />
<strong>mobility</strong> world, becoming interested in staking their<br />
claim, in order to broaden their brand portfolio and<br />
open up new revenue streams.<br />
“We speculate that this type of vehicle could attract<br />
a range of new <strong>mobility</strong> players, from boutique<br />
hoteliers providing luxury, mobile spaces to their<br />
guests or even co-working ventures looking to<br />
assist in fulfilling the productivity potential in the<br />
gaps between work and home, or even an airline<br />
offering a door to door ticketing service; expanding<br />
their business class offering across multimodal<br />
touchpoints.” Jonny expained.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net 31
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Hygiene/Turnover<br />
As the way we use these shared vehicles changes, so<br />
will our expectations of their levels of hygiene and<br />
cleanliness – particularly as we move into a postpandemic<br />
era.<br />
Throughout the process of designing Quarter Car,<br />
we were passionate about creating an interior that<br />
looked superemely modern with design cues taken<br />
from high quality furniture, whilst also retaining all of<br />
the anti-dirt trapping and easy-to-clean functionality<br />
of traditional utilitarian transport.<br />
We recognise that shared <strong>mobility</strong> solutions might be<br />
the ones to suffer in the long term from the Cov-ID<br />
crisis, but Quarter Car has the potential to address<br />
many of the health concerns attached to this.<br />
Richard Seale Seymour Powell’s lead automotive<br />
designer went on to say “Not only can we divide<br />
the space into four, air locked cubicles, which allow<br />
each passenger to travel in their own ‘bubble,’ all<br />
of Quarter Car’s soft furnishings are designed to be<br />
easily swapped and the surfaces behind them feature<br />
no sharp edges – allowing a very swift and thorough<br />
servicing routine to be performed multiple times a<br />
day, giving passengers peace of mind that the mode<br />
of transport remains as safe and viable as possible.<br />
Not only this, but there are methods of digital<br />
feedback that could be explored, as part of the<br />
service’s app or even through the display technology<br />
within the vehicle, that could further this confirmation<br />
of excellent hygiene standards.”<br />
Air Quality<br />
Richard went on to say<br />
“During the initial design<br />
process of Quarter Car, we<br />
left no stone unturned when<br />
questioning the conventional<br />
wisdom of traditional vehicle<br />
design. As part of this<br />
process, we began to wonder<br />
whether a vehicle could in<br />
fact positively contribute<br />
to the air quality of the<br />
environment it operates in,<br />
rather than the contrary. We<br />
believe that if we are going to<br />
flood cities with new <strong>mobility</strong><br />
solutions, in various ways<br />
each vehicle should do a little good for every mile<br />
travelled, collectively contributing to better living<br />
standards for all.”<br />
There are two ways in which Q-Car becomes a positive<br />
emission vehicle, first of all, it’s fully electric and<br />
utilises energy generated only from clean sources,<br />
consequently Q-Car doesn’t have any tail pipe<br />
emissions. Secondly, the vehicles actively cleans the<br />
air while it moves by using carbon capture technology,<br />
thus offsetting the negative impact of any carbon<br />
emitting vehicles still operating in the urban realm.<br />
At Seymour Powell we value our independent voice<br />
within the industry – it gives us the ability to think<br />
freely about the future of the industry and what<br />
physical and digital services and products we may see<br />
in the coming years. It is this free thinking that has<br />
led to the creation of our Quarter Car concept, which<br />
we hope will contribute to the ever accelerating drive<br />
towards sustainable transport in our urban centres,<br />
whilst also providing new and enriching passenger<br />
experiences for future users. We strongly believe,<br />
however, that digitial ride hailing represents just one<br />
mode in what will be an eclectic range of options in<br />
our future transport ecosystem, and we look forward<br />
to turning our gaze towards other modes of e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
over the coming months, not only through our selfdirected<br />
thought pieces but also working closely with<br />
industry leaders to bring some of these solutions to<br />
market.<br />
Seymour Powell is the London based design studio called<br />
on to help design the interior of the Virgin Galactic Space<br />
shuttle.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
33
Advancing EV Electronics with<br />
Light-Curing <strong>Technology</strong><br />
How Light-curing materials and technologies<br />
are being used in advanced EV electronics<br />
Chris Morrissey, Sr. Manager, Automotive Electronics BD, Dymax Corporation<br />
MATERIALS<br />
RESEARCH<br />
The global automotive electronics market is projected<br />
to grow to a CAGR near 6-7% over the next five<br />
years, with the electrification and Advanced Driver<br />
Assistance Systems (ADAS) segments positioned<br />
to surge to 16%. This unprecedented growth, along<br />
with increased environmental regulations and safety<br />
requirements, to the consumer desire for enhanced<br />
in-vehicle conveniences, has vehicle manufacturers<br />
seeking ways to improve system performance while<br />
decreasing overall costs. Traditional solvent-based<br />
materials and mechanical fasteners may be less<br />
expensive to purchase and implement, but long term,<br />
increase overall manufacturing costs. As a result,<br />
many design engineers of EVs, BEVs, and PHEVs are<br />
turning to light-curing technology to solve issues<br />
related to low throughput, difficult waste disposal,<br />
and field failures.<br />
“Legislated changes, consumer demanded items<br />
(particularly those relating to convenience and/<br />
or comfort) as well as safety enhancements, have<br />
driven automotive development year after year.<br />
Today, with the added popularity of electrification<br />
and autonomous driving, the volume of electronics<br />
in vehicles is growing fast even as vehicle demand<br />
moderates. These drivers, combined with an<br />
increased need for cleaner emissions and improved<br />
fuel economy are also increasing the need for<br />
environmentally compliant materials.” Chris<br />
Morrissey, Sr. Manager, Automotive Electronics, Dymax<br />
Corporation explained.<br />
Three market segments driving the increased use<br />
of light-curing technologies in the design of EV<br />
electronics are ADAS, infotainment, and battery<br />
management systems (BMS). There is a need for<br />
materials that solve common issues associated<br />
with the sensors, modules, and circuits found in<br />
camera modules, lidar, printed circuit boards, and<br />
EV batteries. Additionally, replacing technologies<br />
that contain hazardous ingredients, produce waste,<br />
and require higher amounts of energy to process is<br />
becoming more important. There is also a desire to<br />
increase functionality, reduce circuit size, and extend<br />
warranties.<br />
G. Bachmann, a chemistry that was environmentally<br />
friendly and would significantly increase productivity<br />
in industrial manufacturing processes was<br />
created. LCMs can provide significant benefits over<br />
conventional bonding (or joining) technologies,<br />
including lower operating costs driven by lower labor<br />
needs, space savings, lower energy demand, and<br />
higher throughput.<br />
40 years ago, Dymax was instrumental in the<br />
development of light-curable materials (LCMs) as<br />
we know them today. Through the ingenuity and<br />
forward-thinking of the company’s founder, Andrew<br />
34<br />
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How do light-curable<br />
materials work?<br />
Light-curable materials are typically comprised of five<br />
basic elements: the photoinitiator, additive, modifier,<br />
monomer, and oligomer (Figure 1). The ultraviolet (UV)<br />
light-curing process begins when the photoinitiator<br />
in the LCM is exposed to a light-energy source of<br />
the proper spectral output. As illustrated in Figure<br />
2, the molecules of the LCM split into free radicals<br />
(initiation), which then commence to form polymer<br />
chains with the monomers, oligomers, and other<br />
ingredients (propagation), until all ingredients have<br />
formed a solid polymer (termination). Upon sufficient<br />
exposure to light, the liquid LCM is polymerized, or<br />
cured within seconds.<br />
Figure 1 LCM Composition<br />
1. Liquid unreacted state<br />
The types of light-curable materials successfully<br />
being utilized throughout the EV electronics market<br />
include structural adhesives, conformal coatings,<br />
encapsulants, and masking resins. Since their<br />
inception Dymax LCMs have helped to minimize<br />
environmental impact. Formulated products are<br />
all one-component, solvent-free, halogen-free,<br />
RoHS compliant, eco-friendly, and meet REACH (no<br />
substance of very high concern (SVHC)) requirements.<br />
Using these products offer manufacturers the benefits<br />
of:<br />
2. Photoinitiators generate free radicals<br />
• Improving structural bonds<br />
• Protecting circuits from environmental damage<br />
• Minimizing movement and shrinkage<br />
• Addressing thermal management, thermal shock,<br />
and vibration<br />
• Enhancing PWB/PCA functionality and<br />
performance<br />
• Eliminating shadow-area concerns<br />
• Solving cure-confirmation issues<br />
3. Polymer Propagation<br />
4. Polymer Termination<br />
Figure 2<br />
Polymerization<br />
Process<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International |<br />
www.e-motec.net<br />
35
Adhesives<br />
Light-curable adhesives cure in seconds upon<br />
exposure to UV/Visible light. They form high-strength,<br />
environmentally resistant bonds to plastic, metal,<br />
and glass substrates used in automotive electronics<br />
manufacturing. Due to their ability to bond to a<br />
wide variety of substrates, they excel at assembling<br />
dissimilar materials, something that cannot be<br />
done with traditional fastening methods and other<br />
chemistries. The fast cure of the adhesives is one<br />
major advantage LCMs have over other slow-cure and<br />
labor-intensive application processes.<br />
Masking Resins<br />
Temporary, peelable electronic maskants are applied<br />
to printed circuit board components to protect them<br />
prior to conformal coating application or wave solder<br />
and reflow processes. Extremely fast cure allows<br />
boards to be immediately processed without the<br />
need for racking or waiting. The products conform<br />
to intricate designs, are non-slumping for vertical<br />
and horizontal surfaces, are compatible with gold<br />
and copper connector pins, and are resistant to<br />
solvent-based conformal coatings and primers. After<br />
proper cure, the maskants leave no silicone, ionic<br />
contamination, or corrosive residues when removed.<br />
Conformal Coatings<br />
Conformal coatings enhance the long-term reliability<br />
of automotive electronic parts. When applied<br />
to circuitry on printed circuit boards they act as<br />
protection against destructive environmental<br />
conditions, that if left uncoated (unprotected), could<br />
result in a complete failure of electronic systems. A<br />
key advantage to light-curable conformal coatings is<br />
the ability to use a non-solvated “green” (100% solids)<br />
material. Other important material properties include<br />
resistance to rapid and extreme temperature changes,<br />
as well as protection against high heat, humidity,<br />
moisture, chemicals such as gasoline, and corrosive<br />
materials like salt and sulfur.<br />
Encapsulants<br />
Encapsulation and wire bonding<br />
materials for bare die, wire bonds,<br />
or integrated circuits (IC) found on<br />
PCBs exhibit excellent protection<br />
against thermal shock, heat,<br />
humidity, and various corrosive<br />
elements. Their fast cure helps<br />
reduce processing and energy<br />
costs associated with alternative<br />
technologies.<br />
EV Electronics<br />
Applications<br />
Where LCMs<br />
Are Utilized<br />
There are a number of technologies<br />
formulated into various LCM chemistries to<br />
improve the overall manufacturing of EV<br />
electronics.<br />
36 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Curing in Shadow Areas<br />
Dual-Cure Light/Moisture-Cure<br />
<strong>Technology</strong><br />
Dual-cure coatings are formulated to ensure complete<br />
cure in applications where shadow areas on highdensity<br />
circuit boards are a concern. Previously, areas<br />
shadowed from light were managed by selective<br />
coating – eliminating the need to cure in shadow<br />
areas – or a secondary heat-cure process. Shadow<br />
areas cure over time with moisture, eliminating the<br />
need for that second process step or concerns of<br />
component life degradation due to temperature<br />
exposure.<br />
Multi-Cure® Light/Heat Cure<br />
<strong>Technology</strong><br />
Multi-Cure adhesives and coatings combine the highspeed<br />
cure of UV or UV/Visible light with secondary<br />
cure mechanisms that enhance polymerization.<br />
Secondary cure mechanisms, which include moisture,<br />
thermal, or activator cure, are useful when light can<br />
only reach a portion of the bond line, or when tacking<br />
a part prior to final cure to allow easier handling and<br />
transport during the manufacturing process.<br />
Enhance Bond-Line<br />
Inspection<br />
Blue Fluorescing <strong>Technology</strong><br />
Many light-curable materials feature<br />
technologies that enable easy visual cure<br />
confirmation and post-cure inspection.<br />
In high-speed manufacturing, automated<br />
vision systems are employed to inspect<br />
finished parts for imperfections in<br />
the bond line or to detect incomplete<br />
coating coverage. Formulations with blue<br />
fluorescing technology are visible under<br />
low-intensity black light for easy visual<br />
confirmation of properly finished parts.<br />
to ensure complete material coverage. Once exposed<br />
to the appropriate amount of LED/UV/Visible light<br />
energy, the color transitions to another color or turns<br />
colorless, providing confirmation of full cure.<br />
Speed up Production with<br />
Environmentally Friendly<br />
Curing<br />
LED Light-Curing <strong>Technology</strong><br />
Due to the costs and difficulty associated with<br />
the disposal of hazardous waste, manufacturers<br />
are starting to implement LED-curable materials<br />
and light-curing into their processes. LED curing is<br />
considered a “green” technology because it offers<br />
manufacturers the following benefits:<br />
• High electrical efficiency and instant on/off<br />
capability for lower operational costs<br />
• Long service life that eliminates bulb replacement<br />
and reduces maintenance costs<br />
• Compact equipment that reduces the size and<br />
cost of the light-curing system<br />
• Cool light radiation extends curing capabilities for<br />
heat-sensitive substrates<br />
• “Green” attributes eliminate mercury and ozone<br />
safety risks and handling costs<br />
• Narrow wavelength spectrum emission minimizes<br />
substrate thermal rise<br />
Brightly Colored Materials<br />
Some LCMs contain a color pigment<br />
such as pink or blue in the uncured<br />
state, that enable them to be easily<br />
seen when dispensed onto substrates<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
37
Copper and aluminium<br />
wire splicing<br />
Multi-conductor cables<br />
Twisted wires<br />
ULTRASONIC METAL WELDING<br />
Supports e-Mobility and lightweight construction<br />
Aluminium and copper<br />
wire on 3D terminal<br />
Battery foil and tab welding<br />
High current /-voltage cable on terminal<br />
www.telsonic.com<br />
THE POWERHOUSE OF ULTRASONICS
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
ADAS - Active Alignment<br />
(CMOS) & Lidar (adhesives,<br />
encapsulants)<br />
Adhesives and encapsulants are used for a variety<br />
of camera module and lidar applications including<br />
camera module fixation, lens to housing, lens fixation,<br />
IR filter bonding, housing to substrate, die attach,<br />
windscreen bonding, and image sensor to substrate.<br />
Critical to the manufacturing of camera modules<br />
for ADAS is the positioning and staking of lenses<br />
within the camera module housing. The industry is<br />
moving away from passive alignment (mechanical<br />
fixturing with clips, i.e.) which can cause the lens to<br />
shift, tilt, defocus, and rotate. Active alignment using<br />
light-curable adhesives enables fast fixturing (in<br />
seconds) for high accuracy (< 0,1mm) and multi-axis<br />
alignment with optical control. Additionally, since the<br />
polymerization doesn’t happen until exposure to light<br />
energy, assembled parts can be moved until properly<br />
positioned. After positioning, encapsulants are used<br />
for environmental protection of the components.<br />
CMOS adhesives also feature:<br />
• Cold ship/storage, as well as ambient storage<br />
• Low shrinkage<br />
• LED and/or heat-cure capability<br />
• Moisture and thermal-cycle resistance<br />
Some other benefits these materials bring to the<br />
assembly process include urethane acrylate and<br />
cationic UV and/or heat cure technologies, LEDcurable<br />
formulations, very low movement, heat and<br />
humidity resistance (85°C, 85% relative humidity), and<br />
excellent bonds to metal and plastics.<br />
Infotainment (PCB Based)<br />
(conformal coatings,<br />
encapsulants, maskants)<br />
A key consideration for engineers looking to employ<br />
light-curing technology in their PCB designs is whether<br />
or not boards feature high-profile components<br />
that cast shadow areas where light cannot reach.<br />
Newly formulated 100% solids conformal coatings<br />
feature secondary moisture curing that allows<br />
material under shadow areas to cure, helping to<br />
eliminate concerns about uncured material on the<br />
PCB. These products exhibit high reliability in tests<br />
such as heat and humidity resistance (85°C, 85 %<br />
relative humidity), thermal shock resistance (-55°C to<br />
+125°C), and corrosion resistance (flowers of sulfur,<br />
salt spray and common automotive fluids). Dymax<br />
dual-cure conformal coatings allow for the design of<br />
smaller, more dense PCBs by allowing shorter spaces<br />
between conductors, increased mechanical support<br />
for components, and improved fatigue life of solder<br />
joints.<br />
Encapsulants are polymeric materials used to protect<br />
die (chip) and interconnection to ensure longterm<br />
reliability of chip-on-board (COB) assembly.<br />
Dymax materials are used in liquid and glob top<br />
encapsulation applications where they are dispensed<br />
on top of a chip and its wires and then cured to form a<br />
protective barrier.<br />
Light-curable maskants are temporary materials<br />
that are used at the board level to protect printed<br />
circuit boards during surface finishing and assembly<br />
processes.<br />
EV Battery Packs/BMS<br />
(conformal coatings,<br />
encapsulants, adhesives)<br />
The EV battery pack includes a battery management<br />
system (BMS) to monitor state of charge, temperature,<br />
current, balance cells, determine permissible<br />
operating conditions, and send information to the<br />
driver. Common EV battery applications include<br />
potting and wire bonding of battery modules, coating<br />
protection of PCBs in BMS, sealing battery case<br />
enclosures, and encapsulating electrodes in unit cells.<br />
A range of LCMs are used to adhere and protect these<br />
components, including conformal coatings for thermal<br />
management and exterior protection, structural<br />
adhesives for housing and frames, and encapsulants<br />
for wire bonding. Dymax materials are most effectively<br />
used where bonding and fixation of cylindrical li-ion<br />
battery cells must be secured within plastic housing<br />
cells and coating of PCBs.<br />
“From the design phase through performance testing,<br />
we assist manufacturers in solving their most complex<br />
application problems. As the EV electronics market<br />
evolves, we will continue to develop light-curing<br />
technology that makes manufacturers more capable<br />
and efficient” Chris concluded.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
39
BATTERY TECHNOLOGY<br />
An application for<br />
automotive battery management<br />
Introducing new Sensing technologies for BMS and<br />
SOC measurements<br />
Stéphane Masson-Fauchier, GPM BMS & Business Manager Auto & Damien<br />
Coutellier - Innovation Electronic Engineer LEM<br />
OEM’s in the past few years have shifted their strategy<br />
to focusing on electrification. New developments<br />
are focused on hybrid and electric vehicles whether<br />
they are passenger car, trucks and buses and to some<br />
extent some industrial applications as well. Every year<br />
the amount of combustion engine driven vehicles are<br />
decreasing while the new xEV’s are increasing. These<br />
vehicles are equipped with Lithium ion batteries of<br />
different capacities.<br />
LEM a world leader in electrical measurement<br />
with production plants in Beijing (China), Geneva<br />
(Switzerland), and Tokyo (Japan) is launching a new<br />
state of the are current measurement sensor “The<br />
CAB SF 1500 will help customers provide reliable and<br />
sustainable transport solutions”, according to Damien<br />
Coutellier - Innovation Electronic Engineer, LEM<br />
To properly support this new market trend the State<br />
of Charge (SoC) has become a key parameter to be<br />
monitored just as the fuel consumption gauge is for<br />
internal combustion engine vehicles.<br />
This new current sensor technology is specifically for<br />
xEV’s Battery Monitoring applications. The sensor can<br />
be installed in the BMS (Battery Management System),<br />
BDU (Battery Disconnecting Unit) or Junction Box.<br />
Introduction of Sensing<br />
technologies for BMS and<br />
SOC measurements<br />
The CAB SF 1500 current sensor is one of the key<br />
elements of the BMS dedicated to Lithium-ion battery<br />
packs. Lithium-ion batteries are very efficient but<br />
their reactions to misuse can be dangerous. Hence<br />
it is necessary to monitor each electrochemical cell<br />
to prevent these cases of unauthorized use. This<br />
monitoring work is carried out by the BMS.<br />
“Fluxgate sensors, such as CAB have<br />
higher sensitivity and provide a higher<br />
signal level. They also have better<br />
high temperature stability than Hall<br />
effect or Shunt Sensors.”<br />
State of Charge (SoC) can be determined by<br />
measuring the current and integrating it with the<br />
coulomb counting method. Lithium-Ion State of<br />
Charge (SoC) measurement made by coulomb<br />
counting allow a measurement error of less than<br />
1%, which allows a very accurate indication of the<br />
energy remaining in the battery. Coulomb counting<br />
is independent of battery power fluctuations (which<br />
cause battery voltage drops), and accuracy remains<br />
constant regardless of battery usage. Therefore, the<br />
more accurate the measurement is the better the SOC<br />
is, thus providing the most accurate information to<br />
the driver. Coulomb counting depends on the current<br />
flowing from the battery into external circuits and<br />
does not take account of self-discharge currents or<br />
the Coulombic efficiency of the battery.<br />
“Note that in some applications such as automotive<br />
batteries the “continuous” battery current is not<br />
monitored. Instead the current is sampled, and the<br />
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continuous current is reconstructed from the samples.<br />
In such cases the sampling rate must be fast enough<br />
to capture the current peaks and troughs associated<br />
with the acceleration and regenerative braking<br />
corresponding to the user’s driving style”.<br />
Stéphane Masson-Fauchier GPM BMS & Business<br />
Manager Auto at LEM, points out.<br />
Battery Management Systems requires current sensors<br />
able to measure currents from several mA to several<br />
kA. This large measurement span requires very low<br />
offset and sensitivity error current sensors in order to<br />
monitor properly and safely the battery parameters<br />
(internal resistance, SoC, SoH...).<br />
Shunt current sensors rely on a defined resistive<br />
material that is inserted in the current path to be<br />
measured. Voltage across the resistive element is<br />
measured by a signal processing unit. The material<br />
chosen as a resistive element usually highlight low<br />
temperature drift and low thermal EMF in order<br />
to achieve very good offset and sensitivity drift<br />
performances. On the other hand, the use of a<br />
resistive element inserted in the current path to be<br />
measured implies that self-heating of the sensor is<br />
high when used in high current applications. Another<br />
drawback in some applications concerns the isolation<br />
and this technology is by definition non isolated<br />
with the current path. Lately with the battery pack<br />
size increases, a higher current range needs to be<br />
measured. Heating becomes an issue, and other<br />
newer technologies are therefore suiting more such<br />
applications.<br />
Hall effect open loop current sensors are the most<br />
cost effective and natively isolated current sensors<br />
that highlight good offset, low sensitivity error, high<br />
bandwidth and minimum current consumption.<br />
Nevertheless, this type of sensor suffers directly<br />
from all magnetic circuit imperfections (remanence,<br />
non-linearity, saturation ...) in addition to electronic<br />
imperfection contribution (sensitivity and offset<br />
drift mostly due to the Hall Cell sensing element).<br />
This inevitably leads to reduced performances of the<br />
Battery Management Systems when these sensors are<br />
implemented in this type of application.<br />
Hall effect closed loop current sensors permit the<br />
removal of part of the magnetic circuit imperfection<br />
in the trade-off for a larger current consumption by<br />
operating the magnetic circuit in closed loop at low<br />
magnetic field and flux density. It allows the reduction<br />
of the magnetic offset in the trade-off, increasing<br />
the current consumption of the sensor. On the other<br />
hand, as for the Hall effect Open Loop Sensor, Hall<br />
cell is used to sense the flux density and all its error<br />
contributions will remain (so called electrical offset<br />
and sensitivity).<br />
“In order to address most of the drawbacks of sensor<br />
technology, we developed the CAB product based<br />
on the so called “Open Loop Fluxgate” which is a<br />
technology perfectly suited for Battery Management<br />
Systems requirements”. explains Damien.<br />
Figure 1 : CAB SF 1500 Features Overview<br />
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Open Loop Fluxgate current sensor offers the<br />
following advantages:<br />
• Low offset and offset drift, best in class sensitivity<br />
error when compared to Shunt or hall effectbased<br />
sensors thanks to the absence of offset.<br />
This can be easily seen for small currents<br />
measurements where the relative effect of the<br />
offset is more significant for the Hall based<br />
technologies sensors.<br />
• An excellent over-current recovery<br />
• A much higher sensitivity than other technologies<br />
• A large dynamic range allowing capabilities of<br />
measuring from very small to very high current<br />
values with the same sensor<br />
• High bandwidth and fast response time<br />
Timing and Next Steps<br />
“Production scale-up for this new sensor has begun in<br />
the past few months.<br />
LEM is highly committed to delivering premium<br />
product in terms of features, reliability and quality.<br />
We already know that our customers are striving for<br />
new additional features that could be implemented<br />
later on such as busbar temperature. This will give<br />
our customer information to manage safety topics<br />
and thermal management in an even better way.<br />
Combining the sensor to a protection device such<br />
as relays, fuse or pyroswitch would provide a fully<br />
integrated solution to the customer managing safely<br />
all critical parameters.” concludes Stephane.<br />
Associating a complex & efficient design, meeting<br />
the most stringent market requirements offers many<br />
advantages however being more expensive to produce<br />
can be seen as one drawback of this sensor compared<br />
to other technologies. Although as with most new<br />
technologies mass take-up soon brings the costs<br />
down.<br />
It operates as a current transformer on which the<br />
secondary is modulated using an electronic controlled<br />
voltage source. The electronic controlled voltage<br />
source allows for the hysteresis cycle of the magnetic<br />
material at a frequency higher than the sensor<br />
bandwidth which allows measurements of both AC<br />
and DC current whereas a single current transformer<br />
would be limited to AC.<br />
The Data Processing Unit is finally used to digitally<br />
compute the current and reach the best in class<br />
performance of the LEM Battery Management Current<br />
Sensors portfolio. Safety versions of the product<br />
use LEM patented analog and digital architecture to<br />
measure the current which achieves an ASIL-C ready<br />
sensor.<br />
Figure 2 : CAB SF 1500 Product View<br />
42 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
PIONEERS IN ELECTRICAL<br />
INSULATION.<br />
OUR LEADING TECHNOLOGY<br />
DRIVES INNOVATION.<br />
RESINS FOR<br />
SENSORS<br />
SYSTEMS<br />
FOR e-Drive<br />
SMART SOLUTIONS<br />
FOR BATTERIES<br />
E-MOBILITY TESTING<br />
IN VON ROLL INSTITUTE<br />
We were making products for electrical cars<br />
long before they became the latest trend.<br />
automotive@vonroll.com<br />
www.vonroll.com
MATERIALS RESEARCH<br />
As automakers strive to reach<br />
goals for longer range, faster<br />
charging and lower costs,<br />
adhesives stick as one<br />
of the best solutions.<br />
Nicole Ehrmann<br />
Market Manager for Transportation, Lohmann GmbH<br />
Functionality is absolutely<br />
paramount:<br />
All means of transportation are powered<br />
by energy, derived from renewable sources.<br />
A simple check-in with a mobile phone<br />
allows the uncomplicated use of bus, train<br />
or car - the bill comes at the end of the<br />
month and is paid depending on the power<br />
consumption. This idea is still utopian. But<br />
our metropolises need new traffic concepts<br />
and our vehicles need new drives. Climate<br />
change, shortage of raw materials and the<br />
impending traffic gridlocks are forcing a<br />
switch to post-fossil energy sources.<br />
The solution: Electro<strong>mobility</strong><br />
It can create the freedom of movement that modern<br />
societies need. New materials are used because<br />
new design concepts and functionalities will be<br />
realized and integrated in the car of the future<br />
Design, entertainment and communication play an<br />
important role as do new energy storage systems<br />
such as the fuel cell or the lithium ion battery. This is<br />
where the “Bonding Engineers” come into play with<br />
their adhesive solutions. In the field of functional<br />
tapes in particular, a team of bonding engineers from<br />
Lohmann a leading global manufacturer of high-end<br />
adhesive bonds have been using their inventiveness,<br />
to introduce innovations that play a considerable role<br />
in developments in the electro<strong>mobility</strong> sector.<br />
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Bonding Area<br />
Functional tapes: Bonding<br />
isn’t the only task<br />
Functional tapes do more than just connect two<br />
objects with one another. These adhesive tapes<br />
feature additional properties like insulation,<br />
conductivity, grip, shielding and much more.<br />
Functional tapes are in great demand, particularly<br />
in the field of electro<strong>mobility</strong>, because here it is not<br />
primarily a question of bonding per se, but rather of<br />
thermal and electrical conductivity and thus shielding<br />
or grounding in the component, as is required for<br />
sensors, for example. In addition, electronic devices<br />
are becoming smaller and smaller, even in vehicles.<br />
In principle, this is advantageous, but the tight space<br />
also increases the probability of short circuits or<br />
disruption from electromagnetic interference. This<br />
is where functional adhesive tapes are the right<br />
choice, because they not only ensure precise bonding<br />
of different components, but can also be used for<br />
earthing, heat dissipation or shielding. Adhesive<br />
tapes are also used in the area of sealing: To protect<br />
the highly sensitive electronic components, materials<br />
