AAP Smal Scale Decent Change

AAP
RESEARCH
2019-2020
Small Scale Decent Change
A L T E R N A T I V E A R C H I T E C T U R A L P R A C T I C E S
M E F U N I V E R S I T Y G R A D U A T E P R O G R A M M E

FOREWORD
We have entered a period where there are strong signs of a radical change in the modes of
practicing architecture and also in the teaching of architecture. Architects of the future are
expected to be working more with the public interest in mind; collaborative practices within
the field and across various fields will be common; teamwork at every stage will be regular;
they will be developing projects where research and design processes are intertwined; they
will be practicing in a more pro-active environment. Within this perspective, we believe that
the main goal of architectural education particularly in the graduate level will be completely
transformed towards giving young professionals the experience of alternative architectural
practices. Only through such an education, the graduates can be empowered to discover
and craft our common future.
Through this perspective and philosophy, we are hoping that ‘Alternative Architectural
Practices’ program will contribute towards the discovery of new professional paths with
its design, research and production-based focus. Our students will be part of a real
design research process through the projects developed with our program partners from
the industry. Beyond these ‘real-world’ research-by-design projects our students will take
supportive courses leading to a rigorous graduate program.
The program consists of four semesters; however, its structure is slightly different from
other conventional graduate programs of architecture in Turkey. In the first two semesters
the students take their required courses and also the studio sequence. Student also start
developing their thesis during their second semester. In the following summer, the studio
will move to prototyping and implementation stage. Finally, in their last semester students
focus on their thesis and complete the program.
Prof. Dr. Arda Inceoglu, Dean, MEF FADA

SMALL SCALE DECENT CHANGE
An architecture soothsayer at the beginning of the twentieth century would not foresee
that architects will have to find new ways to survive as the practice itself is eaten by global
networks that once carried the architects on top of the ivory tower. Today, ideas that came
out as utopias at the beginning of the last century have to be revisited as remedies for the
ongoing global crisis. Who would imagine that small scale will offer a way out for architects
and societies, after a century full of colossal architecture?
When MoMA hosted an exhibition of architectural projects which aim to have a broad effect
on the communities they work, titled as ‘Small Scale Big Change’ in 2010, it announced
a radical break in the architecture. In 2016, the most prestigious event of architectural
world Venice Architecture Biennale, titled as ‘Reporting from the Front’, was occupied by
modest and clever projects from all over the world, that are socially engaged with the
community they belong. However, these were just the precursors of the closing of an era,
since they still used the language of the previous period that expected an unrealistic “big
change” from small projects which were fighting in the front. For the next decades, it will
get even more complex to propose architectural solutions for a society that is facing cutting
edge technological advances at one side, while on the other side being threatened by the
ongoing global economic crisis and diminishing resources. While architects will have to be
inventing alternative ways to deal with this contradictory situation, it is more realistic and
truthful to expect a decent change from small scale projects.
In MEF University’s Alternative Architectural Practices program, we develop methods for
imagining and building new paths to discover small scale architecture. In partnership with
companies from the construction industry of Istanbul, the program aims to use the potential
of the industry that has long been engaged with the global real estate market, as a tool to
design and make new architectures/structures for the emerging conditions of our world.
Sevince Bayrak, Program Co-coordinator, MEF FADA

System Kiosk K67, 1967, Saša J. Mächtig

RESEARCH I DESIGN GUIDE
AAP TEAM
Students: Ahmet Yaymanoğlu, Aysima Akın, Damla Kaleli, Dilek Yürük, Ebru Şahinkaya,
Eda Yavaş, İlayda Baydemir, Nur Gülgör, Sena Hut, Zeynep Ulusoy
Studio Instructor: Oral Göktaş
Program Coordinators: Kürşad Özdemir, Sevince Bayrak
Program Partners: Fibrobeton, Metal Yapı
2019 - 2020
MEF University Graduate Programme

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
5
HISTORY
STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
TECHNOLOGY
ECOLOGY
ERGONOMICS
6-65
66-119
120-171
172-219
230-287
DISCUSSIONS
288-343
BIBLIOGRAPHY
344-356

INTRODUCTION
“Human housing is a matter of mass demand. Just as it no longer occurs to 90 percent
of the population to have shoes made to measure but rather buy ready-made products
that satisfy most individual requirements thanks to refined manufacturing methods. In the
future the individual will be able to order from the warehouse the housing that is right for
him. It is possible that present-day building industry is still almost completely dependent
on traditional, crafts manly construction methods.” – Walter Gropius, Wohnhaus-Industrie,
1923
In the last 100 years, although the recent developments have widened the boundaries
of architecture and the ways of performing architecture, it still is mostly dependent on
traditional construction methods and it still looks for refined technologies to achieve readymade
housing with minimum impact on the environment. Furthermore, the majority of the
materials, including green technologies, still depend on non-renewable sources, which
creates the problem of energy scarcity. Construction, production processes, transportation,
and many other services are still heavily dependent on oil. This relates to the repeating
economic crisis as well as the reason for wars, where the governments fight to win with
the latest technology, but all other alive creatures constantly suffer. In this continuous loop,
there is something seriously unsustainable that is the perception of the earth we live on,
there is a common ignorance of accepting that it is a living organism with every single piece
of it.
In this mindset, we are searching for alternative paths. Our inquiry includes different
aspects of design. Socioeconomic problems such as upcoming economic crisis or
tense interactions between countries again for petroleum, structural durability problem
with the increasing rarity of natural disasters, catastrophic climate change consequences
that we are already facing, shaping characteristics of technology in architecture and lastly
updated requirements of living space have been among our main interests. To sum up, we
have compiled research based on all these conditions and problems. This semester, the
research has been examined through five topics; history, durability, technology, ecology,
and ergonomics. In MEF University’s Alternative Architectural Practices program, we
develop methods for imagining and building new paths to discover small scale architecture.
9

HISTORY
Over 200 years, the dwelling unit has
been transformed in many ways due to
changing human needs. Key historical
events, including disasters, housing
crisis, labour problems, and future
scenarios; provide the explanatory
information of these fundamental
requirements of shelter. Potential
solutions for the housing problem
strongly connect with the economy,
technology, and culture, which also
depends on local and global diversity.
Key features of a shelter rely on it being
easy-to-construct, affordable, portable
and deliverable.
Strandlund in front of packaged house [1]

GLOBAL TIMELINE
Thresholds
Innovations
Shelters
Culture
Acts and Events
Economy
LOCAL TIMELINE
Thresholds
Laws
Dwellings
Culture
Social Life
Economy
11

HISTORY
1624
A. THRESHOLDS
Wood shortage was occurred as a result
of deforestation crisis.
1700
The French Revolution has started in
1789 and ended in 1790s. It has played a
critical role in shaping the modern nations
by showing the power of people.
Melbourne established on the Yarra
River after an abortive bid in 1803.
1789 1835 1861
American Civil War (1861-1865) took
place between United States and 7 South
States that wanted to keep slavery. The
war ended the institution of slavery with
United States victory.
B. INNOVATIONS
1800
Voltaic pile was
the world’s first
battery. Volta was
able to prove this by
constructing a stack
of alternating zinc
and silver plates
with a piece of cloth
soaked in a salt
solution between
the individual
plates.
Jacquard has
developed
numerical control
system.
“Balloon
Frame”
Augustine
Taylor
St. Mary
Church
Chicago
1801 1833 1845
Thompson has invented PNEUMATİC
“rubber tire”
First Panellized Wood House: Shipped
from England Massachusetts as housing.
Haus des Gaertners Chaux Projekt:
Designed by Étienne-Louis Boullée
(1728-1799) and Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
(1736-1806)
“Manning Portable Colonial Cottage”
designed for immigrants by H.Manning.
American Prefabs
build in Noctorn Farm Near Uitenhage,
first documented prefabricated house.
C. SHELTERS
1624
1806
1833
1844
D. CULTURE
Lambot Reinforced Concrete Canoe
Joseph Louis Lambot
1848
1851
Harriet Stowe’s
best-selling novel
“Uncle Tom’s
Cabin” helped
popularize the anti
slavery movement.
Her novel followed
the life of black
slave Uncle Tom,
and was the second
best-selling book
of the 19th century
after the Bible.
1854
“Life
in the
Woods”
(Book)
Henry
David
Thoreau
1861
Mrs. Beeton’s
Book of
Household
Management
E. ACTS AND EVENTS
The Royal Institute of British
Architects (RIBA) was founded.
1837
Royal Commission Report was
published
Commission
reported the
condition of the
buildings in the
Great Britain cities.
They analysed poor
condition of housing
qualities and next
several years,
published emergent
public acts for
restoration.
1845
London first World Exhibition
World expositions were especially
centred on industry, and were fabled for
the show of breakthroughs and scientific
developments.
1851
Central Park Competition
The competition to design Central Park
in New York is won by Frederick Law
Olmsted and Calvert Vaux.
1858
F. ECONOMY
The Industrial Revolution was a
major turning point in history which was
marked by a shift in the world from an
agrarian and handicraft economy to one
dominated by industry and machine
manufacturing.
1760
Fourier’s phalanstere was a kind of
people’s palace, a housing complex for
1,620 residents with a plan echoing that
of Palace of Versailles.
1800s
In 1858 Andre Godin purchased 45
acres of land next to his factory and
personally designed a phalanstery,
calling it ‘‘Familiestere’’.
1858
The Second Industrial Revolution:
New innovations in steel production,
petroleum and electricity led to the
introduction of public automobiles and
airplanes. In this lesson, learn about
the key inventions that spurred this
revolution.
1870s
12

1912
Standard Oil Company John D.
Rockefeller formed Standard Oil
Company. By 1879, the company not
only 90% of America’s refining capacity.
1865 1882 1896 1900
Hippomobile, first petroleum engine by
Jean J. Lenoir
Edison’s first Electric Station
established.
Edison’s Cinema established
Invention of Radio: Guglielmo Marconi,
often receives credit based on his
device capable of ringing a bell from
9m away. On the other hand, Nikola
Tesla, an immigrant to the United
States, demonstrated a wireless radio to
audiences in St. Louis the year before
Marconi’s demonstration. Although
Tesla came first, Marconi patented his
invention in 1896 while Tesla patented
his in 1900. One year later, Marconi
transmitted the first signal to cross the
Atlantic from Europe to America.
Mushroom Slabs
The first wood wool insulating product
was made in 1908 by the Heraklith
Company in Ferndorf (Austria) using
magnesite and cement as an adhesive.
Nevertheless the first products had
several disadvantages (flammability, poor
dimensional stability) however wood wool
insulation soon spread worldwide.
Galveston Hurricane
Duralumin: an aluminium alloy -lightweight
and tough- containing 4% copper
would slowly harden when left at room
temperature for several days. Uses on
production of planes.
RESEARCH
1863
1893 1908
1909
Portable
Summer House
N.G. Rood
By the turn of the
twentieth century,
architects and
inventors had
developed
prefabricated
houses of nearly
every material to
patent.
Single Poor Concrete System designed
and patented by Thomas Edison
Sears Catalog Homes
the company sold over 100,000 homes
through their “Modern Hornes” mail-order
catalogue. House No. 146 went on sale
for 1.660 dollars
American
System
Built
Houses
Designed by
F.Lloyd
Wright, which
is never
built.
1882
1906-1919
1908-1940
1911-1917
1889
“The Seven
Lamps of
Architecture”
John Ruskin
1902
A Trip to
the Moon:
The movie
was created
by Georges
Méliès. The
scene of the
space capsule
landing in the
Moon’s eye is
one of the most
iconic images
in the history of
cinema.
1908
The Melting
Pot:
With this play,it
was used as
a metaphor
for defining
the fusion
of cultures
and ethnic
origins, and
then it became
popular in the
United States.
1911
Erector
Set
A.C.
Gilbert
mass
produced
toy kit
Paris World
Exhibition
The main
symbol of
the Fair was
the Eiffel
Tower,
which
served as
the entrance
arch to the
Fair.
“The
garden city
movement”
is a method of
urban planning
in which
self-contained
communities
are surrounded
by “greenbelts”
‘Ein Dokument deutscher Kunst’
(Darmstadt)
It was the first architecture exhibition
that entirely consisted of homes and
buildings, which themselves formed the
objects that were on display.
Ornament and
Crime was
published
Ornament and
Crime is an
essay and lecture
by modernist
architect
Adolf Loos
that criticizes
ornament in
useful objects.
1889
1898
1901
1908
1873 Economic Crisis known as ‘‘Long
Depression’’ happened. In general,
the crisis occurred as the producers in
the market increased the production in
contrast to the demand and then the
shortage of cash in the market hit the
stock market. Losses occurred and many
companies went bankrupt.
Ansonia
Apartment
Hotel (1904)
in NYC: The
Ansonia
(far advanced
for his time)
was to have a
self-sufficient
building
with its own
rooftop farm.
Ford Model T: A significant step of mass
production
Altena Castle, Germany: The first
hostel was purposed to allow young
people with lower income who were
living in the cities to stay in the hostel.
1873
1904
1908-1927
1912
13

HISTORY
F.1760 Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was one of the most
important points of the world’s history that changing
from a handicraft economy to machine dominated
manufacturing. The revolution brought greater
volume production and factory-produced products
and also raised people’s living standards which are
particularly middle and upper classes. However, for
the proletariat and poor class, life was so challenging.
With industrialization, some artisanal activities were
replaced by mechanization. Furthermore, the urban
and industrialized areas were not kept pace with
the migrating people from rural areas, therefore it
caused urban areas to transform into inadequate,
overcrowded, unhealthy spaces. While governments
introduced numerous labour reforms and the
workers gained the right to form trade unions,
conditions of working-class have improved. The
negative and positive developments of the Industrial
Revolution that changed the world can be listed in
10 items: The factory system, rise of capitalism,
urbanization,exploitation of the working class,
opportunity and increase in the standard of living,
rise of materialism and consumerism, technological
advancement, rise of socialism and Marxism, transfer
of wealth and power to the west, pollution and
destruction of environment.[2]
Image 1: Industrial Revolution [2]
B.1833 Balloon Frame System
“The balloon frame method of wood construction is arguably
the first incarnation of prefabricated construction system since it
regularized the production of houses into a palette of ready-made
units that could be assembled in fast and affordable configurations.
The balloon frame is often considered one of the first thoroughly
American forms of serial architectural production. It abandoned all
lingering traces of European influence, celebrated the abundance
of timber in the United States, and abandoned more expensive and
labour-intensive materials that were not readily available in North
America. Wood construction methods transposed to the United
States from Europe had been characterized by elaborate joineries
requiring skilled craftsmen largely unavailable in the New World.
The method is primarily attributed to the Chicago builder Augustine
Taylor, who developed the system in response to the city’s housing
shortage. The system eliminated mortised beams and fittings,
replacing them with two-by-fours and two-by-sixes set close
to one another in increments of approximately one foot spaced
horizontally. Studs and cross members were inserted in various
configurations and could be increased or decreased in number
depending on the anticipated structural integrity needed for the
project. Wooden sheathing would subsequently be placed over
the frame. Most importantly, the members were held together with
manufactured cut iron nails, similar to today’s common steel nail.
These allowed for the connection of wooden members with the
greater ease and efficiency over crafted joineries. The entire wall unit
could be delivered to a site and simply tilted upright, allowing house
construction to occur in a matter of days.” [3]
Image 2: Balloon Frame System [3]
14

E.1851 London First World Exhibition
In 1851, the Great Exhibition was held in the
Crystal Palace, London which was made from
steel and glass. From May to October during
5 months, 6 million people around the world
came to visit the exhibition. The flashy display
of artworks, inventions, gathering objects from
distant lands became the pioneer of the Great
Exhibition. Actually, some of the newspapers
have mentioned that as such. Furthermore, it
had a specific mission: Britain’s rulers had tried
to show that the technology transforms the
society and Britain was leading on the race. The
Crystal Palace was filled with surprising objects
but perhaps the most amazing things were the
gigantic exhibition halls which were integrated
with the new technology. Crowds visited to see
the glowing steam engines, which would be
used in ships and factories. [4]
Image 3: The State Opening of The Great Exhibition in 1851, colour lithograph by Louis Haghe [4]
RESEARCH
D.1854 Life in the Woods - Henry D. Thoreau
‘‘Walden (also known as Walden; or, Life in the Woods) by Henry
David Thoreau is one of the best-known non-fiction books written by
an American. Published in 1854, it details Thoreau’s life for two years,
two months, and two days in second-growth forest around the shores
of Walden Pond, on land owned by Ralph Waldo Emerson, not far
from his friends and family in Concord, Massachusetts. Walden was
written so that the stay appears to be a year, with expressed seasonal
divisions. Thoreau called it an experiment in simple living. Thoreau
lived in close geographical proximity to the town Concord: “living a
mile from any neighbour,” should be taken literally; he lived about a
mile from his neighbours. He did not go into the woods to become
a hermit, but to isolate himself from civil society in order to gain a
more objective understanding of it. Walden is neither a novel nor a
true autobiography, but a social critique of much of the contemporary
Western World, with its consumerist attitudes and its distance from
and destruction of nature.’’ [5]
Image 4: Life In Woods- Walden [6]
15

HISTORY
F.1858 Familiestere
Jean Baptiste Andre Godin was an industrialist who
had been managed a highly profitable factory that
produced ovens and stoves in Guise. In the 1840s
he joined the phalansteries as a philanthropist. In
1853, after uprising against Napoleon III, he invested
100,000 francs to the United States and then had
moved to there. Godin wanted to found a phalanstery
called “Le Reunion” near Dallas, Texas. That project
was failed. Because the enlisted colonists knew
nothing about agriculture and the soil was too bad.
And also a locust infestation destroyed most of the
crops, therefore after just a year, the colony has
dissolved. In 1858, Godin bought 45 acres of land to
design his phalanstery called “Familiestere” where was
next to his factory. Familistere, which was invented by
Godin, contained glass-covered courtyards and water
on each level, a laundry shop, a huge pool that could
also be used by children, and a garbage chute. The
cleaning service was to relieve women of households.
Also, the day nursery was to provide an opportunity
for them to work. Residents could get service for
their basic health care with 2,5 francs per month, and
also get drugs for free. There was a cooperative and
communal kitchen that residents could buy groceries
for a reasonable price. Thus Godin tried to set up an
economic model to circumvent the intermediaries
system that provides fruit, vegetables, meat, and
bread in return money. [7]
Image 5: Familistere Photo by: Stephane Chalmeau [8]
C.1906-1919 Single Pour Concrete System
Edison is one of the pioneer designers who thought it is
possible to build an entire building with just using a single
material repeatedly without do not need second material.
By this time Edison had established his reputation as a patent
leader holder in the United States, so his approach to the
construction of a house of repetitive objects is not surprising.
As a result, Edison designed a system that he would later call
“Single Pour Concrete System” in which a series of balloon
frame molds will be brought to the site and a mold system
will be installed that creates surfaces except for window and
door spaces. This scheme has illustrated in Edison’s official
patent drawing presentation perfectly. A specially designed
cylindrical rotating kiln on its wheels and a hydraulic vertical
pump system would be brought to the construction site when
the mould was finished. And then the vehicle would be pouring
the wet concrete mixture from the hole at the top of mould
and the mixture would settle to the bottom slowly. Edison
first experienced that process on a model, which known as
“chicken coop”, in his studio. Edison built about 100 houses
in and around Union, New Jersey with the funds of wealthy
manufacturer Charles Ingersoli from New Jersey.[9]
Image 6: Single Pour Concrete System [9]
Figure 1: Single Pour Concrete System, Process Detail [9]
16

F.1908 Ford Model T
Model T is an automobile that had
been produced by Ford Motor
Company from 1908 until 1927. It
was an affordable, durable, multifunctional
and easy to maintain
transportation vehicle for an ordinary
man which was designed by Henry
Ford. Model Ts had been produced
more than 15 million in Detroit and
Highland Park, Mich. Assemblyline
production allowed the cost to
decrease from $ 850 in 1908 to less
than $ 300 in 1925. At these prices,
the Model T had been 40 percent
cheaper than all models sold in the
United States. Even before it lost its
popularity against larger, powerful and
luxury cars, the Model T, popularly
known as “Tin Lizzie” or “Flivver”,
had been an icon that helped Ford
achieve its goal of democratizing the
car. [10]
Image 7: Ford Model T
Courtesy of the Ford Motor Company [10]
RESEARCH
B.1909 Duralumin
A German metallurgist, Alfred Wilm, has developed
an alloy in 1903 that including 4 percent aluminium.
Wilm discovered that the aluminium alloy would
slowly harden when it stays for several days at room
temperature. Further improvements have allowed the
appearance of “Duralumin” in 1909. That name, which
commonly used in popular science to describe the
“2000” series or Al-Cu system, was determined by the
International Alloy Designation System (IADS) in 1970.
Duralumin’s composition and its heat treatment have
published before World War I in the German scientific
literature. Even that, Duralumin had not gone beyond
Germany during World War I. German reports of use
during World War I, even in technical magazines like
Flight, could misidentify the main alloy component as
magnesium instead of copper. [11]
Image 8: The first mass-production aircraft to make
extensive use of duralumin, the armoured Junkers J.I
sesquiplane of WW I. [11]
17

HISTORY
1913
A. THRESHOLDS
World War I: The war resulted in
the death of empires and the birth of
nations, and in national boundaries being
redrawn around the world. It ushered in
prosperity for some countries, while it
brought economic depression to others.
1914-1918
Wiemer Republic is established: It was
Germany’s government from 1919 to
1933, the period after World War I until
the rise of Nazi Germany.
1919-1933
1923
Towards a New
Architecture –
Le Corbusier:
In this book
Le Corbusier
advocating for
and exploring
the concept
of modern
architecture.
Louis carried Charles Lindbergh from
New York to Paris in 33 and a half hours,
the first nonstop flight across the
Atlantic Ocean. As Charles Lindbergh
piloted the Spirit of St. Louis down the
dirt runway of Roosevelt Field in New
York on May 20, 1927.
1927
B. INNOVATIONS
1921
American
Celotex
Company
introduced
first
insulating
panels made
of bagasse
(a waste by
product of
sugar.)
Portable baby cage-Emma Read
London mothers and nannies, who did
not have an open area or garden to
leave their children comfortably, used
the baby cage hanging outside an open
window of the apartment.
1923
First PVC “polyvinyl chloride”
Waldo Semon
1927
“Desert Ship” (Wüstenschiff)
German engineer Johann Christoph
Bischoff
1927
American Army Shelter Experiment
was done for the need of shelter during
World War I.
Baukasten Walter Gropius, Adolf Mayer
would develop a system of standard,
industrially produced building elements.
Metal Prototype House,
Törten Muche and Richard Paulick
designed steel building in Dessau.
Dymaxion House designed by
Buckminster Fuller in principle of
good house could be produced as
systematically as a good car.
C. SHELTERS
1919
1923
1926
1927
D. CULTURE
1920
One Week
A newly
wedded couple
attempts
to build a
house with a
prefabricated
kit, unaware
that a rival
sabotaged the
kit’s component
numbering.
1922
Crocodile
Magazine
It was the
Soviet
Union’s most
famous and
longestrunning
illustrated
satirical
magazine.
1927
Metropolis is
a futuristic,
urban-style film
that shows a
future where
the city is
structured in
vertical layers
according to
the different
social strata.
Woman in the Moon
Fritz Lange
1929
E. ACTS AND EVENTS
The Irish Home Rule
Movement that campaigned for
self-government for Ireland within the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland. After Parnell’s death, Gladstone
introduced the Second Home Rule Bill
in 1893.
1914
1923
Bauhaus
Exhibition in
Weimar
The exhibition
poster was
designed by
Joost Schmidt
a talented
sculpture student
who went on
to become
a Bauhaus
teacher.
CIAM established, responsible for
events and congresses arranged
across Europe by the most prominent
architects of the time, with the objective
of spreading the principles of the Modern
Movement.
1928
Le Corbusier Foundation
1928
The Foundation
in accordance
with its statutes
and its missions,
has devoted all of
its resources to
the conservation,
knowledge and
dissemination of Le
Corbusier’s work.
F. ECONOMY
Berlin Modernism Housing Estates
1913-1934
The public relations campaign “Own
Your Own Home” was launched by
the National Association of Real Estate
Boards. It was taken over by the U.S.
Department of Labour in 1917, becoming
the first federal program designed
to encourage home ownership. The
program was largely promotional; there
were no financial incentives offered to
prospective home buyers or builders.
1917
Co-op Zimmer: The minimum dwelling
by Hannes Mayer
1926
Narkomfin Building: The project for
four planned buildings was designed
by Moisei Ginzburg with Ignaty Milinis
in 1928.
1928
18

1945
World War II: The vast majority of the
world’s countries- including all the great
powers- eventually formed two opposing
military alliances: the Allies and the Axis.
A state of total war emerged, directly
involving more than 100 million people
from more than 30 countries.
IKEA is founded by Ingvar Kamprad:
IKEA is a European multinational group
that designs and sells ready-to-assemble
furniture, kitchen appliances and home
accessories, among other useful goods
and occasionally home services.
The United States detonate Atomic
bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki: Bombings played a role in
the establishment of nation architecture
and the emergence of architectural
Metabolism movement as they
caused house shortages and lack of
infrastructure problems.
The Great Strike Wave were the
largest strikes in American labour
history: It was a series of massive
post-war labour strikes from 1945 to
1946 spanning numerous industries and
public utilities.
1939-1945
Wallace
Carothers
was an
American
chemist,
inventor
and credited
with the
invention of
nylon.
1943
“On Computable
Numbers”
Alan Turing
has set out
the theoretical
basis
for modern
computers.
1945
Water
Uncycle
patented
1945-1946
Superglue: While searching for materials
to make clear plastic gun sights,
Coover and his team at Eastman Kodak
examined cyanoacrylates, a material
that was used during both World Wars
(1914-1918; 1939-1945) as an alternative
to stitches on large cuts and wounds,
rejecting them as too sticky.
RESEARCH
1935
1936
1939
1942
Keck Crystal House (1933-1934)
designed and all built at full scale by
George Fred Keck.
Usonian House
Frank Lloyd Wright design for his friends
as affordable housing which cost $5,500
after citing the project.
Packaged
House
(1941-1952)
designed by
Konrad
Wachsmann
Walter
Gropius as
wood-frame
panellized
houses.
Demountable House (1944) a 6 meter
by 6 meter dimension prefabricated
house designed by Jean Prouve.
1933-1934
1936
1941-1952
1944
House of
Wheels has
all Home
Comforts
Popular
Science
1931
July
Issue
Lego
Modern Times
Charles
Chaplin
‘‘The
Fountainhead’’
Ayn Rand
Story of Howard
Roark, a brilliant
architect who
dares to stand
alone against
the hostility of
second-hand
souls.
1931
1932
1936
1943
Stockholm Exhibition
It was an
exhibition that had
a great impact on
the architectural
styles known as
Functionalism
and International
Style.
First Congress
of Soviet
Architects
Nine Chains
to the Moon,
was published
by Buckminster
Fuller.
The book
presents Fuller’s
overview of
technological
history.
New York World Fair
It was the first
exposition to be
based on the
future, with an
opening slogan
of “Dawn of
a New Day”,
and it allowed
all visitors to
take a look at
“the world of
tomorrow”.
1930
1937
1938
1939
Great Depression, worldwide economic
downturn that began in 1929 and lasted
until about 1939. It was the longest and
most severe depression ever experienced
by the industrialized Western world,
sparking fundamental changes in
economic institutions, macroeconomic
policy, and economic theory. Although it
originated in the United States, the Great
Depression caused drastic declines in
output, severe unemployment, and acute
deflation in almost every country of the
world.
Roosevelt’s
New Deal:
The New Deal
was a series
of programs,
public work
projects,
financial
reforms, and
regulations.
Bretton Woods Conference officially
known as the United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference, was a
gathering of delegates from 44 nations
The Case Study House Program
were experiments in American
residential architecture sponsored by
Arts & Architecture magazine, which
commissioned major architects of the
day.
1929-1939
1933
1944
1945
19

HISTORY
B.1923 Portable Baby Cage Emma Read
This cage, known as the “baby cage” fora babies living
in crowded cities and apartments, It was discovered
by Robert C Lafferty. This cage, whose purpose is
to ensure that babies can benefit from daylight and
fresh air in crowded cities, is also known as the “health
cage”. In her autobiography, Eleanor Roosevelt wrote
that, due to the importance of fresh air, during the
morning nap, she left her daughter to breathe in a box
with wires in front of her rear windows, on the top and
sides. Although the cages with the same design differ
in material, they were actually fora the same purpose.
While the cages prevented the child from falling, they
were also in such a way that they could get sunlight
and fresh air. Some cages had a roof that could
protect children from snow, rain and things that could
fall from above. [12]
Image 9: Portable Baby Cage [13]
B.1927 Desert Ship
In 1927, Johann Christoph Bischoff , a
German engineer, designed a vehicle
which he called as a desert ship to
cross deserts. It has 60 meters length
with 300 passengers capacity. The
vehicle, with 15 meters of gigantic
wheels, consisted of 4 floors. It had
2 diesel engines and was designed
entirely of metal. According to a news
article from back in the day he even
went as far as filing patents in all
countries with colonial holdings. [14]
Image 10: Desert Ship [14]
20

D.1927 Metropolis
“Metropolis”, a futuristic, urban style movie that shows the future in
which the city is structured with vertical layers according to different
social layers, is one of the classics of director Fritz Lang. In the film,
which is the current state of many cities today, in a dystopian vision
of the future, the bustling Metropolis city lives in high-rise buildings
stretching to the sky, while the working classes are structured to live
and work under the ground. Although Metropolis architecture shows
a general purpose of creating a single and powerful city that radiates
power and wealth, conflict is inevitable. The architecture in this film
emphasizes the power of the city, while at the same time shaping the
values that are constantly evolving and make room fora larger events.
While the film emphasizes a city sensitive to human interests. Also film
clearly demonstrates the mediating role of architecture in ideologies,
the conflicts that lead to cultural pluralism, as well as social unity. [15]
RESEARCH
Image 11: Metropolis [16]
F.1933 Roosevelt’s New Deal
New Agreement of Roosevelt (1933) that made America the way it is
today. The New Deal, which included a series of regulations, aimed to
make America a more consumer-friendly nation. The New Deal was
designed to encourage consumer spending and promote economic
growth. At the same time, the financial industries and banking will face
further scrutiny and regulation.
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), It was founded in 1933 by
the former U.S. Government Agency to ensure the stability of depreciated
real estate during depression and refinance urban mortgage debt. Longterm
mortgage loans were granted to approximately 1 million landlords
who lost property. HOLC discontinued lending activities in June 1936
under the Landlords’ Loan Act. [17]
The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), being an U.S. Government
Agency, was partly created by the National Housing Act of 1934 and was
founded by President Franklin Roosevelt. The purpose of this organization
is to improve housing standards and conditions, to provide an adequate
home financing system through the insurance of mortgage loans and to
stabilize the mortgage market. FHA, sets the standards fora construction
and contracting and insures loans fora banks and other private lenders
fora housing construction. [18]
The National Housing Act, signed on 27 June 1934 by President
Franklin D. Roosevelt to reduce the rate of lien, improve housing
conditions, and make housing and mortgages more accessible and
affordable during the Great Depression. The law was also part of the New
Deal. [19]
The United States Housing Authority, It is a federal agency designed to
lend to states or communities for low cost construction, created in 1937
by the Housing Act of 1937 as part of the New Agreement within the
United States Department of Internal Affairs. [20]
Image 12: New Deal Poster Social Security poster of a woman leaning
on a fence post. [21]
21

HISTORY
E.1939 New York World Fair
Planners were allowed to develop 1,200 acres
in an old ash dump site in Queens for the World
fair, the theme of “World of Tomorrow”, held in
New York in 1939 at the peak of depression.
Government agencies, companies, civil groups
and smaller organizations from around the world
have come in large numbers, built extraordinary
pavilions and set up exhibitions. Iconic Trylon
and Perisphere structures became the symbol
of the whole fair; they hosted a diorama called
“Democracy” in the future utopian city. During
the two seasons, 44 million people attended
the fair, browsing a possible future, and enjoyed
the puppet shows and exciting journeys, girlie
shows, and the fun of choreographed aquatic
extravaganza. [22]
Image 13: New York World Fair Arlene Warner, “queen of beauty” of Elgin, Illinois, presides at the opening
ceremonies of the Elgin Time Observatory at the New York World’s Fair on May 10, 1938. She is unveiling
a heroic figure of “Time,” represented as a slave striking a gong sculptured by Bernard J. Rosenthal of
Chicago [22]
C.1941-1952 Packaged House
Packaged House of Konrad l Wachsmann
and Walter Gropius, Instead of representing
a revolution in prefabrication, it represents
the pinnacle of timber-framed, panelled
houses, which were quite common on both
sides of the Atlantic until 1942. The system
did not have ideal editing models. Instead,
he developed a palette of ten different
types, consisting of approximately 100 cm x
300 cm panels placed on 100 cm threedimensional
space frame panels that make
up all horizontal and vertical surfaces. The
panel system in general did not have enough
specificity to win the patent that Gropius
sought. In fact, they are X-shaped wedge
connectors that connect each panel against
a series of metal plates placed on the edge
of the panel, which proves to be innovative.
The essentially flat wedge has replaced the
standard Y-shaped connector due to its
three dimensions, making it more difficult and
easier to manufacture. [23]
Figure 2: Packaged House Drawing [23]
22

A.1943 IKEA
IKEA, a European multinational group, is a home design
service that designs and sells other useful products, readymade
furniture, kitchen appliances and home accessories.
IKEA, supported in Kingdom of Sweden by 17-year-old
Ingvar Kamprad in 1943, is that the world’s largest furnishings
merchandiser since 2008.
The company claims this helps reduce costs and packaging
usage by not sending air. For example, the volume of a
library is significantly less if shipped disassembled rather than
assembled. This type of packaging is also more practical for
customers who provide transportation by public transport. Flat
packs can be carried much easier.
Rather than selling pre-assembled items, majority of IKEA
furnitures are aimed to be assembled by the client. IKEA
claims to be a pioneering pressure in sustainable techniques
to mass client culture. Kamprad calls this “democratic design”,
meaning the company follows an integrated approach to
manufacturing and design (see also environmental design).
In response to the explosion of the human population and
financial expectations in the 20th and 21st centuries, the
company creates production processes that reduce the costs
and resource use by capturing material flows by applying
economies of scale. [24]
RESEARCH
Image 14: IKEA’s first store IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad (right) shakes hands with
Hans Ax, IKEA’s first store manager in 1965 [24]
A.1945 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The United States exploded two atomic
weapons over the Japanese urban areas of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and
9, 1945, separately, with the assent of the
United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec
Agreement. The two bombings murdered
somewhere in the range of 129,000 and
226,000 individuals, the vast majority of
whom were regular people, and remain
the main utilization of atomic weapons in
furnished clash. After bombings Japan
faced with critical problems such as housing
shortage and destruction of infrastructural
systems. As a result, atomic bombing
brought a new word to the language
“tabula rasa”, which describes the place
where a torn-down building once stood.
Therefore, they saw this as an opportunity
for Japan itself to start over with a new,
better, structure. The Hiroshima experience
-literal for some of our protagonists, who
witness the aftermath- encourages existential
cynicism in some; others sublimate the
shock into a lifelong commitment to new
beginnings. The generation that will become
the Metabolists share, from the beginning,
the Japanese, obsession on tabula rasa. [25]
Image 15: Atomic Bombing in Hiroshima [25]
23

HISTORY
1946
A. THRESHOLDS
Turing Test: Alan Turing has introduced
many of the central concepts of AI in a
report entitled “Intelligent Machinery” that
aimed to determine if a machine was
capable of thinking.
1950
Great Smog of London: Lethal smog
that covered the city caused by a
combination of industrial pollution and
high-pressure weather conditions.
1952
Berlin
Strike
1953 1960
Foundation of OPEC: The Organization
of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
was created by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia and Venezuela during the Baghdad
Conference.
Timing
Electrical
Pulses
Kunststoff Messe
Styropor (Expanded polystyrene)
Computer Numerical Control
Richard Kegg
First Operated System
The IBM 704
B. INNOVATIONS
1946
1952
1952
1954
Wichita House, Kansas
Buckminster Fuller was first designed
house as prefabricated building than
adapted to emergency shelter during
war.
Case Study House No.8
Charles and Ray Eames build house
during experiment that would commission
major architects to reconsider the
modern dwelling.
Le Cabanon was designed by Le
Corbusier for himself and his wife as a
prefabricated summerhouse.
All Plastic House designed by Ionel
Schien as experimental use of plastic.
C. SHELTERS
1946
1949
1951
1956
D. CULTURE
Western Pacific, Luxurious Comfort,
Women’s Lounge, Delicious Meals.
1949
1962
“Silent
Spring”
Rachel
Carson
Documenting
the adverse
environmental
effects
caused by the
indiscriminate
use of
pesticides.
1963
Cheryomushki
/ Cherry Town
by Gerbert
Rappaport
Hungarian
version poster
of the film by
Antal Gunda
1968
2001: A Space
Odyssey
by Stanley
Kubrick
E. ACTS AND EVENTS
UN Convention relating the status of
refugees that defines who a refugee
is, and sets out the rights of individuals
who are granted asylum and the
responsibilities of nations that grant
asylum.
1951
1957
Berlin
Interbau, The
International
Building
Exhibition
It was an urban
renewal project
in West Berlin,
Germany.
1958
Brussels
World Fair
also known as
Expo 58, it was
the first major
World Expo
registered under
the Bureau
International
des Expositions
after World
War II.
Fair Housing Act, USA
“Freedom is Equal Housing Too.”
1964
F. ECONOMY
Levittown: The project – started in
1947 as America’s prototypical postwar
planned community.
1947
The HLM system was created in
1950 in response to France’s postwar
housing crisis. The new system took its
foundations from the HBM (habitation
à bon marché – “inexpensive housing”)
system, which had been created in
1889 and financed mainly by charitable
sources rather than the state.
1950
A panel hanging from a crane was
the logo of Camus-Dietsch, a French
company which opened its facility in
1954. The factory was the foundation for
prefabricated construction across many
countries.
1954
The Million Programme is the public
housing programme implemented in
Sweden between 1965 and 1974 by the
governing Swedish Social Democratic
Party to make sure everyone could have
a home at a reasonable price.
1965
24

1975
Brasilia established
Oscar Niemeyer and Lucio Costa
1960
SDI surveillance drone system
Royal Artillery
Berlin Wall construction
1961
Computer aided design (CAD) was
introduced in 1963
1969
Neil
Armstrong
and his crew
landed on
the Moon:
The historic
launch of
the Apollo
11 mission
carried three
astronauts
toward the
moon.
Apollo 8
Launched
J.Lovell,W.
Anders and
F.Borman would
be on their way
to space and
to becoming
the first three
humans to fly
around the
moon.
Hurricane Agnes: America’s costliest
natural disaster, effecting 15 states, with
119 deaths and $3 billion in damage.
1972
The first personal computer Altair
8800
RESEARCH
1962
1963
1968
1975
Habitat designed by Moshe Safdie for
World Exposition of 1967.
Futuro House Prefabricated house
designed by Matti Suuronen.
K67 kiosk designed by Saša J. Mächtig.
This street equipment design for
Slovenia.
Capsule
Tower
designed by
Kisho
Kurukowa and
completed in
Tokyo.
1967
1968
1969
1972
The first
Whole
Earth
Catalogue
Domebook
One
Lloyd Kahn
Inflatocookbook
Ant Farm
How to Build Your Own Living
Structures
Ken Isaacs
Stewart
Brand
1968
1970
1971
1972
World Design Conferance
Montreal World Fair, B.Fuller
The Biosphere is a museum dedicated
to the environment. It is located at Parc
Jean-Drapeau, on Saint Helen’s Island.
Tokyo Expo
The theme of the Expo was “Progress
and Harmony for Mankind.”
Earth Day
Exhibition
It was a day
that activists
could send a
message that
the environment
needed
protection.
1960
1967
1970
1970
End of the Bretton Woods monetary
system: On 15 August 1971, the
United States unilaterally terminated
convertibility of the US dollar to gold,
effectively bringing the Bretton Woods
system to an end and rendering the
dollar a fiat currency. At the same
time, many fixed currencies (such as
the pound sterling) also became freefloating.
Robin Hood Gardens in London
Demolition of Pruitt Igoe: By the mid-
1960s, however, the complex’s crime rate
surged, the vacancy rate rose, and living
conditions dramatically declined. On July
15, 1972, the city of St. Louis admitted
defeat and demolished 3 of the project’s
33 towers.
Oil crisis: Since oil provides the
main source of energy for advanced
industrial economies, an oil crisis can
endanger economic and political stability
throughout the global economy.
1971
1972
1972
1973
25

