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Jane Jacobs is Still Here: Jane Jacobs 100, her legacy and relevance in the 21st century

On the occasion of Jane Jacobs’ 100 anniversary, the chair of Spatial Planning and Strategy of the Delft University of Technology, together with the OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment and the Rotterdam Erasmus University College organised a two-day conference on Jane Jacob’s legacy at TU Delft on 24-25 May 2016. This event was complemented one year later by a ‘Jane Jacobs Year’ closing event. We wished to celebrate the life and accomplishments of one of the most important urban thinkers of our time, someone who has influenced generations of designers and planners and others concerned with the built environment: the great Jane Jacobs. Jacobs’ theories and ideas are seminal to many different academic fields: urban design, planning, architecture, sociology, human geography, environmental psychology, economic geography and many more. Her writings have been influential for more than five decades. This alone tells us of her importance for urban studies and for understanding the complex relationship between urban space and society.

On the occasion of Jane Jacobs’ 100 anniversary, the chair of Spatial Planning and Strategy of the Delft University of Technology, together with the OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment and the Rotterdam Erasmus University College organised a two-day conference on Jane Jacob’s legacy at TU Delft on 24-25 May 2016. This event was complemented one year later by a ‘Jane Jacobs Year’ closing event.
We wished to celebrate the life and accomplishments of one of the most important urban thinkers of our time, someone who has influenced generations of designers and planners and others concerned with the built environment: the great Jane Jacobs.
Jacobs’ theories and ideas are seminal to many different academic fields: urban design, planning, architecture, sociology, human geography, environmental psychology, economic geography and many more. Her writings have been influential for more than five decades. This alone tells us of her importance for urban studies and for understanding the complex relationship between urban space and society.

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JANE JACOBS<br />

IS STILL HERE<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>100</strong><br />

Her <strong>legacy</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>relevance</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>21st</strong> Century<br />

24 <strong>and</strong> 25 May 2016<br />

Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment<br />

TU Delft, The Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s<br />

edited by Roberto Rocco<br />

U<br />

URBANISM<br />

SPS


<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> still <strong>her</strong>e<br />

Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of <strong>the</strong> Conference <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>100</strong>: <strong>her</strong> <strong>legacy</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>relevance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>21st</strong> <strong>century</strong><br />

Conference organ<strong>is</strong>ed by<br />

Roberto Rocco (TU Delft)<br />

Brian Doucet (University of Waterloo) <strong>and</strong><br />

Andre Ouweh<strong>and</strong> (TU Delft)<br />

Editor: Roberto Rocco<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />

Department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m, Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment, TU Delft, <strong>the</strong><br />

Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s<br />

Address: Julianalaan 134, 2628BL, Delft, The Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s<br />

Responsible professor: Prof. V<strong>in</strong>cent Nad<strong>in</strong><br />

Responsible manager: Dr. Roberto Rocco<br />

Secretary: Kar<strong>in</strong> V<strong>is</strong>ser<br />

Graphic Design: Roberto Rocco <strong>and</strong> IJsbr<strong>and</strong> Heer<strong>in</strong>ga<br />

Photos: R.Rocco<br />

ISBN/EAN: 978-94-6186-900-5<br />

2


<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> still <strong>her</strong>e<br />

3


Table of Contents<br />

Introduction to <strong>the</strong> conference ....................................................................................................................7<br />

Track leaders ..................................................................................................................................................9<br />

Tracks description ........................................................................................................................................13<br />

Fem<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>t protest ..........................................................................................................................................22<br />

Foreword by Roberta Gratz...........................................................................................................................25<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>: An <strong>in</strong>tellectual trajectory, by V<strong>in</strong>icius M. Netto........................................................................32<br />

The Public Space (In)V<strong>is</strong>ible to <strong>the</strong> Eyes of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, by Andrei Mikhail Zaiatz Crestani <strong>and</strong><br />

Brenda Br<strong>and</strong>ão Pontes................................................................................................................................48<br />

Keynote speakers<br />

_Dirk Schubert: Cities, Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g, Ethics <strong>and</strong> Value Systems ..............................................................................57<br />

_Susanne Komossa: Lessons taught by J.J.; lessons learned by an architect ...............................................................69<br />

_Peter L. Laurence: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> was no “Sa<strong>in</strong>t,” “Great Man,” or “Ord<strong>in</strong>ary Mom” ....................................................77<br />

_Arnold Reijndorp: Each city d<strong>is</strong>trict was once a suburb, every great city a new town .............................................83<br />

L<strong>is</strong>t of all papers presented at <strong>the</strong> conference ........................................................................................91<br />

Track 1: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, ethics <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> just city<br />

_Critical Voices from <strong>the</strong> 1960s: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ep<strong>is</strong>temological Critiques to <strong>the</strong> Technocratic Plann<strong>in</strong>g Model, by<br />

Carol<strong>in</strong>a Pacchi.................................................................................................................................................................... 95<br />

_Social Inclusion <strong>and</strong> Space <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Contested City, by Chr<strong>is</strong>tiaan M. Karelse............................................................. 101<br />

Track 2: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Street Spaces. Streets as public places<br />

_Hussien Al-Mimar Street: The tale of a restricted street, by Bedour Hemeid...........................................................113<br />

_The (Un)Natural Proprietors of San Franc<strong>is</strong>co’s Alleyways, by Antje K. Ste<strong>in</strong>muller.............................................. 121<br />

_Monuments of Everyday Life: Reflections on <strong>the</strong> opponent ideas of Robert Moses <strong>and</strong>


<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> architectural open spaces of São Paulo, by Sarah Hartmann .........................................132<br />

_Reverse–Gentrification <strong>in</strong> NYC: Hous<strong>in</strong>g-Projects Re-habilitation after <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ Legacy, by Maria<br />

Isabel Pena de Urb<strong>in</strong>a.......................................................................................................................................... 139<br />

_Mémoire en route: Jerusalem’s Route No. 1, a study <strong>in</strong> motion, by Maier Yagod .......................................147<br />

Track 3: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamics of neighborhoods<br />

_The erosion of a transport node <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> territory: The case of Itaquera subway station <strong>in</strong> São Paulo. by<br />

Yara Cr<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>a Labronici Baiardi ........................................................................................................................... 157<br />

_Mapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Neighbourhood: Problems, Suggestions & Approaches to Urban Futures, by Chatz<strong>in</strong>akos<br />

George ....................................................................................................................................................................166<br />

_Explor<strong>in</strong>g resident-empowered meet<strong>in</strong>g places <strong>in</strong> Dutch neighbourhoods, by Fred S<strong>and</strong>ers................ 174<br />

Track 4: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> reshap<strong>in</strong>g of old urban fabrics <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cities<br />

_T<strong>her</strong>e were no full papers submitted for track 4<br />

Track 5: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity<br />

_Self-organization gone wrong? Study of residential mobility trends <strong>in</strong> Tehran metropolitan region, by<br />

Atefeh Soleimani Roudi ........................................................................................................................................184<br />

_Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a world of (self)organiz<strong>in</strong>g complexity: Different types of action conditions from a<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>ian perspective, by Stefano Cozzol<strong>in</strong>o ....................................................................................................192<br />

_Diagnos<strong>in</strong>g a City’s Social Diversity: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> The Wire’s Baltimore, by Dr. R. van Es <strong>and</strong> J.S. van<br />

Rossum ..................................................................................................................................................................200<br />

_Is new work really built from old work? And if so, what does th<strong>is</strong> mean for <strong>the</strong> spatial<br />

organ<strong>is</strong>ation of economic activities <strong>in</strong> cities?, by Francesca Froy ................................................................208<br />

_Assessment of <strong>the</strong> consolidated t<strong>is</strong>sue; Look<strong>in</strong>g for new ways to prevent <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>appearance of urban<br />

complexity <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a compact city model, by Araceli García Parra ....................................................216<br />

_Investigation of complexity <strong>the</strong>ory of <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong> Iranian-Islamic traditional cities, by Nasibeh Charbgoo<br />

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........................222<br />

_Spontaneity <strong>in</strong> space: An Exploration of Socio-Spatial Patterns <strong>in</strong> Cities, by Duygu Cihanger .............................................232<br />

Track 6: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>in</strong> public space<br />

_Women <strong>in</strong> Egypt: The myth of a safe public space, by Bedour Hemeid ....................................................................................242<br />

_From gang turf to playground: How public space <strong>in</strong> Medell<strong>in</strong>’s most violent neighborhood was reconquered, by<br />

Letty Reimer<strong>in</strong>k ..................................................................................................................................................................................252<br />

_The material<strong>is</strong>ation of <strong>Jane</strong> Jacob’s view “eyes on streets: Quantitative tools to measure adjacency, permeability<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-v<strong>is</strong>ibility between build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> streets, by Akkelies van Nes <strong>and</strong> Manuel J. J. López ............................................. 257<br />

_Public space <strong>and</strong> perception of terror, by Numan Kil<strong>in</strong>ç <strong>and</strong> Muhammed Fatih Çet<strong>in</strong>taş ......................................................266<br />

_Public space <strong>and</strong> safety: The conditions for city diversity as tool for crime prevention, by Rafael da Silva Ver<strong>is</strong>simo... 271


Introduction<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>100</strong><br />

A celebration of <strong>the</strong> life <strong>and</strong> <strong>legacy</strong> of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

a look forward<br />

On <strong>the</strong> occasion of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ <strong>100</strong> anniversary, <strong>the</strong> chair of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Strategy of <strong>the</strong><br />

Delft University of Technology, toget<strong>her</strong> with <strong>the</strong> OTB Research Institute for <strong>the</strong> Built Environment<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rotterdam Erasmus University College organ<strong>is</strong>ed a two-day conference on <strong>Jane</strong> Jacob’s <strong>legacy</strong><br />

at TU Delft on 24-25 May 2016. Th<strong>is</strong> event was complemented one year later by a ‘<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> Year’<br />

clos<strong>in</strong>g event.<br />

We w<strong>is</strong>hed to celebrate <strong>the</strong> life <strong>and</strong> accompl<strong>is</strong>hments of one of <strong>the</strong> most important urban th<strong>in</strong>kers of<br />

our time, someone who has <strong>in</strong>fluenced generations of designers <strong>and</strong> planners <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong>s concerned with<br />

<strong>the</strong> built environment: <strong>the</strong> great <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’ <strong>the</strong>ories <strong>and</strong> ideas are sem<strong>in</strong>al to many different academic fields: urban design, plann<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

architecture, sociology, human geography, environmental psychology, economic geography <strong>and</strong> many<br />

more. Her writ<strong>in</strong>gs have been <strong>in</strong>fluential for more than five decades. Th<strong>is</strong> alone tells us of <strong>her</strong> importance<br />

for urban studies <strong>and</strong> for underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> complex relationship between urban space <strong>and</strong> society.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> reflected, among ot<strong>her</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> immense popularity of <strong>Jane</strong>’s ideas among young planners<br />

<strong>and</strong> designers. A simple Google search of <strong>the</strong> term “urban planner” yields <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g results:<br />

A l<strong>in</strong>e-up of male planners <strong>is</strong> headed by a woman, <strong>the</strong> most relevant of <strong>the</strong>m all (at least accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

Google’s algorithms), <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>! Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> ironic, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> would hardly see <strong>her</strong>self as a planner.<br />

Maybe, like Roberta Gratz (who was a friend of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’), she was an ‘anti-planner’, someone with<br />

a keen eye for careful empirical observation, for whom cities ought to be understood from <strong>the</strong> careful<br />

exploration of how <strong>the</strong> built environment <strong>in</strong>fluences <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluenced by human life. <strong>Jacobs</strong> was an<br />

astute observer of <strong>the</strong> life of cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> processes that produce both cities <strong>and</strong> citizenship.<br />

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In <strong>the</strong>ir contributions, <strong>the</strong> authors of <strong>the</strong> texts <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> book demonstrate how <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong><br />

still relevant as a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> realms of politics, economics <strong>and</strong> design, <strong>and</strong> how she can also help us<br />

underst<strong>and</strong> how urban form yields mean<strong>in</strong>g. But <strong>the</strong>y also critic<strong>is</strong>e <strong>and</strong> review <strong>her</strong> ideas <strong>in</strong> light of <strong>the</strong><br />

experiences accumulated <strong>in</strong> more than 50 years s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>her</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> works were publ<strong>is</strong>hed, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> perspectives<br />

of places that have little similarity to New York or Toronto. Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> relevant, because <strong>in</strong>deed <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’<br />

ideas are be<strong>in</strong>g reviewed re<strong>in</strong>terpreted <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>vented, <strong>and</strong> occasionally refuted, <strong>in</strong> contexts as diverse as<br />

Cairo, São Paulo or Add<strong>is</strong> Ababa. And it’s high time th<strong>is</strong> happens.<br />

The conference aimed to explore those new <strong>in</strong>sights on <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ <strong>legacy</strong> <strong>and</strong> to take <strong>her</strong> ideas forward<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context of global<strong>is</strong>ation, <strong>in</strong>ternational<strong>is</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> accelerated urban<strong>is</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> places like Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />

India <strong>and</strong> Brazil. The <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>and</strong> scale of current urbanization <strong>is</strong> unprecedented <strong>and</strong> new challenges<br />

have emerged s<strong>in</strong>ce she publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>her</strong> texts. How are <strong>the</strong> ideas of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> still relevant for <strong>the</strong><br />

underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terplay between urban space <strong>and</strong> society? Or do we need new <strong>the</strong>ories? To what<br />

extent have <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ ideas <strong>in</strong>spired today’s urban leaders <strong>and</strong> th<strong>in</strong>kers? How are <strong>the</strong>y tackl<strong>in</strong>g urban<br />

<strong>is</strong>sues such as grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>equality, spatial fragmentation, street life, safety <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> public space <strong>and</strong><br />

environmental decl<strong>in</strong>e?<br />

We d<strong>is</strong>cussed <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ ideas critically <strong>and</strong> to take stock of how those ideas have been used, m<strong>is</strong>used <strong>and</strong><br />

hopefully updated. We <strong>in</strong>vited abstract subm<strong>is</strong>sions for six different tracks, explor<strong>in</strong>g essential aspects<br />

of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ ideas:<br />

Track 1: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, ethics, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> just city<br />

Track 2: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Street Spaces – Streets as public places<br />

Track 3: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamics of neighbourhoods<br />

Track 4: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reshap<strong>in</strong>g old urban fabrics <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cities<br />

Track 5: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity<br />

Track 6: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>in</strong> public space<br />

The conference was organ<strong>is</strong>ed by Roberto Rocco (TU Delft Urban<strong>is</strong>m), Brian Doucet (University<br />

of Waterloo, Canada, <strong>the</strong>n Erasmus University College <strong>in</strong> Rotterdam) <strong>and</strong> Andre Ouweh<strong>and</strong> (TU Delft<br />

OTB)<br />

For more <strong>in</strong>formation, please v<strong>is</strong>it <strong>the</strong> website https://janejacobs<strong>100</strong>.co<br />

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Track leaders<br />

Track 1: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, ethics, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> just city<br />

Dr. Claudia Basta <strong>is</strong> senior Ass<strong>is</strong>tant Professor at Wagen<strong>in</strong>gen University.<br />

spatial plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Claudia Basta <strong>is</strong> co-chair of <strong>the</strong> Thematic Group ‘Ethics, Values <strong>and</strong> Plann<strong>in</strong>g’<br />

of <strong>the</strong> European Association of Schools of Plann<strong>in</strong>g (AESOP) <strong>and</strong><br />

member of <strong>the</strong> Human Development <strong>and</strong> Capabilities Association (HDCA)<br />

of Nobel Prize laureate Amartya Sen. Her ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests gravitate around<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>mes of social (<strong>in</strong>)equality, social justice,<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> relation between urban spaces <strong>and</strong> human capabilities. She <strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Editor of Ethics, Design <strong>and</strong> Plann<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> Built Environment (with<br />

Moroni S., 2013, Spr<strong>in</strong>ger) <strong>and</strong> of numerous contributions on <strong>the</strong> ethics of<br />

Dr. Thomas Hartmann <strong>is</strong> Ass<strong>is</strong>tant Professor at Utrecht University.<br />

Dr. Thomas Hartmann <strong>is</strong> ass<strong>is</strong>tant professor at <strong>the</strong> Dept. Human Geography<br />

<strong>and</strong> Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g of Utrecht University. One of h<strong>is</strong> focal areas <strong>is</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory, with a special<strong>is</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> aspects of justice <strong>and</strong> ethics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city.<br />

Thomas Hartmann <strong>is</strong> also affiliated with <strong>the</strong> Czech Jan Evangel<strong>is</strong>ta Purkyne<br />

University (UJEP) <strong>in</strong> Usti nad Labem, <strong>and</strong> he was <strong>in</strong> 2015/2016 guest professor<br />

at <strong>the</strong> University of Vienna, Department of Geography <strong>and</strong> Regional<br />

Research, w<strong>her</strong>e he taught on “Justice <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> City”.<br />

Dr. Roberto Rocco <strong>is</strong> Senior Ass<strong>is</strong>tant Professor at <strong>the</strong> Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built<br />

Environment, TU Delft.<br />

Roberto Rocco <strong>is</strong> an Ass<strong>is</strong>tant Professor at <strong>the</strong> Section of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> Strategy of <strong>the</strong> Faculty of Architecture of <strong>the</strong> Delft University of Technology,<br />

<strong>the</strong> Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s. H<strong>is</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> fields of research are governance, social<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>and</strong> spatial justice <strong>in</strong> urban development. Us<strong>in</strong>g those concepts<br />

as frameworks, he has conducted research <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal urbanization processes<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g world <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> regional plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> design. Rocco <strong>is</strong><br />

currently edit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> “Routledge H<strong>and</strong>book on Informal Urban<strong>is</strong>ation”, <strong>in</strong><br />

which more than 30 cases around <strong>the</strong> world are analyzed by different authors,<br />

seek<strong>in</strong>g to underst<strong>and</strong> how <strong>in</strong>formal urbanization <strong>in</strong>fluences access to citizenship <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> right to <strong>the</strong> city. He holds a Master <strong>in</strong> Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> University of São Paulo <strong>and</strong> a<br />

Doctorate <strong>in</strong> regional plann<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> TU Delft. More <strong>in</strong>formation at http://robertorocco.com<br />

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Track 2: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Street Spaces – Streets as public places<br />

Dr. Agust<strong>in</strong>a Martire <strong>is</strong> lecturer <strong>in</strong> Architecture at Queen’s University Belfast (QUB).<br />

Agust<strong>in</strong>a has studied architecture at <strong>the</strong> Universidad de Buenos Aires. She <strong>is</strong><br />

special<strong>is</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> urban h<strong>is</strong>tory <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory. She received <strong>her</strong> PhD at TU Delft on<br />