are used that adapt perfectly and seal gaps. These<br />
not only ensure that dust, dirt and moisture cannot<br />
penetrate, but in the field of display technology, for<br />
example, they also have a damping effect and protect<br />
the sensitive technology from impact. It is actually no<br />
wonder that an average of around 4.5 m² of adhesive<br />
tape is used in an automobile today.<br />
Every enterprise that is researching and developing<br />
pioneering technologies to make electro<strong>mobility</strong><br />
a reality, is confronted with the question: What<br />
motivates consumers to buy new cars and choose<br />
certain options? One point is certainly design. Today’s<br />
cars often share either the same or similar exterior<br />
design whereas interior design offers various options<br />
for individuality. Here, displays with curved screens<br />
or functional surfaces and touch applications as well<br />
as LED or OLED interior designs are in high demand.<br />
These individual design solutions require individual<br />
bonding solutions. Our (antistatic) range offers e.g.<br />
display protection against electrostatic discharge.<br />
This, obviously, is more important for the design of<br />
electric cars than it is for conventional automobiles.<br />
AS tapes thus function as protection film for lenses,<br />
TFT and LCD modules as well as optically bonded<br />
touch displays.<br />
When it comes to function and safety topics such as<br />
ADAS (advanced driver assistance systems) or highly<br />
automated or fully autonomous driving, different<br />
issues than those concerning design need to be taken<br />
into consideration. A rising number of sensors and<br />
devices accompanying the above-mentioned issues<br />
need to be safely bonded within the vehicle. Here, EC<br />
(electrically conductive) and TC (thermal conductive)<br />
tapes come into play. Lohmann’s Bonding Engineers<br />
have found diverse TC solutions for the application<br />
fields of LED, power transistors, heat sinks or PCB<br />
heating parts – only to name a few. EC solutions are<br />
required for low current electrical interconnections,<br />
grounding (sensor bonding e.g.) or the connection<br />
of conductive materials e.g. These two functional<br />
materials add to a car’s fulfilment of function and<br />
safety issues.<br />
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45
Another thing which must not be forgotten is the<br />
fact that manufacturers in the automotive and<br />
electronics sector are increasingly demanding<br />
silicone-free bonding solutions for parts and<br />
components. For this we have developed the<br />
DuploCOLL® HCR range. The disadvantages of<br />
silicone products are obvious: The properties<br />
of electrical and electronic components can be<br />
significantly changed or impaired. Silicones also<br />
hinder the painting process. The DuploCOLL® HCR<br />
range meets these new demands. The adhesive<br />
solutions are silicone-free, highly chemical- and<br />
temperature-resistant and resistant to all kinds of<br />
environmental influences.<br />
The double-sided PE foam adhesive tape<br />
DuploCOLL® G, which is equipped with a<br />
customized activator, is particularly suitable for<br />
the assembly and permanent fixation of mounting<br />
parts on large glass surfaces, as are often used in<br />
the construction of electric vehicles. In this case<br />
it is all about design. Ever larger glass surfaces<br />
and more and more applications are a continuing<br />
trend in the production of new vehicles. However,<br />
this development also harbors risks: If emblems,<br />
lettering and plastic attachments are to be affixed<br />
securely on glass, this means that the glass<br />
surface must be pre-treated with an activator<br />
in an additional step. This is labor intensive<br />
and costly. DuploCOLL® G was developed by<br />
the Bonding Engineers exactly in order to save<br />
this additional process step. The double-sided<br />
foam adhesive tape possesses an activator that<br />
is already implemented in the special adhesive.<br />
This eliminates the customary use of an activator<br />
in addition to cleaning. It is also temperature,<br />
weather and moisture resistant whilst maintaining<br />
its consistently good performance.<br />
A compressible carrier made of permanently<br />
elastic PE foam to compensate for component<br />
tolerances, a pure acrylic adhesive on the<br />
open side for excellent final adhesion and the<br />
aforementioned integrated activator in the special<br />
adhesive ensure a quick and efficient adhesive<br />
bond. The maximum adhesion is reached after 24<br />
hours, an initial tack after 30 minutes. In addition,<br />
an excellent adhesion to the substrates has also<br />
been confirmed.<br />
Summary and final<br />
considerations<br />
The numerous fields of application of adhesive<br />
tapes are exhausting but include infotainment<br />
systems such as radio, navigation systems, mobile<br />
communication or mirrors, drive trains such<br />
as electric motors, air conditioning systems or<br />
batteries, sensors such as safety sensors or camera<br />
systems as well as charging systems, both in the<br />
vehicle itself and the charging stations. In the field<br />
of functional adhesive tapes, Lohmann distinguishes<br />
between thermally resilient applications, shielding<br />
applications and signal connections, electrically<br />
insulating applications and antistatic applications in<br />
the area of infotainment.<br />
The developments in the field of electro<strong>mobility</strong><br />
and digitization with the integration of stationary<br />
and portable modules continually require new<br />
bonding solutions. Interference signals from<br />
vehicle components among each other, but also<br />
from and to external sources, play an equally<br />
important role in the development of adhesive<br />
solutions, as do temperature fluctuations and<br />
susceptibility to interference of high-frequency<br />
signals, which are a result of the size reduction<br />
and weight savings of individual components and<br />
complete assemblies. Here, it is important to offer<br />
revolutionary bonding solutions in the areas of<br />
temperature management and shielding materials<br />
and also to continually develop them in the future.<br />
One common denominator exists: All adhesive tapes<br />
have a dual function, with the bond itself actually<br />
playing a subordinate role. The focus clearly lies<br />
on the thermal or electrical conductivity. Lohmann<br />
sees a far-reaching potential for electro<strong>mobility</strong> in<br />
the future and wants to position itself clearly in this<br />
sector.<br />
Our “Bonding Engineers” are proud to be part of this<br />
automotive revolution.<br />
Nicole Ehrmann<br />
Market Manager for transportation<br />
Lohmann GmbH<br />
46 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
In search<br />
of the ideal<br />
battery<br />
Battery power is gaining a lot of<br />
attention in the search for a cleaner<br />
world. Electric energy is clean and<br />
silent. The disadvantage is that<br />
electric energy is like water flowing<br />
from a mountain stream. It must be<br />
used when it is generated, or else,<br />
it is wasted. This is why we need<br />
batteries that store electric energy.<br />
Most batteries use a chemical reaction<br />
generating a flow of electrons and<br />
ions between electrodes, which in<br />
turn provides an electrical current.<br />
This current of electric energy can<br />
be used—in theory—to do everything<br />
from powering a car to stabilizing a<br />
power grid. The problem with most<br />
batteries, however, is that they can’t<br />
store and release the electrons very<br />
efficiently yet. Thus, we have to use<br />
large and heavy batteries, often racks<br />
of them, to do the work of a single<br />
combustion engine.<br />
The reason why comes down to the<br />
electrons. Electrons are very tiny. In<br />
classical electrochemical batteries,<br />
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we actually store them using a<br />
reversible chemical reaction. Typical<br />
examples are the classical lead-acid<br />
car batteries and the now widely<br />
used lithium-ion ones. Capacitors, on<br />
the other hand, store the electrons<br />
statically. This allows for very fast<br />
storage and release. However, because<br />
the electric charge is mainly a surface<br />
phenomenon, capacitors can’t hold<br />
much energy. Ironically, the tiny<br />
electrons are the reason that batteries<br />
and capacitors are heavy as the<br />
resulting energy density is much lower<br />
than of the fuels used in combustion<br />
engines.<br />
with the current designs.<br />
Lithium-ion batteries, for example,<br />
can short circuit over time. When<br />
that happens, it can start a fire in<br />
the whole battery pack. Here, the<br />
culprit is not the electron flow, but<br />
the redox reaction and the flammable<br />
electrolyte. As well as this, batteries<br />
suffer reduced energy efficiency in<br />
freezing as well as hot temperatures,<br />
and have a limited operating life,<br />
suffering reduced performance over<br />
time. Thus, we need a better battery to<br />
overcome these challenges.<br />
And, there are further problems<br />
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49
So, in search of a better<br />
battery, what is a better<br />
battery?<br />
An outstanding battery must be practical,<br />
sustainable, and safe. The main requirements<br />
are a high(er) energy density, combined with<br />
more power output, in addition to a lighter<br />
overall weight and safer design. This means<br />
we need a battery the capability to store and<br />
release more electrons faster, and to do so in<br />
a smaller, lighter battery. In addition, we need<br />
one that works for a lifetime, and at high and<br />
low temperatures without compromising<br />
energy storage or output. The lifetime<br />
requirement is one of the most important<br />
ones when it comes to sustainability and being<br />
practical to use.<br />
A better battery is light as a feather, fits easily<br />
in your car, and powers it reliably and safely<br />
forever.<br />
Best practice: the<br />
complexity of Li-ion<br />
batteries<br />
The most widely used batteries today are<br />
variants of Lithium-ion. In cars, the Lithium<br />
Nickel Manganese Cobalt oxide (NMC)-type<br />
dominates, because they have the highest<br />
energy density. Energy provides range. But<br />
cars, and many other applications, also need<br />
power, i.e. the capability to charge and<br />
discharge quickly.<br />
Here, we hit a<br />
roadblock.<br />
Power requires<br />
current, and in<br />
conjunction with the<br />
unavoidable internal<br />
resistance, this<br />
generates heat.<br />
The heat is<br />
quadratic with the<br />
current and this is<br />
the main cause of<br />
cell degradation,<br />
not to mention fires.<br />
Hence, such<br />
batteries are not just a collection of cells, but<br />
an elaborate mechanical construction with<br />
liquid cooling, sensors, and software-driven<br />
controllers that carefully manage and monitor<br />
the battery (see the picture on the left<br />
exposing part of a Li-ion battery pack). This<br />
can increase the weight and volume by a third.<br />
If such a battery fails, then it is a costly<br />
operation to replace it. And in the event of a<br />
fire, the entire car may have to be replaced.<br />
The alternatives: a<br />
trade-off war<br />
There are, of course, alternatives to NMC<br />
batteries. Lithium FerroPhosphate (LFP)<br />
batteries are safer, but have less energy and<br />
power. Lithium-Titanate (LTO) batteries have a<br />
better lifetime performance and more power,<br />
but even less energy. There are alternatives to<br />
lithium-ion as well.<br />
Solid-state batteries do away with the<br />
flammable electrolytes and can store more<br />
energy, but this results in very low power<br />
densities. Other batteries use different<br />
materials, such as lithium-sulfur, and recently,<br />
silicium. These are promising improvements,<br />
but to meet all requirements for a better<br />
battery in a volume production process is not<br />
a trivial step.<br />
None of these designs alone give us the<br />
featherlite, safe, and efficient battery we need.<br />
So what can we do?<br />
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Going hybrid<br />
As no battery technology on its own can provide<br />
the best in class for all parameters, why not<br />
combine them? Lithium-based supercapacitors<br />
are good at most of the parameters, indeed, often<br />
even too good on power capability, but are poor at<br />
energy density.<br />
Hence, we have developed a hybrid device using<br />
activated carbon (a variant of graphene) as one<br />
of the electrodes. We then use a classical lithium<br />
compound as the second electrode. The result is<br />
a cell architecture that works like a capacitor in<br />
terms of power and storage, but also delivers a<br />
decent energy density.<br />
As the main active component is carbon, it needs<br />
less lithium, which reduces costs and is better<br />
for the environment. Depending on the lithium<br />
compound used, we have cells optimised for power<br />
or for energy. While the hybrid power capacitors<br />
deliver 80 to 100 Wh/kg, they can be charged very<br />
fast and deliver up to 20 times their nominal power.<br />
The hybrid energy capacitors deliver 230 Wh/kg<br />
and can deliver up to 1,5 times their power with no<br />
active cooling.<br />
In addition, this battery needs no cumbersome and<br />
heavy Battery Management System, most<br />
often no expensive cooling or heating<br />
(as the temperature range can be<br />
from -40 to 80°C). It provides<br />
decent power capability, is<br />
inherently safe, and easily lasts<br />
between 10 to 30 years (or 1 million<br />
miles).<br />
The benefits of<br />
going hybrid<br />
While the energy density of our battery is not<br />
spectacularly better than the best Li-ion cells, this<br />
is compensated for by the other parameters. It can<br />
deliver the power when needed in a smaller package<br />
As well as this, it can be charged relatively quickly.<br />
It can reach up to 75% of its nominal capacity<br />
in 5 minutes although the latter requires a<br />
corresponding charging infrastructure that is not yet<br />
common. Moreover, it doesn’t suffer from cold or<br />
heat and will no start to burn when abused. As one<br />
can see in the picture, the resulting battery pack is<br />
very dense, yet very straightforward to put together.<br />
It’s very robust and simple and therefore resulting<br />
in a very trustworthy battery that will last a lifetime<br />
without any fire risk.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
51
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The challenge:<br />
driving an e-car like<br />
a classical one<br />
So, a battery needs to meet several often conflicting<br />
criteria to be an ideal solution, from the technical<br />
point of view. What is more, in the case of electric<br />
vehicles, the results must also be acceptable to the<br />
market. Is it practical to use? Is it better than (or at<br />
least as good as) what people are using now?<br />
Today’s fuel based cars are convenient to use. You can<br />
fill one up in a few minutes, and you can easily pass<br />
a 1000 km before the next fill-up (depending on the<br />
journey). Given that the energy density of fuel is 80 to<br />
100 times higher than the energy density of batteries,<br />
achieving the same result is a tough challenge.<br />
The solution is to work on multiple fronts, and there<br />
are still hurdles. Firstly, charging in 5 minutes requires<br />
charging at 12 times the nominal power. Only hybrid<br />
power capacitors can provide this with an acceptable<br />
energy density. One should not underestimate the<br />
impact on the charging system; currents will be very<br />
high. Secondly, we must consider vehicle efficiency.<br />
While a Hyundai Kona Electric recently set a range<br />
record of 1026 km, the driving conditions were very<br />
specific, with an average speed of about 30 km/hr.<br />
This reduced the energy consumption to 6.2 kWh/100<br />
km, which is two times better than when driven<br />
normally. But it gives us an indication of a workable<br />
model.<br />
An energy efficient electric vehicle doesn’t need to<br />
be a 3 ton SUV that accelerates like a sportscar. If<br />
the vehicle is designed from the start as a “battery<br />
on wheels” and the energy consumption can be<br />
reduced to 5 kWh/100 km, which is a mostly a matter<br />
of weight and drive train efficiency, then a 32 kWh<br />
power capacitor battery will provide for about 600 km<br />
range that can charge 475 km in just 5 minutes with<br />
a 360 kWh charger. That charger in itself can be a 30<br />
to 40 kWh powercapacitor battery reducing the need<br />
for a high power grid connection. Our e-vehicle might<br />
not be a sportscar but at least it is a practical and an<br />
economical car to drive. w<br />
Eric Verhulst,<br />
CEO/CT<br />
Altreonic-Kurt.energy<br />
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53
Novel Current Sensors<br />
Solutions For Automotive And<br />
Industrial Battery Monitoring Systems<br />
Introduction<br />
With the electrification of <strong>mobility</strong> and the<br />
transformation towards renewable energies, batteries<br />
are becoming an essential part of high availability and<br />
reliability systems such as energy grid storage and<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> vehicles. Representing a major share of the<br />
system cost; battery efficiency, energy density, and<br />
lifetime requirements are ever-increasing, pushing for<br />
constant innovation in the battery technologies. State<br />
of the art high energy density batteries used both in<br />
the e-<strong>mobility</strong> and energy sector; require specialized<br />
Battery Monitoring Sensor (BMS) to cope with the<br />
application and safety requirements.<br />
Current sensing has long been an important function<br />
implemented by BMS, to protect batteries from<br />
abuse and trigger safety shutdowns when operated<br />
in over current. Now, however, requirements for<br />
current sensing are becoming much more stringent.<br />
In particular, industry-standard high energy density<br />
batteries such as Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) or<br />
Lithium-titanate (LTO) show stable output voltage as<br />
a function of their capacity particularly in their utility<br />
range, requiring coulomb counting to determine the<br />
State of Charge (SoC), State of Health (SoH) and State<br />
of Function (SoF) of the batteries.<br />
The SoC is of particular importance for Electric<br />
vehicles (EV) manufacturers constantly working on<br />
improving the performance and safety of their battery<br />
systems. Specially, range anxiety is one of the biggest<br />
friction points of the electrification of the mobile<br />
park, pushing not only for higher density batteries<br />
with increasing thermal runaway and stringent<br />
requirements but also accurate SoC measurements<br />
enabling the BMS to optimize battery efficiency and<br />
operation for long cycle life.<br />
Sensing Technologies<br />
Conventional current sensors used to measure the<br />
SoX solutions are based on Hall or shunt technology.<br />
Shunt current sensors measure the voltage drop<br />
across a precision shunt resistor to determine the<br />
current flowing through the shunt. This resistive<br />
measure, although offering very interesting dynamic<br />
ranges and linearity, does have some limitations at<br />
BATTERY<br />
TECHNOLOGY<br />
high currents and at low currents. At low currents,<br />
the output voltages of the sensor interfaces, may be<br />
clamped and therefore over-estimating the currents.<br />
Active compensations such as voltage offset or<br />
current injection can overcome such technology<br />
limitations and therefore, improving the low current<br />
measurement specifications. Whereas at high currents<br />
the resistive power dissipation in the shunt starts to<br />
be an thermal issue.<br />
Magnetic current sensors are contactless, providing<br />
galvanic isolation, no power dissipation and enabling<br />
faster readout. At the same time, the offsets arising<br />
from the unbalanced measurement bridge, and<br />
temperature and stress effects, can be corrected via<br />
active feedback loops, adjusting the gain parameters<br />
and actively compensating the sensor offset thanks to<br />
combinatory readout measurements.<br />
Both technology diversities not only on technology<br />
but also in terms of required active compensation,<br />
make them very suitable for a redundancy<br />
measurement for functional safety application. In<br />
particular, in the automotive and high-density energy<br />
storage industry, BMS are facing rising functional<br />
safety requirements. The combination using<br />
both technologies, shunt and magnetic, becomes<br />
increasingly attractive. Not only providing redundant<br />
measurement of the current but also strengthening<br />
the system diversity and therefore reducing common<br />
faults and silent latten faults.<br />
Maglab developed a platform approach, in order to<br />
accommodate different customer current sensing<br />
requirements while reusing the same module<br />
architecture and therefore increasing the reliability at<br />
lower cost. Such a platform relies on the combination<br />
of a shunt and contactless magnetic field sensor<br />
consisting of ferromagnetic shield and xMR or Hall<br />
sensor.<br />
The module assembly relies on the proper dimension<br />
on one hand of the shunt, balancing accuracy versus<br />
thermal performances and on the other hand of the<br />
laminated U formed (LU) magnetic shield, where<br />
magnetic saturation at high current and footprint<br />
have to be balanced. Based on this and the market<br />
demand, three standard designs have been proposed<br />
(see Figure 1).<br />
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Further to<br />
the subassemblies,<br />
a universal<br />
readout<br />
electronics<br />
(Figure<br />
2) was<br />
developed<br />
to measure<br />
both the<br />
magnetic<br />
and the<br />
shunt<br />
channels.<br />
The readout electronics provide not only the<br />
amplification chain but also the required<br />
high voltage isolation for the shunt up 4 kV, a<br />
configurable microcontroller and a CAN interface.<br />
The detailed system level diagram of the readout<br />
electronics are shown in Figure 3. As it can be<br />
seen, particular attention has been given to the<br />
safety and redundancy of the design. In particular<br />
for signal processing, the external high speed<br />
18 bits ADC allows the high accuracy readout of<br />
the shunt voltage measurement, redundant and<br />
independent to the internal 12-bit ADC used for<br />
the Hall measurement. Both converted signals are<br />
then processed at the microcontroller where after<br />
filtering, a safety check is performed and an error<br />
signal is raised in the event of discrepant values<br />
above a configurable threshold. Both current<br />
measurements can be output via the CAN interface,<br />
meeting the system level safety requirements.<br />
Furthermore, thanks to the onboard capabilities<br />
of the microcontrollers, additional features have<br />
been included in order to increase the system<br />
accuracy and performance. An onboard multi point<br />
calibration and zero offset compensation can be<br />
easily programed, accounting for non linearities<br />
and module-to-module divergences. In addition,<br />
aon-PCB temperature sensor located on top of the<br />
shunt allows easy thermal bridging and therefore<br />
accurate thermal compensation. Thanks to all active<br />
compensations, a total 1% resolution full range over<br />
lifetime can be achieved. Such temperature can be<br />
directly outputted via the CAN interface.<br />
A battery voltage measurement is done via a probe<br />
connection to the other polarity of battery throughout<br />
a galvanic isolated pin connection. Such voltage can<br />
be directly outputted via the CAN interface.<br />
In order to cope with the constant expansion of the<br />
Figure 1: Sub-assemblies of different shunts (75 µΩ,<br />
50 µΩ, 35µΩ left to right) with laminated U-shields.<br />
Figure 2: BMS module and electronic PCB<br />
with high voltage isolation<br />
Figure 3: System Level diagram of the Battery<br />
Management System<br />
electrification market and its evolving requirements,<br />
new efforts are being made to further develop the<br />
current sensing platform. The particular focus for<br />
the upcoming generation will be to reduce its overall<br />
footprint, adapt it for higher volume requirements<br />
and increase the choices of interface.<br />
Lorenz Roos, Senior Application Engineer, Maglab AG,<br />
Switzerland<br />
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55
THERMAL MANAGEMENT<br />
Successful Thermal<br />
Management with Liquid Cooling<br />
Thermal management is essential for<br />
Charging stations and electric vehicles.<br />
The increasingly more effective<br />
lithium-ion batteries in hybrid and<br />
electric vehicles also require highperformance<br />
charging stations to<br />
supply the vehicles with power.<br />
All components in these charging<br />
stations have to maintain an<br />
optimal temperature level – firstly,<br />
because rapid charging processes<br />
massively heat the entire system,<br />
and secondly, in order to reduce<br />
negative effects on the range of<br />
the electric car and the life of<br />
the batteries. Efficient thermal<br />
management on the basis of liquid<br />
cooling is an ideal solution here.<br />
A tight cooling system made of<br />
plastic with matching conduits<br />
and connectors that can also be<br />
equipped with sensors ensures<br />
utmost safety.<br />
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Electric and hybrid vehicles are getting<br />
increasingly popular, and the associated<br />
charging infrastructure with great coverage<br />
is installed. The range of electrically driven<br />
vehicles – i.e., how far they can go on one charge<br />
– is decisive for their acceptance. To ensure<br />
its sustainable increase and to remain flexible<br />
while traveling, the power density of lithium-ion<br />
batteries is going up while the charging duration<br />
of modern electric and hybrid vehicles continues<br />
to decrease. At the same time, shorter charging<br />
times for electric and hybrid vehicles are<br />
becoming more important. Yet, rapid charging<br />
processes develop a great deal of heat losses<br />
leading to massive waste heat flows. To ensure<br />
a continuously high charging cycle efficient<br />
thermal management is required.<br />
All components<br />
generating heat losses<br />
need to be considered.<br />
The service life as well as the performance<br />
and safety of lithium-ion batteries greatly<br />
depend on the operating temperature and<br />
temperature fluctuations that occur inside<br />
each individual cell. Batteries or energy storage<br />
systems in principle have different temperature<br />
requirements: For instance, the batteries and<br />
their cells must not exceed resp. undercut the<br />
average temperature of 15°C to 35 °C to ensure<br />
a maximum service life. Thermal management<br />
systems help to keep lithium-ion batteries<br />
at an optimal thermal degree, and minimize<br />
temperature differences in the cells.<br />
Efficient cooling performance, low space<br />
requirements and even heat distribution: the<br />
advantages of liquid cooling are particularly<br />
impressive in systems with high energy storage<br />
requirements such as electrically powered<br />
vehicles.<br />
Solutions for the liquid<br />
cooling of charging<br />
stations made of flexible<br />
and stable plastic tubes<br />
and reliable connectors.<br />
Yet along with the battery cooling that has been<br />
primarily considered so far, it is also essential<br />
to cool the increasingly more potent systems<br />
as well as the entire thermal circuit. This<br />
includes, for instance, converters and radiators<br />
in electrically powered vehicles, or the cable<br />
and charging system with reservoirs, pumps and<br />
heaters in charging stations. This is because all<br />
components potentially emitting heat have an<br />
impact on the temperature and functionality of<br />
the entire system.<br />
Since the entire system in the charging station<br />
heats up strongly during fast charging processes,<br />
efficient heat management is essential.<br />
Coordinated solutions with tubes and connectors<br />
made of plastic are ideal for water cooling.<br />
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Liquid cooling is an ideal<br />
solution for energy stores.<br />
The tasks of cooling systems include constant<br />
temperature reduction and, at the same time,<br />
heat transfer. To achieve this, the heat needs to be<br />
transported away from the emitting components,<br />
and possibly activated where heat is required. There<br />
are two variants available for cooling – with air or<br />
water. Air is characterized by low thermal capacity,<br />
i.e., it quickly absorbs heat making heat transfer<br />
hard to implement. Significant noise level and lots<br />
of space required are further disadvantages of airbased<br />
heat management.<br />
Since modern systems can store increasingly more<br />
energy, and there is often only little construction<br />
space available for thermal management, liquidbased<br />
cooling has the ever-growing potential –<br />
both for charging stations and inside the hybrid<br />
and electric cars themselves. Water absorbs heat<br />
slower than air, which leads to a lower heat transfer<br />
coefficient. Due to this, more heat can be absorbed<br />
with water-based cooling. To achieve similar<br />
cooling performance with air, a significantly greater<br />
volumetric air flow is required due to the lower<br />
thermal capacity.<br />
Constant flow is lower with<br />
water.<br />
Another important aspect for the assessment of<br />
both variants is that of flow rate: To get the battery<br />
cells to the ideal average temperature of 35 °C, a<br />
constant flow of some 13 °C is required in an aircooled<br />
system. A water-cooled system already<br />
operates at a far higher temperature of 32 °C. Thus,<br />
to achieve the same cooling rate with air, the flow<br />
rate must be significantly higher than with liquid.<br />
This suggests that water cooling systems can have<br />
a more space-saving design, and at the same<br />
time enabling the technical advantages of even<br />
heat distribution. A battery - whether for vehicles,<br />
trucks, buses or energy storage devices - can be<br />
temperature controlled directly on the cooling plate<br />
and connected to the entire liquid cooling cycle.<br />
A reliable conduit system<br />
is crucial for water-based<br />
cooling.<br />
Different components are required to successfully<br />
implement heat transfer in liquid cooling. Each water<br />
cooling system features, e.g., sensors to measure the<br />
temperature of the medium. When used in very cold<br />
regions a heating element is normally integrated to<br />
balance too low temperatures. Conduits also play a<br />
significant role in charging stations – after all, they<br />
contain the water that is routed through sensitive<br />
cable systems and connects them to reservoirs,<br />
pumps and heaters.<br />
Since the construction space tends to get smaller<br />
and smaller, flexible and at the same time<br />
mechanically robust corrugated and smooth plastic<br />
conduits are best suited for cooling systems. They<br />
must allow high flow rates and withstand operating<br />
pressure of up to four bar. The advantages as<br />
compared with rubber or metal solutions are higher<br />
performance, easy installation, weight reduction<br />
and flow optimization to name but a few. Conduit<br />
dimensions in nominal diameters between 8 and 37<br />
can be used in a water-cooled system.<br />
Due to the flexible design of conduit systems that<br />
can be adapted to the individual requirements, for<br />
example, by means of rigid expansion elements of<br />
oval shape, liquid can be routed through narrow<br />
spaces without any difficulty. What matters here is<br />
that the conduits do not change their mechanical<br />
strength through thermal deformation. They do not<br />
necessarily have to be extruded from polyamide<br />
(PA) 12; multi-layer conduits can also be used<br />
that require different design depending on the<br />
application and system pressure.<br />
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FIP_FIPSC_SAE_Connector<br />
The tubes and connectors for thermal management<br />
are based on common connection standards. The<br />
FIPSC SAE Connector, for example, provides a secure<br />
battery connection in accordance with the SAE<br />
standard.<br />
FIP_Dry-Disconnect_Connector<br />
With the Dry-Disconnect Connector and the<br />