HISTORY
F.1947 Levittown
Levittown, a development of more than 17,000 detached houses,
started in 1947 as America’s post-war prototype community. It
has outperformed its boldest supporters and toughest detectors
today as something more complex than a monument to the glory of
the American dream or the glory and harmony of that dream. The
founder’s son, William Levitt, came home from the navy, thinking that
every young veteran who returned to the USA would need a home.
Then he decided to use the mass production strategies he learned
while building the military dwelling. Levitt and Sons, who bought about
1,800 hectares of Long Island’s potato and onion fields, went to work.
They built all the Levittown residences between 1947 and 1951.
And they started building houses every 16 minutes. Popularly, using
systems that are well known in American car manufacturing but are
new to home construction. “We are not constructors,” said straighttalking
Levitt, the activity’s driving force. “We are manufacturers.” He
even ventured to such an extreme as to proclaim his organization
“the General Motors of the lodging business”, giving families the local
segment of the American dream, similarly as GM gave them the
vehicular one. All things being equal, William Levitt called his item –
which previously sold for $7,990 with a 5% up front instalment (0% for
veterans) and accompanied an implicit TV and greetings of – “the best
house in the US”. [26]
Image 16: Levittown [26]
A.1952 Great Smog of London
Great Smog of London, a lethal event in
December 1952 that caused by industrial
pollution dependant on coal burning and
high-pressure weather conditions, which
caused polluted smog to get trapped on
the ground level of London, and resulted
in thousands of deaths while it lasted only
5 days. London always had an issue with
polluted fog, where water vapour would
connect to chemicals released from coal
burning factories and produce dark and
heavy clouds, therefore, the word smog
has invented in the early 20th century as
a combination of smoke and fog. After 4
years of the incident, British government
agreed on Clean Air Act, which has
restricted the burning of the coal in
domestic and industrial buildings. [27]
Image 17: Great Smog of London [27]
Photo: London fog, 1952 © Keystone—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
26

B.1952 Styropor (Expanded Polystyrene)
An engineer named Fritz Stastny (1908-1985),
he obtained a new raw material after World War
II. By developing pre-expanded polystyrene, it
was possible to extrude plates or molds in various
parts with this raw material, where pentane and
other aliphatic hydrocarbons were incorporated
into the beads. The patent of this technology
was registered in 1949 by Stastny and German
giant BASF. In 1952, the first introduction of the
molding technique was made at Kunststoff Messe
in Düsseldorf, while the first products were sold as
Styropor. Then, by describing the crystal structure
of isostatic polystyrene to this raw material, Giulio
Natta contributed. In 1954, Expanded polystyrene
(EPS) foam was invented. Dylite Koppers Company,
based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, started selling
under the brand. The first foam containers were
delivered by Dart Container Company in 1960. [28]
Image 28: Expanded Polystyrene [29]
RESEARCH
C.1956 All Plastic House
All Plastic House was designed in 1956 by Architect Ilonel Schein.
The house consists of a single level, consisting of eight separate
sections that are combined at a central point. The portions stay
equivalent in span until the last four areas, so, all in all the range
become progressively enormous, shaping an arrangement which
reviews a Fibonacci-a structure (an arranged cluster which limits
or grows in non-direct interims). For the acknowledgment of an
assembled model, each cut was manufactured independently and
pulled in on eight separate trucks to be associated nearby. This
structure is a new interpretation of round house typology unlike
Fuller’s Dymaxion models. The building, which organizes itself from
the environment, is organized outwards from the centre point of the
building, for example. Maybe considerably more significant than its
proper development is the amazingly propelled utilization of plastics,
a material up to that point utilized solely in modern circumstances.
Slots are provided for glass or secondary inserts as needed for
each segment, Large single molds with enormous durability,
flexibility and strength were produced to create floors, roofs and
faces. Connections with neighbouring sections comprise of basic
screw-and-fastener frameworks. Albeit plastic was at that point
ending up being a less expensive option in contrast to conventional
structure materials, scarcely any designers thought about it for
house development. Schein’s project marks the start of an interest
for the use of plastic in lodging plan in late-1950s and 1960s
France. His work would impact endless different modellers intrigued
by the novel form making conceivable outcomes of moderate,
replicable structures and configuration objects, for example, Jean
Maneval and Eric Clements in France and Gaetano Pesce in Italy.[30]
Image 19: All Plastic House [31]
27

HISTORY
E.1960 World Design Conference
Japan wanted to introduce its
architects to the public at the World
Design Conference. It was the time
Metabolism 1960: The Proposal
for New Urbanism acquainted with
universe of engineering, Kurokawa
and Arazu sells their declaration on the
entryway and fundamental draftsmen
of the time welcomed this gathering,
for example, Jean Prouve, Paul
Rudolph, Alison, and Peter Smithson,
Louis Kahn, and so forth. Right now,
Kikutake, Ekuan, Otake, and Tange’s
himself made introductions about
their new compositional issues. The
Metabolism Movement was officially
introduced at this conference. [32]
Image 20: World Design Conference, 1960 [32]
D.1963 Cheryomushki / Cherry Town by Gerbert Rappaport
To introduce the first years of Khrushchev’s new housing
policy, “In view of the operetta of Dmitri Shostakovich (1959),
Gerbert Rappaport’s unusual film Cheryomushki (1963) was
authorized for advance the early years. The subject of the
film is an explosion that pushes his hero Boris into the new
panel circle - around the theme of destroying the old hero -
where the last standing brick house in the newly established
Cheryomushki area saw an explosion. Lidochka awaits him.
With choreographic movements of flying panels offering an
optimistic background view, brings a magical visual to the
prefabrication of large concrete residences. [33]
Image 21: Hungarian version poster of the Cherry Town by Antal Gunda, 1963 [33]
28

E. 1964 Fair Housing Act, USA
The Fair Housing Act of 1968 was signed by the
law by President Lyndon B. Johnson to prevent
discrimination against people from minority groups
when trying to rent or purchase a landlord, apply
for mortgages or receive housing benefits. This Fair
Housing Law prohibits discrimination based on family
status, race, gender, religion. The law was signed
on 11 April 1968 by President Lyndon Johnson.
This law makes it illegal for a mortgage loan to be
charged more than others in a protected group or
to change the lease or loan application standards
to buy housing. It prohibits rejection, either indirectly
or indirectly, to provide these people with shelter.
One of the events that encouraged Congress to
pass the Fair Housing Act because it could not
be enacted earlier, Rev. Fighting for fair housing in
Chicago on April 4, 1968. It was the assassination
of Martin Luther King Jr. With the implementation
of the law, although the problem seems to have
disappeared, only discrimination of housing has
actually decreased. Many of the regions in the South
and the Midwest have been racially separated. And
blacks continue to be turned down twice as much
as white for mortgage loans. [34]
Image 22: The Rev. Martin Luther King unsuccessfully fought for housing equality in Chicago [35]
RESEARCH
A.1969 Neil Armstrong on the Moon
Apollo 11, the first mission in its history, carried out 3
astronauts to the moon. Spacecraft ensured a transport
and self-sufficient place for working and living. In space
with an extremely challenging environment, Apollo had to
provide everything necessary for the journey. Apollo 11.
Protection, flight and working equipment, weather, food,
clothing, equivalence of bathrooms and more. The works
in this exhibition show creativity and planning unnecessary
for a journey from space to another world. The Apollo 11
mission had three spacecraft: Command Module Columbia, a
Service Module, and the Moon Module Eagle. As astronauts
Armstrong and Aldrin landed on the Moon in Kartal,
Michael Collins was left alone in Columbia. It served as a
communication link for 28 hours and photographed the lunar
surface. After taking Armstrong and Aldrin back from the Moon
Module’s exit phase, it was the only part of the Columbia
spacecraft that returned to Earth. [36]
Image 23: Buzz Aldrin became the second person to walk on the Moon [37]
29

HISTORY
1976
A. THRESHOLDS
Start of modern internet: ARPANET
adopted TCP/IP and from there
researchers began to assemble the
“network of networks”. The online world
then took on a more recognizable form
in 1990, when computer scientist Tim
Berners-Lee invented the World Wide
Web.
1983
Chernobyl
is a
nuclear
accident
that
happened
in Pripyat,
Ukraine.
1986
Berlin Wall Falls: Demolishing the wall
was a pivotal event as it was the most
powerful symbol of Cold War.
1989
Somali Civil War caused serious
damage to economy, infrastructure and
people.
1991
B. INNOVATIONS
Gore-Tex is a waterproof, breathable
fabric membrane and registered
trademark of W. L. Gore and Associates.
Patent
1976
1978
SIP is a sandwich
structured
composite,
consisting of an
insulating layer
of rigid core
sandwiched
between two layers
of structural board,
used as a building
material.
The history of 3D printing begins in
1981 with Dr. Hideo Kodama’s patent
application for a rapid prototyping device.
1981
World’s first Passive House in
Kranichstein, Germany
1990
C. SHELTERS
Ramot Housing
Zvi Hecker is commissioned by the
Israeli government to design it.
1972-1985
Yacht House
Richard Norden / Cherry
LeenArchitects The Yacht House is
built with aluminium and stainless steel
spars.
1972-1985
Almere House is designed by Benthem
Crouwel Architects.
1982-1984
1987
Kim
House
Waro Kishi
designed
a small
house in
the old
town of
Osaka.
D. CULTURE
1979
This Old
House
Bob Vila
Norm Abram
1982
Koyaanisqatsi
by Godfrey
Reggio
A silent film
without narration,
it’s a collage
telling the tale of
human evolution,
from nature to
the invasive
man-made world
of today.
Blade Runner by Ridley Scott
1982
1984
Façade
Design by
Nikolay
Jarsky
The design for
a nine-storey
building for
workers of
the Tashkent
aviation factory
in Uzbekistan.
E. ACTS AND EVENTS
Burning Man has started.
1986
Docomomo International was founded
in Eindhoven by Dutch architects Hubert-
Jan Henket and Wessel de Jonge
1988
1989
Galerie Patrick
Seguin was
founded
The gallery has
brought French
designers such
as Jean Prouvé,
Charlotte Perriand,
Pierre Jeanneret,
Le Corbusier and
Jean Royère into
the international
spotlight.
1990-1992
NWR-BouwRAI
Two Dutch
housing
exhibitions that
were held in the
1990s triggered
a reorientation of
the then-current
design principles
for home plans.
F. ECONOMY
The Right to Buy scheme is a policy in
the United Kingdom which gives secure
tenants of councils and some housing
associations the legal right to buy, at a
large discount, the council house they
are living in.
1979
Fannie Mae issues: the first mortgagebacks
security that will lead to the
housing crisis.
1981
1992
HOPE VI is a
program of the
United States
Department
of Housing
and Urban
Development.
It is intended to
revitalize the worst
public housing
projects into
mixed-income
developments.
Demolition of Kowloon Walled City
1993
30

2005
Dolly the sheep: The first successfully
cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep, is born
at the Roslin Institute in Scotland.
Iraq War: It has began with the invasion
of the USA and the United Kingdom.
Indian Ocean Tsunami
Indonesia Earthquake
Kashmir Earthquake
Pakistan
1996
Building information modeling (BIM)
The term ‘Building Information Model’
first appeared in a paper by G.A. van
Nederveen and F. P. Tolman.
2003-2011
The first USB (1994): The first USB
technology began development in 1994,
co-invented by Ajay Bhatt of Intel and the
USB-IF (USB Implementers Forum, Inc).
The organization is comprised of industry
leaders like Intel, Microsoft, Compaq,
LSI, Apple and Hewlett-Packard.
2004 2005
The first self-healing materials were
polymers (plastics made from long,
repeating molecules) with a kind of
embedded internal adhesive, reported
in by Scott White, Nancy Sottos, and
colleagues from the University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign.
In 2001, Pilkington Glass announced
the development of the first self-cleaning
windows, Pilkington Activ
RESEARCH
1992
1994
2001
2001
Kalkin
Quik
House
is
designed
by Adam
Kalkin.
Micro Compact Home
Horden Cherry Lee Architects and
Haack+Höpfner Architects designed
for short stay living for students,
business people and leisure use and for
weekender.
Paper Log House ,India
After the biggest earthquake in India in
2001, Shigeru Ban designed this Paper
Log House.
Muji House
Muji/Net Muji Housing Division Muji is
a Japanese retail company and also Muji
designed three micro homes.
2000
2001
2001
2004
Light
Architecture
Richard
Horden
Wikipedia launch as a free, web-based,
collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia
project.
Maxi Capsule Luxus
Atelier van Lieshout an entirely selfsupporting
unit that functions as a mobile
hotel room.
Birthingtent
Dre Wapenaar
The 1996
John
Dinkeloo
Memorial
Lecture
1996
2001
2002
2003
Serpentine is renowned for the
temporary summer pavilion,
commissioning since 2000 to some
of the most prominent international
architects.
Tropical
House in
Niamey :
discovery,
dismantle
and back
to France
European Housing Expo
Bo01
An expo on Ön in Malmö was planned
for 2000, however following the council’s
acquisition of the Western Harbour it was
decided that this former industrial area
would be a more suitable location.
The Dome Project: Occidental
Installation
Occidental Investor information including
news, financial reports, and quarterly
earnings.
2000
2000
2001
2004
The Spanish property bubble is
the collapsed overshooting part of a
long-term price increase of Spanish real
estate prices.
Alan Greenspan begins cutting interest
rates, encouraging US mortgage
lending.
Incremental House by ELEMENTAL
Rapid increase in sub-prime
mortgages in the US.
1996
2001
2003
2004
31

HISTORY
B.1981 3D Printing by Dr. Hideo Kodama
The concept of 3D printing was first
introduced in 1974 by David E. H.
Jones in his column, New Scientist,
in the column named Ariadne. The
term “3D printing” is a typical layer
where the material is combined or
solidified under computer control
to form a three-dimensional object,
where the material is combined (as
liquid molecules or dust particles fuse
together). The history of 3D printing,
in 1981. It starts with a patent
application for a rapid prototyping
device of Hideo Kodama. Charles
Hull is granted a patent for his system
and his company 3D Systems
Corporation launches the first
commercial 3D printer, the SLA-1. [38]
Image 24: The first 3D printer ever created
was made in 1983 by Chuck Hull. [39]
D.1984 Mosaic Façade Panel by The Jarsky Brothers
For the facade of buildings in Soviet Tashkent, the brothers Petr
Jarsky, Nikolay Jarsky and Alexander Jarsky, who created valuable
mosaic artworks, combined Soviet modernism with floral patterns
and programmed motifs. “The best place to create something new,
beautiful, and useful is a place where much is being built. At the
time, Tashkent was such a city,” After the 1966 earthquake, he wrote
in the Tashkent Evening Newspaper in 1972 to express the status of
the city. Architect Jury Miroshnichenko evaluated the work of talented
brothers with these words: “The design bewildered the architects.
Its composition, colour, and subject matter did not reflect the Uzbek
people’s popular ideas on ornamentation.” In the history of Soviet
architecture, the works of the brothers are very important due to the
unique examples of its kind. Mass production panel systems had
some kind of monotony. Tashkent was trying to distinguish each one
with relieves, ornaments and other facade elements. In some of their
works, they created concrete panel factories containing propaganda.
According to Nikolay Jarsky, the challenge was to “break the
monotony of the prefabricated mass housing series, each time with
a new image”. The techniques for producing mosaics panels are as
follows: “Petr, Alexander, and Nikolay Jarsky draw a full-size pattern
on a piece of paper. Mosaic setters then layout colourful tiles onto
the drawing, and the finished template is laid into a mould. After the
concrete is poured into the mould, the paper is removed, and the
tile pattern remains fixed on the panel. The completed panels are
delivered to the construction site and assembled.’’ [40]
Image 25: Façade design for a nine-storey building for workers of the
Tashkent aviation factory in ui. Shaykhontohur 28-30 Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
designed by Nikolay Jarsky [41]
32

A.1986 Chernobyl Disaster
Considered as the worst nuclear disaster in history, it
is one of two nuclear energy disasters whose severity
was recorded as seven on the International Nuclear
Event Scale. It is an area spread over 30 km from
the explosion zone. The Chernobyl Shelter Fund was
established in 1997 at the Denver 23rd G8 summit
to support the Asylum Implementation Plan (SIP).In
order to transform the area into an ecologically safe
area, the stabilization of the sarcophagus and then
the creation of a New Safe Constraint (NSC) were
used. A significant economic impact at the time was
the removal of 784,320 ha (1,938,100 acres) of
agricultural land and 694,200 ha (1,715,000 acres) of
forest from production. Agricultural production costs
have increased due to the need for special cultivation
techniques, fertilizers and additives, many of which
have been made available again. [42]
RESEARCH
Image 26: Effect of the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant
Photo by Volodymr Repik / Reuters [42]
E. 1986 First Burning Man Festival, USA
Burning Man, whose goal is to create a society
that connects each individual to their society with
their creative powers, to create a wider civilian
living space and to the larger world of nature that
exists beyond society, was founded by Larry
Harvey and It was created by Jerry James. It is a
festival organized as a small function by building
the first “Human”, covering nine days since Labour
Day each year, which is usually starts on Sunday
and ends the first Monday of September. During
the festival, the community focuses on ways of
expressing themselves artistically to be created by all
participants. Participation is key to society; selfless
sharing of unique talents for everyone to enjoy are
encouraged. As an example of creativity; buildings,
interactive and experimental sculptures, art cars and
performances can be given. These contributions are
inspired by a theme chosen by the organizers every
year. [43] [44]
Image 27: Uchronia, 2006 Photo by: Arne Quinze [45]
33

HISTORY
F.1993 Demolition of Kowloon Walled City
When it collapsed in 1994, Hong Kong’s two-hectare
settlement, Kowloon Walled City, hosted 35,000 people.
While it was a refuge for immigrants, it was a busy area run by
foreigners, gangsters and drug dealers. For business owners,
this was a place to avoid annoying regulations. This region
had a historical background. This residential area was built as
a trading post in the 11th century and later became a garrison
of the Chinese army. In 1898, the British government rented
a land surrounding Hong Kong Island and its current colony
in Kowloon: this also included the area around the garrison.
However, Walled City never became part of the British colony,
and Chinese officials were allowed to stay there for a long
time. Because they did not interfere with the British jurisdiction.
The walls of the city, by the Japanese occupation forces.
During the Second World War, Kai Tak was used to expand
the airport. Refugees fleeing the communist revolution settled
in this area in China in the 1950s. This area has become the
most populated place in the world because neither Britain
nor China paid much attention. Slums, factory owners and
organized crime unions also took action. The new settlers
were able to do everything they could find before replacing
the unstable huts in the 1960s with solid structures. Others
have created more than 300 interconnected foundation-laid
buildings that span 14 floors, which are not at all safe. These
structures had several windows and no ventilation. That’s why
the entrances of the city’s factories and shops often remained
open. [46]
Figure 3: Info graphic Showing of Kowloon Walled City
Courtesy of South China Morning Post [47]
C.2001 Paper Log House ,India
The design of the Paper Log House emerged
due to the earthquake that devastated Kobe
in 1995 by Shigeru Ban. Four years have
passed and he changed the Paper Log House
to meet the needs of the Turkish people with
another disaster, the 1999 earthquake. In 2001,
Ban used the Paper Log House in India after
recording the country’s largest earthquake. In
2005, SBA was invited to build the Paper Log
House for an exhibition. SAFE: At Design Takes
On Risk Products and prototypes designed
to protect the body and mind from dangerous
conditions, respond to emergencies and provide
a sense of comfort and safety are offered. The
house shown is an exact copy of the Kobe
Paper Log House in 1995. The criteria of these
residences provided by Paper Log House,
which ultimately provides temporary relief for
many families, were cheap materials, simple
construction methods, satisfactory insulation and
at the same time aesthetically pleasing. [48]
Image 28: Paper Log House, India (2001) [49]
34

F.2003 Incremental House by ELEMENTAL
Elemental’s first project was highly appreciated
in one of Chile’s largest port cities, Iquique. They
were asked to relocate the family living in 100
slums on the same plot they had occupied for
the last 30 years. But he was forced to do so
in the standard government subsidy of $ 7,500
per house. And this included infrastructure and
construction costs. [50]
Given the current values in the Chilean
construction industry, $ 7,500 only allowed 40
square meters of construction area. At the same
time, they had to pay 3 times more for the land
located in the city centre. In Chile, a middle-class
family could live in a home of about 80 square
meters, while a low-income family could survive
only in an area of 40 square meters. They cannot
own a large, “good” home, and therefore they
usually stay in smaller homes. So why were they
not given a small house instead of a half “good”
house? [51]
ELEMENTAL provided a basic house and two
rooms with a total of 40 square meters each,
with the necessary sanitary equipment. With this
framework, families built the rest of the house
after saving enough money and gradually turned
their houses into a more desirable unit than
social housing. [52]
36 m²
36 m²
72 m²
if the first half of the house cost was and the second half the final value is more than
$7,500
+ $1,000 = $20,000
Image 29: Value Increase of Quinta Monroy [53]
RESEARCH
C.2004 Muji House
Having a consistent brand philosophy, Muji is
also a Japanese retail company that designs
three micro houses. Since 2004 it has been
offering simple yet inspiring homes that cover
almost every area of life. MUJI House is a small
but highly editable “empty” box as a concept.
The small-scale appearance of MUJI, which
comes in an area of about 90 ~ 130 square
meters, has existed since the first models were
launched and long before the small house
movement.
MUJI currently offers three different house
models: “Ki no Ie (Wooden House)”, “Mado no
Ie (Window House)” and “Tate no Ie (Vertical
House).” And in September 2019, the fourth
product, Yo no Ie (Sun House), one of the most
distinctive features of all three model houses
shared is that it reinforced the concept of “oneroom
house”. the whole area is designed like
a large single room. There is no wall to divide
the rooms, and the floors are connected using
double ceilings and high windows. Furniture or
partitions can be used as dividers if required or
desired. [54]
Image 30: Muji House / Mado no Ie (Window House), 2004 [54]
35

HISTORY
2005
A. THRESHOLDS
Secure Fence Act: The Secure Fence
Act of 2006, which authorized the
construction of 700 miles of doublelayered
fencing along part of the U.S.-
Mexico border
2006
Apple iPhone released: The iPhone
is a line of smart phones designed and
marketed by Apple Inc.
2007
Great Recession (Mortgage crisis):
A global economic downturn that
devastated world financial markets as
well as the banking and real estate
industries.
2008
Starting of mass migration from Syria:
People’s riots caused by the Arab Spring,
Syria in March 2011 leaped. Assad
government in Syria, the military violently
suppress demonstrations to turn to, was
the first sign of the mass migration will
begin in Turkey.
2011
YouTube has launched Twitter has launched Google Street View launched Scientists engineer new plastics
without the use of fossil fuels
B. INNOVATIONS
2005
2006
2007
2009
Polar Lab is a temporary Research
Habitat in Antarctica.
Final Wooden House is designed by
Sou Fujimoto Architects and the architect
uses the versatility of Lumber.
The Sustainable Cabin is designed by
Texas Tech University. The project is
prefabricated, sustainable design-build
project.
Halley VI Antarctic Research Station is
designed by Hugh Broughton Architects
with AECOM.
C. SHELTERS
2005
2006
2010
2013
D. CULTURE
2007
Sorry Out Of
Gas
Glovanna
Borasi,
Mirko Zardini
is written
for an
architecture’s
response to
the 1973 oil
crisis.
2007
Amazon Kindle
The device
used an
electronic paper
display and
was able to
download books
and other digital
content from
Amazon, without
a computer
and without any
monthly fee.
Wall-E: In 2805, Earth is an abandoned,
dystopian planet covered in garbage,
with its people evacuated by megacorporation
Buy-N-Large on giant
star-liners.
2008
Black Mirror: An anthology series that
revolves around a group of people’s
personal lives and how technology
manipulates their behaviour
2011
E. ACTS AND EVENTS
Onedotzero Festival in London
create immersive environments,
producing culturally significant
experiences: merging arts, entertainment
and technology.
2008
2008
Home Delivery:
Fabricating
the Modern
Dwelling, MoMA
The exhibition, and
its accompanying
website, display
the process of
architectural design
and production
in equal measure
with the actual end
result.
2009
Dezeen
x Design
Association
Container
Design
Competition
exhibition
space in Tokyo.
Small Scale, Big Change: New
Architectures of Social Engagement,
MoMA.
Exhibition says that: ‘‘Architecture is
rediscovering its social conscience.’’
2010-2011
Real estate prices in Berlin begin to
rise
Torre David in Caracas
Founding of Airbnb: Share your flat and
rent it out for as a holiday home.
WikiHouse is an open-source project for
designing and building homes.
F. ECONOMY
2006
2007
2008
2011
36

2019
Facebook Big Data Scandal:
Cambridge Analytica has used Facebook
data to manipulate Brexit referendum in
the UK and Donald Trump presidential
elections in the USA.
ISIS Attacks: ISIS militants has
destroyed one of the best-preserved
ruins at the Syrian site of Palmyra.
Paris Agreement: Global response
to climate change by keeping a global
temperature rise this century well below
2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial
levels.
Greta Thunberg & Climate Emergency
Protests
2014-2018
First consumer oriented AR drone was
released by Parrot.
2015
Large scale prefab MEP installation
2016
First 3D Printed House to Be Built In
Amsterdam
2019
Virtual Reality makes a comeback
RESEARCH
2010
2011
2014
2015
Alpine Shelter Skuta is designed by
OFIS Architects + AKT II + Harvard GSD
Students in extreme climatic condition.
Urban Cabin is designed by DUS
Architects and it is a research into
compact and sustainable dwelling
solutions.
MARSHA Ai Space Factory The project
offers a habitat which describes a future
of human life on Mars.
Cork House in Berkshire
Cork House was designed by Matthew
Barnett Howland with Dido Milne and
Oliver Wilton.
2015
2016
2019
2019
The Fool
(Durak)
Set in an
unnamed town
in Russia, the
film follows the
protagonist
Dima’s unavailing
attempt to rescue
a crumbling
building - and
all 820 of its
residents.
Elements of
Architecture
Rem
Koolhas
Martian
Depicts an astronaut’s lone struggle to
survive on Mars after being left behind,
and efforts to rescue him, and bring him
home to Earth.
Small Is
Beautiful:
A Tiny House
Documentary
Documentary
that explores
the complexities
of human
shelters and
shows us that
the story of a
house
2014
2014
2015
2015
Campus in
Camps was
founded.
It is an
experimental
education
program that
activates critical
learning and
egalitarian
environments
in Palestinian
refugee camps.
Nine Islands, 3rd Istanbul Design
Biennial “Are We Human?” Galata
Greek School, Istanbul.
Matters Around Architecture is a mixedmedia
installation that reflects on the
temporal and geographical origins of
architectural materiality.
MultiPly, London Design Festival: This
pavilion will delve into two of the current
global challenges – housing and climate
change - and will present the fusion
of modular systems and a responsible
choice of materials as a vital solution.
Flying
Panels
Exhibition
design by
Note Design
Studio in
Stockholm.
2013
2016
2018
2019
U.S. foreclosure crisis refers to a
widespread epidemic of improper
foreclosures initiated by large banks and
other lenders. The foreclosure crisis was
extensively covered by news outlets
beginning in October 2010, and several
large banks responded by halting their
temporarily foreclosure proceedings
in some or all states. The foreclosure
crisis caused significant investor fear in
the U.S. A 2014 study published in the
American Journal of Public Health linked
the foreclosure crisis to an increase in
suicide rates.
2010
UK Bedroom Tax: The underoccupancy
penalty results from a reform
contained in the British Welfare Reform
Act 2012 whereby tenants living in public
housing with rooms deemed “spare”
face a reduction in Housing Benefit,
resulting in them being obliged to fund
this reduction from their incomes or to
face rent arrears and potential eviction
by their landlord.
2012
Average house price in London
passes 400,000 pounds.
2014
First 3D printed neighbourhood in
Mexico: A non-profit organization New
Story ,co-op with ÉCHALE and ICON,
handled with the housing shortages.
2017
37

HISTORY
F.2008 Airbnb
Providing access to goods and services often
facilitated by a community-based online platform is
called Sharing economy. It is an economic model
defined as a peer-to-peer (P2P) based activity in
providing or sharing. [55]
Airbnb, an online market that connects people who
want to rent their homes and people looking for
accommodation in that area, now covers more than
81,000 cities and 191 countries worldwide.
For homeowners, joining Airbnb is a way to earn
some income from their property, but guests also
have the risk of damaging their home. The biggest
advantage for guests can be relatively inexpensive
accommodation. But there is also the risk that the
property is not as attractive as it appears on the list.
The advantages of Airbnb: A wide selection, free
entries, homeowners’ own prices, customization, a
wide search opportunity. Disadvantages of Airbnb:
What you see may not be what you get, potential
damage, additional fees, taxes may occur. And it is not
legal everywhere. [56]
Figure 4: Airbnb economic model scheme [57]
E. 2010-2011 Small Scale Big Change:
New Architectures of Social Engagement,
MOMA,USA
They focus on work that has recently been built or is under
construction in small-scale, large-scale, underserved
communities by 11 architects and companies. Elemental
(Chilean); Anna Heringer (Austrian); Diébédo Francis Kéré
(Burkinabé); Hashim Sarkis A.L.U.D. (Lebanese); Jorge
Mario Jáuregui (Brazilian); Frédéric Druot, Anne Lacaton &
Jean Philippe Vassal (French); Michael Maltzan Architecture
(American); Noero Wolff Architects (South African); Rural Studio
(American); Estudio Teddy Cruz (American, born Guatemala);
and Urban Think Tank (American / Austrian / Venezuelan). These
11 architects and firms have focused on this change, offering
work that has recently been built or is under construction in
communities with insufficient service worldwide. These architects
have developed projects that demonstrate the specificity of the
space after utopia, without compromising their concerns about
aesthetics. They came up with architectural solutions as a result
of close collaboration with future users and ongoing research
into local conditions. Projects involving schools, parks, housing
and infrastructure interventions have revealed an exciting
change in the long-standing dialogue between architecture and
society, as the roles, methods, approaches and responsibilities
of the architect have been significantly re-evaluated. They also
provided an expanded definition of sustainability that goes
beyond experimenting with new materials and technologies to
cover larger social and economic sustainability concepts. [58]
Image 31: Metro Cable, 2003
Courtesy of Urban-Think Tank [59]
38

B.2010 AR Drone by Parrot
Launched by the French company Parrot, the stoppable
remote control quad copter helicopter Parrot AR.Drone
is suitable for mobile or tablet operating systems,
supported in applications such as iOS or Android. It
is also designed to be controlled by unofficial software
available for Samsung Windows Phone, BADA and
Symbian devices.
It was announced at the International CES 2010 in Las
Vegas with its compatibility with iOS applications used
to control the Parrot AR Drone. Along with AR Freeflight,
the application Parrot, designed for the drone to run for
free, also released AR.Race, which allows users to take
part in solo games or interact with other drones in battle
simulations.
“The body of the AR Drone, made of carbon fibre parts
and nylon, is 57 cm (22 inches) in diameter.”
It is put together with two interchangeable bodies. One
of them is designed for indoor, the other is designed for
outdoor flight. The outdoor body is made of lightweight
plastic and provides greater manoeuvrability. The interior
body is made of EPP foam and surrounds the blades
for protection. In total, the AR Drone has six degrees of
freedom, a miniature inertial measurement unit tracks
the pitch, roll and deviation for use in stabilization. [60]
Image 32: AR Drone pre-production prototype [60]
RESEARCH
A.2011 Starting of mass migration from Syria
The Arab Spring, a series of anti-government protests
that spread to most of the Islamic world in the early
2010s, went down in history as an uprising and armed
rebellion. Starting with protests in Tunisia in 2011, it
began as a response to repressive regimes and a low
standard of living. Its influence spread to Libya, Egypt,
Yemen, Syria and Bahrain. [61]
Turkey has taken its share by hosting a growing
number of refugees from the war inside. It has shown
its effects for 7 years. [62]
When immigrants do not take refuge in temporary
protection camps when they have the opportunity
to choose, they prefer urban areas to rural areas. In
Turkey, 2.7 million Syrians under temporary protection
to only 10 percent of temporary protection sought
refuge camps, the majority of Syrian refugees living
outside the camps are living in urban areas. There are
two dimensions to problems arising from sudden and
massive mass migration in cities. On the one hand,
while immigrant masses faced a number of problems,
on the other hand, problems arising from changes in
the permanent settlements of the city emerged. [63]
Image 33: Syrian refugee men work at a textile workshop as day labourers in Istanbul [62]
39

HISTORY
F. 2011 Wikihouse
WikiHouse is an open-source housing design and
construction project. It efforts to democratize and
facilitate the construction of affordable, sustainable
and resource-light housing. In 2011, the WikiHouse
has appeared with the initiative of Alastair Parvin and
Nick Ierodiaconou, who are from a London based
strategy and design practice “00”, in collaboration with
Tav of Espians, James Arthur, and Steve Fisher from
Momentum Engineering. The project was introduced
at Gwangju Design Binnale in South Korea. It has
grown from the beginning and become a community
of contributors worldwide. The WikiHouse allows
users to download Creative Commons licensed
projects from the online library. Users can customize
that downloaded files on “SketchUp”, and create
parts of the plywood with CNC router. The frame of
the Wikihouse includes simple elements to construct
easily, so it can be built in less than a day, even by a
non-qualified person. Before the inhabitation, the frame
must be finished with cladding, insulation, plumbing
and wiring. [64]
1 4
2
5
3
6
Figure 5: Wikihouse building scheme
Courtesy of Wikihouse.cc [65]
D.2014 The Fool (Durak)
The film is about an effort by a protagonist named Dima to rescue
a crumbling building, along with apartment dwellers, in an unnamed
town in Russia. When Dima, the plumber, is called by residents to
check a pipe burst, he realizes a crack that spilling out from one side
of the apartment. “In a housing facility of unique characters, chaos,
and limited means, he is at odds with the authorities as well as the
unhindered inhabitants of a construction neglected for 30 years.”
The story is about just a single night. When Dima fights against the
most prominent odds to persuade, the film touches on the issues of
community, neglect, morality, reform, and morality. [66]
Image 34: The Fool (Durak) is a film by Yury Bykov, 2014 [67]
40

C.2019 MARSHA / Ai Space Factory
In 2019, AI Space Factory with its proposal, which is
called “MARSHA”, has been awarded first place in the
NASA Centennial Challange. The MARSHA proposes
a new habitat for humankind in the future on Mars.
The project, which was 4.5 meters high and included
three windows, was built with 3D printed technology.
The CEO of AI Space Factory, David Malott, mentions
about the proposal as: “We developed these
technologies for Space, but they have the potential to
transform the way we build on Earth. By using natural,
biodegradable materials grown from crops, we could
eliminate the building industry’s massive waste of nonrecyclable
concrete and restore our planet.” ⁣[68]
RESEARCH
Image 35: MARSHA / Ai Space Factory, 2019 [68]
A.2019 Greta Thunberg & Climate Emergency
Greta Thunberg highlighted the following in her speech at the
United Nations Climate Action Summit in September 2019;
“Entire ecosystems are collapsing. We are in the beginning of
a mass extinction and all you can talk about is money and fairy
tales of eternal economic growth. How dare you! For more
than 30 years, the science has been crystal clear. How dare
you continue to look away and come here saying that you’re
doing enough when the politics and solutions needed are still
nowhere in sight.
... The popular idea of cutting our emissions in half in 10
years only gives us a 50% chance of staying below 1.5
degrees and the risk of setting off irreversible chain reactions
beyond human control. 50% may be acceptable to you, but
those numbers do not include tipping points, most feedback
loops, additional warming hidden by toxic air pollution or the
aspects of equity and climate justice. They also rely on my
generation sucking hundreds of billions of tons of your CO 2
out of the air with technologies that barely exist. So a 50% risk
is simply not acceptable to us, we who have to live with the
consequences. How dare you pretend that this can be solved
with just business as usual and some technical solutions?
With today’s emissions levels, that remaining CO2 budget will
be entirely gone within less than eight and a half years.
... We will not let you get away with this. Right here, right now
is where we draw the line. The world is waking up and change
is coming, whether you like it or not.” [69]
Image 41: Greta Thunberg and her book “No One is Too
Small to Make a Difference” [70][71]
41

HISTORY
A BRIEF HISTORY
OF HOUSING
AFFORDABILITY
200
170
140
AUS
126
BEL
110
80
50
20
2010
(Q2)
200
170
DEU
DNK
140
132
110
80
50
20
200
170
140
110
FRA
115
GBR
80
50
20
2007
(Q4)
1979
(Q1)
House prices in real
terms between 1975 and
2014. Index numbers
(2005=100) adjustes for
inflation and cost of
living
In the last twenty years, house prices have been
sharply increasing in most Western countries
across the entire specturum of the market. The
growth was fueled, on the one hand, by financial
speculation in real estate (after 2000, returns
from stocks and bonds were at historical lows),
and, on the other, by too-easy access to credit,
and thus to mortgages.
Such inflated values have resulted in devastating
housing bubbles: first Japan and South Korea
in the early 1990s, and later US, Spain, Ireland,
and others in the late 2000s. Many of the new
dwellings, and even new towns, that had been
built in the years of the optimism are now empty.
Thousands of families who could not afford to
repay their mortgage have been forced out their
homes. [72]
200
170
140
110
80
50
20
200
170
140
110
ITA
NOR
108
2008
(Q1)
143
JPN
SWE
80
50
Source: “SQM: The Quantified Home”,
p.144-145. The diagram was taken
from the book and redrawn.
20
1975
1985
1995
2005
2013
(Q2)
1975
1985
42

43
RESEARCH
CAN
CHE
FIN
IRL
NLD
ZAF
ESP
HRV
KOR
USA
122
2014
(Q1)
143
2014
(Q1)
143
1989
(Q4)
114
2007
(Q3)
137
1992
(Q2)
119
2007
(Q1)
106
2007
(Q1)
163
1991
(Q1)
188
1991
(Q2)
130
2013
(Q4)
106
2006
(Q4)
119
2007
(Q3)
124
2007
(Q3)
109
2007
(Q3)
113
2010
(Q3)
1995
2005
1975
1985
1995
2005
2015
1975
1985
1995
2005
2015

HISTORY
5,3
Tel Aviv
5,3
Stockholm
5,5
Helsinki
6,0
Roma
6,0
Toronto
6,5
Luxemburg
6,6
Sydney
7,0
Taipei
7,1
Bermuda
7,2
Shangai
7,4
Vienna
7,7
Tortola
8,7
Amsterdam
8,9
Auckland
9,4
Copenhagen
9,6
Andorra
9,9
0,9
Monaco
1,5
London
2,4
Hong Kong
2,8
Singapore
3,0
Moscow
3,3
New York City
3,3
Geneva
3,3
Paris
4,3
Mumbai
4,4
Tokyo
18,3
Zagreb
18,2
Santiago
17,9
Talinn
17,8
Buenos Aires
17,2
Bratislava
17,2
Riga
17,2
Phnom Penh
17,1
Grande-Terre
18,7
Vilnius
19,0
Mexico City
19,1
Kuala Lumpur
19,5
Montevideo
19,7
Jakarta
20,2
Budapest
20,9
Lisbon
21
Bo
37,3
Managua
36,6
San Juan
35,6
Skopje
35,6
Kings
37,3
Chisinau
38,5
Praia
39,0
Amman
URBAN SQMS
HOW MANY SQUARE
METERS CAN YOU BUY
WITH $50,000?
Source: “SQM: The Quantified Home”,
p.154-155. The diagram was taken
from the book and redrawn.
44