<strong>the</strong> h<strong>is</strong>tory of Urban Le<strong>is</strong>ure Waterfronts <strong>and</strong> has worked as a post-doctoral researc<strong>her</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> UCD Dubl<strong>in</strong>. She <strong>is</strong> currently lead<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>ternational project on <strong>the</strong><br />

analys<strong>is</strong> of streets as public spaces, from a multid<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>ary perspective, which<br />

sheds light on <strong>the</strong> way urban spaces are used <strong>and</strong> represented. She runs a design<br />

studio unit <strong>in</strong> MArch focused on street analys<strong>is</strong> <strong>and</strong> run <strong>the</strong> fifth year humanities<br />

d<strong>is</strong>sertation <strong>and</strong> third year h<strong>is</strong>tory <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory module.<br />

Track 3: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamics of neighbourhoods<br />

André Ouweh<strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> senior researc<strong>her</strong> at OTB – Research for <strong>the</strong> built environment,<br />

Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment at Delft University<br />

of Technology, <strong>the</strong> Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />

H<strong>is</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> fields of <strong>in</strong>terest are neighborhood change <strong>and</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g. He has conducted<br />

research on <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terface of social <strong>and</strong> physical processes <strong>in</strong> neighborhoods,<br />

br<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> lifestyle profil<strong>in</strong>g, urban renewal policies, hous<strong>in</strong>g governance <strong>and</strong><br />

hous<strong>in</strong>g allocation. He was editor of two books on research <strong>in</strong> urban renewal <strong>and</strong><br />

publ<strong>is</strong>hed a book about Dutch hous<strong>in</strong>g associations.<br />

He <strong>is</strong> presently also complet<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>is</strong> PhD at TU Delft. Formerly he was manager of hous<strong>in</strong>g policy for <strong>the</strong><br />

city of Rotterdam (1990-1998) <strong>and</strong> worked before that time as an adv<strong>is</strong>er for neighbourhood organ<strong>is</strong>ations<br />

<strong>and</strong> tenants associations, as well <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city of Rotterdam as on <strong>the</strong> national level.<br />

Brian Doucet was a Senior Lecturer <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Department of Social <strong>and</strong> Behavioural Sciences at Erasmus<br />

University College <strong>in</strong> Rotterdam, <strong>the</strong> Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s at <strong>the</strong> time of organization<br />

of <strong>the</strong> conference <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> now Associate Professor, Canada Research<br />

Chair <strong>in</strong> Cities at <strong>the</strong> University of Waterloo, ON, Canada.<br />

Orig<strong>in</strong>ally from Toronto, Doucet lived <strong>in</strong> Holl<strong>and</strong> from 2004 to 2017. H<strong>is</strong> work<br />

critically exam<strong>in</strong>es today’s urban rena<strong>is</strong>sance <strong>and</strong> questions <strong>the</strong> celebration of<br />

<strong>the</strong> contemporary cities by ask<strong>in</strong>g: who profits from th<strong>is</strong> remak<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> city? He<br />

has written extensively on gentrification, waterfront regeneration <strong>and</strong> urban redevelopment.<br />

H<strong>is</strong> approach <strong>is</strong> to focus on engaged research, relevant to academic, political <strong>and</strong> societal debates.<br />

More <strong>in</strong>formation at www.bri<strong>and</strong>oucet.com.<br />

10


Track 4: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reshap<strong>in</strong>g old urban fabrics <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cities<br />

Dr. Lei Qu <strong>is</strong> an Ass<strong>is</strong>tant Professor at <strong>the</strong> Section of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Strategy of <strong>the</strong><br />

Department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m, Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment, TU Delft.<br />

Dr. Lei Qu <strong>is</strong> a full-time Ass<strong>is</strong>tant Professor at Delft University of Technology.<br />

She works at <strong>the</strong> Chair of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Strategy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m, Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment.<br />

She studied Architectural Design at Ts<strong>in</strong>ghua University <strong>in</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a from 1994 to 1999 for <strong>her</strong> Bachelor’s degree, <strong>and</strong> obta<strong>in</strong>ed Master’s<br />

<strong>and</strong> Doctoral degrees <strong>in</strong> Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Design at <strong>the</strong> same<br />

University <strong>in</strong> 2004. Her research <strong>in</strong>terests vary from Hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Liveability<br />

to Urban Transformation <strong>and</strong> Strategic Development Strategies,<br />

with special <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> comparative studies between European <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cities.<br />

Track 5: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity<br />

Dr. Stephen Read <strong>is</strong> Associate Professor at <strong>the</strong> Section of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> Strategy of <strong>the</strong> Department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m, Faculty of Architecture<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment, TU Delft.<br />

Stephen’s special<strong>is</strong>ms are Urban spatial form, movement <strong>and</strong> process, social-spatial<br />

form <strong>and</strong> transformation, urban spatial evolution, urban spatial<br />

model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> design. Interests: Process philosophy, philosophy of physics,<br />

complexity science, biological morphogenes<strong>is</strong>, network <strong>the</strong>ory, perception/<br />

cognition, anthropological place, dynamical systems, urban ecology, space <strong>and</strong> time geography.<br />

Xiaofan Deng <strong>is</strong> an urban planner <strong>and</strong> architect active <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> a<br />

PhD c<strong>and</strong>idate at <strong>the</strong> department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m at TU Delft.<br />

She <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> project director of urban design firm ROAM <strong>in</strong> Rotterdam, <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong><br />

also an external PHD c<strong>and</strong>idate at <strong>the</strong> department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m at TU Delft.<br />

She received an architecture degree <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g Jiaotong University <strong>and</strong> later<br />

went to <strong>the</strong> Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s to pursue <strong>her</strong> master degree <strong>in</strong> Urban<strong>is</strong>m at TU<br />

Delft. Before jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ROAM, she worked as urban planner <strong>in</strong> KCAP Architects<br />

<strong>and</strong> Planners on various scales of urban projects across <strong>the</strong> world.<br />

Xiaofan comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>her</strong> practical experience with academic <strong>in</strong>terests for <strong>her</strong><br />

PhD study. Her research focuses on <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>and</strong> tools for urban<br />

regeneration, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir impacts on city’s development at various scales, especially at <strong>the</strong><br />

local scale.<br />

11


Track 6: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>in</strong> public space<br />

Muhammed Ziya Paköz <strong>is</strong> a researc<strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> department of urban <strong>and</strong> regional plann<strong>in</strong>g at<br />

Abdullah Gül University, Turkey.<br />

Turkey.<br />

H<strong>is</strong> research <strong>in</strong>terests focus on accessibility, location, local <strong>and</strong> regional<br />

development, urban transport, mobility <strong>and</strong> acculturation. He received<br />

h<strong>is</strong> PhD degree <strong>in</strong> urban <strong>and</strong> regional plann<strong>in</strong>g from Istanbul Technical<br />

University. He worked as an urban planner at <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>try of Public<br />

Works <strong>and</strong> Settlement (2007-2009), as a research ass<strong>is</strong>tant at Erciyes<br />

University (2009-2011) <strong>and</strong> Istanbul Technical University (2011-2015).<br />

He <strong>is</strong> currently work<strong>in</strong>g on local development plans of different cities <strong>in</strong><br />

Ahmet Gün <strong>is</strong> a research ass<strong>is</strong>tant at Department of Architecture of <strong>the</strong> Faculty of Architecture<br />

at <strong>the</strong> Istanbul Technical University.<br />

Gün <strong>is</strong> also Phd Student at Architectural Design Department. He defended<br />

my MSc <strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2014 on benefitt<strong>in</strong>g of unused <strong>in</strong>dustrial plants.<br />

My current research <strong>in</strong>terest vary from architectural <strong>the</strong>ory, participation<br />

<strong>in</strong> architectural design, res<strong>is</strong>tance & architectural relations, space<br />

<strong>and</strong> safety, urban transformation<br />

Ahmet BAŞ <strong>is</strong> full-time research ass<strong>is</strong>tant at <strong>the</strong> Urban <strong>and</strong> Regional Plann<strong>in</strong>g Department<br />

of <strong>the</strong> Faculty of Architecture at <strong>the</strong> Istanbul Technical University.<br />

BAS defended h<strong>is</strong> MSc <strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2012, on <strong>the</strong> Turk<strong>is</strong>h RDAs performance,<br />

<strong>in</strong> ITU. H<strong>is</strong> current research <strong>in</strong>terests range from urban transportation,<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ory, transportation model<strong>in</strong>g systems, urban h<strong>is</strong>tory, urban<br />

centrality, <strong>and</strong> urban renovation. He teaches spatial modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> research<br />

methods. He <strong>is</strong> a PhD c<strong>and</strong>idate at <strong>the</strong> Istanbul Technical University,<br />

study<strong>in</strong>g high speed railway systems <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir effects on cities.<br />

12


TRACK 1: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, ethics, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> just city<br />

Tracks description<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>ers:<br />

Claudia Basta, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Wagen<strong>in</strong>gen University<br />

Thomas Hartmann, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University<br />

Roberto Rocco, Faculty of Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Built Environment, Delft University of<br />

Technology<br />

How does a ‘just’ city look like, <strong>and</strong> what would be <strong>the</strong> right way to plan it, when consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> many compet<strong>in</strong>g ideas on what justice <strong>is</strong>? <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> had very clear ideas<br />

regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ct<br />

questions: <strong>her</strong> profound<br />

belief was that what a rational-comprehensive<br />

approach<br />

to urban plann<strong>in</strong>g tends to<br />

env<strong>is</strong>ion as <strong>the</strong> ‘right’ plan,<br />

endangers <strong>the</strong> ability of <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>formal dynamics among social<br />

fabrics <strong>and</strong> urban spaces<br />

to generate <strong>the</strong> beauty, <strong>and</strong><br />

value, that planners ought to<br />

enhance <strong>and</strong> preserve.<br />

Ever s<strong>in</strong>ce, ideas of <strong>the</strong> just<br />

city have been promoted <strong>in</strong><br />

literature. However, a multiplicity<br />

of conceptions of<br />

justice cont<strong>in</strong>ues to <strong>in</strong>habit<br />

<strong>the</strong> city as much as <strong>the</strong> scholarly community that gravitates around it. An idea of ‘just<br />

city’ implies endors<strong>in</strong>g explicit evaluative criteria; for example, <strong>the</strong> equal accessibility to<br />

urban resources, or <strong>the</strong> equality of ‘human function<strong>in</strong>gs’ achievable <strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> through those<br />

resources (Basta, 2015). Cities, though, are wicked, polyrational (Davy 2008) <strong>and</strong> clumsy<br />

(Hartmann 2012) realities <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction between people <strong>and</strong> spaces generates<br />

sentiments, <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs, which escape <strong>the</strong> rational evaluation of <strong>the</strong> ‘justness’, or ‘goodness’,<br />

of spatial <strong>in</strong>terventions.<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> Jacob’s underly<strong>in</strong>g idea of <strong>the</strong> just city was of urban spaces ‘owned’, symbolically<br />

but also materially, by <strong>the</strong> people who contribute to co-create <strong>the</strong>m. Th<strong>is</strong> idea seems<br />

to co<strong>in</strong>cide with Lefebvre’s idea on <strong>the</strong> “right to <strong>the</strong> city”, that <strong>is</strong>, everybody’s right to<br />

‘appropriate’ urban space <strong>and</strong> to participate <strong>in</strong> its transformation (Purcell, 2002), but also<br />

with liberal views on cities as places w<strong>her</strong>e<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> private <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> public sp<strong>her</strong>es co-ex<strong>is</strong>t up<br />

13


to form an <strong>in</strong>div<strong>is</strong>ible unit (Moroni <strong>and</strong> Chiodelli, 2014).<br />

Despite <strong>the</strong>ir evident differences, what all <strong>the</strong>se ideas have <strong>in</strong> common <strong>is</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formed<br />

by underly<strong>in</strong>g, albeit d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ct, conceptions of justice <strong>and</strong> equality; for example, a libertarian,<br />

utilitarian, liberal or material<strong>is</strong>tic conception. How can <strong>the</strong>se ideas co-ex<strong>is</strong>t with<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s <strong>legacy</strong>? What has changed, or on <strong>the</strong> contrary rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>tact, after <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

sem<strong>in</strong>al reflection on cities, citizens, <strong>and</strong> justice?<br />

These questions are central not only for architecture <strong>and</strong> urban geography, but also for<br />

urban plann<strong>in</strong>g. In th<strong>is</strong> session, we <strong>in</strong>vite contributions that explore <strong>the</strong> tensions between<br />

different conceptions of <strong>the</strong> just city which may challenge, or revive furt<strong>her</strong>, Jacob’s <strong>in</strong>spirational<br />

<strong>legacy</strong>.<br />

References:<br />

Basta, C. (2015) From justice <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g toward plann<strong>in</strong>g for justice: A capability approach.<br />

Plann<strong>in</strong>g Theory. Onl<strong>in</strong>e first. DOI:10.1177/1473095215571399<br />

Davy, B. (2008). Plan it without a condom! Plann<strong>in</strong>g Theory, 7(3), 301–317.<br />

Hartmann, T. (2012). Wicked problems <strong>and</strong> clumsy solutions. Plann<strong>in</strong>g Theory, 11(3),<br />

242–256<br />

Moroni S. <strong>and</strong> Chiodelli F. (2014) Public spaces, private spaces, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> right to <strong>the</strong> city.<br />

International Journal of E-Plann<strong>in</strong>g Research 3(1) 51-65<br />

Purcell, M. (2002). “Excavat<strong>in</strong>g Lefebvre: The right to <strong>the</strong> city <strong>and</strong> its urban politics of<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>habitant.” GeoJournal 58: 99-108.<br />

14


TRACK 2: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Street Spaces – Streets as public places<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>er:<br />

Dr. Agust<strong>in</strong>a Martire, School of Plann<strong>in</strong>g, Architecture <strong>and</strong> Civil Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, Queen’s University<br />

Belfast, A.Martire@qub.ac.uk<br />

‘A sidewalk life ar<strong>is</strong>es only when<br />

<strong>the</strong> concrete, tangible facilities it<br />

requires are present. (…) If <strong>the</strong>y are<br />

absent, public sidewalk contacts are<br />

absent too.’ <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>Jane</strong>, The death<br />

<strong>and</strong> life of great American cities, The<br />

Modern Library, New York 1961,<br />

1993, P92<br />

Streets <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir sidewalks are<br />

framed by build<strong>in</strong>gs. These build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

provide <strong>the</strong> important thresholds between public <strong>and</strong> private spaces. They are <strong>the</strong> tangible<br />

facilities that allow streets to be vibrant public spaces. If build<strong>in</strong>gs fail to provide permeability, harmony<br />

<strong>and</strong> rhythm, <strong>the</strong> street as public space suffers. Streets are <strong>in</strong> essence public spaces <strong>and</strong> connect<br />

diverse areas of <strong>the</strong> city, weav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> urban fabric. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> 1960s motorways <strong>and</strong> large retail areas<br />

have replaced ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g streets, tear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> urban fabric <strong>and</strong> transform<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> qualities of <strong>the</strong> urban<br />

l<strong>and</strong>scape. <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ <strong>in</strong>fluence on urban plann<strong>in</strong>g worldwide must not be ignored. She defended<br />

urban streets as <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> spaces w<strong>her</strong>e social <strong>in</strong>teraction takes place. Academia has strongly defended<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’ position, while urban designers have been heavily <strong>in</strong>fluenced by <strong>her</strong> ideas. However, for some<br />

reason, many cities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world still util<strong>is</strong>e modern<strong>is</strong>t plann<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples such as zon<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> priority<br />

to <strong>the</strong> car, which <strong>Jacobs</strong> so much critic<strong>is</strong>ed. Frequently <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ ideas have been eit<strong>her</strong> ignored or<br />

m<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>terpreted. When it comes to streets, especially <strong>in</strong> redevelopment projects, <strong>the</strong> pedestrian<strong>is</strong>ation<br />

<strong>and</strong> commercial zon<strong>in</strong>g has broken <strong>the</strong> sidewalk life <strong>and</strong> rendered street spaces unrecogn<strong>is</strong>able. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

phenomenon has developed <strong>in</strong> different ways across <strong>the</strong> world.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> track will explore <strong>the</strong> role of <strong>the</strong> street <strong>in</strong> <strong>Jane</strong> Jacob’s d<strong>is</strong>course through <strong>the</strong> study of different<br />

cases of streets worldwide, try<strong>in</strong>g to underst<strong>and</strong> whet<strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence of <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> apparent, implied<br />

or expressed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> projects for regeneration or conservation of urban streets.<br />

15


TRACK 3: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamics of neighborhoods<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>ers:<br />

André Ouweh<strong>and</strong>, OTB Research for <strong>the</strong> Built Environment, Delft University of Technology,<br />

A.L.Ouweh<strong>and</strong>@tudelft.nl<br />

Brian Doucet, Department of Social <strong>and</strong> Behavioural Sciences at Erasmus University College<br />

<strong>in</strong> Rotterdam, brian.marc.doucet@gmail.com<br />

‘Death <strong>and</strong> life of great American cities’ <strong>is</strong> “an attack on current city plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> rebuild<strong>in</strong>g”<br />

(1961/1992, p. 3). <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> fervently critic<strong>is</strong>es Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City, <strong>the</strong><br />

City Beautiful movement <strong>and</strong> Le Corbusier’s Radiant City <strong>and</strong> construes <strong>her</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for<br />

great cities: a mix of functions, short build<strong>in</strong>g blocks, a mix of build<strong>in</strong>gs of different age<br />

<strong>and</strong> a high dwell<strong>in</strong>g densities, based on analys<strong>is</strong> of everyday life <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city <strong>and</strong> especially<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> streets. Those<br />

four conditions should<br />

enable vitality <strong>and</strong><br />

diversity, <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />

character<strong>is</strong>tics <strong>and</strong><br />

qualities of great<br />

cities as <strong>Jacobs</strong> sees it.<br />

She also <strong>in</strong>cludes a<br />

d<strong>is</strong>claimer: that she<br />

hopes that “no reader<br />

will try to transfer<br />

my observations <strong>in</strong>to<br />

guides as to what goes<br />

on <strong>in</strong> towns, or little<br />

cities, or <strong>in</strong> suburbs<br />

which still are suburban.”<br />

She acknowledges that perip<strong>her</strong>al neighbourhoods <strong>and</strong> suburbs will often later be engulfed<br />

<strong>in</strong> cities <strong>and</strong> wonders “whet<strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>y can adapt to function<strong>in</strong>g successfully as city d<strong>is</strong>tricts.”<br />

(ibid., p. 16). But <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> quest to criticize modern plann<strong>in</strong>g, she does not only pose<br />

<strong>the</strong> question about <strong>the</strong> function<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> suburbs, but also answers it <strong>and</strong> could not hide<br />

that she loa<strong>the</strong>d <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> so did a lot of <strong>her</strong> followers. She met a lot of ad<strong>her</strong>ence, but also<br />

critic<strong>is</strong>m, for <strong>in</strong>stance of Herbert Gans who questioned <strong>her</strong> preference for a rat<strong>her</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g<br />

class/bohemian way of life <strong>and</strong> not tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> account <strong>the</strong> preference of <strong>the</strong> middle class. He<br />

also questioned whet<strong>her</strong> v<strong>is</strong>ibility <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> only measure of vitality (Gans 1991/1962).<br />