“dripless function”, liquid cooling systems can be<br />
maintained drip-free if necessary.<br />
A harmonized system<br />
ensures utmost safety.<br />
In general, systems for liquid cooling should be<br />
maintenance-free. In exceptional cases, special<br />
connectors (shut-off) are used which enable dripfree<br />
maintenance with their dripless function. Since<br />
liquid cooling systems work continuously - and<br />
keep the batteries at the optimum temperature<br />
even when the vehicle is at a standstill - the<br />
quality and workmanship of the heavily used<br />
components are crucial for a long service life.<br />
Perfectly matched, customized components from<br />
one source have been developed, for instance, by<br />
the supplier of thermal management solutions<br />
FRÄNKISCHE Industrial Pipes (FIP).<br />
The conduits and connectors must be based on<br />
the common connection standards. It means, for<br />
example, that an SAE standard can be used for a<br />
battery connection. For energy stores or charging<br />
stations, a connector based on the VDA standard<br />
can often be used as a counter-piece connection in<br />
the interface itself.<br />
Higher efficiency for<br />
charging stations and<br />
e-cars goes with water<br />
cooling.<br />
FIP_FIPSC_MC_Connector<br />
According to the VDA standard, the FIPSC MC<br />
Connector reliably connects tubes for liquid<br />
cooling in, for example, charging stations.<br />
To summarize the above, it can be stated that<br />
water cooling allows effective transfer of large<br />
volumes of heat with relatively small flow rates.<br />
For this reason, it achieves better continuous<br />
cooling performance as compared to air. Given<br />
that, the water-based approach is particularly well<br />
suited for the cooling of systems with high energy<br />
storage requirement, such as charging stations and<br />
electrically driven vehicles themselves. To ensure<br />
sustainable heat transfer, a well-matched system<br />
solution consisting of flexible and at the same<br />
time stable plastic conduits coupled with reliable<br />
connectors is the best choice.<br />
Alexander Wey, Manager Product Unit<br />
Industrial Thermal at FRÄNKISCHE Industrial<br />
Pipes (FIP)<br />
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CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE<br />
Bridging the Future<br />
Integrating and refining charging technology<br />
The global annual sales of electric vehicles have reached over 4 million, which<br />
is a small proportion of the total car sales. However, compared to the 1 million<br />
sold in 2015, the growth rate is incredible.<br />
BloombergNEF estimates that by year 2025, the global cumulative annual<br />
sales of electric vehicles will be increased ten-fold, reaching 11 million. The<br />
price of electric vehicles could be equivalent to that of traditional vehicles by<br />
2025-2030. By 2030, global electric vehicle annual sales are projected to reach<br />
30 million.<br />
The Necessary<br />
Factors of Electric<br />
Vehicles Replacing<br />
Traditional Petrol<br />
Vehicles:<br />
A. Charging time must be close to the<br />
time for filling gas into a car. The acceptable<br />
charging time for urban consumers is about<br />
10 minutes. (*1)<br />
B. The driving distance of the car cannot<br />
be shorter than that of traditional cars :<br />
the normal driving distance of a car with<br />
a full tank is about 500 to 600 kilometers.<br />
Electric vehicles must be able to reach 600<br />
kilometers. (*2)<br />
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The Necessity of Fast<br />
Charging<br />
Power supply is an important topic of urban<br />
traffic. The existing power system in the city is<br />
mainly for providing power to residences, office<br />
buildings, and for lighting in the city. Now, with<br />
the rise of EV’s, the power supply system must<br />
provide extra power. A densely populated city<br />
where 70~80% of the power is being consumed,<br />
means only about 20% is available for charging<br />
EV’s. Assuming a community consumes about<br />
4MKVA and if only 20% (800KW) is available for<br />
fast charging, after simple calculation the power<br />
is apparently not enough for the community to<br />
charge 4 electric vehicles simultaneously.<br />
The Self-sufficient<br />
Research, Development<br />
and Design of The Core<br />
of Charger Controls<br />
CSU 3.0, the core controller of electric<br />
vehicle chargers researched, developed, and<br />
designed by Phihong <strong>Technology</strong>, uses highly<br />
efficient MPU and multi-threading scheduling<br />
to execute the control and monitoring of the<br />
electric vehicle chargers. It is mainly used in<br />
DC fast chargers and high-end commercial AC<br />
chargers. There are 6 main functions:<br />
In order to respond to the booming trend of<br />
electric vehicle and power grid system demand<br />
worldwide, Phihong <strong>Technology</strong> a leading global<br />
supplier of OEM power solutions, with close<br />
to 50 years of professional power supply and<br />
production technology, provides multiple electric<br />
vehicle charging solutions and is dedicated to<br />
realizing the future of green energy through even<br />
smarter and ecological electric vehicle charging<br />
solutions.<br />
Figure 1: main functions of CSU3.0<br />
Process Control of The Charger<br />
CSU3.0 has many standard communication and<br />
control interfaces that control, monitor, and protect<br />
various functional modules inside the charger.<br />
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User-friendly Graphic<br />
Interface<br />
CSU3.0 employs a clear and understandable graphic<br />
interface to interact with users for operations and<br />
eliminates the associated problems of translation<br />
between various languages.<br />
Power Control and<br />
Communication of the Power<br />
Module<br />
The CSU3.0 communicates with and controls the<br />
power module inside the charger through a CANbus<br />
communication interface. During non-charging time, an<br />
energy saving principle is deployed in standby or off<br />
mode control. When charging, the power output control<br />
is based on the principles of power demand and backend<br />
power management.<br />
The system has the standard global open source<br />
charging communication built in, including widely used<br />
CCS2 in Europe, CCS1 for North American cars, CHAdeMO<br />
for Japanese cars, and GBT used in China.<br />
To ensure compatibility and enhance electric vehicle<br />
communication in the future mass production, Phihong<br />
<strong>Technology</strong> actively participates in testing seminars<br />
sponsored by various units or car companies to<br />
enhance the EV charging communication protocol<br />
compatibility of the CSU3.0.<br />
Figure 2: Phihong <strong>Technology</strong> EV charger, CSU3.0<br />
and power modules<br />
The Linkage and<br />
Communication of Back End<br />
Management<br />
It also supports the widely used standard charger backend<br />
management communication protocol : OCPP.for<br />
smart charging.<br />
The increase in vehicles and chargers in the future<br />
will put heavy pressure on power grids. The increase<br />
requires charging processes to proceed in response<br />
to a different level of charging demand rather than<br />
charging at full load all the time. The charging<br />
process planning requires comprehensive information<br />
communication to be synchronized between the<br />
charger and the back-end management.<br />
Figure 3: Graphic user interface<br />
Figure 4: illustration of smart power grid<br />
communication support<br />
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Smart Home and Smart<br />
Power Grid Communication<br />
Support<br />
All advanced nations in the world now face the<br />
problems of rising peak loads, energy depletion, and<br />
the greenhouse effect, and have been devoting efforts<br />
to development and promotion of renewable energy,<br />
like wind and solar power. However, renewable energy<br />
is easily affected by seasonal changes and cannot<br />
be generated in a stable condition. Furthermore,<br />
the traditional power grid can no longer satisfy the<br />
development demand of renewable energy. To ensure<br />
that the power grid provides safe and reliable power,<br />
having smarter, immediate modulation and even more<br />
precise prediction and grasp on loading is necessary.<br />
Therefore, developing smart power grids can elevate<br />
the quality of power usage, and smart energy usage<br />
has become an international energy-saving trend.<br />
In a smart home, the CSU3.0 is planning to support<br />
the linkage and communication of the current<br />
standard Energy Management System, including<br />
Echonet lite used in Japan, IEEE 2030.5 standard in<br />
North America, and EEBus in Europe.<br />
To balance the power load impact on the power<br />
grid, the system will support OpenADR, IEC61850<br />
energy management communication for an existing<br />
power grid to respond to the smart power grid being<br />
developed.<br />
The Plan for Global Safety<br />
Protocol Certification<br />
To meet the global demand for chargers for electric<br />
vehicles, Phihong <strong>Technology</strong> is deploying a global<br />
safety certification strategy that will comply with the<br />
laws and regulations of various nations, and meet<br />
the requirements for electricity, personal safety,<br />
conduction radiation, and radio frequency such as<br />
North American UL, European CB, CE, etc.<br />
Integrating and refining charging technology is<br />
regarded as the first step towards the future smart<br />
power grid.<br />
by Jim Chen, Phihong <strong>Technology</strong>-Electric Vehicle BU RD VP &<br />
Vern Chang, Phihong <strong>Technology</strong>-Electric Vehicle BU Software<br />
Director.<br />
* 1: Using Tesla Model 3 as the example: For a 60KWh battery<br />
capacity to be fully charged in 10 minutes requires a 360 KW<br />
charging system and 180 KW for charging in 20 minutes.<br />
* 2: Using BMW I3 as the example: For a 42KWh battery capacity to<br />
be fully charged in 10 minutes requires a 240 KW charging system<br />
and 120 KW for charging in 20 minutes.<br />
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POWERTRAINS<br />
EV Performance and Safety Demands<br />
Drive Changes to Hardware and Software<br />
By Rolland Dudemaine, VP Engineering, eSOL Europe<br />
The priorities driving the development of EV electrical architecture differ<br />
significantly from those that govern conventional internal combustion<br />
engine (ICE) vehicles, and will be met through fundamental changes to<br />
hardware and software.<br />
Consumer adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is<br />
expected to grow, driven by factors such as increasing<br />
concern over climate change, new and improved<br />
models entering the market, and proposed legislation<br />
to ban sales of new ICE vehicles in the future.<br />
The arrival of the EV introduces a step in the<br />
otherwise curved trend of electrification sweeping<br />
through established function categories: body/<br />
chassis, comfort, safety, powertrain and infotainment.<br />
With no combustion engine on board to power<br />
subsystems such as cabin heating, or drive an<br />
alternator, the EV’s electrical infrastructure differs<br />
significantly from that of conventional vehicles.<br />
Changing Priorities of the<br />
Electrical Infrastructure<br />
New priorities are taking precedence in EV electrical<br />
infrastructures, including safe battery management<br />
and efficient use of electrical energy everywhere to<br />
extend driving range. Where the battery is concerned,<br />
greater care must be given to monitoring the<br />
battery condition and stabilizing aspects such as<br />
internal temperature and cell balancing to maximize<br />
performance and longevity. Meanwhile, EV battery<br />
voltages are generally higher than the 12V lead-acid<br />
battery in a conventional vehicle, meaning extra<br />
safety precautionsare required.<br />
Drivetrain electrification, in combination with<br />
other trends such as the infusion of V2X (vehicle to<br />
everything) connectivity and higher-level autonomous<br />
driving capabilities, is a catalyst for more centralized<br />
vehicle electrical infrastructures. Aggregation and<br />
integration of multiple domains, currently handled<br />
by large numbers of individual ECUs distributed<br />
throughout the vehicle, enable vehicles to become<br />
software-defined and help to enhance overall<br />
quality, cost, and performance. Importantly for EVs<br />
in particular, aggregation also helps to reduce wiring<br />
weight and complexity, as well as saving precious<br />
battery energy – all of which contribute to increased<br />
driving range.<br />
64 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
The trend to centralize control of demanding<br />
vehicle functionalities is driving demand for highperformance<br />
computing with a minimal power<br />
requirement, leading to the development of highly<br />
efficient, heterogeneous, manycore processors to<br />
handle these diverse workloads.<br />
At the same time, there is a clear requirement<br />
for flexibility and scalability within the electrical<br />
infrastructure. OEMs need this to create differentiated<br />
product ranges cost-effectively by implementing<br />
different applications and features on different<br />
models, utilize different hardware platforms of<br />
varying cost and complexity throughout their product<br />
ranges, and deliver new models within tough time-tomarket<br />
targets. They also need to deploy and enable<br />
new functionality after physical delivery, Over-The-Air<br />
(OTA).<br />
Meanwhile, new concerns surrounding safety and<br />
cyber-security are appearing. With increasingly<br />
pervasive connectivity and higher levels of autonomy,<br />
there is clear potential for malicious hacking to<br />
threaten individual safety and even national security.<br />
As far as functional safety is concerned, established<br />
standards like ISO 26262 arguably may not be<br />
sufficient for emerging use cases like autonomous<br />
driving. Newer standards such as SOTIF (Safety of<br />
the Intended Functionality) and UL4600 are being<br />
developed to cater for these applications. OEMs and<br />
Tier 1s need hardware and software architectures they<br />
can rely on as part of the solution to these challenges.<br />
Changing Faces of Hardware<br />
and Software<br />
To give the best chance of success, it makes sense<br />
to consider the software platform as well as the<br />
hardware and, in particular, the architecture of the<br />
operating system (OS) which brings together these<br />
rapidly developing computing elements.<br />
Figure 1 depicts an automotive software platform<br />
which incorporates the AUTOSAR Adaptive Platform<br />
Figure 1. The software platform of the future must support safety, scalability, and real-time determinism.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
65
(AUTOSAR AP). This addresses the demands of<br />
future vehicles and is intended for use in systems<br />
certified up to ISO 26262 ASIL-D. AUTOSAR AP<br />
standardizes foundation-layer software and allows<br />
for planned dynamics, which permits adaptability<br />
without compromising the handling of safetycritical<br />
processes. Planned dynamics is achieved<br />
through several measures, such as making sure all<br />
processes are registered during system integration,<br />
and restricting privileges for starting processes.<br />
In addition, AUTOSAR AP manages communication<br />
between application processes and external entities<br />
according to strict policies established during system<br />
integration.<br />
The platform shown is based on a Service-Oriented<br />
Architecture (SOA), which is well suited to future<br />
centralized and zone-based vehicle electrical<br />
architectures and provides flexibility as well as<br />
transparency in terms of implementation and<br />
mapping: the location of the server providing the<br />
service is independent of its use, which is critical<br />
for distributed computing. Moreover, transparency<br />
provides a good foundation for Freedom From<br />
Interference (FFI), which is one of the central concepts<br />
in functional safety. On the other hand, a physical<br />
mechanism like the memory management unit (MMU)<br />
of the processor is needed to provide assurance of<br />
FFI. The OS virtualizes this mechanism in the form of<br />
‘OS processes’, which are the physical instances of the<br />
services and applications.<br />
In the architecture illustrated in Figure 1, many<br />
components run as processes. Frequent interaction<br />
between processes is necessary, for example if an<br />
application process needs to use a service that is run<br />
as another process. Historically, functional safety has<br />
been predicated on protecting processes from one<br />
another. AUTOSAR AP now introduces a reliance on<br />
Inter-Process Communication as an OS feature, which<br />
can be much more costly performance-wise than<br />
intra-process communication; it can also evolve into<br />
a significant system performance issue when all the<br />
software is integrated.<br />
OS for Manycore Processing<br />
With demands for unimpeded inter-process<br />
communication in software, as well as large<br />
numbers of intercommunicating processor cores<br />
in the manycore CPUs at the heart of the emerging<br />
centralized hardware architecture, traditional OSes<br />
are increasingly likely to fall short in their ability to<br />
service all parts of the system adequately to maintain<br />
performance.<br />
In contrast, a distributed microkernel OS is inherently<br />
suited to servicing large numbers of interlinked cores<br />
and processes. It enables fast and deterministic<br />
response, which is particularly important to ensure<br />
proper handling of real-time control applications<br />
in domains such as powertrain. A distributed<br />
microkernel OS is unlike typical microkernel OSes.<br />
With no need for cross-core kernel locks to prevent<br />
concurrent accesses, which can impair performance,<br />
the architecture ensures parallelism is preserved.<br />
eSOL has developed such a distributed microkernel<br />
OS, eMCOS, to meet the future needs of the<br />
automotive sector including the requirements<br />
for scalability, safety and real-time determinism.<br />
eMCOS can scale in multiple ways to handle either<br />
small or large sets of functions. Applications can be<br />
connected between the microkernels and users can<br />
customize the adaptation layer to suit their intended<br />
purpose. Ideally suited to state-of-the-art manycore<br />
processors, eMCOS supports inter-cluster message<br />
passing and so allows dynamic AUTOSAR AP and static<br />
AUTOSAR CP (Classic Platform) to run on the same<br />
chip. A layered scheduling mechanism enables hard<br />
real-time determinism and permits high-throughput<br />
computing combined with load balancing. Standard<br />
support is available for multi-process POSIX and<br />
AUTOSAR programming interfaces, and there are<br />
special-purpose APIs for functions such as Distributed<br />
Shared Memory (DSM), fast messaging, NUMA memory<br />
management, thread-pool, and others.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The demands placed on vehicle electrical<br />
infrastructures continue to intensify and are being<br />
further compounded by the transition to fullelectric<br />
powertrain. Centralization and aggregation<br />
of functions formerly handled by individual ECUs is<br />
driving moves to adopt manycore CPUs to achieve<br />
a suitable combination of computer performance,<br />
energy efficiency and low power consumption. These,<br />
however, are not best served by conventional OSes.<br />
Designers therefore need to understand the effects of<br />
OS selection and, in particular, consider a distributed<br />
microkernel OS to maximize the advantages gained by<br />
adopting manycore to meet the needs of tomorrow’s<br />
vehicles.<br />
66 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
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Big Data Logging<br />
Efficient validation of e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
ADAS<br />
Bernhard Kockoth, Advanced Development<br />
Lead at ViGEM GmbH<br />
BIG DATA LOGGING<br />
The automotive industry is investing billions<br />
of euros in the development of new <strong>mobility</strong><br />
concepts. Although experts are convinced that<br />
the widespread advancement and adoption of<br />
autonomous vehicles will soon be associated<br />
with the development of e-<strong>mobility</strong>, today´s<br />
development of electric (EV) and autonomous<br />
vehicles (AV) are running on two tracks. However,<br />
the advantages of such a combination are<br />
obvious: autonomous driving brings efficiency<br />
in driving and battery use, while EV technology<br />
drastically cuts down on emissions, fuel costs,<br />
and maintenance.<br />
Due to the complexity of environmental and<br />
traffic conditions, the validation of such new<br />
<strong>mobility</strong> concepts is a big challenge for the<br />
automotive industry and its suppliers. The<br />
recording of data as a basis for the development<br />
of automated driving functions and autonomous<br />
driving easily exceeds conventional embedded<br />
storage solutions and capacities. For more than<br />
ten years, ViGEM has provided comprehensive,<br />
all-in-one solutions for collecting, storing,<br />
and transferring big data and has established<br />
itself as a technology leader in the field of Car<br />
Communication Analyzers (CCA).<br />
Next level of<br />
autonomous driving<br />
Before merging onto roadways, self-driving<br />
cars will have to progress through 6 levels of<br />
driver assistance technology advancements.<br />
Most vehicles on our roads today belong to<br />
the category of level 0 or 1. This refers to cars<br />
that have systems allowing both machine and<br />
driver to share control (driver only or partly<br />
automated).. The use of ADAS functions helps<br />
pilot vehicles in level 2 (i.e., lane assist) and 3<br />
(temporary hands off). The vision of the future<br />
is that the<br />
automation of<br />
driving reaches<br />
highly automated<br />
and autonomous<br />
driving technologies<br />
operating in level 4 and 5. For example, cars will<br />
communicate directly with other vehicles and<br />
infrastructure, such as parking lots or traffic<br />
lights. This new technology, called vehicle-toeverything<br />
(V2X), will be enabled by data from<br />
sensors and other sources that travel via high<br />
bandwidth, high reliability, and low latency<br />
signals. This will not only improve safety but<br />
provide drivers and passengers with valuable<br />
information about the road ahead. Equipped<br />
with this kind of artificial intelligence, selfdriving<br />
cars will be able to act as independent<br />
road users them-selves.<br />
To realize the development of<br />
sophisticated, advanced driver<br />
assistance functions, a number of<br />
requirements for the authentic recording<br />
of all internal vehicle network traffic<br />
must first be fulfilled, e.g.:<br />
1. Logging of ground truth sensors and<br />
vehicle bus data for use in machine<br />
learning.<br />
2. Validation of new ADAS technology<br />
under real-world conditions to<br />
keep raw data for proof of correctness<br />
and to counter future legal<br />
challenges.<br />
3. Reproduction of realistic scenarios<br />
for Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) and<br />
Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) testing.<br />
68<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Challenge 1: Logging of ground truth data<br />
The validation of complex functionalities often<br />
requires a huge number of kilometers/miles to be<br />
driv-en by fleets of test vehicles. The data acquired<br />
from these field operational tests (FOT) become valuable<br />
puzzle pieces in ascertaining the roadworthiness<br />
of a vehicle. Among the most complex function-ality<br />
elements in a modern vehicle are ADAS features<br />
like adaptive cruise control (ACC), lane keeping,<br />
emergency braking, and of course, piloted driving.<br />
This is why accurate and high-performance data<br />
loggers are needed most during the development<br />
process.<br />
The validation of new ADAS functions requires a<br />
comprehensive collection of environmental and<br />
traffic data. New sensors, especially high-resolution<br />
cameras, as well as lidar and radar interfaces<br />
generate enormous amounts of data to supply the<br />
best “vision of the environment.” Capturing all such<br />
signals, a necessity in the development of automated<br />
driving systems, requires very high performance that<br />
goes beyond the typical embedded systems capability<br />
found in most traditional electronic control units<br />
(ECUs). For comparison: ten years ago, a fleet of cars<br />
generated a few hundred gigabytes of data per week.<br />
Today, a single vehicle in level-3 development easily<br />
generates 60 TB or more during one driving shift!<br />
These high data rates require recording capabilities<br />
of up to 10 Gbit/s per channel, and the ag-gregated<br />
data rate in cars can pass 50 Gbit/s in continuous<br />
operation.<br />
“When installed in the trunks of test vehicles, data<br />
ViGEM data logger CCA 9010.<br />
logger devices have to be very robust to guarantee<br />
reliable operation in automotive environments while<br />
enduring shocks and vibrations, as well as a wide<br />
range of temperatures. For example, the rugged<br />
ViGEM data loggers and removable data storages<br />
feature temperature stability ranging from usually -20<br />
to +65° C”. explained Bernhard Kockoth, Advanced<br />
Development Lead, Vigem GmbH<br />
“The data loggers put all collected data onto one<br />
robust removable data storage with capacities of 16<br />
TB, or up to 64 TB. These cartridges can be exchanged<br />
in a matter of seconds so that no valuable testdrive<br />
time gets lost. Removable data storage can be<br />
shipped from almost anywhere in the world to the<br />
data center where a CCA Copy Station performs a fast<br />
upload into the cloud while the vehicle keeps driving.<br />
A holistic approach to easy and reliable recording of<br />
ground truth data makes the CCA an ideal tool for<br />
field operational tests where a fleet of cars does not<br />
need to return to a location with data center upload<br />
capability after every test drive. In this manner, the<br />
read-out raw data is quickly available for further<br />
analysis purposes, such as use in machine learning or<br />
the development of artificial intelligence”, Bernhard<br />
continued.<br />
Mobile big<br />
data logger<br />
with interfaces<br />
for cameras,<br />
radar, lidar,<br />
and multiple<br />
other sensors.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
69
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Challenge 2:<br />
Limited electrical power<br />
OEMs and suppliers of the EV industry face an<br />
additional challenge when advanced driver<br />
assistance systems (ADAS) and autonomous driving<br />
have to be tested on pure electrical platforms: the<br />
current draw from measurement equipment. In a<br />
combustion-powered vehicle, there is no problem<br />
in placing additional electronics and computer<br />
equipment consuming kilowatts of power. One<br />
simply adds an extra battery and an inverter.<br />
But available power management in electric<br />
vehicles is different from that in combustion<br />
vehicles, and the mobile measurement equipment<br />
power draw is comparable to that of an air<br />
conditioning system. In some circumstances,<br />
drivers must deactivate their air conditioning in<br />
order to make the remaining kilometers to the<br />
next charging station. The situation is similar for<br />
the power consumption of the measuring devices:<br />
lower power consumption is more important than<br />
high computational power. That´s why engineers<br />
need the best of both worlds for tests under<br />
realistic conditions: high computa-tional ability<br />
running on low electrical power.<br />
To deal with this challenge, ViGEM provides high<br />
performance data loggers that operate within<br />
low electrical power requirements. The compact<br />
Car Communication Analyzer CCA 9003 hardly<br />
requires more current than a car stereo and may<br />
be powered directly from most vehicle 12V circuits<br />
without the need for a second battery and power<br />
rail. It allows for longer operation time and better<br />
range when used in an EV.<br />
Challenge 3:<br />
HiL testing<br />
For the authentic reproduction of real-world<br />
scenarios, all captured data must be recorded with<br />
synchronous timestamps. ViGEM devices manage<br />
the distribution of time via the gen-eralized<br />
Precision Time Protocol (gPTP). gPTP, defined in<br />
IEEE 802.1AS is a protocol used to synchronize<br />
clocks throughout a computer network, allowing<br />
clock accuracy in the nano-seconds range, making<br />
it suitable for measurement and control systems. It<br />
is used not only to synchronize multiple cascaded<br />
CCA devices but all connected capture modules<br />
in a dis-tributed measurement setup, where<br />
incoming data packets get timestamped instantly<br />
at arrival. Timestamping the data with nanosecond<br />
resolution as close as possible to the sensor or<br />
ECU is essential for frame-by-frame scenario<br />
reconstruction in HIL labs.<br />
Outlook<br />
The progress of automated driver assistance<br />
systems and autonomous driving functions will<br />
depend on qualification and validation processes.<br />
The upcoming age of <strong>mobility</strong> will combine<br />
these two emerging technologies: autonomous<br />
driving and fully electric cars. Advancements in<br />
the battery charge times, range, and reliability of<br />
electric vehicles can both define and accelerate<br />
the speed at which autonomous vehicles will be<br />
ready for real road trips.<br />
Bernhard Kockoth is an Advanced Development<br />
Lead at ViGEM GmbH from Karlsruhe, Germany.<br />
Over the past 20 years, he has worked for a<br />
number of Tier-1s on automotive drivetrains,<br />
infotainment, ADAS, and since 2017 in<br />
measurement systems for automated driving. At<br />
ViGEM, he researches technology solutions to<br />
respond to future industry demands.<br />
Every bit counts. Big data logging for the validation<br />
of autonomous driving.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
71
ELECTRIFICATION<br />
PLANNING<br />
Future<br />
<strong>mobility</strong>:<br />
The innovation space beyond<br />
the vehicles of today<br />
The need for transport decarbonisation<br />
continues<br />
Professor David Greenwood, Advanced Propulsion Systems lead at<br />
WMG, University of Warwick<br />
As we entered <strong>2020</strong>, the automotive world was<br />
undergoing a technology transition faster that<br />
we have seen in the last hundred years – from<br />
petrol powered to electric cars, which are IT<br />
connected. Covid-19 has accelerated this, forcing<br />
us to think carefully about why, whether and how<br />
we travel. Home working and travel restrictions<br />
were implemented in a matter of months. Walking<br />
and cycling enjoyed a renaissance, mass transit<br />
(buses and trains) were deserted and concepts like<br />
electric scooters, previously effectively banned by<br />
government, were pushed forward into regional trials.<br />
We now have the opportunity to focus on a different<br />
future. Our actions over the next three to five years<br />
can be aligned to a 20 to 30 year vision which delivers<br />
better air quality, zero net carbon emissions, healthier<br />
lifestyles, profitable industries and high quality<br />
employment.<br />
The transport sector is pivotal to improving our<br />
environmental and economic future. If we are to<br />
deliver continuing economic growth for the UK, it will<br />
be essential to develop connected, green solutions<br />
across multiple modes of travel – from trains, planes<br />
and cars to boats, bikes and scooters.<br />
The UK Government’s ‘Road to Zero’ strategy sets<br />
out a pathway for decarbonising transport and<br />
consultation is now underway regarding banning sales<br />
of new non-electric cars, including petrol, diesel and<br />
hybrid vehicles from 2035.<br />
This needs to happen at a time when the automotive<br />
industry is least able to invest in innovation due to<br />
the triple challenges of electrification, post-Brexit<br />
trade rules, and a sales slump. Innovation is crucial<br />
to bring sustainable technologies to the market at an<br />
affordable cost and in a way, which meets all users’<br />
needs.<br />
Approaches to mass transit<br />
We need to think about modal shift in a different way<br />
– mass transit in buses, trams and trains is one way to<br />
deliver low carbon transport, by using a heavy vehicle<br />
to transport many people. Another is to look again<br />