Prague
9,9
Dubai
9,9
Dublin
10,2
Madrid
10,5
Athens
11,2
Berlin
11,9
Brussels
11,9
Warsaw
11,9
St. James
12,0
Grand Cayman
12,2
Cape Town
12,7
Istanbul
12,9
Providenciales
13,2
Kiev
13,3
Sao Paulo
13,5
Valletta
RESEARCH
16,8
Fort-de-France
16,5
Belgrade
16,2
Manila
15,8
Limassol
15,6
Bucharest
15,5
St. Croix
15,2
Bangkok
14,8
Ljubljana
14,3
St. Kitts
14,3
Antigua
13,8
Bahamas
13,5
Beirut
,0
gota
21,4
Trinidad
21,5
Ambergris Caye
23,1
Bonaire
24,1
Puerto Plata
24,8
Marrakesh
25,0
Panama City
26,5
Montenegro (coast)
ton
34,7
Sofia
34,4
Aruba
30,5
San Jose
27,6
Lima
26,9
St. Lucia
39,1
Quito
41,9
San Salvador
55,6
Nairobi
71,4
Dar as Salaam
60,2
Cairo
SOURCE:
Global Property Guide,
www.globalpropertyguide.
com/most-expensive-cities.
The values are based on a
120 m² apartment in a prime
central area, and refer to Q2
2014.
45

1
R
HISTORY
A TIMELINE
OF DOMESTIC
CONNECTIONS
GATESHEAD
REDRUTH
LONDO
SAN ANDREAS
SAN FRANCISCO
LOS ANGELES
CHICAGO
DALLAS
DETROIT
LOCKPORT
BROOKLINE
BOSTON
NEW YORK
WASHINGTON
SOMMERVILLE
(BRITANNY)
1792- Gas Lighting
Redruth, Cornwall
The scale of domestic
interior is the contact point
of individuals and objects
with urban, national, and
global infrastructures.
The graph represents all
the physical structures
that, one after the other,
have linked the home to
the outside world. They
are ordered according to
the year in which the first
home was connected. [72]
Source: “SQM: The Quantified Home”,
p.198-199. The diagram was taken
from the book and redrawn.
2500
BCE
2500 BCE- Flush Toilet at Home
Indus Valley (current Pakistan)
1500
BCE
1700 BCE- Clean Water Supply
Minoan Civilization (Crete)
500
BCE
100- Waste Water Connection
Roma
1778- Flush Toilet
City of London
1615- Clean Water Supply
City of London
0 500
1500 1600 1700 1800
18
46

2001- Fiber Optics
Milan and Eindhoven
(SIBERIA)
1989- Internet
Brookline, Massachussets
1978- Minitel
Brittany, France
1976- Satellite Television
San Andreas, California, and Siberia
1975- Telenet Network
Washington, Boston, New York, Chicago,
Dallas, San Francisco, Los Angeles
RESEARCH
1970- Videophone
USA
EINDHOVEN
N
MILAN
ROME
1948- Cable Television
Pennsylvania
1936- Television
London
1931- Cable Radio
Switzerland
1920- Radio
Detroit
1908- Printing Telegraph
New York City
1882- Electric Lighting (first street)
Pearl Street, New York City
1880- Electric Lighting (first house)
Gateshead, UK
1877- District Heating
Lockport, New York
1877- Telephone
Sommerville, Massachusetts
841- Gas-fired Kitchen Stove
eform Club, London
50 1900 1950 2000
47

LOCAL TIMELINE

A view from Galata Tower to the bridge in 1950s, Old İstanbul Photos archieve [73]

HISTORY
1835
A. THRESHOLDS
The Rescript of Gülhane First Constitutionalist Period Second Constitutionalist Period
1839
1876
1908
31st March Case It is a great uprising
against the administration in Istanbul
after the declaration of the Second
Constitutional Monarchy.
1909
B. LAWS
Fire Prevention Regulation
With this law, fire prevention measures
were taken for houses and stores.
Official Record
Regulations relating to this law:
Regularization and expansion of streets,
construction of public squares and docks
Encouraging the construction of masonry
houses
Height of houses: 15m (maximum)
1826-1839
Building Regulation
The opening of empty lands and
agricultural areas to the zoning is
connected to the will of the sultan.
1848-1849
Regulation on Streets
Street and Building Regulation
It is very important that the regulation will
be applied not only in Istanbul but in all
cities of the Empire. Because the zoning
movements will be based on a certain
plan from now on.
1858-1863
Regulation on Construction Methods
in Istanbul
Only the masonry construction would be
allowed in the area east of Unkapanı-
Aksaray axis. In the north of the Golden
Horn, the area where only masonry was
allowed was Galata, the coastal line
between Azapkapı and Ortaköy, and
Şişli with Cadde-i Kebir.In other regions,
if fire prevention measures are taken,
wooden buildings are constructed.
could be.
1875
The House of Bekir Reis Büyükdere
istanbul - Turkish House
Sedat Hakkı Eldem
Abus Efendi Seaside Mansion
Single rooms
First co-living places for singles
Designed by Sarkis Balyan in 1875,
Akaretler Row Houses was built
during Sultan Abdulaziz period for the
accommodation of the leading high
ranking officials of Dolmabahce Palace.
C. DWELLING
1800s
1835
1800s
1875
D. CULTURE
1835
Julia Pardoe
Beauties
of the
Bosphorus
1860-1866
Tercüman-ı
Ahvâl is the
first private
newspaper
published
in Istanbul
between
1860-1866.
1860
Şair Evlenmesi
is accepted as
the first western
work published
in Turkish
literature
1892
Muhaderat
Fatma Aliye
Turkey’s first
female novelist
Fatma Aliye
Topuz. In
this novel,
the subject of
marriage which
one is forced to
do against his
own free will is
discussed.
E. SOCIAL LIFE
William Henry Bartlett’s XIX. An
engraving of Tophane in the second half
of the 19th century
1800s
Sixth District Municipality
1857
1870
A photo taken in
1870. A Turkish
lady in her outfit.
In the hot summer
months, women
often went out
with umbrellas
to protect
themselves from
the sun.
1867
Maison Psalty
Furniture
In Beyoglu
Workshop:
The store opened
by Jean Psalty,
They adapt the
fashion lines of
Europe to the
Ottoman Empire
and sometimes
imitate them
completely.
F. ECONOMY
With the Baltalimani Foreign Trade
Agreement, a non-Muslim rich class
was formed in the country and the
economy of the country was mostly in
the hands of that sector.
1838
1856
Founding
of İstanbul
Şehramaneti:
First modern
municipal
organization
in the western
sense
Rescript of Reform: In order to save
the Ottoman Empire from collapse, it
is an edict issued during the reign of
Abdülmecid for fundamental changes
intended to be made in the areas of
political institutions, human rights and
the establishment of new institutions.
1856
Founding of Central Bank of Ottoman
1856
50

1923
The Ottoman Empire participated in
World War I as one of the Central
Powers.
19 May 1919 is the first day of the
Turkish War of Independence.
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
was established.
Proclamation of the Republic
1914
Istanbul Municipality Law
The city of Istanbul is divided into
twenty municipalities. In the previous
embodiments, when drawing superficial
boundaries,
The municipalities were both named and
bounded.
1919
Building Law
It is the first zoning law of the Ottoman
period which came into force in
1882. Differences from the previous
embodiment first code system for
buildings and detailed streets, city
planning principles and the practices are
remarkable.
1920
Building Law
This law contains important regulations
on two issues.
Types of construction: Complete wall,
half wall and wood in some parts of the
Old Town
building heights: according to the street
width
1923
The Constitution of 1921
The first constitution of the modern
Turkish state, it was ratified by the
Grand National Assembly of Turkey in
January 1921. It was a simple document
consisting of only 23 short articles.
RESEARCH
1877
1882
1891
1921
The Helbig(Doğan) Apartment House,
Galata
Botter
Apartment
House, Pera
One of the
most prominent
representatives
of the Art
Nouveau
movement in
Turkey
Vedat Tek
House
Nişantaşı:
First National
Architecture
Movement
Harikzedegân Apartment Laleli:
It was built in May 1918 with donations to
replace some 7500 homes destroyed in
the great fire in Cibali.
1894
1910
1913
1922
Kaplumbağa
Terbiyecisi
by Osman
Hamdi Bey,
Pera Museum,
Istanbul.
Osman Hamdi
Bey is an Ottoman
archaeologist,
museum, painter
and the first mayor
of Kadikoy.
Ömer Seyfettin“New Language”
Ömer Seyfettin is one of the founders
of the ‘Türkçülük’ movement and is an
advocate of simplification in the Turkish
language.
The first
Turkish
cinema
‘The
collapse of
Ayastefanos
monument’
The first
president of
the Republic
of Turkey
Mustafa
Kemal
Atatürk on
the cover
of the Time
Magazine,
4, March 24,
1923.
1906
1911
1914
1923
Levantine Barry Family, Büyükada
White Russian
Migration to
Istanbul After
the October
Revolution:
20% of
Istanbul’s
population was
refugees.
A Russian
princess who
washes laundry
‘New Family’
in the republic
period
Nuclear family
New marriage
Changing
house layout
Women’s rights
New people
concept
Republican women
Women who live a completely different
life from their grandmother.
1910
1920
1920
1923
Düyun-u Umumiye was the institution
that supervised the foreign debts of the
Ottoman Empire between 1881 and
1939.
Central Bank of Ottoman: The
Ottoman Bank was built by the architect
Alexandre Valleury in 1892 on the Galata
Banks Street in Karaköy.
Bab-ı Ali raid: The military coup that
was carried out by a group of ‘İttihat and
Terakki’ members, led by Enver Bey and
Talat Bey, in the raid of the government
building Bab-ı Ali.
İzmir Economic Congress: The
conference was held in order to
emphasize the importance of Turkish
economic development, as the country
had been shattered by years of war.
1881
1892
1913
1923
51

HISTORY
C.1800s Turkish House
The architecture of Turkish local houses is
influenced by a range of climatic and natural
resources, by the traditions of earlier homes
remaining in Anatolia from the Byzantine era,
and by traditional Turkish culture, that was
brought from Central Asia by Turks. Local
materials, each natural and inorganic, offer
Turkish homes their character and identity;
in North Anatolia, the timbered homes from
efficient forests; whereas in Central Anatolia,
the stone and sun-dried brick houses; in West
Anatolia, stone; and in South Anatolia, stone
and timbered homes. In conjunction with these
principals, the interiors of Turkish homes were
planned for different aims, just like the winter
and therefore the summer rooms. Additionally,
Islamic and Turkish customs played a big
role in shaping the house. This issue brought
on widespread project, that created Turkish
homes a lot of homogeneous, although there
have been still environmental condition and
regional variations. [74]
Image 1: Turkish House [74]
C.1922 Harikzedegân Apartment
After the infamous fireplace that
burnt off seven.500 homes within the
neighbourhoods of Cibali and Fatih on might
thirty one, 1918 a campaign was organized
to compose shelters for the victims. Apart
from the efforts of the government, civil
donations were additionally accepted for that
purpose and therefore the Harikzedegan
(the victims of the fire) apartment buildings
were planned and built from the years 1918
through 1922 by the architect Kemaleddin
Bey. The buildings are necessary examples
therein bring that event of the Turkish history
and therefore the local Turkish architecture.
The buildings were at first named “Tayyare
(Aeroplane) apartment Buildings”, the
previous name of the Turkish Aviation
League. [80]
Image 6: Harikzedegân Apartment [81]
52

B.1848 Building Regulation
In 1848 Ministry of Public Works was established in order
to construct a central authority for urban planning and
regulations. In 1848 and 1849 two building regulations were
issued, which were similar to 1839 Record with differences
in only two subjects, building heights and expropriation. The
latter one was a new concept, which allowed the widening of
roads as implied by the regulations.
1848 Building Regulation defined rules both for streets
and buildings (commercial and residential). The regulation
prohibited the projection from the buildings; therefore it was
not possible to get a building permit for a new construction
unless the required distance was left for the street. If there
was a damaged building or a public interest for demolishing
a building and the government offered to pay its price, this
regulation obliged the owner to sell or demolish the building.
The regulation included the public buildings as well. When a
public building existed in a fire-burnt area, in order to regularize
the street lines during the reconstruction, the necessary space
would be taken from the courtyard.[77]
Image 3: Plan of Aksaray after the reconstruction in 1850s (Ayverdi, 1958, map no.
C3 and C4) The Beauties of the Bosphorus [77]
RESEARCH
C.1875 Akaretler Row Houses
‘Akaretler row houses’ are situated in Besiktas district in Istanbul.
The row houses have been ordered by Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz
to architect Sarkis Balyan in 1874 and consist of 138 housing units.
They were originally built for the accommodation of the workers of
Dolmabahce Palace. ‘Akaretler row houses’ are one of the most
important examples in Istanbul of this housing option.
The owner of the houses was General Directorate of Foundations.
The houses have changed habitants many times. They used to be
rented for many years as houses to low income earners, car repairers,
traditional grocery keepers. They were also used by a political party
and also by Faculty of Fine Arts in 1980’s. Afterwards, they have
been abandoned until about 1995 when they have been restorated
and renovated to be rented again. Finally, restoration and renovation
of the row houses complex was finished in 2008. In this complex,
56 residences in different sizes, 34 shops and also W Hotel were
opened.
The area of the row houses is situated in between Besiktas and
Nisantasi on a steep ramp. One of the end of the row houses is
Besiktas which is an traditional district, whereas the other end is a
trendy zone called Nisantasi. Soon after the opening in 2008, many
of the high society shops have been changed into coffee shops
and bars mostly thanks to the location. When you walk down to
Besiktas passing through the row houses you can find trendy bars,
coffee shops, jewellery shops, antiquarie shop, W hotel, shops like
Marni, Bottega Veneta... Arriving down to Besiktas you find traditional
restaurants such as döner, pide, traditional coffee shops, fish
markets… a mixture of colours, lights, odors of the East that compete
with Western way of communication of ‘Akaretler row houses’. [78]
Image 4: Akaretler Row Houses [78]
53

HISTORY
1923
A. THRESHOLDS
Industrial Incentive Policy
This policy has not been as useful as
expected due to the economic crisis
in the world. As a result, in 1932, the
government decided that the state
should undertake basic investments
based on production.
1923-1929
The People’s Party is the first political
party of Turkey: In 1935, the name of the
party was “Republican People’s Party”.
1924
In 1924 the Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet
Party was founded. It was closed in 1925.
1924
Nakiye Elgun: She is reading the
declaration of the rights of the child at
the Taksim Square in 1930.
1930
B. LAWS
Constitution (1924)
Rene and Raymond Danger İzmir
Master Plan (1924)
1924
Carl Christoph Lörcher’s Ankara
Plans :A City Dream Reflecting Anti-
Modernist and Authoritarian Trends
1924-1925
Industrial Incentives Law
These incentives are provided by law
for the production of private enterprises
in building materials, non-smoking
building materials produced in verilmiştir.
türkiye allow duty-free import of this law,
reinforced concrete construction with
cement and steel, the main material,
insulation materials used for flat roofs,
large construction equipment, fine
construction materials and finishing
materials have been imported.
1927
Hermann Jansen Ankara Master plan
1928
C. DWELLING
1923
Melek
Apartment
Nişantaşı
Bahçelievler Building Cooperative
Hermann Jansen, Ankara
1932
Ragıp Devres’ Villa-The Swiss-
Austrian architect Ernst Egli, Bebek
İstanbul: One of the first examples of
modern architecture in Istanbul.
1932
1933
Üçler
Apartment,
Talimhane:
First
appearance
of the
concept
of “rental
house“
D. CULTURE
How should we decorate our houses?
SÜS Magazine SAYI 48
1926
1927
Nutuk
This book
describes the
history of the
republic of
Turkey.
‘Excellent and illustrated etiquette
guide’ Book - Abdullah Cevdet
1927
1931
Peyami
Safa’s novel
Fatih-Harbiye,
the author
describes
the pain of
modernization
in society
through
objects,
individuals,
institutions and
spaces
E. SOCIAL LIFE
Civil Law
1926
Nation Gardens inspired by the French
Public Gardens after the Constitutional
Monarchy, it was designed as an
Ottoman club, library and theater
structures in order to socialize the
society.
1932
Women’s miting to thank Atatürk
1934
Beer Garden, Bomonti
1930
Founding of Real Estate Bank
The finance ministry was authorized by
the government to use budget to build
houses for civil servants
Lodging houses in the beginning
of 1930s: Social housing projects for
workers as low-cost, easy to build,
rational, affordable.
Founding of Turkish Cooperatives
Institution
F. ECONOMY
1926
1928
1930s
1931
54

1945
First Five-Year Industrialization Plan
The greatest weight was given to the
weaving sector. Most of the factories
were built with Soviet credit and
technology. Importance was given to the
construction of railways
Ismet Inonu
was elected
president.
National
Chief
Village institutes in Turkey was
established in 1940 to train primary
school teachers.
National Protection Law
Capital tax
1934
1938
1940
1940-1942
RESEARCH
Law on the Ministry and Devair
Buildings and Civil Servant
Apartments to be Built in Ankara,
1928
Land Reform, 1929
Municipal Law, 1930
Establishment of municipal zoning
committee, 1933
Municipal building and roads law,
1933
Title Deed Law, 1934
Municipality Expropriation Law
Henry Prost İstanbul masterplan
(1937)
Law on the Construction of civil
servant dwellings
The immovables deemed necessary
for the implementation of this law shall
be expropriated in accordance with the
provisions of Municipal Expropriation
Law no.
1928-1934
1934
1937
1944
Kozlu Zonguldak M.K.İ. Workers
Houses- Zonguldak
Seyfi Arkan
Kozlu Zonguldak M.K.İ. Workers
Houses- Zonguldak
Seyfi Arkan- Bauhaus style
Tüten Apartment:
There were
budgerigars in our
apartments and
flowers in front
of our windows.
The surrounding
apartments have
increased. Yet
everyone who
crossed the street
looked at this.
Daw of a New Day- Expo 39 in New
York Turkey Pavilion Sedad Hakkı
Eldem
1934
1934
1936
1946
Independent
Painters and
Sculptors
Association
Exhibition
Nation Gardens inspired by the French
Public Gardens after the Constitutional
Monarchy, it was designed as an
Ottoman club, library and theater
structures in order to socialize the
society.
Lüküs
Hayat
Musical
Aysel Bataklı Damın Kızı: The first
movie shot on villages in Turkey
1931
1932
1933
1934
Salacak Beach
Republic village project
Yapı Kredi
Bank
Poster
First housing
bonus
Poster for ‘The
Association
for
Combatting
Rudeness’’
Ihap
Hulusi
1937
1937
1944
1945
Founding of Sümerbank and
Halkbank to support of artisans housing
cooperatives.
With the National Protection Law
enacted in 1939, it was decided to
restrict housing rents and this limitation
lasted until 1963.
Civil Servants Housing: Saraçoglu
Neighbourhood by Paul Bonatz
First housing bonus has given by “Yapı
Kredi Bank” in 1944 for the first time.
1933
1939
1944
1944
55

HISTORY
D.1926 Süs Magazine
How should we decorate our houses? The article
within the magazine mentions that the furnishing of
the rooms has become more important and also
the choice of furniture requires more responsibility.
It emphasizes that the rooms aren’t designed with
some furniture like before, and also the points to be
considered in choosing the acceptable furniture.
Designed in artistic movement style, this room features
upholstered armchairs, wallpapers, a corner tea table
with tapered sections, a functional buffet and an
identical curtain and chandelier.
It is a room design with angular and infrequently
decorated with exotic materials, polished with a
highly polished finish, geometric shapes, small and
thin decorations, and cosy, easy-to-use furniture.
The room design, which is in line with the free plan
understanding, where handwork is seen from time
to time, includes both the fluid lines of art nouveau
and Bauhaus’s simplicity, is an example of art deco
approach. [85]
Image 9: Süs magazine [85]
C.1932 Bahçelievler Housing Cooperative, Hermann Jansen
Bahçelievler residential campus was designed
between 1935-38 by Hermann Jansen, who won
the international competition to plan the development
of Ankara. The campus, which was realized by
Bahçelievler Cooperative, was built on a land in
the west of Ankara, outside the boundaries of the
development plan of the period. Although Jansen’s
initial plan included single, twin and row houses
proportionally, the majority of the houses in the project
were realized as single houses within the garden,
with adaptations by local architects in line with the
demands of the members of the cooperative.
Bahçelievler Cooperative, which was an example
by leading the cooperatives established to meet the
housing needs of the rapidly increasing population of
the capital Ankara in the early years of the Republic,
was responding to the space needs of the modern life
of the bureaucrat class of the period. These houses,
with their rooms, balconies and simple facades, which
assumed different functions, offered a choice away
from traditional residential typology. The structures of
this campus, which applied the Garden City model
with its sparse settlement texture, were demolished
over time and replaced with high apartment blocks. Of
the garden dwellings of Jansen’s design, only a few
structures have survived to the present day. [86]
Image 10: Bahçelievler Housing Cooperative, Hermann Jansen [87]
56

C.1936 Tüten Apartment
The building, one of the most important examples of the struggle
for modernity given in the interior and exterior spaces of the house,
is located on Gümüssuyu, Inönü Street, one of the most important
axes of the city’s apartment building process. The building owned by
the tobacco merchant Sabri Tüten is designed by Adil Denktas. The
circular staircase of the building, consisting of ten storeys, with large
square metres of flats, is located on the side facade in an adjacent
plot. All the rooms in the apartment are drawn from both sides and
side facades and open to light and courtyards, providing natural light
and ventilation. The street facade, which gives the building its original
character, is dominated by curvilinear lines in the plan and facade
openings. Horizontal band windows that open in accordance with
the rounded facade of the hall and the outward curvilinear balcony
emphasize the curvilinear and horizontal continuity of the facade. [88]
RESEARCH
Image 11: Tüten Apartment [89]
C.1937 Republic Village Project
In the plan under both the intellectual and formal
influence of E. Howard’s garden-city theory, the
settlement was designed as circular.
In the first series of buildings surrounding the square
with a monument in the middle, there are various
public buildings and parks such as school, village
mansion, public room, cooperative, hotel, public
toilet. The second series was completely devoted
to housing. Half of the third series is devoted to
large open spaces such as nurseries, guilds, sports
fields, and public buildings such as nursery buildings
and factories. In the immediate vicinity of the village,
functions such as the cemetery, fertilizer, fairground,
forest areas, which are thought to be outside the
village, were defined. Although this project draws
attention with its architectural form, the public functions
it contains and the new rural life model it proposes are
more interesting. [90]
Image 12: Republic Village Project [91]
57

HISTORY
1945
A. THRESHOLDS
1947
Marshall
Aid
The first
substantial
aid went
to Greece
and Turkey
in January
1947.
Democratic Party founded: The DP
defended liberal regulations in economy
and politics.
1946
In 1950s started with a multi-party
system and a liberal economic
development model where priority was
given to rapid industrialization and
urbanization.
1950s
Turkey was accepted into NATO:
Turkish membership to NATO can be
regarded a solution to her security
problems, but it may well be argued
that the main cause behind that policy
was the continuation of the polices of
westernization and modernization.
1951
B. LAWS
Building Construction Incentive Law
Unlike the first law at the local level, Law
No. 5228 stipulates that land can be
produced within the boundaries of the
zoning plan at the country level.
1948
Incentive and Unauthorized Building
Construction Buildings Law
The lands belonging to the municipality
within the boundaries of the municipality
and which will become the property of
the municipality shall be determined by
the decision of the municipal council and
allocated for the construction of houses.
1953
The Condominium Law, which was
passed in 1965, encouraged the
demolition of single family housing units
to build multi-family apartment
blocks in their places.
1965
Zoning Law, 1956
Constitution State, 1961, the
characteristics of cities and
environmental conditions within the
framework of careful planning, to meet
housing needs takes measures and
supports public housing enterprises
The Condominium Law, which was
passed in 1965, encouraged the
demolition of single family housing units
to build multi-family apartment
blocks in their places.
1956-1965
Small Villa, (57,00 m 2 )
Architect Rahmi Bediz
The first slums were built by immigrants
who came to work in the city. They built
these houses by imece method
The housing estates of Emlak Kredi
Bank were built on Levent Farm, Levent
İstanbul.
German Tower Houses - İzmir 27 sqm
44 residences for Roma
C. DWELLING
1947
1947
1950-1953
1960
Füreya Koral
The first
ceramics
workshop in
Turkey
Zeki Müren ‘The Sun of Art, had his
first live concert on 26 May 1955. He
would usually wear his self-designed
clothes on stage.
First reconstruction congress
Bus Travelers
film
D. CULTURE
1951
1955
1955
1961
Porter/Tunny Akaretler Beşiktaş
Migros - Mobile Market
Village Institutes closed
Tokalon
Cream
Advertising
E. SOCIAL LIFE
1951
1954
1954
1959
Emergence of slums in Zeytinburnu,
İstanbul: With the industrialization the
communities who are migrated the
metropolitan to get jobs in factories,
settled on public lands illegally.
2nd Turkish
Economy
Congress
Bank Lottery Houses: From the
beginning of 1950s until the end of
1970s, it occurred as an important
production and development culture of
housing in Turkey.
Social Insurance Institution has built
more than 200,000 houses for workers
between 1952 and 1984.
F. ECONOMY
1947
1948
1950s
1952-1984
58

1980
The Military Coup and a liberal
economic development model
where priority was given to rapid
industrialization and urbanization.
68 generations: Yankee go home!
Student actions-Yön magazine-DISK
actions
The Military Coup
“to bring peace to a polarized society
where thousands of people were being
killed on the streets.”
24th January Decisions: Neoliberal
economic policies started with Turgut
Özal in 1980.
1960
The Squatter Law, which was passed in
1966, aimed to prevent, demolish or
rehabilitate squatter settlements which
had been widely spread in urban
areas since the 1950s.
1968
Cooperatives Law, 1969.
The Land Office, established in 1969,
aimed to produce cheap land with
infrastructure to provide low-cost housing
in cities under population
pressure.
Land and Agricultural Reform Law,
1973.
In 1977, the Constitutional Court
annulled the this law.
1980
Corporate Housing Law, 1981.
1982 Constitution
57 of the social and economic rights
section of the 1982 Constitution, we can
see that housing is regulated under the
title of housing right.
1980
Law on Metropolitan Municipalities,
1984.
Expropriation Law, 1983.
Corporate Housing and Presidency
of Public Partnership Administration
Law, 1984.
RESEARCH
1966
1969-1977
1981-1982
1983-1984
Ataköy 1st Stage
The first camp portable homes in
Turkey two rooms on the left with kitchen
and one room on the right with kitchen
Floating House Bosporus
Earthquake shelters like igloo
established by The Farben-Bayer
Company in the Gediz earthquake.
1961
1965
1970
1970
Keşanlı Ali
Destanı
Cinema
The film takes
place in a
slum called
Sineklidağ.
(Hoca Hüsrev
and Kuştepe)
Housing
Congress
Cartography
Engineers,
Electrical
Engineers,
Civil
Engineers,
Architects,
and Urban
Planners
Kapıcılar
Kralı
Cinema
Arabesque Music
1964
1974
1976
1980s
Open-air cinema, was one of Turkey’s
most important entertainment and
socializing area- Adana
Nebioğlu Resorts, the “resort” concept
was first built with tourist facilities in
Turkey
Colour television
Miltur Tatil Sitesi- Kumbağ
Kılıç Ailesi Arşivi
1968
1969
1980
1980
Condominium law: For middle-class to
had their own housing needs. It caused
to build-sell system.
First 5-year Developing Plan: The
housing problem has been dealt with
for the first time as a whole and its
relationship with development has
been established. The concept of social
housing has been discovered and ways
of making cheap and small housing have
been sought.
Effect of Oil Crisis on Turkey
National Housing Policy: It had
aimed to produce affordable housing
in accordance with Turkish-Islamic
traditions. It provided the allocation of
land, projects and basic construction
materials to public housing institutions.
1955
1963-1967
1973
1980
59

HISTORY
C.1950 Levent Neighbourhood Houses
The construction of the first houses of Levent, which forms the
core of today’s Levent district, was started in 1947 within the
framework of the housing projects of Emlak Kredi Bank and
the first neighborhood was finished in 1950. At a time when
the average monthly wage was 500 pounds, house prices
here were between 14,000 and 60,000 pounds (with 20-year
interest). Despite its relative distance from the city centre,
Levent has long been home to the middle classes and civil
servants. The Levent project, which was later continued with
the second, third and fourth neighborhoods, was completed
in 1960.
Levent, one of the few examples of the Republican period
for modern urban life (for example, another is the Saracoglu
district in Ankara), is also a very progressive ecological project
in its era, with about 30,000 trees that are now adults. For
the same reason, today, a Yesil area around the Istanbul
Metropolis is a “garden-city”.
Levent, which was influenced by the urban transformation
process that accelerated in the 1980s and the central
business areas that shifted to the north by the construction
of the Bosphorus Bridges, is today under the pressure of a
physical and social transformation. Levent is a protected area
within the Istanbul metropolis due to its very different historical,
natural and social features. [103]
Image 19: Levent in 1950 [104]
C.1969 Nebioğlu Resorts
Nebioglu Tourist Facilities was opened in 1969 in
Çesmealtı, concerning thirty kilometre from Izmir.
Also bungalow-type units have a unique position
within the contemporary architectural heritage in
Turkey because of the reinforced concrete domeshaped
rooms.
Nebioglu Tourist Facilities area unit few samples of
a contemporary era in harmony and balance with
natural life.
Even throughout the land arrangement and
construction, no huge machinery was introduced
into the land. Even during the construction process,
it is a project that considers harmony with nature.
These ecological concerns continued during the
landscaping process.[109]
Image 22: Nebioğlu Resorts [109]
60

C.1970 Floating House in Bosphorus
Koray and Gömüç’s project was praised in the newspapers
of the period in the context of having an American Bar and
referencing the two-storey chalet/Hut (Melih Koray Archive).
At this point, it should be emphasized that the interaction
between America and Turkey in the 1950s was very important.
America perceives Russia’s ideology of communism as a
threat and gives various assistance to the country to improve
its relations with Turkey, as it considers Turkey to be highly
vulnerable to this threat. For this reason, the daily life in Turkey
and the culture, art life, especially the practice of architecture
are influenced by America. Therefore, the American Bar
emphasis on this naval home can be read as a reference to
how effective post-war American everyday life and architecture
approach is still for Turkey. The emphasis on the chalet can be
attributed to the reconsideration of the wooden hut, an ancient
archetype of architecture, by the architects. In fact, it can
be thought that the architect, who seems to have followed
overseas publications and architectural approaches from
his personal archive, also reflects the idea of the weekend
house, which was often seen around the world in the 1960s.
The summer house of Jens Risom, who applied both the
practice of mass production and the concept of the chalet
project, may have inspired Melih Koray and Ergin Gömüç as
an example of the premise at this point. Thus it can be said
that the ideas of a modernist floating house and mountain are
brought together in the catamaran House. [110]
Image 23: Floating Catamaran House [110]
RESEARCH
D.1970 Iglo Shelter in Akcaalan
Gediz Earthquake occurred on March 28, 1970.
The earthquake affected an area of about 3,000
square kilometers. Approximately 3,500 houses were
completely demolished, 7,000 heavily damaged and
10600 buildings damaged. 33000 families, about
80000 people remained without shelter. Relief aid
was sent from many countries and organizations,
disasters. West Germany’s contribution to the massive
problem of restoration cant in several ways. First,
aid in the form of food was immediate. Quickly sent
115 plane-loads of supplies. Secondly, it provided
team to construct, for the first time after a disaster, a
new form that resembles an igloo. The Farben-Bayer
Company of West unique shelters, 300 of which were
assembled within days of the Akcaalan. The shelter
is a dome-shaped styrofoam shell about four thick,
with a sixteen-foot diameter on the ground. It is cast
at the styrofoam substance on an inflated balloon. The
shell is then proofing compound and can be set into
place by two men. After doorway and circular ports for
windows are cut out for plastic “igloos” appeared badly
weathered but were still being used in Akçaalan. [105]
Image 20: The Fırst Tıme Published Images Of The 1970 Gediz Earthquake [106]
61

HISTORY
1980
A. THRESHOLDS
1983
Turgut
Özal was
the ruler
alone
In 1987, the public was asked whether
politicians who were politically banned by
the provisional article of the Constitution
after the 1980 coup would be abolished.
The people wanted the bans to be lifted.
1987
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge
1988
5th April Decisions
1994
B. LAWS
Law on the protection of cultural and
natural assets, 1982.
Five zoning forgiveness, 1982-1987.
1982-1987
The Mass Housing Law
The Mass Housing Law, which was
passed in 1984, was a comprehensive
law which aimed to encourage large
scale and prefabricated housing, and
for the first time was provided with an
independent budget, financial support
and an institutional framework to carry
out its mission.
1984
Law that allows foreigners to buy real
estates in Turkey, Turkey was adopted
by the Grand National Assembly.
1986
Constitutional Referendum: political
bans lifted after coup.
1987
Kemer Country
Sarıgazi, Samandıra and Sultanbeyli
developed as a slum city consisting of
illegal apartments”
First 1+1 Studio Flat- Ataköy
In 1992, thousand 300 houses in
European standards will be made with
the Esenkent project, rural origin,
Istanbul residents will be shown as an
example of city life ‘
C. DWELLING
1986
1985
1987
1992
D. CULTURE
1980
Aysegul of
family life
and the life
was like in
no turkey
conditions.
They live in
a luxurious
mansion
with a
garden,
garden of
the church.
1987
Muhsin
Bey:
Directed
by Yavuz
Turgul
Sesame Street - TRT: The aim of
Sesame Street was to have an idea
about the learning ability of children
between the ages of 3-5.
1989
Bizimkiler Series
The daily life of seven different families
living in the same apartment is a series
about their relations with each other.
1989-2002
E. SOCIAL LIFE
Consumer culture, moda,
advertisements
1986
1986
First
restaurant
of a global
fast-food
chain in
Taksim
The Jetsons in Turkey
1990
Ataköy Şirinevler Civilization Bridge
1990
Emergence of ‘post-gecekondu’:
After zoning amnesty 3 to 7 storeys
slums has been emerged.
Founding of Public Housing
Administration and Funds of Housing:
It founded by President Turgut Özal in
1984 to production of social housing.
Increasing of co-operatives: The
number of housing cooperatives
increased from 279 in 1983 to 5201 in
1987.
The Public Housing Administration
has started to produce houses for
immigrants from Bulgaria
F. ECONOMY
1982
1984
1984
1989
62

2002
Customs Union Agreement was
signed with EU.
1995
Gölcük Earthquake
1999
2001 economic crisis: It causes the
change of the government.
2001
2001
Kemal
Derviş
He resigned
from the
World Bank
and became
State Minister
in charge of
the economy.
He conducted
negotiations
with the IMF.
RESEARCH
1995 Constitutional amendment
With the constitutional amendments
of 1995 and 2001, the constitutional
guarantees for political parties were
significantly strengthened.
Following the 17th August earthquake,
the first criminal decision
was given in the cases against the
contractor. Contractor Kemal Uz, who
was responsible for Pelit Building
Cooperative, who built an apartment
in Yalova, where 20 people died, was
sentenced to 4 years in prison.
Transfer of shares controlled by
Emlak Bank to TOKİ, 2001.
Repeal of the Mass Housing Fund,
2001.
Realization of G status after the
transfer of Emlak Bank’s shares to
TOKİ.
1995
2000
2001
2002
Ataşehir- Satellite town- Emlak Bank
Alker technique-Prof. Dr. Ruhi
Kafesçioğlu İTÜ Ayazağa Campus
Paper Log House- Shigeru Ban after
marmara earthquake
TOKİ has been producing mass housing
for the 1999 earthquake
1993
1993
2000
2000
C Block- Directed by Zeki Demirkubuz
Eşkıya:
Directed
by Yavuz
Turgul
Habitat II
Istanbul
Someone is watching us
Turkey and the reality show which is a
phenomenon in the world.
1994
1996
1996
2001
Neighborhood culture: kids playing on
the street
In 28th April 1993, a methane explosion
shook a slum quarter in Ümraniye, a
district of Iıstanbul.
Alken 2000 Büyükçekmece
‘Yours New World’
Residential Marketing Strategies
1990
1993
1996
2000
Implementing Regulation on the
Production and Crediting of Mass
Housing and Urban Environment on
Municipal Lands
Gölcük Earthquake: It causes the 2001
economic crisis.
Increased state-capital cooperation:
The capitalization of the city
“Throwing the Constitution booklet”
The stock market fell by 14.6 percent,
repo interest rates jumped to 760
percent, foreign exchange outflow was
$ 7.6 billion. 510 thousand people were
unemployed. Black Wednesday
1992
1999
2000s
2001
63

HISTORY
B.1984 The Mass Housing Law
The “Right of Shelter” was included as a paragraph
heading in the 1982 Constitution for the first time:
“State takes necessary steps to provide for the
housing need within a planning context that reflects the
special characteristics and environmental conditions
of cities and also supports the construction of large
scale housing”. Thus, while in the previous period the
government acted as a regulator, the new policy was
to play an active role in the provision of housing.
The Mass Housing Law, which was passed in 1984,
was a comprehensive law which aimed to encourage
large scale and prefabricated housing, and for the
first time was provided with an independent budget,
financial support and an institutional framework to
carry out its mission. Financial support was provided
by the Mass Housing Fund, which was developed
independent of the national budget, and the Mass
Housing Administration was attached directly to the
Prime Ministry with the objective of participating in
house production. Priority was given to large scale
construction firms that used industialized construction
techniques.[113]
Image 25: Göztepe Soyak Housing Development [114]
D.1996 Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements
We, the Heads of State or Government and the official delegations
of countries assembled at the United Nations Conference on Human
Settlements (Habitat II) in Istanbul, Turkey from 3 to 14 June 1996, take this
opportunity to endorse the universal goals of ensuring adequate shelter for all
and making human settlements safer, healthier and more liveable, equitable,
sustainable and productive. Our deliberations on the two major themes of
the Conference - adequate shelter for all and sustainable human settlements
development in an urbanizing world - have been inspired by the Charter
of the United Nations and are aimed at reaffirming existing and forging
new partnerships for action at the international, national and local levels to
improve our living environment. We commit ourselves to the objectives,
principles and recommendations contained in the Habitat Agenda and
pledge our mutual support for its implementation [121]
Image 30: HABITAT II Poster [121]
64

C.2000 Paper Log House
Shigeru Ban, noted for his paper houses in Kobe and
Rwanda, came to Turkey to help the earthquake victims. He
brought 30 grand with him. He received a promise of support
from a firm in Bursa. $1750 worth of houses, cardboard,
beer cans, fabric and plywood! The famous Japanese
architect Shigeru Ban came to Turkey to build houses out
of compressed paper with his own method. The architect,
who was carry out a joint work with the Human Settlements
Association, have built houses in Degirmendere that are
resistant to all kinds of natural disasters. Shigeru Ban collected
30,000 dollars and brought 500 tent cloths for the earthquake
victims in Turkey in his own country. The cost of the house
from the paper developed by Shigeru Ban is very low. It can
easily be made from recycled paper, even by someone with
no knowledge of construction. Construction of a house takes
two days when the necessary supplies are provided. The
purpose of these houses, which are absolutely unharmed
by hurricanes and earthquakes, is to protect people from
cold and rainy weather. The famous architect says: “I found
a company in Bursa that produces rolls made of cardboard,
which is the main material of these houses. They promised
to provide support. A house costs around $1750. I need 50
grand for these paper houses to accommodate 120 people in
the first place.” [123]
Image 31: Paper Log House
Courtesy of Shigeru Ban Architects [124]
RESEARCH
C.1993 İTÜ Alker House
Alker is an earth-based stabilized building material
produced by the addition of gypsum, lime, and water
to earth with the acceptable granulometric structure
and with a cohesive property. Unbaked and produced
on-site either as adobe blocks or by pouring into
mouldings (the rammed earth technique), it’s significant
economic and ecological advantages. The word Alker
is an abbreviation combining the primary syllables of
the Turkish words for gypsum (alçı) and adobe (kerpiç).
Alker was inspired by a conventional plaster material
consisting of a mix of earth, gypsum and lime, which
has been in use within the earthen architecture of
Anatolia since the Neolithic era thanks to its high water
resistance. At the start of those studies at Istanbul
Technical University, professor Ruhi Kafesçioglu was
found for years. [119]
Image 29: Alker House [120]
65