16


Nowadays we see that (still) a lot of <strong>the</strong> suburbs that were desp<strong>is</strong>ed, are popular residential<br />

d<strong>is</strong>tricts, with more diversity than we obviously would presume. We also see that<br />

many neighbourhoods which ad<strong>her</strong>e to <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ pr<strong>in</strong>ciples are gentrified <strong>and</strong> some of <strong>the</strong><br />

most desirable (<strong>and</strong> expensive) parts of cities. While <strong>Jacobs</strong> was not an advocate of gentrification,<br />

<strong>her</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples have become so valued that <strong>in</strong> many cities, liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se neighbourhoods<br />

has become an elite privilege.<br />

In th<strong>is</strong> workshop we welcome papers that use <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ tools of look<strong>in</strong>g at everyday<br />

life to analyse <strong>the</strong> function<strong>in</strong>g of neighbourhoods, <strong>the</strong> way <strong>her</strong> ideas <strong>in</strong>fluence gentrification<br />

<strong>and</strong> neighbourhood change. In addition to traditional urban areas, we are also<br />

<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> (former) suburbs <strong>and</strong> papers that analyse <strong>the</strong> way neighbourhoods adapt to<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> society <strong>and</strong> are adaptive for different ways of life.<br />

References:<br />

GANS, H.J. (1991/1962) Urban Vitality <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Fallacy of Physical Determ<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>m. In H.J.<br />

Gans (1991) People, Plans, <strong>and</strong> Policies. New York: Columbia University Press. P.33-43.<br />

JACOBS, J. (1992/1961) The Death <strong>and</strong> LIfe of Great American Cities. New York: V<strong>in</strong>tage<br />

Books.<br />

17


TRACK 4: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> reshap<strong>in</strong>g of old urban fabrics <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cities<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>er:<br />

Dr. Lei Qu, Section of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Strategy, Department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m, Delft University<br />

of Technology, L.Qu@tudelft.nl<br />

After two decades of rapid urban development, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cities have now started to pay more attention<br />

to <strong>the</strong>ir ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g built-up areas, <strong>in</strong>stead of explor<strong>in</strong>g new territories <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Urban regeneration<br />

<strong>is</strong> play<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly crucial role <strong>in</strong> reshap<strong>in</strong>g spatial structures <strong>in</strong> city-regional levels <strong>and</strong><br />

urban form at <strong>the</strong> neighbourhood level. Such plann<strong>in</strong>g strategies imply a paradigm change regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />

urban development modes <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, from extensive<br />

urban expansion to adapt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g built<br />

environment, seek<strong>in</strong>g for more susta<strong>in</strong>able ways<br />

of development. However, driven by dem<strong>and</strong> on<br />

l<strong>and</strong> for large-scale re-development, especially <strong>in</strong><br />

central urban areas, Tabula Rasa approaches have<br />

been adopted <strong>in</strong> renewal of old urban fabrics, such<br />

as h<strong>is</strong>torical <strong>in</strong>ner city d<strong>is</strong>tricts <strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> socalled<br />

‘urban villages’. As a consequence, <strong>is</strong>sues<br />

related to gentrification <strong>and</strong> decrease of affordable<br />

hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> central urban areas emerged.<br />

As <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of<br />

cities- ‘organized complexity’- certa<strong>in</strong> spatial conditions can contribute to urban vitality, such as<br />

walkability, mixed functions, place identity, <strong>and</strong> room for self-organization. Old urban fabrics <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />

cities mentioned above generally possess such spatial conditions, which were created by people<br />

through time. As <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> stated <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> book ‘The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities‘,<br />

“Cities have <strong>the</strong> capability of provid<strong>in</strong>g someth<strong>in</strong>g for everybody, only because, <strong>and</strong> only when, <strong>the</strong>y<br />

are created by everybody” (p. 238).<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> track <strong>in</strong>tends to d<strong>is</strong>cuss alternative ways of urban regeneration that may lead to a more <strong>in</strong>clusive<br />

<strong>and</strong> vital future city life. These alternatives ma<strong>in</strong>ly refer to locally oriented <strong>and</strong> people centered<br />

<strong>in</strong>cremental development, improv<strong>in</strong>g spatial conditions <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g socio-economic networks<br />

simultaneously. The research question would be: How to <strong>in</strong>crementally reshape old urban fabrics <strong>in</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Cities with local stakeholders as key actors? Papers address<strong>in</strong>g such <strong>is</strong>sues from perspectives<br />

of urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, design, <strong>and</strong> governance are welcome.<br />

18


TRACK 5: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>er:<br />

Dr. Stephen Read, Section of Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Strategy, Department of Urban<strong>is</strong>m,<br />

Delft University of Technology, S.A.Read@tudelft.nl<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> known for <strong>her</strong> suggestive use of <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>n new idea of ‘organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity’. She proposed<br />

that cities were best understood as ‘problems of organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity’ which meant “deal<strong>in</strong>g<br />

simultaneously with a sizeable number of factors which are <strong>in</strong>terrelated <strong>in</strong>to an organic whole” (<strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

1961; 432). We most often th<strong>in</strong>k of complex systems as be<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>ed by nonl<strong>in</strong>earity, fractal<br />

orders <strong>and</strong> feedback loops. Her own rat<strong>her</strong> sketchy accounts of <strong>the</strong> concept emphas<strong>is</strong>e processes <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>ductive reason<strong>in</strong>g, work<strong>in</strong>g from particulars to <strong>the</strong> general <strong>and</strong> from <strong>the</strong> small to <strong>the</strong> big (<strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

1961: 440). She spoke of a “web way of th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g dynamic <strong>in</strong>terrelationships <strong>and</strong> sudden<br />

changes, <strong>and</strong> “self-diversification” as a “regenerative force” (<strong>Jacobs</strong> 1961: 290). But she also<br />

focussed cons<strong>is</strong>tently on <strong>the</strong> concrete <strong>and</strong> situational ‘ballet’ (Seamon 2015: 143) of <strong>the</strong> street <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> neighbourhood.<br />

19


Contemporary underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs of complexity are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly emphas<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> concrete situations<br />

w<strong>her</strong>eby everyday places <strong>and</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs matter <strong>and</strong> everyday choices are made: w<strong>her</strong>e ‘forms of life’<br />

evolve through <strong>the</strong> selection by participants of particular <strong>and</strong> situated orders from ranges of ‘adjacent<br />

possibilities’ (Kauffman 2000: 22). Complexity <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> biology <strong>and</strong> ecology have, for example,<br />

suggested that ecosystem <strong>and</strong> species level orders are driven by <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>tributed choices liv<strong>in</strong>g creatures<br />

make for <strong>the</strong>ir own prosper<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> survival <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> alternatives at <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>and</strong> group<br />

levels (Stengers 2000: 92; Markoš et al. 2009: 240). Echo<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>is</strong> perspective, urban societies <strong>and</strong><br />

economies may be conceived as emerg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> evolv<strong>in</strong>g through subjective as well as political choices<br />

made at <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>and</strong> community levels that t<strong>her</strong>eby construct larger social <strong>and</strong> urban orders from<br />

different objective possibilities.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> emphas<strong>is</strong>ed people, <strong>the</strong>ir own everyday actions <strong>and</strong> choices, <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong> critique of plann<strong>in</strong>g has<br />

on occasion been <strong>in</strong>terpreted as methodologically <strong>in</strong>dividual<strong>is</strong>t <strong>and</strong> subjectiv<strong>is</strong>t, but <strong>the</strong> notion of<br />

‘organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity’ can itself be understood as ‘methodologically communitarian’, emphas<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

forms <strong>and</strong> agencies located <strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>tributed through ‘communities’ of complex <strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terrelation.<br />

On <strong>the</strong> occasion of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ centenary we <strong>in</strong>vite papers exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g on <strong>and</strong> extend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> concept<br />

of ‘organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity’ <strong>in</strong> urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, policy <strong>and</strong> design, at <strong>the</strong>oretical, practice <strong>and</strong> pedagogical<br />

levels.<br />

References:<br />

JACOBS, J., 1961. The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities, New York: R<strong>and</strong>om House.<br />

KAUFFMAN, S.A. (2000) Investigations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />

MARKOŠ, A., GRYGAR, F., HAJNAL, L., KLEISNER, K., KRATOCHVÍL, Z., NEUBAUER, Z.<br />

(2009) Life as its own designer: Darw<strong>in</strong>’s Orig<strong>in</strong>l <strong>and</strong> Western Thought. Dordrecht: Spr<strong>in</strong>ger.<br />

SEAMON, D. (2015) A Geography of <strong>the</strong> Lifeworld: Movement, rest <strong>and</strong> Encounter. Milton Keynes:<br />

routledge Revivals.<br />

STENGERS, I. (2000) “God’s Heart <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Suff of Life”, PLI 9, 86–118<br />

20


TRACK 6: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>in</strong> public space<br />

Organ<strong>is</strong>ers:<br />

Muhammed Ziya Paköz (PhD), Abdullah Gül University Faculty of Architecture,<br />

Department of City <strong>and</strong> Regional Plann<strong>in</strong>g, muhammed.pakoz@agu.edu.tr<br />

Ahmet Gün, Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture, Department of<br />

Architecture, ahmetgun@itu.edu.tr<br />

Ahmet Baş, Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture, Department of<br />

City <strong>and</strong> Regional Plann<strong>in</strong>g, basa@itu.edu.tr<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ perspectives on urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, which she developed tak<strong>in</strong>g American<br />

cities <strong>in</strong>to account, <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>m to “orthodox Urban<strong>is</strong>m” has rema<strong>in</strong>ed on <strong>the</strong><br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g agenda for more than 50 years. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ suggestions on <strong>is</strong>sues of safety <strong>in</strong><br />

urban public spaces, which she d<strong>is</strong>cussed <strong>in</strong> ‘streets <strong>and</strong> sidewalks’, were based on <strong>the</strong><br />

observation of ord<strong>in</strong>ary crimes <strong>in</strong> American 20th <strong>century</strong> cities. These observations<br />

triggered <strong>the</strong> development of plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> design pr<strong>in</strong>ciples that aim to prevent crime<br />

<strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imize fear of crime <strong>in</strong> cities.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> <strong>21st</strong> <strong>century</strong>, globalization penetrates <strong>the</strong> life of cities <strong>in</strong> multiple ways, <strong>and</strong> cities<br />

become more open to global opportunities <strong>and</strong> threats. In our times, public spaces<br />

have become more vulnerable as a result of <strong>the</strong> globalization of crime, violence <strong>and</strong><br />

conflict.<br />

Violence result<strong>in</strong>g from drug traffick<strong>in</strong>g, gender <strong>in</strong>equality, <strong>and</strong> religious <strong>in</strong>tolerance<br />

are prevalent <strong>in</strong> different urban contexts. It seems safe to assert that <strong>is</strong>sues of safety <strong>in</strong><br />

today’s cities are more complex, <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> a more detailed exploration. Moreover,<br />

<strong>the</strong> level <strong>and</strong> type of violence <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>is</strong>sues may vary accord<strong>in</strong>g to different cultural<br />

<strong>and</strong> political backgrounds, while <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ ideas were based on a s<strong>in</strong>gle cultural <strong>and</strong><br />

political perspective.<br />

T<strong>her</strong>efore we need to reconsider <strong>her</strong> perspective on safety <strong>in</strong> public spaces hav<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>is</strong><br />

framework <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d. How <strong>is</strong> it possible “to keep <strong>the</strong> city safe” from “barbar<strong>is</strong>m” <strong>and</strong><br />

“fear” <strong>and</strong> provide “public peace” <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> urban areas of <strong>21st</strong> <strong>century</strong>?<br />

The aim of th<strong>is</strong> track <strong>is</strong> to exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> ‘s perspectives on safety <strong>in</strong> public spaces<br />

<strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>the</strong> deep transformation <strong>and</strong> re-organization of cities of <strong>the</strong> <strong>21st</strong> <strong>century</strong>.<br />

21


Fem<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>t protest<br />

The <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>100</strong> Conference was marked by <strong>the</strong> TU Delft Fem<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>t Group‘s protest about <strong>the</strong> absence of womreservedly.<br />

A series of unfortunate co<strong>in</strong>cidences led to <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> panel be<strong>in</strong>g composed by men only, although mo<br />

The protest was made of chairs with names of female scholars who could have been <strong>in</strong>vited to speak at <strong>the</strong> confer-<br />

To celebrate <strong>Jane</strong> Jacob’s ideas properly, we organ<strong>is</strong>ed a second event on <strong>the</strong> first anniversary of <strong>the</strong> first event ti-tl<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir ac-counts have been <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> report.<br />

22


wom-en among <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> speakers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> conference. The organ<strong>is</strong>ers recogn<strong>is</strong>e <strong>the</strong>ir m<strong>is</strong>take <strong>and</strong> apolog<strong>is</strong>e ungh<br />

most of <strong>the</strong> tracks were eit<strong>her</strong> led by women or had women <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir composition.<br />

onfer-ence. The chairs rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> room of <strong>the</strong> faculty for <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>der of <strong>the</strong> conference.<br />

nt ti-tled ‘<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> still <strong>her</strong>e!’ w<strong>her</strong>e two em<strong>in</strong>ent female special<strong>is</strong>ts on <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> were <strong>in</strong>vited to speak.<br />

23


24


25


Foreword<br />

Roberta Br<strong>and</strong>es Gratz<br />

26


Roberta Gratz<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> changed <strong>the</strong> way <strong>the</strong> world views cities.<br />

But <strong>is</strong> she as relevant today as when <strong>her</strong> first book burst on <strong>the</strong><br />

scene <strong>in</strong> 1961 to challenge <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

orthodoxy of <strong>the</strong> day?<br />

Sixty-six years s<strong>in</strong>ce ‘The Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities’ came<br />

out, people constantly ask “What would<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> say?” about one urban challenge<br />

or anot<strong>her</strong>. Is that <strong>the</strong> right question?<br />

Roberta Br<strong>and</strong>es Gratz will reflect on<br />

th<strong>is</strong> <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> questions.<br />

Roberta <strong>is</strong> an American awardw<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

journal<strong>is</strong>t <strong>and</strong> urban critic,<br />

lecturer <strong>and</strong> author of <strong>the</strong> books ‘We’re<br />

<strong>Still</strong> <strong>Here</strong> Ya Bastards: How <strong>the</strong> People<br />

of New Orleans Rebuilt Their City’;<br />

‘The Battle For Gotham: New York <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Shadow of Robert Moses <strong>and</strong> <strong>Jane</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’; <strong>the</strong> now classics ‘The Liv<strong>in</strong>g City: Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Small <strong>in</strong> a Big<br />

Way’, <strong>and</strong> ‘Cities Back from <strong>the</strong> Edge: New Life for Downtown’.<br />

Roberta was also a longtime friend of <strong>Jacobs</strong>.<br />

27


<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>:<br />

Dark Age Ahead<br />

Roberta Gratz<br />

Award-w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g journal<strong>is</strong>t urban<br />

critic, lecturer, <strong>and</strong> author<br />

A Dark Age, she adds, <strong>is</strong> not just a loss of th<strong>in</strong>gs, not merely a “collection of<br />

subtractions. Much <strong>is</strong> added to fill <strong>the</strong> vacuum. But <strong>the</strong> additions break from<br />

<strong>the</strong> past <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>mselves re<strong>in</strong>force a loss of <strong>the</strong> past <strong>and</strong> a loss of memory.”<br />

In <strong>her</strong> last book, Dark<br />

Age Ahead, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> warned us<br />

of <strong>the</strong> potential of a new Dark Age. It<br />

was not a prediction but a prescient<br />

warn<strong>in</strong>g. She was simply observ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> reality of <strong>the</strong> global moment.<br />

She was writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2003. But<br />

what were some of <strong>the</strong> signals <strong>and</strong><br />

symptons she suggested mark <strong>the</strong><br />

com<strong>in</strong>g of a dark age? A grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

urban cr<strong>is</strong><strong>is</strong>. Increas<strong>in</strong>g denial of<br />

environmental degradation. Mass<br />

amnesia. A popul<strong>is</strong>t backlash<br />

lead<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> r<strong>is</strong>e of a demigod. An<br />

enlargen<strong>in</strong>g gulf between rich <strong>and</strong><br />

poor. And, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g d<strong>is</strong>trust of<br />

politicians.<br />

A Dark Age, she adds, <strong>is</strong> not<br />

just a loss of th<strong>in</strong>gs, not merely a<br />

“collection of subtractions. Much <strong>is</strong><br />

added to fill <strong>the</strong> vacuum. But <strong>the</strong><br />

additions break from <strong>the</strong> past <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves re<strong>in</strong>force a loss of <strong>the</strong><br />

past <strong>and</strong> a loss of memory.”<br />

The replacements are myths <strong>in</strong>stead<br />

of memory, false news <strong>in</strong>stead of<br />

real facts, autocratic rule <strong>in</strong>stead<br />

of democratic leadership, <strong>and</strong> fake<br />

science <strong>in</strong>stead of verified facts.<br />

With th<strong>is</strong> comes a fortress mentality,<br />

d<strong>is</strong>mantl<strong>in</strong>g of government<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions, d<strong>is</strong>respect for <strong>the</strong> civic<br />

realm <strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>regard for alternative<br />

po<strong>in</strong>ts of view.<br />

Welcome to <strong>the</strong> world of<br />

Donald Trump. Do I need to repeat<br />

<strong>the</strong> word prescient?<br />

But <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> was<br />

prescient <strong>in</strong> all of <strong>her</strong> books <strong>and</strong><br />

my emphas<strong>is</strong> <strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> on <strong>the</strong> dangers<br />

of forgett<strong>in</strong>g what works <strong>and</strong> what<br />

doesn’t work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> face of official<br />

but questionable assertions <strong>and</strong><br />

policies built on <strong>the</strong>m. I will also<br />

spotlight <strong>the</strong> restorative value of<br />

last<strong>in</strong>g memory.<br />

In Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great American<br />

Cities, <strong>Jacobs</strong> first <strong>and</strong> most famous<br />

book, she warned of <strong>the</strong> urban<br />

destruction occurr<strong>in</strong>g through<br />

massive urban renewal <strong>and</strong> highway<br />

build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>is</strong>take of onesize-fits-all<br />

national programs.<br />

Through demolition, <strong>the</strong> memory of<br />

what once gave strength to an area<br />

<strong>is</strong> lost.<br />

We see th<strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong> countless American<br />

communities w<strong>her</strong>e viable, if<br />

need<strong>in</strong>g help, mixed-<strong>in</strong>come,<br />

diverse communities were leveled<br />

for outwardly mean<strong>in</strong>gful projects<br />

based on questionable th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Even <strong>the</strong> former ex<strong>is</strong>tence, let alone<br />