at micro-<strong>mobility</strong> - the use of smaller vehicles to<br />
transport a single person, especially for local journeys<br />
Statistics indicate that use of bicycles, e-bikes and<br />
motor bikes for instance have been significantly<br />
higher post-covid, and that some migration from<br />
public transport to private cars is likely.<br />
72<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
What is micro-<strong>mobility</strong>?<br />
Micro-<strong>mobility</strong> is about using smaller, lighter and<br />
more efficient vehicles to achieve short journeys. It<br />
could include hoverboards, bikes, e-bikes, scooters,<br />
mopeds, motorcycles and small four wheel vehicles<br />
(like the Renault Twizy) – technically referred to as<br />
L-Category vehicles.<br />
For short journeys, these can be time-efficient, cost<br />
effective and very low energy consumption, reducing<br />
congestion and parking problems. These can be<br />
municipal (e.g. Boris bikes) or privately owned.<br />
Where powered, they are usually good candidates for<br />
electrification.<br />
Cities around the world have taken very different<br />
approaches with very different results. Some (like<br />
San Francisco) could be likened to the “wild west”<br />
of scooters and bikes, with thefts, littering, dumping<br />
and road accidents – others (like Berlin) have put<br />
regulation in place and seen the benefits of that.<br />
There are lots of key variables to consider around<br />
these new modes of transport, including elements<br />
such as age restrictions, licensing, insurance, lanes<br />
and road infrastructures, ownership and protective<br />
equipment.<br />
Regulation in this area hasn’t kept pace with<br />
technology and acts as a barrier. Vehicles such as<br />
hoverboards and electric scooters are currently<br />
classed as motor vehicles in the UK and are therefore<br />
illegal to ride on either the road or pavement. Electric<br />
assisted bikes are classed as bicycles, although the<br />
difference between these and electric mopeds is<br />
becoming more blurred.<br />
Adopted and applied correctly, these forms of<br />
transport could have real benefits, but played badly<br />
we could result in safety and sustainability problems<br />
similar to those in San Francisco.<br />
Vehicle categories<br />
The smallest examples of micro-<strong>mobility</strong> are selfbalancing<br />
unicycles and hoverboards, which are<br />
small enough to carry on a bus or into the office.<br />
These are often first and last mile solutions in<br />
conjunction with public transport, but currently<br />
illegal on pavements, cycle lanes and roads in<br />
the UK. Safe use of these could, in future, provide<br />
last-mile transport, and increase public transport<br />
ridership.<br />
Limited trials, on electric scooters, are currently<br />
being carried out for people with a provisional<br />
licence, and for rental fleets. Comparatively, France<br />
allows usage from 12 years old and use of privately<br />
owned scooters. Here, however, no infrastructure<br />
was enacted and scooters should ride in the main<br />
carriageway. Many concerns have been raised over<br />
safety.<br />
Bikes and e-bikes should use cycle lanes where<br />
possible, but the state of these in the UK is<br />
not as good as other European countries. The<br />
surfaces are often poor, lanes are often shared<br />
with pedestrians, and often end abruptly at road<br />
junctions, Petrol or electric mopeds are restricted<br />
to 28mph and can be ridden from 16 years old in<br />
UK with a licence, basic training, insurance and a<br />
helmet. These vehicles are not allowed on cycle<br />
ways, and therefore must be on the road (not<br />
motorways). Arguably such vehicles would be safer<br />
on “cycle lanes” at speeds 30mph.<br />
Petrol or electric motorcycles can be ridden from<br />
17 years old in the UK with a licence, insurance and<br />
a helmet, and can be used on a main carriageway.<br />
Petrol or electric quadricycles require the same<br />
licensing and insurance as a car, however the<br />
vehicle type approval requirements, especially for<br />
crash protection, are much lower.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net 73
Water-based Thermal Management<br />
<br />
Solutions for electric vehicles & charging stations<br />
Powerful corrugated and smooth tubes<br />
Form-fitting connecting elements<br />
Space-optimized connectors<br />
CONNECT 6<br />
Securely lockable fixing elements<br />
Function-integrated plug systems<br />
with integrated sensors<br />
Protection sleeves and pads<br />
www.fraenkische-ip.com<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Adapting behaviours<br />
The public response to Covid 19 has highlighted that<br />
societal behaviours can be malleable and receptive in<br />
ways that were previously unthinkable. Sales and use<br />
of bikes and e-bikes have increased. Rental e-scooter<br />
trials have been accelerated, and there are also more<br />
electric motorcycles, with many more planned for<br />
release.<br />
If sustainability through micro-<strong>mobility</strong> is technically<br />
achievable at scale, it assumes people will continue<br />
to adapt their daily routines. This may not always be<br />
the case, and significant research is still required to<br />
understand public attitudes and behaviours. If not,<br />
we could fail to realise the benefits or worse, we could<br />
see unintended consequences such as an increase in<br />
injuries through traffic accidents. Questions like “how<br />
do I look when using this” can also have as much of<br />
an impact on uptake, as price or technical capability.<br />
It would clearly be desirable to lock in some of the<br />
carbon and air quality benefits we saw during the<br />
early stages of lockdown. As we look at growing our<br />
“cycle lane” network we have a unique opportunity<br />
to think about how this could be used for a wider<br />
variety of low carbon transport solutions. There is a<br />
good argument that low speed, vulnerable vehicle<br />
types – such as bicycles, e-bikes etc could share<br />
a cycle lane operating at
The Rise of Electro<strong>mobility</strong><br />
Offers Opportunity to Advance<br />
Next Generation ADAS<br />
Lidar-enabled ADAS is happening now,<br />
delivering next level capabilities to protect<br />
pedestrians, assist drivers and save lives.<br />
Sally Frykman, VP of communications,<br />
Velodyne Lidar, and Dieter Gabriel, marketing manager<br />
EMEA, Velodyne Europe<br />
ADAS<br />
The automotive industry is ever-changing. The<br />
COVID-19 pandemic may have a lasting impact on the<br />
way we live and work. The automotive industry could<br />
change dramatically, accelerating innovation to meet<br />
global needs on the roadways and in communities.<br />
“Plunging sales could force factories to close and<br />
lead to takeovers and mergers, but also bolster<br />
sales of electric cars. Some automakers may emerge<br />
stronger…The pressure to go electric could become<br />
more intense,” writes Jack Ewing, New York Times, May<br />
13, <strong>2020</strong>. This in line with a recent statement from<br />
Volkswagen that the overall situation“ is more likely to<br />
accelerate the transition towards e-<strong>mobility</strong> because<br />
of increased environmental and social awareness.”<br />
If the pandemic does foster the rise of electric<br />
vehicles, this could be a catalyst for quicker adoption<br />
of next-generation advanced driver assistance<br />
systems (ADAS).<br />
The digitization of the automotive industry is being<br />
advanced hand-in-hand with electrification. These<br />
moves will stimulate the demand for connectivity,<br />
shared <strong>mobility</strong> and enhanced levels of ADAS features<br />
and autonomy.<br />
Mobility as a service is an example of the progression<br />
of automotive technology. Ownership, maintenance<br />
and management of fleets through centralized<br />
<strong>mobility</strong> or platform providers are becoming<br />
increasingly important. This trend has the potential to<br />
fundamentally influence or change industry business<br />
models.<br />
Furthermore, connectivity of vehicles is advancing.<br />
Functions, such as dynamic navigation based on<br />
traffic, weather and road conditions or automatic<br />
guidance to free parking spaces, may become easy<br />
to implement. Buyers of modern electric cars, which<br />
are equipped with evolving technology, are coming to<br />
increasingly expect these features.<br />
And now comes the crucial point: it is assumed that<br />
as autonomous vehicles become more market-ready,<br />
the proportion of specific electronics and software<br />
in vehicles would or must increase, e.g. advanced<br />
sensors or algorithms for environmental simulation.<br />
However, this point also applies the other way<br />
around: the rise of electric cars has the potential<br />
to significantly pave the way for next generation<br />
ADAS functionality. For one simple reason: consumer<br />
demand. For customers of state-of-the-art electric<br />
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cars, the communication and infotainment systems,<br />
combined with safety functionality, is an important<br />
factor. Ultimately, with such important decisionmaking<br />
criteria in the purchasing process, the OEMs<br />
who offer the most differentiating technologies have<br />
an advantage.<br />
And, when it comes to enhanced ADAS, lidar could<br />
become the most significant catalyst to bring<br />
functionality to the next level.<br />
Lidar: An Ideal Safety Choice<br />
for ADAS<br />
Automakers can greatly improve the effectiveness and<br />
efficiency of driver-assist features by employing lidar<br />
as a key perception component.<br />
A Frost & Sullivan report on driver assistance<br />
technology observed that “unlike radar, lidar provides<br />
much higher resolution, enabling accurate object<br />
detection. Unlike cameras, lidar provides accurate<br />
depth perception, with distance accuracy of a few<br />
centimeters, making it possible to precisely localize<br />
the position of the vehicle on the road and detect<br />
available free space for the vehicle to navigate.”<br />
The report also commented that lidar technology<br />
can “offer a 360-degree horizontal field of view and<br />
up to 40-degree vertical field of view” – capabilities<br />
“essential for accurately locating the vehicle within its<br />
environment and planning its driving path.” It pointed<br />
out how lidar “can operate in poor lighting conditions,<br />
unlike cameras, since lidars are their own light<br />
source.” By employing lidar in night-time scenarios,<br />
there is the potential to improve the detection and<br />
safety of pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists<br />
during this time.<br />
Lidar sensors have the potential to enable<br />
automakers to create superior ADAS, addressing<br />
edge-cases for current approaches, including winding<br />
roads, potholes, on/off ramps and roadways with<br />
unclear lane markings. This functionality can be<br />
realized in a compact form factor; for example,<br />
directional lidar sensors can be situated behind the<br />
vehicle’s windshield for streamlined integration,<br />
allowing vehicles to maintain their aerodynamic<br />
design.<br />
Need for Validation and<br />
Future Standardization<br />
developed an ever-evolving portfolio of lidar<br />
solutions, is a thought-leader in safety. The company<br />
is actively advocating for autonomous solutions.<br />
Velodyne envisions the automotive community<br />
pulling together to identify lidar requirements and<br />
standardize how to address them. The goal is to have<br />
lidar products undergo testing and validation based<br />
on the standards early in their product lifecycle<br />
with the results available to automakers and Tier 1<br />
suppliers.<br />
As lidar sensors become more widespread in vehicle<br />
deployment, there has been a call within the industry<br />
to identify requirements and methods for lidar sensor<br />
testing and validation.<br />
Misleading reports and information have been<br />
published about the precision, accuracy and range of<br />
lidar sensors. To be of value to automakers, all lidar<br />
sensors should be assessed by the same gauge.<br />
Velodyne Lidar, an industry pioneer that has<br />
Lidar Takes ADAS to the<br />
Next Level<br />
As electro<strong>mobility</strong> advances, the potential of nextlevel<br />
ADAS can too. Automakers will continue to<br />
make customer safety a priority as they roll out<br />
autonomy and ADAS. Employing lidar, along with a few<br />
inexpensive cameras, is a revolutionary approach to<br />
safety. It enables vehicles to detect and avoid objects<br />
in a range of environmental conditions and roadway<br />
settings.<br />
Lidar-powered ADAS is happening now, delivering<br />
next level capabilities to protect road users, assist<br />
drivers and save lives.<br />
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77
The smart<br />
battery innovation<br />
BATTERY<br />
TECHNOLOGY<br />
A pioneering innovative technology<br />
for a more sustainable and efficient<br />
EV battery production<br />
“Sustainable<br />
Li-ion<br />
battery cell<br />
production<br />
with less<br />
overall energy<br />
consumption<br />
bears various<br />
advantages,<br />
especially<br />
for mass<br />
production”<br />
Ralf Hock<br />
IP PowerSystems GmbH<br />
E-<strong>mobility</strong> is one of the most prominent<br />
issues of our time as it can solve many<br />
of the occurring world problems like<br />
environment pollutionand climate<br />
change. Still, electric vehicles remain<br />
a niche market. The main obstacles to<br />
boost an e-<strong>mobility</strong> revolution lie in<br />
the high costs and the environmental<br />
impact, i.e. the sustainability of the Liion<br />
battery cells. So, innovative materials<br />
and processes receive continuously<br />
increasing attention to lower production<br />
costs and to enable a “greener” battery<br />
production.<br />
A major ecological and economic<br />
problem is the energy consumption<br />
to create a moisture-free atmosphere<br />
necessary for cell production for the<br />
protection of the moisture-sensitive<br />
electrolyte and electrode materials.<br />
Large dry rooms consuming high<br />
operating costs are hardly to avoid.<br />
After extensive research one company<br />
has developed a new and efficient<br />
solution to overcome this unfavourable<br />
issue.<br />
In the town of Coswig, northwest of<br />
Dresden Germany, IP PowerSystems<br />
GmbH develops processes and designs<br />
machines which offer efficient and<br />
ecologically advantageous solutions<br />
for the automated and sustainable<br />
production of lithium-ion battery<br />
cells. Here, Ralf Hock, managing<br />
director of IP PowerSystems GmbH,<br />
explains a pioneering technology that<br />
he is convinced will lower costs and<br />
the carbon footprint for EV battery<br />
production.<br />
As a result of the company’s extensive<br />
R&D efforts, an innovative technology<br />
arose with the aim of finding an effective<br />
and environment-friendly alternative to<br />
the conventional production of Li-ion<br />
battery cells.<br />
The result of which enables electrolyte<br />
filling at ambient atmosphere without<br />
a dry room, a process which has not<br />
been possible until now. This novel<br />
“Method for producing electrolyte<br />
pouch cells for electric battery<br />
arrangements, corresponding device<br />
and electrolyte pouch cells“, is patented<br />
with international application number<br />
WO 2016/198145 A1. It includes a new<br />
production process starting with the cell<br />
assembly and final sealing before the<br />
filling step.<br />
The assembly of the cell components –<br />
i.e. the electrode-separator-stack with<br />
welded-on tabs and the pouch foil – is<br />
completed similar to conventional<br />
production. Additionally, closed filling<br />
plugs – so called ports – are integrated<br />
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within the seam of the pouch cell<br />
for the sealing process, which can be<br />
performed in a dry microenvironment.<br />
The sealing machine executes the<br />
complete and hermetical sealing of the<br />
cell. Due to this pioneering technology<br />
no special dry/clean atmosphere is<br />
needed for the next steps in process.<br />
Subsequently, the hermetically sealed,<br />
dry pouch cell is transported to the<br />
filling without the need for a dry room.<br />
The number and position of ports are<br />
adapted to the required cell size and<br />
electrolyte quantity. Access into the<br />
cell is realised by penetration of one<br />
or multiple ports by dosing needles.<br />
The needles are specially designed to<br />
enable vacuuming and filling of the cell<br />
with the same needle. Both process<br />
steps can be realised by one or multiple<br />
needles. Due to the flexibility in filling,<br />
the wetting of the electrode surface with<br />
electrolyte can be improved.<br />
The wetting of the electrode surface,<br />
especially wetting of the large pore<br />
surface of the electrochemically active<br />
electrode material, is one of the crucial<br />
bottleneck steps and can take up to<br />
48hs. Due to the novel technology of<br />
IP PowerSystems GmbH, this process<br />
can be accelerated by fast spreading of<br />
the electrolyte within the cell and by<br />
adjustment of temperature as well as<br />
pressure.<br />
In the conventional production process<br />
the filling is typically done in a vacuum<br />
chamber. Such is not required in the<br />
filling machine of IP PowerSystems<br />
GmbH. Here, the filling under standard<br />
pressure facilitates a pressure difference<br />
between inside (vacuum) and outside<br />
(standard pressure) of the cell leading<br />
to faster wetting. The technology also<br />
provides the opportunity to reduce<br />
process time and hence production<br />
costs.<br />
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79
Directly after filling, the ports are sealed off by sealing<br />
clamp jaws. Thus, the cell is hermetically closed at any<br />
time. In addition, the contaminated sealing seam is<br />
minimised resulting in reduced negative effects on the<br />
battery´s lifetime.<br />
The formation gas, which is generated during the<br />
activation/formation process, can be extracted by<br />
the degassing machine utilising port and dosing<br />
needle. The degassing can be accomplished in one<br />
step after the formation or continuously during<br />
the formation. The latter is another novel, patentpending<br />
technology by IP PowerSystems GmbH. This<br />
eliminates the need for conventionally used gas bags<br />
for the collection of formation gas. These gas bags are<br />
typically contaminated with electrolyte resulting in<br />
high disposing costs and efforts as hazardous waste.<br />
The process flexibility is granted for all required<br />
process conditions. The requirements and conditions<br />
were determined in collaboration with OEMs,<br />
manufacturers for niche products and research<br />
institutes. This also includes the format flexibility.<br />
All existing pouch cell formats can be produced on<br />
the machines based on this innovative technology.<br />
The company provides equipment for cell production<br />
from sample quantity up to mass production covering<br />
niche applications as well as mass applications.<br />
IP PowerSystems GmbH not only has different<br />
technologies for electrolyte filling of pouch cells but<br />
also has further significant developments for the<br />
sustainable and automated production of cylindrical<br />
and prismatic cells.<br />
Automation of cell manufacturing can make a<br />
substantial contribution to a lower overall energy<br />
consumption of the Li-ion battery cell production.<br />
A flexible and module-based automation system to<br />
efficiently optimise the complete cell production is<br />
Robo Automation Kit, which has been developed by<br />
the company. The Robo Automation Kit is a flexible,<br />
universally applicable automation kit in which various<br />
modules can be combined and existing machines<br />
and production lines can be easily integrated. If<br />
required, the modules can be re-combined to form a<br />
new solution allowing a flexible process adaption of<br />
production lines for pouch, prismatic and cylindrical<br />
cells.<br />
The modules of Robo Automation Kit consist of the<br />
same Basic Unit with integrated switch and control<br />
cabinet. Due to its very small size, it fits in any<br />
Pilot Sealing Machine<br />
Pilot Filling Machine<br />
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Pilot Filling Machine<br />
Robo Automation Kit<br />
place of an existing production. With the camera<br />
image recognition system and the menu-supported<br />
sequence control, no robot programming knowledge<br />
is required.<br />
Existing machines of a cell manufacture can be easily<br />
automated by Robo Operator® for a production<br />
line. Robo Operator® is a self-working, mobile and<br />
flexible automation solution for operating and<br />
handling different kind of production machines.<br />
Neither mechanical connection to the production<br />
machine nor data exchange interface is required. An<br />
employee without special robot setup knowledge<br />
can commission Robo Operator® on the intended<br />
machine within a very short time, so that Robo<br />
Operator® can work completely on its own without<br />
intervention or supervision. Eventually, the vision of<br />
flexible production becomes reality.<br />
In collaboration with research institutes, it is planned<br />
to equip Robo Automation Kit and Robo Operator®<br />
with AI and machine learning in order to be able to<br />
react flexibly to new circumstances or disruptions in<br />
the process chain. The method of machine learning<br />
has numerous advantageous aspects in predictive<br />
maintenance and predictive process control to reduce<br />
ramp-up time.<br />
In summary, a “greener” and more efficient Li-ion<br />
cell production can be reached by the innovative<br />
technologies and developments of IP PowerSystems.<br />
Sustainable Li-ion battery cell production with less<br />
overall energy consumption bears various advantages,<br />
especially for mass production.<br />
The filling without dry room results in considerably<br />
reduced expenses, energy consumption and carbon<br />
footprint. Due to the elimination of the gas bag,<br />
no excessive amount of pouch foil is required and<br />
costs as well as effort for the disposal are reduced<br />
contributing to a sustainable cell production.<br />
Accessibility of different filling strategies allows for<br />
the acceleration of the wetting procedure, one of the<br />
crucial bottleneck steps.<br />
Lower overall energy consumption and thus,<br />
further enhancement in production efficiency can<br />
further be accomplished by automation of the cell<br />
manufacturing, e.g. with the help of Robo Automation<br />
Kit and Robo Operator®. The modules of this<br />
flexible construction kit can be easily combined and<br />
recombined to achieve flexible production lines for<br />
pouch, prismatic and cylindrical cells.<br />
“Thanks to the company’s new developments and its<br />
special expertise we are able to play a big part in our<br />
customers’ success. We are convinced, the use of our<br />
pioneering technologies will pave the way towards the<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> revolution.” Ralf Hock concluded.<br />
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CONNECTIVITY<br />
Unlocking<br />
Next-Generation Vehicle<br />
<strong>Technology</strong> with 5G<br />
Peter Stoker, Chief Engineer – Connected and Autonomous<br />
Vehicle at Millbrook, lifts the lid on the 5G testbed for<br />
transport at Millbrook and the ground-breaking work<br />
enabled by the AutoAir project.<br />
The 5G testbed for transport at Millbrook Proving<br />
Ground, launched last year as the AutoAir project, is<br />
a private, fully operational high-speed mobile data<br />
network. It was installed to support the development,<br />
testing and validation of connected and self-driving<br />
vehicles.<br />
As the first network of its kind in the UK, AutoAir really<br />
is leading the charge when it comes to innovation.<br />
Not only is it supporting developers of connected<br />
and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) and associated<br />
technologies, it is also helping to position the UK<br />
automotive industry as a leader in global CAV and<br />
driverless vehicle technology development.<br />
Before we dive too far into the use cases being<br />
explored and the impact that AutoAir is already<br />
having on future technology and transport<br />
infrastructure, it is important to first understand the<br />
origins of the testbed.<br />
In 2017, the UK government Department of Digital,<br />
Culture, Media and Sport called for the establishment<br />
of 5G vertical sector testbeds and trials. The AutoAir<br />
consortium, led by Airspan, which brings together<br />
leading lights from the mobile communications and<br />
transport sectors, was formed in response to call to<br />
action.<br />
The testbed is the only accelerated development<br />
programme for 5G technology based on small cells<br />
that operate on a neutral host. This makes it a truly<br />
unique set up. It allows multiple public and private<br />
mobile network operators (MNOs) to simultaneously<br />
use the same infrastructure using network slicing,<br />
which can radically improve the economics for 5G<br />
networks.<br />
As part of the project, the consortium set up 60GHz<br />
mmWave mesh radio between small cell sites to<br />
connect them to the core network (“backhaul”). This<br />
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has enabled the consortium to compare this with the<br />
costs of deploying fibre. The testbed itself consists<br />
of 89 radios, covering 2.3, 3.5, 3.7GHz 4G and 5G<br />
spectrum, 60GHz mmWave mesh and 70GHz highspeed<br />
vehicle-to-infrastructure links. 59 masts were<br />
fitted around Millbrook, linked by 30km of power lines<br />
and fibre cabling.<br />
The AutoAir testbed has already yielded significant<br />
insight. For instance, it’s provided clarity as to how<br />
MNOs, vehicle manufacturers, governments and<br />
transport operators could harness neutrally hosted 5G<br />
and mmWave spectrum networks in the future for a<br />
more cost-effective and connected <strong>mobility</strong>.<br />
AutoAir’s innovative proposition is a wholesale access<br />
neutral host hyper-dense small cell deployment<br />
model for transport corridors. It provides a single,<br />
shared infrastructure set across multiple MNOs.<br />
This makes mobile services on transport corridors<br />
more attractive for mobile operators and end users,<br />
unlocking a multitude of possibilities.<br />
For example, in the UK, all four existing MNOs would<br />
be able to share the same physical network. In<br />
addition, other organisations, such as emergency<br />
services, road maintenance firms and vehicle<br />
manufacturers would be able to run their own private<br />
networks on the same shared infrastructure at a<br />
fraction of the cost of deploying their own physical<br />
networks.<br />
It should be evident that the fledgling stages of the<br />
AutoAir testbed were more concerned with transport<br />
infrastructure. The reality, though, is that the AutoAir<br />
testbed has only really begun to scratch the surface of<br />
how 5G technology might be harnessed more widely<br />
in the automotive sector.<br />
That is why it is exciting, and hugely important,<br />
that the AutoAir testbed is now being operated on<br />
a commercial basis. This gives CAV developers the<br />
ability to really push the network to its limits and<br />
make significant advances in their technology.<br />
Millbrook’s unique environment provides an<br />
unrivalled location in which to do this. For instance,<br />
developers can simulate weak and strong cell signals<br />
and understand the impact of hills and other terrain<br />
in a single location, while having access to all data<br />
generated during testing. They can also create<br />
virtual events using augmented and virtual reality<br />
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83
for vehicles on its allowing them to test complex<br />
scenarios that simply would not be practical, or safe,<br />
on public roads.<br />
As a result, a variety of organisations, working on<br />
a myriad of uses-cases, are already exploring the<br />
capabilities of the 5G network. One particularly<br />
interesting, and potentially lifesaving, trial that was<br />
successfully run courtesy of AutoAir was the “Smart<br />
Ambulance” trial with the East of England NHS.<br />
This pioneering project involved equipping a<br />
standard ambulance with state-of-the-art devices<br />
and connectivity to create a Smart Ambulance that<br />
simulated 5G connectivity. The ambulance was<br />
transformed into a unique remote consultation room,<br />
able to relay a live video stream to a remote team –<br />
potentially saving the time needed to save a life.<br />
And that’s just one example of how the super-fast<br />
data transfer afforded by 5G might shape our futures<br />
on the road.<br />
Indeed, the 5G testbed at Millbrook is also enabling<br />
CAV developers to expedite the testing and<br />
development of new infotainment and multimedia<br />
technologies. As was demonstrated with the Smart<br />
Ambulance trial, 5G facilitates vehicle-to-vehicle (or<br />
vehicle-to-remote location) communication in realtime.<br />
But that’s just the tip of the iceberg. This new<br />
level of connectivity enables over-the-air software<br />
updates in real-time, as well as delay-free video and<br />
music streaming, real-time map downloads and more.<br />
Looking beyond road transport, one area explored<br />
is that of high-speed rail. Trials were done on the<br />
mmWave network, installed by Blu Wireless as part<br />
of Autoair, with a view to improving the passenger<br />
experience. How often has connectivity on the rail<br />
network delayed communication, broken voice calls,<br />
and interrupted data? The challenge was to see how<br />
effective the deployment of mmWave trackside could<br />
be. Using the High-Speed Circuit at Millbrook for<br />
the work, Blu Wireless, in partnership with McLaren<br />
Applied fitted a vehicle with a train antenna system<br />
and drove at up to 160mph, whilst streaming data to<br />
and from the vehicle. The results were impressive – a<br />
steady 1.6GBps, peaking at 3GBps. Work continues to<br />
evolve, now looking at infrastructure installations in<br />
remote areas – where there may not be ready access<br />
to power and fibre.<br />
This new age of connectivity and autonomy is not<br />
without its pitfalls. One of the biggest areas of<br />
concern in relation to connected and autonomous<br />
cars has always been cyber security. With enormous<br />
amounts of data being transferred in real-time from<br />
vehicle to vehicle, vehicle to infrastructure and<br />
beyond, there is little wonder there are concerns over<br />
hacking and privacy.<br />
The UK Government in the form of the Centre for<br />
Connected and Autonomous Vehicles ran a feasibility<br />
study competition in 2019/20, looking at the threats<br />
to vehicle networks. As a direct result of the Autoair<br />
testbed, Millbrook was a partner in a consortium<br />
with industry experts Cisco, Telefonica and Warwick<br />
Manufacturing Group, looking at the challenges,<br />
mitigations and regulatory futures in cyber. This could<br />
well pave the way to the creation of bespoke CAV<br />
Cyber test facilities in the future, equipping the UK at<br />
the forefront of this important area.<br />
There is, however, much<br />
more work to be done.<br />
The achievements and findings of the AutoAir testbed<br />
so far are fundamental steps towards enabling key<br />
5G use cases for CAVs and other transport solutions.<br />
The project is also a prime example of why working<br />
at Millbrook is so rewarding. Having the opportunity<br />
to be ‘in the room’ when cutting-edge technology<br />
solutions that could change the future of <strong>mobility</strong> are<br />
being devised and tested is a real privilege. While the<br />
AutoAir testbed is, in every respect, a collaborative<br />
team effort, I feel a certain amount of pride that it’s<br />
our Bedfordshire proving ground that is home to the<br />
project.<br />
The final point I’d like to impart is this: the AutoAir<br />
testbed will not be a snapshot in time in the<br />
development of CAVs, the associated technology and<br />
the wider infrastructure. Instead, the testbed will be<br />
updated with the latest technology as it nears market<br />
reality, and is set to serve the industry as a national<br />
standard for many years to come.<br />
Peter Stoker, Chief Engineer – Connected and Autonomous<br />
Vehicle at Millbrook.<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
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EVERY BIT COUNTS.