HISTORY
2002
AK Party wins elections
Turkey is the first country of reception for
Syrians refugees escaping the civil war.
‘Open Door’ Policy
Occupy Gezi
301 people were killed in what was
the worst mine disaster in Turkey’s
history.
A. THRESHOLDS
2002
2011
2013
2014
TOKI Reconstruction
The Law Recognizing The
Authority To Make The Plan (Slum
Transformation Project Applicable
Areas), 2004.
Tourism Incentive Law, 2003.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Law,
2003.
Metropolitan Municipality Law
Law authorizing the Housing
Development Administration to make
maps and zoning plans of slum
reclamation and prevention areas
The Soil Conservation and Land Use
Law from provided a framework for the
State to regulate land uses leading to
significant soil deterioration.
B. LAWS
2003-2004
2004
2004
2005
B2 House - Han Tümertekin, a winner of
2004 Aga Khan Award for Architecture
Çanakkale
The Dark Side Of Urban Renewal:
Gentrification,Sulukule
Displacement, Spatial Exclusion
New era in architecture: LOFT
Levent Loft
Urban transformation- Istanbul
Bağdat Street
C. DWELLING
2004
2005
2006
2012
Sustainable Living Film Festival
Tahribad-ı İsyan- Rap Group Sulukule
Ekümenopolis- Documantary
Fikirtepe covered in dust” by
140journos - video
D. CULTURE
2007
2008
2011
2014
Roma of
The
Sulukule
Silent victims of urban transformation:
The Elderly
İmece House Ecovillage
New Peasantry
Çuva-Alakır River Brotherhood
E. SOCIAL LIFE
2009
2012
2013
2015
Law allowing TOKI to make zoning
plan in areas where squatter
transformation project will be
implemented
2008 economic crisis: Impacts of
mortgage crisis (great recession) on
Turkey.
At the beginning of 2010 state-capital
housing projects has increased: The
commercial value has been more than
important than exchange value.
Syrian refugee policy
F. ECONOMY
2004
2008
2010
2011
66

2019
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is a Turkish
politician serving as President of
Turkey since 2014.
July 15 coup attempt
Global Objectives for sustainable
development
Turkish local elections
İstanbul-Ankara-İzmir
2014
The authority of the Ministry of Public
Works is transferred to TOKİ.
2015
Adoption of the law which partially
exempts Emlak Konut from all capital
market regulations applicable to other
REITs (excluding tax exemption).
2015
Municipalities have been granted wide
authority on the implementation of
urban transformation and development
projects with the amendment to
the Municipal Law.
2019
Planned Areas Zoning Regulation
One of the most significant changes
brought into effect by the Regulation is
the abolishment of studio apartments,
which are defined as dwellings that
consist of one main room and one
bathroom. every single detached
dwelling must consist of at least: (1)
one living room, (2) one bedroom, (3)
one kitchen or cooking area, (4) one
bathroom or washing area, and (5) one
toilet.
RESEARCH
2007
2007
2010
2019
Slum Apartment Urban
Transformation- Küçükçekmece
Tezek Evleri- İstanbul
Fold and Float
Istanbul Design Biennial
ReYard House
Solar Decathlon Africa Competition 2019
competition
2015
2016
2018
2019
Go home
before it’s
late
exhibition
Turkey’s zero waste project, led by
First Lady Erdogan, aims to reduce
volume of non-recyclable waste.
25 liters -
Documantary
16th Istanbul
Biennial
Unveils Artist
List For The
Seventh
Continent
Ozan Atalan- Monokrom
16th Istanbul Biennial Unveils Artist List
For The Seventh Continent
2016
2017
2019
2019
Refugee Camp Sanlıurfa
Örnekköy, Uzundere
Houses have been transformed but
habits have not changed.
Tiny House Family
New happy advertising family
Urban Transformation Advertising
2015
2016
2017
2019
Law on Transforming Areas at Risk
of Disaster
Düzce Umut Atölyesi: After the Düzce
Earthquake, the victims has organized
and they found Düzce Umut Atölyesi
in 2015.
Beginning of the stagflation: collapse
of construction sector with heavy inflation
and unemployment.
Zoning
amnesty:
To revive the
economy,
the zoning
peace law
was enacted
before the
election.
2012
2015
2018
2019
67

HISTORY
D.2011 Ecumenopolis
“Ecumenopolis: city without Limits” tells the story of
Istanbul and alternative Mega-Cities on a neo-liberal
course to destruction. It follows the story of a migrant
family from the demolition of their neighbourhood to
their on-going struggle for housing rights. The film
takes a look at city on a macro level and via the eyes
of professional, going from the crack of mushrooming
skyscrapers to the depths of the railway tunnel below
the Bosphorous strait; from the historic neighbourhoods
at intervals the south to the forests at intervals the
north; from isolated islands of impoverishment to the
villas of the wealthy. It’s an Istanbul going from fifteen
million to thirty million. It’s an Istanbul going from a pair
of million cars to eight million. It’s the Istanbul of the
longer term which can presently engulf the complete
region.[129]
Image 34: Ecumenopolis [129]
F.2015 Düzce Umut Evleri
After the 1999 Marmara earthquake, tenant earthquake
victims started their struggle for the right to housing in 2003
by establishing the ‘Homeless Earthquake Victims Housing
Cooperative’. After 15 years of struggle, the state allocated a
plot of land for the earthquake victims. Tenant earthquake victims
made an open call to co-design the neighborhood where they
lived. People from many different disciplines and colleagues
who responded to this open call founded the “Düzce Umut
Atölyesi” in 2015. Their main goal was to show that it was
possible to ‘produce together’, especially against monopolizing
housing production after 2000. In this sense, they constantly
reminded them that they are a part of this design by including the
neighborhood in the work and tried to understand the ways and
wishes of the members in order to produce user-oriented designs.
For example, the determination of the site plan, the number of
floors of the housing units, such as decisions, the residents will
live on the model is determined by the experience of the area. In
this way, the members of the cooperative developed more realistic
predictions by foreseeing the land conditions. They also played
an important role in the development of architectural projects and
public spaces. Public spaces are designed as organic garden,
community center and urban gardens. In addition, a ‘women’s
production cooperative’ was established and a cooperative
kitchen was built in order to generate revenue. As a result,
the idea put forward by Düzce Umut Atölyesi has enabled the
lowincome neighbourhoods to reach affordable housing. It went
beyond being affordable housing and offered a strong communal
life with the public and communal spaces it created. [132]
Image 37: Determining on Site Plan with Participatory Process [132]
68

E.2013 Imece House- Ecovillage
Imece house-even if it is only a temporary part- the only
conditions are to be able to get your own responsibility;
not being under psychologic treatment; not having any
addictions such as to smoking, alcohol, drugs etc; to be
an adult or accompanied by your parents; to know how to
listen rather than talk; to desire being a part of a big family
and to volunteer for any possible duties. Our expectations
from those, especially the volunteers, we share the Imece
areas with: Do not bring any substances causing addiction,
beverages with gas, any plastic covers and/or plastic bottles.
In stead of those, take your will of cooperation, your love,
your knowledge, your tolerance together with any musical
instruments you play, your tent and sleeping bag to live in
the field-only your sleeping bag is enough if you stay in the
village-, your boots, your raincoat depending on the season
and any special food you like with you!
It can be chilly in the evenings even in mid-summer. Therefore
you should take a warm top with you. You have to have a
hat to protect yourself from the sun during the day and of
course, some light and comfortable shoes. Do not forget your
swimming costume if you wish to swim in the stream or in the
pool of the water-fall to feel cooler.
You can use the WC connected to the drain if you wish to
use your own tooth-paste, shampoo and toilet paper. In all
the other areas, on the other hand, you have to use only the
products we produce for your personal cleaning to be able to
keep the nature under protection. [131]
Image 36: Ecovillage [131]
RESEARCH
C.2018 Fold&Float
Istanbul-based practice SO? has designed and built a
prototype floating structure for post-earthquake relief.
“Fold&Float” is formed of a light, temporary, foldable steel
structure specifically designed for emergency situations.
Developed off the back of emergency assembly points being
designated by the authorities in 2001, SO? questioned where
people could be housed in the event of an earthquake. The
question of where temporary buildings can be built in Istanbul
in the event of earthquake meeting areas and in case of
a possible earthquake was addressed to this project. The
questions have gained added significance in the last twenty
years, with Istanbul having privatized 70% of the land set aside
for emergency assembly. The result was a floating structure
that depends not on vacant, stable land, but on managing
water. Fold&Float is composed of 2 main parts: an upper
structure will fixed, folded furniture, and a floating concrete
pontoon. The attention to quality of living within the structure
is derived from research suggesting that earthquake and
flooding victims spend at least one year in temporary housing
following a disaster.’’The structure’s development coincides
with the ‘Hope On Water’ education project organized at the
4th Istanbul Design Biennial 2018, a collaboration between
civil engineering and sociology students from Bogaziçi
University and architecture students from MEF University.’’ [135]
Image 39: Fold & Float on the Water
Courtesy of SO? Architecture and Ideas [135]
69

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
This chapter deals with the capability of structures
to withstand loads without unacceptable
degradation. We focus on the subject by asking
what kind of forces the single unit may be
exposed to and which type of precautions should
we take against these forces that may cause
structural damage. Within this research, we
deepen the forces that structures are exposed to
under extreme conditions such as earthquakes,
wind, snow and floods, the effects of these forces
and the precautions that can be taken against
these forces. Also, we investigate how a single
unit establishes a relationship with the ground,
what methods are used to prevent damages that
may occur during the transportation of these
units, and some alternative structural systems
from the past to the present.
Kaiser Dome, Don Ritcher, Hawaii,1957 [122]

EXTERNAL FORCES
Earthquake
Flood
Wind
Snow
FOUNDATION
Mobile
Platform
Wheeled
Sled
Fixed
Platform
Pile
TRANSPORTATION
Loading
Unloading
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS
71

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
EXTERNAL FORCES
Earthquake
Turkey is at risk of earthquakes because of its geographical
position between 2 massive tectonic plates. Düzce
Earthquake has occurred on August seventeen, 1999
and injured population density and economic activity.
According to official figures, 18,337 individuals have died,
and 48,901 individuals were blistered within the earthquake.
The consequences of this earthquake are still present, and
unfortunately, the problems concerning the design of small
buildings to resist lateral forces have been largely neglected
in the engineering literature: ‘’Most of the research and the
development of mathematical tools for studying earthquake
response have concerned themselves with the larger
structures or the structures whose dynamic properties can be
rather simply expressed in mathematical terms.’’ [2]
Dynamic Conditions
During static mode, imposed load (direction is towards gravity)
is carried by slab to beams and then to columns and to foundation.
(Fig.1)
During dynamic mode, imposed load (direction is horizontal to
the floor levels) is in the form of lateral force, which is applied
at the floor level (diaphragm), transferred to the beams and
then to columns and foundations. (Fig.1) This horizontal load
quivers walls, floors, columns, beams and the connectors
that keep them together. The disparity in movement between
the base and top of buildings exerts intense tension triggering
fracturing of the supporting frame and collapsing of the entire
framework. [3]
Static Conditions
(No Earthquake)
Dynamic Conditions
(During an Earthquake)
Image 1: Aluminet tent at Burning Man festival in Nevada. [1]
Figure 1: Static and Dynamic Conditions
A force can cause an object to change its movement or
shape and it can cause permanent damage to the structure.
Building a stable structure is a challenge for designers,
especially in extreme conditions. A detailed analysis of all
forces affecting the structure should be performed. In this
section, we investigate the structure’s behaviour against
external forces such as strong winds, heavy snowfall,
floods, and earthquakes. Instead of seeing these forces as a
handicap, we are looking for ways to exist with them without
harm. As Bucky once said, “Don’t fight with the forces, use
them!”
Figure 2: Displacements of frame structure
Horizontal displacement distributions are given above for multistory
frames under earthquake loads (Fig.2). Each statistic
reflects the heights of storeys, the displacements of storeys,
and the structure’s top displacements [3]
A research analysis of the earthquakes in Turkey since the
1980s reveals that there are 3 errors during the catastrophe
causing more than 95% of the damage. These causes are
faults in building geometry and system selection (vertical
carriers do not have sufficient cross-sectional area),
construction errors and problematic details.[4]
72

RESEARCH
Image 2: Earthquake survivors survey the reconstruction efforts in Yang Liu, China [5]
Earthquake Resistant Building Design
Structural Framing: The building requires a consistent
structure in which the total weight is appropriately distributed.
If this consistency is achieved, the structure becomes stable.
Poor Design
Safer Design
Figure 3: Distribution of the mass
In different configurations of the modules, an equal distribution of the mass is
required.
Braced Frames: It adds additional elements to a frame in
order to increase the ability to withstand lateral loads. Braces
are most commonly of timber or mild steel angles which can
carry compression as well as tension (Fig.4). [6]
Figure 4 : Bracing Frames
STRAIN
‘‘Stress is a measurement of strength.
Strain is a measurement of deformation.
Stress/strain curves are used to describe
the physical properties of materials in
comparison to one another. Steel is an
expensive material when compared with
wood and concrete, but its strength-toweight
serviceability is superior. Able to
be erected quickly, steel is a prevalent
choice in prefabrication. Because of its
strength and speed of erection, steel is
the most economical and efficient material
for structuring long-span, high-rise, and
unique geometric designs.’’ [7]
Figure 5: Stress and strain curves [7]
73

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Lightweight Construction: Lightweight construction is
one of the most effective approach for resisting seismic
waves. Because the horizontal force applied by the
earthquake to the structure is directly proportional to the
weight of the structure.
According to Newton’s theorem, as the weight of the structure diminish theoretically,
the earthquake loads affecting the building and the possibility of the building collapse
decreases.
Inertial Response
Ground Motion
Mass
Inertial Force
Earthquake
Acceleration
Figure 6: Newton’s Law Image 3: damage caused by horizontal forces Loma Prieta earthquake, 1989 [8]
LIGHT ARCHITECTURE
Figure 7: Weights Of Buildings By Years [9]
‘‘The recent development of western society could be seen as a development towards lightness. Nothing influenced our
society in the 20th century as strongly as transportation. The concept of worldwide mobility for all became possible with
the invention and mass production of cars, bicycles and aircraft. Movement is a basic concept of the perception of space
and modern time-space automatically incorporates the concept of speed. The everyday use of cars, high speed trains and
aircraft is changing our concepts of physical space. Space becomes lighter and more open, since we can more easily
move through it. The possibilities of transportation make our globe smaller. People become closer together and are exposed
to different cultural concepts. This “being close together” will only be possible by having “light borders”, a process that the
European Community is going through today. But much more than physical borders it needs a lightness of thinking
- tolerance and open-mindedness.’’ [9]
74

RESEARCH
Image 4: Building the earthquake-proof geodesic dome. [10]
‘‘In April 2005, at the University of British Columbia in the
Department of Civil Engineering’s Earthquake Engineering
Research Facility, researchers put the wood frame of a
24 foot-diameter dome to the test on a shake table. The
table simulated several earthquake scenarios and even
heavily loaded, the dome shape enabled it to withstand the
simulations with no damage. The equal distribution of weight
throughout the structure makes it stable during earthquakes
and similar hazards.’’ [11]
1- Foundation and outside seating bench
2- Door frames acting as structural agents within
the framework
3- Wiring of the bracing frames
4- Roof construction
5- Lattice system
6- Clamping profiles connecting
bracing frames and truss system
7- Trusses
Figure 9: Axonometric view revealing the bracing frames in the masonry.[13]
Image 5: Reinforcing tool, a proposal for Building 4 Humanity Design Competition [12]
Image 6: Alternative for bracing [13]
Figure 8: Outline drawing of each emergency reinforcement method [12]
First aid: Proposal for emergency earthquake-resistant reinforcement is an
alternative bracing for wooden building with PP band: The reinforcement method
with the packing band is to provide a simple tensile bracelet. Hang the packing
band tied back using fastening hardware near the joint of columns and beam
material. (Fig.8) (Img.5) [12]
By re-imagining the use of common building materials and systems, the design
team has developed a novel structural lattice system to counter the earthquakeinduced
structural failures. ‘‘The system is based on a latticework of timber batons
that penetrate the stone wall at a grid of 105cm x 60cm. These are secured by an
exterior diagonal bracing grid of galvanized wire and reciprocated on the interior
by vertical timber members and timber boarding. The layered system counters
the effects of wall de-lamination in the event of an earthquake.’’ [13]
75

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
DISASTER SCENARIO
‘‘This competition called on architects, engineers, designers, and students
from all over the world to design a proposal that tries to produce solutions
for possible disaster scenarios. There were 3 scenarios.’’ [14]
Scenario 1: Island countries affected by earthquakes, storms, and
flooding;
Scenario 2: Mountain and inland areas affected by earthquakes and
landslides; and (Fig.10)
Scenario 3: Coastal areas affected by storms and flooding.
This example is designed for Scenario 2. ‘‘The main challenge in this
scenario is to design a house that is not only an earthquake and landslide
resilient but it also needs to take into account the increasing remoteness
and difficulty in transport as altitude rises. The house is designed with a
heavy stone-filled retaining wall at the bottom and a light wooden structure
on the top. Materials and technologies that would be easily available in
the local context and can be easily transported via small pickup van. A
balance between local knowledge and modern construction techniques
is incorporated in order to encourage community participation and
ownership. Earthquake resilient features are integrated into the traditional
building practices with minor changes to the available skill set so that its
construction does not require expert or non-local craftsmen.’’ [14]
Hazard
Geography
Climate
Added
Challenge
Construction
Cost
Plot
SCENARIO
Earthquakes up to 7.0 on
Richter’s scale also resulting
in landslides
Mountain & inland areas
(example: Nepal, northern
India, Peru etc.)
Harsh winters and mild
summers
Terrain difficulty in
transporting heavy
construction material
Material: $120/sqm
Labour: $50/sqm
Transport: $50/sqm
Assume a 20 m x 20 m
plot size in a rocky terrain
which is part sloping (gentle
gradient)
Figure 10: Disaster Scenario [14]
Shape
The shape of the house is derived from the ratio of
1:2 to make the building profile strong. It also leads
to simplicity of plan, making a stronger earthquake
resistant structure instead of scattered blocks.
Light / Heavy
Heavier load-bearing gabion walls acting as retaining
structure for the sloped site, form the lower level of
the building. A light wooden portal frame with separate
footing inserted in the gabion retaining wall forms the
upper level of the house. Both systems are complete by
themselves giving it enough flexibility and stability during
an earthquake.
Gabion Walls
Traditional random stone masonry, which was generally
used is susceptible to damage in earthquakes.
Gabion walls as retaining structures are very efficient
in earthquake zones. The ductility of the chain-link
cage tied with binding wires and the self-weight of the
stone boulders prevents the walls from falling apart or
cracking at joints.
Portal Frame Bracing Avoiding Gable
Instead of using traditional truss systems, a portal
frame is introduced. During the earthquakes, the
heavier trusses with their rigid joints tend to remain
immobile and slide off the roof. A portal frame with
the pin joint at the junctions and a rigid joint on the
ground enables lateral forces.
Cross bracing made from twisted cables are introduced
to resist lateral forces and K bracing made from wood
to resist shear forces in the portal frame. It prevents the
structure from collapsing onto itself.
Using a hip roof instead of a free-standing gable wall is
a useful strategy to avoid damage to the walls and roof
in earthquake-prone zones. When all walls are tied to
each other, they allow for movement.
Figure 11: Resilient Features for Earthquake Resistant[14]
76

Flood
Flood Resistant Building Design
Flood load is the pressure exerted on a house when it
obstructs the flow of moving water, and it may cause serious
structural damage. These loads cause one of the most
frequent and most damaging disasters in Turkey as well as
in the world. Floods in Turkey mostly seen in April, May, and
June due to the increase in precipitation and snow melts.
Some of the factors that cause flooding are:
• Above-average rainfall
• Extreme snow melting
• Destruction of plants
• Destroying trees
• Settlements established in creek beds
• River / sea water overflow
• Sewerage and groundwater overflow
There are many methods to design a flood-resistant building
(Fig.14). While some solutions methods are related to the
organization of the whole city, others may be smaller-scale
structural interventions. During a critical flood, the structure
may be subject to the horizontal effect of the crashing waves.
This may cause serious damages. Even though there are no
apparent waves at that moment, the accumulation of flood
water around the building may still be moving with an active
current. This movement generates hydrodynamic loads that
constantly attack the structure, damaging it and meanwhile
accumulating sediments against the structure. The weight of
this sediment enhances more pressure to the building and it
contributes to the damage. [16]
Flood-resistant -or damaged resistant- is defined by the NFIP
(National Flood Insurance Program) as “any building product
[material, component or system] capable of withstanding direct
and prolonged contact with flood-waters without sustaining
significant damage.” [17]
RESEARCH
Figure 12: Forces During Flood
‘‘Many people think that if they do not live near a stream or
creek they are not in danger of flooding; however, this is not
true. Flooding is the nation’s number one natural disaster.
Flash floods, inland flooding and seasonal storms flood every
region of the country. Flood maps don’t show all areas at risk!
Flooding may often occur outside the mapped floodplain. It
can also happen along smaller streams and creeks that are
not shown on any flood maps. Non-creek flooding can occur
from overwhelmed storm sewers, low-lying areas that do not
have proper drainage or water mains that break. Much of the
true risk of flooding is its unpredictability.’’ [15]
Flooding is a natural formation that occurs within nature’s
own cycle. Annual flooding may bring benefits to some areas
through nutrient and water replenishment. The transformation
of this into a disaster is a result of the intervention of human
activities on natural balance. (Fig.13)
rate of overflowing water
urbanization
Figure 13: Relation of urbanization to flood risk
Figure 14: Flood-resistant building design [18]
77

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Setbacks: Setback levees are earthen embankments that are
located at a distance from a river channel in such a way to
occupy some or all of its natural floodplain during high water
events. [19]
Raised Soil: It is a method of raising land to bring structures
above the flood level.(Fig.17, Img.8)
30 x erosion rate
30 x erosion rate
First line of stable
natural vegetation
Ocean
First line of stable
natural vegetation
Figure 17: Raising Land
Image 8: In La Crosse, fill was added on
Charles Street to elevate new homes above
the floodplain. [22]
Dry Flood-proofing: Water should not be in direct contact
with the structure. In this context, using waterproof materials
provides water resistance during submersion (Fig.18, Img.9).
Primary Dune
Frontal Dune
Ocean
Toe of frontal
dune 30 x erosion rate
First line of stable
natural vegetation
Figure 18: Mobile Barriers Image 9: Mobile Barriers [23]
Ocean
Figure 15: Minimum Setback Example in North Carolina Ocean Erodible Areas [20]
‘‘Your project should be set as far back from the ocean as possible. At minimum,
all buildings must be located behind the crest of the primary dune, the landward
toe of the frontal dune or the erosion setback line’’
Wet Flood-proofing: Structures should be designed so
that the water can flow without causing permanent damage
to the structure during a rapid flood. (Like parking areas or
transportable first-floor use storage areas) (Fig. 19). Wet floodproofing
is a minimal effort and cost-effective solution, but it
is short-term; therefore, the result in the deterioration of the
building materials depends on repeated exposure to floodwaters.
Figure 19: Mobile Barriers
Image 10: Wet Flood-proofing [24]
‘‘One of the solutions is preventing excessive pressure on the walls by
allowing water flow into the basement.’’ [25]
Depending on height, space
under the house may be used
for storage or access
Figure 16: Post-Tsunami sustainable reconstruction [21]
‘‘ELEMENTAL recommends planting forests along the flood-prone areas to
dissipate the energy of waves through friction and implementing specific
restrictions on the use and layout of ground-floor spaces in the risk zone.’’ [21]
Figure 20: Mobile Barriers [25]
78

RESEARCH
Figure 8: BAT Srudio- Green House
Image 11: Adjustable Piles of Green House [26]
‘‘Constructed in an area which experiences frequent flooding, the Greenhouse That Grows Legs incorporates a novel approach to flood protection. The building is fabricated
on a bespoke steel frame with four hydraulic legs, capable of lifting the building 800mm from the ground on command.’’ [26]
Adjustable Piles: Allowing flood waters to easily flow under the
structure in order to minimise structural damage.
The direction of bracing frames is important. Bracing can
become an obstruction by increasing exposure of foundation
to wave and debris impact. Bracing is often oriented
perpendicular to the shoreline so that it is not struck broadside
by waves, debris, and velocity flow.
Figure 21: Elevating on pile
Elevating Piles | Bracing Frames: Elevating on piles is another
effective method for resisting flood loads. However, only
this sole solution may not be sufficient. As the pile rises, the
stability of the structure deteriorates and its resistance to
horizontal loads decreases. Under these circumstances, the
structure should be supported with some additional elements
called ‘‘bracing frames’’. ‘’Include knee’’ and ‘’diagonal bracing’’
are some of the common bracing methods. Knee bracing is
an effective method of improving the performance of a pile
system without creating an obstruction to the flow of water
and debris from a design event (Fig.22). [27]
Figure 23: Flood Direction | Bracing Frames
Figure 22: Knee Bracing [27]
Image 12: This house had inadequate pile embodiment and cross bracing [27]
79

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Amphibious architecture purpose an alternative floodresistant
approach. An amphibious foundation of the
structure maintains the building’s connection with the
ground by ensuring the structure stable under normal
conditions. During the disaster, it allows the structure
to float on the surface of flowing flood-water, instead of
struggling with flood loads. [28]
Existing Raised Home - Dry
Existing Raised Home - Flood
Figure 25: Process [29]
‘‘Traditionally, houses in the region are raised above ground to mitigate property
damage during flood events. However, as the area anticipates increasingly severe
floods, the current level of static elevation of these houses may no longer be
adequate to protect residents and their property. Rebuilding or repairing homes
after a flood event is costly and can require a lengthy period of time. During these
repairs, residents are often displaced from their homes, increasing their economic
burden and vulnerability.’’ [29]
Retrofitted Home - Dry
Retrofitted Home - Flood
Figure 24: Typical raised home in dry and flood conditions [29]
The posts of the vertical guidance system allow the house to slide up of its
foundation when water comes in and then move back down to its original place
once the water recedes.
Rear elevation of Nguyen Van Nao’s Home in dry conditions
Rear elevation of Nguyen Van Nao’s Home in flood conditions
Image 13: Dry and flood conditions [29]
80

Wind
Wind loads act on a building as uniform surface loads. These
can create both positive and negative pressure from inwards
and outwards loads on building surface (Fig.26).
The amount of wind load is dependent on the following:
• Geographical location
• The height of the structure
• Type of surrounding physical environment
• The shape of the structure
• Size of the building
Possible Damages: Even a well-designed building may
be damaged in an unexpected wind occasion (Fig.28).
Therefore, depending on various factors, the suction force can
be significant enough to cause damage to individual building
components or the structure of the building itself. [30]
RESEARCH
The wind pressure originates from two components: Mean
velocity and gust velocity. Since static mean velocities are
averaged over longer periods of time, the resulting wind
pressure is also average pressure and exerts a steady
deflection on the building. [30]
Uplift
Racking
action and reaction
Wind
Sliding/shear
Figure 28: Possible damages of strong winds
Figure 26: Wind loading
Despite their vastly different wind speeds, damage patterns
near the landfall locations of fast-moving Hurricane Charley
(Img.14) and slow-moving Hurricane Frances (Img.15) were
remarkably similar. [31]
‘‘First, positive wind pressure applies to the building
components on the side of the building that faces the
incoming wind (the “windward” direction). The windward wind
load is essentially the force of the blowing wind pressing on
the building. Secondly, the negative wind pressure applies
to the building components on the side(s) of the building that
faces away from the incoming wind (the “leeward” direction).
The negative wind pressure is also known as “suction.” The
suction force will be applied to vertical surfaces such as walls,
and also horizontal or sloped surfaces such as roofs. The
suction force can be thought of as acting like a vacuum that
pulls on a building and its components.’’ (Fig. 27) [30]
Image 14: Collapse of a large portion of a metal building (Florida, 2004) [32]
Figure 27: Pressure and Suction
Image 15: Some examples of structural damages after hurricane Frances [32]
81

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
EFFECTS OF WIND ACCORDING TO THE SHAPE OF STRUCTURE
‘‘In the flat roof (a), the low-pressure coefficient occurs
due to the flow separation on the leading edge of the
roof, resulting in some vortices at the top of the roof.
In the case of the gabled roof (b), the low-pressure
coefficient occurs on the leeward area of the roof and
flow separation occurs at the top of the roof. The same
case is true for the pyramidal roof (c) where the lowpressure
coefficient occurs in the leeward area of the
roof. In the case of vaulted (d) and domed roofs (f), there
is not so much of a low-pressure coefficient due to the
fact that no recirculation occurs in the roof area. High
stream-wise velocity occurs at the very top of the roof,
causing a low-pressure coefficient in this area. In the
case of the wedged roof (e), the flow separation occurs
at the topmost portion of the roof and flow recirculation
occurs in the leeward area, resulting in a low-pressure
coefficient here.’’ [33]
a b c d e f
a-Flat
b-Gabled
c-Pyramidal
d-Vaulted
e-Wedged
f- Domed
Figure 29: Mean velocity and pressure coefficient contours with mean velocity vectors for different roofing designs of detached structures: (a) Flat roof, (b) Gabled roof,
(c) Pyramidal roof, (d) Vaulted roof, (e) Wedged roof, and (f) Domed roof [33]
82

Additional Material / Tension: Known as ‘‘Guy-wire’’
dissolves as a side force that resists the wind load that exerts
compressive force on some bending structure due to wind
force. They are used commonly in ship masts, radio masts,
wind turbines, utility poles, and tents (Img.18).
RESEARCH
Image 16: Yurtdome, Burning Man [34]
Figure 30: Guy-wire
The Burning Man festival, which has been held since 1986,
takes place in the Nevada Desert, known for extreme conditions
such as desert winds, dust, cold and dry nights, rain and heat.
Since 1986, Burning Man Festival develop many inspirational
shelter designs that have been produced and built quickly and
have not left a trace in the desert after the end of the festival,
relatively self-sufficient, able to withstand strong winds, cold
nights and hot days. These designs are very impressive for
the sheltering methods in temporary or extreme conditions. [35]
“These shelters have been of interest to organizations exploring
mass housing such as the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees, and commercial ventures such as Shelter
Systems and World Shelters.” [35] “Although many of these
concepts have roots in the experimentation of the last century,
including those of Buckminster Fuller, more recently some
innovative ideas have emerged too. For example, “yurtdomes,”
(Img.16) the folding ICOSA Pod (a structure based on triangular
tensions), or the IKEA-funded flat-packed houses (originally
produced for refugees on the Somalia/Ethiopia border by
Swedish designer Johan Karlson), have all been tested at this
festival.’’ [35]
Image 18: Wind turbine and Guy-wire [37]
Image 17: North Face releases a Geodesic Dome tent [36] Image 19: Guy wire support for extreme conditions [38]
‘‘Reinterpreting the teachings of Buckminster Fuller, North Face has announced
the latest tent in their collection; a geodesic dome tent. Thanks to the most
spatially efficient shape in architecture, it can withstand winds of up to 60 mph
as the force is spread evenly across the structure whilst even providing enough
height for an approximately 1.80m tall person to stand comfortably inside.’’ [36]
‘‘Structure is located near to a rocky ledge at about 3290m of altitude with its
characteristic hole in the rock. It is able to withstand the continuous combined
action of extreme weather conditions such as extreme weather temperatures
even below -20°C, wind speed up to 200 km/h, heavy precipitations and meters
of snow on the ground.’’ [38]
83

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
BURNING MAN STRUCTURES
“Octayurts are an incredibly simple, and affordable
design to make a self-supported fully enclosed
building using common materials with a few simple
cuts, and no material waste. If made out of plywood,
they are animal proof, and if made out of insulation
foam board, they are light and foldable. An Octayurt
has 8 sides, and with light materials, it can be held
together with tape. The core physics principles behind
both Octayurts is that the roof stays up as long as it
has something pushing it in, and the connected outer
ring provides that stability. The roof is resistant to
too much force pushing it in because it reciprocates
against the roof pieces next to it.” [41]
Figure 31: Glamcocks Camp, Tiger’s Octayurt [41] Image 21: Inside of Glamcocks Camp, Tiger’s Octayurt [41]
84

Burning Man organized for the first time in 1986
in San Francisco and continued to be held in the
desert land called Black Rock City in Nevada in later
years. The festival is described by the organizers
as a community and art experiment which takes
its name from the temple burned at the end of the
event. It presents valuable examples of temporary
structures such as temples and shelters. Also,
these various structures and tents, which are
resistant to desert climate condition are mostly
produced just for this event.
RESEARCH
“The Metal Pods are inspired by Fuller’s geodesic
dome. These metal domes are light, strong and
easy to set-up. A recycle window curtain covers
a steel frame, while recycled painter drop cloths
are stretched on the domes. Pods take one to
two hours to set up and to take down. Three-level
structure has a kitchen with a stove on the first
floor, shower in the middle floor, and bedroom on
the top floor.” [42]
Image 22: The Octopods Anomalous by Chris Yamane and Benny Lichtner [42]
Image 20: Burning Man 2018 [39]
Image 23: Metal Pods Village by Scott Parenteau; [42]
Image 24: The Cube Village by Scott Mahoney [42]
“The Cube by Scott Mahoney is flat pack system as vocation
beyond the limits of Black Rock City to provide a fast, stackable
and expandable shelter solution in disaster-stricken areas.
This experiment in communal living would worth doing on the
architectural point of view. The Cube with its Node is a very
well designed shelter offering a temporary comfortable living
space that sustained the extreme conditions of the Black Rock
Desert. It is a great alternative for a tent as becoming flat-pack,
light and easily assembled make it easy to use. However it is
not cheap with its metal frame structure.” [42]
Image 25: The Cube by Scott Mahoney [42]
85

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Snow
Snow load is a force exerted by the accumulated snow on the
roof as a result of heavy snowing. When snow accumulates
on the roof, vertical loads increase and this can cause
permanent damage because this load generally does not
distribute uniformly and it adds weight.
On a flat roof, the snow load tends to be uniformly distributed.
The load is then distributed to the beams and joints that
make up the roof and then sent down to the columns that are
supporting the beam at its ends. Because the columns are
supporting at the both end of the beam, the bending moment
at the middle of the beam is the greatest; therefore, the
beam’s weakest points is at the middle. As the load presses
down onto the beam, it will experience tension on the bottom
and compression at the top going through deflection.
Possible Damages
The most common structural damage is the breaking of the
roof due to the excessive accumulation of snow. Buildings
may be vulnerable to structural failure and possible collapse
if basic preventative steps are not taken in advance of a
snow event. Some causes of structural damage from snow
accumulating on roofs are given below: [43]
• ‘‘Actual snow load significantly exceeds design snow load’’
• ‘‘Drifting and sliding snow conditions’’
• ‘‘Deficient workmanship’’
• ‘‘Insufficient operation and maintenance’’
• ‘‘Improper design (Roof geometry etc.) ’’
• ‘‘Inadequate drainage design’’
• ‘‘Roof geometry’’[43]
‘‘Unbalanced snow loading is the condition in which snow
accumulates at different depths in different locations on a
roof, resulting in differential snow load. Unbalanced snow
load poses a greater risk to the roof structural system than a
uniform snow load. Hence, the danger of drifting and sliding
snow is that both create an unbalanced snow load.’’ [43]
Figure 33: Roof break
Figure 32: Snow loading effects on the structure
Image 26: Roof break [44]
Figure 34: Unbalanced snow load from drifting and sliding snow on typical commercial or industrial building [43]
86

RESEARCH
Image 27: Illustration from Charles Francis Hall’s Arctic Researches and Life Among the Esquimaux, 1865 [45]
Snow Resistant Building Design
Accumulated snow applies force to the roof. The roof must
be resistant to this force. The main issue is to reduce the
accumulation of snow on the roof and to ensure that the
accumulated snow load is evenly distributed. At this point, the
wind direction and the shape of the roof are very important.
Gable roof prevents snow accumulation compared to
flat roofs, and as the roof slope increases, the amount of
accumulated snow decreases. Therefore, direction of the roof
slope should be determined according to the direction of the
wind force. (Fig.35).
“The igloo is a temporary winter shelter built by native Eskimos
primarily for use in winter hunting camps. Snow is used
because the air pockets trapped in it make it an insulator. On
the outside, temperatures may be as low as −45 °C (−49 °F),
but on the inside, the temperature may range from −7 to 16
°C (19 to 61 °F) when warmed by body heat alone’’ [45]
Figure 36: Configurations, Igloo Satellite Cabin [46]
Image 28: Transportation, Igloo Satellite Cabin [46]
Figure 35: Snow accumulations
‘‘Wannabe Eskimos looking for an updated version of the familiar ice dome. Igloo Satellite
Cabin, a prefabricated remote shelter designed to withstand sub-zero temperatures, high
winds, ice, and snow. The basic Igloo Satellite Cabin, weighing 250 kg and 3m wide x 2.1m
high, is pre-fabricated, insulated and made from 8 wall panels and 4-floor panels. The whole
Igloo is bolted together and secured to the ground anchors by 8 wire tie-down lines. Igloos can
be extended and interlinked with tunnels. Units can be flown fully assembled by helicopter, and
are ideal short-term accommodation for exploration, research, and ecotourism. Igloos have
been in use since 1982.’’ [46]
87

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
The shape of the geodesic dome allows the wind to help
naturally shed snow from the dome. This is why it is used
quite often in extreme environments such as Alaska and the
like. The Eskimos build their Igloos in a dome shape for the
same reason: A Dome is the strongest and best shape for
handling snow! The total static weight that can be supported
over the entire dome is much greater than any snow load it will
have to support, as snow does not accumulate on a round
roof. [47]
The most known effect of the accumulated snow on the
ground is the prevention of entry into the structure. However,
excessive accumulation of snow between the structure and
the ground can cause structural damage. In order to prevent
this, some protrusions may be formed on the floor of the
structure in a direction not to cause snow accumulation.
(Fig. 38, Img.31)
Figure 38: Prevention of snow accumulation
Figure 37: Snow accumulation on Geodesic Dome [48]
Image 30: Maison des jeunes, designed by Gerard Grandval, Maurice Calka, 1967 [50]
With its soft, rounded shapes imitated from those that the snow itself is gathering.
The cabin-shell made of polyester-coated moulded wood protrudes against the
cavity thus reducing the accumulation of snow on the floor of the structure.
Image 29: Lightweight and Compact Shelter [49]
‘‘At an altitude of 3,800 meters, Ice-Age architects have designed and produced
a compact and lightweight shelter as the last base before climbers venture up
Mount Elbrus, the highest point in Europe. Inspired by Buckminster Fuller’s 2V
geodesic dome, it can sleep up to 16 people as they acclimatize to the altitude
and wait for the appropriate weather for the climb.’’ [49]
Image 31: Ice Huts [51]
Image 32: Ice Huts [51]
88

GEODESIC TENTS
‘‘Bruce Hamilton, who worked for the
company from 1970 to 1989, recently wrote
a few poststelling the story of the North Face
/ Buckminster Fuller connection. It began in
his first year on the job, when the company’s
owner Hap Klopp asked a friend whose family
had connections to Fuller to send the already
worldfamous architect-systems theoristinventor
a letter. Describing The North Face as
“a small company that produces what I believe
to be the finest equipment presently available,”
the friend asked Fuller for ideas on how to
improve the “archaic designs” then used to
construct tents.’’ Fuller replied: [53]
RESEARCH
“I have thought a great deal in
the past about your subject of the
compact, lightweight, back-packable
environment controlling device,”
Fuller replied. “I am accepting your
challenge.” [53]
Image 33: The North Face Geodesic Tents [52]
2018 Geodome 4
‘’Comfortably accommodates four occupants
in its unique form, while toughing out japan’s
most harshest weather.’’ The North Face kept
incorporating Fuller’s ideas into their tents,
and they hammered out the terms of direct
collaboration on a new model in 1983, a
month before Fuller died. Judgments about
other tensegrity structures — geodesic dome
homes, for example — have varied over the
years, but the Oval Intention lives on in the
form of the new Geodome 4. It can withstand
winds of up to 60 mph. The structure can be
assembled easily with only five main and one
equator poles. It is packaged in a weight of
11.07 kg. [51]
Image 34: Bucky stepping out of the door of the 3 meter, six frequency tent, 1977 [53]
Image 35: An example from The North Face correspondence with Fuller, 1977 [53]
Image 36: The North Face Geodome 4 [54]
89