<strong>the</strong> positive qualities of <strong>the</strong>m, are<br />

forgotten as are <strong>the</strong> lessons about<br />

what made <strong>the</strong>m viable despite<br />

outward appearances.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> Economy of Cities, <strong>Jane</strong>’s<br />

second <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> view, <strong>her</strong> most<br />

important book, she focused on <strong>the</strong><br />

significance of import replacement<br />

<strong>in</strong> urban economies at a time when<br />

econom<strong>is</strong>ts <strong>and</strong> government leaders<br />

were extoll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> virtues of national<br />

economic policies that ignored <strong>the</strong><br />

heart of a real economy, most often<br />

urban-based.<br />

In Systems of Survival,<br />

probably <strong>her</strong> most complicated book,<br />

she warned about <strong>the</strong> confusion<br />

between government <strong>and</strong> commerce<br />

28


that has brought us to today’s<br />

deceptive arrangement, known as<br />

<strong>the</strong> public/private partnership, that<br />

really means a private project with<br />

public fund<strong>in</strong>g. Little, at least <strong>in</strong><br />

our country, <strong>is</strong> actually produced or<br />

managed by government anymore;<br />

most often, <strong>in</strong>stead, private<br />

contractors <strong>and</strong> developers have<br />

replaced government, reap<strong>in</strong>g great<br />

profit while not accompl<strong>is</strong>h<strong>in</strong>g any<br />

better – <strong>and</strong> sometimes worse –<br />

what government can do when it<br />

functions well. If you want a blatant<br />

example of th<strong>is</strong>, read my last book<br />

on <strong>the</strong> recovery of New Orleans,<br />

titled We’re <strong>Still</strong> <strong>Here</strong> Ya Bastards:<br />

How <strong>the</strong> People of New Orleans<br />

Rebuilt Their City. Particularly<br />

read how <strong>the</strong> probably 80 percent of<br />

<strong>the</strong> government contracts to private<br />

firms went to private profit – often<br />

out of state – <strong>and</strong> little actually got<br />

spent on <strong>the</strong> ground.<br />

In Dark Age Ahead, she<br />

also warned about <strong>the</strong> eventual<br />

mortgage foreclosure d<strong>is</strong>aster<br />

because, she said, we were creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a hous<strong>in</strong>g bubble by lett<strong>in</strong>g “money<br />

grow on houses” by ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> low mortgage <strong>in</strong>terest rate <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>n lett<strong>in</strong>g mortgage payments be<br />

deductible from <strong>in</strong>come taxes. That<br />

book was publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> 2004. The<br />

foreclosure cr<strong>is</strong><strong>is</strong> occurred <strong>in</strong> 2008.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> was ahead of <strong>her</strong> time<br />

<strong>in</strong> many ways <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> still valuably<br />

<strong>in</strong>structive today. The relevancy<br />

of <strong>her</strong> ideas can actually be found<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> simple observation of <strong>the</strong><br />

significant terms she co<strong>in</strong>ed: “eyes<br />

on <strong>the</strong> street,” “human capital,”<br />

“sidewalk ballet” <strong>and</strong> probably most<br />

significant of all, “diversity of uses<br />

<strong>and</strong> people.”<br />

But <strong>in</strong> Dark Age, <strong>her</strong><br />

prescience goes beyond such<br />

familiar terms. Th<strong>is</strong> time, most<br />

importantly, she warns of “mass<br />

amnesia,” w<strong>her</strong>eby “<strong>the</strong> previous<br />

way of life slides <strong>in</strong>to an abyss of<br />

forgetfulness, almost as dec<strong>is</strong>ively<br />

as if it had not ex<strong>is</strong>ted.” Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong><br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g to be deeply exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

from many different angles. She<br />

<strong>is</strong> clearly warn<strong>in</strong>g us that it <strong>is</strong><br />

important to strive to remember<br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs that worked, were lost for<br />

illegitimate reasons <strong>and</strong> could be<br />

revived, at an opportune moment.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> means ignor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> myth<br />

that you can’t recreate <strong>the</strong> past, or<br />

at least underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g that we<br />

can recognize <strong>and</strong> build on <strong>the</strong><br />

productive patterns of <strong>the</strong> past.<br />

Those past productive patterns can<br />

re-emerge <strong>in</strong> new configurations as<br />

beneficial to <strong>the</strong> present as <strong>the</strong>y<br />

were once <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past.<br />

Signs ex<strong>is</strong>t today, for<br />

example, of a possible re-emergence<br />

of <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d of economic diversity<br />

that once helped cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

regions thrive.<br />

“Beneficent pendulums do occur,”<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> wrote. “Corrective<br />

stabilization <strong>is</strong> one of <strong>the</strong> great<br />

services of democracy, with<br />

its feedback to rulers from <strong>the</strong><br />

protest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> vot<strong>in</strong>g public.”<br />

In Economy of Cities,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> observed that both Detroit<br />

<strong>and</strong> Rochester, N.Y., were doomed<br />

when <strong>the</strong>y became one-<strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

cities. Both cities, she noted,<br />

had thriv<strong>in</strong>g diverse economies<br />

before <strong>the</strong>y were transformed <strong>in</strong>to<br />

company towns.<br />

Detroit, for example, was<br />

an early producer of steamships,<br />

first for its flour trade, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n<br />

for export to ot<strong>her</strong> localities. It<br />

thus had many smaller bus<strong>in</strong>esses<br />

mak<strong>in</strong>g eng<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> all sorts of<br />

components <strong>and</strong> was export<strong>in</strong>g<br />

steam generators, pa<strong>in</strong>t, pumps,<br />

stoves <strong>and</strong> a whole host of ot<strong>her</strong><br />

products. Eventually, all <strong>the</strong>se<br />

smaller, diverse bus<strong>in</strong>esses were<br />

eit<strong>her</strong> absorbed by <strong>the</strong> automobile<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry or turned <strong>in</strong>to a supplier<br />

for it, loos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> diversity that<br />

once made <strong>the</strong> Detroit economy<br />

thrive. So when <strong>the</strong> automobile<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry started dy<strong>in</strong>g, first due<br />

to competition from Japanese car<br />

manufacturers, Detroit started<br />

dy<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

But, after all <strong>the</strong> years s<strong>in</strong>ce, what<br />

do we see happen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Detroit<br />

today? The beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gs of a new<br />

diversified economy with many<br />

small companies emerg<strong>in</strong>g, only<br />

some of which are related to a<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g arts population. Most<br />

people both <strong>in</strong> Detroit <strong>and</strong> out<br />

have forgotten <strong>the</strong> once thriv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

diverse economy that was Detroit<br />

but that <strong>is</strong> what <strong>is</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> may, eventually, save <strong>the</strong> city.<br />

In th<strong>is</strong> case, amnesia <strong>is</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> recognition of what first really<br />

made Detroit thrive.<br />

Similarly, Rochester, New York, was<br />

once <strong>the</strong> home of many scientific <strong>and</strong><br />

advanced technological equipment<br />

makers that formed <strong>the</strong> bas<strong>is</strong> of a<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g, diverse economy. Kodak<br />

eventually bought up most of<br />

<strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> Rochester became a one<br />

company town. But a few years<br />

ago, th<strong>is</strong> photography pioneer was<br />

overpowered by <strong>the</strong> new digital<br />

competition <strong>and</strong> Kodak went<br />

bankrupt. It shed many of its<br />

components <strong>and</strong> became mostly<br />

a pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g company. Well, many<br />

of those laid off workers of those<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual components started<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir own new small companies<br />

<strong>and</strong> Rochester, <strong>the</strong> former company<br />

town, once aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>is</strong> evolv<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

diversified economy, someth<strong>in</strong>g few<br />

remember that it once had.<br />

Also, observe <strong>the</strong><br />

proliferation <strong>in</strong> small towns <strong>and</strong> big<br />

cities all over <strong>the</strong> U.S. of fresh food<br />

markets that once were <strong>the</strong> heart of<br />

many communities’ food economy.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> 1970s, <strong>the</strong>se markets were<br />

still d<strong>is</strong>appear<strong>in</strong>g, torn down as<br />

economically irrelevant <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> age<br />

of <strong>the</strong> supermarket. A few survived,<br />

like <strong>the</strong> universally admired Pike<br />

Place Market <strong>and</strong> Detroit’s Eastern<br />

Market. Pike Place, by <strong>the</strong> way, was<br />

targeted for demolition by Urban<br />

Renewers but saved after a fierce<br />

battle by local activ<strong>is</strong>ts.<br />

New <strong>and</strong> revived markets<br />

started re-emerg<strong>in</strong>g as <strong>the</strong> renewed<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest grew <strong>in</strong> local, regional<br />

<strong>and</strong> organic foods. Now, like <strong>the</strong><br />

New York City Greenmarket that<br />

opened <strong>in</strong> 1974, such markets<br />

are proliferat<strong>in</strong>g everyw<strong>her</strong>e <strong>and</strong><br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g exponentially by <strong>the</strong><br />

thous<strong>and</strong>s. The markets have saved<br />

many struggl<strong>in</strong>g farms <strong>and</strong> given<br />

birth to new ones.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> an old idea <strong>in</strong> a<br />

renewed form <strong>and</strong> most American<br />

communities <strong>and</strong> cities have<br />

forgotten that a local market system<br />

ever ex<strong>is</strong>ted. Many of <strong>the</strong>se new<br />

markets are <strong>the</strong> catalyst downtown<br />

needed to revive. And with <strong>the</strong><br />

growth of new markets <strong>and</strong> fresh food<br />

outlets has grown <strong>the</strong> proliferation<br />

of new art<strong>is</strong>anal foods from new<br />

mustards to local beers <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>es.<br />

Real food markets, not cha<strong>in</strong> stores,<br />

are <strong>the</strong> real outlets for <strong>the</strong>se new<br />

products. Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> food production on<br />

29


<strong>the</strong> micro-scale hav<strong>in</strong>g an impact on<br />

<strong>the</strong> macro-scale.<br />

New York Times column<strong>is</strong>t Thomas<br />

Friedman recently wrote a column,<br />

“A Road Trip Through Rust<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> R<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g America,” observ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

th<strong>is</strong> phenomenon from a different<br />

perspective. He took a car trip to<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cover <strong>the</strong> “fail<strong>in</strong>g” communities<br />

that President Trump described<br />

as <strong>the</strong> country’s vast “carnage”<br />

of “rusted-out factorie.” What he<br />

found was a hopeful story of local<br />

people f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g new ways to rebuild<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir economy.<br />

“Over <strong>the</strong> last <strong>100</strong> years… we went<br />

from decentralized art<strong>is</strong>an-based<br />

manufactur<strong>in</strong>g to centralized<br />

mass manufactur<strong>in</strong>g on assembly<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es. Today, with <strong>the</strong>se emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

technologies, we can go back to<br />

art<strong>is</strong>ans, which will be great for<br />

local communities that spawn a<br />

leadership <strong>and</strong> workers able to<br />

take advantage of <strong>the</strong>se emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

technologies. We are go<strong>in</strong>g to see a<br />

world of micro-factories…”<br />

Take an even bigger subject:<br />

Mass transit. Today, <strong>in</strong> America at<br />

least, few people remember that we<br />

once had probably <strong>the</strong> most <strong>in</strong>tricate<br />

<strong>and</strong> well-connected rail network <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> world. It was an efficient, wellfunction<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> geographically farreach<strong>in</strong>g<br />

national rail network. We<br />

also had an extraord<strong>in</strong>arily efficient,<br />

well-connected local transit system<br />

connect<strong>in</strong>g towns <strong>and</strong> cities all<br />

over <strong>the</strong> US. It used to be said, one<br />

could travel from <strong>the</strong> far reaches<br />

of Ma<strong>in</strong>e to Chicago on a pocket<br />

full of nickels, transferr<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

one urban streetcar system with a<br />

nickel fare to an <strong>in</strong>terurban network<br />

connect<strong>in</strong>g cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n repeat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that pattern aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> from<br />

one d<strong>is</strong>tant city to <strong>the</strong> next.<br />

As <strong>Jacobs</strong> rem<strong>in</strong>ds us <strong>in</strong><br />

Dark Age Ahead <strong>and</strong> as I wrote<br />

<strong>in</strong> my 2nd book, Cities Back From<br />

<strong>the</strong> Edge, our well-function<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

efficient, affordable transit system<br />

was wiped out by a consortium of<br />

corporations, led by General Motors,<br />

Firestone Tire, U.S. Steel <strong>and</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong>s, all of whom were <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> manufacture of cars <strong>and</strong> buses.<br />

They bought out streetcar systems<br />

first <strong>in</strong> two small cities <strong>in</strong> Ohio <strong>and</strong><br />

Michigan, closed <strong>the</strong>m down, paved<br />

over <strong>the</strong> tracks <strong>and</strong> replaced <strong>the</strong><br />

systems with rubber tire buses. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

was dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Depression when<br />

cities large <strong>and</strong> small needed money<br />

desperately. It was a short-term<br />

ga<strong>in</strong>. The pattern repeated itself<br />

around <strong>the</strong> country for <strong>the</strong> next<br />

several decades.<br />

Even <strong>in</strong> New York, we had<br />

streetcars, trolleys <strong>and</strong> elevated<br />

rail l<strong>in</strong>es everyw<strong>her</strong>e that were<br />

closed <strong>and</strong> wiped out under <strong>the</strong><br />

leadership of Robert Moses. In fact,<br />

as an amus<strong>in</strong>g aside, <strong>the</strong> Brooklyn<br />

Dodgers ball team got its name<br />

from <strong>the</strong> term, “trolley dodgers,”<br />

because <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn everyone had<br />

to dodge <strong>the</strong> many trolleys that ran<br />

everyw<strong>her</strong>e.<br />

The national rail system was<br />

furt<strong>her</strong> underm<strong>in</strong>ed when <strong>the</strong> 1956<br />

Interstate Highway Act comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

with <strong>the</strong> Urban Renewal program<br />

swept through <strong>and</strong> demol<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

urban neighborhoods <strong>and</strong> small<br />

towns across <strong>the</strong> country.<br />

Today, most Americans,<br />

except <strong>the</strong> very old, have<br />

FORGOTTEN that we once had th<strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tricate rail system <strong>and</strong> are difficult<br />

to conv<strong>in</strong>ce that it can be recreated.<br />

In many American communities<br />

w<strong>her</strong>e I go to lecture, I am often<br />

shown neighborhoods that date from<br />

early <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20th <strong>century</strong>. I can tell<br />

from <strong>the</strong> development pattern w<strong>her</strong>e<br />

<strong>the</strong> streetcars went <strong>and</strong> I observe to<br />

my hosts, “oh, th<strong>is</strong> must have been a<br />

streetcar neighborhood.” Most often<br />

<strong>the</strong> response <strong>is</strong>, “we didn’t have<br />

streetcars,” when <strong>in</strong> fact <strong>the</strong>y did.<br />

That <strong>is</strong> amnesia.<br />

Today, local networks are<br />

actually be<strong>in</strong>g recreated piece by<br />

piece <strong>in</strong> many localities w<strong>her</strong>e<br />

new, modern light rail systems are<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g built or exp<strong>and</strong>ed. Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong><br />

not RECREATING <strong>the</strong> past but<br />

rebuild<strong>in</strong>g a system that worked <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> past but build<strong>in</strong>g it today <strong>in</strong> a<br />

contemporary way <strong>and</strong> with new <strong>21st</strong><br />

<strong>century</strong> technology. Communities<br />

across <strong>the</strong> country now want more<br />

of <strong>the</strong>se light rail systems but<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> little government money to<br />

support <strong>the</strong>m. Instead, we cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />

to subsidize new highway build<strong>in</strong>g<br />

or highway expansion <strong>in</strong> a big way,<br />

crippl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> potential of <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

rail.<br />

For example, Amtrak, our only<br />

national rail system, was created a<br />

number of years ago by Congress<br />

but ordered to become selfsusta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

f<strong>in</strong>ancially. No transit<br />

system anyw<strong>her</strong>e that I know of<br />

can be viable f<strong>in</strong>ancially on its own.<br />

Nor, <strong>in</strong> fact, can any road system<br />

pay for itself. So we have a railroad<br />

that <strong>is</strong> very expensive to ride,<br />

<strong>in</strong>efficient to run <strong>and</strong> crippled by<br />

lack of <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> upgrades <strong>and</strong><br />

modernization.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> actually reflects a<br />

purposeful governmental policy that<br />

heavily subsidizes <strong>the</strong> airplane <strong>and</strong><br />

automobile <strong>in</strong>dustries but not rail. If<br />

it were cheaper <strong>and</strong> more efficient to<br />

take a tra<strong>in</strong> to more places, driv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> fly<strong>in</strong>g would loose passengers. As<br />

always, t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> a politically potent<br />

corporate policy that expla<strong>in</strong>s a<br />

m<strong>is</strong>taken governmental policy. And<br />

<strong>the</strong> airplane, road, car <strong>and</strong> truck<br />

lobby<strong>is</strong>ts are t<strong>her</strong>e, too, <strong>in</strong> full force,<br />

all stacked aga<strong>in</strong>st transit.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> scenario played out <strong>in</strong><br />

Europe as well but <strong>in</strong> different gu<strong>is</strong>es.<br />

Many more networks of streetcars<br />

<strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> systems rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Europe<br />

than certa<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> US but many<br />

have been lost or dim<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>hed. In<br />

Central Europe, however, right after<br />

<strong>the</strong> wall came down, several telltale<br />

events unfolded.<br />

One was <strong>the</strong> immediate presence all<br />

over Central <strong>and</strong> Eastern Europe<br />

of automobile lobby<strong>is</strong>ts promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g of new or exp<strong>and</strong>ed<br />

highways.<br />

Second, we saw countries shr<strong>in</strong>k<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir support of rail l<strong>in</strong>es need<strong>in</strong>g<br />

upgrades <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>vestment. Some<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es were closed.<br />

Third, Central Europe saw a surge<br />

of new car purchases <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

development of huge shopp<strong>in</strong>g malls<br />

that made US malls look small <strong>and</strong><br />

qua<strong>in</strong>t.<br />

But <strong>Jacobs</strong> was also<br />

prescient <strong>in</strong> anot<strong>her</strong> way, alert<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that overcom<strong>in</strong>g amnesia was<br />

possible. But, “Time for corrective<br />

action <strong>is</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ite,” she warned. Lost<br />

habits <strong>and</strong> lost systems can be<br />

rega<strong>in</strong>ed, she implies, as long as<br />

<strong>the</strong>y are not “lost to practice <strong>and</strong><br />

memory.” In <strong>the</strong> examples I have<br />

cited, <strong>the</strong> lost habits <strong>and</strong> systems<br />

may have been officially lost from<br />

30


public policy but not lost from <strong>the</strong><br />

memory of local activ<strong>is</strong>ts or specific<br />

advocates who have forged <strong>the</strong> path<br />

to <strong>the</strong>ir revival.<br />

Even though <strong>Jacobs</strong> was<br />

warn<strong>in</strong>g us of a potential dark age,<br />

she also believed that destructive<br />

change over time can be healed. In<br />

many of <strong>the</strong> question <strong>and</strong> answer<br />

sessions, for example, that have<br />

followed <strong>the</strong> open<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>is</strong> April of<br />