MATERIALS RESEARCH<br />
Signed, sealed, delivered<br />
Signed, sealed, delivered<br />
Whether it’s electric compressors, lithium-ion batteries<br />
and supercapacitors, or solid-state batteries, the use of<br />
glass in EVs now goes way beyond the windscreen<br />
The heart of air con<br />
Glass is a key component of electric<br />
compressor seals, the tiny bonds that are at<br />
the heart of all air conditioning systems in<br />
EVs, and without them the cabin temperature<br />
would quickly rise, along with the tempers and<br />
safety of the passengers. Studies have shown<br />
that road safety is at great risk if drivers suffer<br />
from temperatures beyond the 30-degree<br />
mark, while air conditioning also protects the<br />
driver and passengers from air pollutants since<br />
substances such as dust are removed along<br />
with humidity.<br />
On the outside, an EV appears the definition<br />
of calm – an oasis of silence. But under the<br />
bonnet it’s a different story. High pressure,<br />
high voltage, high humidity and high<br />
temperature make it a harsh environment for<br />
small components. The electric compressor<br />
seal not only has to cope with the extreme<br />
pressure of the refrigerant, but the vibration<br />
of the engine, remaining fully gas-tight and<br />
insulated over a long period of time. Glass-tometal<br />
sealing (GTMS) provides all that, with the<br />
potential to do more.<br />
Developed by German technical glass maker<br />
SCHOTT about 80 years ago, the first hermetic<br />
glass-to-metal seals were used in radios<br />
and the emerging TV market, providing an<br />
effective bond between the two materials for<br />
tube amplifiers. SCHOTT continued to work<br />
on the technology, developing compressor<br />
seals for refrigerators in 1957, vastly improving<br />
their efficiency. In more recent years, the<br />
company started to apply its GTMS experience<br />
to improve the effectiveness of automotive<br />
electric compressors, with the EV market a<br />
major focus.<br />
“When you think about the robustness of<br />
a glass-to-metal seal, it’s very important<br />
to select the material combinations very<br />
carefully,” explains Yasuo Tsukada, Sales<br />
Manager for Electric Compressor Terminals at<br />
SCHOTT. “One of our USPs is that we have the<br />
86<br />
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longest experience and the broadest portfolio when it<br />
comes to product range and the number of industries<br />
that we serve, enabling us to develop perfectly<br />
optimized components.”<br />
Here comes the<br />
science bit<br />
In compressor applications, the effectiveness<br />
of glass-to-metal seals relies on ‘compression<br />
sealing’ and therefore the high compressive<br />
strength of glass and the relative coefficients of<br />
thermal expansion (CTE) of the glass and metal.<br />
Choosing an outer metal housing that has a CTE<br />
that’s much higher than that of the glass and<br />
the conductor pins results in the metal housing<br />
shrinking firmly onto the glass during cooling<br />
to create a hermetic seal. This gas-tight seal<br />
is mechanically strong, virtually impervious to<br />
gases, and provides high electrical insulation.<br />
Glass-to-metal seals aren’t just used in air<br />
conditioning. They are so strong and pressureresistant<br />
that they are also used as connectors<br />
in oil and gas exploration equipment, electrical<br />
terminals for cryogenic pumps for liquefied<br />
natural gas vessels, and even as containment<br />
penetrations for nuclear power plants.<br />
“A key advantage of glass-to-metal seals is that<br />
they are manufactured using purely inorganic<br />
materials,” Yasuo Tsukada continues. “In comparison<br />
to non-hermetic, organic polymer seals for example,<br />
glass is non-aging, highly resilient to mechanical<br />
stress, high pressure and temperature cycling. It is<br />
also resistant to aggressive and potentially corrosive<br />
media.”<br />
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87
High voltage challenge<br />
The development of electric compressors and their<br />
seals is moving as quickly as the development of<br />
all other EV technology – and that includes power.<br />
There’s little doubt that to increase endurance<br />
and performance while decreasing charging time,<br />
the voltages involved in EVs have to go higher,<br />
which makes life more challenging for component<br />
manufacturers whose products need to increase<br />
their electrical insulation to match.<br />
Three types of compressor terminals:<br />
1. Ceramic insulation<br />
In high-voltage systems, the operating voltage from<br />
the drive battery is often above 200V, reaching 500V<br />
for particularly powerful batteries. Some OEMs even<br />
use 800V systems. This level of electrical power<br />
places huge demands on the electrical insulation<br />
of the car’s components, with compressor seals and<br />
feedthrough terminals particularly challenging for<br />
the automotive industry.<br />
2. Extended sealing glass insulation<br />
SCHOTT have responded to this challenge by<br />
developing a GTMS solution that incorporates<br />
rubber. While glass provides the physical<br />
connection, rubber increases insulation and<br />
prevents condensation, which would shorten<br />
the creepage path and encourage sparkover.<br />
“After conducting an extensive series of tests,<br />
our engineers have found the ideal combination<br />
of materials,” explains SCHOTT R&D Manager<br />
Akira Fujioka. “The elastic components make the<br />
connection much more reliable and durable.<br />
3. Rubber insulation<br />
Cross section of compressor<br />
with the compressor terminal.<br />
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The next generation of seals<br />
The effectiveness and reliability of glass-to-metal<br />
sealing means it has a wider range of EV applications<br />
than air conditioning, and SCHOTT is the first company<br />
in the world to successfully create a permanently<br />
tight connection between glass and aluminium. These<br />
hermetic glass-to-aluminium seals (SCHOTT GTAS®) are<br />
designed to eliminate moisture intrusion and electrolyte<br />
dry-out by using an inorganic, non-aging<br />
glass seal.<br />
SCHOTT now offers lithium-ion battery lids with glassaluminum<br />
sealed terminals that prevent humidity<br />
intrusion into the cell housing. These rugged, gas-tight<br />
designs are simpler than conventional lid designs and<br />
can significantly enhance both safety and the service<br />
life of the battery.<br />
The technology can also be used with supercapacitors<br />
and Electric Double Layer Capacitors. The gas-tight lids<br />
offer a reduction of capacity losses over time by up to<br />
60%, enabling capacitor developers to design smaller<br />
capacitors with long operating lives. Similar in structure<br />
to lithium-ion batteries, supercapacitors can store and<br />
release large amounts of energy in much less time,<br />
recharging electric cars in minutes and supporting startstop<br />
functions.<br />
A solid future<br />
Lithium-ion batteries are the most common source of<br />
power for EVs, but the technology behind solid-state<br />
batteries is promising to overcome the limits of today’s<br />
battery cells. It’s estimated that solid-state batteries<br />
could shorten charging times, increase reliability and<br />
extend the range of EVs above 300km – a significant<br />
increase and one that could finally fulfil the wishes of<br />
the drivers.<br />
But while lithium-ion batteries use liquid electrolytes<br />
for ion conduction, solid-state batteries use solid forms,<br />
enabling the use of alternative electrode materials.<br />
Since energy density is increased, storage capacity<br />
is pushed up, which increases the amount of energy<br />
available on a single charge. Key to the success of<br />
solid-state batteries are glass-ceramic powders. Used<br />
as an electrolyte, they show high levels of conductivity,<br />
plus temperature and chemical stability – the ideal<br />
properties for a high-performance battery.<br />
“Our team is in the process of further developing these<br />
materials and their production on an industrial scale<br />
to achieve the best possible performance,” says Dr<br />
Andreas Roters, one of SCHOTT’s leading scientists.<br />
“We have been working with solid-state batteries<br />
since 2011, when hardly anyone in Europe spoke of<br />
them. We are now involved in a variety of cooperation<br />
and development projects, and have built up a global<br />
network of partners with contacts to leading industrial<br />
manufacturers and suppliers.”<br />
SCHOTT GTAS Lid<br />
Heart of glass<br />
Whether it’s electric compressors,<br />
lithium-ion batteries and<br />
supercapacitors, or solid-state<br />
batteries, the use of glass in EVs now<br />
goes way beyond the windscreen. It<br />
has a major role in the development<br />
of technology that will define the<br />
future of the sector, pushing it<br />
forward to fulfil its huge potential.<br />
That’s great news for manufacturers,<br />
the environment, and, most<br />
importantly, people. “Glass may be<br />
one of the world’s oldest materials,<br />
but it has a crucial role to play in our<br />
future,” Dr. Roters concludes.<br />
SCHOTT GTAS Lid System<br />
SCHOTT GTAS Lid Systems for Capacitors<br />
SuperCaps<br />
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89
MATERIALS<br />
RESEARCH<br />
Adhesives and Sealants in<br />
Battery and Hybrid Electric Vehicles<br />
When I was a child, I used to see battery-powered milk floats trundling along<br />
at 15mph, holding up the traffic. How things have changed! Battery-powered<br />
sportscars are now zipping up and down the motorways and autobahns. Battery<br />
technology has moved on in leaps and bounds to make it a practical, economical<br />
and viable everyday driving solution for the modern-day motorist - whilst also<br />
helping cut emissions to improve local air quality.<br />
About the Author:<br />
Rebecca Wilmot 20<br />
years at Permabond,<br />
starting in the<br />
laboratory, technical<br />
service department,<br />
and now on the<br />
business, sales,<br />
and marketing<br />
management side of<br />
activities. She loves<br />
the adhesive industry<br />
and finds the diversity<br />
of applications,<br />
markets, and products<br />
fascinating.<br />
Key areas of focus for battery development include:<br />
• Efficiency and size<br />
• Increased power output<br />
• Speed of charging<br />
• Cost of materials<br />
• Safety<br />
Whilst the whizz-kids are revolutionising batteries;materials suppliers are having<br />
to up-the-stakes with their offerings to the industry. For adhesives manufacturers,<br />
this means developing products that combine some quite specific features:<br />
#1 in this season’s must-haves<br />
is thermally conductive adhesive.<br />
Batteries get extremely hot whilst<br />
charging, the demand is to charge<br />
as quickly as possible, which tends<br />
to exacerbate the situation, so it is<br />
essential to dissipate heat away from<br />
battery cells quickly and effectively.<br />
Battery cells are arranged in modules<br />
which make up the battery pack (the<br />
large unit normally concealed under the<br />
floor in electric cars). The need to keep<br />
the battery size as small, yet efficient as<br />
possible, means tightly stacking battery<br />
cells - increasing the temperature<br />
within the battery module. Heat needs<br />
driving away from the battery cells,<br />
so they are potted with thermally<br />
conductive adhesive.<br />
The modules sit on top of a heat sink,<br />
to maximise heat transfer, a thermally<br />
conductive adhesive is used to bond<br />
them in place. The adhesive also<br />
couples as a way of absorbing shock<br />
and vibration whilst driving to prevent<br />
damage to sensitive components.<br />
Inclusion of thermally conductive<br />
fillers into adhesives can affect other<br />
properties, for example, viscosity. It<br />
is all very well asking for an adhesive<br />
with the maximum thermal conductivity<br />
possible, but can you dispense the<br />
material is the question?! High levels<br />
of thermally conductive filler material<br />
render the adhesive virtually solid and<br />
unable to be mixed or extruded easily.<br />
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Ability to cope with expansion and<br />
contraction.<br />
Battery cells and other components expand and<br />
contract significantly as they heat up and cool<br />
down; there is also the issue of sudden temperature<br />
changes or “thermal shock.” Adhesives and sealants<br />
are used around the cells to hold them in place and<br />
need to have some flexibility to cope with expansion<br />
and contraction without inducing stress onto the<br />
components or cracking off. Different materials<br />
expand and contract at different rates, this is more<br />
evident with larger components, so choosing an<br />
adhesive with a degree of flexibility and optimising<br />
the glue line thickness will help cope with the stress<br />
of differential expansion and contraction without<br />
debonding or causing damage to the parts.<br />
Graph showing how the % content of metal oxide filler affects<br />
thermal conductivity and viscosity of adhesive material.<br />
Electrical resistance.<br />
It is important that whilst the adhesive is thermally<br />
conductive, it must also be electrically nonconductive.<br />
Otherwise there will be short circuits<br />
galore and a car full of frazzled occupants going<br />
nowhere. A high dielectric strength is essential<br />
(dielectric strength is the maximum electrical field a<br />
material can withstand before it becomes conductive).<br />
Another benefit of using adhesives for sealing battery<br />
housings is that they provide a 100% seal against<br />
moisture ingress, and potting adhesives surrounding<br />
the cells and other electrical components prevent<br />
contamination and possible malfunction.<br />
Safety.<br />
Non-burning, fire retardant adhesives help to<br />
maximise vehicle safety. Fire retardant fillers can<br />
be combined into the adhesive formulation, and<br />
these are often thermally conductive as well - so can<br />
kill two birds with one stone! These fillers are selfextinguishing<br />
– so if you try to set fire to the material<br />
and take the flame away, the fire does not propagate<br />
along the adhesive layer, and the flame dies out.<br />
Using toughened adhesives in the construction of<br />
battery packs helps absorb impact forces, reducing<br />
the level of damage to the battery during a collision.<br />
Toughened adhesives also help to protect the battery<br />
pack against the shocks and vibrations experienced<br />
when driving; they can also help with sound<br />
deadening for improved passenger comfort.<br />
Production considerations.<br />
There is no point in having a new technically<br />
advanced innovative adhesive that lacks practicality<br />
on a production line. Battery production is big<br />
business and getting bigger by the day as EV<br />
popularity and demand increases, so it is essential<br />
that the adhesive selected can lend itself to<br />
automatic dispensing and have a cure schedule that<br />
optimises production throughput and efficiency.<br />
Two-part adhesives may need metered dosing and<br />
mixing before dispensing onto parts, single-part<br />
adhesives may require an oven or UV lamp to cure the<br />
adhesive. Solvent-based products or other hazardous<br />
chemicals may no longer be allowed in the workplace,<br />
or less hazardous products preferred for easier<br />
handling.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
91
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Cost.<br />
Capital expenditure costs of implementing adhesive<br />
on a production line vary depending on the level<br />
of automation required and sophistication of the<br />
equipment. It is possible to use adhesives for<br />
minimum outlaye.ghandheld dispensing guns.<br />
Overheads will vary according to the amount of<br />
space required and cost of running and maintaining<br />
equipment. Adhesive products themselves,<br />
considering the amount of adhesive used per battery,<br />
will come under ongoing cost scrutiny. It is interesting<br />
to note, the level of thermally conductive filler and<br />
the nature of the filler is the main cost driver for<br />
thermally conductive adhesives.<br />
Higher levels of thermal conductivity can be achieved<br />
with different, more expensive fillers, but dielectric<br />
strength can be affected, with materials becoming<br />
electrically conductive – for some applications, this<br />
is great, but in the case of high voltage batteries for<br />
Graph showing how the cost is relational to conductive<br />
filler content (metal oxide).<br />
electric vehicles, probably not so desirable!<br />
Where are adhesives and sealants used?<br />
• Encapsulation or potting of battery cells<br />
• Bonding cells into modules<br />
• Bonding modules to cooling plate / heat sink<br />
• Gasketing and sealing the battery pack<br />
• Encapsulation and potting of other sensitive<br />
electronic components<br />
• Potting of connectors and sealing pyrotechnic<br />
disconnect units<br />
As well as battery bonding, high performance<br />
adhesives are also used for electric motor bonding –<br />
bonding magnets to rotors, magnets to stators, and<br />
sealing motor housing. Motors are often requiring<br />
adhesives to withstand 180-220°C as well as rigorous<br />
impact and thermal shock testing. In the event of an<br />
accident, a pyrotechnic disconnect unit detonates to<br />
release the battery system<br />
to help prevent fire and<br />
electrocution, adhesives<br />
are used to secure and<br />
pot connectors as well<br />
as seal and protect units.<br />
Friable adhesives can<br />
be used to secure the<br />
explosive charge, similar<br />
to those found in airbag<br />
detonation devices.<br />
“ Here at Permabond<br />
we have a portfolio of<br />
special developments<br />
combining high<br />
thermal conductivity,<br />
fire retardancy,<br />
toughening, and<br />
also adhesives with<br />
high-temperature<br />
resistance. We have a<br />
long and impressive<br />
history of supplying<br />
adhesives to the<br />
automotive industry<br />
worldwide, with many<br />
products specified by<br />
leading automotive<br />
manufacturers and Tier<br />
1 automotive suppliers,<br />
who insist on high<br />
quality cutting-edge<br />
products. Bespoke<br />
formulations can be<br />
developed to meet<br />
our customers exact<br />
requirements, helping<br />
them to achieve<br />
production savings and<br />
performance benefits. ”<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
93
THERMAL<br />
MANAGEMENT<br />
Long term stability of<br />
Thermal Interface Materials<br />
Recently, there has been a strong and increasing<br />
demand for innovative manufacturing concepts for<br />
electric and hybrid vehicle batteries. The design<br />
of a battery system from lithium-ion cells presents<br />
special challenges to thermal management. As the<br />
performance and durability of the cells depend<br />
strongly on the temperature of their environment,<br />
the thermal management system has to care for an<br />
efficient dissipation of the heat losses, as well as<br />
for the heat supply in case the batteries are cold.<br />
In operation, heat is generated when the system is<br />
being discharged due to accelerating, but also when<br />
charged at the charging station or during recuperation<br />
of braking energy.<br />
Heat delivery and dissipation can be provided<br />
in various ways. Liquid-cooled systems have<br />
heat exchangers joined to the cells where the<br />
cooling medium absorbs the heat and conveys it<br />
to an external chiller. The heat transfer is mostly<br />
accomplished directly from the cells into a cooled<br />
baseplate, where Thermal Interface Materials<br />
(TIMs) ensure an optimal thermal connection of<br />
the components and compensate for dimensional<br />
tolerances.<br />
Structural thermally conductive adhesives ensure<br />
both mechanical and thermal connection. They are<br />
used to bond prismatic (hard case) cells to coolers<br />
or housings or to attach external chillers to frames<br />
holding the individual cells, e.g. in hybrid or 48V<br />
batteries.<br />
Fig 1: Cell Bonding.<br />
Fig 2: Gapfiller injection.<br />
Removable TIMs such as single component non-curing<br />
conductive pastes or curing gap fillers are designed<br />
to provide thermal connection only, while cells or<br />
modules are fixed mechanically to the cooler or a<br />
battery tray. They thus allow for repair concepts when<br />
individual modules need to be replaced.<br />
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Fig. 3: Chemical and physical factors responsible for<br />
ageing and their impact on composite materials.<br />
Typically, TIMs are dispensed on one of the<br />
components prior to assembling. However, more<br />
recent assembly processes require TIMs that can be<br />
injected into the resulting gap after cell-modules have<br />
been attached to the cooling system.<br />
Independent of the nature of the respective TIM,<br />
they are all composites made up of two or more<br />
components. Since the organic matrix, predominantly<br />
a polymer or liquid, generally has a low thermal<br />
conductivity of about 0.1 to 0.5 W/mK, it is<br />
complemented with thermally conductive fillers such<br />
as metal oxides or nitrides. This type of composite<br />
thus combines the advantages of the polymers such<br />
as low weight, good processability, and corrosion<br />
resistance, with the thermal conductivity provided<br />
by the inorganic fillers. The resulting thermal<br />
conductivity of a composite material can reach<br />
between appr. 1 and 5 W/mK and is a function of<br />
the different thermal conductivities and the volume<br />
fractions of both matrix and filler.<br />
A key risk factor in the development of thermal<br />
interface systems is the need to provide the material<br />
with sufficient thermal and mechanical stability to<br />
maintain its function when used in a battery during<br />
the vehicle lifetime of 10 – 15 years. TIMs are exposed<br />
to manifold operating conditions and environmental<br />
impacts during their service life. Both physical and<br />
chemical ageing processes may occur (Fig.3).<br />
In real-life operation the influencing factors and<br />
ageing mechanisms are complex. During vehicle<br />
use, the material is simultaneously subject to<br />
increased temperatures, temperature changes, shock/<br />
vibration, mechanical stress and load changes as<br />
well as exposure to environmental media such as<br />
atmospheric oxygen or air humidity. Moreover, the TIM<br />
must be compatible with the common construction<br />
materials used in batteries, like steel, aluminum, and<br />
various polymers and coatings, where no interactions<br />
or alterations of both the components and the TIM are<br />
allowed.<br />
In order to advance research and development of<br />
new materials, it is essential to simulate real-time<br />
ageing processes with the aid of laboratory tests in<br />
a timely manner. The aim of carrying out accelerated<br />
stress tests is to simulate the real loads in continuous<br />
operation as best as possible. The estimated<br />
conditions in the battery over lifetime will determine<br />
the selection of appropriate accelerated ageing tests.<br />
Common methods of accelerated ageing include high<br />
temperature storage (HTS), temperature cycling or<br />
shock (TC), climatic storage, alternating climate test,<br />
power cycling (PC), and various mechanical tests<br />
like vibration or shock tests. The evaluation of the<br />
tests is based on monitoring of parameters like the<br />
visual appearance, thermal conductivity, thermal<br />
or electrical resistance, thermal mass loss, oil or<br />
plasticizer separation, mechanical characteristics or<br />
rheological properties (complex viscosity, yield point,<br />
etc.).<br />
High Temperature Storage<br />
In high temperature storage, the thermal stress upon<br />
the material is simulated. By using high, constant<br />
temperatures, the aging of a material is accelerated,<br />
which in turn allows for a prediction of lifetime,<br />
provided that there is a uniform reaction kinetics. A<br />
respective industrial standard series is ISO 60216/<br />
DIN EN 60216, which is designed to estimate thermal<br />
degradation of electrical insulating materials. Here<br />
the relative temperature index (RTI) represents the<br />
numerical value of the temperature corresponding<br />
to the time where a selected property reaches a<br />
predetermined limit.<br />
Temperature Cycling<br />
In contrast to the constant temperature load when<br />
performing high temperature storage, a temperature<br />
profile is applied during the cycle tests. Respective<br />
industrial standards are known from semiconductor<br />
testing and can be applied to TIMs. This procedure<br />
simulates changing environmental temperatures as<br />
well as temperature variations due to charging and<br />
discharging processes in batteries. A distinction is<br />
made between slow and continuous temperature<br />
changes in contrast to rapid temperature shocks<br />
where the change between high and low temperature,<br />
e.g., +80 °C and -40 °C, takes place within a very short<br />
time after a defined holding time.<br />
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technology at tlxtech.com/dpv
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Climatic Storage/Alternating<br />
Climate Test<br />
Some stress tests feature a combination of<br />
temperature and humidity (damp-heat) storage. This<br />
type of highly accelerated temperature and humidity<br />
stress test (HAST) puts extraordinary stress upon<br />
the components. Depending on the conditions, a<br />
failure can be brought about already after a few<br />
days. There are also combinations of temperature<br />
cycling and humidity storage called alternating<br />
climate test. An extremely accelerated ageing, as with<br />
this load combination, is important for the efficient<br />
development of new material systems.<br />
Power Cycling<br />
The power cycling test is the most realistic but also<br />
the most elaborate stress test. Here, the stress is<br />
simulated not only by a temperature profile, but by<br />
applying operating conditions, such as the charging<br />
and discharging of a battery. In contrast to passive/<br />
external temperature changes, the temperature<br />
change is actively effected by electrical heat output,<br />
which is introduced directly into the experimental<br />
setup. Very high numbers of cycles are feasible<br />
using this test. As a result, the influence of the<br />
parameter changes occurring during operation, such<br />
as temperature, gap width or air humidity, can be<br />
properly simulated. Power cycling can be carried<br />
out even under difficult conditions such as extreme<br />
temperature, abrupt temperature change or high<br />
relative humidity.<br />
Vibration Testing<br />
By vibration of the engine or interaction of the vehicle<br />
with the road in operation, almost all components of<br />
an automobile constantly subject to vibration. This<br />
type of stress can be simulated in a vibration test<br />
bench by setting certain vibration frequencies. There<br />
are respective industrial standards for components in<br />
general but also especially designed for EV batteries.<br />
Fig. 4: Thermal resistivity of gap filler vs. no. of power cycles.<br />
Complex/Combined Testing<br />
As described above, overall lifetime prediction of<br />
TIMs used in EV batteries is complex.<br />
Only a combination of accelerated ageing tests such<br />
as climate storage (HAST), temperature change (TC)<br />
and high-temperature storage (HTS) may provide<br />
reliable information for the long-term assessment of<br />
TIMs.<br />
Test procedures and respective boundary conditions<br />
have to be selected, which give a reasonable<br />
representation of the environment found in the<br />
battery, and which can be suitably amplified in order<br />
to accomplish accelerated ageing<br />
However, also, the dimensions and level of testing<br />
play a crucial role in evaluating the results. Where<br />
a certain material may survive in small test setups,<br />
when it comes to large samples the thermal<br />
expansion may lead to additional voiding or cracking.<br />
Gravity effects may play a role in samples that<br />
are inclined according to parking in steep terrain,<br />
which won’t be detected in samples that are stored<br />
horizontally. Hence, it is necessary to find evaluation<br />
criteria to assess the scaling of degradation and<br />
ageing effects from laboratory samples into real-life<br />
sized setups.<br />
“ Here at Polytec PT we have developed a comprehensive range of TIMs, designed for different battery types, assembly<br />
processes and performance requirements.<br />
As an ISO 9001:2015 certified company, our production processes are well documented and the compliance of our<br />
employees with these production processes are regularly reviewed.<br />
Every batch of our finished product is tested to ensure compliance with standard or customized specifications. Our test<br />
lab is well equipped for measuring rheological behavior, mechanical, electrical and thermal properties and the stability<br />
of our TIMs under exposure to various environmental conditions. ” Ralf Stadler, R&D, Polytec PT<br />
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97
BATTERY<br />
TECHNOLOGY<br />
How to get rid of the weakest link<br />
Creating a cost- and quality-optimized battery value<br />
chain in Europe<br />
Alexander Schweighofer, Business Development Manger LIB<br />
Electric and hybrid vehicles offer a great potential<br />
to meet the social challenges of future <strong>mobility</strong> in<br />
a sustainable manner. Here, the lithium-ion battery<br />
plays a key rolenow. The cell technology enables high<br />
ranges of electric vehicles while at the same time<br />
providing attractive driving dynamics, which makes<br />
the new vehicles attractive for the customer.<br />
Battery systems of hybrid vehicles include up to a<br />
hundred lithium-ion cells, depending on the range<br />
required to drive the vehicle electrically and the<br />
capacity of the cells. Several thousands of cells can<br />
be installed in pure electric vehicles. As a cell format,<br />
three different lithium-ion cells have prevailed:<br />
cylindrical, pouch and prismatic cells. Depending on<br />
the electrical connection of the cells and the available<br />
space, several lithium-ion cells are installed by<br />
contacting to a battery module. These subunits offer<br />
advantages in handling and mounting the battery<br />
system. Battery modules are<br />
then merged into a high-voltage<br />
battery pack and integrated into a battery system.<br />
According to the current state of knowledge, the<br />
assembly of E-Mobility modules and packs is done<br />
on automatic or semi-automatic chained production<br />
lines.<br />
The module feeding, the module test, the module<br />
installation into the battery housing and the module<br />
screwing are automated. All other production steps<br />
such as cooling systems, cabling, pre-assembly of<br />
plugs or venting elements as well as installation of<br />
coolant distributors or seals are carried out at manual<br />
stations.<br />
The module production has a higher degree of<br />
automation but is also carried out on state-of-the-art<br />
chained production lines. The printed circuit boards<br />
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and wiring harness are usually assembled manually<br />
here. There is a lot of catching up to do in series<br />
production, but also in the prototype and small series<br />
sector.<br />
Conventional production lines have various<br />
disadvantages:<br />
1. high change-over times<br />
2. low flexibility<br />
3. small variety of product variants which can be<br />
produced<br />
4. no shared used of processes between different<br />
chained assembly lines possible<br />
5. in the event of an accident/unexpected break<br />
down of a machine part in a chained production<br />
line will causes the shutdown of the entire<br />
production line.<br />
In general, as with a chain, a production line is only<br />
as strong as its weakest link. The slowest machine in<br />
the production line therefore specifies the maximum<br />
production cycle/output. To compensate for different<br />
cycle times on different production lines, small<br />
intermediate storage (buffers) must be set up at the<br />
ends. Not only does their use cause time delays; from<br />
the logistics sector, it is well known that storage costs<br />
must be avoided.<br />
Due to the ever-increasing demand for high-voltage<br />
batteries and the associated high number of cells<br />
installed in electric and hybrid vehicles, automated<br />
and highest flexible manufacturing processes with<br />
short process times and high process reliability are<br />
required.<br />
Data handling and processing are one of the most<br />
important parts in the battery systems value chain<br />
to increase quality and safety for the customers and<br />
to decrease battery cost via smart solutions. Those<br />
topics must be implemented in very early stages of<br />
prototyping and small series to ensure reproduceable<br />
production quality for product testing, validation and<br />
legal approbation.<br />
For those reasons, the innovative principle of matrix<br />
production is being developed by Rosendahl Nextrom,<br />
which is a highly flexible manufacturing (technology)<br />
solution for small and large-scale production without<br />
sacrificing the cost-effectiveness of a flow production.<br />
The aim is to create a cost- and quality-optimized<br />
battery value chain in Europe. The market penetration<br />
of e-<strong>mobility</strong> and new battery systems in Europe<br />
is to be supported in the best possible way by<br />
standardization and flexibilization of production as<br />
well as process innovation and optimization using the<br />
digitalization of factories.<br />
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“The intelligent<br />
production of the<br />
future must be<br />
highly flexible, highly<br />
productive and<br />
resource efficient”.<br />
A new road to success<br />
Innovation, flexibility, scalability, cost-efficiency –<br />
these and a lot of other words describe the way to<br />
success. Therefore, production solutions for E-Mobility<br />
Module and Pack assembly for the processing of<br />
cylindric, prismatic and pouch cells with different<br />
sizes and materials are necessary.<br />
The implementation of a matrix production allows<br />
newcomers, well established manufacturers and<br />
transformers to build up a scalable E-Mobility<br />
manufacturing system which is easily adaptable to<br />
different battery types. The optimization of resource<br />
management, avoidance of environmental pollution<br />
and development of innovative hard- and software<br />
applications is in the focus.<br />