Buckminster Fuller

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
FOUNDATION
Mobile
The mobile relationship can be applicated as platform, footing,
wheeled and sled.
Platform
As we have seen in Shigeru Ban’s example, the platform
can be made with recyclable materials such as a vegetable
fruit box. This is a fast material that can be found after
the earthquake * and also creates a system that can be
assembled and produced quickly without considering the
combination details.
Figure 39: Temporary platform made by recycled vegetable boxes
Image 37: Views of the components and assemblage of the Total Filling Station [55]
In shelter design, there are many variations of the relation
with ground during setup. These variations occur according to
the climate conditions, geographical characteristics, functions,
social situations or life-styles. Shelters diversify relations in
different cases to improve its durability. This connection with
the ground can be seen as mobile or fixed.
As seen in the previous topic “external forces”, to design a
cabin as fixed is useful in windy areas that contains so much
horizontal forces, but designing as a flexible/ mobile cabin
is also better in earthquake hazard areas. There is the same
situation in geographical characteristics of an area, the way of
setup is changing according to the touching point between
the earth and cabin. Structures which are placed on rocky
areas are mostly fixed to the earth, on the other hand the
cabins that are considered on snowy areas are mostly mobile
to battle with changeable snow height. In addition, function of
a shelter is important in terms of the way of setting it up. Like
temporary cabin design for seasonal use is mobile, whereas a
permanent cabin for long time use is considered as fixed. The
temporariness is also vital in the refugee camps or disaster
relief projects and they need mobile quick shelters. Dissimilarly
to these situations, people manage their lives just for personal
desires. Some people make a stale connection with the
ground and feel belonged therefore their cabin could be fixed.
On the other hand, other people could desire more freedom
with their cabin to take it away with them and experience lots
of different places.
Image 38: Mock-up of temporary house by students of Shigeru Ban Lab at
Keio University in Japan [56]
Image 39: Mock-up of temporary house by local architects and students at
Quito in Ecuador [56]
*Temporary House is disaster relief project after the earthquake in Ecuador in
2016. [56]
92

In the Flake House project, the platform was provided with
wooden raiser placed crosswise. The raiser has protected
the cabin from rain and similar factors with adding some gap
between ground and cabin so it is easy to convert it into
another form and transport to somewhere.
The cabin that Donna Irvine photographed near Nellie Lake
could be a site specific solution created by the owner in a way
to protect it from factors such as rainfall in the area. It fixes two
large and shaped stones on top of each other and places the
cabinet on top of them.
RESEARCH
Figure 40: Mobile platfrom made by wooden sticks
Figure 42: Stone masonary platform
Figure 41: Section of Flake House by Olgga Architectes at Nantes in France [57]
Image 41: Cabin built with repurposed windows, skylight, and palettes for the floor, near
Nellie Lake in notheastern Ontario, Canada; Donna Irvine [58]
Image 40: Flake House by Olgga Architectes at Nantes in France [57]
93

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Footing
The feet in Ken Isaacs’ 8’Micro House are one of the
first attempts in 1974 to establish a relationship between
the ground and the cabin. Isaacs considers the cabin as a
temporarily space and illustrates it to show how this temporary
structure is designed by the user. In Figure 43, we see that
the legs called “tetrehedron” are formed by welding or brazing
the steel rods supporting the 3 surfaces in the corner of the
cabin and this structure is fixed to the plywood feet.
As shown in the example, AbleNook is made for portable
dwelling and has little touch on the surface by placed it on the
floor. The adjustable steel footing foundations allow the unit
to be placed on uneven surfaces so they can be deployed
anywhere. Numerous adjustable feet compensate for small
elevation differences or uneven terrain on the ground. [61]
Figure 44: Mobile adjustable footings
Figure 42: Mobile tetrahedron footings
Figure 45: Section of AbleNook by Sean Verdecia and Jason Ross [62]
Figure 43: Leg detail of 8’ Micro House [59]
Figure 46: Diagram of AbleNook by Sean Verdecia and Jason Ross [62]
Image 42: Replica of Ken Isaacs’s 8’ Micro House, 2010 [60]
94

Working with the concept of micro homes, Richard
Horden produces projects on this concept with his students.
Sometimes they are inspired by the arms of an insect or the
wings of a butterfly. Like these insects that have the ability
to adapt to different situations, the “fly off” project opens or
lowers its wings according to the change of the ground. It
sometimes places itself on a rock and sometimes sits on a
snowy peak.
Another micro home experiment of Richard Horden,
which he developed with his students, is the micro research
laboratory in Antarctica. The feet of the laboratory can be
adjusted according to the structure of the ground, additively it
adapts to the melting snow level with the sledges at the end
of the feet.
RESEARCH
Figure 47: Adaptable footings
Figure 49: Mobile sled footings
Image 43: 1:1 Construction detail of Fly Off, Alps [63]
Figure 50: Section of Polar Lab, Antarctica Research Habitat, Antarctica [65]
Image 44: Fly Off, Alps [63]
Image 46: Polar Lab, Antarctica Research Habitat, Antarctica [65]
Image 45: White Winter, River Saulgrub [64]
Figure 48: Adaptation diagram of Fly Off , left to right; iclined plane, water, rocky slope, cliff [63]
95

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
INFLATOCOOKBOOK
Figure 51: Inflatocookbook, second editon by Ant Farm [66]
“For the past year Ant Farm has been a group of environmental nomads building inflatable structures/
air building/geodesic domes and developing a vocabulary of images that project architectural alternative
methods. We built about 20 inflatable polyethylene structures for schools, confrences, festivals and
gatherings from California to Vermont. The largest one, at 100’ X 100’ white and clear pillow, the smaalest
a tetrahedron that folds out of a suitcase.”[67]
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RESEARCH
Figure 52: Inflatocookbook, second editon by Ant Farm [66]
“Searching out a means, a way of doing, a spacial expression alternatives to the rigid architectural
paths we were led down as children. Images of what environment can mean when a person takes
it in his own hands, feeling it and molding new forms. A beginning, a method so simple we can
share it at will and never lose the security of being sheltered. The INFLATOCOOKBOOK is our
attempt to gather information and skills learned in process and organize it for easy access. It is
catalyst for our thought process and further development.” [67]
97

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Wheeled
One of the most used mobile homes, wheeled cabins can
be transported in many different ways. As shown in figure 53,
the wheeled cabin can be turned into mobile with the help of
a hook. So it can be taken to a certain location with a vehicle
and then it can continue its life alone. So you just need a
basic vehicle to changing your location.
Mobile homes can consist a limited mobility, as shown in
the example of the kalhöfer - korschildgen (figure 55). Fahrt
ins Grüne is an additional building of old wooden house. The
location of the structure can be changed by the wheeled piles
with the rail system on the ground.
Figure 53: Mobile cabin trasported by help of a hook
Figure 55: Wheeled mobile annex on the rail system
Image 47: Moving Icon, kalhöfer - korschildgen architekten [68]
The most common example of mobile home is caravan.
The caravans, which are designed to be the living area with
the vehicle, can change their location without the need for
anything additional.
Image 49: Fahrt ins Grüne, kalhöfer - korschildgen architekten Remscheid [70]
Figure 54: Caravan
Image 48: Apollo euro star 4-seater Motorhome [69]
Image 50: Fahrt ins Grüne, kalhöfer - korschildgen architekten Remscheid [70]
98

RESEARCH
Image 51: Ice Village # 261, Neenah, Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin, USA, 2018; Richard Johnson [71]
Since 2007, photographer Richard Johnson has been traveling around Canada, documenting the architectural variations in ice fishing huts.
“As with its distant cousins the Teepee and the Igloo, the Ice Fishing Hut has its own essential purpose” Now in its eighth year, the project encompasses photographs of 800
huts from one coast of Canada to the other. Together, they form a typological study of the fishing culture and architecture across the country’s regions. “As with its distant
cousins the native Teepee and the Igloo, the Ice Fishing Hut has its own essential purpose,” says Johnson. “Sheet metal, faux wood paneling, tarpaulins, peak roofs, modified
camping trailers all fulfill the requirements for shelter.” [72]
“For me, an ice fishing hut is the most fundamental expression of architecture. It is designed and built by the owner. It is transportable. It is shelter with a hole in the floor
serving a common purpose. Yet with a similar list of design criteria each one is uniquely different; a testament to the owner’s personality.”[73]
Sled
Mobile homes are changing according to the climatic
conditions, a wheel on the soil helps to move, on the other
hand, the ski becomes a vehicle of movement in snowy areas.
As you can see in Image 52, the snowmobile can change the
location of the sled cabin with the help of a hook.
Figure 56: Fishing cabin wheeled by side surface
These fishing huts, built by the owners of the region for
fishing purposes, are valuable in their relationship with the
ground because they are located in snowy areas. As I will
exemplify in the “sled” section, the cabins provide their
mobility mostly with sled on snowy areas. The cabins which
are photographed by Richard Johnson has designed their
mobility with a different system. The walls and floors of these
huts in Ice Village #261 are interchangeable. These huts are
taken to the area with the wheels on their floors during the
relocation and then the walls become the floor and the floor
becomes the wall on the site. Although it is a wheeled cabin
during the set-up and it turns into a cabin adjacent to the
ground during fishing.
Figure 57: Fishing cabin wheeled by side surface
Image 52: Ice Hut #180 & #427a, Beaveton, Lake Simcoe, Ontario, Canada, 2008; Richard Johnson [74]
99

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Fixed
The setup of the fixed cabins, can be partitioned as platform
and pile according to the relation with ground.
Platform
Fixed cabins are mostly provided with fixing the structure
on the platform made of a certain material in the relation with
ground. The example shows fixing bamboo structured pavilion
with a steel fixing detail to concrete platform.
The fixed platforms can also be constructed with a material
which has no connection between the ground and platform.
As shown in the example in figure 59, a relationship where
it is fixed to the ground is possible by pouring concrete onto
the rock. In addition to the steel fixing between the platform
and the cabin, it can be secured to the ground by providing
tension with ropes in order to increase the strength in windy
areas (please check wind section).
Figure 59: Cabin fixed to concrete platform and supported by ropes
Figure 58: Structurally fixed to concrete platform
Image 54: Winter cabin on Mount Kanin by OFIS arhitekt in Slovenia [76]
Image 53: Bamboo Pavilion for the Expo Shanghai by Markus Heinsdorff in China [75]
100

As seen in the example of the Boathouse, the relationship
of the cabin with land during set-up can be not only on the
floor but also on the wall. This cabin, which was installed on
rocky terrain, was designed not as on top of the rock, but also
by taking the rock in and fixing its walls to the rock, as shown
in figure 60.
The Shed was fixed ground with the reinforced concrete
platform. The concrete platform is fixed to the ground by their
weight and also it has concrete sheets entering the earth on
each side. These sheets provide cracking caused by the soil
in concrete. After the concrete is removed from the mold, the
horizontal and vertical wooden planks are fixed to the platform.
RESEARCH
Figure 60: Cabin fixed to existing rock base
Figure 61: The platform fixed to the ground
Figure 62: The section of The Shed, NARTARCHITECTS [78]
Image 55: Boathouse (Naust paa Aure), TYIN tegnestue Architects, Norway [77]
Image 56: The Shed, NARTARCHITECTS, Nagybajom, Hungary [78]
101

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Pile
Fixed cabinets can be setup on the ground with piles. For
cabinets with a certain weight and square meter, piles may not
always be under the ground. The stakes can also be durable
and permanent by filling them or fixing them to a heavy foot in
place. In Beach Matrix, one of the pioneering examples of
this, most of the designed structures are fixed to the ground
by the feet that are adapted to the structure.
One of the solutions is to connect the piles to the concrete
foots so that the cabins do not lose their durability as a
result of being exposed to various weather events. In Carter
Williamson Architects’ Emergency Shelter project, the
adjustable legs that are stuck in a small concrete feet provide
both terrain compatibility and a solution for extreme conditions.
In the street exhibition of the project, instead of concrete feet,
they provided the durability of the cabin with a few sacks of
sand.
Figure 63: Piles with feets that can be buried in the sand
Figure 65: Adjustable piles
Figure 66: Section of Emergency Shelter / Sustainable house prototype by
Carter Williamson Architects at Melbourne, Australia [81]
Figure 64: Feet detail of Old Micro House [79]
Image 57: Installation view of Beach Matrix, Ken Isaacs in Westport, Connecticut [80]
Image 58: Emergency Shelter / Sustainable house prototype by
Carter Williamson Architects at Melbourne, Australia [82]
102

The cabins from Jason Vaughn’s “cabins from hide” series
was raised for a variety of reasons. Piles, which are one of
the easiest ways to gain height in a cabinet, turn into a rather
prominent object in these examples compared to the cabinet.
Piles can be perpendicular to the ground or with various cross
systems. Ladders that help to enter an elevated entrance may
in some cases be part of the pile structure.
Peak Lab is one of the projects Richard Horden has
developed together with his students for extreme conditions.
Although not constructed, the project is valuable with the idea
is developed. The cabin is fixed to the rock by horizontal steel
piles at three main points. While the connection in Detail 1
supports the ladder, we see the connection which carries the
most of the cabin in Detail 2.
RESEARCH
Figure 67: Hide cabins fixed ground by long piles
Figure 68: Cabin fixed the rock by steel piles horizontally
1
2
Figure 69: Section of Peak Lab, Zermatt [84]
Image 60: Detail 1 on the left and Detail 2 on the right of Peak Lab Project [84]
Image 59: Cabins from “Hide”, a series documentating deer stands in Wisconsin;
Jason Vaughn [83]
103

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
The piles are not always vertical, but may also be conical. As
seen in Studio Morison’s Escape Vehicle project, conical legs
cladding with aluminium/steel panel(1) are fixed to concrete
foot. The upper legs are connected to the primary support
beams (2).[85] Approximately 2 meters long legs create a
floating feeling on the grass as well as protecting itself from
various factors in the forest area such as flooding and insects.
JR’s Hut at Kimo Estate ,is a interpretation of classical “A
frame” house fixed with classical piles, provides its relationship
with the floor with concrete strip footing(1), while the support
wooden pillars that from A form sit on the floor with concrete
pad footing (2). The wooden pillars and concrete legs are fixed
with steel fitting. The gap created between the steel fitting and
the floor is filled with pebbles and does not take the water into
the house.
Figure 70: Cabin fixed the ground by conical legs
Figure 72: Cabin fixed the ground by concrete strip footing and concrete pad footing
1
Photo name: Lorem ipsum
2
Image 61: Escape Vehicle #9: ICE by Studio Morison in Netherlands, 2018 [86]
2
Due to the fact that the structure is A form, the stakes can
also be shaped according to the form. In Robin Flack’s Nolla
Cabin project, wooden piles are fixed on existing rock base
with A form piles.
1
Figure 73: Section of JR’s Hut at Kimo Estate by
Anthony Hunt Design and Luke Stanley Architects, Gundagai, Australia [88]
Figure 71: A frame structure fixed the rock by a frame piles
Image 62: Nolla Cabin by Robin Flack at Vallisaari, Finland, 2018; Fanny Haga [87]
Image 63: JR’s Hut at Kimo Estate by
Anthony Hunt Design and Luke Stanley Architects,Gundagai, Australia [89]
104

STONE 27
RESEARCH
“Artist Benjamin Langholz created a circular staircase
of stepping stones to allow revellers to tune out the
immersive atmosphere at this year’s Burning Man and
focus on themselves. Langholz arranged 27 stones
in an ascending ring, supported by a central pillar
and three surrounding pairs of columns, to create the
installation named Stone 27. Intended to provide a
“shift into a new reality”, the journey up and around
the elevated stones was designed to take visitors on
a “floating walk to experience a moment of complete
presence”.
Image 64: Sketchbook detail, drawn by Maaz Jan [90]
“The idea of pathways of floating stones appealed
to me because you can present an alternate
reality,” explained Langholz to Dezeen. “One
where something heavy and stable suddenly
becomes light and floats in the air.”
Three pairs of columns were angled to fan outwards
from the central pillar, with each stone attached to
four points in the structure – using to over half a mile
of steel rope. At the base of steel support, a pile of
basalt rocks placed by the artist hid the structure
inserted into the ground.
Rather than removing the black basalt blocks found
on the Black Rock mountain, the artist sourced
similar local stone so as to not disturb the natural
landscape.” [92]
Image 65: Stone 27 by Benjamin Langholz at Burning Man, 2019 [91]
105

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
TRANSPORTATION
Loading / Unloading
Heatherwick Studio’s Paperhouse is loaded and unloaded
with help of a crane. The cabin, which was built as an off-site,
is fixed and carried by the metal strong points where the crane
can be mounted. When lifting the crane, these points should
form the balance center of the structure so that the structure
does not topple over.
Figure 74: Cabin is unloaded by metal strong points
Image 67: Paperhouse by Heatherwick Studio at London, UK, 2002 [94]
Image 66: Views of the components and assemblage of the Total Filling Station [93]
Transportation is one of the important factors for cabins.
There is no meaning of designing a structure that cannot be
transported. Because of that, it is also a part of designing
process. For instance, if there is a project made with panels,
their lengths, and widths not exceed transportation vehicular
size. The limited dimensions of the vehicle create again
limited size of panels. The standardization of 2,40 m width of
containers is as reason of international maximum vehicular
width which is 2,45 m.
The one of the significant criteria is durability of the package,
as a whole cabin or separated parts, in the transportation
process even if the dimension standard was okay. There is
three different point such as loading, delivery, and unloading
according to the durability of it. It is mostly loaded with cranes
to the truck and there are lots of types to carry with them.
Although, cabins which has a central point could be carried
in that point, cabins which has multi central points such a
container could be carried by dividing its loads. The methods
of carrying are diversified according to the their connection
points and materials.
The other vital criteria is the external forces during
transportation. Most of cabins are not durable against that
forces during the delivery period because of the shape of
either panels or materials and these are should get strong
against them.
Helicopters are used when the environmental conditions do
not allow. Therefore, they are challenged with strong wind
forces.
If there is no point to fix the structure during loading and
unloading stages, it is supported by a belt to avoid damaging
the structure. Two-end cranes are used to transport the
structure without compressing.
Figure 75: Cabin is unloaded by belts
Image 68: Flake House by Olgga Architectes at Nantes in France, 2009 [95]
106

Loading prefabricated systems, such as containers, are
different from basic shaped cabins. They probably have a
bigger volume and more complicated gravity points caused
by a rectangular shape. Therefore, the divided load has a
more clear transportation process in that kind of form. Marmol
Radziner Prefab House, which is photographed by Todd Jerry,
is being hosted with three belt straps and one spreader bar to
distribute load the hydraulic crane. (Image 69)
Structures formed by folding systems tend to have easy
transportation processes. Although the higher volume or
height of the package can be problematic in the limited areas
during transportation, the folding system can overcome that
problem. MADI Home is minimized its volume to nearly a
quarter by folding technique. (Image 71) The folded form of it
creates more safe process against external impact and allows
transported more houses at the same time.
RESEARCH
Figure 76: Cabin is carried by distributing the load to three parts
Figure 77: Cabin is loaded by belts
Image 69: Marmol Radziner Prefab House, California [96]
Image 71: Loading of folded MADI Home [98]
Image 70: 24-Story modular student dormitory, O’Connel East Architects (OEA),
United Kingdom [97]
Like the previous example, the 24-Story modular student dormitory which is designed
by OEA is carried by the load distribution method to place each module.
But it is different from the previous in some points such as the connection between
the crane and container. The container has connection points to prevent
some accidents during transformation.
107

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Delivery
Another important factor is the situation of a part of the
structure or the whole of them should not be damaged during
the delivery. Various factors are taken into consideration such
as the size and fragility of the object being transported.
For avoiding the damage during transportation is the
sheathing of the structure. System 3 Prototype House is a
project where most of its parts are built off-site and for this
reason, its parts are designed to be transported as covered.
So that their parts do not clash during the delivery and to
prevent any foreign matter from being damaged. The sheath
is removed after reaching the site and the assembly is
completed.
During the transportation of the New Amsterdam Plein &
Pavilion, there are disadvantages such as the length of the
parts exceeding the truck width of 2.40 m and the fragility of
the form. As a solution, the parts were transported in traffic
control with an “oversize load” warning sign, and the structure
was supported by woods and ropes from inside to prevent
jolts.
Figure 79: Cabin is stabilized by woods and ropes during transportation
Figure 78: Cabin is protected by a sheath during transportation
Image 73: New Amsterdam Plein & Pavilion by UNStudio at New York, USA [100]
Delivery affects the design process. We can see an example
of that in the Snow-House project. Walter Klazs was designed
folding footing for that project for transporting easily.
Figure 80: Transportation section of Snow-House, Walter Klazs [101]
Image 72: System 3 Prototype House by Oskar Leo Kaufmann and Albert Rüf
at MoMA Exhibition, New York, USA, 2008 [99]
Figure 77: Transportation image of Snow-House, Walter Klazs [101]
108

TRANSPORTATION OF MARINE MAMMAL
‘‘Over the last 20 years, specialized marine mammal transport techniques
have been developed to cope with the unique physiology of marine
mammals. Safe, successful transportation can be achieved with proper
attention to detail and the use of appropriate technology.’’[102]
Figure x: Cutaway view of bottlenosed dolphin within transport unit.
‘‘Adequate body support techniques have
been developed to allow normal breathing
during transport. Cetaceans are now moved
in fabric stretchers, suspended in water-filled
transport units, more closely approximating
the near weightlessness provided by water.
Additionally, the widespread use of aircraft
has allowed successful movement of
cetaceans over vast distances by shortening
the amount of time the cetacean is removed
from the water environment.’’ [102]
RESEARCH
Image 74: An orca is shown being lifted from its pool [103]
The whale is placed on a canvas hanger
covered with a strong fabric, then pulled from
several points of the hanger with the help of
a crane. This is important both to distribute
the load and to avoid hurting the whale. This
canvas is attached to the transport container.
The container must be leak-proof and should
therefore be constructed of suitable corrosion
proof metal, or heavy duty plastic of sufficient
strength. Then, the Container which is handled
by crane or fork-lift, is transported by truck, ship
or aircraft.
Figure 81: Cutaway view of bottlenosed dolphin within transport unit [102]
Image 75: The whale used for dissection is lifted from the ocean [104]
Figure 82: Transport unit [102]
Image 76: A cargo plane being loaded with two Beluga whales [105]
109

Assemblage of Total Filling Station

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS
Total Filling Station
Image 77: Assembling a Total Filling Station, Gagosian Gallery [106]
While technology develops, the human desires for creating, discovering and making increase. Cabins are the first examples of this
motivation with small scale possibilities. In this part of the research, there are some examples of alternative systems. Some of them
were forgotten despite they were very popular in their past periods, some of them are still in use with some differences such as form
or scale and many of them continue to be developed by the contribution of modern technologies. All the examples have advantages
and disadvantages in particular situations. For example, the fast assembly systems are important after a disaster situation or the
local/man-made systems are vital where transportation not possible. The examples can continue with the folding systems in the
needs of bigger areas and do it yourself methods when labour is limited.
Flying Seedpod
Image 78: A folding-out geodesic structure, Flying Seedpod, Buckminster Fuller and his team at Washington University, St. Louis, 1953 [107]
Flying Seed-pod is a structure developed by Fuller and his students at Washington University in 1953. Fuller explains the aim of
the structure with these words “The prototype of the structural principles that we may use in sending history’s first (little) scientific
dwelling to the Moon. As you see all the structural members are tightly bundled together in parallel so that they may be transported
in minimum volume within a rocket capsule.” This structure was created four years before Sputnik 1(1957) which gives a start to the
idea of space travel. Because of the aim, the team worked on a folding system that has opportunities for space-saving and easy
assembly. It is a combination of a folding system and a geodesic dome developed by Fuller again.
Flying Seed-pod formed by tripod sets that contain three magnesium tubes and each set has a ball joint. These sets can be
transported as folded and then they can be fixed by connection points. All tripod feet fastened with ball joint and each ball joint
formed by five or six tubular-tripod feet. After the connection of sets, nearly 90 kg gas pressure is applied from the head of each
tripod and the feet of the tripod is opened. [108]
112

Mud Wall / Casting
RESEARCH
Figure 83: Casting production [109] Image 79: Adobe houses in Viranşehir, Şanlıurfa [110] Image 80: İTÜ Alker building by Ruhi Kafesçioğlu 1995 [111]
Casting application method; As a mud wall element, it is poured like concrete in large wooden moulds in place, thoroughly
compacted and allowed to dry. In this method, which is made with a ramming method, the wall is completed by adding a new
mourning adobe as the stage-by-stage adobe dries.[112]
As a result of the stepwise drying of the adobe, the mould is removed and the remaining areas are completed in the same way to
form the structure. The example in Image 79. is a photograph of adobe building efforts attempted creating a city with adobe houses
in 2009 Sanliurfa, Turkey. Since it is a local material, it allows the people to build their own houses. In Image 80, there is a building
built by Ruhi Kafesçioglu in 1995, ITU. Although the adobe is known to be non-resistant to earthquakes and floods, Mr. Kafesçioglu
has proved that it can be resistant to earthquakes and floods with adding plaster to adobe (alker).[109]
Mud Wall / Brick
Figure 84: Mud-brick production [109] Figure 85: Girder types [109] Image 81: Construction of mud brick wall [113]
Mud-brick application method; The suitable consistency previously prepared for mud-brick production is usually shaped by pouring
into wooden moulds. If mud-brick wall blocks are to be produced, the mud is poured into wooden moulds beforehand and it is left
to dry and then the mud bricks are walling with different types of girders. Despite the differences from region to region, the most
commonly used adobe sizes in Turkey are the mother and baby adobe.[112]
Girder types with mud: Adobe walling methods are important. In the case of corner studs and crossover walls, the connections
must be made correctly. Particularly in earthquake zones, the details of the corners should be strengthened with wooden(a,b),
reinforced concrete(c) or wire(d) grid to make the structure more robust. Reinforced masonry continues as in Figure 85. The adobe
structures are cheap thanks to the use of local materials and a fast process through which everyone can participate in the building.
Soil as a construction material forms a sustainable structure. By additional materials, mud-brick provides resistance against rain and
earthquake.[109]
113

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
GEODESIC DOME
Image 82: The Supine Dome, Buckminster Fuller at Black Mountaion College [114]
“Models are essential. Don’t try build a dome without first making
or studying a models. However, don’t get so involved with model
that you never try a real structure.” Domebook 1 [115]
He firstly tried the model of Geodesic dome in Black Mountaion College
University, but it fall down (Image 82). He continued to enhance that system with
different techniques and materials. First successful example of geodesic dome,
Woods Hole dome, is built with Fuller and his students. The first “Bucky”s dome
has a wooden structure, and it was using as a restaurant that years. In the Image
83, Fuller was swinging with a rope to check its durability.
After a lot of successful examples of geodesic dome had been constructed,
several dome construction guides showed up in 70s such as dome-books and
most of them focused on geodesic principles.
Geodesic dome is a “shortest path of two points on a sphere
or curved space” Rene K. Mueller [117]
“R. Buckminster Fuller spent much
of the early 20th Century looking for
ways to improve human shelter by:
Applying modern technological knowhow
to shelter construction, and
making shelter more comfortable and
efficient, and making shelter more
economically available to a greater
number of people.
After acquiring some experience in the
building industry and discovering the
traditional practices and perceptions
which severely limit changes and
improvements in construction
practices, Fuller carefully examined,
and improved, interior structure
equipment, including the toilet (similar
to the ones now used in airplanes), the
shower (which cleans more efficiently
using less water), and the bathroom as
a whole. He studied structure shells,
and devised a number of alternatives,
each less expensive, lighter, and
stronger than traditional wood, brick,
and stone buildings.” [116]
Figure 86: Simple Geodesics in Domebook 1 [115]
Image 83: Buckminster Fuller was swinging from the Woods Hole dome while it was still under construction [118] Figure 87: Geodesic Geometry in Domebook 2 [119]
114

First Geodesic Dome in the World is
engineered by Walther Bauersfeld.
Mostly geodesic dome known as Buckmister
Fuller’s innovation, but before him, Walther
Bauersfeld made first geodesic dome in Germany.
It was constructed for “planetarium” in 1926 which
is 22 years before Supine Dome. We don’t know
that Fuller was aware of Jena in those years but
he developed lots of forms of geodesics and got
patents of his works. The dome was popular with
advantages such as rapid construction, easy
adaptation, clear span etc. For example, the
erection time of Kaiser Dome, designed by Don
Ritche, was 22 hours and it was impressive for
55 meters span structure with 1957’s technology.
One year after of Kaiser, Union Tank Dome, largest
clear span structure in its period, constructed by
Fuller’s geodesic system as developed by Howard
of Synergetics.
RESEARCH
Image 84: Construction of a planetarium of Carl Zeiss in Jena (Germany) 1922 [120]
“Revolutionary new building ... The first of its kind!
The Kaiser Aluminum Dome
20 Hours and the dome was up!” [121]
Figure 88: Geodesic Dome Patent Lithograph signed by Buckminster
Fuller, Thomas Zung and Shoji Sadao of Buckminster Fuller [123]
Image 85: Erection process of the first Kaiser Aluminum Dome, Honolulu
design by Don Ritcher [122]
Figure 89: Geodesic License Agreement [115]
115

Zeiss I Supine Dome Necklace Dome Ford Rotunda Kaiser Dome Union Tank
Dome
Jena, Germany
Planetarium
Iron Structure
Sprayed Concrete
Walter Bauersferd
Black Mountain, USA
Experimental
Venetian Blend
-
B.Fuller and Students
Black Mountain, USA
Experimental
Aluminium Aircraft Tube
Vinyl-Plastic Cover
B.Fuller and Students
Dearborn, USA
Company Headquarter
Aluminium Structure
Polyester Fiber Glass
Buckminster Fuller
Honolulu, Hawaii
Multi Purpose
Aluminium Panel
Don Ritcher
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Tank Garage
Metal Sheets
Howard of Synergetics
*First Geodesic Dome
*First test structure and it
is failed.
*First succesful large
geodesic dome building.
*It was the largest clearspan
structure in the world
of it’s time.
117 Meters
2 Years
50 Meters
6 Months
25 Meters
28 Meters
5 Weeks
14.4 Meters
Failed
4.26 m
1 Day
1 Day
1926
1948
1949
1953
1957
1958

‘‘You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change something, build
a new model that makes the existing model obsolete.’’ R. Buckminster Fuller
Climatron
St.Louis, USA
Green House
Aluminium Pipes
Glass Panels
Howard of Synergetics
Drop City
(Great Pumpkin)
Colorado, USA
Dwelling
Recycle Metals, Woods
Recycle Materials
Droppers
Montreal
Biosphere
Montreal, Canada
Expo
Steel Tubes
Acrylic Panels
Buckmister Fuller
South Pole
Station
South Pole, Antarctica
Ice Station
Metal Framework
Aluminium Panel
Buckminster Fuller
Spaceship Earth
Epcot, USA
Planetarium
Steel Structure
Buckmister Fuller
Eden Project
St.Petersburg, Russia
Botanical Garden
Steel Frame
Therma Plastic
Grimshaw Architects
3 Years
38 - 125 Meters
26 Months
76 Meters
1.5 Years
1 Year
42 Meters
6 Months
50 Meters
50 Meters
5.5 Meters
1 Day
1960
1965
1967
1975
1982
2001

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Demontable House
Figure 90: Montage Diagram, Jean Prouvé: Maison Démontable 8x8 Demountable House [124]
Image 86: Jean Prouvé 8x8 Demountable House by
Galerie Patrick Seguin in Miami, USA [125]
Jean Prouvé is a French metal craftsman working on prefabrication systems and he made early examples of prefabricated home
with Demountable House. It developed for urgent home needs caused by the destruction of World War II. In that period, there was a
need for light compact dwellings assembled by a few people easily and quickly and Prouvé developed it according to these needs.
The house formed by metal-frame structure and wooden panels. There is iconic shaped steel in the center of it and the folded-steel
structure which carries to the roof compass of it. The wooden panels placed the metal frame and the house was done. The simple
process of the assembly and disassembly allows everyone to build it in terms of the conditions of the period. Nina Azzarello said in
her article on Designboom, “It sits among the contemporary and fashionable new works celebrated at Miami’s massive exhibition, yet
entirely resonates in its evident relevance to the creative sphere today — a paragon of timeless composition and design.” [126]
Total Filling Station
Figure 91: Preliminary drawing of Total Filling Station
by Atelier Jean Prouvé [127]
Image 87: Assemblage of Total Filling Station [128] Image 88: A new kind of service station [129]
After many experiences on prefabricated house, he made first prefabricated filling station in 1969 with similar techniques of
prefabrication. “The buildings used a radiating central-plan structure of galvanized sheet steel with a central cylinder and perimeter
poles.” The reason of the cylindrical shape was the diversity of the sites and the structure allows vertical expansion. “As a manifesto
for prefabricated architecture, this light and rapidly, easily assembled structure was rebuilt as a demonstration piece outside the
architecture school in Nancy in 2000.” It was popular in that period and nearly a hundred of filling station were build but, most of
them are relocated or demolished now. [130]
118

Beach Matrix
RESEARCH
Image 89: Fitting module of Beach Matrix [131] Figure 92: The Matrix System [131] Figure 93: Beach Matrix [131]
In the 70s, there was a tendency by people to make their own houses and create a village formed of them with the counter-culture
movement. For this reason, lots of do it yourself guide book published and Ken Isaacs’s “How to build your own living structure” is
the important one of them. In the book, there are lots of examples of construction steps and materials and The Beach Matrix is one
of the applied examples of them.
In this project, Isaac uses the matrix system which he developed and adapted to different systems previously and unique joints
which are produced for pipes in x,y,z axis. The structure has a potential expansion and volumes with adding new pipes and boxes in
it. When the boxes placed in these volumes, different actions can be created in both indoor and outdoor areas.
8’ Micro House
Figure 94: The assembly steps of 8’Micro House [59]
Image 90: 8’Micro House [59]
The other significant example of Ken Isaacs is the 8’Micro House. The cabin is a micro dwelling unit formed by eight deformed
wooden cubes and four tetrahedron feet. By opening gaps on wooden panels, the doors and windows are created. The deformed
cube modules have a structure itself and raised a little bit from the ground with tetrahedron feet. Isaac describes the project in his
book, “When I was first discovering & applying the Matrix Idea I couldn’t help wondering why people had to shackle themselves to
some kind of corporate clerkship for twenty years to get the money for a home in the country. Why wasn’t it possible to apply your
best consciousness & information to develop a new shelter? It had to be compact & mobile using a minimum material list & buildable
in your apartment with simple tooling. Fabricate the parts in winter, slip into a van or wagon in spring & trek to a short-termleased
spot on a farmer’s back 40 & set her up in a day. It’s kind of like “freedom now” instead of waiting until you can “afford” it.
Living put off is lost.” [59]
119

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
Navette Bamboo Pavilion
Image 91: Navette Pavilion by Markus Heinsdorff in Munich, 2009 [132]
Navette Bamboo Pavillion is structured by bamboo tubes as a primary building material. Markus Heinsdorff combines bamboo
sticks for creating boards as well as laminates. The importance of bamboo is about its sustainable character as an old building
material. 20 meters a month, it grows faster than any other plant, and its hallow tubes mean that it is not only light and elastic, but
also a very stable and long-lasting building material. “The outside walls consist of vertical bamboo tubes and bamboo laminate bars
running horizontally around the structure which are connected using brackets.” [133]
Prada Transformer
Image 91: Transformation of Prada Transformer by OMA in Seoul, Korea, 2009; Iwan Baan [134]
Prada Transformer is a structure formed by four different shapes - a hexagon, a cross, a rectangle, and a circle - with four different
cultural activities which are represented Prada as a fashion showcase of Miuccia Prada, a cinema hall shown films selected by
Alejandro González Iñárritu, an art exhibition curated by Germano Celant, and a special event area. The 20-meter high structure
installed in the center of Seoul which is near Gyeonghui Palace. The pavilion rotated by four cranes placed in four edges during the
exhibition periodically for changing the activity. Every ground presents a different experience with different events and also, it is a roof
or a wall of other grounds. The Transformer is full of grounds and walls that are transformed into each other. [135]
120

Ten Fold
Figure 95: Expanding Structure, Ten Fold Engineering [136]
Image 92: Stealth, Ten Fold Engineering [136]
“Eight minutes. That is the length of time UK-based company Ten Fold Engineering’s self-deploying structures can transform
itself from a portable rectangular container into a fully habitable space that can be used for either the residential or service sector.
Transported by truck, the company offers a shelter that is energy efficient, eliminates labour costs, and is highly customizable
prefabrication and construction. With the only requirement for installation to have a stable ground, the options for Ten Fold’s
structures are expansive, including the ability to stack units for more space. Not only does the portable structure represent a
rethinking of residential design, but also an easily implemented solution to help communities in need. The shelters have the potential
to provide services such as mobile clinics or grocery stores.”[137]
RESEARCH
Tensairity Beam
Figure 96: A basic Tensairity beam [138]
Image 93: Development of foldable Tensairity structures.
Prospective concepts AG, 2005 [138]
Image 94: A tensairity slab, 3 m span, Empa, 2009 [138]
Tensairity is a new lightweight structural concept. It is a synergistic combination of struts, cables and an inflated membrane. The
tension and compression elements are physically separated by the air inflated beam, which – when inflated – pretensions the
tension element and stabilizes the compression element against buckling. “The outcome of this interaction between the different
elements is a structure with the load bearing capacity of conventional steel girders and the low weight of an air beam.” [139]
The “fold-able truss” is a conventional truss where the horizontal tension and compression bars are divided in two and reconnected
with an intermediate hinge (Image 93). This way, the truss becomes a mechanism. “The compression and tension bars are in the
deployable Tensairity structure continuously attached with the hull, and this way, the truss is stable when the air beam is fully inflated.
The diagonals can be included or excluded and vertical cables connecting upper and lower strut can be applied.” [140]
The innovative concept Tensairity provides more features than a few conventional structures have, such as a fast assembling/
dismantling, and a compact storage and transport volume. This technological invention creates potential mobile and temporary
architectural applications. [141]
121

STRUCTURAL DURABILITY
SPACE FRAMES
“Nature’s simplest structural system in the universe is the
tetrahedron. The regular tetrahedron does not fill all-space
by itself. The octahedron and tetrahedron complement one
another to fill all space. Together they produce the simplest,
most powerful structural system in the universe .’’
Buckminster Fuller [142]
‘’A space frame is a 3D truss formation that consists of
lightweight interlocking members that create a latticework.
Space frames are used for long-span roofs and can be formed
to make hollow columns or girder elements. Their strength-toweight
ratio is high, making this an ideal solution for few points
of support and prefabricated structures that have a high degree
of repetition’’ [143]
Alexander Graham Bell from 1898 to 1908 developed space
frames based on tetrahedral geometry and was granted a
patent for Connecting Device for the Frames of Aeriel Vehicles
and Other Structures in 1907. This patent shows a modular
octahedral-tetrahedral system “adaptable to a great variety of
structural uses.” It was used quite frequently in the automobile
and aircraft industries. In 1943, Max Mengeringhausen
developed a space grid system called ‘MERO’ in Germany,
thus initiating the use of space trusses in architecture. It was
a modular system consisting of nodes and tubes of different
sizes. The system is still in use today.
Image 95: The MERO system potential uses proposed in 1943 [144]
Image 96: Alexander Graham Bell’s Tetrahedral Kite [145]
Years later, Bucky patented his invention as an
The Octet Truss in 1961, which is widely used in
space frames today. The Octet Truss is a building
component made up of a tetrahedron and an
octahedron with equal edge lengths which are
made using struts. Space frames are attributed to
Alexander Graham Bell at the turn of the twentieth
century, but Buckminster Fuller made them
popular in architecture. [146]
Image 97: Alexander Graham Bell (right)’s tetrahedral kites, 1908 [145] Figure 97: The MERO system potential uses proposed in 1943 [142]
122