<strong>the</strong> new film about <strong>Jacobs</strong> called<br />

Citizen <strong>Jane</strong>, <strong>the</strong> question <strong>is</strong> often<br />

asked, how did <strong>Jane</strong> feel about<br />

Haussmann <strong>in</strong> Par<strong>is</strong>. I d<strong>is</strong>cussed<br />

th<strong>is</strong> question recently with <strong>her</strong> son<br />

because, although I knew <strong>her</strong> for<br />

almost 30 years <strong>and</strong> shared many<br />

conversations, I could not remember<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cuss<strong>in</strong>g Haussmann. <strong>Jane</strong> had<br />

apparently offered two observations<br />

about Haussmann.<br />

First, she noted, that <strong>the</strong><br />

neighborhoods she found most<br />

appeal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Par<strong>is</strong> were not touched<br />

by Haussmann. Second, she<br />

observed, it was encourag<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

notice that after so many decades,<br />

Par<strong>is</strong> repaired itself from <strong>the</strong><br />

demolition damage of Haussmann.<br />

She saw that as a hopeful sign, a<br />

sign that cities today can, over<br />

time, repair <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>in</strong> a socially,<br />

economically <strong>and</strong> politically<br />

positive way. Th<strong>is</strong> had happened<br />

<strong>in</strong> many a once heavily demol<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

<strong>and</strong> damaged American city. That,<br />

<strong>in</strong> fact, was what my first book, The<br />

Liv<strong>in</strong>g City: Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Small <strong>in</strong> a<br />

Big Way, was all about, publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1989.<br />

At a time, as now, of so<br />

many d<strong>is</strong>courag<strong>in</strong>g, patterns of<br />

redevelopment, I choose to take<br />

heart from th<strong>is</strong> observation <strong>and</strong><br />

believe that, like <strong>in</strong> so many ways,<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> right. Maybe some<br />

of our most destructive m<strong>is</strong>takes<br />

can be healed. It <strong>is</strong> not easy to be<br />

hopeful with so many negative<br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs happen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> so many<br />

m<strong>in</strong>dless people <strong>in</strong> power. But if<br />

citizens put <strong>the</strong>ir m<strong>in</strong>ds to it, it <strong>is</strong><br />

amaz<strong>in</strong>g what can be done. To start,<br />

<strong>the</strong> art of protest <strong>is</strong> revived <strong>and</strong><br />

go<strong>in</strong>g strong. That protest energy <strong>is</strong><br />

com<strong>in</strong>g from “<strong>the</strong> local” who <strong>Jane</strong><br />

always beseeched us to “trust.”<br />

Amnesia <strong>is</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g res<strong>is</strong>ted. That<br />

gives me hope.<br />

31


Introduction


33


<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>: an <strong>in</strong>tellectual trajectory<br />

V<strong>in</strong>icius M. Netto<br />

Associate Professor, Urban<strong>is</strong>m<br />

Department of Flum<strong>in</strong>ense Federal<br />

University (UFF), Niterói, Rio de <strong>Jane</strong>iro<br />

vmnetto@id.uff.br + http://socialfabric.<br />

city/<br />

Abstract-<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s trajectory took <strong>her</strong> very far from <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>and</strong> propositions of The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great<br />

American Cities. Th<strong>is</strong> paper attempts to give both an overview <strong>and</strong> an assessment of <strong>her</strong> oeuvre as a whole: <strong>her</strong> books <strong>and</strong> actual<br />

contributions, <strong>the</strong> state of empirical verification of <strong>her</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> ideas, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> limits <strong>and</strong> controversies surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong> approaches.<br />

Throw<strong>in</strong>g light on <strong>her</strong> diverse facets, th<strong>is</strong> paper exam<strong>in</strong>es <strong>her</strong> place <strong>and</strong> impact – from a pioneer of <strong>the</strong> young d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e of urban<br />

studies <strong>and</strong> a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t <strong>in</strong> spatial economics to <strong>her</strong> status as an <strong>in</strong>terd<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>ary th<strong>in</strong>ker.<br />

Key words – <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, urban studies, spatial economics, ecology, culture<br />

Introduction<br />

I should approach <strong>the</strong>se sheets<br />

with reverent eye,<br />

Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g, with mental halo, how<br />

I sought<br />

The perfect word to clo<strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

perfect thought…<br />

(<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016a [1935]: 9)<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

th<strong>is</strong> early poem <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> New York<br />

Herald Tribune <strong>in</strong> 1935, a year<br />

after arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> New York <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

mid-1930s depression. She was<br />

19. The girl who used nickels to<br />

explore as a flaneur <strong>the</strong> city <strong>and</strong> its<br />

diverse population came to almost<br />

s<strong>in</strong>gleh<strong>and</strong>edly revolutionize a<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> to achieve a presence<br />

<strong>in</strong> at least anot<strong>her</strong>. In fact, no ot<strong>her</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t <strong>in</strong> urban studies comes close<br />

to <strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence. She <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> only one<br />

to come near <strong>the</strong> volume of citations<br />

<strong>and</strong> mentions of powerhouses <strong>in</strong><br />

geography <strong>and</strong> urban philosophy,<br />

David Harvey <strong>and</strong> Henri Lefebvre<br />

(figure 1). <strong>Jacobs</strong> had a long career,<br />

<strong>and</strong> publ<strong>is</strong>hed six books on cities,<br />

economics, ecology, politics <strong>and</strong><br />

culture, anot<strong>her</strong> on separat<strong>is</strong>m <strong>in</strong><br />

Canada, two books for children, <strong>and</strong><br />

a political h<strong>is</strong>tory book still at age 25.<br />

She passed away <strong>in</strong> 2006, two years<br />

after publ<strong>is</strong>h<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong> latest book, <strong>the</strong><br />

premonitory Dark Age Ahead. Her<br />

m<strong>in</strong>d was full of ideas <strong>and</strong> projects<br />

Figure 1 - Percentage of times selected <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>ts appear among all 'bigrams' <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of books written <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>is</strong>h <strong>and</strong> publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States between 1950 <strong>and</strong> 2008.<br />

Source: Google books Ngram Viewer.<br />

for two new books.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> paper will pursue a<br />

diverse path, as it must be <strong>the</strong> case<br />

for a work that aims to cover <strong>the</strong><br />

production of an <strong>in</strong>tellectual who<br />

has gone through many phases. It<br />

beg<strong>in</strong>s with a brief biographical<br />

account, review<strong>in</strong>g steps that led<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> to become an <strong>in</strong>novator of<br />

urban studies. Then we will see <strong>her</strong><br />

contributions, go<strong>in</strong>g through <strong>the</strong><br />

ma<strong>in</strong> arguments of <strong>her</strong> books. We<br />

will v<strong>is</strong>it <strong>her</strong> controversial status –<br />

would she be an observer, a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t,<br />

a researc<strong>her</strong>, an amateur? Then we<br />

will see how <strong>her</strong> ideas have stood<br />

<strong>the</strong> test of empirical verification,<br />

both <strong>in</strong> urban studies <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> spatial<br />

economics, <strong>and</strong> assess <strong>her</strong> place<br />

as a th<strong>in</strong>ker of self-organization<br />

avant la lettre. F<strong>in</strong>ally, we will see<br />

<strong>her</strong> last hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong>, which would<br />

rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>complete, <strong>and</strong> some f<strong>in</strong>al<br />

considerations on how to underst<strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>her</strong> place <strong>in</strong> our field today.<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> Butzner goes to New<br />

York<br />

The biography of <strong>Jane</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> seems <strong>in</strong>tertw<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />

<strong>her</strong> fasc<strong>in</strong>ation with language, <strong>the</strong><br />

city, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> conditions of material<br />

life. Born <strong>in</strong> 1916 <strong>in</strong> Scranton,<br />

Pennsylvania, <strong>Jacobs</strong> wrote <strong>and</strong><br />

publ<strong>is</strong>hed poetry at age 9. <strong>Jane</strong><br />

Butzner (<strong>her</strong> maiden name) saw<br />

New York for <strong>the</strong> first time as a<br />

child, arriv<strong>in</strong>g by boat <strong>in</strong> 1928.<br />

She walked on Wall Street at noon,<br />

“amazed at all <strong>the</strong> people on <strong>the</strong><br />

streets... <strong>the</strong> city was just vibrat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

It was crowded.” After work<strong>in</strong>g at a<br />

34


newsroom <strong>in</strong> Scranton at age 18, she<br />

decided to face <strong>the</strong> Great Depression<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial hardship, com<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to live <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn <strong>in</strong> 1934. In <strong>the</strong><br />

morn<strong>in</strong>g, she crossed <strong>the</strong> bridge to<br />

Lower Manhattan to look for a job.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> afternoons, she explored <strong>the</strong><br />

city. Her walks through New York<br />

became articles, later sold to Vogue,<br />

between 1936 <strong>and</strong> 1937. “I was<br />

try<strong>in</strong>g to be a writer all <strong>the</strong> time.”<br />

The articles described situations<br />

<strong>and</strong> people <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> small-scale<br />

production <strong>and</strong> trade – <strong>the</strong> networks<br />

that seemed to specialize <strong>and</strong> focus<br />

on certa<strong>in</strong> parts of Manhattan: work<br />

<strong>in</strong> leat<strong>her</strong>, shoes, flower preparation<br />

<strong>and</strong> sale, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tricate web of<br />

production <strong>and</strong> sale of jewellery. At<br />

age 21, <strong>Jacobs</strong> made descriptions of<br />

urban life <strong>and</strong> its material networks.<br />

She was fasc<strong>in</strong>ated by <strong>the</strong> ways <strong>the</strong>se<br />

networks seemed to self-organize <strong>in</strong><br />

order to survive (Fl<strong>in</strong>t, 2009). She did<br />

not know <strong>the</strong>n, but th<strong>is</strong> fasc<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

with <strong>the</strong> practices, organization <strong>and</strong><br />

ethos that emerge between actors<br />

engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> material effort of<br />

work <strong>and</strong> exchange would guide <strong>her</strong><br />

whole future work.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> began <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> magaz<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Architectural Forum (1952-1962) as<br />

a publ<strong>is</strong><strong>her</strong> specialized <strong>in</strong> hospitals<br />

<strong>and</strong> schools, <strong>and</strong> from 1955 onwards,<br />

she began to cover urban renewal.<br />

Initially favourable to modern<br />

urban<strong>is</strong>m, <strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong>-situ observations<br />

of executed projects profoundly<br />

altered <strong>her</strong> assessment of modern<strong>is</strong>t<br />

precepts. In 1956, replac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong><br />

boss, she made a presentation at<br />

<strong>the</strong> Conference on Urban Design <strong>in</strong><br />

Harvard, putt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong>self openly<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> practice of urban<strong>is</strong>m<br />

based on modern normative <strong>the</strong>ory.<br />

The lecture had a great effect on<br />

<strong>the</strong> audience, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />

architects <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>ts – <strong>and</strong> Lew<strong>is</strong><br />

Mumford himself.<br />

So I made a talk <strong>and</strong> I made an<br />

attack on [urban renewal]... It<br />

was a real ordeal for me. I have no<br />

memory of giv<strong>in</strong>g it. I just went<br />

<strong>in</strong>to some hypnos<strong>is</strong> <strong>and</strong> said th<strong>is</strong><br />

th<strong>in</strong>g I had memorized. And I sat<br />

down, <strong>and</strong> it was a big hit because<br />

nobody had heard anybody say<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>se th<strong>in</strong>gs, apparently... Mumford<br />

was <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> audience, <strong>and</strong> he very<br />

enthusiastically welcomed me. I<br />

had hypnotized myself, but I had<br />

apparently hypnotized <strong>the</strong>m too.<br />

(<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016b [2001]: 82).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> to write an article (Fl<strong>in</strong>t,<br />

2009). The result <strong>is</strong> “Downtown<br />

<strong>is</strong> for people,” publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> 1958.<br />

Ot<strong>her</strong> communications would<br />

follow, such as “A liv<strong>in</strong>g network of<br />

relationships,” a talk given at <strong>the</strong><br />

renowned New School for Social<br />

Research <strong>in</strong> New York, flirt<strong>in</strong>g with<br />

<strong>the</strong> systemic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of city selforganization.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> would be ready<br />

to write <strong>her</strong> first book on cities <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> fabric of everyday life.<br />

The passage from <strong>the</strong> 1950s<br />

to <strong>the</strong> 1960s was an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

period <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> foundation of urban<br />

studies, as we know <strong>the</strong>m today.<br />

Orig<strong>in</strong>al th<strong>in</strong>kers of <strong>the</strong> city<br />

appeared like a wave. In 1958, <strong>Jacobs</strong>’<br />

articles attracted <strong>the</strong> attention of<br />

<strong>the</strong> Rockefeller Foundation, which<br />

aspired to stimulate <strong>the</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

field of urban design. From <strong>the</strong><br />

conversations between <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>her</strong> contact at <strong>the</strong> foundation,<br />

Chadbourne Gilpatric, results <strong>the</strong><br />

Penn-Rockefeller Conference on Urban<br />

Design Critic<strong>is</strong>m, at <strong>the</strong> University<br />

of Pennsylvania (Laurence, 2016).<br />

In addition to <strong>Jacobs</strong>, t<strong>her</strong>e are<br />

both new <strong>and</strong> establ<strong>is</strong>hed exponents<br />

of urban th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g, notably Lew<strong>is</strong><br />

Mumford, Lou<strong>is</strong> Kahn, Kev<strong>in</strong> Lynch<br />

<strong>and</strong> econom<strong>is</strong>t William Wheaton<br />

(figure 2).<br />

The stature that <strong>the</strong>se<br />

participants would achieve <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

fields suggests an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

meet<strong>in</strong>g (<strong>and</strong> image, a k<strong>in</strong>d of urban<br />

th<strong>in</strong>kers’ ‘holy supper’). From it<br />

would come <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial support of<br />

<strong>the</strong> Rockefeller Foundation for <strong>the</strong><br />

production of The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of<br />

Great American Cities. In those same<br />

years, Kev<strong>in</strong> Lynch was develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />

h<strong>is</strong> method <strong>in</strong> Boston, Jersey<br />

City <strong>and</strong> Los Angeles, publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1960 as The Image of <strong>the</strong> City,<br />

also supported by <strong>the</strong> Rockefeller<br />

Foundation – <strong>and</strong> possibly <strong>the</strong> first<br />

book to <strong>in</strong>clude empirical research<br />

as a scientific study about cities,<br />

although it would not res<strong>is</strong>t rigorous<br />

empirical st<strong>and</strong>ards of today.<br />

Muratori <strong>and</strong> h<strong>is</strong> colleagues<br />

set up <strong>the</strong> Italian typological school<br />

<strong>in</strong> Studi per una operante storia urbana<br />

di Venezza, <strong>in</strong> 1960. Gordon Cullen<br />

launched h<strong>is</strong> method of observation<br />

<strong>in</strong> Townscape <strong>in</strong> 1961. In 1964,<br />

Chr<strong>is</strong>top<strong>her</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>er publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

h<strong>is</strong> first book Notes on <strong>the</strong> Syn<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong><br />

of Form, an impressive <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to<br />

<strong>the</strong> generation of form, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1965<br />

<strong>in</strong>augurates <strong>the</strong> topological v<strong>is</strong>ion of<br />

<strong>the</strong> city, parallel to h<strong>is</strong> description<br />

of <strong>the</strong> dual<strong>is</strong>m between reason <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tuition <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> design process, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

award-w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g article “A city <strong>is</strong> not a<br />

tree”. Between 1965 <strong>and</strong> 1968, Leslie<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Lionel March publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

articles on <strong>the</strong> performance of<br />

urban form arrangements, which<br />

<strong>the</strong>y would put toget<strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1972<br />

book Urban Space <strong>and</strong> Structure. In<br />

1969 <strong>Jacobs</strong> released <strong>her</strong> new book<br />

on <strong>the</strong> role of cities <strong>in</strong> economic<br />

life. Experiments with spatial<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction appeared <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> work of<br />

Alan Wilson <strong>in</strong> 1967 <strong>and</strong> Mike Batty<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1976, while, between 1972 <strong>and</strong><br />

1976, Hillier <strong>and</strong> colleagues began to<br />

emphasize <strong>the</strong> systemic role of street<br />

topology for societies as encounter<br />

systems (figure 3).<br />

These are some of <strong>the</strong><br />

approaches that <strong>in</strong>itiated urban<br />

studies as a field of scientific<br />

knowledge, unlike previous, modern<br />

<strong>and</strong> pre-modern normative <strong>the</strong>ories.<br />

It <strong>is</strong> no exaggeration to say that<br />

<strong>the</strong>se works have opened up entire<br />

That unforeseen event was<br />

one of <strong>the</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factors of <strong>her</strong><br />

trajectory. William H. Whyte, editor<br />

of Fortune magaz<strong>in</strong>e who would<br />

later become a recognized researc<strong>her</strong><br />

on <strong>the</strong> use of public spaces, heard<br />

about <strong>the</strong> lecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vited<br />

Figure 2 - Break for reception at <strong>the</strong> Conference on Urban Design Critic<strong>is</strong>m, Penn Institute,<br />

Westchester, NY (1958). Source: Grady Clay <strong>in</strong> Laurence (2016).<br />

35


Figure 3 - Timel<strong>in</strong>e for some of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> publications <strong>in</strong> urban<strong>is</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> 20th Century. Source: Author.<br />

l<strong>in</strong>es of <strong>in</strong>vestigation, co<strong>in</strong>cid<strong>in</strong>g<br />

with phenomenal areas uncovered<br />

by <strong>the</strong>se pioneers. However, <strong>the</strong><br />

status of urban <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>is</strong> still today<br />

questioned as ‘pre-scientific’ or<br />

‘pseudo-scientific’ (Marshall, 2012).<br />

Let us look at <strong>the</strong> status of <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> scenario.<br />

Ma<strong>in</strong> contributions<br />

T<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> a wonderful cons<strong>is</strong>tency of<br />

direction <strong>in</strong> your writ<strong>in</strong>gs, from <strong>the</strong><br />

earliest journal<strong>is</strong>m on parks <strong>and</strong> city<br />

corners through <strong>the</strong> organ<strong>is</strong>m of cities<br />

to <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of public life.<br />

David Warren, <strong>in</strong>terviewer for The<br />

Idler, 1993 (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016a: 324)<br />

cities, <strong>in</strong> The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great<br />

American Cities (1961). Like <strong>the</strong><br />

articles publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> 1958, <strong>the</strong> book<br />

brought ideas utterly foreign to <strong>the</strong><br />

canon of urban practice <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory<br />

– an achievement perhaps more<br />

possible to someone com<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

outside <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e orthodoxy.<br />

The admirable feat <strong>is</strong> that <strong>the</strong>se<br />

radical propositions would become<br />

part of <strong>the</strong> language <strong>and</strong> ‘common<br />

sense’ <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e today. These<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> importance of street<br />