Small-series production and mass production have<br />
their own, very special requirements. Individual<br />
adjustments in the level of automation fulfill these<br />
requirements - of course the costs for these changes<br />
should be kept as low as possible.<br />
One step further is to implement an AGV system<br />
(automated guided vehicles) which leads to another<br />
level of automation.<br />
The aim is to achieve a lot size of 1 with the new<br />
production solution that means that you can<br />
produce products individually without incurring high<br />
costs when changing the machine. The upgraded<br />
production plant is capable of processing cylindrical,<br />
prismatic as well as pouch cells almost fully<br />
automatically into battery packs.<br />
The production system can grow at any desired time<br />
from micro to large-scale production.<br />
Another key advantage is that new extensions are<br />
integrated into the overall system without negatively<br />
affecting them in manufacturing.<br />
In summary, the innovative matrix structured<br />
production enables not only flexible manufacturing<br />
but also reduces the lead time through unit<br />
extensions. That means modules with premium<br />
quality can be produced at affordable cost with<br />
extreme variety of types.<br />
“We follow the approach to elaborate an additional<br />
benefit for customers targeting and efficient<br />
production process, overlapping traceability of the<br />
whole value chain of battery systems and a reduction<br />
of further development durations for change<br />
implementation and new products”, according to<br />
Mr. Alexander Schweighofer, Business Development<br />
Manger LIB<br />
Rosendahl Nextrom aims to build a comprehensive<br />
network architecture including simulation and 3D<br />
visualization for a holistic planning and realization<br />
of the products. Generated data during production<br />
process shall be used as well as feedback loops for<br />
the development and optimization of new machines<br />
with the support of the digital twin approach.<br />
The specific focus of the solution is to give customers<br />
the ability to make continuous improvements and<br />
optimization in order to build a sustainable value<br />
chain.<br />
One major technology which will be implemented<br />
to build a network which is capable of fulfilling the<br />
requirements of the connection of different kind of<br />
tools is the usage and expansion of the 5G technology.<br />
5G enables a real time connection between<br />
different end users and machines and supports<br />
the integration and the data transfer between all<br />
connected participants. A main advantage of 5G for<br />
us in implementing data along the value chain is the<br />
generation of our own private 5G VPN tunnel with the<br />
relevant companies. This opens an opportunity to<br />
implement and improve process quality based on the<br />
availability a raw data information.<br />
The intelligent production of the future must be<br />
highly flexible, highly productive and resource<br />
efficient.<br />
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LIB Matrix<br />
Development Center for new<br />
solutions<br />
“Our development center, which is in Austria, not<br />
only offers space for R&D projects and process<br />
developments but also the possibility to test and<br />
successively develop new kinds of manufacturing<br />
solutions in close cooperation with local and<br />
European companies, research institutions and<br />
universities” Alexander continued.<br />
“In conclusion new kinds of manufacturing could be<br />
tested and successively developed to reduce the longterm<br />
costs to produce modules and battery packs. The<br />
development of the required different manufacturing<br />
solutions is driven by Rosendahl Nextrom due to its<br />
longtime experience in battery machine production<br />
and knowledge and contacts in the battery producing<br />
industry.<br />
The final goal is to establish a new manufacturing<br />
(technology) solution highly variable and flexible for<br />
different market demands”. Alexander concluded.<br />
BM Rosendahl battery production system<br />
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POWERTRAINS<br />
Impact of sensor technologies on<br />
the e-vehicle powertrain performance<br />
The resolution and accuracy of the rotor position sensor has an<br />
influence on the performance of an electric drive.<br />
All over the world, new electric motors are currently<br />
being developed for the future drive-train of electric<br />
vehicles. The electric motor and its components<br />
will undergo various levels of maturity similar to<br />
combustion engines in recent decades. The goal of<br />
all developers is increasing the efficiency of the drive<br />
system with respect to the greatest possible range of<br />
one battery charge.<br />
An important component in this context is the motor<br />
sensor system.<br />
The measurement of the current of the 3 phases Iu,<br />
Iv Iw and the angular position θ of the rotor are of<br />
crucial importance.<br />
The following diagram shows the mathematics behind<br />
a field-oriented control of a synchronous machine.<br />
This article points out the impact of the parameters<br />
resolution and accuracy of rotor position and rotor<br />
speed on the performance of a drive.<br />
Lenord + Bauer and Altair have added a configurable<br />
rotor position sensor to the already existing and<br />
validated simulation of a typical IPM machine of a<br />
mid-range vehicle.<br />
This image shows the<br />
components of the<br />
simulation. The element<br />
Position Sensor is new.<br />
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Influence of the<br />
resolution on<br />
performance<br />
Evaluations of the torque curve show, as expected, a<br />
low-resolution leads to higher torque fluctuations in<br />
the starting phase.<br />
Especially when a vehicle has to accelerate<br />
under a high-torque condition avoiding<br />
sliding wheels and vibration and thus<br />
material-friendly, the resolution of the<br />
speed-sensor is of decisive importance.<br />
The graph on he left clearly shows that, for<br />
example, a sensor resolution of 8 bit and a<br />
typical inverter switching frequency of 10kHz<br />
leads to a resolution of the speed of 2344<br />
RPM. During run-up at very low speed the<br />
speed controller does not measure the real<br />
gradient of speed and therefore the torque<br />
controller overdrives. This inevitably leads<br />
to vibrations in the drive and ultimately<br />
to noises when starting up. That’s what we<br />
know from trams or other railways where<br />
this does not play a major role due to the<br />
few starting phases and the very stable<br />
mechanical design of the engines. In electric<br />
vehicles with many stop and go phases<br />
vibrations and noises are undesirable.<br />
A typical situation in a passenger vehicle<br />
is, for example, driving over a curb or a<br />
fully occupied bus, which has to start on an<br />
ascending road.<br />
Blue line: 8-bit resolution<br />
high torque ripple causes<br />
high vibrations and loud<br />
noises.<br />
Red line: 10-bit resolution<br />
lower torque ripple causes<br />
lower vibrations and less<br />
noises<br />
Comparison of the power consumption shows<br />
in the start-up area that a higher resolution<br />
(red line) contributes to a gain in efficiency.<br />
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103
THINK HOLISTIC<br />
FIBERS &<br />
TEXTILES<br />
BATTERY<br />
MATERIALS<br />
SYNTHETIC<br />
RUBBER<br />
ELECTRONICS<br />
PERFORMANCE<br />
PLASTICS<br />
FOAM<br />
MATERIALS<br />
WE MAKE FUTURE MOBILITY WORK .<br />
automotive-asahi-kasei.eu
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Influence of the accuracy<br />
on performance<br />
The second important parameter is the accuracy<br />
of the system. For this we simulated various load<br />
scenarios for an electric vehicle. One of the bestknown<br />
scenarios is certainly the acceleration of a<br />
car from 0 to 100 km/h. This scenario was simulated<br />
3 times. The individual simulations only differed in<br />
the accuracy of the rotor position sensor used.<br />
Rotor position<br />
accuracy<br />
Time<br />
0- 100km/h<br />
0 – 62,4 m/h<br />
Torque ripples<br />
+- 2° el. 7,04 s High<br />
+-1° el. 6,64 s Middle to high<br />
+-0,2° el. 6,44 s Low to middle<br />
The results in the table above show that the accuracy of the<br />
rotor position sensors is crucial for the performance of the<br />
powertrain. With the same engine power, same controller and<br />
inverter it is possible to accelerate faster while consuming the<br />
same or less power.<br />
Evaluations of the torque curve show, as expected, a low-resolution leads to<br />
higher torque fluctuations in the starting phase.<br />
Summary and Conclusion<br />
We have proved in various simulations of electric<br />
drive trains, that the resolution and accuracy of<br />
the rotor position sensor has an influence on the<br />
performance of an electric drive.<br />
Therefore, developers of new drive systems<br />
should consider not only possible variations<br />
of the rotor and stator design or faster inverter<br />
switching times, but also the sensor technology in<br />
their test stands as part of the statistical design<br />
of experiments. Crucial parameters of the rotor<br />
position sensor are resolution and accuracy.<br />
“Our sensors have been playing an important role<br />
in electric drives for more than 30 years. We are<br />
passionately driving the development of electro<br />
<strong>mobility</strong> in order to increase comfort of driving<br />
and contributing to an eco-friendly environment.”<br />
concluded Dr. Matthias Lenord, Founder, Lenord,<br />
Bauer & Co. GmbH<br />
Dipl.-Ing Ulrich Marl<br />
In 2009 he became the<br />
head of production at<br />
Lenord + Bauer, followed<br />
by the position of general<br />
manager of production<br />
for 8 years. In 2018 he decided to face a new<br />
business challenge and changed the position<br />
into sales department to conquer the worldwide<br />
market for upcoming electrical vehicles. Based<br />
on fundamental technical experience and<br />
excellent knowledge of production and quality<br />
management method he is an excellent point of<br />
contact for many engineers in the automotive<br />
R&D departments around the world.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
105
VEHICLE CONNECTIVITY<br />
BlackBerry’s pedigree in safety, security, and continued innovation has led<br />
to its QNX technology being embedded with more than 45 OEMs and more<br />
than 150 million vehicles on the road today.<br />
Autonomous Vehicle Accidents Test Human Trust<br />
Jeff Davis, Senior Director, Government Relations and Public Policy at BlackBerry<br />
Humans have an issue with trust. While innate to our nature, trust is also something that must be earned<br />
over time, and once lost it can take a long time to get it back, if at all. This is particularly true where new<br />
technologies like autonomous vehicle safety are concerned. We see time and again that regardless of the<br />
extensive number of hours that autonomous vehicle testing is done safely, a single incident can overwhelm a<br />
news cycle.<br />
Think of last year’s Uber crash or the more recent Tesla crashes. They do not become associated with a single<br />
company, rather, they become a trust challenge for a whole industry.<br />
New Technologies Bring New<br />
Challenges to Safety and Security<br />
In the findings from an investigation into one crash, a<br />
Tesla was found to have repeatedly made maneuvers<br />
at one particular area of highway that eventually<br />
resulted in the vehicle crashing into a concrete<br />
barrier. On several occasions, the driver was able<br />
to maintain control and override the maneuvers to<br />
safely keep the vehicle in lane, but during the final<br />
incident, the driver was distracted and was not able to<br />
avoid the crash. Of further concern is that the car first<br />
increased speed from 62 mph to 71 mph just prior to<br />
steering into the barrier.<br />
In an investigation by the National Transportation<br />
Safety Board (NTSB) of an unrelated accident, the<br />
NTSB found that the fatal collision of a car with<br />
autonomous driving features and a slow-moving truck<br />
was also partly the result of the driver not regaining<br />
control of the vehicle in time. It referenced an earlier<br />
accident where systems that “underpin AEB systems<br />
have only been trained to recognize the rear of other<br />
vehicles… in part because radar-based systems<br />
have trouble distinguishing objects in the road from<br />
objects that are merely near the road.”<br />
This represents a challenge with autonomous vehicle<br />
technology in its current state. Drivers tend to lose<br />
focus on the road, giving too much responsibility to<br />
low-level automation features, allowing technology<br />
to work in a domain beyond its capabilities. The end<br />
results are both tragic and fear-inducing. Distracted<br />
driving is just as life-threatening in a vehicle with<br />
automated features as it is in a conventional vehicle.<br />
The misunderstanding lies on two fronts: first, some<br />
companies are overly bullish in their confidence<br />
of the self-driving features of the car, leaving their<br />
consumers at risk. This is miseducation, and it<br />
is dangerous in itself. The second inappropriate<br />
interaction comes from a misunderstanding of what<br />
autonomous features are designed to do in today’s<br />
vehicles. Lower level autonomy is there to augment<br />
a human driver, not replace them. It helps the driver<br />
with things we humans are really bad at, like paying<br />
attention for long periods of time, or checking all our<br />
blind spots.<br />
However, at this point, there are a lot of things<br />
that humans do better than cars, like contextual<br />
understanding and object identification. In any case,<br />
the technology gets blamed much more than the<br />
humans do, and it results in a lack of trust that hurts<br />
the entire industry.<br />
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Mistrust, with a Side of Mistrust<br />
Another modern phenomenon that impacts the<br />
trust of a consumer is a security incident, and if a<br />
misbehaving autonomous feature was the result of a<br />
cyberattack, the court of popular opinion could put<br />
an end to autonomous vehicles. Even with drivers<br />
maintaining control, there is a risk that these highly<br />
connected vehicles could be infected with malware<br />
when connecting to a mobile device, downloading<br />
traffic reports, or with updates for a potential<br />
maintenance issue by the manufacturer, which could<br />
have devastating consequences.<br />
The mind can go to several nightmare scenarios:<br />
attackers crashing cars into each other, threat actors<br />
stopping cars on the highway and blocking major<br />
arteries, and other similar scenarios. But more<br />
likely, attackers could use malware to steal payment<br />
credentials stored in the car’s systems for use in<br />
automatic payments at gas stations, drive-through<br />
restaurants, car washes, or similar businesses where<br />
the driver may not need to exit the vehicle to make a<br />
purchase.<br />
And an almost-inevitable scenario could be that<br />
marketing data collection companies could monitor<br />
communications to know where you drive and when,<br />
how long you stayed, what communications you saw<br />
or listened to, etc.<br />
Adapting Current Security Solutions<br />
to New Technologies<br />
This brings the world of connected and autonomous<br />
vehicles right up there with every network that<br />
requires the protections offered by security<br />
technologies such as firewalls, antivirus (EPP),<br />
endpoint detection and response (EDR), distributed<br />
ledger technology (DLT), etc. The massive mobile<br />
endpoint that is the modern vehicle comes with<br />
more than its share of security concerns and begs<br />
the question: are today’s security solutions going to<br />
translate well to an autonomous vehicle?<br />
On the one hand, that car should appear to those<br />
security systems as one big network, albeit one that<br />
weighs more than a ton and can move faster than 100<br />
mph. As a practical matter, though, the nature of the<br />
systems that make up that vehicle are going to be<br />
radically different. As such, manufacturers must work<br />
closely with firms on advanced security systems that<br />
are designed to work specifically with autonomous<br />
vehicles.<br />
Safety, Security, and Trust<br />
The future of transportation and <strong>mobility</strong> is one of<br />
the most exciting fields of technology, one that is<br />
both growing rapidly and producing advancements<br />
that occur at dizzying speeds.<br />
It is critical that safety and security are top of mind<br />
from the beginning of the process and throughout<br />
the development and production processes if the<br />
industry is going to foster and maintain the trust<br />
required for the adoption of these technologies.<br />
Safety, security, and trust are fundamental to this<br />
effort and inseparable in their importance.<br />
In the race to produce<br />
self-driving cars,<br />
the ability to build<br />
consumer trust is<br />
as important as the<br />
ability to build the<br />
technology itself. For<br />
the driving public to<br />
adopt autonomous<br />
vehicles en masse,<br />
it’s not enough to<br />
simply trust the<br />
technologies – people<br />
must also trust that<br />
the companies building<br />
these technologies<br />
will act responsibly. It<br />
is a moral imperative<br />
for those of us within<br />
the industry that are<br />
advancing this fast<br />
approaching future to<br />
make sure it is both<br />
safe and secure.<br />
About<br />
Jeff Davis:<br />
Currently,<br />
Senior Director,<br />
Government<br />
Relations and<br />
Public Policy<br />
at BlackBerry,<br />
Jeff previously<br />
served as a<br />
Senior Vice<br />
President<br />
at ITSA, the<br />
nation’s largest<br />
organization<br />
dedicated to<br />
advancing<br />
the research,<br />
development<br />
and deployment<br />
of Intelligent<br />
Transportation<br />
Systems (ITS)<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
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MATERIALS<br />
RESEARCH<br />
Enhancing<br />
reliability of<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
through<br />
Parylene<br />
<strong>Technology</strong><br />
Rakesh Kumar Ph.D. at SCS Coatings explains<br />
As we move towards e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
due to environmental friendliness,<br />
economic considerations and social<br />
forces, scientific and engineering<br />
communities have focused their<br />
efforts on creating motors/engines<br />
that receive their energy from the<br />
power grid or energy storage sources.<br />
These motors and engines support<br />
many types of vehicles, including<br />
ships, hover boats, planes, helicopters,<br />
drones, unmanned aerial vehicles,<br />
etc., and their long-term success<br />
heavily relies on the development of<br />
reliable electronic systems and energy<br />
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storage systems (electric, hybrid and<br />
fuel cell technologies).<br />
Today, electronic systems no longer<br />
work as independent components,<br />
but as fully integrated systems<br />
that use sensors, MEMS and radar<br />
to control various autonomous<br />
functions. The reliability of electronic<br />
components and systems can<br />
be compromised, at best, or fail<br />
completely, worst case, due to their<br />
exposure to harsh environments,<br />
which causes the corrosion of<br />
components due to water, salt<br />
and other stress factors. Parylene<br />
technologies enhance the reliability<br />
of electronic systems and components<br />
by not only offering solutions to<br />
eliminate such catastrophic reliability<br />
failures, but they also enable the<br />
development of innovative electronic<br />
systems and components for<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong>. Electronic systems and<br />
components can either be coated with<br />
Parylene for their protection from<br />
environmental degradation, and/or<br />
Parylene can be used as a structural<br />
material to make such components<br />
and systems.<br />
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What are Parylene<br />
technologies?<br />
Parylene is the name for a unique series of polymeric<br />
organic coating materials that are polycrystalline<br />
and linear in nature, possess excellent dielectric<br />
and barrier properties per unit thickness, and are<br />
chemically inert. Of the commercially available<br />
Parylene variants, Parylene C, Parylene HT® and<br />
ParyFree® are the most suitable for e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
applications. In addition to electrical insulation<br />
at ultra-thin levels, Parylenes provide outstanding<br />
moisture, chemical and dielectric barrier capabilities.<br />
Parylene HT also offers increased thermal and UV<br />
stability. Parylenes are RoHS and REACH compliant<br />
and have been proven to provide metallic whisker<br />
mitigation in lead-free solder applications. Parylenes<br />
are ideal for protecting electrical components, wires,<br />
PCBs and sensors – any component that require<br />
reliable, long-life performance in harsh environments,<br />
including those in electric power drivetrains.<br />
What differentiates<br />
Parylenes from other<br />
conformal coatings.<br />
Rather than dispensing, spraying, brushing or<br />
dipping, Parylene coatings are applied using a<br />
vapor deposition process. The Parylene process is<br />
carried out in a closed system under a controlled<br />
vacuum, with the deposition chamber remaining<br />
at room temperature throughout the process. No<br />
solvents, catalysts or plasticizers are used in the<br />
coating process. The molecular “growth” of Parylene<br />
coatings ensures not only an even, conformal coating<br />
at specified thicknesses, but because Parylenes are<br />
formed from a gas, they conforms to all surfaces,<br />
edges and crevices of a substrate, including the<br />
interiors of multi-layer electronic packages. Parylenes<br />
provide a superior pinhole-free shield to protect<br />
against corrosive liquids, fluids, gasses and chemicals,<br />
even at elevated temperatures (up to 350°C longterm).<br />
Parylenes are typically applied in thicknesses<br />
ranging from 500 angstroms to 75 microns. A 25 micron<br />
coating of ParyFree, for example, will have a dielectric<br />
capability in excess of 6,900 volts. No other coating<br />
material can be applied as thin as Parylene coatings<br />
and still provide the same level of protection, which<br />
is why manufacturers have used Parylenes in the<br />
automotive and transportation industries for over 4<br />
decades.<br />
In markets such as e-<strong>mobility</strong>, where many electronic<br />
systems, RF devices and sensors are used, it is critical<br />
that such devices and systems are well protected for<br />
long-term reliability, without the loss of any signal or<br />
communication. To avoid signal degradation of high<br />
frequency devices when they are protected with a<br />
conformal coating, it is important that loss tangent of<br />
the conformal coating does not adversely change over<br />
the operating frequencies. The loss tangent and low<br />
dielectric constant of Parylenes are very stable up to<br />
70 GHz, as tested, but expected to be stable up to 100<br />
GHz as well, which help advance next generation high<br />
frequency devices.<br />
Harsh Environments<br />
Parylenes have also been used to provide moisture<br />
and chemical barrier properties to a wide array of<br />
components, including sensors and circuit boards,<br />
providing protection from the most corrosive<br />
chemicals such as nitric and sulfuric acids and<br />
common automotive fluids like brake fluid, power<br />
steering fluid, and windshield washer fluid. For<br />
example, fuel cells operate in the midst of corrosive<br />
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chemicals at elevated temperatures, a very harsh<br />
environment for electronics. Parylene HT provides<br />
superior protection for these fuel cell components<br />
due to its moisture and chemical barrier properties<br />
and high temperature stability.<br />
The operating system environment of vehicles can<br />
range from -40°C to more than 300°C, making coating<br />
stability imperative to the trouble-free life of vehicle<br />
electronics. As stated, Parylene HT provides longterm<br />
thermal stability up to 350°C, with intermittent<br />
exposures up to 450°C. The coating also offers UV<br />
stability (more than 2,000 hours of highly accelerated<br />
UV exposure, per ASTM G154), providing protection<br />
from degradation and discoloration.<br />
With electronic systems increasingly replacing<br />
mechanical control systems, tight package protection<br />
is needed to keep moisture and chemicals from<br />
causing shorts. At the same time, this protection must<br />
not add dimension to the control electronics, and the<br />
coating must be dielectrically compatible to ensure<br />
that signals are not blocked. Parylene coatings are<br />
lightweight, do not add significant mass or dimension<br />
and do not block communication signals.<br />
Even as vehicle monitoring and conditioning has<br />
moved to electronic systems, traditional printed<br />
circuit boards and sensors are also being replaced<br />
with MEMS technologies in this next generation of<br />
vehicle design. The use of MEMS reduces overall<br />
package size while putting more capabilities into one<br />
tiny microelectronic package. Due to their properties<br />
and gas-phase deposition process, which results in<br />
ultra-thin, conformal coatings, Parylenes are able<br />
to effectively protect MEMS packages against wear,<br />
moisture and corrosive fluids.<br />
The prevalence of complex and integrated electrical<br />
systems shows no signs of slowing down. Pressures<br />
to lower costs, migrate offshore production and<br />
consolidate abound in the electric vehicle industry.<br />
At the same time, OEMs feel pressures to bring<br />
better, faster and cheaper components and systems<br />
to the market. Adding Parylene technologies to the<br />
component manufacturing process enhances the<br />
reliability of electric driven vehicles’ electronics and<br />
components, regardless of the type of vehicle or<br />
operating system. The level of protection Parylenes<br />
afford manufacturers is one that reduces costly<br />
maintenance and warranty issues for the life of<br />
the vehicle. The good news is that as components<br />
become more complex and are exposed to new and<br />
increasingly extreme environments, new Parylene<br />
technologies and services are being developed and<br />
deployed to parallel this growth.<br />
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DRIVETRAIN<br />
Assembly solutions<br />
in e-Mobility<br />
Jürgen Hierold, presents the Use<br />
of Screwdriving Systems in the<br />
e-Mobility Sector<br />
Electro <strong>mobility</strong> is the definitive key technology for<br />
the sustainable transport system of the future. The<br />
policy-assisted development of E-<strong>mobility</strong> is moving<br />
in the right direction. The automotive industry and its<br />
suppliers, however still find themselves in a dilemma<br />
regarding the design and project planning of their<br />
production and assembly systems. Uncertainties in<br />
planning for volume and unknown practical values<br />
continue to be the greatest challenges.<br />
E-<strong>mobility</strong> imposes certain requirements on the<br />
assembly process: top processing reliability for safetyrelated<br />
components, high flexibility due to the wide<br />
variety and targeted reliable electro-static discharge<br />
(ESD capability) of system components utilised. In<br />
addition, these components require an assembly<br />
environment which fulfils the guidelines of technical<br />
cleanliness and also scores highly on ergonomic<br />
aspects. The customer may face difficulties in coming<br />
up with an economical solution to this complexity.<br />
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DCAM<br />
The automation specialists need to offer flexible<br />
assembly solutions for all grades, which can all<br />
be adapted to the current market situation: from<br />
components and manual work stations, up to semi<br />
or fully-automatic assembly systems. This flexibility<br />
specifically counteracts planning uncertainties and<br />
should be continually responsive to modification<br />
demands.<br />
One such guarantee of success is the “intelligent<br />
manual work station”, which can be flexibly<br />
adjusted to any economic situation and is<br />
particularly beneficial if automatization appears<br />
uneconomical. This is particularly relevant for<br />
E-<strong>mobility</strong> where production rate trends are<br />
difficult to predict. For the assembly of E-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
components, it is preferable to opt for a flexible,<br />
upgradeable assembly line with intelligent manual<br />
work stations which combine manual handling with<br />
top processing reliability.<br />
“In addition to our standardised manual work<br />
stations, we have developed automated, extremely<br />
flexible assembly cells of our DCAM product<br />
family. Equipped with one of our most modern<br />
screwdriving function modules, combined with<br />
high quality industrial spindle screwdrivers with<br />
a screw feeder, it will complete any screwdriving<br />
task. The modular assembly cell is particularly<br />
suitable for fluctuating production rates, diverse<br />
product ranges and short product life cycles. As<br />
a system solution, the DCAM combines efficiency<br />
with the best possible processing reliability. The<br />
modular, flexible platform concept, in combination<br />
with the freely programmable X-Y axles, justifies<br />
the implementation of this assembly cell for the<br />
most varied of assembly tasks”, says Jürgen Hierold,<br />
Sales Director at the machine builder Deprag in<br />
Amberg, Germany.<br />
A measure in attaining highest flexibility is the use<br />
of modular system concepts with standardised<br />
components. Deprag has a comprehensive module<br />
portfolio including sensor-controlled screwdrivers,<br />
feeding systems, controllers etc., all from a single<br />
source. These individual modules are already<br />
coordinated with each other, thereby saving time<br />
and effort in integration. The high flexibility means<br />
that assembly systems can be quickly adapted<br />
to the current market situation; counteracting<br />
planning uncertainties and quickly reacting to<br />
changing requirements.<br />
MANUAL<br />
WORKSTATION<br />
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113
Virtual Testing of ADAS and AV<br />
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SOLUTIONS CONSULTANCY TRAINING
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Abrasion and Particle<br />
Elimination<br />
ADAPTIVE DFS<br />
With regard to technical cleanliness the manufacturer<br />
has developed it’s own complete CleanFeed concept<br />
with specific CleanFeed components. This includes<br />
elements for low abrasion part feeding to minimise<br />
the accumulation of damaging particles from the<br />
outset. Low abrasion sword feeders are particularly<br />
gentle at sorting, separating and suppling fasteners.<br />
Sensors on the device automatically determine<br />
the number of strokes necessary so that stroke<br />
movement and therefore abrasion is kept to a<br />
minimum. Furthermore, hoppers help to keep<br />
a consistently low quantity of fasteners in the<br />
feeding system because fewer screws mean less<br />
contamination. However, because the generation<br />
of particles cannot be entirely eliminated, suction<br />
systems are also an effective method of creating<br />
cleanroom conditions. The “Particle Killer” targets and<br />
removes dirt particles before assembly and ejects<br />
them through a filter. A SFM-V vacuum screwdriving<br />
module on the other hand, uses suction to remove<br />
residual dirt directly from the screwdriving tool via<br />
additional vacuum sources. As well as modifications<br />
to the hardware, particle contamination is also<br />
combatted by intelligent adjustments managed by<br />
the controller, such as a reduction in speed during bit<br />
engagement with the screw head, at the same time<br />
averting wear and tear on the tool.<br />
Because productivity plays an essential role in the<br />
e-Mobility sector, Deprag has developed the ‘Cockpit’<br />
a new digital service, which facilitates an easy<br />
introduction to the interconnected factory.<br />
The software facilitates supervision and analysis<br />
of assembly tasks and provides analysis tools for<br />
continuous process optimisation and the recognition<br />
of trends. The data from a company’s various factory<br />
locations, their production lines and connected<br />
devices are collected centrally by the system. Data<br />
can even be collected from production locations<br />
spread throughout the world. The ‘Cockpit’ can be<br />
configured remotely through the ‘Internet of Things’<br />
and current operating data can be retrieved.<br />
This ensures early detection of potentials and<br />
swift reaction to any variations. When screwdriving<br />
processes are optimised in a timely manner less<br />
reworking is required, production time and quality<br />
improves, and products can be safeguarded or even<br />
enhanced. Whether it is used to connect screwdriving<br />
systems or smart tools – all processes can be<br />
monitored, analysed and optimised centrally.<br />
Stefan Müller, Head of Deprag Software Development,<br />
clarifies: “Our ‘Cockpit’ is a practical and extremely<br />
efficient development which operators can access at<br />
any time to get a clear overview of all our controllers”.<br />
Conclusion<br />
All customer specifications for E-<strong>mobility</strong> are fully<br />
satisfied by our standard components: processing<br />
reliability, flexibility, ESD-capability, technical<br />
cleanliness, ergonomics and economic efficiency.<br />
“With over 760 employees and representation in<br />
over 50 countries, we are constantly learning and the<br />
knowledge we have accumulated is what makes us<br />
a respected partner for the realisation of innovative<br />
automation concepts on a global scale. As well as<br />
full service in the field of screwdriving technology,<br />
feeding, controller and measurement technology, we<br />
incorporate the products in complex semi- or fully<br />
automatic assembly systems. Everything is available<br />
from a single source, from consultation to service and<br />
system maintenance”, Hierold concludes.<br />
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Design Constraints for<br />
EV Cooling Systems<br />
THERMAL<br />
MANAGEMENT<br />