M.A.D.I Home
RESEARCH
Image 98: Assembly steps of MADI Home [98]
The M.A.D.I Home company develops a cabin that is assembled within seconds with the help of a crane. The folded form of it can
easily be shipped everywhere in a simple container and after the delivery, the crane unfolds the wooden structure by raising the top
point. The company defines a project as an earthquake proof with A-frame construction and also a possible disaster relief structure
because of the fast assembly. The cabin is formed by a frame and it does not need any foundation but it is adjustable for different
situations. After the temporary need is done, the structure can be folded in the same way and removed for another need. Although
a basic module is 27 square meters included as a ground floor and a first floor, the area can be expanded with additive panels or
changing scale.
Kiosk K67
Figure 98: The diagram of Kiosk K67 [147] Image 99: Possible layout of the K67 system [147]
Figure 99: Expansion options and combinations of Kiosk
K67, Saša Mächtig [147]
K67’s design allowed the possibility of growth and change with its modular structure, method of production and flexibility. It was
based on five modular spatial elements made of reinforces polyester that allows the possibilities of many configurations and reinvent
itself. These elements could be freely assembled. Its flexible design allows it to be used in many parts of the world, such as fastfood
stand, tobacco, flower shop, petrol stations, ski lift ticket booths and many others. The enclosures could be horizontally and
vertically assembled into linear or spatially diverse configurations (While the concept design from 1967 envisaged the stacking of
individual elements into vertical configurations, this was never realised in practice.). Kiosks K67 are therefore more than just individual
units or modules, they can form dynamic spatial structures that embody the relentless potential for change and growth.
‘‘‘Prior to the expansion of industrialisation and the development of new technologies and materials kiosks had mainly been built on
construction methods as mini architectures or houses. Sometimes even designed for a ‘’specific one-off location,” rather than as
products designed and produced according to the industrial logic of mass production.’’[149]
123

TECHNOLOGY
According to the Cambridge dictionary, technology means ‘‘knowledge,
equipment, and methods that are used in science and industry’’.
Technology is a collection of all kinds of methods and tools that have
emerged in every aspect of our lives. In this sense, it is directly related
to architecture. With the development of technology, especially in recent
years, the boundaries in which the product of architecture is defined have
begun to change. In this context, as AAP, we will explore the possibilities
that emerge with developing technologies. To investigate technology
through the architectural product and the architectural process, we will
consider the building methods, production methods, transportation ways
and material of the architectural object. Moreover, this chapter aims to
question alternative solution methods with technological opportunities.
Kugelhaus, by John William Ludowic, 1950 [1]

ALTERNATIVE BUILDING METHODS
On Site
Masonry System
Casting System
3D Printing System
Prefabrication
Frame System
Panel System
Box System
PRODUCTION METHODS
Standardisation
Mass Production
Mass Customization
TRANSPORTATION
Land
Air
Sea
ALTERNATIVE BUILDING MATERIALS
Exterior
Interior
In Between
125

TECHNOLOGY
ALTERNATIVE BUILDING METHODS
On Site
The components of the building are brought together in the
project area. The raw material that forms the building can
be moved to the project area. This raw material is usually
processed in the project area. Therefore, it is important to
organize the construction site during the construction phase of
the project. It is not possible to move the structure created in
the project area to another area. It is fixed to the ground.
In this chapter there will be three systems examined; masonry,
casting and 3D printing systems for on site projects.
5 mm
Masonry System
It is a building method, which do not have any skeletal
system and whose walls are of a carrier nature, working on
the principle of transferring the vertical loads to each other
by placing different elements on top of each other and
connecting with mortar.
The compressive strength and tensile strength of the
components are low. These materials may undergo
deformation when subjected to pressure and tensile action.
They can not withstand the tensile stresses caused by
earthquake forces or changes in the ground.
In masonry structures, the walls have both divisive and
carrying functions. The walls form both the volumes and
separate the internal partitions created by the function of the
structure. As the walls are carriers, any damage to the walls
directly affects the carrier system. [4]
With fire bricks: Earth as a building material is known to have
high compressive strength when dry, but in the presence
of water to be extremely vulnerable. Therefore, the earth
is fired at high temperature to ensure its water resistance.
Conventionally the most common structural application in the
world is the fired brick. [5]
Figure 2: Craneloft by Yorgos Rimenidis + Michalis Softas [2]
“Architecture is an art
we can not avoid. It’s
more than a shelter, a
useful commodity, a
little game. ’’
(Roth, 2006) [3]
Figure 3: Fire Brick [6]
Today, architecture is beyond architectural product.
The building methods, have changed with the changing
technologies, transforming forms, increasing number of
materials and differentiating methods of representation.
Considering both economic and usage value, alternative
building methods will be discussed in this section along
with the important breaking points in the history. In addition,
alternative building methods will be examined through current
systems and examples.
126

With earthbag: The construction process begins with a
trench opened to form the foundation. This trench is usually
filled with stones and gravel. However, it is recommended to
construct a concrete foundation in areas with an earthquake
risk. ‘‘Earthbag buildings can also be built on conventional
concrete slabs (though this is more expensive and uses
more embodied energy than a rubble trench foundation)
and can have a underground “floating” foundation like an
earthship as well.’’ [8]
The relation of earth bags that come into contact with
the ground with water should be considered. It should
be supported with material (such as gravel) to provide
waterproofing. The bags are placed cross to ensure that the
earthen bags do not slip. Earth bags are supported by nets,
barbed wires. In addition, the form of the building is also very
important. [8]
The earth can be pre-filled in bags and placed on top of the
project area, or it can be built by filling earth in tube bags
in the project area. The clay and humid soil in the bag will
ensure the stability of the structure.
RESEARCH
Image 1: Making Bricks, Masasi, 2010 [7]
Figure 4 is about making fire bricks process. Firstly, in the dry season the ground
is baked hard by the sun. Then, laying out bricks to dry, covered by straw.
Secondly, nearly ready for lighting the fires and the brick pile is a kiln with fire
inside. [7]
Figure 4: Earthbag system [9]
127

TECHNOLOGY
With earthship: Many waste materials are left to nature by
people. These wastes lead to consumption of raw material
resources beyond volumetric space. Therefore, it is very
important to recycle waste materials. In this sense, some
waste materials can be used as building materials for building.
To get rid of the waste material and to make it functional
provides many ecological benefits.
Image 3: Gimme Shelter, Michael Reynolds, 2013 [11]
Figure 5: Cappadocian Topak, illustrated by Mukund Iyer, 2017 [10]
The “Earthship” building, designed by Michael Reynolds in
new Mexico, was built by combining waste such as rubber
wheels, cans, glass bottles with earth.
‘‘The building is horseshoe-shaped due to the difficulty
of creating sharp 90 degree angles with rammed tires. In
Reynolds’s prototype at Taos, the opening of the horseshoe
faces 10-15 degrees east of south to maximize natural light
and solar-gain during the winter months, with windows on
sun-facing walls admitting light and heat. The thick and dense
walls provide thermal mass that naturally regulates the interior
temperature during both cold and hot outside temperatures.
The outer walls in the majority of Earthships are made of earthrammed
tires, but any dense material with a potential to store
heat, such as concrete, adobe, earthbags or stone, could in
principle be used to create a building similar to an Earthship.
In an effort to cut down the use of concrete even further, they
also use “squishes” tires rammed in between a tight space to
even out the course or to compensate for varying tire sizes.’’
[11]
Image 2: Cappadocian Topak, Oba Ruhu, 2017 [10]
The Cappadocian Topak was built by the Oba Ruhu. Tubes consolidates the
moist clay-containing fill and the surface of the bags was plastered with soil
belonging to the region. [10]
Image 4: Gimme Shelter, Michael Reynolds, 2013 [11]
128

Casting System
Casting is the process of pouring the liquid prepared material
into moulds prepared in desired shapes and sizes. The
liquid substance solidifies in the mould. The production is
completed by removing the moulds of the solidified part.
Casting materials are usually metals or various time setting
materials that cure after mixing two or more components
together such as epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting
provides the construction of parts that are not economical and
easy to do in the project area. It eliminates the transportation
problems in bringing big building elements to the construction
site. [4]
With rammed earth: Making rammed earth involves
compacting a damp mixture of sub soil that has suitable
proportions of sand, gravel, clay, and stabilizer, if any has
poured into a formwork (an externally supported frame or
mould). Soil mix is poured into the form work to a depth of 10
to 25 cm and then compacted to approximately 50% of its
original volume. The earth is gradually placed in the moulds.
In this layer-by-layer system, it is very important to place each
layer tightly. While tamping can be applied manually with
rammers with long compression arms, it can also be done
with machines today.
The process is not finished by completing the compression
process in the formwork. ‘‘After a wall is complete, it is
sufficiently strong to immediately remove the formwork. This
is necessary if a surface texture is to be applied, e.g., by
wire brushing, carving, or mould impression, because the
walls become too hard to work after approximately one hour.
Compressive strength of rammed earth increases as it cures.
Cement stabilised Rammed Earth is cured for a minimum
period of 28 days.’’ [12]
‘‘The construction of an entire wall begins with a temporary
frame, denominated the “formwork”, which is usually made
of wood or plywood, as a mould for the desired shape and
dimensions of each section of wall. The form must be durable
and well braced, and the two opposing faces must be
clamped together to prevent bulging or deformation caused
by the large compressing forces. Formwork plays an important
role in building Rammed Earth walls. Historically, wooden
planks tied using rope to build walls. Modern builders use
plywood and/or steel to build formwork.’’ [12]
RESEARCH
Figure 6: Rammed Earth Wall Construction [13] Image 5: Modern Rammed Earth Home in New Mexico, Signer Harris, 2012 [14]
129

TECHNOLOGY
3D Printing System
Although traditional construction methods seem to make it
difficult to adopt developing technology, many advances in
technology greatly affect the way of construction and building
materials. Therefore, it is impossible to think of architecture
and technology independently.
‘‘One steadily rising technology is 3D printing. The introduction
of this technology has already caught the attention of
many enterprises who have accelerated in designing
and printing tons of objects using a wide variety of
materials. Therefore, introducing 3D printing to the
construction industry is the focus of many pioneers who
acknowledge the potential of this technology as a new
strategic challenge. Automated printing with layers
allows for flexibility and freedom of architectural design and
more accurate applications, in addition to saving tons of
material that would otherwise to go waste in a conventional
construction site.’’ [15]
‘‘In the construction industry, 3D printing can be used to
create construction components or to ‘print’ entire buildings.
Construction is well-suited to 3D printing. The latest
emergence of building information modelling (BIM) in particular
may facilitate greater use of 3D printing. Construction with 3D
printing may allow more and more accurate construction of
complex or bespoke items as well as lowering labour costs
and producing less waste. It can also be used in a harsh or
dangerous environment.’’ [16]
Image 6: 3D Printing Detail [17]
This method involves the building material being deposited to
create a large-scale 3D model with a smooth surface finish.
‘‘Rails are installed around the building ground that will act as a
structure to direct the robotic arm. It moves back and forth to
extrude the concrete, layer-by-layer. Trowels placed on the side
and above the nozzle to flatten the extruded layers and ensure
the model’s strength.’’
‘‘In this process, conventional concrete can not be used as
it would need to be harden before you could continue the
process. If it was 3D printed it wouldn’t be able to support its
own weight. Therefore, concrete is used with quick setting
properties. The base material (a finely calibrated mix of cement,
sand, plasticizers, and other aggregates) gets poured into a
hopper at the top of the printer and flows onto the rising walls
below.’’ [16]
Figure 7: Building through 3D Printing [16]
Image 7: Casey Dunn, Census Bureau, 2018 [16]
130

DIGITAL PRODUCTION
RESEARCH
Figure 8: Jacquard Loom, 1801, [17]
“Jacquard, in 1801, developed a numerical control system for automating weaving patterns in a
loom allowing textile design and manufacture. This was accomplished by using punch cards as the
numerical input similar to numerical sequencing drives in contemporary computing.” [17]
131

TECHNOLOGY
Prefabrication
Prefabrication is the practice of the assembling whole
of the structure or its components in a factory or other
manufacturing site. Parts mounted outside the construction
site are transported to the project area. Unlike traditional onsite
construction methods, prefabrication makes construction
site conditions flexible. Production affect to a minimum from
environmental factors, weather conditions, etc.
There are 3 systems to build prefabricated building: frame,
panel and box.
The components of the prefabricated building are produced
on line up, stand, aggregate areas in factory. ‘‘The term
prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things
other than structures at a fixed site. It is frequently used
when fabrication of a section of a machine or any movable
structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to another
location, and the section is supplied assembled and ready
to fit. Prefabricated parts of the body of the machine may be
called ‘sub-assemblies’ to distinguish them from the other
components.’’ [18]
Figure 9: Prefabricated System [19]
Image 8: Habitat, Moshie Safdie, 1967 [17]
Moshie Safdie designed this housing complex called “Habitat” for the 1967 World
Expo in Montreal. At age 24, Safdie developed a complex of 158 dwellings from
354 precast modular units.[17]
Figure 10: Step by Step Prefabrication [20]
132

‘‘Prefabrication avoids the need to transport so many skilled
workers to the construction site, and other restricting
conditions such as a lack of power, lack of water, exposure
to harsh weather or a hazardous environment are avoided.
Against these advantages must be weighed the cost of
transporting prefabricated sections and lifting them into
position as they will usually be larger, more fragile and more
difficult to handle than the materials and components of which
they are made.’’ [18]
RESEARCH
Figure 11: Prefabrication Building Systems [17]
‘‘Building systems are generally thought of in five different
categories: site, structure, skin, services, and space and stuff.
Prefabrication can be used to deliver everything but the site.
Most “stuff,” including furnishings and fixtures, are so easily
changed and their lifespan varies from year to year that it will
not be considered as a prefabricated system. Therefore, for
the purposes of organizing the information herein, the focus
will be on off site fabricated structure and enclosure systems
with a brief discussion of interior space and service systems
of buildings in relation to architecture.’’ [17]
‘‘The theory behind the method is that time and cost is saved
if similar construction tasks can be grouped, and assembly
line techniques can be employed in prefabrication at a
location where skilled labour is available, while congestion
at the assembly site, which wastes time, can be reduced.
The method finds application particularly where the structure
is composed of repeating units or forms, or where multiple
copies of the same basic structure are being constructed.’’ [18]
Figure 12: Cost of On-site-Off-site Construction [17]
‘‘For traditional construction loans that make draws throughout a project, off
site construction allows for a more consistent draw schedule throughout the
construction process compared with on site construction that has difficulty
anticipating the large draws that are necessary and often difficult to make cash
liquid in a short amount of time.’’ [17]
DEGREE OF PREFABRICATION
Figure 13: Degree of Prefabrication Diagram [17]
“ Prefabrication can be classified by the extent to which elements are completed prior to assembly on site. From left
to right: materials, components, panels, and modules. Generally, the benefits of prefabrication can be realized as
projects move to increasingly greater degrees of prefabrication.”[17]
133

TECHNOLOGY
PROJECT DELIVERY
Figure 14: Project Delivery Methods [17]
‘‘Design-build contracts, including integrated project
delivery in the United States, have consistently increased
in project delivery since their inception in the
1980s from a few percent of total construction projects
to just over 40 percent in 2010. On the other hand,
traditional design-bid-build contracts have steadily declined
in use. Construction manager delivery has stayed
relatively the same.’’ [17]
Figure 15: Bathroom Service Pod, Kullman Building Corporation [17]
‘‘Prefabrication of services as it relates to architecture refers to a higher level of
unitization. Services may be produced as modules that can be located in buildings.
Bathrooms, kitchens, communication rooms, utility rooms, and service walls are
out fitted in the factory and then placed efficiently inside building structures. This
bathroom service pod is fabricated with plumbing, fixtures, and finishes and
shipped to be installed as an interior module within a building structure.’’ [17]
ASSEMBLY DIAGRAM
Figure 16: Assembly Diagram, Kieran Timberlake, 2008 [17]
“Assembly diagram that has become a staple of the work of KieranTimberlake outlines the goals of the Cellophane
House, designed and built for the MOMA exhibit “Home Delivery.” While on-site methods employ many materials
and processes of construction that eventually are demolished and replaced, prefab solutions offer the potential for
disassembly and reuse.” [17]
134

SOVIET PREFABRICATED BUILDING SYSTEM
Large concrete panels received the attention of Henry
Flynt and Fluxus founder George Maciunas, who in
1965 published a pamphlet entitled ‘Communists Must
Give Revolutionary Leadership in Culture, Appendix
1’. ‘‘The pamphlet praised the Soviet panellised
prefabrication method as the most efficient way of
providing housing because it proposed design solutions
based on technological advancement rather than
national traditions or stylistic choices.’’ [21]
“For Flynt and Maciunas, the Khrushchyovkas
exemplified the three principles of revolutionary
leadership in culture: they increased productivity,
promoted equality and solidarity among workers, and
satisfied the workers’ desire to cope with reality.” (Henry
Flint, ‘Communists Must Give Revolutionary Leadership
In Culture’, 1965. Design by George Maciunas.
Published by World View Publishers. Collection Emily
Harvey Foundation.) [21]
RESEARCH
Figure 17: Soviet Prefabricated Building System, 1965 [21]
135

TECHNOLOGY
Frame System
Frame systems are installed using linear elements that
provide load transfer in vertical and horizontal. Connectors
that connect horizontal and vertical elements to one are very
important. ‘‘Steel studs are laid at on the floor and joined to
make divider edges. The divider edges are sheathed for
non-combustible construction; the divider edges are tilted
up, screwed down to the edge, and propped. The upper
stage is surrounded, then the upper dividers. At last, the roof
and rooftop are encircled similarly as in a confined house.
Prefabricated assembled trusses of edge frameworks which
are screwed or welded together are regularly used to casing
roofs and rooftops.’’ [22]
There is a different meaning between frame systems and
framing. Framing, in construction is the timber work or
steelwork that encloses and supports structural components
of a building.
Panel System
Figure 19: Panel System [24]
‘‘Panel System is one of the prefabrication systems ideal for
straight, curved or angled facade applications and has
an elegant and light appearance with smooth rounded
edges. Prefabricated panel is set in position and layer of
cement or mortar are connected to both sides. Boards
are utilized as a part of the development of outside and
inside bearing and non-load bearing dividers and floors in
a wide range of construction. The board gets its quality
and unbending nature from the inclining cross wires welded to
the welded-wire fabric on each side.’’ [22]
Figure 18: Frame System [23]
Figure 20: Panel System Assembly [25]
136

Box System
24-STUDY DORMITORY
RESEARCH
Figure 21: Box System [26]
Box system is a modern system where burden bearing
dividers give the essential vertical backing and horizontal
solidness for floors. Outside divider boards, lift centres
or staircases are utilized to give the obliged longitudinal
dependability. ‘‘Connecting parts, for example, floors, rooftops
and pillars are bolstered by the heap bearing dividers or
facade divider. In box system, components are conveyed to
site ‘in the nick of time’. Concealed joints and ties, both on a
level plane and vertically are grouted set up as the work
creates, avoiding dynamic breakdown.’’ [22]
Image 10: Study Dormitory Building Process, 2010 [17]
O’Connell East Architects (OEA) designed a 24-story
modular student dormitory for Wolverhampton
Development in the United Kingdom in 2010. ‘‘This
building contains 805 embedded steel structural
modules and was built in 27 weeks.’’ [17]
Image 9: SpaceBox, Holland Composites, 2003 [27]
137

TECHNOLOGY
PRODUCTION METHODS
The basis for the theory is to increase variety and
customization without increasing costs. More than this goal,
however, the concept has become consistent with meeting
the individual needs of customers without sacrificing efficiency,
effectiveness, and affordability.
5 mm
Image 11: K-7 Panel,1960 [28]
“In modern times
we’ve focused on new
manufacturing methods,
shifting from mass to
lean production, and
are now at the next
wave of manufacturing
innovations: mass
customization’’ (Liker,
2003) [29]
‘‘Industrialization: As related to the industrial revolution of
1848, this marked a change in an economic and societal
thinking by virtue of advanced machinery that is still pervasive
today.
Standardization: As a result of the industrialized society,
products became standardized. This was most prevalent in
developing standards related to military production.
Mechanization: This is an effort to move standardization
to greater economies of scale, but introducing additional
mechanized processes that were developed during the war
years, but furthered by virtue of more advanced mechanical
machinery, thus reducing human labour.
Mass production: Thriving on the economies of scale, this
concept is to produce as much of the same thing in order to
bring down the cost of a single item. It has grown concurrently
with consumer demand.
Automation: The development of digitally informed
manufacturing machinery via computer numerical control and
CAD/CAM software.
Mass customization: This concept brings together mass
production and automation to deliver an economy of scope.
Mass customization works to maximize the benefits of
mechanization and automation production methods, reducing
labour costs, but works to preserve the benefits of variability
and customization in the output.’’ [17]
Figure 22: Standardization to Customization [17]
This is a listing of the developments in manufacturing technology from
industrialization in the mid-1800s to today’s mass customization by virtue of
CAD/CAM technologies. These concepts are not exclusive, but represent when
concepts developed and how we understand industrialized building today. [17]
138

Standardization
‘‘Standardization is the limitation to the variety in product
produced so that machines may be able to output certain
lengths, widths, and assemblies. This removes the waste
associated with variability options and the margin of error in
end products.
Although manufacturing has moved progressively from
standardization to customization, the concepts of mass
production are the modes of production still used and
understood in design and construction today.’’ [17]
RESEARCH
The idea of architecture of machine was led to several
generalizations:
‘‘Firstly, that a well stated problem naturally finds its
solution; secondly, that since all men have the same
biological organization, they all have the same basic
needs; and thirdly, that architecture, like machinery,
should be a product of competitive selection applied
to standards which, in turn, should be determined by
logical analysis and experimentation.’’
(Collins, P.,1965 ) [30]
Figure 23: Citrohan House, Le Corbusier [17]
Figure 4, Le Corbusier’s ideas for a “machine for living” included the 1920–
1930 Citrohan House. This house was inspired by the manufacturing methods
employed in early standardized automobile production. [17]
LUSTRON HOMES
Image 12: Lustron Factory, 1949 [31]
‘‘Lustron Factory prefabricated home lie on the ground prior to installation April 16, 1949 in Columbus, Ohio. The
production of Lustron’s prefabricated home was a result of the urgency for affordable housing for veterans returning
home from the war.’’ [17]
139

TECHNOLOGY
Mass Production
Mass production is a system in which a large number of
the same products are produced, usually using assembly
lines and automation technology. The efficiency of each
standardized product has been optimized. Mechanization is
used to achieve high volume, detailed organization of material
flow, careful control of quality standards, and division of labour.
If the production is stringently monitored, mass production
results in a precision assembly as production line machines
have set parameters. Labour costs are often lower for massproduced
products. This cost savings is from the automated
assembly line production processes requiring fewer workers.
[17]
‘‘Further, assembly of mass-produced products is at a
quicker rate due to increased automation and efficiency. This
rapid assembly aids the prompt distribution and marketing
of an organization’s products with the potential to create a
competitive advantage and higher profits.’’ [32]
Figure 24: Process Mass Production [33]
Image 13: Ford Motor Company,1931 [34]
‘‘From Ford model T car to today, mass production system is used. To achieve
Henry Ford’s goal of mass consumption through mass production, productivity
needed to increase. At the factory , workers were placed at appointed stations
and the chassis was hauled along between them using strong rope. The chassis
stopped at each station, where parts were fitted, until it was finally completed. [34]
Figure 25: Construction and Architecture of Leningrad, 1964 [28]
Assembly-line system for manufacturing outer walls of Series OD at the Obikhov
combine in Leningrad (mid-1960s). [28]
140

HOUSING APPROACH OF OTHER INDUSTRIES
RESEARCH
‘‘Since Toyota Motor Co. entered the housing business in
1975, it has conducted business under the banner of “truly
wanting to make Japanese homes better”. The company
developed a line-up of detached housing products using
a variety of different building techniques and expanded its
business to include condominiums and rental housing. Their
modular homes, which go from $200k to $800k, can be
assembled in less than 45 days and come with a 60-year
guarantee.’’ [36]
Toyota Housing Corporation
İmage 14: Toyota Housing,1975 [35] İmage 15: MUJI Houses, 2004 [37]
‘‘MUJI entered the home building only in Japan to provide a
simple, compact yet highly editable, universal platform that will
last for decades. In 2014 the company launched a 15-foot-wide
three-story prefab perfect for Japan’s disposable home culture.
It sells for just $180,000. They also came out with a line of Muji
Huts three cabin-like structures more suited to be used during a
vacation rather than permanent residency. They reportedly cost
$25,000-$40,000.’’ [37]
MUJI Houses
1961
1997
2019
1975
2004
Panasonic Homes
BoKlok by IKEA
BMW And North Face Camper Concept
İmage 16: Panasonic Homes,1961 [38]
‘‘There is no business more
important than to build
home’’... ‘‘There are hundreds
of business now even so
among them all, there is one
business that I would like to
venture in. That is building
homes’’
Kōnosuke Matsushita, founder
of Panasonic
‘‘In 1961, Panasonic announced
and started sales of the Matsushita
Type-One Housing Unit with a
ground-breaking structure of bolted
steel-frame pillars and beams under
Matsushita Electric Works Co., Ltd.’’
[38]
İmage 17: BoKlok by IKEA,1939 [40]
‘‘The BoKlok (pronounced “book look”
and meaning “live smart”) concept
is simple: to provide space-saving,
functional, high-quality properties at
affordable prices IKEA and Skanska
came together to offer sustainable,
quality, low-cost home ownership. They
complete most of the houses in the
factory as they can, and try to complete
the installation on the construction site
with less heavy vehicles. They have built
more than 11,000 homes throughout
Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Norway.
On average this amounts c. 1,200
homes a year.’’ [40]
İmage 18: BMW and North Face Home, 2019 [41]
‘‘In collaboration with outdoor specialists from
The North Face, the BMW Group subsidiary
presented its innovative concept camper.
Thanks to “nano-spinning” technology, its
novel outer skin is said to be one of the
most watertight and breathable fabrics in the
world and therefore ideal for protecting the
occupants of the camper from bad weather.
Inside, the innovative trailer provides sleeping
space for two, as well as a bench, shelves,
and small windows. The fabric designed
with nano-spinning technology to withstand
extreme cold.’’ [41]
141

TECHNOLOGY
Mass Customisation
‘‘Mass customisation, in marketing, manufacturing, call
centres and management, is the use of flexible computeraided
manufacturing systems to produce custom output.
Such systems combine the low unit costs of mass production
processes with the flexibility of individual customisation.
Mass customisation is the new frontier in business for
both manufacturing and service industries. At its core is a
tremendous increase in variety and customisation without a
corresponding increase in costs. At its limit, it is the mass
production of individually customised goods and services. At
its best, it provides strategic advantage and economic value.’’
[42]
Figure 27: Mass Customisation Diagram [44]
Joseph Lampel and Henry Menitzberg‘s classification of customisation strategies.
Gray boxes indicate standardization, and the others customization.[44]
Figure 26: Increased Flexibility in Production and Manufacturing on Demand [43]
Figure 28: Cost Diagram [17]
‘‘Left: Fordist mass production relies on the economies of scale: as repetition
increases cost per unit decreases. Middle: Likewise, as variation increases,
the cost per unit exponentially grows. Right: Mass customisation suggests that
variability is possible within an acceptable margin of cost increase.’’ [17]
CASE STUDY HOUSE 18
Case Study No. 18, or house Fields is a house built
by Ellwood in 1958 with a pre-cast system. There is
a steel frame system painted in blue for structure and
panel parts for the walls. Incorporated into the structure
of terrazzo floors, wood panelling and a mosaic mural,
created by its client-oriented in the exterior wall to the
pool. [45]
Figure 29: Case Study House 18, Craig Ellwood,1958 [45]
142

LLOYDS BUILDING
TOILET PODS
RESEARCH
Figure 30: 3D Printed Housing, New Story + ICON + Échale, 2017 [46]
‘‘The world’s first 3D printed community founded underway in a remote area in
Mexico. The printer has been created as a solution to minimise homelessness
and provide safe and adequate shelter for individuals.
This community proposal will aim to produce a total of 50 homes using the 3D
printer referred to as the Vulcan II. The Vulcan II is designed to build resilient singlestorey
homes at a faster rate than traditional construction methods. The machine
uses a cement-based mix to produce the walls and has the capacity to build a
2000 sqm home if required.
The homes that are built/to be built are 500 sqm in size and the general layout will
consist of a living space, kitchen, bathroom and 2 bedrooms. The families who
will live in them have provided feedback on what they require for the community
and the homes themselves. The families that were chosen to receive these
homes are the ones that were in the most physical and financial need. The design
was built to be resilient against difficult climate conditions such as seismic activity
and flooding.’’ [46]
Image 21: Lloyds Building, Richard Rogers, 1986 [47]
‘‘This structure is less dependant on the core (stairs
and lifts) for structural support and bracing, using post,
beam & bracing. This allows for the vast majority of the
building to be prefabricated and connected into a matrix
on site. Cells can thus be changed at will, allowing
the building to be refurbished with other prefabricated
elements quickly. A further addition to this concept is the
building as a mother board with ‘Plug & Play’ pre-wired/
serviced elements quickly coupled to the frame.’’ [47]
143

TECHNOLOGY
NAKAGIN CAPSULE TOWER
‘‘The Capsule Tower architecture design,
establishment of the capsule as room and
insertion of the capsule into a mega-structure,
express its contemporaneousness with other
works of liberated architecture from the later
1960’s, in particular England’s Archigram Group,
France’s Paul Memon, and Yona Friedman.’’ [48]
Image 22: Nakagin Capsule Tower, Kisho Kurokawa, 1972 [48]
Figure 30: Nakagin Capsule Tower Plan and Detail [48]
144

LOGO OF CAMUS-DIETSCH FACTORY
‘‘A panel hanging from a crane was the logo of Camus-
Dietsch, a French company which opened its facility
in Marienau in 1954. The factory was the foundation
for prefabricated construction across many countries,
including the Soviet Union, Austria, Czechoslovakia,
Great Britain, Italy, Belgium, Japan, Iraq, Syria, Cuba,
Chile, Zaire, Gabon, Taiwan, Bahrain, and many others.
The Marienau factory closed in 1982, two years after
the passing of Raymond Camus, the inventor and
promoter of large-panel construction. Original emblem
of the Camus-Dietsch factory, circa 1960, Collection de
la Ville de Forbach.’’ [21]
RESEARCH
Figure 31: Logo of Camus-Dietsch Factory, 1954 [21]
145

TECHNOLOGY
TRANSPORTATION
Image 24: Portable modular classroom, Jennifer Sieg Country School [17]
Planning of the transportation system is important in the
design of the parts and their coming together. Elements
must be broken down to be shipped. This limits the size of
individual panels, modules, or components. The elements of
the structure to be transported must be designed separately
and then their coming together must be calculated. [17]
Image 23: Flying Panels: How Concrete Panels Changed the World [21]
In addition to transport and installation, the sequence that
affects design staging should be examined. Although ideally
off site manufactured elements are not standing still, staging
does occur on every job site. How the materials will be
protected has a importance especially if they are finished and
ready to build in.
“ The specifications
for prefabrication
should outline how
the module, panel, or
component is going to
be picked up (Smith,
2010) .” [17]
Image 25: Transportation of American Prefabs [17]
In buildings where the production of parts is designed
elsewhere and the combination of the structure is designed
elsewhere, it is very important to move the components to
the project area. Therefore we need to know the dimensions
of the vehicles that will transport these components (or the
box-produced structure itself) to the project area. In this
section, the transportation of building components or building
will be examined under the headings of land, sea and air. In
addition to these, the carrier technology has changed with
the developing technology. Today, drones are being used in
construction sites. It is interesting that projects always carry
such concern in history. The striking effect of changes in
transport technology can be understood with examples.
Figure 32: Carrying by Drone [49]
146

Land
The first method for transportation is land-way. It is an
important and quite common way of transporting prefabricated
buildings. This transportation can be differentiated by moving
the building materials to the production site or by moving the
finished architectural product (box system) to the area to be
used. At this point, it is necessary to know the limitations and
possibilities of the products to be transported to the ground as
in other transport methods. This topic will be elaborated with
different historical and current examples.
RESEARCH
Figure 33: Roll Your Own Mobile Home [50]
Figure 34: Transportation by truck, Prefab Architecture [17]
Although truck regulations vary according to state, trailers do not necessarily
vary. The three standard types of trailers used to transport components, panels,
and modules include:
Top: flat-bed trailer for longer elements
Middle: single-drop deck
Bottom: double-drop deck for tall elements.
Generally, these trailers are progressively more costly to procure from top to
bottom. [17]
Image 26: Michelle Kaufmann has designed a 16-module development, Colorado, her first modular co-housing development to date. [28]
147

TECHNOLOGY
Figure 35: Regulation for land transportation [51]
Figure 36: Dimensions for transportation [28]
Pierson College modular set crane path rehearsed in detail before actuation. The
delivery, pick, hoist, and sets were all planned in an integrated manner during the
design and fabrication process. [28]
Image 27: Transportation of t Halley VI British Antarctic Research Station [52]
Halley Research Station is located in an area has a special climate. It is used to observe the atmosphere and space. This internationally important platform is located on
the 130-meter-thick Brunt Ice Rack. An advanced research facility is divided into eight modules, each sitting on hydraulic feet with ski equipment. These can be upgraded
individually to overcome the accumulation of snow. Each module is taken to a new place independently. This method was used in the summer season of Antarctica 2016/17,
when BAS successfully placed Halley in his new home on the Brunt Ice Shelf. [52]
148

FROM BOX TO HOUSE
Pre-Mclean
1937, Global economy held back by the expense of
ocean*going freight. Trucker Malcom Mclean fumes at slow
cargo loading.
“ There has to be a better way.”
Mclean
THE EARLY
YEARS
Early Cargo Ship: 500-800
TEUs
Containers go international,
rapidly expanding after 1968
RESEARCH
1950, US Army uses containers
for supply movements
during Korean War.
1956, Maiden voyage of
Mclean’s Ideal X. Mclean’s fitting
system improves security
and loading times.
Image 28: Malcom Mclean [53]
Image 28: Conex box hoisted
onto US army truck, 1952 [54]
1970s-1980s:
Fully cellular ships:
1K-2.5K | 215X20X10m By
1973, container ships carry
4 million TEUs annually.
Image 30: Sealand Galloway, slides down
the ways, Mclean Foundation [56]
1970, ISO regulations
simulate international
container shipping.
1972, RegistWered East
Coast longshoreman has
fallen by in the 20 years.
1977, US transport
deregulation enables intermodule
companies.
1984 Carriers operate
round the world services
with larger ships.
1985 The first double
stack train service begins.
2000s
Post Panamax Plus: 6K-8K TEUs | 200x43x14.5m
International supply chains grow more intricate and inclusive, supporting
the growth of e-commerce.
2001, First residential container complex opens, other re-purposing
includes agriculture, open markets, disaster relief.
2008, HCL develops 4FOLD fold-able containers heralding new
generation of containers.
2009, Raleigh NC, tops decade’s metro growth: more new jobs are
in liveable cities, in part because of containerisation.
Image 29: Sealand Factory, the first ship to
Rotterdam, 1966 [55]
1990s
Post Panamax: 4K-5K | 200x43x14.5m
Chinese manufacturing takes off
1991, Six of the World’s ten largest ports are now in Asia.
1991, London’s Docklands opens an example of urban rejuvenation
re-using vacant dock land.
1999, China’s annual GDP per capita growth reaches up to 13%
during the 1990s.
Image 31 : The Maersk Sealand designation on the hull of the
2004-built Maersh Denver identifies photo:199-2005 era. [56]
Image 33: Container Guest House, 2010, Poteet Architects [53]
2010s
TripleE: 18K TEUs | 400x59x15.5
m
By 2013, 90% of global trade is
seaborne, shipped in 700 million
containers every year.
2017, Remote tracking systems
are predicted to reach over 1
million containers. New technology
is improving service reliability.
Image 34:The Caterpillar
House 2012 [53]
149

TECHNOLOGY
PANELS DISTRIBUTION
According to the map, distribution of the panels around the world can be observed. It is clear that the panel is
mobile, transported from different parts of the world and sent to many different places. There are many different
limiting factors in these transport stages. Panel dimensions of transport vehicles are effective in terms of labour.
Furthermore, the agreements between countries and the position of trade routes are important in ensuring this
distribution. For this reason, in some cases, the panels are subject to transfer points during transport. [21]
150

RESEARCH
Figure 37: Flying Panels: How Concrete Panels Changed the World [21]
151

TECHNOLOGY
Air
Another method of transportation is air transportation. Cargo
planes and helicopters can be used with this method.
Particularly difficult to reach places, extreme conditions, natural
disasters, reasons such as rapid access may be preferred.
With this method, box systems can be transported as well as
frame and panel systems. The size and weight characteristics
of the units are distinctive to select type of methods.
Image 35: Maisons Tropicale, Jean Prouve, 1949 [57]
Image 37: Transportation of Futuro House, Matti Suuronen [58]
Image 36: Loading of Maison Tropicale’s prefabricated elements to the aircraft
Jean Prouve, 1949-1951 [57]
Figure 38: Maison Tropicale’s prefabricated elements, Jean Prouve, 1949 [57]
Three prototype of Maisons Tropicales are designed by Jean Prouvé in 1949-
1951 . They were designed to serve for the shortage of housing and public
buildings in the French colonies in Africa. In 1949, the first prototype was built
in Niamey. Than it was exhibited at the Port Des Champs Élysées. Two years
later, other two buildings at in Brazzavile were used as office business information
for Aluminium Français and housing for director. The houses of Niamey
and Brazzaville are made from folded sheet steel and aluminium. To facilitate
transportation, all components were flat, lightweight and neatly were packed in
a cargo plane. [57]
Image 38: Micro compact home 016 Brissago, [59]
Micro compact home, M-ch 016, was located in June 2012 at Brissago, near
of Lake Maggiore, Switzerland. It was put in position with a huge helicopter and
set in just 4min 09secs using a helicopter from Heli Swiss, Eleticno based close
Locarno in May 2012. A ground group of three engineers each in radio contact
with the pilot situated the micro home into three 35mm distance across finding
gaps within the aluminum subframe. [59]
152

Sea
Another transportation method is maritime transport. This
method, which has an important place in world trade for many
years, can be done with large cargo ships. In this context,
containers occupy an important place for the transport of
various units. The standards and usage methods of the
containers that change and develop in the historical process
vary around the world. It doesn’t always have to be with big
ships, project-specific solutions can be produced.
RESEARCH
Image 39: Round house being transported down the River Thames, [50]
Designed by architect Juni Ludowici, Das Rundhaus is a prefabricated building
developed as a creative solution to the problem of overcrowding and limited
space for new buildings in urban centre. Round houses occupy the maximum
volume for a given area and make the most of a small piece of land. In addition,
the air circulates around the outer walls more easily and makes them safer in the
storm and facilitates the warming of homeowners. [50]
Figure 39: The World of International Shipping [60]
Getting Shipment From Overseas : The Process
- An order is put for goods from an abroad supplier.
- Abroad provider liaises with cargo forwarder to manage transport
from the nation to the person/company that places the
order.
- A trucking company assembles the order and puts it into a
40ft holder with other orders.
- The holder is shot closed and fitted with a tall security seal.
- The container shipping line submits shipment documentation
to government authorities in the exporting and importing countries.
- Before approaching the port, the captain presents a report to
the target government with information about the ship, the crew
and the Cargo.
- Once clearance is received, the docks at a berth close to the
cranes used to unload the Cargo.
- Customs officers who will have all the relevant documents
choose the containers for inspection. [60]
Image 40: Transportation of Futuro House, Matti Suuronen [58]
The pre-assembled Futuro Houses were frequently delivered on-site by ship. It
was developed by Suuronen in 1968 as a one-off mountain holiday home for
a friend. To supply construction work on a remote plot and install it on rough
terrain, the architects designed it as a prefabricated egg-shaped building with
16 fiberglass parts bolted each other and a reinforce structure made up for four
concrete scaffolds and a concave steel frame. [58]
153

TECHNOLOGY
WHEN PANELS LEARNED TO FLY
Image 41: [21]
Pont VI factory, worker manually hoisting a winch to de-mould a
panel. [ımg.41]
Panel transportation to a construction site on an American trailer.
[ımg.42]
Panel assembly for Building A on Lot 17 on August Normand
Street [ımg.43]
Building in Le Havre built according to Raymond Camus’s
technology. [ımg.44]
Image 42: [21]
Image 43: [21]
154