<strong>and</strong> public contact; <strong>the</strong> idea of ​‘eyes<br />

on <strong>the</strong> street’; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘successful<br />

neighbourhood’ <strong>the</strong>ory.<br />

Today <strong>the</strong> idea that diversity<br />

<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> motor of urban vitality<br />

sounds self-evident – but only<br />

because <strong>Jacobs</strong> won <strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical<br />

battle <strong>and</strong> fed a new orthodoxy,<br />

now fixed, from New Urban<strong>is</strong>m to<br />

W<strong>her</strong>e did <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ thought<br />

go? After years of journal<strong>is</strong>tic<br />

work <strong>and</strong> observations of networks<br />

of <strong>in</strong>terdependencies <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> role<br />

of diversity <strong>in</strong> many cities <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong><br />

country, which led <strong>her</strong> from <strong>the</strong><br />

status of ‘urban th<strong>in</strong>ker’ <strong>in</strong> The<br />

Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great American<br />

Cities (1961) to <strong>her</strong> last work as a<br />

‘cultural th<strong>in</strong>ker’ <strong>in</strong> Dark Age Ahead<br />

(2004), <strong>Jacobs</strong> went through d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ct<br />

phases, progressively exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong><br />

substantive range (figure 4).<br />

Let us v<strong>is</strong>it th<strong>is</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>ian<br />

trajectory. The author criticizes<br />

modern urban<strong>is</strong>m, <strong>and</strong> br<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

alternative <strong>the</strong>oretical propositions<br />

to underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> function<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

Figure 4 - The <strong>Jacobs</strong> trajectory: ma<strong>in</strong> phases. Source: Author.<br />

36


<strong>the</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able city debate (Gordon<br />

<strong>and</strong> Ikeda, 2011). I underst<strong>and</strong><br />

that <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> contribution of th<strong>is</strong><br />

book, which <strong>is</strong> often regarded as <strong>the</strong><br />

most <strong>in</strong>fluential <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

<strong>is</strong> to identify <strong>the</strong> conditions<br />

of complexity as pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of<br />

self-organization, animated by<br />

microeconomic diversity <strong>and</strong> urban<br />

form. However, we will see that<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical system that <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

proposed <strong>in</strong> Death <strong>and</strong> Life <strong>is</strong> only <strong>the</strong><br />

beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> relationships that<br />

she would explore <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> subsequent<br />

phases. Many contributions were<br />

to come later <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> work on <strong>the</strong><br />

conditions of economic, moral, <strong>and</strong><br />

political life – underestimated <strong>in</strong> our<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e. <strong>Here</strong> we have <strong>the</strong> case<br />

w<strong>her</strong>e a book <strong>is</strong> so successful that<br />

it ends up eclips<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> work that<br />

follows. The fact that <strong>Jacobs</strong> moved<br />

toward <strong>the</strong> relationship between<br />

city, society, economy, ecology <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> moral conditions of social life,<br />

has possibly clashed with <strong>the</strong> borders<br />

of urban studies <strong>and</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ep<strong>is</strong>temologies. However, <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

attracted <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> anot<strong>her</strong> area of ​<br />

knowledge: spatial economics.<br />

“People ignore <strong>the</strong> common<br />

threads that run through economic<br />

life” (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016b [2005]:116).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> opens <strong>her</strong> book, The<br />

Economy of Cities, 1969, with a<br />

radical hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong>. It proposes a<br />

rejection of <strong>the</strong> idea that agriculture<br />

precedes cities: <strong>the</strong> assumption<br />

that cities depend on a condition<br />

of surplus agricultural production<br />

to ex<strong>is</strong>t. Instead, she proposes that<br />

<strong>the</strong> agricultural practice develops<br />

from <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> of <strong>the</strong> cities that<br />

<strong>the</strong>n arose. Cities like Çatal Höyük<br />

(7,500 <strong>and</strong> 5,700 BC), with about<br />

10,000 <strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>in</strong> Anatolia<br />

(today, Turkey), would emerge<br />

from commercial practices <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g div<strong>is</strong>ion of labour, mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual family subord<strong>in</strong>ate<br />

to larger <strong>and</strong> more complex social<br />

<strong>and</strong> economic formations. It <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

economy of cities emerg<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

would create new types of work <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> rural world. “Rural production<br />

<strong>is</strong> literally <strong>the</strong> creation of city<br />

consumption” (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1969:40).<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> an <strong>in</strong>telligent but also r<strong>is</strong>ky<br />

<strong>in</strong>ference, made without direct<br />

empirical <strong>in</strong>volvement, <strong>and</strong> without<br />

<strong>the</strong> support of archaeology’s<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>stream. <strong>Jacobs</strong> imag<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

cha<strong>in</strong>s of causes <strong>and</strong> effects, pil<strong>in</strong>g<br />

up <strong>in</strong>ference on <strong>in</strong>ference.<br />

In logical terms, <strong>the</strong><br />

hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> cons<strong>is</strong>tent: to believe<br />

that human cultures would produce<br />

technologies <strong>and</strong> surplus production<br />

without <strong>the</strong> concrete dem<strong>and</strong> of<br />

production makes little sense. It<br />

<strong>is</strong> like <strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g supply without<br />

dem<strong>and</strong>. But it might be possible<br />

to f<strong>in</strong>d common grounds capable<br />

of <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g strictly dated<br />

archaeological f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs (for example,<br />

on <strong>the</strong> objects <strong>and</strong> utensils used by<br />

<strong>the</strong> first farmers), <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> economic<br />

sense <strong>in</strong> agricultural <strong>and</strong> protourban<br />

practices <strong>in</strong>vestigated by<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>. Agriculture, as a practice<br />

of artificial <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

soil, may be older than <strong>the</strong> city,<br />

but agriculture compatible with<br />

larger scales <strong>and</strong> a technologically<br />

charged practice seems to depend<br />

on <strong>the</strong> creation of dem<strong>and</strong> – which<br />

<strong>in</strong> turn depends on large enough<br />

populations, also capable of creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

technologies for such <strong>in</strong>tensify<strong>in</strong>g<br />

practice. In any case, <strong>the</strong> protocity<br />

found <strong>in</strong> Anatolia, <strong>and</strong> later <strong>in</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong> regions, would feed <strong>the</strong> rural<br />

activity.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s provocation <strong>is</strong><br />

just <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g. Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> possibly<br />

<strong>her</strong> richest <strong>the</strong>oretical book. “How<br />

have cities acquired more div<strong>is</strong>ions<br />

of labor than ot<strong>her</strong> settlements?”<br />

(<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1969:50). She goes on to<br />

describe how new work progressively<br />

multiplies <strong>the</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of labour:<br />

D + A = nD<br />

w<strong>her</strong>e D <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of<br />

labour, A <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> new activity, <strong>and</strong><br />

n <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> number of new div<strong>is</strong>ions<br />

created from <strong>the</strong> addition of A.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> addresses <strong>the</strong> spontaneous<br />

generation of economies w<strong>her</strong>e<br />

‘one k<strong>in</strong>d of labour leads to <strong>the</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong>’. Th<strong>is</strong> progressive addition<br />

<strong>in</strong>creases possibilities of comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g div<strong>is</strong>ions. It <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />

accidents <strong>and</strong> unpredictability,<br />

which we now call ‘serendipity’ –<br />

<strong>in</strong>cidental <strong>in</strong>novations stemm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from exposure to <strong>and</strong> connections<br />

between ideas that are <strong>in</strong>itially alien<br />

to one anot<strong>her</strong>, <strong>and</strong> that cannot be<br />

anticipated. “The greater <strong>the</strong> sheer<br />

numbers <strong>and</strong> varieties of div<strong>is</strong>ions<br />

of labor already achieved <strong>in</strong> an<br />

economy, <strong>the</strong> greater <strong>the</strong> economy’s<br />

<strong>in</strong><strong>her</strong>ent capacity […] for comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g div<strong>is</strong>ions of labor <strong>in</strong> new<br />

ways” (p.59) (figure 5).<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> one reason why a<br />

top-down, vertically centralized<br />

economy hampers <strong>the</strong> spontaneous<br />

generation of new activities or<br />

specializations. They block <strong>the</strong><br />

process of <strong>in</strong>novation <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

deepen<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of labour <strong>in</strong><br />

an organic way. Predef<strong>in</strong>ed categories<br />

<strong>and</strong> a totaliz<strong>in</strong>g plann<strong>in</strong>g limit <strong>the</strong><br />

emergence of new activities <strong>and</strong><br />

techniques, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>atorial<br />

processes of <strong>in</strong>novation. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

addresses <strong>her</strong>e <strong>the</strong> material<br />

conditions of serendipity. On <strong>the</strong><br />

Figure 5 - Progressive multiplications <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of labour, from new activities.<br />

Source: derived from <strong>Jacobs</strong> (1969a)<br />

37


ot<strong>her</strong> h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> also critical of<br />

<strong>the</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of<br />

labour orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> Adam Smith,<br />

centred on <strong>the</strong> organization of labour.<br />

Instead, <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s focus <strong>is</strong> on <strong>the</strong><br />

emerg<strong>in</strong>g, self-organized process of<br />

specialization, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> creation<br />

<strong>and</strong> diffusion of new activities <strong>and</strong><br />

div<strong>is</strong>ions from old ones. The div<strong>is</strong>ion<br />

of labour <strong>is</strong> lively <strong>and</strong> relational <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, a pattern of transformation<br />

of <strong>the</strong> economy from <strong>the</strong> breakdown<br />

of manufactur<strong>in</strong>g processes<br />

performed by productive agents. A<br />

complex product <strong>in</strong>itially imported<br />

to a local economy (a city or region)<br />

beg<strong>in</strong>s to have its parts produced<br />

endogenously, eventually lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to <strong>the</strong> substitution of <strong>the</strong> import.<br />

Ga<strong>in</strong>s from learn<strong>in</strong>g processes <strong>in</strong><br />

import substitution often <strong>in</strong>volve<br />

ot<strong>her</strong> sectors, diversify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> local economy, <strong>and</strong><br />

releas<strong>in</strong>g powerful multiplier effects<br />

<strong>and</strong> new potential exports.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> believed that th<strong>is</strong><br />

was <strong>her</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> d<strong>is</strong>covery, for which<br />

she would like to be remembered<br />

(<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2001). Interest<strong>in</strong>gly,<br />

<strong>the</strong> idea <strong>is</strong> directly derived from<br />

<strong>her</strong> earlier f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs on <strong>the</strong> urban<br />

conditions of diversity, density<br />

<strong>and</strong> vitality. Th<strong>is</strong> new <strong>the</strong>ory took<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g like two decades to f<strong>in</strong>d<br />

repercussions, but was <strong>in</strong>terpreted<br />

<strong>in</strong> economic geography <strong>in</strong> a rat<strong>her</strong><br />

prolific direction: <strong>the</strong> spillover effects,<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduced by <strong>the</strong> econom<strong>is</strong>t Alfred<br />

Marshall (1890). In contrast to<br />

Marshall’s emphas<strong>is</strong> on knowledge<br />

<strong>and</strong> productivity ga<strong>in</strong>s overflow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from specialization <strong>and</strong> spatial<br />

concentration of activities with<strong>in</strong> an<br />

economic sector (say, <strong>in</strong> a city that<br />

grows by hav<strong>in</strong>g many activities<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong>dustry), <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

emphasizes <strong>the</strong> positive ga<strong>in</strong>s of <strong>the</strong><br />

exchanges between d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ct sectors of<br />

<strong>the</strong> local economy, through <strong>the</strong> crossfertilization<br />

of ideas. Interactions<br />

between people <strong>in</strong> cities help <strong>the</strong>m<br />

to have ideas <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>novate. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

also favours local competition<br />

because she believes it speeds up<br />

<strong>the</strong> adoption of new technologies.<br />

Her <strong>the</strong>ory predicts that <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />

located <strong>in</strong> highly diversified areas<br />

will grow faster. Like Marshall,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> refers to <strong>the</strong> value of diversity<br />

<strong>and</strong> complementarity <strong>in</strong> labour<br />

supply to reduce r<strong>is</strong>ks generated by<br />

economic fluctuations (Rosenthal<br />

<strong>and</strong> Strange, 2004). As we shall see<br />

below, <strong>the</strong> benefits of local economic<br />

diversity were later subjected to<br />

rigorous empirical verification, <strong>and</strong><br />

were named ‘<strong>Jacobs</strong> economies’.<br />

The Question of Separat<strong>is</strong>m:<br />

Quebec <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Struggle over<br />

Sovereignty (1980) br<strong>in</strong>gs an<br />

38<br />

argument about <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />

of <strong>the</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Quebec <strong>and</strong><br />

its possible effects on ot<strong>her</strong> cities<br />

<strong>and</strong> regions of Canada. The book<br />

was criticized <strong>in</strong> Canada, for its<br />

underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of local politics. Out<br />

of pr<strong>in</strong>t today, it exam<strong>in</strong>es h<strong>is</strong>torical<br />

<strong>and</strong> political <strong>is</strong>sues of separation,<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir economic implications.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> not surpr<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g, given <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

radical <strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> on <strong>the</strong> role of cities<br />

<strong>in</strong> economic life as superior to that<br />

of countries – which she would<br />

explicitly develop <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> next book.<br />

The iconoclast <strong>is</strong> alive <strong>in</strong><br />

Cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Wealth of Nations<br />

(1985), title that evokes Adam<br />

Smith’s classic. Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with<br />

broad critical reviews of economic<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory s<strong>in</strong>ce Smith <strong>and</strong> Marx <strong>and</strong><br />

advanc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong> assertion of <strong>the</strong> city<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> economic life of a society,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> now questions what she<br />

calls <strong>the</strong> unexam<strong>in</strong>ed assumption<br />

of economics: <strong>the</strong> “mercantil<strong>is</strong>t<br />

tautology that nations are <strong>the</strong><br />

salient entities for underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

structure of economic life” (<strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

1985: 30; 44). <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s ma<strong>in</strong> (<strong>and</strong><br />

radical) proposition <strong>is</strong> to put <strong>the</strong> city<br />

at <strong>the</strong> centre of economic analys<strong>is</strong>,<br />

explor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> mechan<strong>is</strong>m d<strong>is</strong>covered<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous book: <strong>the</strong> forces<br />

set <strong>in</strong> motion by cities immersed<br />

<strong>in</strong> processes of substitut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

imports – forces that will shape<br />

networks of cities <strong>and</strong> regions, with<br />

effects on nations. The city should<br />

assume th<strong>is</strong> prom<strong>in</strong>ence because<br />

nations depend on cities as networks<br />

of production <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>novation – an<br />

idea recently emphasized by Glaeser<br />

(2010).<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> approach <strong>is</strong> advanced<br />

<strong>in</strong> Systems of Survival (1992) by<br />

exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g Plato’s idea of ​two<br />

radically different but symbiotic<br />

systems of fundamental values: <strong>the</strong><br />

‘trade syndrome’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘guardian<br />

syndrome’ (‘syndrome’ as <strong>in</strong> Greek,<br />

mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘th<strong>in</strong>gs that run toget<strong>her</strong>’).<br />

The first syndrome <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘impulse<br />

to trade’, <strong>the</strong> voluntary agreement<br />

as <strong>the</strong> essence of exchange between<br />

people, a pillar of concrete<br />

material life from <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of <strong>the</strong> formation of complex<br />

div<strong>is</strong>ions of labour. Elements of<br />

cosmopolitan<strong>is</strong>m emerge from <strong>the</strong><br />

presence of strangers do<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />

<strong>in</strong> commercial places <strong>and</strong> cities – a<br />

“functional necessity becom<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

cultural trait” (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1992: 35),<br />

an ability to deal with <strong>the</strong> material<br />

reproduction generally ignored <strong>in</strong><br />

philosophy (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016a: 295).<br />

The second pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, on <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>is</strong> related to moral life <strong>and</strong><br />

responsibility over <strong>the</strong> territory,<br />

to <strong>the</strong> impulse to governmental<br />

organization, to create movements<br />

of social groups, <strong>and</strong> to loyalty to<br />

<strong>the</strong> public <strong>in</strong>terest. <strong>Jacobs</strong> identifies<br />

<strong>the</strong>se two pr<strong>in</strong>ciples as responsible<br />

for societal functions, operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

around d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ct but complementary<br />

sets of moral precepts such as<br />

<strong>the</strong> rejection of force, focus on<br />

efficiency <strong>and</strong> creativity, support<br />

<strong>in</strong> voluntary agreements, respect<br />

for contracts, ethos of work <strong>and</strong><br />

collaboration with strangers, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

trade syndrome; <strong>and</strong> ad<strong>her</strong>ence to<br />

tradition, rejection of commerce,<br />

respect for hierarchy <strong>and</strong> focus on<br />

justice <strong>and</strong> loyalty, on <strong>the</strong> guardian<br />

syndrome. These two pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />

govern different <strong>in</strong>stances of social<br />

life, such as material reproduction <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> first case, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> governance of<br />

groups <strong>and</strong> territories <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> second.<br />

Science would flour<strong>is</strong>h<br />

<strong>in</strong> societies that would atta<strong>in</strong><br />

commercial vitality: <strong>the</strong> logic of<br />

scientific contribution seems to<br />

echo <strong>and</strong> depend on <strong>the</strong> freedom<br />

of economic <strong>and</strong> cultural exchange<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of collaborations<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiatives (I would add<br />

<strong>the</strong> guardian’s moral oversight<br />

preserv<strong>in</strong>g commercial d<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>terest<br />

<strong>and</strong> public spirit <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sciences).<br />

The arts could flour<strong>is</strong>h even under<br />

more socially controll<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />

of organization. Conflicts emerge<br />

when we mix syndromes, or attempt<br />

to operate <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong>dividually from<br />

<strong>the</strong> precepts of <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> syndrome<br />

– for example, operat<strong>in</strong>g a state<br />

as a commercial enterpr<strong>is</strong>e, or an<br />

economy with <strong>the</strong> totaliz<strong>in</strong>g logic<br />

or <strong>the</strong> centraliz<strong>in</strong>g authority of<br />

<strong>the</strong> guardian (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1992; 2016a<br />

[1993]: 291). Divided loyalties <strong>in</strong> a<br />

government can lead to corruption:<br />

rulers can offer favours motivated<br />

by <strong>the</strong> logic of exchange. These<br />

situations lead to what she calls<br />

‘monstrous moral hybrids,’ such as<br />

corrupt governments, governments<br />

that d<strong>is</strong>da<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> centrality of<br />

commercial life <strong>in</strong> material<br />

reproduction, or governments that<br />

d<strong>is</strong>da<strong>in</strong> social arrangements open to<br />

<strong>the</strong> spontaneous emergence of new<br />

agencies <strong>and</strong> actions.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> an <strong>in</strong>ductive<br />

construction, based on observations<br />

of people’s moral reactions to<br />

different social behaviours,<br />

publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> newspapers <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

vehicles. The Platonic dual<strong>is</strong>m of<br />

<strong>the</strong> impulse to trade <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> impulse<br />

to <strong>the</strong> responsibility of tradition <strong>and</strong><br />

territory taken to <strong>the</strong> category of<br />

civiliz<strong>in</strong>g functions sounds unusual,<br />

but it recalls <strong>the</strong> categories of<br />

social action of Max Weber (1972:<br />

24), such as <strong>in</strong>strumental action


<strong>and</strong> action motivated by tradition.<br />

It draws ma<strong>in</strong>ly on <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

of h<strong>is</strong>torian Henri Pirenne’s<br />

Medieval Cities: Their Orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Revival of Trade (1925), <strong>and</strong> h<strong>is</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>cussion of <strong>the</strong> tensions between<br />

political, economic organization<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> transformations that led<br />

to unprecedented structures of<br />

freedom <strong>and</strong> democracy (Page <strong>and</strong><br />

Mennel, 2011).<br />

In The Nature of<br />

Economies (2000), <strong>Jacobs</strong>, <strong>the</strong>n<br />

84, problematizes both common<br />

sense <strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>ary views about<br />