Fritz Byle Project Manager at TLX Technologies explains the Discrete Proportional Valve System<br />
Designs for EV cooling systems are significantly more<br />
complicated and challenging than designs for ICE<br />
(Internal Combustion Engine) vehicles. EV cooling<br />
systems must accommodate several sources of heat<br />
generation in the vehicle (Figure 1) including:<br />
• Inverter electronics to control the motors used<br />
for the vehicle’s propulsion<br />
• Charging electronics (may or may not be<br />
integrated with inverter electronics)<br />
• Motor(s) used for vehicle propulsion and energy<br />
recovery<br />
• Vehicle propulsion (high voltage battery)<br />
Therefore, an optimal EV cooling system configuration<br />
is significantly different and more complex than what<br />
is required for ICE cooling applications. The method<br />
for controlling the coolant flow between components<br />
is one critical aspect of this type of cooling system.<br />
The main attributes of such a proportioning method<br />
are:<br />
• Predictable relationship between setting and flow<br />
(lack of hysteresis)<br />
• Zero steady-state power at any setpoint (energy<br />
efficiency)<br />
• Capable of fully shutting off flow (leak-free off<br />
state)<br />
• Fail-safe condition when power is lost (e.g., full<br />
open)<br />
Figure 1, EV Cooling Components<br />
In a typical EV drivetrain, each of these heat sources<br />
may require maximum flows of eight to ten liters<br />
of coolant per minute. Sizing the cooling system to<br />
accommodate concurrent maximum flows results in<br />
energy and weight penalties in the pumping system.<br />
Precisely controlling the flow of coolant to each heat<br />
source based on temperature feedback is a more<br />
efficient solution. This allows for a smaller capacity<br />
pump because different optimal setpoints can be<br />
established for each heat source. For example,<br />
inverter electronics can be operated at their optimal<br />
temperature of 40°C to 65°C while motors or the<br />
battery can be cooled further or allowed to run<br />
warmer as performance demands dictate. In addition,<br />
waste heat from electronics and motors can be<br />
recycled to provide cabin heat and/or warm the<br />
battery during cold weather operation. This can avoid<br />
or minimize electrical resistance heating, greatly<br />
reducing parasitic electrical loads.<br />
Issues with Extant<br />
Solutions<br />
The combination of the above attributes is not<br />
shared by any extant control valve. Specifically,<br />
valves that incorporate near-zero hysteresis, zero<br />
steady-state power, and a near-zero flow state are<br />
available (e.g., rotary valves actuated by stepper<br />
motors). In stepper-driven rotary valves, hysteresis<br />
is not truly zero but is determined by the<br />
repeatability of the step position and the backlash<br />
between the motor shaft and the valve element<br />
(backlash may be zero if the valve element is an<br />
integral part of the shaft). However, stepper-driven<br />
rotary valves have some undesirable attributes:<br />
1. A rotating seal is required on the stepper<br />
shaft. Rotating seals are prone to leakage.<br />
2. No fail-safe condition. If power is lost to the<br />
stepper, the valve will remain in the lastcommanded<br />
position.<br />
3. Stepper motors are relatively costly and can<br />
add substantial weight to a valve.<br />
4. A stepper motor controller is required.<br />
5. A position sensing/feedback system may be<br />
needed.<br />
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Figure 2, DPV Section<br />
Table 1, Three-Valve DPV States<br />
The DPV Concept as an<br />
Alternative<br />
Figure 3, DPV and Continuous Proportional Valve Performance Curves<br />
An alternative solution for enabling all the desired<br />
attributes while relying on a simpler valve actuation/<br />
control strategy is a discrete proportional valve (DPV).<br />
The DPV concept relies on intelligent combination of<br />
simple binary (on/off) solenoid valves (Figure 2). Two<br />
or more on/off valves with differing flow coefficients<br />
are combined in a single manifold to achieve a stepped<br />
approximation of a linear flow response. For example,<br />
a system of three valves gives 23 or eight possible flow<br />
states. The flow states can include a zero-flow state<br />
or a non-zero minimum flow state depending on the<br />
design. Table 1 shows the possible states for a 3-valve<br />
system where the individual valves are sized for flows<br />
of 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 volumes per unit time. Figure 3<br />
shows the resulting relationship between flow and<br />
valve command for such a system compared to the<br />
typical response of a continuous proportional valve.<br />
Referring to Figure 3, the blue curve reflects the typical<br />
performance of a continuous proportional valve. At<br />
0% command, the valve has some minimum flow due<br />
to bypass leakage. As the command is increased, there<br />
must be some built-in deadband to accommodate<br />
part-to-part variation in response. This is shown by<br />
the flat portion of the curve between 0% and 15%<br />
command. As command is further increased, the valve<br />
begins to open, and the flow response follows the<br />
lower blue curve. An upper deadband at 100% flow<br />
occurs, typically between 85% and 90% command.<br />
As the valve is commanded to reduce flow again, the<br />
response follows the upper blue curve. The difference<br />
between the upper and<br />
lower blue curves is the<br />
hysteresis of the system<br />
due to mechanical<br />
friction and magnetics.<br />
Hysteresis also increases<br />
the effective deadband<br />
at full flow.<br />
The orange curve in<br />
Figure 3 shows the<br />
response of a 3-valve<br />
DPV system. The<br />
response is stepped, and<br />
there is no hysteresis.<br />
By definition, a given<br />
command will always<br />
result in the same valve<br />
members opening, and<br />
thus the same flow<br />
coefficient. In addition,<br />
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e<strong>mobility</strong>.balzers@oerlikon.com<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
there is no requirement for either lower or upper<br />
deadbands. What appears to be a lower deadband is<br />
actually the controlled true off state. It can be designed<br />
as such or designed to be a minimum flow value such<br />
that there is always some flow through the system (to<br />
avoid pump damage, etc.).<br />
The DPV concept in its simplest form does require<br />
steady-state power. However, by incorporating a<br />
latching solenoid design into the valve actuator, the<br />
steady-state power requirement can be eliminated.<br />
Latching solenoids can be constructed by using<br />
permanent magnets or other means to hold the<br />
actuator latched. This eliminates power draw in any<br />
given steady state.<br />
A true zero-flow state is a native attribute of a DPV<br />
valve system (all valves off). Other implementations<br />
of proportional control can also provide effectively<br />
zero flow, however tight mechanical tolerances can be<br />
required, which raise the risk level related to debris<br />
sensitivity and wear. Tight mating tolerances also<br />
increase cost. The DPV concept achieves a zero-flow<br />
state without requiring this trade-off.<br />
DPV Control<br />
The control system to drive a DPV valve system can be<br />
implemented in essentially two ways:<br />
1. The control system is embedded in the valve system.<br />
Analog or digital input is used to command the<br />
system.<br />
2. Establish an electrical connection only to the DPV<br />
system. Control is centralized remotely.<br />
Schema (1) requires some intelligence be built into the<br />
valve system as well as power electronics to control<br />
each valve via an on-valve control board. This DPV<br />
control board would require a minimum of only three<br />
incoming wires: power, ground, and signal. The control<br />
board would translate the desired state, communicated<br />
on the signal line, into commands to the valves. The<br />
control board will also provide for the fail-safe state if it<br />
detects a loss of power.<br />
Schema (2) requires two wires for each valve in the DPV<br />
system. The control electronics can then be centralized.<br />
This increases the amount of wiring required but offers<br />
better environmental protection.<br />
In an actual vehicle application, some of the benefits<br />
of both options may be realized by co-locating multiple<br />
DPV systems on a manifold and locating the control<br />
electronics close by. Such a configuration would also be<br />
desirable from a fluidics perspective.<br />
The control electronics for a DPV system are inherently<br />
simple, requiring only a mapping of the desired flow to<br />
DPV state. The single complicating factor for DPV control<br />
is a result of the zero steady-state power. Opening a<br />
valve requires a forward current pulse; closing the same<br />
valve requires a reverse current pulse. The requirement<br />
for both polarities eliminates the possibility of a<br />
common ground and requires two independent<br />
connections to each valve. Even with remote electronics,<br />
however, the wiring requirements for a three-valve<br />
system are not prohibitive.<br />
Conclusions<br />
According to Dennis Jensen, Business Development<br />
Manager of Advanced Products at TLX Technologies<br />
“Adapting extant technologies to the new and everchanging<br />
advancements in e-<strong>mobility</strong> is often not<br />
the best solution. For example, the cooling systems<br />
for internal combustion engines are relatively simple<br />
and are not designed to deal with the widely-varied<br />
cooling needs from multiple heat sources found in<br />
electric vehicles. Therefore, adapting that technology<br />
to electric vehicles is not the most efficient or effective<br />
solution and can be counter-productive in the quest for<br />
increasing energy efficiency”.<br />
The simplicity and design flexibility of the discrete<br />
proportional valve (DPV) provides advantages that<br />
match the unique needs of EV cooling and energy<br />
management systems. While the DPV does not provide<br />
for smooth control of output, but rather stepped<br />
control, it alleviates the need for deadbands and<br />
eliminates hysteresis completely, simplifying control<br />
algorithms. Importantly, it is also a power-efficient<br />
solution in line with the demands of next generation<br />
EVs. The DPV also has the potential to enable further<br />
efficiency gains by recycling heat that otherwise would<br />
be rejected to the environment.<br />
TLX Technologies seeks to offer solutions that are<br />
designed and manufactured specifically for the<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> market. That is why we developed the<br />
discrete proportional valve (DPV). The DPV provides<br />
lightweight, customizable semi-proportional coolant<br />
flow with exceptional energy efficiency, a leak-free off<br />
state, fail-safe condition, and no hysteresis.<br />
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Trends and innovations<br />
in Electric Drive Units for<br />
lower cost and improved<br />
performance<br />
POWERTRAINS<br />
Electrification is entering a new market phase. At this<br />
turning point into its next chapter, a significant shift<br />
in focus for electrified vehicles can be observed. It is a<br />
shift away from technology feasibility demonstration,<br />
premium vehicles or small series development<br />
towards kick-off of mass production, technology<br />
commercialization and consequently more affordable<br />
and technology optimized vehicles. For some time,<br />
production volumes and customer acceptance of<br />
electric vehicles has widely increased as more and<br />
more vehicles have a sufficient driving range (>400<br />
km) and very good driving performance.<br />
Nevertheless, most current generation EVs are still<br />
considered to be too expensive or less attractive<br />
when compared with combustion engine cars.<br />
Consequently, a reduction in cost and improved<br />
performance is paramount to ensure successful and<br />
sustainable growth of the market.<br />
Integrated electric drive units (EDUs) combine electric<br />
machine, transmission, differential and usually<br />
the power inverter into one easy to install unit. In<br />
contrast to past EDUs with separate and standalone<br />
components, this integration has resulted in reduced<br />
weight and dimensions, fewer connections, cables<br />
& interfaces as well as an overall lower cost. Also,<br />
vehicle assembly is more efficient through the<br />
packaging advantage of an integrated EDU.<br />
Figure 1, EV Cooling Components<br />
120<br />
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Multiphase<br />
Integrated<br />
E-Drives<br />
EMC<br />
New Semi-<br />
Conductors<br />
SiC/GaN<br />
Diversified<br />
voltage<br />
ranges<br />
Cooling<br />
technology<br />
Figure 2 Main trends & innovations for power electronics to reduce cost & size and to increase efficiency &<br />
robustness<br />
In addition to integration, several other technology<br />
trends on the EDU sub-component level are expected<br />
to bring costs down and boost performance further<br />
to make EVs even more viable. New, faster and more<br />
efficiently switching semiconductors like SiC & GaN.<br />
are entering automotive applications or soon will do.<br />
Even though these new semiconductors are currently<br />
still more expensive than Si-based technologies,<br />
cost savings in other parts of the system due to their<br />
unique characteristics can compensate for the higher<br />
semiconductor cost. Examples include a reduction<br />
of DC link capacity, simpler cooling, fewer required<br />
EMC (electromagnetic compatibility) measures and a<br />
reduction in size.<br />
Multiphase approaches result in a reduction of<br />
phase currents enabling higher power applications<br />
at lower voltage levels, such as 48 V. Overall, a<br />
diversification in voltage levels will result in more<br />
cost optimized solutions because components<br />
can be better adapted to the specific performance<br />
requirements of the different vehicle applications.<br />
Greatest component availability currently exists<br />
for passenger cars around 400 V with low cost due<br />
to economies of scale for mainstream and mass<br />
volume vehicles. A strong short-term momentum<br />
for electrified vehicles market growth will come<br />
from 48 V based applications because of their safer<br />
voltage level, no/less isolation requirements as well<br />
as cheaper and simpler integration into existing IC<br />
based platforms. This offers a relatively fast and<br />
cost-efficient reduction of CO2 emissions for OEMs to<br />
comply with emission legislation. On the other side,<br />
800 V systems come with significant advantages such<br />
as minimized charging times enabling comfortable<br />
long-distance trips, highest power & torque but also<br />
lower weight and reduced dimensions of relevant<br />
powertrain components. Consequently, 800 V or<br />
higher is the preferred voltage level for performance<br />
and commercial BEVs.<br />
AVL pioneered this technology with a first 800 V<br />
based demonstration vehicle (AVL Coup-E 800) back<br />
in 2012 and has since then continuously evolved<br />
respective inverters, e-motors and EDUs. For some<br />
time now, AVL has experienced growing customer<br />
interest in 800 V not only for commercial vehicles but<br />
also for passenger cars.<br />
Considering increasing component power densities,<br />
EMC progressively faces more challenges to fulfill<br />
regulatory requirements, to maintain overall system<br />
reliability and at the same time to keep cost at the<br />
lowest feasible level. As a result, we see a clear need<br />
and trend to take EMC optimization into account at<br />
the earliest possible development phases. AVL has<br />
developed dedicated EMC simulation tools allowing<br />
early guidance and design optimizations for inverter<br />
developers to greatly reduce EMC issues. This is<br />
achieved through advanced inverter layouts and<br />
incorporation of passive but also active filters. The<br />
latter can contribute to significant cost and volume<br />
reduction compared to passive elements.<br />
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Multiphase<br />
Speed<br />
increase<br />
Winding<br />
technology<br />
Less rare<br />
earth<br />
materials<br />
Integrated<br />
E-Drivers<br />
Cooling<br />
techology<br />
Figure 3 Main trends & innovations for e-motors to reduce cost, size, less need of critical materials and<br />
increased performance<br />
Optimal electronic hardware cooling is critical for<br />
reliable performance and durability. Innovative<br />
cooling concepts (e.g. air-cooling or common cooling<br />
loops instead of separate cooling for inverter and<br />
e-motors in integrated EDUs) offer significant<br />
potential for overall system simplification and<br />
thereby cost and volume saving.<br />
All above trends and innovations on both EDU<br />
and component levels are likely to power a more<br />
accessible electrified future with the next generation<br />
of electric vehicles. Customers want short charging<br />
times and greatest possible vehicle range at an<br />
acceptable cost.<br />
The key to design and enable such EDUs are system<br />
understanding, methods and tools that support<br />
the design and innovations as described before.<br />
AVL offers the full range of simulation, testing,<br />
engineering capabilities and experience from past<br />
projects to successfully drive these innovations and<br />
bring them into the market.<br />
AVL is the technology development partner to<br />
not only engineer the propulsion technologies of<br />
tomorrow, but also to make them ready for series<br />
production utilizing the company’s global presence<br />
and independent access to a broad network of<br />
suppliers.<br />
Thomas Frey Head of E-drive/ Innovation, AVL<br />
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POWERTRAINS<br />
P2 hybrid modules<br />
enable flexible<br />
customer solutions<br />
and easy<br />
hybridization<br />
New environmental protection guidelines<br />
and stricter emission standards are the<br />
result of a growing sense of responsibility<br />
for climate protection. In the automotive<br />
industry, rigorous emissions regulations and<br />
the aim to achieve greater efficiency are<br />
driving innovations and the development of<br />
new <strong>mobility</strong> concepts. Current trends are, for<br />
example, autonomous driving and e-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
– a large number of hybrid and electric<br />
solutions are conquering the ever growing<br />
market.<br />
Various drivetrain architectures are available to<br />
automobile manufacturers for the design of mild<br />
and plug-in to full hybrids, ranging from a simple P0<br />
configuration to P1, P2, P3 and P4 to PS (power split).<br />
The P2 architecture, which is currently receiving a<br />
lot of attention in the industry, is positioning the<br />
electric motor between the transmission and the<br />
combustion engine. To disengage the combustion<br />
engine, this configuration uses a disconnect clutch<br />
enabling pure electric driving. The technology<br />
is suitable for various types of trans-missions,<br />
including manual transmissions.<br />
On-axis and off-axis P2<br />
module<br />
BorgWarner’s innovative technologies support<br />
manufacturers in hybridizing their vehicles by<br />
providing a wide range of functions and design<br />
options. The company’s portfolio includes two types<br />
of P2 hybrid modules (Fig. 1), which are easy to<br />
integrate into a drivetrain and can be tailored<br />
Fig. 1: BorgWarner’s P2<br />
modules enable purely<br />
electric driving, improve<br />
performance and optimize<br />
fuel efficiency.<br />
to customer requirements. An on-axis design with<br />
the electric motor integrated directly into the drive<br />
shaft or a configuration parallel to the axis can be<br />
used depending on the installation space available.<br />
The on-axis arrangement is ideal for powertrains with<br />
longitudinally mounted engines, with sufficient space<br />
for integrating the electric motor. Due to the axisencompassing<br />
design, torque transmission can be<br />
realized easily and cost-effectively.<br />
Configurations with transversely mounted engines and<br />
limited space often use off-axis configurations, which<br />
provide advantages in the transmission ratio and high<br />
flexibility in installation. In this solution, the rotational<br />
speed and torque are transmitted, for instance, by a<br />
chain (Fig. 2).<br />
Both architectures can be supported with normal<br />
pressure (about 20bar system pressure) or high<br />
pressure (up to 60bar system pressure) clutch layouts.<br />
Hydraulic control modules which exactly fit to these<br />
applications are available in the BorgWarner product<br />
portfolio, too.<br />
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Fig. 2: Placement of the electric engine<br />
in a on-axis (top) and off-axis (bottom)<br />
design.<br />
selecting the rotor design an interior permanent<br />
magnet (IPM), which is suitable for all stator designs,<br />
is preferable to an induction machine. It maintains<br />
the magnetic field without external excitation, thus<br />
increasing the overall performance and efficiency of<br />
the electric engine.<br />
Criteria for the module<br />
configuration<br />
When implementing various module configurations<br />
with electric engines not only space requirements<br />
but also the operating voltage, winding type and<br />
cooling system are relevant. An electric motor with a<br />
small diameter and high rotational speeds for better<br />
efficiency can be easily integrated within the off-axis<br />
solution. The on-axis design, on the other hand, is<br />
more suitable for a larger electric engine with lower<br />
rotational speeds and higher torque generation.<br />
There are two alternatives available for the operating<br />
voltage. Low-voltage systems offer a cost-effective<br />
solution and significant CO2 reductions. Sufficient<br />
power for pure electric driving is generated by highvoltage<br />
systems providing more than 100 kW. These<br />
are also characterized by the highest power savings<br />
potential. (Fig. 3).<br />
Not only the operating voltage, but also details<br />
such as the windings and wire shape influence the<br />
performance of the electric motor. Thanks to their<br />
low torque ripple and low cogging torque, distributed<br />
stator windings improve the Noise, Vibration, Harshness<br />
behavior (NVH) of the overall system. Ideally, a<br />
rectangular wire, which maximizes current density and<br />
improves heat transfer, acts as a conductor. When<br />
Various cooling solutions<br />
Depending on the operating conditions and<br />
temperatures, different types of cooling can be<br />
used for the electric motor. With oil cooling, the<br />
principal thermal components and the coolant<br />
are in direct contact. This process is very effective<br />
and achieves a continuous cooling capacity for<br />
constant average temperatures and ensures an ideal<br />
heat transfer. Cooling with a water-ethylene glycol<br />
mixture represents an alternative method in which<br />
significantly lower coolant inlet temperatures can be<br />
realized, which is at an advantage for dealing with<br />
temporary temperature peaks. The overall efficiency<br />
is slightly lower since the cooling medium itself is not<br />
direcly in contact with the heat source. The so-called<br />
outer cooling jacket dissipates the heat of the electric<br />
engine to the coolant via the stator.<br />
When both methods are combined, the waterethylene<br />
glycol mixture flows around the stator at<br />
an inlet temperature of only 65°C. Internally injected<br />
oil, which typically has a temperature of approx. 90°C<br />
due to gearbox operation, dissipates the heat from<br />
the rotor. This approach achieves high efficiency in<br />
normal operation and very good performance at<br />
peak temperatures. However, the use of an additional<br />
cooling jacket often comes at significantly higher<br />
costs. For this reason, the cooling capacity actually<br />
required to meet the target should be carefully<br />
examined in the design phase.<br />
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Fig. 3: Individual solutions thanks to different advantages<br />
of high- and low-voltage electric engines.<br />
Types of coupling<br />
In a P2 hybridization configuration, different types of<br />
couplings can be used to separate the combustion<br />
engine from the rest of the drivetrain. Due to its small<br />
size and low cost, combined with high efficiency, a<br />
freewheel is particularly suitable for applications<br />
where space is critical and applications are trimmed<br />
for maximum efficiency. Functional disadvantages<br />
can be avoided mainly by using multi-disc clutches.<br />
Especially wet friction plate clutches, which are<br />
characterized by a combination of high functionality<br />
and compactness as well as durability, are particularly<br />
suitable for this.<br />
If the transmission architecture employs a dual<br />
clutch basic transmission, the disconnect clutch as<br />
well as the dual clutch can even be integrated into<br />
a complete module along with the electric motor,<br />
resulting in many advantages. The triple clutch thus<br />
generated leads to a further significant reduction<br />
in installation space requirements and is currently<br />
becoming the most popular configuration in this<br />
transmission segment.<br />
Summary<br />
The P2 configuration represents one of the most<br />
future-proof hybridization architectures that<br />
manufacturers can employ to speed up their vehicles’<br />
readiness for the market. The bonus: It offers easyto-use,<br />
cost-effective electrification options and can<br />
be flexibly adapted to customer specifications. It also<br />
enables hybrid functionalities such as stop-start,<br />
regenerative braking, electric motor charging and<br />
pure electric driving. Manufacturers can hybridize<br />
existing power trains at low additional costs because<br />
neither the engine nor the transmission need to be<br />
modified or even replaced on a large scale.<br />
BorgWarner’s technology combines efficiency,<br />
flexibility in design options and durability, thus<br />
making a significant contribution to the success of<br />
hybridized vehicles.<br />
Author:<br />
Eckart Gold Engineering Director at<br />
Borg Warner Transmission Systems in<br />
Shanghai, China.<br />
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Intelligent Power<br />
POWER<br />
ELECTRONICS<br />
Modules accelerate<br />
transition to<br />
SiC-based<br />
Electric Motion<br />
New fast switching Silicon Carbide (SiC) Power Transistors<br />
are now widely available as discrete devices or bare die.<br />
Their low on-resistance at high blocking voltages, high<br />
switching speed and thermal performance allows system<br />
engineers to achieve significant gains in size, weight<br />
and efficiency for motor drives and battery chargers<br />
whilst anticipating a continuous drop in SiC devices<br />
pricing. However, an important brake for the adoption of<br />
SiC in high power applications is the availability of welloptimized<br />
power modules as well as the learning curve in<br />
reliably driving them. Intelligent Power Modules answer<br />
both challenges by offering highly integrated and plugin-play<br />
solutions accelerating time-to-market and saving<br />
engineering resources.<br />
Pierre Delatte, CTO, CISSOID<br />
This article discusses the benefits of selecting<br />
CISSOID’s 3-Phase 1200V SiC MOSFET Intelligent<br />
Power Module (IPM) scalable platform for power<br />
converter designs in E-<strong>mobility</strong> applications. This<br />
low-loss technology offers a fully integrated solution<br />
including a 3-Phase water-cooled SiC MOSFET power<br />
module with built-in gate drivers. This article not only<br />
presents the electrical and thermal characteristics of<br />
the power modules but also discusses the support<br />
they bring to fully benefit from SiC advantages. There,<br />
a key element is the gate driver and its ability to drive<br />
safely and reliably the SiC MOSFETs.<br />
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Figure 1. CXT-PLA3SA12450<br />
3-Phase 1200V/450A SiC<br />
MOSFET Intelligent Power<br />
Module<br />
Low losses & enhanced<br />
thermal robustness translate<br />
into higher power density<br />
CXT-PLA3SA12450 is part of a scalable platform ranging<br />
from 300A to 600A per phase. This 3-Phase 1200V/450A<br />
SiC MOSFET IPM features low conduction losses,<br />
with 3.25mOhms on-resistance, and low switching<br />
losses, with 7.8mJ turn-on and 8mJ turn-off energies<br />
at 600V/300A (see Table). It cuts losses by at least a<br />
factor of three with respect to state-of-the-art IGBT<br />
power modules. The module is water-cooled through<br />
a lightweight AlSiC pin-fin baseplate for a junction-tofluid<br />
thermal resistance of 0.15°C/W. The power module<br />
is rated for junction temperatures up to 175°C while<br />
its gate driver operates up to 125°C ambient. The IPM<br />
withstands isolation voltages up to 3600V (50Hz, 1min).<br />
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3D models & trusted thermal characteristics enable<br />
fast power converter design<br />
A great benefit of this IPM is the high level of<br />
integration of the power module with its gate driver<br />
and cooling AlSiC pin fin baseplate. This allows a rapid<br />
mechanical integration with the other elements of<br />
the power converter such as the DC bus capacitor and<br />
the cooling system as shown in Figure 2. The system<br />
designer may save a lot of time having access to an<br />
accurate a 3D model of the IPM including the gate<br />
driver right from the very beginning.<br />
Having the conduction and switching losses of the<br />
power module fully characterized together with a fully<br />
optimized gate driver reduces the thermal<br />
design space and possible iterations in the<br />
optimization of the power converters.<br />
Figure 2. Co-integration of CXT-PLA3SA12450 IPM with<br />
DC Bus capacitor and liquid cooler<br />
Based on the junction-to-fluid thermal<br />
resistance of 0.15°C/W per switch<br />
position, with a flow rate of 10l/min<br />
(50% ethylene glycol, 50% water) and an<br />
inflow temperature of 75°C, the maximum<br />
continuous drain current derating versus<br />
the case temperature can be calculated.<br />
This is based on the on-resistance at<br />
maximum Tj, and the maximum operating<br />
Tj, and is shown in Figure 3.<br />
If the maximum continuous drain current<br />
is a standard characteristic useful to<br />
compare the current rating of power<br />
modules, a more realistic Figure-of-Merit<br />
(FoM) is probably the RMS phase current<br />
versus the switching frequency as shown<br />
in Figure 4 for the CXT-PLA3SA12450. It is<br />
calculated for a DC bus voltage of 600V, case<br />
temperature of 90°C, junction temperature<br />
of 175°C and 50% duty cycle. This FoM is<br />
more useful to understand the applicability<br />
of the module. With this Intelligent Power<br />
Module platform being scalable, Figure 4<br />
also extrapolates the safe operating area of<br />
1200V/600A module (dashed line).<br />
Figure 3. CXT-PLA3SA12450 maximum Continuous Drain Current<br />
versus the case temperature.<br />
Figure 4. Phase current (Arms) versus switching frequency (Conditions: VDC=600V, Tc=90°C, Tj
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Robust SiC Gate Drivers<br />
enable fast switching and<br />
low losses<br />
The CXT-PLA3SA12450 3-phase gate driver leverages<br />
on the experience gained with single-phase SiC gate<br />
drivers, e.g. CMT-TIT8243 [1, 2] and CMT-TIT0697 [3]<br />
designed respectively for 62mm 1200V/300A and<br />
fast-switching XM3 1200V/450A SiC MOSFET power<br />
modules (see Figure 5). The 3-phase gate driver<br />
has been optimized to fit on top of CXT-PLA3SA12450<br />
power module thanks to a more compact transformer<br />
module or creepage distances compliant with<br />
pollution degree 2. The CXT-PLA3SA12450 gate driver<br />
also includes a DC bus voltage monitoring function.<br />
As for CMT-TIT8243 and CMT-TIT0697, the CXT-<br />
PLA3SA12450 gate driver board has been designed for<br />
a maximum ambient operating temperature of 125°C.<br />
All the components have been carefully selected and<br />
sized to be suitable for operation at this temperature.<br />
It also relies on CISSOID’s high temperature gate<br />
driver chipset [4, 5] and a power transformer module<br />
optimized for low parasitic capacitance (10pF<br />
typically) to minimize common mode currents at high<br />
dV/dt and for high operating temperature.<br />
Figure 5. CMT-<br />
TIT0697 Gate<br />
Driver Board<br />
for fastswitching<br />
XM3<br />
1200V/450A SiC<br />
MOSFET Power<br />
Module<br />
The CXT-PLA3SA12450 gate driver still has headroom<br />
to support the power module scalability. The<br />
module has a total gate charge of 910nC. At 25KHz,<br />
the average gate current is equal to 22.75mA. This is<br />
well below the 95mA maximum current capability of<br />
the on-board isolated DC-DC converter. The current<br />
capability and gate charge of the power module<br />
can thus be increased, without gate driver board<br />
modifications. With the populated gate resistors, the<br />
actual max dV/dt is in the range of 10 to 20 KV/µs. The<br />
gate driver has been designed to be immune to dV/<br />
dt up to 50KV/µs, offering margin in terms of dV/dt<br />
robustness.<br />
Gate Driver Protections improve<br />
system functional safety<br />
Gate Driver protection functions are critical to<br />
guarantee the safe operation of the power module.<br />
This is particularly true when driving fast-switching<br />
SiC transistors. The CXT-PLA3SA12450 gate driver<br />
offers the following protection functions:<br />
• Undervoltage Lockout (UVLO): CXT-PLA3SA12450<br />
Gate Driver monitors primary & secondary<br />
voltages and reports a fault when below a<br />
programmed voltage.<br />
• Anti-overlap: avoids simultaneous turn-on of<br />
both high-side and low-side to prevent short<br />
circuit of the power half bridge.<br />
• Protection against any short-circuit at secondary:<br />
isolated DC-DC converter cycle-by-cycle current<br />
limitation protect the gate driver against any<br />
short-circuit (e.g. gate-source short-circuit).<br />
• Glitch filter: suppresses glitches on incoming<br />
PWM signals which might be due to common<br />
mode currents.<br />
• Active Miller Clamping (AMC): implements a<br />
bypassing of the negative gate resistor after<br />
turn-off to protect the power MOSFETs against<br />
parasitic turn-on.<br />
• Desaturation detection: at turn-on, checks after<br />
blanking time that the power MOSFET drainsource<br />
voltage is below a threshold.<br />
• Soft Shut-down: in case of fault, a slow turn-off of<br />