RESEARCH
Image 44: [21]
155

TECHNOLOGY
ALTERNATIVE BUILDING MATERIALS
Figure 40: Neme Studio, Matters Around Architecture, 2015 [61]
Exterior
Bamboo
Bamboo is a solid, quick developing
and profoundly maintainable fabric
that has been utilized basically for
thousands of a long time in numerous
parts of the world. In modern times,
it has the potential to be an tastefully
satisfying and cost-effective against
to more conventional materials such
as wood. It can be used in many different
functions from the formation of
the structure to its insulation. [62]
Image 41: American Bamboo Society Annual Conference [63]
Image 42: Prototype of ZERI bamboo pavilion
Simon Velez [64]
Straw Bale
Straw bale is a building material which
can be used as a framing material for
building because of good insulating
features. They can also act as soundproof
materials. Non-load bearing
walls of straw bale can be used as fill
material in between the columns, and
in between the beams frame work
is recommended. Since air can not
pass through them, straw bales also
have some resistance to fire. [65]
Image 43: Harvest [66]
Image 44: SCL Straw-Bale House [67]
156

Adobe
Adobe is actually a dried mud brick,
with the natural elements of earth,
water, and sun. It is an ancient material
as a rule made of with firmly
compressed sand, clay, and straw
or grass blended with dampness,
shaped into bricks. It dries in the
sun without an oven. Adobe’s quality
and versatility shift with its water
substance: for example much water
debilitates the brick. [68]
RESEARCH
Image 45: Casting [68]
Image 46: La Mesa Residence [69]
Earth Bags
Earth bags, sandbags are used in
military bases, near water sources,
etc. Visible. In general, bags made of
sacks are used, but they are easy to
rot, and therefore polypropylene bags
are common today. It has a good insulation
thanks to the sandbag coating.
In addition, another good feature
is that they do not ignite easily. It is
strong and can protect users from
rain, wind and sun. [70]
Image 47: Sewing bags [71]
Image 48: Earthbag Projects in Rwanda [71]
Gabion
Gabion is formed by filling a cage
or box with materials such as stone,
concrete, sand or soil. It is used for
slope stability and erosion protection
as a flexible block. Various types of
gabions are built in different engineering
structures. It is also used in different
systems in architectural structures.
[72]
Image 49: Construction [72]
Image 50: Metropolitan Park South Access [73]
Hempcrete
Hempcrete a carbon-negative material
is an alternative for contractors to
use in construction works. It is prepared
by mixing hemp shives, water,
and lime as the binding agent. Hempcrete
has low thickness and fabulous
warm and acoustic cover properties.
But Hempcrete encompasses
a compressive quality and versatile
modulus which makes it unacceptable
for bearing coordinate loads so it
needs a outline to carry the loads. [74]
Image 51: Hemt blocks[74]
Image 52: Hempcrete Homebuilding [75]
157

TECHNOLOGY
Rammed Earth
Soil is an alternative material for aesthetic,
sound control, durability, temperature
control, minimum maintenance
and fire resistance. Rammed
Earth is a system that can be constructed
by compressing moist soil of
a certain ratio and type with the help
of simple moulds. It is a natural and
powerful construction system with
thousands of years of traditional usage,
modern interface and many advantages
coming from the nature of
the material. [76]
Figure 41: Made in Earth [76]
Image 53: Construction [76]
Image 54: The Great Wall of WA [77]
Mycelium
Mycelium brick is an organic brick
consist of organic waste and cork.
Fine root-like fibers obtained from
mushrooms that extend underground
turn into super strong, water, mold
and fire resistant building materials
when dried. This material, along with
the architectural and construction industry,
has been developed over time
in multiple disciplines and is used as
a building material. [78]
Image 55: Mycelium, Aleksi Vesaluoma [79]
Image 56: Hy-Fi, Queen, The Living, [80]
Ferrock
It is produced from waste steel dust
from industrial processes. The iron
in the steel powder reacts with CO2
and corrodes and iron-carbonate is
formed. It can withstand compression
without breaking and is quite flexible.
It can resist the effects of soil movements
caused by industrial process.
[81]
Image 57: Paul Tumarkin, Tech Launch Arizona, [81]
Card Board
Cardboard has the potential to make
a valuable contribution to a more sustainable
structure in the future. It is
mainly made of post-consumer waste
paper and card, a material with limited
market availability. The carton itself
can be recycled to more cartons at
the end of its life. It is a suitable alternative
material for quick and practical
solutions.[82]
Figure 42: Paper Log House [82]
Image 58: Paper Log
House, New York [82]
Image 59: Paper Log House,Turkey [83]
158

Plywood
Plywood is a treated wood material
consisting of three or more layers.
The layers are glued together to form
a flat layer. Plywood can be produced
from softwood, hardwood, or both.
Made from hard wood, maple, oak
and mahogany. Then the log is combined
with thin wood layers with a
lathe machine. Each layer is usually 1
to 4 mm thick. [84]
RESEARCH
Image 60: Herzog & de Meuron, Plywood House [84]
Earthship
Earthship includes natural and recycled
materials. It is generally constructed
to operate independently
and is made of rubber filled with soil to
naturally regulate the indoor temperature.
They also often have their own
special natural ventilation systems. In
addition, metal cans, canned boxes,
glass bottles can be reused in different
ways. [85]
Image 62: Sustainable School, Michael Reynolds, [85]
MICHAEL REYNOLDS: CREATIVE RECYCLING
Figure 44: Earthship Materials: tire [86]
Figure 43: Plan of earthship house, Michael Reynolds [86]
“Michael Reynolds is an architect who considers waste
a natural resource. In his projects from the early 1970s,
discarded steel beverage cans and old car tires take on a
new function as building materials when remodelled into
bricks. Cans are secured together with bailing wire and
stacked into walls with mortar. Car tires are packed tight
with dirt to form rammed earth bricks.” [86]
159

TECHNOLOGY
Seaweed
Algae forms such as seaweed are a
sustainable alternative to plastics and
other materials in conjunction with the
climate crisis. Seaweed is naturally
non-flammable, resistant to decay,
carbon negative and completely waterproof
after about a year. It also insulates
the structure well, comparable
to stone wool. The result is an alternative
construction material that can be
used as a product by placing it on the
surface of the panels. [87]
Fıgure 45: Detail [87]
Image 63: Seaweed [87]
Image 64: Seaweed thatch updated into
prefab panelling, Kathryn Larsen [87]
Self Healing Concrete
A kind of self-renewing “living concrete.”
The mixture of calcium lactate
and various bacteria in its structure
initiates a reaction when it comes into
contact with water, repairing cracks,
fractures and holes on the surface or
in depth. When the cracks eventually
form, water enters and opens the
capsules. The bacteria then germinate,
multiply and feed. [88]
Figure 46: Hendrik Jonker, bio-concrete [88]
CLT Panel
(Cross Laminated Timber)
CLT cross laminated panel system is
a durable material obtained by stacking
wooden layers. With its strong
structure, it is frequently used as a
wall in the wooden building industry.
In addition, today it has become a
component used in many different areas
such as floor and ceiling material,
stairs and wind turbines. [89]
Figure 47: CLT Panels [89]
Image 65: The CLT House / KAWA DESIGN GROUP Architecture [89]
SIPs
Structural insulated panels (SIPs) is a
system used in residential and light
commercial buildings. The panels
consist of an insulating foam sandwiched
between two specially oriented
structural coating boards (OSB).
SIPs are produces under factory controlled
conditions and can be custom-built
to appropriate almost any
building design. The result is a very
strong, energy-efficient and cost-effective
structure. [90]
Image 66: Kingspan [90]
Image 67: Passivehaus home [90]
160

Papercrete
Papercrete is a type of industrial
strength material made with paper
and cardboard, sand and Portland
cement. There are many types of
Papercrete. Basically, when components
are mixed in different proportions,
it causes PaperCrete to have
various properties. It is suitable for
making low cost houses with limited
life and durability. [91]
RESEARCH
Image 68: Mixing papercrete and forming papercrete blocks. [91]
Image: 69 Papercrete House,
Rural Studio [91]
Biodegradable Materials for 3D Printing
A natural mud mixture made from soil
from the surrounding area is used
together with waste materials from
agricultural production such as straw
and rice husks. The final product is
biodegradable. If the building is not
maintained or specifically requested,
the building may re-enter the soil. The
mixture is layered using a 3D printer
suspended from a crane, forming
walls with vertical voids therein. [92]
Image 70: Printing and its area [92]
Image 71: The Gaia House, WASP, [92]
PRINTED HOUSE
Figure 48: 3D printing system [93]
“There are a variety of 3D printing methods used at construction scale, these include the following main methods:
extrusion (concrete/cement, wax, foam, polymers), powder bonding (polymer bond, reactive bond,) and additive
welding. Potential advantages of these technologies include faster construction, lower labour costs, increased
complexity and/or accuracy, greater integration of function and less waste produced.” [93]
161

TECHNOLOGY
Potato peelings into MDF
This alternative material is based on
the principle of reuse of food waste. It
is made by mixing bamboo, wood or
hops fibres into the potato peel to obtain
a binder. Unlike MDF, it does not
contain formaldehyde or other toxic
resins and chemicals. The composite
is heat pressed to a robust sheet
layer which can be used for various
purposes and is ready for use. [94]
Image 73: Compressing Chips board. [94]
Image 74: Chip[s] Board : Recycle potato
peelings into MDF [94]
Translucent Wood
A group of researchers from Royal Institute
of Technology has developed
Optically Transparent Wood, a material
that could impact the architectural
projects. This transparent wood
is created by ensuring that the wood
material is quite white by removing
the outer layer by some chemical processes.
A transparent polymer is then
added to this white porous structure.
This process matches the individual
optical properties of the cells and
makes all the material translucent. [95]
Image 75: Translucent Wood [95]
Image 76: KTH Royal Institute of Technology
[95]
PTFE & ETFE
“PTFE, commonly known as Teflon, is a film made of carbon
and fluorine. This material in non-reactive, hydrophobic,
and has a very low coefficient of friction. Because of
these non-stick, corrosion resistant, and waterproof
properties, Teflon is a material which is ideal not only
for building construction but also for other commercial
applications such as cookware. Teflon was patented in
1945, and shortly thereafter, Dupont began producing
massive quantities of material,mostly for commercial use.
Image 77: PTFE & EFTE [28]
ETFE is a film with even more impressive properties. This
fluorine-based plastic is extremely lightweight and strong,
while maintaining a high resistance to a wide temperature
range and corrosion. This product surpassed polyethylene
technology by maintaining a stronger resistance to ultraviolet
light, a benefit which was not required in the military use of
plastic but was ideal civilian applications.” [28]
Figure 49:Teflon (PTFE) [28] Figure 50: ETFE [28]
162

AN INFLATED EXPO OSAKA
“ The polyvinylchlorid (PVC)
polymer, the third most widely
produced plastic, having many
applications from inflatables to
pipes. ’’ [28]
Figure 51 : PVC [28]
RESEARCH
Image 78 : [28]
Image 79 : [28] Image 80 : [28]
“1970 : The Japan Tele-Communications Pavilion at the Osaka Expo was clad in PVC coated vinyl stretched over an
internal structure. (Img:78) The Fuji Pavilion at the Osaka Expo was the largest multi-membrane structure built up until
that time. (Img:79) The sixteen tubes, each with a diameter of four meters, were made of PVA coated on the outside with
Hypalon and on the inside with PVC. (Img:80)” [28]
163

TECHNOLOGY
Bio-Brick
Loose sand, an enzyme-producing
bacterium, and human urine are combined
in a mold that will shape the
brick. Urease induces chemical reaction.
Calcium carbonate, which is the
main component of cement, is produced
by breaking down urine. This
strengthens the bricks. The longer
they stay in their mold, the bricks get
stronger. The bricks formed as a result
of these processes can be used
as an alternative material. [96]
urine, bacteria, cement
Image 81: Production of Bio-brick [96]
Image 82: Bio-brick, University of Cape Town
(UCT) [96]
Bacteria-Textile
This material relates to the potential to
use biologically solidified knitted textile
structures as sustainable building
materials. The knitted column is made
of jute fibre and permeable polyester.
The column was mounted in a rotating
bioreactor before spraying. Thanks to
the use of bacteria, a high-strength
building material can be obtained. [97]
Image 84: Using bacteria [97]
Image 84: Production of textile
structures [97]
Image 85:The potential of using knitted textile
structures [97]
NOBILITY OF METALS
“The noble metals are a subset of the metals, but the membership in the
group is not well-defined.
The strictest definition of a noble metal is metal with a filled electron
d-band. According to this definition, gold, silver, and copper are noble
metals.
Another definition of a noble metal is one which resists oxidation and
corrosion. This excludes copper, but adds in other platinum group metals,
such as rhodium, palladium, ruthenium, osmium, and iridium.
The opposite of a noble metal is a base metal.
Noble metals are valued for use in jewellery, coinage, electronics,
medicine, and chemistry as catalysts.
The galvanic series determines the nobility of metals, the differences in
the conducting potential of metals. Electrons may be transferred from the
surface of one metal to the other. The less noble metal will corrode as a
result of the reaction. The more likely corrosion is to occur in the less noble
metal. This figure illustrates which are more likely to corrode due to galvanic
action because they are less noble.” [28]
Figure 52: Nobility of Metals [28]
164

PLASTIC FANTASTIC
“ The polyethylene
polymer. Commonly
used in plastic bags
and bottles, nearly 80
million tons of this
material are produced
every year globally.’’ [28]
RESEARCH
Figure 53: Nylon [28]
Image 86: Wallace Carothers [28]
Figure 54: Advertisement of Nylon at that years [28]
“The development of fabric Technologies for architectural
purposes occurred with the invention of plastics and synthetic
fibres at the turn of the century and their commercialization
after the Second World War. Plastics first appeared in the mid-
1800s. Parkesine, the first plastic, was patented by Alexander
Parkes in 1856. Shortly thereafter, Celluloid, also known as
imitation ivory, was patented in 1870 and rose in popularity as
the Parkesine company collapsed. Polyethylene, now the most
common plastic, was discovered by accident in 1933.” [28]
Inventor Wallace Carothers stretches sample of polyamide, a
miraculous new synthetic fabric (ımg 86).
165

TECHNOLOGY
Interior
Tadelakt
This traditional practice, which has
been used almost unchanged for
centuries, was created using limestone
in the high Atlas mountains
of Morocco. The material produced
using local construction techniques
and natural dyes is an alternative to
chemical materials. Also the word “Tadelakt”
means “caress” in Arabic. [76]
Figure 55: How to use tadelakt [76]
Image 87: Production of
tadelakt [76]
Image 88: Application of tadelakt [76]
Natural Plaster
It is ecologically important that the
building is breathable. Plasters are the
first layers that come into contact with
the air outside and inside the building.
They are effective in regulating humidity
and temperature. Applying chemical
paint prevents this exchange. Natural
plasters can be smooth, finished
with sponge. Or it can be finished
with a trowel or brush, hand-finished,
fibrous and grainy. [76]
Figure 56: How to use natural plaster [76]
Image 89: natural plaster
[76]
Image 90: Cafe interiors, Museum Road [76]
OSB
The main raw material of OSB material
is pine, mostly coniferous wood.
Chips 8 to 15 cm long are combined
to form different layers. Therefore,
OSB received such a name. Sounds
like “oriented chipboard” or OSB. The
flexibility of the material increases with
this multi-layered structure and large
size chips. Thanks to these features,
the amount of glue that brings the
material into solid wood can be reduced.
[98]
Image 77: Storage of
OSB [98]
Image 78: Bcredi Office, Arquea Arquitetos
[99]
Natural Paints
They made with raw ingredients such
as clay, marble, earth can significantly
improve the air quality in your building,
positively impacting your health.
Additives such as starch, casein, flaxseed
oil, used with plant and mineral
pigments, provide a less energy-consuming
coating. These natural ingredients
improve breath-ability of the
wall, and eliminate potentially harmful
chemicals present in conventional
paints. [76]
Figure 57: How to use n. paint [76]
Image 79: Mixing natural paint [76]
Image 80: Aditi Organics Office in India [76]
166

IN THIS CASE, POOR QUALITY
RESEARCH
Figure 58: Krokodil, 10 October 1963 [17]
“Illuminating shortcoming in the Soviet furniture Industry -
In this case, poor quality - this satirical cartoon contrasts
what one might see at an exhibition of model wares (top)
with what is actually available for purchase in shops
(bottom). The exhibition proudly offers a comment
book for visitors, and the shop - a complaint book.
While covering up her new contemporary furnishings for
fear of ruining their polished surface, this home-maker
openly displays her outdated accoutrements of decor -
the elephant figurines behind the guest just arriving, the
‘puppy dog’ adorning the television set, and the antiquelooking
clock in the upper right-hand corner.” [17]
Figure 59: Krokodil, 10 October 1963 [17]
167

TECHNOLOGY
Animal Byproducts
There are designers who choose to
recycle animal wastes rather than
remain unused. It is possible to use
animal by-products in the structure
by forming semitransparent tubes
that naturally bend around an LED luminaire.
This design creates unusual
lighting effects and draws attention to
the natural details of the organic materiall.
[100]
Image 81: animal byproduct [100] Image 82: Production [100]
Image 83: Sculptural lights made from animal
byproduct [100]
Food Waste
Every year, 1/3 of the total food
produced in the world is weighed
at 1.3 billion tons. The vast majority
of foodstuffs disposed of in the US
and Europe are in agriculture and in
final consumption processes. It is
now possible to recycle food. Fruits,
grains, vegetables, grass, leaves,
bushes are able to used for this methods.
So a variety of vast-food can turn
into different objects such as a lighting
equipments or coffee tables. [101]
Figure 60: Raw Materials [101]
Image 84: Orange Lamp, Palm Leaves Table, Onion Lamp, Ottan Studio [101]
Clothes
Used and unwanted clothes can be
turned into building materials instead
of being thrown away. Old clothes
can turn into different interior objects.
Sometimes a coffee table can sometimes
be reused as a seat. There are
also research studies in which clothes
are turned into solid outdoor panels.
In this way, the recycled fertilizers can
be reused. [102]
Image 85: Panels made from unwanted clothes
University of New South Wales [103]
Image 86: Sophie Rowley,
Denim jeans table [102]
Image 87: Harry Nuriev, Sofa with old clothing
[104]
Cork
Cork is a material preferred by many
designers and architects because of
its properties that can be combined
and recycled. The cork-mixture obtained
from the bark is brought together
and pressed. It is combined
with a layer of cotton fabric to form
a thin layer. It is then subjected to
various processes with the yarns obtained
from this fabric. This product
can be used in the construction of
many interior materials. [105]
Image 88: Production [105]
Image 89: cork lighting, Digitalab [105]
168

In-between
Cellulose
A type of wood or paper-based product
is used to fill empty spaces in
the structural part of a house to slow
down the transportation of heat or
cold. Its technically can come from
any cellular plant source, such as
corncobs or sisal. But commercial
cellulose insulations are generally derived
from wood, and more specifically
from common waste paper products.
RESEARCH
U value: 0.19W/m²K at 200mm [106]
Image 90: Foam- formed Cellulose [106] Image 91: Application of Cellulose [106]
Cotton
Cotton is a natural and renewable
resource, which makes the green insulation
products. Cotton insulation is
similar to fibreglass insulation in several
ways. According to National Cancer
Institute, unlike fibreglass, cotton
insulation does not include formaldehyde,
which scientists have linked
to some types of cancer. It wouldn’t
cause any respiratory problems. The
material is good at absorbing moisture.
Cotton insulation is also insect
repellent. [107]
Image 92: Blanket cotton [107] Image 93: Application of Cotton [107]
U-VALUE, G-VALUE, NET-TO-GROSS RATIO AND
DAYLIGHT FACTOR: THE WAR OF COEFFICIENTS
“If the modern curtain wall aesthetics of thinness is now
clearly in recession as an effect of these regulations, there
is a conflict between the U-Value and the Net-to Gross
ratio. Moreover, the increasing occlusion of daylight
due to the fenestration ratio’s exponential decrease
promises to evolve into a true war of coefficients within
these regulatory frameworks as the provision of daylight
is now considered the most important factor for energy
saving in office buildings.
Figure 61: U Value Diagram [28]
In order to solve these conflicts, the industry is
developing a variety of insulating yet thin and transparent
products: triple glazing, argon-filled glazing, and now
vacuum cavities and nanogel translucent insulation.
Products like Kalwall, Okalux nanogel glass panels, or
Litracon and Luccon translucent concrete indicate that
translucent insulation may be a solution to this brewing
conflict.” [28]
169

TECHNOLOGY
Sheep’s Wool
Sheep wool, which is a natural product,
is an alternative insulation material.
Due to the hygroscopic nature
of sheep wool, it provides a natural
insulation by controlling the condensation
levels inside the building.
It absorbs more than 35 percent
of its weight as moisture and does
not affect its thermal performance.
U Value: 0.20W/m²K at 200mm [108]
Image 94: Production of wool [108]
Image 95: Application of Sheep’s wool [108]
Expanded Cork
Cork is an all-natural, renewable, recyclable
and biodegradable material
made from the bark of the oak tree.
With cork insulation, energy consumption
is greatly reduced and energy
saving is achieved. Its features
continue for many years. Cork is a
very ecological material with its high
insulation range, stability and reducing
thermal bridging. [109]
Image 96: Harvesting - Storage [109]
Image 97: Cork Studio, Studio Bark [110]
Traditional Hemcrete
Hemcrete is a bio-composite building
material made from a combination of
hemp shive and a lime-based binder.
It is usually casted in-situ around
a timber frame to form the walls
of buildings, but is also particularly
well suited to renovation projects.
U-value : 0.19W/m²K at 300mm [111]
Image 98: lime technology [111]
Image 99: Kensington Hempcrete Home
[111]
WATERTIGHT SPECIES
Locked Species of lock-joint
standing seam metal cladding,
each with a different articulation,
sometimes subtle and sometimes
very drastic. [28]
Figure 62: Watertight Species [28]
170

INSULATION THE RISE OF THE CELLULAR
“The insulated facade is perhaps the assemblage which
is most closely tied economic ebb and flow. Over the
last 100 years, every economic downturn has seen a
subsequent thickening of the envelope and increase in
thermal resistance, whereas times of economic prosperity
have born emaciated façades which are wasteful in their
energy usage.
RESEARCH
So closely tied is insulation to economy that the energy
crises of the 1970s engendered ad national shortage of
insulation material in the United States as home owners
scrambled to increase the thermal resistance of their homes.
Crucially, there is no technology capable of producing
visual transparency and insulation at once, and therefore
insulation is inevitably linked to opacity with all its associated
semiotic: the free-flowing, borderless, transparent space
of modernism is at odds with energy saving and the
postmodern cellularization of society.” [28]
Image 100: Cellular [28]
Sunflower
The sunflower crop waste into biomaterials
for use as a sustainable insulating
material. Sunflower, which is
usually grown to produce oil, seeds
or biofuels, creates agricultural waste
that has the capacity to turn into valuable
resources. In the panels where
every part of the sunflower crop is
evaluated, a non-synthetic binder and
a non-toxic varnish are used. [112]
Image 101: Panels from sunflower [112]
Image 102: Panels aplication
Thomas Vailly, Studio Thomas Vailly [112]
Acoustic bio-panels
Panels made of material developed
from cellulose fibres of Swedish pine
and spruce trees are strong, waterproof
and lightweight. At the back of
the panels is a nano-perforated surface
that allows sound waves to enter
and trap into the hexagonal channels
on the rear surface. While applying
this surface, technologies used to
minimize the material used in aircraft
and spaceships have been used. [113]
Figure 63: Raw material alternatives for bio-panels [113]
Figure 64: BAUX & Form Us With Love [113]
171

TECHNOLOGY
SILICONE: ENABLER OF A NEW ARCHITECTURE
“New façades, desperate to develop a single exterior surface
with a perfect seal, found their greatest ally in silicone.
Silicone forms an impermeable, web-like membrane,
which is able to fill in seams and gaps between materials.
Silicone is capable of sticking strongly to nearly any modern
construction material including metal, concrete, masonry,
vinyl, and plastic yet is flexible enough to absorb the
movement of thermal cycling. Traditional oil-based caulking
compounds would no longer fit the bill, and the Word of
choice became sealant instead of caulk. ” [28]
Figure 66: Silicone [28]
Figure 65: Advertisement of that years [28]
Aerogel
Aerogel consists of a gas with almost
no thermal conductivity. NASA uses
this material to protect astronauts and
equipment from their extreme cold.
The production of different types of
aerogel varies with different types.
Aerogel, produced by replacing the
liquid component of the gel with gas,
is an alternative insulation material
used in extreme conditions. [114]
Figure 67: Aerogel Production [114]
Image 103: Aerogel [115]
Perlite
Naturally formed from siliceous rocks,
perlite is used for thermal insulation
in buildings. Perlite glass fiber with
R-value 2.7 shows insufficient performance
compared to other insulators
such as wool and cellulose. However,
it performs better than loose fill wood
products and straw. [116]
Image 104: Lightweight perlite pours easily into masonry blocks
Perlite Institute [116]
Image 105: LNG tanker, insulated with
perlite. [116]
172

A COAT SALE
RESEARCH
Image 106: A coat sale in Copenhagen, Denmark, 1936 [117]
“Overstocked with a large supply of men’s spring and winter coats, a clothier in Copenhagen, Denmark, adopted a
unique sales scheme. He erected a scaffolding around his store building and completely covered it from roof to sidewalk
with more than a thousand overcoats. The novel display attracted prospective customers in such droves that
police were summoned. Although the police ordered the proprietor to remove the display, he succeeded in selling all
the overcoats.” [117]
173

TECHNOLOGY
MARSHA
AI SpaceFactory
2018
The Volontariat Home
and MARSHA projects
are similar in terms of
local material using. In
Marsha project, the soil
of Mars is used after being
treated with 3D printer.
Similarly, in the Volontariat
Home project, local
soil was used as building
materials.
In addition, although these structures
are designed for different
technologies and purposes, the
window at the top for light indicates
that some things have not
changed.
Both projects are constructed
on site so it
means that solutions can
be produced by using local
materials.
As it can be understood from the
sections of the structures, they
have a similar form. It is interesting
to point to the similar form
according to the durability and
climatic data analyzes made with
different technological infrastructures.
174

RESEARCH
The Marsha project has been designed
with high technology by imagining
a new life on Mars. Current
high technological data are used in
construction and design. However,
the Volontariat Home project was
designed for homeless children in
India in a participatory process with
very low cost and technology with
local materials.
In addition, Marsha
Project does
not create a interior
space from a shell
in accordance with
the environmental
conditions and
needs, while this is
not the case in the
other project.
VOLONTARIAT HOME
Anupan Kundoo, India
2008
175

ECOLOGY
The ecological science and sustainability, which is a branch of biology until 1700s,
have always developed in relation to catastrophic human actions. Between 1550 and
1700, wood was the key material for heating, therefore forests had to be harvested
more than they can regenerate and caused a serious shortage in wood [1]. Following
this, sustainability was mentioned in a handbook of forestry in 1713 as “sustained yield”
that means never harvesting more than the forest can regenerate [2]. The link between
ecology and man-made disasters continued with Industrial Revolution by coal mining and
oil refining. Besides, it created the most disastrous problem, which we are currently facing
with the consequences, the climate change. Amazon rainforest wildfire in 2019 [3], is a
contemporary example of the damage of human being on ecosystem as the background
photo shows. There are two theories behind the fire that it is either caused by drought and
climate change or human action on purpose to create farmland [4].
Amazon Reinforest Wildfire in 2019 [3]

ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Solar Energy
Wind
Heat Pumps
Biomass
Generators
Case Study: Ecocapsule®
COMFORT MANAGEMENT
Heating
Ventilation
Cooling
Lighting
Case Study: MightyHouse
WATER MANAGEMENT
Drinking Water Management
Domestic Water Management
Sustainable Devices
Case Study: 6x6 Demountable House
FOOD MANAGEMENT
Production
Process
Storage
Case Study: Greenhouse dwellings
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Organic Waste
Inorganic Waste
Case Study: Street Farmhouse
177

ECOLOGY
ENERGY MANAGEMENT
70s OIL CRISIS
In 1973, an oil embargo has been imposed to the
countries that are supporting Israel in the 4th Arab-Israeli
war, including the United State and the Netherlands,
and oil-producing Arab countries cut the export of oil
by 5% in September 1973, and threaten to continue
cutting by 5% every subsequent month; however, it had
broken out after 1 month [7].
Image 1: Fuel shortage scene from 70s [8]
5 mm
Figure 1: The Carbon Brief Profile: Turkey [5]
Coal mining has started to become the main source of heating
in Great Britain, which was afterwards linked to the Industrial
Revolution in 1760s [1]. In the 19th century, new resources
and materials has emerged in daily life. Oil was one of the
most important resources, which has affected various sectors
from energy production to construction industry. However,
during the world wide economic crisis Long Depression
between 1873 and 1896, energy consumption and related to
this the cost of fossil fuels have increased, which has resulted
in thermal power plants to look for alternatives to reduce heat
losses through buildings [6].
The time period between 1914 and 1945, has included two
world wars and a devastating economic crisis in between
called the Great Depression, and ended up with shortages in
resources, which has encouraged people to recycle goods
in Europe and the USA. In 1973 OPEC, which includes Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela at that time, decided
to decrease oil production by 5% and double the price per
barrel to the USA and some European countries that support
Israel on the 4th Palestine War. As a result, the price of a
barrel of oil in America has quadrupled and there has been
compulsory cuts in oil consumption, which has encouraged
people and governments in the introduction of alternative
energy measures [7].
Figure 2: Article from October 18, 1973 © The New York Times [9]
178

In the 21st century, population increase has started to
become another key aspects in terms of energy as it meant
that decreasing the energy consumption will be challenging
with increasing population. Moreover, it is predicted the
human population will rise to approximately 10 billion people
by the 2050s which is currently around 7,2 billion in 2014 [10].
Turkey has 1,0 % of the world’s population and it is estimated
that it will reach 9,3 % by 2050 [11].
Solar Energy
Solar energy is the most important renewable energy source
as the resource is the sunlight with its enormous power.
According to an interdisciplinary MIT study (The Future of
Solar Energy, 2015), it would be possible to produce all the
electricity the U.S. consume through a year by only covering
0.4% of the land area with the current PV technology.
However, the amount of solar energy generated in the U.S. is
less than 1% of total electricity generation [14].
Advantages
RESEARCH
Figure 3: Total primary energy supply by resources in 2011 [12]
Related to the population rise, rapid industrialization and urban
growth,the primary energy consumption increases. Based
on extensive research it has been estimated that 82% of the
worlds energy consumption is generated by fossil fuels in
2011[12], it may create demonstrative consequences in the
near future as it is claimed that fossil fuels have a limited time
before their exhaustion such as coal has 142 years remaining,
natural gas has 61 years, and petroleum has only 54 years
[11]. In relation to the rest of the world, Turkey is currently
ranked as the 18th country which has 1,0% of all primary
energy consumption in the world [13]. Therefore, it is a serious
issue for Turkey to be interested in energy efficiency as fossil
fuels which have a finite lifetime, constitute 52 % in Turkey’s
energy consumption in 2013 [12].
• It is a clean source of energy and there is no harmful gas
emission during the generation process [15].
• It is suitable to use solar energy for all regions of Turkey
except the Eastern Black Sea Region [15].
• Even though the mean annual global radiation decreases
from South to North of Turkey, it is still changes between
1400 to 1500 kWh per m 2 for Istanbul [16], which
represents an adequate level of solar energy.
Obstacles
• Cost is the most important limitation for solar energy
to compete with fossil fuels. There is an artificial cost
disadvantage as the fossil energy users does not pay any
penalty for the damage that is caused by emissions [14].
• Material constraint is another limitation for the solar panel
industry which depends on silicon-based materials.
However, this would be problematic only if the solar
technologies increase more than 50 times from 2013
levels [14].
• Variable power outcome is the final limitation that is
connected to the location, climate, season and time.
Therefore, it is dependent on battery technology.
TURKEY FUTURE
CLIMATE PROJECTIONS
The Mediterranean Region is identified as one of the
future climate change hotspot [17]. Turkey as a part of the
Mediterranean Region, is in the group of risky countries that
are estimated to have critical effects of climate change.
It has already started to affect temperature rise in Turkey
such as the average temperature of areas that are located
around the sea, having a slight increase between 1950-
2000; and Anatolia that is used to have fluctuations in
average temperature, has been warming up since 1993
and continues to do so [18]. Furthermore, the projections
demonstrate that the average temperature will increase
between 2.5 to 4 degrees Celsius; therefore, there will be
risk of serious drought in the south of the country, and the
level of precipitation in winter will decrease by about 20-
50% [19].
Figure 4: Future climate projections for Turkey between 2011 and 2099 [13].
179

ECOLOGY
Photovoltaic Panels
The first modern solar cells were used on a US satellite in
1958 [14]. Since then this technology relied on silicon-waferbased
approach; therefore, it is not possible for them to
make a significant contribution to global electricity generation
as a result of materials scaling considerations [14]. A typical
solar panel, which is usually 1m by 1.5m with a peak
power of 320W with the most efficient one, consists of a
glass sheet and laminated encapsulation layers for various
protection reasons, up to 96 number of individual solar cells,
a fluoropolymer back sheet and an aluminium frame for
mounting [14].
A photovoltaic panel (PV) system generates direct current
electricity (DC electricity) from radiation through the sun.
Afterwards, the inverter converts the direct electricity to
alternating current electricity (AC electricity), which is the type
of electricity home appliances need.
Solar Water Heating
Solar water heating is more practical and achievable than
space heating due to the timing of the demand as space
heating is usually required at night and in winter when there is
not sufficient sun light to generate adequate energy, whereas
hot water is used throughout the year at any time of the day
[21]. However, efficient sizing of the system gets important,
which should be calculated according to the summer potential
of the system, because if the system size defined from winter
solar heating capacity then the system will be oversized;
therefore, not economical.
The solar water heating panels should be located to the roof
with a 30 degrees of inclination and it should be orientated
to the east and west of south to get the maximum benefits
from solar radiation [21]. There two types of collectors, flat
plate collectors and evacuated tube collectors. They both
work with solar radiation to be trapped between glass sheets
and creating a greenhouse effect to warm the fluid, which
can then warm the hot water tank. However, evacuated tube
collectors are more efficient and also more expensive than flat
plat collectors as they are using a different technology for the
same process.
Batteries
Solar energy as well as wind energy are dependant on
batteries, as the electricity generation is not stable over a
time period, and it fluctuates between hours of the day or
time of the day due to solar radiation, weather situation or
wind speed. Therefore, batteries are commonly used in
combination with renewable energy systems; however, they
are usually the least efficient component of a solar energy
system as their lifetime is only up to 5 years [22].
Lead-acid batteries are more advantageous than nickelcadmium
batteries due to their wide availability in size and low
cost; therefore, they are used more often [22]. They also have
96.6% of recycling rate [22].
Figure 5: Percentages of materials that a silicone based solar panel consists [20].
SOLAR HOUSE
Starting from 1938, universities such as MIT has started
to focus on the construction of both active and passive
solar houses, which active solar house was placed with
flat-plate collectors to capture solar radiation and passive
solar house was without any mechanical hardware and only
has architecture, orientation and architectonic components
acting as heat collector and thermal storage [7].
Image 2: MIT Solar I [23].
180

SOLAR PANEL WASTE
RESEARCH
Figure 6: Estimated PV waste volumes [20].
Solar panels usage increases rapidly all over the world as the effects of climate change is getting more serious and
people are more conscious about generating energy from renewable sources and consuming it to the minimum.
Therefore, solar PV panels are the most common type of renewable energy technology that is used all over the world.
However, these panels have a life expectancy of approximately 30 years, and also the efficiency of the panels are
decreasing by 10% by every 10 years of usage [20]. For after use, they are defined as e-waste in the WEEE Directive and
the manufacturers are bound by law to meet the specific requirements so that they do not harm the environment [20].
Currently recycling efficiency is nearly 95% for silicone based PV panels; however, this should be higher in the future [20].
181

ECOLOGY
Wind
Wind is the second most important renewable energy source
after solar energy. After the 1970s energy crisis, generating
energy from wind power got seriously important, and by 2006
Denmark, Spain and Germany generated a significant amount
of electricity through wind power with 20%, 9% and 7% [24].
Even though, energy consumption is mainly based on fossil
fuels, according to International Energy Agency statistical data
[24], 2,4% and 6,5% of the electricity generation is provided by
solar energy and wind respectively in Turkey.
Wind turbine consists rotating propeller, which is rotated by
the wind, and the reason it needs to be rotated to a high
position to get into the high wind velocity area away from
ground obstacles [21]. It has benefits compared to solar energy
as there can be adequate wind to generate electricity any
time of the day or year. However, the most challenging issue
is the lack of consistency and continuity of airflow and related
to this the amount of electricity generated is not predictable
[21]. Therefore, when there is ongoing electricity generation, it
would require to be stored using batteries to be used later.
Advantages
• Clean, natural, renewable and endless source of energy.
• Possible to generate electricity any time of the year as
long as there is adequate wind.
• Suitable to use wind power for all regions of Turkey. [15]
Obstacles
• Requires considerate planning as it can cause damage to
migrating birds.
• Needs to be on a high position away from the ground
obstacles.
• Increase the noise levels as most of them are above the
ambient wind noise.
• Gives variable power outcome that is connected to the
location, climate, season and time.
ENERGY TOPIC IN GAMES
Oil crisis had affected every subject in daily life between
1973 and the mid 1980s, and alternative energy sources
were hot topic. As a result, game manufacturers turned
this to their advantage by selling three different types
of board games. First group of games treated oil as
a source of power and wealth, where the aim was to
get rich in Petropolis by owning the most oil wells such
as North Sea Oil [7]. In the second category, the story
has combined oil production with war, and focused on
exploring military manoeuvres to protect oil-producing
nations [7]. Last one like Energy Crisis Game focused
on different strategies in an oil crisis situation such as
planning the demand for oil and considering energy
saving methods in a game concept [7].
Image 3: North Sea Oil: The Oil Exploration Game, UK, 1974 [7]
Image 4: La Conquete du Petrole, Societe Fernand Nathan, France, 1973 [7] Image 5: Energy Crisis: Peppermill’s Energy Conservation Game, USA, 1977 [7]
182

RESEARCH
Image 7: Buckminster Fuller’s article on The New York Times, 17 Jan 1977 [25]
183

ECOLOGY
INTEGRAL URBAN HOUSE
Figure 8: Integral Urban House self-reliant domestic ecosystem diagram [26]
184

RESEARCH
Figure 9: Integral Urban House energy diagram [26]
The Integral Urban House was designed as a selfreliant
domestic ecosystem in an urban context. The
project, which was funded by non-profit organisation
Farallones Institute, has put into practice by retrofitting
a Victorian house in urban California [26].
The project has aimed to create a healthy natural
system and had 3 key concepts:
• Closed Loop and Negative Feedback Loop
systems of energy and resources
• Webs of alternate channels for energy and
resources, diversity of systems and species, and
built redundancies
• Multifunctional Components; permeable
boundaries between multiple systems; flexibility
and fail-safe system designs, labour-time-saving
strategies and structures [26].
The project needed constant maintenance from its
inhabitants to continue the ecosystem and it required
a new life style, which was extremely demanding for a
person who spends majority of their time in an office
building [26].
Image 6: Integral Urban House [26]
185