<strong>the</strong> separation of ‘economy’ <strong>and</strong><br />

‘ecology’, <strong>and</strong> seeks to open “a<br />

breach <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> barrier that separates<br />

human species <strong>and</strong> its activity of<br />

<strong>the</strong> rest of nature” (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2000).<br />

Of course, t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> common<br />

etymological root: <strong>the</strong> prefix of both,<br />

‘eco’, <strong>is</strong> derived from <strong>the</strong> Greek oiko,<br />

mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘house’; <strong>the</strong> suffix ‘nomia’<br />

means ‘management’, ‘logy’ means<br />

‘logic’ or ‘knowledge’. In addition,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> evokes parallels between <strong>the</strong><br />

two phenomenal fields as “<strong>in</strong>tricate<br />

networks of <strong>in</strong>terdependence” (p.20).<br />

Her <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>is</strong> to extend <strong>the</strong> study of<br />

ecology as ‘<strong>the</strong> economy of nature,’<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduced by Victorian scholars,<br />

toward <strong>the</strong> study of ‘<strong>the</strong> nature of<br />

economics.’ Economic science would<br />

not yet have understood that nature<br />

lays <strong>the</strong> foundations of human life,<br />

as well as its limits. At <strong>the</strong> same time,<br />

natural processes <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples,<br />

which are not a human creation,<br />

govern economic life. As such, <strong>the</strong>y<br />

cannot be transcended.<br />

I equate [<strong>the</strong> process of economic<br />

expansion] to what happens with<br />

biomass, <strong>the</strong> sum total of all flora<br />

<strong>and</strong> fauna <strong>in</strong> an area. The energy,<br />

<strong>the</strong> material that’s <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong>,<br />

doesn’t just escape <strong>the</strong> community<br />

as an export. It cont<strong>in</strong>ues be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

used <strong>in</strong> a community, just as <strong>in</strong> a<br />

ra<strong>in</strong>forest <strong>the</strong> waste from certa<strong>in</strong><br />

organ<strong>is</strong>ms <strong>and</strong> various plants <strong>and</strong><br />

animals gets used by ot<strong>her</strong> ones <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> place. (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2001)<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> proposes three<br />

universal pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uity<br />

<strong>and</strong> development of ecological<br />

<strong>and</strong> economic systems: (i) <strong>the</strong><br />

differentiation of natural or economic<br />

events emerges from ‘generality’ as a<br />

contextual condition. For example,<br />

<strong>the</strong> fertilized egg <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> condition<br />

of generality from which repetition<br />

<strong>and</strong> differentiation will emerge <strong>in</strong><br />

cell reproduction. (ii) Differentiation<br />

generates new generalities,<br />

from which new differentiations<br />

may emerge. (iii) Development<br />

depends on co-development. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

apparent tautology means that <strong>the</strong><br />

development of a system operates<br />

as a web of <strong>in</strong>terdependencies.<br />

The process <strong>is</strong> open <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensifies<br />

<strong>the</strong> diversity of co-development<br />

<strong>in</strong>to more numerous <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tricate<br />

relationships, exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se<br />

systems. Furt<strong>her</strong>more, <strong>her</strong><br />

exploration of concepts such as<br />

‘critical mass’ <strong>and</strong> differentiation<br />

evokes a spatial component already<br />

present <strong>in</strong> The Economy of Cities:<br />

<strong>the</strong> importance of <strong>the</strong> location<br />

of events that make up such<br />

processes – a material pr<strong>in</strong>ciple<br />

now also extrapolated to biological<br />

phenomena.<br />

In <strong>her</strong> latest book publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

<strong>in</strong> life, Dark Age Ahead (2004),<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> somehow refra<strong>in</strong>s from <strong>her</strong><br />

work as a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t, to take on <strong>the</strong><br />

role of ‘critic of <strong>the</strong> times’. She was<br />

88 years old. Even not appreciative<br />

of exerc<strong>is</strong>es <strong>in</strong> futurology, <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

sounds terribly premonitory <strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong><br />

particular book. For example, four<br />

years before <strong>the</strong> recent global cr<strong>is</strong><strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> 2008, which started <strong>in</strong> real estate<br />

f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g agencies, <strong>Jacobs</strong> states<br />

that: “In any case, sooner or later<br />

[<strong>the</strong> house price] bubble must burst,<br />

as <strong>in</strong>evitably all bubbles do when<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir surfaces are not supported by<br />

commensurate <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> economic<br />

production” (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2004:148).<br />

She po<strong>in</strong>ts out five tendencies of<br />

cultural cr<strong>is</strong><strong>is</strong> – no more restricted<br />

to <strong>the</strong> urban ethnographic universe,<br />

but to <strong>the</strong> trends of practices that,<br />

like small everyday events, build<br />

systemic relationships that go far<br />

beyond <strong>the</strong> local <strong>and</strong> contextual.<br />

• Community <strong>and</strong> family:<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ance of consumer<strong>is</strong>m<br />

over welfare, <strong>in</strong>debtedness<br />

over <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e of family<br />

budgets; search for <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

tax advantages at <strong>the</strong> expense<br />

of community welfare.<br />

• Educat<strong>in</strong>g versus credential<strong>in</strong>g: a<br />

university system more focused<br />

on provid<strong>in</strong>g credentials than<br />

high-quality education.<br />

• Science ab<strong>and</strong>oned: retreat of<br />

science as a construction of<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>and</strong> co<strong>her</strong>ent bodies<br />

of knowledge; r<strong>is</strong>e of economics<br />

as <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> science to consider<br />

<strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g political dec<strong>is</strong>ions.<br />

• Governance practices:<br />

governments are more focused<br />

on <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest of groups than<br />

on <strong>the</strong> well be<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

Figure 6 - Ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical contributions. Source: Author<br />

39


populations. Modern political<br />

<strong>and</strong> economic ideologies are<br />

no different from those that<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>the</strong> past of Western<br />

civilization, such as Catholic<strong>is</strong>m<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle Ages. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

rejects <strong>the</strong> concept of ‘ideology’<br />

for offer<strong>in</strong>g prefabricated<br />

responses, d<strong>is</strong>courag<strong>in</strong>g people<br />

from f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g rational solutions<br />

<strong>and</strong> scientifically verifiable<br />

explanations.<br />

• Self-regulatory practices: <strong>in</strong><br />

opposition to self-observation,<br />

groups tend to exert<br />

conservative practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

own preservation, <strong>in</strong> spite of<br />

ethical, collective harm.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> neit<strong>her</strong> a work of<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory nor a normative political<br />

project. <strong>Here</strong> we have an <strong>in</strong>formed<br />

analys<strong>is</strong> of events <strong>and</strong> volatile<br />

structures, <strong>and</strong> a clamour for<br />

attention to <strong>the</strong> fragilities of<br />

contemporary societies.<br />

The economic development<br />

approach <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> The<br />

Economy of Cities would be resumed<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> next project, Uncover<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

Economy, which we shall v<strong>is</strong>it later.<br />

Taken toget<strong>her</strong>, <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s arguments<br />

went through markedly different<br />

stages, <strong>the</strong>matic expansion <strong>and</strong><br />

progression, supported by preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />

propositions. Each phase took years<br />

to emerge, which occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> slow production of <strong>the</strong> books<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves (figure 6).<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t?<br />

40<br />

Theories <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> abstractions are<br />

powerful tools only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> limited sense<br />

that <strong>the</strong> Greek mythological giant<br />

Antaeus was powerful. When Antaeus<br />

was not <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>timate contact with earth,<br />

h<strong>is</strong> strength rapidly ebbed. The aim<br />

of […] th<strong>is</strong> book <strong>is</strong> to br<strong>in</strong>g rarefied<br />

economic abstractions <strong>in</strong>to contact<br />

with earthy realities, mean<strong>in</strong>g universal<br />

processes of development, growth <strong>and</strong><br />

stability that govern economic life.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, The Nature of Economies<br />

(2000:ix)<br />

Because <strong>Jacobs</strong> had no<br />

academic tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fields of<br />

urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong>ory, or design,<br />

some rat<strong>her</strong> elit<strong>is</strong>t critics share<br />

<strong>the</strong> impression that she was not a<br />

systematic th<strong>in</strong>ker. Her first book<br />

was criticized for be<strong>in</strong>g ‘unscientific’,<br />

‘anecdotal’ <strong>and</strong> even ‘amateur<strong>is</strong>h’. 1<br />

However, <strong>the</strong> ideas I have<br />

summarized above would hardly<br />

1 Hospers (2006); Larice<br />

<strong>and</strong> Macdonald (2007); Harr<strong>is</strong> (2011); see<br />

Marshall (2012).<br />

support <strong>the</strong>se impressions. On <strong>the</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong> h<strong>and</strong>, exaltations of <strong>Jacobs</strong> as<br />

‘a genius of <strong>the</strong> common-sense,’ as<br />

Lang <strong>and</strong> Wunsch (2009) put it, are<br />

not accurate eit<strong>her</strong>. <strong>Jacobs</strong> thought<br />

about ord<strong>in</strong>ary life, but with a<br />

remarkable underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>v<strong>is</strong>ible threads beh<strong>in</strong>d everyday<br />

events. She did not consider <strong>her</strong>self<br />

an abstract th<strong>in</strong>ker (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016b<br />

[2001]: 77), but <strong>in</strong>vested much of <strong>her</strong><br />

work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pursuit of threads beyond<br />

observation: relations not entirely<br />

apparent to anyone, which must be<br />

reconstructed by imag<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong><br />

abstraction.<br />

Second, we need to state<br />

what <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>and</strong> how it <strong>is</strong> produced.<br />

A <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>is</strong> a proposition of a<br />

co<strong>her</strong>ent system of explanation of a<br />

phenomenon. It <strong>is</strong> not only produced<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classical hypo<strong>the</strong>tic format,<br />

followed by empirical demonstration<br />

– <strong>the</strong> so-called deductive method.<br />

T<strong>her</strong>e are <strong>in</strong>ductive methods, start<strong>in</strong>g<br />

with extensive field observations<br />

followed by <strong>the</strong> explanation.<br />

Although <strong>her</strong> first work was largely<br />

<strong>in</strong>ductive, <strong>Jacobs</strong> produced <strong>the</strong>ory<br />

<strong>in</strong> both ways. Many critics seem<br />

to associate ‘<strong>the</strong>oriz<strong>in</strong>g’ with some<br />

formal method, such as ma<strong>the</strong>matic<br />

ones. But of course th<strong>is</strong> does not<br />

have to be <strong>the</strong> case. Theoriz<strong>in</strong>g may<br />

<strong>in</strong>volve a range of languages, from<br />

verbal to quantitative ones. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

expla<strong>in</strong>ed phenomena such as urban<br />

diversity, <strong>the</strong> creation of cities, <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

explosions of growth, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> effects<br />

of diversity <strong>in</strong> fertiliz<strong>in</strong>g an economy.<br />

She did not propose equations for<br />

<strong>the</strong>se matters (except for a small,<br />

elegant, probably rhetoric one, as we<br />

saw above). But th<strong>is</strong> does not remove<br />

<strong>the</strong> explanatory function of <strong>her</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>orization. <strong>Jacobs</strong> believed that<br />

she operated with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> scientific<br />

method (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016b [1993]: 319)<br />

– but what can be fairly said <strong>is</strong> that<br />

she did not make use of <strong>the</strong> scientific<br />

method <strong>in</strong> its full extent. Theoriz<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

whet<strong>her</strong> from observations or from<br />

hypo<strong>the</strong>ses, <strong>is</strong> only part of <strong>the</strong><br />

scientific method. Anot<strong>her</strong> part<br />

<strong>in</strong>volves rigorous confrontation with<br />

<strong>the</strong> empirical problem – whet<strong>her</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>ductively, at <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigation, or at <strong>the</strong> end, <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> verification of hypo<strong>the</strong>ses. She<br />

relied on observations <strong>in</strong> several<br />

cities she v<strong>is</strong>ited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> years lead<strong>in</strong>g up to Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life, <strong>and</strong> sought economic data<br />

support for The Economy of Cities.<br />

But <strong>Jacobs</strong> did not test <strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>ories<br />

a posteriori. Th<strong>is</strong> practice <strong>is</strong> not<br />

uncommon <strong>in</strong> a d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> which<br />

few <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>ts verify <strong>the</strong>ir ideas<br />

with empirical rigour. However,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> understood <strong>the</strong> necessity of<br />

observ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> phenomenon before<br />

dictat<strong>in</strong>g how it should be <strong>in</strong> reality.<br />

She urged readers to keep a sceptical<br />

view of <strong>her</strong> ideas <strong>and</strong> confront <strong>the</strong>m<br />

with <strong>the</strong>ir experiences, <strong>and</strong> she<br />

appreciated <strong>the</strong> use of evidence as<br />

an <strong>in</strong>tegral stage of <strong>the</strong> scientific<br />

method. 2<br />

In explor<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>in</strong>ductive<br />

<strong>and</strong> deductive propositions,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> constructed a broad <strong>the</strong>ory<br />

encompass<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ‘small’ <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> ‘large’ conditions – from <strong>the</strong><br />

microscopic events of urban life<br />

to broad propositions such as <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

role <strong>in</strong> generat<strong>in</strong>g an ‘organized<br />

complexity’. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s <strong>the</strong>oretical<br />

ability <strong>in</strong>volves deriv<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />

of abstract relations between<br />

events observed <strong>in</strong> detail, <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>n embedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>s<br />

of <strong>in</strong>teraction. Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> spirit<br />

of a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> broad sense of<br />

<strong>the</strong> word: someone who expresses<br />

<strong>her</strong>self through language as a way of<br />

construct<strong>in</strong>g explanations. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

was not afraid to take ep<strong>is</strong>temological<br />

r<strong>is</strong>ks. Her <strong>the</strong>ory was not centred on<br />

‘local<strong>is</strong>m’ or ‘communitarian<strong>is</strong>m’,<br />

as some might th<strong>in</strong>k. It brought<br />

an organic view of spontaneous<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>and</strong> relationships that<br />

<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>the</strong> local but transcended<br />

it, build<strong>in</strong>g generalizations from<br />

observed cases – while emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

care <strong>in</strong> not replicat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m without<br />

attention to context (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1993<br />

[1961]: 575-6).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> was not alien to <strong>the</strong><br />

importance of empirical evidence.<br />

She critically understood <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>relevance</strong> of stat<strong>is</strong>tics, but also<br />

noted that <strong>the</strong> technique captures<br />

correlations rat<strong>her</strong> than causalities.<br />

She believed that ‘anecdotal<br />

evidences’ made more empirical<br />

sense to <strong>the</strong> reader, which was <strong>her</strong><br />

great goal (<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016a [2001]:<br />

376). Th<strong>is</strong> way of illustrat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pr<strong>in</strong>ciples bares little relation to <strong>the</strong><br />

technical procedures of research<br />

today, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> necessity<br />

of demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g that an idea <strong>is</strong><br />

empirically <strong>the</strong> case. She achieved<br />

a number of memorable f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

probably because she observed<br />

dozens of cities, travel<strong>in</strong>g as a<br />

journal<strong>is</strong>t to study economic sectors<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1950s, which led to reduced<br />

r<strong>is</strong>ks of error <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ductions. But<br />

today, after decades of development<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e, a modus oper<strong>and</strong>i<br />

based on ‘naked eye’ observations<br />

2 “Science <strong>is</strong> d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

from ot<strong>her</strong> pursuits by <strong>the</strong> prec<strong>is</strong>e <strong>and</strong><br />

limited <strong>in</strong>telectual means that it employs<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrity with which it uses its<br />

limited means” <strong>Jacobs</strong> (2004:65; 66-71); cf.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> (2016a [2001]:372).


cannot be considered sufficient as<br />

a method. In addition to <strong>the</strong> need<br />

for rigorous methods, Durkheim’s<br />

(1984) maxim <strong>is</strong> worth not<strong>in</strong>g: a<br />

few selected cases are not enough to<br />

demonstrate a <strong>the</strong>ory.<br />

Of course, a body of<br />

propositions of th<strong>is</strong> ambition <strong>and</strong><br />

impact would not be left without<br />

challenges. On <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> worked at <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of a field of knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />

outside <strong>in</strong>stitutional or academic<br />

frameworks, some might th<strong>in</strong>k<br />

that it <strong>is</strong> not entirely fair to submit<br />

<strong>her</strong> ideas to empirical scrut<strong>in</strong>y.<br />

The studies mentioned below do<br />

not dim<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>h <strong>her</strong> contributions<br />

by subject<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m to st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />

that were not even present at <strong>the</strong><br />

beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>her</strong> trajectory <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e. <strong>Jacobs</strong> was not a scient<strong>is</strong>t,<br />

she was a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t, open<strong>in</strong>g doors to<br />

new underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs. On <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

h<strong>and</strong>, no <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>is</strong> above <strong>the</strong> need<br />

for verification. A <strong>the</strong>ory might not<br />

be verifiable, if it deals with elements<br />

that cannot be directly observed.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> not uncommon <strong>in</strong> social<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory <strong>and</strong> philosophy, which deal<br />

with th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> relationships that<br />

often transcend concrete situations.<br />

For ot<strong>her</strong> cases, to submit a <strong>the</strong>ory<br />

to rigorous exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>is</strong>, <strong>in</strong> fact, a<br />

way of consolidat<strong>in</strong>g it. T<strong>her</strong>efore,<br />

let us see how <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s propositions<br />

have been viewed empirically.<br />

Verify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s urban<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s urban <strong>the</strong>ory faced<br />

critic<strong>is</strong>m, of course. Weic<strong>her</strong> (1973)<br />

<strong>and</strong> Schmidt (1977) seem to have<br />

made <strong>the</strong> first empirical clashes. They<br />

tested ‘successful neighbourhood’<br />

variables identified <strong>in</strong> Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life as <strong>in</strong>dicators of crime <strong>in</strong>cidence<br />