the power transistor is implemented to minimize<br />
overshoots due to high dI/dt.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Silicon Carbide (SiC) Intelligent Power Modules<br />
(IPM) provide system designers with an optimized<br />
solution accelerating their power converter design.<br />
The co-integration of driving and cooling functions<br />
offers trustable electrical and thermal characteristics<br />
from the start reducing the long learning curve often<br />
associated with this still relatively new technology.<br />
This new scalable IPM platform will support<br />
new adopters of SiC technology for E-<strong>mobility</strong><br />
applications.<br />
References<br />
[1] CMT-TIT8243: 1200V High Temperature (125°C) Half-Bridge SiC MOSFET Gate<br />
Driver Datasheet : http://www.cissoid.com/files/files/products/titan/CMT-<br />
TIT8243.pdf<br />
[2] P. Delatte “A High Temperature Gate Driver for Half Bridge SiC MOSFET<br />
62mm Power Modules”, Bodo’s Power Systems, p54, September 2019<br />
[3] CMT-TIT0697: 1200V High Temperature (125°C) Half-Bridge SiC MOSFET Gate<br />
Driver Datasheet : http://www.cissoid.com/files/files/products/titan/CMT-<br />
TIT0697.pdf<br />
[4] High Temperature Gate Driver Primary Side IC Datasheet: DC-DC Controller<br />
& Isolated Signal Transceivers http://www.cissoid.com/files/files/products/<br />
titan/CMT-HADES2P-High-temperature-Isolated-Gate-driver-Primary-side.pdf<br />
[5] High Temperature Gate Driver -Secondary Side IC Datasheet: Driver &<br />
Protection Functions http://www.cissoid.com/files/files/products/titan/CMT-<br />
HADES2S-High-temperature-Gate-Driver-Secondary-side.pdf<br />
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Virtual Testing of ADAS<br />
& AV Systems<br />
Mike Dempsey<br />
ADAS<br />
Edge Case<br />
Simulations<br />
Cars today are delivered with a plethora of advanced<br />
driver assistance systems (ADAS) such as lane keeping<br />
assistance, adaptive cruise control, automated<br />
emergency braking and much more. These systems<br />
are very complex and expensive to develop and yet<br />
the customer perception and experience with them is<br />
often quite negative.<br />
There are a number of factors to explain this:<br />
customer expectations often exceed what the systems<br />
are designed to do and it’s difficult to explain the<br />
limitations in clear, easily understandable terms.<br />
Another issue is that the systems are developed to<br />
meet the regulatory requirements but these test cases<br />
do not reflect the real world in which they need to<br />
perform.<br />
What does this have to do<br />
with simulation and edge<br />
cases?<br />
Well, if we want to develop our ADAS features to<br />
perform better in the real world we need to be able to<br />
test them in scenarios that are representative of the<br />
real world. However, it is difficult to safely recreate<br />
real world scenarios on a physical proving ground.<br />
For instance, we don’t really want to risk crashing our<br />
prototype vehicle into another vehicle during a test.<br />
But the real challenge is the number of edge cases<br />
that need to be considered. We define an edge case<br />
as a scenario that is individually unlikely but when<br />
considered together, they make up all the risk.<br />
Autonomous vehicle developers now recognise that to<br />
achieve commercial viability their systems will need<br />
to be trained, tested and validated on a huge number<br />
of edge cases. Similarly, for ADAS features it is<br />
increasingly apparent that they need to be developed<br />
and validated on the relevant set of edge cases.<br />
At Claytex we have been developing autonomous<br />
vehicle simulators that are designed to support the<br />
testing, training and validation of the vehicle systems.<br />
We focus on scenario-based testing of the complete<br />
system, which means we combine vehicle dynamics,<br />
sensor models, control systems and a detailed<br />
virtual world complete with traffic and pedestrians<br />
to challenge the vehicle. ADAS developers can, and<br />
should, utilise the same simulation technology as<br />
they are using the same sensors and control methods.<br />
The type of simulation tool that you need to<br />
effectively test an ADAS feature or AV controller is<br />
quite different to the simulation tools that have<br />
been used for the past 10-20 years of vehicle<br />
development. These are complex closed loop systems<br />
where simplifications in any one part of the system<br />
model can have a significant impact on the overall<br />
capability of the system. For example, if you have a<br />
great vehicle dynamics model with the real control<br />
system but use a smooth road and basic animation<br />
then it won’t present a representative scene to the<br />
perception sensors which in turn means the object<br />
detection will find it easy to identify and track targets.<br />
The end result is that you will be limited in how much<br />
you can use the simulation tools to develop, test and<br />
validate your system.<br />
Figure 1: Block<br />
diagram of ADAS<br />
and AV appropriate<br />
simulator<br />
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Our simulators are built around rFpro which is a driving<br />
simulation tool and provides our virtual environment.<br />
A unique feature of rFpro, compared to traditional<br />
driving simulation solutions, is that it allows driving<br />
simulation to be used to test the vehicle dynamics of<br />
road vehicles. By delivering a high-resolution road<br />
surface in real time, while generating accurate, realistic<br />
graphics without lag, professional test drivers may<br />
contribute to the engineering process while the car<br />
design is still model-based.<br />
The vehicle model can be developed using any of<br />
the major vehicle dynamics tools including Dymola,<br />
CarMaker, CarSim, Simulink and many more. At Claytex,<br />
we favour the use of Dymola as this allows our vehicle<br />
model to include more than just the suspension,<br />
we can also model the powertrain, battery, thermal<br />
management and all the other vehicle systems.<br />
rFpro has the industry’s largest library of digital twins<br />
of public roads, test tracks and proving grounds,<br />
spanning North America, Asia and Europe. These<br />
include multi-lane highways, urban, rural, mountain<br />
routes and automotive proving grounds, all replicated<br />
faithfully from the real world using their unique 3D<br />
reconstruction process.<br />
For drivers testing aspects of vehicle dynamics, these<br />
models come with accurately modelled digital road<br />
surfaces, built from kinetic LiDAR surveys, using rFpro’s<br />
TerrainServer to map the entire drivable surface to<br />
a 1cm grid along, and across, the road. Every bump,<br />
ripple and discontinuity will find its way through your<br />
tyre model into your vehicle under test.<br />
What this means for ADAS and AV development is that<br />
we can develop the vehicle dynamics model and test<br />
scenes to have a very high level of correlation between<br />
the real and virtual world. This ensures that the motion<br />
and related noise sources that affect the sensors is<br />
captured in the simulation.<br />
Physics-based sensor models<br />
ADAS and AV systems rely on their perception sensors<br />
to detect and understand the world around them.<br />
They typically use a suite of different types of sensor<br />
including camera, LiDAR and radar to measure the real<br />
world and sensor fusion within the control system<br />
to interpret the data. Detailed sensor models are<br />
required to support the development of these systems<br />
as when ideal sensors are used it becomes too easy<br />
for the systems to identify and understand the scenes<br />
and react. This leads to, for example, automated<br />
emergency braking systems being able to identify<br />
pedestrians much earlier in the ideal simulation<br />
compared to the real world which could lead you down<br />
the wrong development path.<br />
Our camera sensors rely on the rendering capabilities<br />
of rFpro which supports both real-time and non-realtime<br />
simulation modes. When running in real-time<br />
mode we can easily achieve full HD resolutions at<br />
60fps, typically our driving simulators run at even<br />
higher resolutions and frame rates. Camera sensors<br />
can be calibrated to include lens distortion and tone<br />
mapping effects that enable the simulation to match<br />
the real camera you are using.<br />
Figure 2:<br />
Simulation<br />
of an RCCC<br />
camera<br />
with lens<br />
distortion<br />
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Claytex has developed detailed LiDAR and radar<br />
models that include environmental and weather<br />
effects. For example, our real-time model of the<br />
Velodyne Puck LiDAR sensor runs at 325 frames-persecond<br />
and its position is updated at each frame<br />
based on the underlying vehicle dynamics model and<br />
rotational speed of the sensor. The weather model<br />
has been developed using real test data to determine<br />
the effect of rain, and other weather effects such<br />
as fog, on range accuracy, intensity and number of<br />
returns.<br />
The end result is that the sensor models are capable<br />
of generating representative data feeds that include<br />
the appropriate noise features. To support the<br />
training and validation of the perception systems<br />
these data feeds are backed up with a wealth of<br />
data such as depth maps, bounding box information,<br />
object velocities and much more.<br />
Figure 3: Velodyne Ultra-Puck sensor model output from<br />
simulation of a complex scenario<br />
Scenario based testing<br />
Harnessing all this simulation power in an effective<br />
way is challenging and scenario-based testing is<br />
the most appropriate way when working on the<br />
development of the control systems. Scenariobased<br />
testing means that we have a way to specify<br />
every aspect of the test including the scenery, static<br />
objects such as traffic cones, dynamic objects such as<br />
traffic and pedestrians, weather conditions and the<br />
intended path for the ego vehicle. Taken together a<br />
specific combination of these define a scenario.<br />
This presents another big challenge which is the<br />
definition and management of the scenarios within<br />
some form of database. For instance, if we consider a<br />
generic scenario where a pedestrian steps out in front<br />
of a moving vehicle then there are a huge number of<br />
parameter variations that we might need to consider<br />
such as the basic mechanics of the scenario: vehicle<br />
speed, distance from the vehicle to the pedestrian<br />
when they step out, other traffic and parked cars; but<br />
there are other factors such as time of day, weather<br />
conditions, pedestrian clothing. This very quickly<br />
leads to a huge number of potential scenarios from<br />
one simple conceptual scenario.<br />
As part of a collaborative R&D project we are working<br />
with several partners on novel approaches to the<br />
management of the scenarios and how we go about<br />
testing and assessing the performance of your system<br />
to identify any weak points without having to test<br />
every possible parameter combination for every<br />
conceivable scenario which is impractical.<br />
Figure 4: Test scenario including pedestrians and parked<br />
cars after a short shower has made the road surface wet<br />
Figure 5: Same test scenario replayed at night which<br />
presents a different challenge to the perception systems<br />
To summarise<br />
The effective development of ADAS features to meet<br />
real world usage requirements can be enabled<br />
through simulation but you will find that the tools you<br />
need are more complex and need to integrate every<br />
aspect of the system performance. This migration<br />
to new and improved simulation tools to support<br />
ADAS development is perhaps even more important<br />
in a post-Covid world where physical testing has<br />
become even more complicated with additional safety<br />
requirements related to social distancing.<br />
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135
POWER<br />
ELECTRONICS<br />
New PCB technologies enabling<br />
New Electrical Power Applications<br />
Highlighting the possibilities of PCB technology in the<br />
field of power electronic substrates.<br />
Authors:<br />
T. Gottwald,<br />
Dr. Manuel Martina,<br />
Christian Rößle of<br />
Schweizer Electronics<br />
Glossary<br />
MOSFET:<br />
Metal-Oxide-<br />
Semiconductor Field-<br />
Effect Transistor<br />
PCB:<br />
Printed Circuit Board<br />
DBC/DCB:<br />
Direct Bonded Copper /<br />
Direct Copper Bonding<br />
SMT:<br />
Surface Mount<br />
<strong>Technology</strong><br />
GaN:<br />
Gallium nitride<br />
SiC:<br />
Silicon carbide<br />
Al2O3:<br />
Aluminum oxide<br />
AlN:<br />
Aluminum nitride<br />
Si3N4:<br />
Silicon nitride<br />
CTE:<br />
Coefficient of thermal<br />
The transition from mechanical to electrical power brings new challenges to<br />
manufacturers and requires new solutions for the electrical system, where the PCB<br />
(Printed Circuit Board) is of crucial importance.<br />
High currents, heat dissipation of power electronic components, low inductances<br />
and miniaturization needs are only a few of the requirements that lead to<br />
innovative solutions on PCB level.<br />
Chip embedding technologies are meanwhile used to embed thin bare dies of<br />
Power Semiconductors into the PCB which leads to powerful alternatives to<br />
conventional power electronic modules.<br />
Introduction<br />
The global warming and the pressure on<br />
CO2 reduction led to an increasing ratio<br />
of Renewable Energy from wind power<br />
plants and solar energy systems. As<br />
these sources must be connected to the<br />
power grid DC to AC, AC to DC, DC to DC<br />
converters and the like are applications<br />
of growing volume. Because the energy<br />
of renewable sources tends to be more<br />
costly, the total systems´ efficiency is<br />
crucial.<br />
Due to the same reason the Automotive<br />
Industry is under legislative pressure<br />
to achieve their CO2 reduction targets.<br />
That’s why hybrid and electrical<br />
drive is bringing momentum to the<br />
development of new solutions for<br />
the electrification of automotive<br />
applications. High power demand<br />
leads to increasing challenges for high<br />
current and for thermal management of<br />
dissipated power losses as well.<br />
The power conversion is done with<br />
power semiconductors which have to<br />
be assembled on a substrate. This can<br />
either be a power module made from<br />
Ceramic substrates like Direct Bonded<br />
Copper (DBC/DCB) or with a Printed<br />
Circuit Board (PCB).<br />
The task of the substrate is to manage<br />
high currents, high heat dissipation and<br />
high switching frequencies to support<br />
the electrical conversion of energy in<br />
the best way.<br />
Over the last few years PCBs<br />
achieved an increasing share in these<br />
applications as they typically have a<br />
cost advantage over Ceramics. PCBs<br />
offer the opportunity to manage the<br />
power stage and the control board in<br />
one single substrate while Ceramic<br />
power stages always need to have<br />
an additional control board and the<br />
related interconnection architecture like<br />
plugs and cables.<br />
This article highlights the possibilities<br />
of PCB technology in the field of power<br />
electronic substrates.<br />
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Fig. 1: 6-layer multilayer PCB with 4 inner layers, 400 µm<br />
copper each.<br />
1. Heavy copper PCBs<br />
Heavy copper PCBs have been used in the automotive<br />
industry for a long time, e.g. for fuse- and relay boxes.<br />
This technology experiences a revival as the electrical<br />
power increases in many applications. The technology<br />
is also useful to reduce the parasitic inductance of the<br />
conductors by using the heavy copper layers as power<br />
lines which can be stacked one above the other in a<br />
heavy copper multilayer.<br />
Up to 4 layers made from 400 µm (12 oz) Copper<br />
can be realized in the inner layers, which leads to a<br />
potential ampacity of more than 1000 A. The outer<br />
layers of such a heavy copper multilayer should be<br />
kept below 150 µm. Otherwise additional effort must<br />
be made for the solder mask process to achieve a safe<br />
electrical insulation.<br />
2. Power Combi-Board<br />
The disadvantage of heavy copper PCB technology<br />
is the incompatibility with fine pitch structures<br />
which cannot be etched with heavy copper.<br />
A power electronic system typically consists of a<br />
power stage with heavy copper design and a separate<br />
control board with standard copper thickness for<br />
SMT assembly. The installation space must be large<br />
enough to host both boards and the connectors<br />
between the two boards.<br />
With the Power Combi Board, a combination of both<br />
requirements can be achieved. Heavy copper is<br />
partially installed in the inner layers beside standard<br />
copper construction. The electrical connection of the<br />
whole board is carried out with one common outer<br />
layer in SMT compatible copper thickness.<br />
For heat dissipation the insulation layer between the<br />
heavy copper layers are a barrier for optimal heat<br />
transportation in z-axis. Heavy copper PCB technology<br />
should therefor preferably be used to manage high<br />
currents. Therefore, If heat dissipation is important<br />
for the application, other technologies should also be<br />
considered like the Inlay technology.<br />
Fig.2: Power Combi Board: Heavy copper beside standard copper thickness for power and control in one PCB<br />
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3. Insulated Metal Substrates<br />
(IMS)<br />
An Insulated Metal Substrate typically consists of a<br />
metal heat sink, a thin insulation layer and a single<br />
copper layer on top. The construction is useful for<br />
simple designs which host a lot of heat generating<br />
components. For more complex components it is not<br />
possible to do the routing with one layer only.<br />
Today IMS substrates can also be manufactured<br />
with more than one layer to enable the combination<br />
of higher complexity layouts with optimized heat<br />
dissipation.<br />
The typical Aluminum back is a light weight but also<br />
a high CTE metal. To increase the reliability of the<br />
assembled components Copper was introduced as<br />
heat sink metal on the back side. This also improves<br />
the thermal capacity and other characteristic as<br />
shown in Fig. 4<br />
4. Inlay <strong>Technology</strong><br />
For minimizing the thermal resistance from the power<br />
components to the heat sink the shortest way will<br />
lead to the lowest thermal resistance. In most cases<br />
the heat is dissipated in z-axis from the assembled<br />
top side of a PCB through the board to a heat sink,<br />
which is installed at the bottom. By laminating a<br />
massive copper element into the PCB, the thermal<br />
resistance can be reduced<br />
dramatically. If the Inlay<br />
is not only used for heat<br />
dissipation but also for<br />
high currents the lowest<br />
ohmic resistance can also<br />
be achieved.<br />
Fig 5: Top: Top and bottom side of an inlay board for<br />
1200 A peak currents. Bottom: Cross section through an<br />
inlay board with 2 mm thick copper inlays in the inner<br />
structure.<br />
Fig. 3: Insulated Metal substrate with copper<br />
back<br />
5. Embedding <strong>Technology</strong><br />
When it comes to highest performance requirements<br />
and lowest installation space, conventional solutions<br />
encounter limitations regarding installation space<br />
and power density. Miniaturization was the first driver<br />
for embedding because space savings are possible<br />
if some of the components are installed inside the<br />
PCB instead of the outer<br />
surface.<br />
To improve heat<br />
dissipation from the inside<br />
of the PCB to the heat sink<br />
Schweizer Electronic [3]<br />
and Infineon Technologies<br />
[4] developed the socalled<br />
p² Pack® <strong>Technology</strong><br />
Fig.4: Comparison of characteristics Copper vs. Aluminum<br />
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which uses a power semiconductor assembled in a<br />
lead frame which acts as a heat spreader and reduces<br />
the thermal resistance significantly. The top side<br />
contacts are connected with a heavy copper layer<br />
using copper filled micro vias which replace the bond<br />
wires, which typically are used in conventional power<br />
modules. With this technology not only the heat<br />
dissipation but also electrical parameters could be<br />
improved as follows.<br />
Electrical performance<br />
On State Resistance: The part of the package<br />
resistance associated with the bond wires is virtually<br />
eliminated with chip embedding. The exact value<br />
depends on the respective semiconductor technology<br />
generation, the voltage class, and the semiconductor<br />
package.<br />
Thermal Resistance: Due to the excellent heat<br />
spreading which is achieved with a lead frame in<br />
p² Pack technology the systems thermal resistance<br />
significantly improves. Also, the thermal impedance<br />
and therefor the robustness of the devices is<br />
therefore improved due to the thermal capacity of<br />
the lead frame.<br />
Switching performance: Low parasitic inductance<br />
is achieved as a result of the almost flat connection<br />
between the top of the chip and the vias, and short<br />
distances between the DC-link capacitors and power<br />
semiconductors. This enables faster switching, with<br />
lower losses especially with fast switching devices<br />
like GaN and SiC semiconductors.<br />
Miniaturization: Many systems for current and<br />
future applications need to be shrinked while<br />
simultaneously providing additional functionality.<br />
Chip embedding can save valuable space on PCB<br />
level.<br />
Higher Reliability: Replacing bond wires or DCB<br />
ceramics substantially increases reliability. In power<br />
cycling tests with a temperature difference dT of 120<br />
K, designs were able to withstand more than 700,000<br />
active cycles.<br />
System Cost Reduction: With savings on plug<br />
connectors and cables, optimized cooling, reductions<br />
in required chip surface areas for power components,<br />
smaller passive components, fewer EMC issues, the<br />
insulation already built in and overall space savings,<br />
system cost savings are considerable.<br />
Figure 6: Cross section of a Smart p² Pack<br />
power PCB (top) and a half bridge (bottom).<br />
Fig. 7: Inverter PCB in Smart p² Pack<br />
<strong>Technology</strong>. Top: partly X-Ray image<br />
showing the Standard Cells in top view.<br />
Bottom: Cross section of Smart p² Pack showing<br />
the embedded Standard Cells in side<br />
view.<br />
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139
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Find out more at www.deprag.com
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Roadmap to high voltage<br />
and Wide Bandgap<br />
Semiconductors<br />
PCB embedding technologies like the p² Pack<br />
technology will enhance the performance of<br />
power electronic applications. Due to its´ very low<br />
parasitic inductance this new technology supports<br />
low loss switching at high frequencies which is of<br />
utmost importance when so called wide band gap<br />
semiconductors come into play. The next generation<br />
of Automotive drives, which will be equipped with SiC<br />
and with GaN devices, is already in development and<br />
showing outstanding results. [2]<br />
With a built-in insulation it will be possible to<br />
assemble the Smart p² Pack directly on the Heat sink.<br />
The TIM (Thermal Interface Material) can be chosen<br />
either as electrically non-conductive or as electrically<br />
conductive material.<br />
Additional features<br />
Standardization and modularization are important<br />
factors for the success of a new technology. Therefore,<br />
half bridge designs were built as demonstrators with<br />
current sensing by using shunt elements for the<br />
measurement of the phase current of an electrical<br />
motor. As shunts are relatively large components,<br />
miniaturization efforts are supported while reliability<br />
improves: Solder joints are replaced by micro – vias<br />
for the connection to the board.<br />
By embedding the shunt into the p² Pack the heat<br />
dissipation from the shunt is improved dramatically<br />
which increases the possibility to use shunts for<br />
current measurements even for very high currents e.g.<br />
300 A per phase.<br />
Conclusions<br />
New PCB technologies have the potential to support<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> systems by minimizing form factors,<br />
increasing the systems´ performance and by reducing<br />
the system cost when determined on system level.<br />
The embedding of power electronic devices is able<br />
to replace conventional power modules, which<br />
also improves system performance and reliability<br />
significantly and is useful for low voltage applications<br />
with highest currents as well as for wide band gap<br />
devices in high voltage applications. [2], [5]<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
The authors acknowledge the contribution of Infineon<br />
Technologies AG and the Schweizer Electronics’ Innovations<br />
Team to this work.<br />
References<br />
[1] Adrian Röhrich and Christian Rössle, Chip Embedding<br />
of Power Semiconductors in Power Circuit Boards, ATZ<br />
elektronics worldwide, 06/2018<br />
[2] C. Marczok, M. Martina, M. Laumen, S. Richter, A. Birkhold,<br />
B. Flieger, O. Wendt, T. Päsler: SiC modul - Modular hightemperature<br />
SiC power electronics for fail-safe power<br />
control in electrical drive engineering. Proceedings CIPS<br />
<strong>2020</strong>, 11th International Conference on Integrated Power<br />
Electronics Systems<br />
[3] https://www.schweizer.ag/de/produkteundloesungen/<br />
embedding/p2_Pack.html<br />
[4] https://www.infineon.com/cms/en/about-infineon/<br />
press/market-news/2019/INFATV201905-068.html<br />
[5] Thomas Gottwald, Christian Roessle : Minimizing form<br />
factor and parasitic inductances of Power Electronic<br />
Modules: The p² Pack <strong>Technology</strong>. 7th Electronic System-<br />
Integration <strong>Technology</strong> Conference (ESTC 2018)<br />
Figure 9: X-Ray image of a Half-Bridge design<br />
with embedded shunt (right). X-sectional view<br />
of Half-Bridge design with embedded shunt in<br />
the middle (bottom)<br />
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Production system<br />
for Lithium-Ion<br />
modules and packs<br />
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e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
CONNECTIVITY<br />
SHOWCASING<br />
A NEW ONLINE<br />
ENERGY<br />
PREDICTION<br />
MODEL WITH<br />
AN ACCURACY<br />
CLOSE TO 99%<br />
The energy consumption of electric<br />
buses has proven to be more sensitive<br />
to driving style and external conditions,<br />
such as ambient temperature, than their<br />
fossil fuelled cousins. This sensitivity,<br />
coupled with a shorter range and the<br />
need to opportunity charge during<br />
the day, means that the operations in<br />
public transport are exposed to more<br />
volatility as well as planning uncertainty.<br />
This volatility requires bus operators to<br />
invest in additional battery capacity or to<br />
acquire more assets in order to service a<br />
concession. Or, alternatively, to adopt new<br />
tools and technologies that bring more<br />
visibility and adaptability to the operation.<br />
From an economical and sustainability<br />
point of view, the latter would seem the<br />
better choice.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
143
Towards operational<br />
excellence in zero-emission<br />
public transport<br />
In this magazine, we have previously covered some<br />
of the innovations coming out of the Cloud-Your-Bus<br />
(CYB) programme co-funded by EMEurope. CYB is a<br />
consortium of a group of technology leaders and<br />
technical universities and with a mission to create<br />
operational excellence in zero-emission public<br />
transport. This article deals with a unique algorithm<br />
that has been developed by the Technical University<br />
of Eindhoven (TU/e) together with IoT and telematics<br />
company Sycada and which allows for accurate SoC<br />
prediction at the end of a route just shortly after that<br />
the vehicle has commenced its journey.<br />
The SoC prediction challenge,<br />
closer to solved<br />
Accurately predicting the energy consumption<br />
of a bus on a given route is one of those critical<br />
tools, but it is not a trivial task to accomplish a<br />
high level of accuracy. Current energy consumption<br />
prediction models suffer from several practical and<br />
computational limitations and, more often than<br />
not, fail to factor in environmental and contextual<br />
parameters. Hence they have limited real value in<br />
a dynamic operational or bus planning context. As<br />
a result, most, if not all, bus operators plan their<br />
zero-emissions operations based on limited historical<br />
datasets for buses and routes. But these estimations<br />
are inherently inaccurate with an error margin up to<br />
40%.<br />
The online energy consumption prediction model<br />
developed by the TU/e and Sycada in the context of<br />
CYB has shown to bring this error margin down to an<br />
average close to 1%.<br />
When made available to bus operators, this more<br />
accurate information can facilitate better and faster<br />
decision making and help optimise route and charge<br />
planning throughout the day. This in turn has a<br />
massive positive impact on both capital (Capex) and<br />
operational (Opex) expenses and will help accelerate<br />
the transition to zero-emission public transport in<br />
Europe and beyond.<br />
themselves was to develop a prediction algorithm for<br />
electric city buses which does not rely on plenty of<br />
vehicle parameters and time series to be accurate. In<br />
fact, the model only requires two parameters, along<br />
with a chosen route and its recorded characteristics,<br />
to be updated in real-time.<br />
The model is divided in two parts: an offline and<br />
an online algorithm. The offline model uses the<br />
historical data to generate an initial estimate of the<br />
energy consumption. The online model will correct<br />
the prediction result by adjusting the vehicle mass<br />
value. Additionally, the online approach is based on<br />
a recursive algorithm to adjust only two parameters,<br />
which greatly reduces the complexity and practical<br />
(computing) limitations during the operation.<br />
Offline estimates based on<br />
historical data<br />
For a given route from location A to location B,<br />
relevant data can be collected repeatedly to establish<br />
a historical energy usage database. The essential<br />
signals consist of the time of day, vehicle location<br />
and speed, battery voltage, battery current, drivetrain<br />
voltage and drivetrain current. These datasets are<br />
collected via a wireless gateway that connects to<br />
the CANbus system(s) in the bus. Assuming that the<br />
sampling frequency is identical for all signal channels<br />
and the data lengths for all channels are identical, the<br />
reference profile and reference auxiliary power profile<br />
can be obtained. Using the profiles, the initial energy<br />
consumption estimate can be done.<br />
The figure below shows the energy consumption<br />
(black line as reference profile) for a specific route<br />
calculated based on measured drive-train and<br />
auxiliary power profiles over 16 different cycles.<br />
Because the vehicle mass is assumed as a constant,<br />
and the time for operating the auxiliary system is<br />
fixed, the estimated total energy consumption for the<br />
investigated route is fixed as well.<br />
A new algorithmic approach<br />
The challenge that the CYB researchers gave<br />
144 e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | Vol 7 | <strong>Winter</strong> <strong>2020</strong><br />
Online corrections with<br />
tuning parameters<br />
However, in case of electric city buses the drive-train<br />
power request is significantly influenced by the load<br />
of passengers being carried for a particular trip on<br />
a given route. The auxiliary request is influenced<br />
by several factors, one of the most dominant is<br />
ventilation and air conditioning. Both of these terms<br />
are subject to change as the trip progresses and<br />
requires the algorithm to make relevant corrections in<br />
real time. The two parameters needed to be updated<br />
are mass-estimate for drive-train power estimation<br />
and correction gain-estimate for auxiliary estimation.<br />
All other influencing factors on energy estimation are<br />
considered as perturbation.<br />
Input for adaptive line and<br />
charge planning<br />
“The practical usability of the model is twofold”, says<br />
Kristian Winge, CEO of Sycada. “Firstly, it allows for<br />
early flagging of critical deviations from assumptions<br />
that can ruin the current day-to-day operational<br />
planning and hence require adaptations. Secondly, it<br />
allows for continuous improvements in tactical lineand<br />
charge planning by creating more transparency<br />
in the impact of passenger load, environmental<br />
factors, seasonality and time of day on energy usage<br />
patterns”.<br />
Impressive level of prediction<br />
accuracy<br />
Live test results confirm that the real-time estimation<br />
model is an advanced system capable of estimating<br />
the approximate energy consumed by the electric<br />
city bus over the given route well in time, and is also<br />
producing robust results over different data cycles.<br />
In offline estimations the absolute error over some<br />
cycles would go as high as 40 % and on an average<br />
remains at 18.5%. On the other hand in real-time<br />
(online) energy estimations the absolute error were<br />
under 4 % and on an average remains 1.2%.<br />
This illustrates the superior performance of the realtime<br />
energy estimation system developed by TU/e<br />
and Sycada.<br />
In the adjacent figure the results are compiled for the<br />
progression of the absolute error in estimation for all<br />
available data cycles with the reference profile used<br />
as base data profile. It can be seen that, as more data<br />
is made available, the resulting error rate decreases<br />
and eventually becomes bounded around zero. The<br />
performance of the real-time energy estimation is<br />
exceptionally good in the region from around 20-25%<br />
of the travelled distance along the route.<br />
The new model is particularly useful in public<br />
transport operations where the distance for lines and<br />
rotations are known and fixed.<br />
e-<strong>mobility</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> International | www.e-motec.net<br />
145
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