ECOLOGY
Heat Pumps
Heat pumps are an energy efficient solution for climates with
moderate heating and cooling needs, and they are a better
alternative to furnaces or air conditioners [27]. Their working
concept is similar to the refrigerator by electricity to transfer
heat from a cool space to a warm space and the reverse [27].
Therefore, they only transfer the heat between the ground,
air or water to the house, and they can reduce the energy
consumption for heating up to 60%, even though they don’t
generate energy [27]. There are three types of heat pump
depending on the heat transformation source; air source,
water source and geothermal.
The air-source heat pump, which transfers the heat between
the house and the outside air, has the most common usage.
There is also a ductless version that is called a mini-split heat
pump and it is suitable for homes to use it without ducts [27].
However, air source heat pumps efficiency is approximately
30% and it is the least efficient system type compared to
others.
Water source heat pumps achieve a better efficiency rate;
however, it requires to be nearby a water source, which is
quite specific requirement for an urban house.
Geothermal or ground source heat pumps are the most
efficient type by reducing the energy consumption about
approximately 60% and they are more reliable [27]. However,
they are quite expensive to install and they require either wide
area of clear land or usable deeper area as it can be applied
either vertically or horizontally.
Figure 10: Air source heat pump diagram [28]
Air source heat pump consists of a compressor and two copper coils one
inside and one outside, which are filled with liquid refrigerant and wrapped
with aluminium fins for better heat transfer [28]. The outside coils extracts
heat from the air and evaporates into a gas; afterwards indoor coils release
heat from the refrigerant as it condenses back into a liquid [29].
Advantages
• Provide running cost savings for off-grid sites with no
access to mains gas.
• Reduce fuel bills significantly, especially when it is
compared to a conventional electric heating.
• Lower carbon emissions, depending on which fuel it is
replacing with.
• Don’t require fuel deliveries.
• Provide both space heating and hot water for a dwelling.
• Requires very little maintenance.
Obstacles
• Takes longer to heat up to warm the hot water cylinder
as air source heat pumps tend to be much smaller than
traditional gas boilers in terms of heat output.
• Require the installation of an external box for air source
heat pumps, which can be obtrusive in terms of noise
and appearance.
• Consume energy during cold weather to defrost air
source heat pump, so may not be cost efficient during
extended cold periods.
• Require a significant area of external land to install the
ground loops for ground source heat pump.
• Take longer to heat the space and domestic hot water to
reach the set temperature in ground source heat pumps
as it tend to offer lower outputs.
Figure 11: Ground source heat pump diagram [30]
Ground source heat pump extracts heat from the ground to transfer this
into the house via a loop of pipe filled with fluid [30]. It consists of ground
loops that is a network of pipes buried underground; a heat pump at the
ground level with an evaporator, compressor and condenser; a mixture of
anti-freeze and water; and a water cylinder [30].
186

Biomass
Generators
Biomass is a word that means materials derived from plants
and animals [21]. Biomass boiler have developed after the
concerns about the sustainability, and minimised its carbon
footprint, which is negligible when compared to fossil fuels
and it also provides a solution for waste management and
storage [21]. There are various products that are using biomass
for energy generation such as timber, farming and packaging
waste, and these waste materials are used burned in the
biomass boiler after the process of turning them into pellets or
briquettes [21].
There are three types of generators, which are portable
generators for emergency use, inverter generators for
recreational use and home standby generators for whole
house backup [33]. All of these three types require either
natural gas, diesel or propane to generate electricity, and non
of these sources are renewable. Therefore, it is not an efficient
solution for energy generation. However, with improving
technology there are new methods of generating energy with
burning bio-oil generators or water generators, and those
systems are more sustainable than the typical generator.
RESEARCH
Bio-oil generators
Bio-oil generators are both good at generating energy from
clean sources that doesn’t harm the environment, and also
they makes the waste management easier [34].
Figure 12: Biomass system description diagram [31]
In domestic scale either wood pellets or wood chips boilers
are used for energy generation. Wood pellets, which is
manufactured from waste timber from sustainably-managed
forests, have a higher density and lower moisture content
than wood chips; therefore, they are more efficient in terms of
both energy and space savings, but less preferable as they
are more expensive [21]. The only difference of wood chips
than pellets is the method of processing that wood chips have
irregular sizes and shapes; therefore, they take more space for
storage, cheaper and they produce more ash [21].
Water generators
Figure 13: Bio-oil generator system diagram [34]
Microhydropower could be a very efficient way of generating
energy for a home, if there is a flowing water source nearby
the land that would need a turbine, pump, a generator,
regulator and wiring to deliver the electricity to unit [35].
Image 7: Wood pellets vs wood chips [32]
Figure 14: Microhydropower system diagram [35]
187

ECOLOGY
ECOCAPSULE
Ecocapsule® is a self-sustainable micro home, which can
generate its own energy. It has first designed for a competition
by Nice Architects in 2008, although the project wasn’t
awarded, it is selected as the most interesting picks by online
magazine Inhabitat. After this recognition, they got massive
amount of inquiries to develop the project further; however,
it took them 5 years to complete the prototype design with
suitable technology that can sustain long periods of time
without external resources [36].
Image 8: Ecocapsule internal photo by Michal Chudik [36]
Image 9: Ecocapsule internal photo by Michal Chudik [36]
Image 10: Ecocapsule external photo by Michal Chudik [36]
188

RESEARCH
Figure 15: Floor plan by Nice Architects [37]
Ecocapsule® is aimed to provide long term off-grid living with
minimum impact on the environment. It is 4.67m long, 2.20m
wide and 2.50m tall, which could be extended to 4.50m with
the wind turbine pole [36]. The capsule has a gross floor area
of 8.2m 2 and it weighs 1350kg when empty and 1650kg with
full water tanks. It has a compact shape with minimised heat
loss surface area so that thermal performance of the design
is almost on the level of a passive house with its steel frame
external wall structure filled with high quality polyurethane foam
insulation [36]. The capsule has a battery with 9 kWh capacity
to powered by wind turbine that provides approximately 750W
and solar panels covering the roof with 880W peak power. It
also has a central ventilation unit that provides heating, cooling
and air exchange, in addition to water filtering system either
from rainwater collection or via an external source such as a
lake, stream or camp water [36]. The capsule has a separating,
waterless toilet.
Image 11: Ecocapsule internal photo by Michal Chudik [36]
Figure 16: Energy scheme by Nice Architects [37]
189

ECOLOGY
COMFORT MANAGEMENT
Indoor environment has been an important subject since
the beginning of history as we are fragile like all mammals to
excessive heat and cold. Therefore, human beings have come
up with various strategies to avoid exposure to the extreme
weather conditions such as heat, cold, wind or rain. Comfort
has been defined as a state of physical ease and well-being
in a given environment [38]. Climate is the key driver while
assessing the necessary features for indoor comfort.
Turkey is located in a temperate climate where the main
shelter issue copes with the seasonal variations, and it
means that there is potential overheating problems in the
summer as well as over-cooling issues in winter [21]. Thus, a
shelter in Istanbul need to have a less compact form and an
optimum surface area, it can benefit from solar gains in winter
by providing wide openings with shading elements to avoid
overheating in summer.
Figure 17: Thermal comfort illustrations by Elisa Géhin for Saint-Gobain [38]
VITRUVIUS - TEN BOOKS ON ARCHITECTURE
Vitruvius explains in Ten Books on Architecture how to find South and
North by taking A as the centre, drawing a circle from the point B,
which is the location of shadow in the morning. Then in the afternoon
shadow draw point C, where the intersection of B and C will show the
North. He also mentions about how climate should shape the design
in Book 6, Chapter 1 as ‘‘If our designs for private houses are to be
correct, we must at the outset take note of the countries and climates
in which they are built. One style of house seems appropriate to built in
Egypt, another in Spain, a different kind in Pontus, one still different in
Rome and so on with lands and countries of other characteristics.’’ [39]
Figure 18: Wind direction and compass [39]
190

SICK BUILDING SYNDROME
Sick building syndrome is defined as “the situations in
which building occupants experience acute health and
comfort effects that appear to be linked to time spent in a
building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified”
[41]. There are serious health effect that can be caused by
SBS such as headache, dizziness, nausea, skin irritation,
dry cough, fatigue, allergies and asthma attacks [42].
However, it doesn’t include radon and asbestos cause
long-term diseases as these ones occur after a few years
of exposure, whereas sick building syndrome effects
occupants in shorter time periods [40].
RESEARCH
Figure 19: Best plants to fight pollution and decrease SBS [40]
Understanding responsible factors for SBS can make it
easier to find the solution. The reasons causing SBS are
chemical and biological contaminants, and inadequate
ventilation, which is especially got worse after 1970 oil
crisis as people focused on making their buildings more
energy efficient and air tight; however, they forgot about
providing sufficient ventilation rate for an indoor space [42].
Therefore, in addition to providing adequate ventilation
to prevent SBS, it is claimed that the introduction some
plants to a indoor space cleans the indoor air from harmful
substances, and act as a natural humidifiers; therefore,
creates more comfortable indoor conditions for inhabitants
[40].
Heating
Thermal comfort is defined by British Standard BS EN
ISO 7730 as ‘that condition of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment’ and it depends on 3
parameters, which are physiological that changes depending
on various factor such as gender and age, physical in relation
to surrounding environment and socio-psychological in
connection to the feelings [38]. Architecture is interested in the
physical environment, where the human body is interacted
with the surroundings via conduction, convection or radiation
of the heat.
Indoor thermal comfort would be optimised by wrapping the
building with adequate thermal insulation, providing an air tight
envelope, balancing solar gains between space heating and
summer overheating problem, proposing an efficient ventilation
system.
Insulation
Thermal insulation is the main material in the construction that
keeps heat within the home. Examples are mineral wool, rigid
board PIR or sheep’s wool insulation. The building regulations
require that all new buildings have a minimum level of thermal
insulation. Building elements could be insulated in three
possible ways, which are internally, externally and in between
the main structure. However, external insulation is the most
efficient way as it reduces thermal bridges, which is the
additional heat loss through a junction in the building where
the insulation thins, geometry means there is extra surface
area, or an uninsulated element passes through the insulation.
Air tightness
Losing heat through uncontrolled air movement to outside is
a waste of energy and a significant contributor to poor energy
efficiency. Therefore, achieving airtightness is very important
for the thermal performance of a building and it starts with
establishing an airtightness strategy during the design.
To achieve a good practice level of airtightness it is imperative
to have one single layer acting as the air-barrier that
completely wraps the heated volume. It is very important to
have an early ‘leak finding’ test at first fix, when the air barrier
materials and connections are exposed.
Services
Airtight layer
Structure
Insulation
Wind-proof layer
Skin
Space
Figure 20: Building systems diagram showing the location of insulation and airtight layer
191

ECOLOGY
Thermal mass
Thermal mass is the ability of a material to absorb heat [21].
In winter it absorbs heat from direct sunlight and releases
that energy slowly at night. In summer, it can cool the room
if it is shaded during the day. Effectiveness of the envelope
increases due to the area of thermal mass surface with
concrete, brick or stone. However, when interiors of even high
thermal mass surfaces are isolated with lightweight finishes, it
won’t be as effective as plain surfaces with high thermal mass
[43].
Trombe wall
Thermal storage wall is actually first tested by Edward
Sylvester Morse in the 1880s, afterwards the same principle
used with water and eutectic salts as a thermal mass in MIT
house in 1947 [7]. However, none of these trials became
successful to be effective in terms of storing thermal energy
as much as Felix Trombe’s 60cm thick concrete walls in 2
houses built in France [7]. Trombe’s collaborator architect
Jacques Michel, updated the design by adding vents to the
top of the glazed wall to provide air circulation [7].
In theory, the Trombe wall is 30-60cm thick concrete wall
that is orientated to the South to store maximum amount of
solar gains during the day [7]. There is a glass panel in front
of the concrete wall to create greenhouse effect so that the
air coming through vents could be heated and risen warm
air gets in to the room. This cycle would continue during the
day; however, the vents are required to be closed at night to
prevent the room from reverse convection [7].
Figure 21: Effect of distribution of thermal mass [43]
Passive Solar Design
Passive solar design is used for using the radiation from the
sun to warm the buildings when it is needed, also protect the
living areas for excess heat. It has five key elements, aperture
that is the area to collect the sun light, absorber that is the
surfaces of direct sunlight hits, thermal mass, distribution by
using the natural heat transfer modes -conduction, convection
and radiation- and finally control that are shading devices such
as louvres or overhangs [44].
Figure 23: Principles of the Trombe-Michel solar wall from section of Solar House [7]
Figure 22: Passive solar design [44]
Figure 24: Kelbaugh House Trombe wall with greenhouse [7]
Kelbaugh House is designed in 1974 with two Trombe walls on top of
each other for the first time with the same purpose of providing heating
in winter and cooling in summer [7].
192

EARTH-SHELTERED
The term “earth-sheltered” has commonly used after 1970s for any style of building that are either earth-covered and it
is entirely sunken to the ground or berming where only one or two external walls have direct connection with the earth
without whole being below the ground level [7].
RESEARCH
Figure 25: Earth-sheltered and recessed structures [7]
193

ECOLOGY
Ventilation
The key air pollutants are gaseous pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide,
ozone and radon. Most of them come from vehicle exhaust
emissions, and can be found in the internal environment of a
building. The level of local pollution cannot be directly affected
by the building design, other than through the selection of
the heating system and the incorporation of electric charging
points for cars. However, building design should take into
account the level of local air quality. It should also be noted
that National Air Quality objectives and the European Directive
set limit values of 40 and 25 ug/m3 for NO2 and PM2.5
respectively. As much as external air pollutants, indoor air
quality is important because people are spending 80% of
their time indoor and the majority of this time is in their homes.
Therefore, it is very important to consider air quality in order
to minimise problems in human health such as respiratory
issues. Beyond the impact of external air quality on indoor
air quality, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are the most
important organic chemicals to consider. These pollutants
are emitted by internal building elements such as paints,
adhesives, coatings and furniture. Therefore, a well designed
ventilation system is very important.
Figure 27: Supply and extract via single stack [43]
Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery
Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery helps to provide
filtered fresh air to all residents and to recover heat from the
air extracted from each unit. Its location, specifications and
insulation around intake and exhaust ductwork are critical.
Its benefits include:
• Continuous year-round ventilation
• Reduced condensation and mould risk, reducing
potential damage to building fabric
• Less noise from outside and from intermittent fans
• Good air quality with filtered air
Figure 26: Indoor air pollutants [45]
Natural ventilation
Ventilation is fundamental for a house as it exchanges air
between indoor and outdoor spaces; therefore, provides fresh
indoor air in most cases when the outdoor air is not pollutant
[43]. There are two types of situations required for natural
ventilation, which the first one is wind pressure and the other
is stack ventilation.
Cross ventilation is a wind pressure driven system, which
circulates air through the space via adequate opening sizes.
However, it doesn’t work as efficiently when there is not
enough breeze for the air movement.
Stack ventilation on the other hand works on a vertical system,
where air let into the room from a low point and warming air
rises and leaves the room from ventilation gap on the high
located vents, and it also is the traditional form of tropical
urban buildings [43].
Figure 28: MVHR system [46]
194

DYMAXION HOUSE
RESEARCH
Figure 29: Autonomous Dymaxion House (The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller) [47]
In 1920, Fuller designed an autonomous single family dwelling as the living machine of the future, which was has
included influential innovations especially in sustainability with its integrated mechanical ventilation system [47].
195

ECOLOGY
Cooling
Passive cooling is the least expensive means of cooling for a
home, it only needs strategical planning of passive measure
such as shading, ventilation openings and avoidance of
unnecessary artificial lighting. As Turkey, and especially
Istanbul requires both heating during winter and some sort of
cooling in summer for a comfortable indoor temperatures, it
is important to find the balance between these two weather
situations [48].
ACOUSTIC
ABSORPTION
Solar chimneys
Solar chimneys uses stack ventilation with a high designed
air passages, where the warming air rises up through the
passage and increase temperature difference between indoor
and outdoor air, which creates an air circulation [48].
Figure 30: Solar chimney diagram [48]
Earth coupling
Earth coupling provides the building from external temperature
extremes as ground temperature has lower temperatures
in summer when compared with the outdoor temperature
[48]. The effect of earth coupling could even be increased by
providing passive shading around it [48].
Figure 32: Noise transmission depending on window design [43]
Insulation materials, especially the woolly textures,
increase both the thermal performance and acoustic
comfort of a space. However, there are three conflicts
between passive design and acoustic comfort, which
are related to thermal mass, internal partitions and
ventilation openings [43]. Firstly, the use of heavyweight
materials to provide high thermal mass, increases the risk
of having a reverberant space by reducing the acoustic
absorption [43]. Second aspect is the internal partitions,
which could be weak in terms of acoustics; therefore,
it can create privacy problems. Lastly, the ventilation
openings such as trickle vents or even windows, can
cause problems if the outdoor space is noisy. Therefore,
it can affect natural ventilation negatively as the user will
shut the vents down. The figure 1 shows the influence
of window design on noise transmission that upper
window design lets the noise get in to the building
easily whereas the below one provides both acoustic
absorption and adequate ventilation [43].
Figure 31: Earth coupling diagram [48]
196

Lighting
Natural lighting is the free source of energy for lighting at
indoor spaces; however, glare and overheating especially
in summer months are the biggest concerns for maximising
daylight intake to a building. Therefore, it should be designed
careful to have an efficient balance in between all parameters.
There are various passive lighting design methods, such as
introducing shading elements or louvred vents to use this
sustainable energy more efficiently.
Anidolic ceilings
Anidolic ceiling has developed as an experimental method
after light shelf, and it has aimed to limit glare for occupants
that are directly in the path of light beam [49]. Various
measurements have been taken in the experimental module
that occupants turned on the artificial lighting seven times
lower than the reference module, which proved the increase
uniformity ratio [49]. It also showed that the system also
increased the daylight factor at the back of the room [49].
RESEARCH
Light shelf
Light shelf is a light coloured horizontal thin surface that is
positioned inside and/or outside a window, which should be
placed above eye level and prevent glare while not becoming
an obstacle for the view [21]. It usually doesn’t affect daylight
factor in the room; however, it helps to smooth the daylight
factor distribution along the depth of the room, which helps
occupants to perceive the room more lit [49].
Figure 35: Cross-section of anidolic reflector and light duct [49]
Figure 33: Light shelf drawing [21]
Light pipes
Light pipe system consists of a light collection aperture, which
redirects the light deep into the room as a passive lighting
method [21]. However, this system works the most efficient
way when it only passes a flat roof thickness; therefore, it
means that it doesn’t act more than a roof light window [49].
Image 12: Outside facade of a test module with an anidolic ceiling [49]
Artificial lighting
Artificial lighting should be designed very carefully especially
depending on the different tasks. In addition, it should also
be energy efficient such as LED lighting; however, the colour
of the light should be considered according to the time of the
day and type of activity in the designed room as the colour
and intensity of the light could harm human circadian rhythm.
Lighting control devices are also important in terms of energy
efficiency. There are technologies such as manual dimming,
photosensors, occupancy sensors and centralised controls
that could increase the energy savings rather than simple on/
off switch.
Figure 34: Light pipes drawing [21]
197

ECOLOGY
MIGHTY HOUSE
The Mighty House is a tiny Passivhaus project that is designed
by DimensionStyle. It has 23 m 2 of treated floor area with the
dimensions of approximately 2.5m by 24m as it is on wheels,
the dimension should be in suitable size for the roads and
highways [50]. By positioning in the right angle, the cabin could
reduce the energy consumption by 90% when compared to a
traditional house, and it could even get closer to achieve net
zero energy with the introduction of either a solar array or a
wind turbine [50].
Figure 36: Floor plan of Mighty House [50]
The wheeled cabin is constructed with using the least toxic
materials, which means no foams, no VOC paints, glues or
finishes [50]. Thanks to its super insulated envelope and
ductless heat recovery ventilation system, it doesn’t require any
heating or cooling system [50]. It also has a grey-water system
that is connected to the sinks and showers, and then diverting
it to the plants [50].
Architects claims that the cabin is extremely cost effective with
its minimum budget of $45,000, and without labour it is $120
per m 2 that could be a great solution for both affordable housing
projects and energy efficient buildings [50].
Figure 37: Roof and wall details of Mighty House [50]
Image 13: 3D image [50]
198

RESEARCH
Image 14: Photo before external finishes with weather proof layer [50]
Image 15:Floor construction and insulation [50]
Features of the house include:
• Annual heat demand of 4.07 kWh/m 2 yr
• Annual primary energy value of 119.87 kWh/m 2 yr
• Air tightness value of 0.6 air change per hour @50 Pa
• Super efficient building envelope (U-values of external
walls: 0.237 W/m 2 K, floor: 0.247 W/m 2 K, roof: 0.177 W/
m 2 K)
• Average window U-value of 1.136 W/m 2 K)
• Foam free construction (no EPS, XPS, Rigid Foam, Spray
Foam, etc.)
• Low formaldehyde plywood options (Columbia Forest
Products)
• No VOC paints, (American Paint Company)
• No VOC tapes (SIGA)
• Non-toxic adhesives (Eco-bond)
• Double wall mineral wool insulation assemblies (with
Roxul Comfort Board and Batt)
• High performance fiberglass windows from Alpen (525-S
Series)
• SIGA building wrap (interior and exterior)
• Ductless Highly efficient HRV (Lunos E2)
• LED lighting throughout
Image 16: Inside photo from the cabin during construction [50]
Image 17: Window detail on construction [50]
Image 18: Timber structure system [50] Image 19: Low VOC tapes for air tightness [50]
199

ECOLOGY
WATER MANAGEMENT
Drinking Water Management
Safe and readily available water is important for public health
It’s used for both drinking and food production. Contaminated
water are linked with many diseases. In 2017, 5.3 billion
people can reach safely managed drinking water services
that improved and liberated from contamination while there
are 2.2 billion people who does not have access to safely
managed services. [55]
Figure 38: Conventional Undersink Filter [56]
5 mm
“Conventional Under-sink Filter gets its water from the under-sink cold water
pipe at point A, then sends it via a flexible plastic tube to the water filter (B), It
leaves the water filter through a flexible plastic tube and is delivered to the user
through the filter’s own special faucet (C), mounted on top of the sink.
The system is under constant pressure so that when the user opens the filter’s
faucet at the sink water flows through the filter and out the faucet.
Only drinking water delivered via the special faucet is filtered” [56].
Image 20: Man-made waterfall by Olafur Eliasson [51]
For life on the planet, water is an essential resource. Only
three percent of the water resources on earth is fresh and
two-thirds of the freshwater is inside the caps and glaciers.
Remaining one percent, a fifth in remote are inaccessible
areas. [52]. At a worldwide level 70% of water is utilized for
agriculture about 25% for industry and just 6% for domestic
use. [53].
At Turkey 73% of water is used for agriculture about 11%
for industry and only 16% for domestic use. On the other
hand there is high amount of freshwater used by different
industries such as for agriculture. It was from 53% surface
water resources, 38% ground water resources were used.
For industrial usage %34.7 freshwater were used. Water
that discharged without any treatment gives serious hazard
Turkey’s main water resources. Researches shows in 2050
Turkey’s main watersheds will face with increasing water
amount %10 to %70 [54].
Activity of planning developing, distributing and managing the
optimum use of water sources called water management [53].
Figure 39: Simple Undersink Filter [56]
“Simple Under-sink Filters “In this arrangement the entire cold water supply
for the sink is diverted through the filter and filtered water is dispensed through
the regular cold water sink faucet. The hot water remains unfiltered. The simple
version without a separate ledge faucet is becoming more popular and more”
[56].
200

RESEARCH
Figure 40: Ceramic Water Filter [57]
Ceramic Water Filters are one of the cheap and effective ways of water
filtration. The ceramic material that small pore litres of water size filters to dirt flower
pot shaped filter holds than it’s collected in storage and via spigot embedded
storage, treated water can be used [57].
Figure 43: Conventional Sand Filter [60]
In Sand Filter sand and gravel layered according to their density and particle
size, It trap and strain water through the particles. Water flows 5-30 meters
per hour between the particles then it pass through and collected for next
treatment process [61].
Figure 41: The Hamster Ball-shaped Solar Ball [58]
The Hamster Ball-Shaped Solar ball was invented by graduate student
Jonathan Liow from Monash University. It uses sunlight to evaporate dirty water
then condense it on recipient walls and leaving the contaminants behind [58].
Figure 42: LifeStraw Products [59]
LifeStraw products were remove bacteria and parasites from contaminated
water that comes from streams lake etc… Creating a filter that has smaller pore
than bacteria and parasites size provides treated water. Water is able to pass but
contaminant stuck into the filter. Some LifeStraw products use a two-step filtration
process and reduce heavy metals like lead [59].
Figure 44: WaterSeer [62]
WaterSeer is a slight film sun based force module guarantees that it runs
throughout the day, and the over the ground wind turbine sends air into a build up
load. “The unit pulls moisture out of that air and uses the natural cooling of the
ground to bring the air to its condensation point.” The condensation drips down
into the underground reservoir, where it can be extracted through a hose and
pump to be used as needed or transferred to a larger water storage reservoir.
WaterSeer don’t need any infrastructure , filtration or chemical purification
process like other water systems. [62]
201

ECOLOGY
Domestic Drinking Water Management
According to TUIK 2016 data, for domestic usage, municipal
water consumption is approximately 217 litres. For member
states that the European Union, this rate is about 150 litres/
day. Percentages of amount of water that we use listed as;
26% of the water we use at home is used in toilets, 22%
in washing machines, 17% in showers, 16% in taps, 2% in
bathtubs and 3% in other areas; We lose 14% of leaks in
domestic installations [63].
The territory depends on the “foot-print” of the rooftop, which can be determined
by finding the region of the structure and including the zone of the rooftop shade.
The conveyance system is a word used for gutters and down spouts.
They are the networks of pipes for moving water from the roof to
storage tanks. Preferring both proper sizing and installation is important.
Storage Tank should keep stored collected water safe. The
tank should be located far from children and also animals.
Treatment of rainwater provides safe water to human use. The first one is
roof water quality, detecting potential contaminants in rainwater for the treatment
process. There are two steps of treatment on of them pre-storage treatment it
makes water clean before It reaches the tank. The second one is an after-storage
treatment which filters and disinfects the water for safe use [68].
Advantages
• Reduces flooding and erosion.
• Reduces water bills.
• Reduces demand on ground water.
Disadvantages
• Unpredictable rainfall.
• Initial high cost.
• Providing maintenance.
• Certain roof types may seep chemicals or animal droppings.
• Storage limits. [69]
Figure 45: Groundwater [64]
Groundwater is water that occurs below the surface of Earth, where it occupies
all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata. It is also called subsurface
water. For distinguishing it from surface water, which is found in large bodies like
the oceans or lakes or which flows overland in streams. An immense measure
of groundwater is dispersed all through the world, and countless groundwater
supplies are as yet underdeveloped or uninvestigated. Furthermore, groundwater
supplies are not seriously affected by short droughts and are available in many
areas that do not have dependable surface water supplies [65].
Figure 47: Roof Footprint [70]
Figure 48: Catchment Area Calculation [70]
Figure 46: Rainwater Harvesting System [66]
Rainwater harvesting is a collection of rainwater from the roof with
pipes to tank for storing in the tank for human usage. This method also
called the rainwater collection system, rainwater catchment system or
rainwater harvesting. [67] This system has range from simple barrels to
more elaborate structures with pumps and purification systems etc...
The catchment area is related with several features. First, as a roofing material
selection metal roof is recommended because they easily shed contaminants.
Second, the slope of the roof affects how quickly water will run off during a rain
event. A steep roof will shed run-off quickly and more easily clean the roof of
contamination. Third sizing a catchment area the size of the catchment area or
roof will determine how much rainwater you can harvest.
Image 21: Fog Collector Panel [71]
Fog Harvesting works with boards made of fine-mesh nylon nets are extended
between two support poles and put in a territory where the overall breezes blow
the mist through the nets. When fog passes from the nets, water that contains in
the fog were captured. The beads drop into a collection trough and after that are
put away in a tank or cistern. Captured water can be used in different areas such
as agricultural, domestic use, etc. For better turnout from Fog harvesting systems
locations that have frequent fog periods such as coastal areas are better. Small
fog collectors cost between $ 75 and $ 200 each to build. [72]
Advantages
• It’s easy to build.
• For collecting or transporting the water, no energy is needed.
• Maintenance and repair are minimal.
• The cost is relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages
• Community participation is needed for success.
• Distance of the collection sites from the community.
• Water may not meet drinking water quality.[72]
202

RESEARCH
Figure 49: Fog Collection [73]
WATER FLOW
Image 22: Warka Tower Arturo Vittori by [74]
Warka Tower is a lightweight, effectively developed, and infrastructureindependent
framework. The tower comprises of a bamboo outline supporting
a mesh polyester fabric inside. Rain, haze, and dew condenses against the
mesh and streams down a pipe into a store at the base of the structure. A
texture canopy shades the lower areas of the tower to prevent the collected[75].
THE NETHERLANDISH
PROVERBS
Image 23: The Netherlandish Proverbs by Pieter Brueghel [76]
“1559 Pieter Breughel the Elder, “The Netherlandish
Proverbs” The two backsides poking out of the latrine
over the bridge illustrate either the proverb “they both
crap out of the same hole (meaning to be in agreement)
or hangs like a privy over a ditch” meaning it is obvious).
To the left “to wipe one’s ass on a door” (meaning to
treat something lightly)” [76].
Figure 50: Diagram of Water Flow [77]
“Whether within a nation or space habitat, robustness
and redundancies in such meshes are key. The
habitats designed in Summer Study were intended to
be -like Asimov’s spomes largely closed with respect
to matter and open with respect to solar energy. These
closed systems relied on close attention to, and the
design of, their internal workings. As in Carson’s case
studies in Silent Spring, Water is not only crucial to
survival but also as a system of transportation for
waste in underground streams. Water used for waste
transport and other needs adds a factor of 25 to
the amount of water simply needed to sustain the
animals, plants and humans in Stanford Torus. Animal
waste, human waste, food processing waste, fish
pond waste, and the rest waste from all flushed, as
shown in a network diagram drawn for the Summer
Study report, to a node labeled “ Ware Processing.”
Since the habitat is open with respect to energy,
waste matter can be processed with energy-intensive
methods like wet oxidation. This is a system that has
been used on Earth since the 1950s to treat industrial
wastewater and sewage sludge.” [77].
203

ECOLOGY
Figure 51: Blackwater Treatment System [78]
Blackwater is water that mixed with waste from bathrooms and toilets that
contain fecal matter and urine. Blackwater requires several steps of treatment
and disinfection before reuse. For single dwelling, It can be used only outdoors,
mostly subsurface irrigation after treated and disinfected.
For blackwater usage you should:
• Minimise the use of cleaning chemicals.
• Household’s chemicals should be avoided to disposing down to
toilet.
• Use a sink strainer in the kitchen to help prevent food scraps [78].
Figure 53: Daily Water Consumption Rate [79]
According to the studies that have been conducted taking 120 litres of daily water
consumption per person, in a house with 4-5 people that uses the Greywater Recycling
System, annually up to 80.000 litres of clean water (mains water) can be saved.
Thus, annually 80.000 litres can be saved from the mains water and water costs can be
reduced to half [79].
Figure 52: Greywater Treatment System [78]
Greywater Recycling is water that comes from non-toilet plumbing fixtures
such as basins, showers, and taps. For indoor usage such as flushing and clothes
washing, greywater should properly be treated With appropriate precautions such
as using low or no sodium and phosphorus products and applying the water
below the surface greywater also be used in garden watering.
For greywater usage you should:
• Minimise the use of cleaning chemicals. Use natural cleaning products
where possible.
• Usage of chemical cleaners is important such as soaps shampoos and
detergents
• Use a lint filter.
• Not dispose of household chemicals down the sink. [78]
Image 24: Burning Man Everporation Pond Example [80]
Burning Man Evaporation Pond In Burning Man Festival It’s forbidden to leave
your greywater in the desert soil because It’s harmful to playa’s itself.” It’s some
sticks laid on the ground to hold up the edges of a black tarp. Used wash water
left behind these pools and It evaporate here then It left some sediments and
crusts behind. “That gets bundled up with the tarp and thrown away somewhere
away from the playa.” [80].
Advantages
• Saves cash.
• More conscientious water use.
• Reclamation of supplements.
• Reduced water use.
Disadvantages
• Dual plumbing is required to oblige reuse and source division. (greywater/
blackwater).
• Preventing wrong substances going down the channel.
• Well-being dangers, maintain a strategic distance from potential for
contact and additionally ingestion.
• Environmental risks.[78]
Image 25: Burning Man Evaporation Pond Example [81]
204

CLOSED SYSTEM HABITAT
Figure 54: Diagram of Energy Flow in a Closed
System [77]
Figure 55: Diagram of Water Flow in a Closed
System [77]
“On Earth, reference texts like
Brand’s Whole Earth Catalogue gave
Americans access to tools for building
their own experimental societies, and
experimental ecosystems, during the
1960s and 1970s. The Portola Institute
- a funder of the Catalog, and also
through its sister organization the Point
Foundation, a supporter of O’Neill’s
early work with Brand- was also
funding the Farallones Institute. The
institute complemented the theoretical
frameworks in Brand’s Whole Earth with
practical domestic demonstrations,
applying systems thinking to daily life.
Farallones and its founder, architect Sim
Van der Ryn, operated a rural centre
for research and teaching related to
autonomous off-the-grid living. It also
operated on urban “home-stand,” in
Berkeley, California, the subject of book
published in 1979 by the Sierra Club ,
The Integral Urban House.” [77].
RESEARCH
LIVING POD
Living pod designed by David Greene - one of the members of
Archigram- in 1966, that time human-kind had not yet landed on the
moon surface. On the other hand design of “Living Pod” suitable for
usage as both habitat and vehicle such as it complies with unidentified
environments with providing Earth’s atmosphere in a certain area. This
project leads the other experimental architecture projects in the 1960s.
“The house is designed as an appliance to be transported around with
the owner, the city becomes a machine people plug into,” wrote David
Greene.” [83].
Image 26: Multiple Organization of Living Pods [82] Image 27: Living Pod by Archigram [82]
205

ECOLOGY
Sustainable Devices
For preventing wasting water there are appliances that we
used in our daily life, these appliances offer both sustainable
and economical solutions.
FIRST “S” PIPE
Toilets
Figure 58: First “S Pipe” [76]
Image 28: Composting Toilet [84] Figure 56: Section of Composting Toilet [85]
Composting toilet is also called biological toilet or dry toilet. It has a “waterless
sewage treatment system that decomposes human excreta into an inert nitrogenrich
material similar to humus on the contrary of water use associated typical
toilets. With this system, traditional sewage systems can be redundant.”
If human waste was properly composted, there are no pathogens or viruses that
can be detected in the end product, it becomes nutrient-rich fertilizer so it can
be used on plants.
There is various type of composting toilets that have different complexity of the
design. It can be built from a simple bucket, some pieces of woof and a pile of
hay or more complex ones can be purchase [86].
In the storage/ composting chamber the wastes are reserved after the
dropping action. This is space where the poop falls awaiting the decomposition
process and also solid and liquid waste converting stable organic compounds
in this chamber.
Ventilation unit helps the making toilet predominantly aerobic so malodorous
gases can let go naturally. It designed for providing a healthy degradation process.
Allowing quick elimination of excess liquid in case of end up with mixing the
wastes leachate management mechanism was developed [87].
Advantages
• It’s an environmentally friendly.
• Compost toilets require less water usage.
• Plants in locations wherever soil change is permissible.
• Well suited to remote areas.
Disadvantages
• Poorly maintained systems can lead to odour, insects, and health hazards.
• Compost toilets usually require some type of power source. [88]
“The “S Pipe” was Patented by Alexander Cummings
in 1775. Valve closet has two defences against the
stink of the cesspit below: a releasable metal flap (the
valve) and a water seal created by the s trap curve into
the waste pipe, a revolution in plumbing that enables
the toilet -It’s odour reduced or even eliminated- to be
welcomed into architecture.” [76].
Figure 59: Dual Flush vs Low Flow Toilet [91]
There are two types of Low-Flow toilet; gravity and pressure-assistance. In
Gravity-driven toilets gravity carries the waste down and then the pipes. On the
other hand, Pressure-assisted toilets contain a pressure tank that Works like a big
water balloon. When water filled It held with pressure inside the toilet tank so the
flush valve opens pressure and gravity provide powerful flush [92].
Advantages
• It saves water.
• It helps to saving money.
Disadvantages
• Low flow toilets flush performance not good as much as regular toilet
because of less pressure and reduced volume of water that used while
flushing.
• It may not work with traditional plumbing systems.
• They are more expensive than regular toilet in case of maintaining and
installing. [93]
Fıgure 57: Eco-san Toilets [89]
The Eco-San latrine could be a closed system that does not require water, so
is an alternative to filter pit toilets in places where water is rare or where the water
table is high and the chance of groundwater defilement is expanded. The toilet is
based on the principle of recovery and reusing of supplements from excreta to
form a profitable asset for agriculture. [90].
Dual Flush Toilet contains two separate flushing volumes for disposing of
waste according to the type of excrement. There is half flush for liquid waste and
a full flush option for disposing of solid waste [94].
206

ESTABLISHMENT OF TOILET
1885 All porcelain one piece
bowl, wash down style built in S
trap
RESEARCH
1884 Thomas Crapper’s
valveless Water Waste
Preventer is the model for the
water saving elevated cistern,
with gravity-assisted flush.
1880’s The roll allready widely
in use in the US and England
before the model is patented by
S. Wheeler in 1891.
Figure 58: Water Waste Preventer [95]
Figure 1: [67]
1877 Sanitas toilet, raised on
plinth adjacent to sink, in wellappointed
bourgeois home,
illustrated by S. Stevens
Figure 59: Patent of Toilet Paper [96]
Figure 57: Establishment of Toilet [76]
1884 Standard connection
from the home to the municipal
sewage system . Drainage and
Sewerage of Dwellings. W.M.
Paul Gerhard
2014 Fast forward to the 21st
century components of the toilet
remain the same, except or
the lowered cistern. The most
generic -and normative- possible
toilet , from Wikipedia’s “toilet”
page.
“In the space of 20 years at the end of the 19th
century, all the ingredients of the fully-functioning,
hygienic toilet reach a satisfactory stage of
evolution, achieve wide public acceptance, and are
firmly embedded within architecture. The standard
components for managing excreta will not change
substantially for more than a century .The western
system - in which toilet is “wet” and the cleansing
is “dry” - will begin to spread around the world,
reversing cultures in which the toilet is dry (or uses
less water) and the cleansing is wet...” [76].
207

ECOLOGY
Image 29: Vacuum Toilet [97]
On the contrary of the typical toilet’s passive siphon system, vacuum toilet use
an active vacuum. After flushing, valve that opened in the sewer line vacuum to
stance out of the bowl and into a tank. Vacuum toilets are flush toilets that use
suction for the removal of faces and urine resulting in a minimal requirement of
water (0.5 to 1.5 litres).” With the minimized amount of flush water, a vacuum toilet
saves cost according to a typical toilet while providing the same level of comfort.
Vacuum toilets can “adaptable with separate greywater and blackwater treatment
or aerobic digestion treatment for bio-gas production.” [98].
Image 30: Space Toilet [99]
A space toilet also called zero-gravity toilet can be used in a weightless
environment. With the use of airflow “the collection and retention of liquid and
solid waste” was provided. For preventing waste doesn’t float around flowing air
were used on the contrary of the typical toilet that uses water to flush. The waste
pull away from the astronaut’s body then flushes. For removing bacteria and
odour, the air is filtered. In case of drying all moisture, wastes are compressed
and kept in storage on the board. The solid waste preserve is plastic bags while
liquid waste sent into space and also liquid wastes can be recycled with special
treatment plants [100].
THE WATER CLOSET
Figure 61: Diagram of Tiger Toilet [101]
Tiger toilets provide the same experience for the user as using a septic tank
or a pour-flush latrine. Tiger worms also called Eisenia fetida are animals that
consume waste and using these worms in the drainage layer reduces the amount
of solid above %80 and effluent quality is higher than from a septic tank [102].
Figure 60: The Water Closet [76]
“The water closet “consists of a small chamber about a
meter in width and two meters in length, resembling in
it’s shape and size a smaller room in a modern house.
Outside the intel of the room is a flagstone sloped towards
a hole, which opens into a short drain beneath the floor
and down which water could be thrown for flushing
purposes, and also the household “slops” From the
groove seen in the wall there appears to have been a
wooden seat about 57 cm from the ground.” [76].
Figure 62: Diagram of Nano-Membrane Toilet [103]
Nano-membrane Toilet removes the water from human waste so leftovers
can be used as fuel or fertilizer this process named as a pervaporation where
“mixtures of liquids are separated by vaporization through a membrane.” [104].
208

GARDEROBE TOILET
RESEARCH
Figure 63: Diagram of Garderobe Toilet [105]
“After the garderobe waste can fall either cesspit. (a), be conveyed into a
moat,(b) breteche style garderobe, (C), or evaluated in multiple styles (D)
After the garderobe waste can fall either cesspit. (a), be conveyed into a
moat,(b) breteche style garderobe, (C), or evaluated in multiple styles (D)
After the garderobe waste can fall either cesspit. (a), be conveyed into a
moat,(b) breteche style garderobe, (C), or evaluated in multiple styles (D)” [76]
Image 31:Gardorobe Toilet [106]
“We want to reinv