(namely, juvenile del<strong>in</strong>quency),<br />

mental health (proxy for health,<br />

term used by <strong>Jacobs</strong>) <strong>and</strong> mortality<br />

rates <strong>in</strong> two American cities, Chicago<br />

(sixty-five areas studied by Weic<strong>her</strong>)<br />

<strong>and</strong> Denver (Schmidt). They also<br />

used urban variables like diversity<br />

of l<strong>and</strong> use, block size, variation <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> age of build<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> density<br />

of residential units (represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sufficient concentration of people).<br />

These papers do not provide detailed<br />

descriptions of <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>the</strong>mselves,<br />

but po<strong>in</strong>t out a number of flaws <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>ian <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>in</strong> predict<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> effects of urban factors on crime,<br />

mortality, <strong>and</strong> health. Schmidt<br />

even found a negative relationship<br />

between density <strong>and</strong> diversity,<br />

which contradicts spatial economic<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory from Alonso (1964) onwards.<br />

On <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> h<strong>and</strong>, Weic<strong>her</strong> found<br />

traces that large blocks seem to<br />

have negative impacts on diversity.<br />

A later study by Fowler (1987)<br />

found more support for <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory <strong>in</strong> Toronto, although it did<br />

not confirm or refute <strong>the</strong> need for<br />

<strong>the</strong> four conditions of diversity (see<br />

Marshall, 2012).<br />

The fact that <strong>Jacobs</strong> has<br />

not confronted <strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory with<br />

<strong>the</strong> empirical world rigorously,<br />

with adequate methodological<br />

resources, exposes <strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory to<br />

r<strong>is</strong>ks of imprec<strong>is</strong>ion. Yet test<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

four conditions of urban diversity<br />

for successful neighbourhoods as<br />

a ‘package’ may not be <strong>the</strong> best<br />

way to verify <strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory. The key<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> any <strong>the</strong>ory check <strong>is</strong> how<br />

to deal with <strong>the</strong> variables <strong>and</strong><br />

relationships at stake. First we<br />

need to underst<strong>and</strong> how much<br />

<strong>the</strong>se variables represent <strong>the</strong> actual<br />

phenomenon. Perhaps <strong>the</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>is</strong><br />

not to evaluate neighbourhoods as<br />

spatial entities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>and</strong> to<br />

confront <strong>the</strong>m with variables such as<br />

crime or health, as <strong>Jacobs</strong> proposed<br />

literally. In order to underst<strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> relationship between form <strong>and</strong><br />

urban vitality, we should look for<br />

more microscopic factors with<strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong><br />

package. Causations <strong>in</strong>ferred by a<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory may be out t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> real<br />

world, but <strong>the</strong>y need appropriate<br />

ways to be recognized accurately,<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> tricky part of mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

science. F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> right spatial <strong>and</strong><br />

social entities to capture mean<strong>in</strong>gful<br />

relationships between <strong>the</strong> factors at<br />

play <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> most delicate po<strong>in</strong>t for<br />

success <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g a <strong>the</strong>ory, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

its verification.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> what a study of<br />

dozens of areas, seven hundreds<br />

street segments <strong>and</strong> eight thous<strong>and</strong>s<br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> three Brazilian capitals<br />

(Rio de <strong>Jane</strong>iro, Porto Alegre <strong>and</strong><br />

Florianópol<strong>is</strong>) attempted to do<br />

(Netto et al, 2012; Netto, 2017).<br />

It analysed urban form <strong>in</strong> a more<br />

analytical way than categories<br />

like ‘neighbourhood’ <strong>and</strong> general<br />

character<strong>is</strong>tics such as density. It<br />

focused on build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> a way to<br />

classify <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong>to an architectural<br />

typology. As factors of a successful<br />

neighbourhood, <strong>the</strong> study used <strong>the</strong><br />

number of pedestrians <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> streets<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>and</strong> diversity of<br />

activities <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs (ground<br />

<strong>and</strong> upper floors). In <strong>the</strong> three<br />

capitals, it found positive stat<strong>is</strong>tical<br />

correlations between vitality factors<br />

<strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs of ‘cont<strong>in</strong>uous’<br />

type (attached to <strong>the</strong> neighbour,<br />

generat<strong>in</strong>g more compact blocks),<br />

which <strong>Jacobs</strong> associated with <strong>the</strong><br />

traditional block, such as Greenwich<br />

Village. It has found negative<br />

correlations with towers or <strong>the</strong><br />

‘<strong>is</strong>olated’ type (<strong>Jacobs</strong> referred to <strong>the</strong><br />

spaces between modern build<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> low occupancy rate,<br />

generat<strong>in</strong>g d<strong>is</strong>cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>and</strong> more<br />

rarefied blocks). F<strong>in</strong>ally, it has also<br />

found strongly positive relationships<br />

between w<strong>in</strong>dow <strong>and</strong> pedestrian<br />

densities, between commercial<br />

<strong>and</strong> pedestrian activities, <strong>and</strong>, to a<br />

lesser extent, between <strong>the</strong> presence<br />

of pedestrians <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> diversity<br />

of activities. <strong>Jacobs</strong> did not use<br />

<strong>the</strong> concept of architectural types,<br />

but <strong>the</strong> spirit of <strong>her</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g can<br />

be translated by th<strong>is</strong> concept <strong>in</strong> a<br />

more analytical <strong>and</strong> prec<strong>is</strong>e way.<br />

The method has found stat<strong>is</strong>tical<br />

evidence of causality between<br />

character<strong>is</strong>tics of urban space <strong>and</strong><br />

urban vitality, corroborat<strong>in</strong>g central<br />

substantive po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ <strong>the</strong>ory.<br />

An important exception<br />

was <strong>the</strong> idea of ​positive effects of<br />

<strong>the</strong> age of build<strong>in</strong>gs on vitality. In<br />

Brazil, age variation corresponds<br />

strongly with <strong>the</strong> variation of types:<br />

older build<strong>in</strong>gs tend to generate<br />

more compact blocks; while younger<br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs tend to create more rarefied<br />

ones. Age variation correlates<br />

negatively with <strong>the</strong> presence of<br />

pedestrians <strong>and</strong> with <strong>the</strong> diversity of<br />

activities. However, th<strong>is</strong> difference<br />

seems to have more to do with <strong>the</strong><br />

type sett<strong>in</strong>g than with age (age <strong>is</strong><br />

a co<strong>in</strong>cident factor). Th<strong>is</strong> could<br />

also be present <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> case of <strong>the</strong><br />

American cities observed by <strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce modern build<strong>in</strong>gs were already<br />

characterized by spaces <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

Figure 7 – The <strong>Jacobs</strong> permeability study (left <strong>and</strong> centre), <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> analys<strong>is</strong> of topological<br />

accessibility <strong>in</strong> Manhattan (right). The red l<strong>in</strong>es on th<strong>is</strong> last map <strong>in</strong>dicate streets with<br />

hig<strong>her</strong> accessibility. Source: Netto <strong>and</strong> Cacholas, derived from <strong>Jacobs</strong> (1961) <strong>and</strong> Hillier et<br />

al (2012)<br />

41


immediate surround<strong>in</strong>gs. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

probably wanted to emphasize <strong>the</strong><br />

importance of vary<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> age of<br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs as a way of generat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

variable real estate values ​<strong>and</strong><br />

rents, allow<strong>in</strong>g access to d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ct<br />

<strong>in</strong>comes, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> opportunity to<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude young entrepreneurs with<br />

a tendency to <strong>in</strong>novate (“new<br />

ideas need old build<strong>in</strong>gs” – <strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

1993 [1961]:245). As we shall see,<br />

works <strong>in</strong> economics found positive<br />

correlations <strong>in</strong> American cities<br />

between what <strong>the</strong>y call <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

densities <strong>and</strong> factors of <strong>in</strong>novation.<br />

Anot<strong>her</strong> aspect <strong>in</strong> which<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s urban <strong>the</strong>ory shows<br />

limitations on <strong>the</strong> morphological<br />

conditions of accessibility. The idea<br />

of ​urban accessibility emerged <strong>in</strong><br />

those years <strong>in</strong> urban economics,<br />

namely <strong>in</strong> Hansen (1959) <strong>and</strong> Alonso<br />

(1964), but it would be explored<br />

more systematically later, through<br />

works on spatial <strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>and</strong><br />

configuration. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s view on<br />

accessibility appears <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ferences<br />

about <strong>the</strong> effect of block size on<br />

microeconomic diversity, tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Manhattan as a case: blocks with<br />

narrow faces on one side (70m),<br />

generat<strong>in</strong>g great permeability <strong>and</strong><br />

pedestrian <strong>and</strong> commercial success,<br />

<strong>and</strong> with long faces of <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

(280m), generally show<strong>in</strong>g less<br />

commercial presence. From t<strong>her</strong>e,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> apparently constructed <strong>the</strong><br />

association between block size,<br />

permeability, <strong>and</strong> diversity (figure<br />

7). However, size <strong>is</strong> just part of <strong>the</strong><br />

problem. <strong>Jacobs</strong> did not take <strong>in</strong>to<br />

account more systemic dimensions<br />

of urban form. The shorter faces of<br />

blocks lead to more connective streets.<br />

The idea of ​‘permeability’ captures<br />

th<strong>is</strong> property locally, <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong>e<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> correct. The long faces of<br />

blocks, on <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> h<strong>and</strong>, cut across<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>is</strong>l<strong>and</strong> of Manhattan from north<br />

to south. Th<strong>is</strong> geographic condition<br />

generates an elongated network,<br />

furt<strong>her</strong> exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> number of<br />

connections of <strong>the</strong>se streets, <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir weight <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> accessibility<br />

of <strong>the</strong> entire Manhattan street<br />

network, t<strong>her</strong>efore attract<strong>in</strong>g more<br />

pedestrians, vehicles <strong>and</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>esses.<br />

By not tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account<br />

accessibility as a whole, <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

reduced <strong>the</strong> problem of location of<br />

activities to local permeability. In<br />

<strong>the</strong> case of Manhattan, <strong>her</strong> success<br />

was a co<strong>in</strong>cidence. These difficulties<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s approach appear <strong>in</strong><br />

a spatial underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g limited<br />

by <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>the</strong>n available<br />

– but also illustrate <strong>the</strong> r<strong>is</strong>k of<br />

approaches based exclusively on<br />

local observations of a few cases.<br />

However, <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s ideas<br />

42<br />

are fundamentally correct as to <strong>the</strong><br />

effect of block size on accessibility,<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g implied <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> attention<br />

to permeability. Siksna (1997)<br />

found <strong>the</strong> benefits of smaller blocks<br />

(between 60-80m <strong>and</strong> 80-110m,<br />

below 10,000m2) for pedestrian<br />

movement <strong>in</strong> twelve American <strong>and</strong><br />

Australian cities. He also identified<br />

that those blocks tended to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir configuration over time, unlike<br />

larger ones (over 20,000m2). Karimi<br />

(1997) <strong>and</strong> Hillier (1999) have<br />

shown that smaller blocks tend to<br />

be found mostly <strong>in</strong> central areas,<br />

<strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong>y improve <strong>the</strong> overall<br />

accessibility of <strong>the</strong> city – not just<br />

local accessibility, as <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

Siksna had seen. Studies <strong>in</strong> London<br />

by Chiaradia et al (2012) also can<br />

be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as corroborat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s proposition, show<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

reduced block sizes reduce travel<br />

times. Analyz<strong>in</strong>g a larger sample,<br />

from ancient to contemporary<br />

case studies, Porta et al (2014) also<br />

found evidence of smaller block<br />

patterns around ma<strong>in</strong> streets. Taken<br />

toget<strong>her</strong>, <strong>the</strong>se f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs suggest that<br />

when cities grow, blocks <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

centres <strong>and</strong> around ma<strong>in</strong> streets<br />

tend to be smaller, creat<strong>in</strong>g a denser<br />

system, with beneficial effects on<br />

accessibility.<br />

T<strong>her</strong>e are ot<strong>her</strong> factors, such<br />

as safety, <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong>e <strong>the</strong> empirical<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> recent field of urban<br />

crime research are still <strong>in</strong>conclusive.<br />

Let us exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> evidence<br />

available <strong>in</strong> light of three of<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s conditions for a successful<br />

neighbourhood (<strong>the</strong> fourth<br />

condition, <strong>the</strong> age of build<strong>in</strong>gs, does<br />

not seem to me to have yet been<br />

sufficiently verified). Let us look at<br />

(i) <strong>the</strong> concentration of people. The<br />

study by Hillier <strong>and</strong> Sahbaz (2012)<br />

<strong>in</strong> an extensive area <strong>in</strong> London shows<br />

that residential density <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />

important variable <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> relation<br />

between crime <strong>and</strong> space. Burglary<br />

tends to fall with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

residential density. Hillier <strong>and</strong><br />

Sahbaz underst<strong>and</strong> th<strong>is</strong> as ‘safety <strong>in</strong><br />

numbers’.<br />

The results on <strong>the</strong> effects of<br />

(ii) <strong>the</strong> mixture of primary uses have<br />

<strong>in</strong>trigu<strong>in</strong>g variations. Most studies<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>the</strong> hig<strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong> number<br />

of residential units <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />

non-residential units, <strong>the</strong> lower <strong>the</strong><br />

crime rate (Anderson et al., 2013).<br />

But <strong>the</strong> relationship <strong>is</strong> not so simple.<br />

Hillier <strong>and</strong> Sahbaz (2012) break <strong>the</strong><br />

problem of crime <strong>in</strong>to robbery <strong>and</strong><br />

burglary. Focus<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong>e on <strong>the</strong> first<br />

case, <strong>the</strong> authors show that t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> fact an <strong>in</strong>itial tendency to reduce<br />

crime, when urban areas have more<br />

residential use. Of course, streets<br />

with more pedestrians tend to have<br />

more crimes. Bettencourt <strong>and</strong> West<br />

(2010) saw th<strong>is</strong> trend <strong>in</strong> population<br />

variation <strong>in</strong> cities around <strong>the</strong> world.<br />

But th<strong>is</strong> trend f<strong>in</strong>ds a turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t.<br />

Exclusively residential areas also<br />

become unsafe. The proportion <strong>in</strong><br />

which <strong>the</strong> number of residential<br />

units exceeds non-residential units<br />

<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> critical po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>her</strong>e. Hillier <strong>and</strong><br />

Sahbaz estimate that pedestrians<br />

are 68% safer on predom<strong>in</strong>antly<br />

residential streets than <strong>the</strong>y would<br />

be on fully residential streets. The<br />

relationship between diversity <strong>and</strong><br />

robbery, t<strong>her</strong>efore, <strong>is</strong> not l<strong>in</strong>ear. And<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> anot<strong>her</strong> important factor.<br />

The absolute number of crimes<br />

should not be confused with <strong>the</strong> r<strong>is</strong>k<br />

of crime: if on <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, we<br />

naturally f<strong>in</strong>d more crimes w<strong>her</strong>e<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e are more pedestrians, on <strong>the</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong> h<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual r<strong>is</strong>k tends<br />

to be lower – someth<strong>in</strong>g that many<br />

studies seem to ignore. As Hillier<br />

<strong>and</strong> Sahbaz argue, <strong>the</strong> key po<strong>in</strong>t<br />

<strong>is</strong> to assess r<strong>is</strong>k, simply because it<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicates how safe people are.<br />

Hillier <strong>and</strong> Sahbaz (2012)<br />

also evaluated (iii) <strong>the</strong> effect of<br />

block size us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> street segment<br />

as spatial entity: <strong>the</strong> longer <strong>the</strong><br />

block, <strong>the</strong> hig<strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong> number of<br />

robbery cases. Their high-resolution<br />

analys<strong>is</strong> allows us to underst<strong>and</strong><br />

that <strong>the</strong> use of average areas of ​<br />

blocks <strong>in</strong> a neighbourhood masks<br />

differences between different blocks,<br />

a methodological <strong>in</strong>adequacy <strong>in</strong><br />

Weic<strong>her</strong> (1973) <strong>and</strong> Schmidt (1977).<br />

Summ<strong>in</strong>g up, residential density<br />

(concentration of people), <strong>the</strong> length<br />

of <strong>the</strong> street segment (small blocks)<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence of non-residential<br />

activities (<strong>the</strong> mix of primary<br />

uses) show negative correlations<br />

with <strong>the</strong> occurrence of crimes <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> streets. Exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>is</strong>olation,<br />

<strong>the</strong>se conditions of successful<br />

neighbourhood res<strong>is</strong>t as <strong>the</strong>oretical<br />

propositions. F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs on burglary,<br />

<strong>in</strong> turn, are more diffuse – <strong>and</strong> also<br />

<strong>in</strong>conclusive.<br />

Verify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

economic <strong>the</strong>ory<br />

Several studies have<br />

been deal<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> effect of<br />

diversity on urban growth <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> development of economies<br />

that grasped so much of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest. Central questions <strong>in</strong> spatial<br />

economics like what are <strong>the</strong> vectors<br />

that produce urban agglomeration<br />

also motivated <strong>her</strong>. Extend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong><br />

emphas<strong>is</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce Death <strong>and</strong> Life,<br />

she advocated <strong>the</strong> importance of


Figure 8 – The growth of citations of The Economy of Cities,<br />

compared to <strong>the</strong> classic Death <strong>and</strong> Life, <strong>and</strong> Cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Wealth of<br />

Nations, accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Web of Science. Source: derived from Harr<strong>is</strong><br />

(2011)<br />

fertilization across sectors of <strong>the</strong><br />

economy, animated by new activities<br />

<strong>and</strong> technologies multiply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

div<strong>is</strong>ion of labour. Different forces<br />

can lead to <strong>the</strong> concentration of<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>in</strong> specialized clusters <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> concentration of activities <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> same region or city (Rosenthal<br />

<strong>and</strong> Strange, 2004), <strong>and</strong> econom<strong>is</strong>ts<br />

have different thoughts about<br />

<strong>the</strong> conditions under which th<strong>is</strong><br />

concentration occurs. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

Marshall (1890), Arrow (1962) <strong>and</strong><br />

Romer (1986), agglomeration <strong>and</strong><br />

its ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> economy <strong>in</strong>tensify<br />

with <strong>the</strong> location of companies of a<br />

same <strong>in</strong>dustry, generat<strong>in</strong>g regional<br />

or urban specialization. In contrast,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> (1969a, 1969b) argues that<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustrial diversity, usually called<br />

‘urbanization economies’, promotes<br />

<strong>in</strong>novation <strong>and</strong> productivity growth,<br />

because valuable knowledge<br />

transfers would occur across different<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustries through cross-fertilization<br />

of ideas <strong>and</strong> technologies.<br />

In fact, <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cussion of <strong>the</strong><br />

roles of location (‘specialization’)<br />

<strong>and</strong> urbanization (‘diversity’) <strong>in</strong><br />

spatial economics has been at times<br />

characterized as a confrontation<br />

between Marshall <strong>and</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> (e.g.<br />

Panne, 2004; Rosenthal <strong>and</strong> Strange,<br />

2004). Evidence of <strong>the</strong> effects of<br />

both processes on productivity has<br />

been found. For example, doubl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> size of a city by group<strong>in</strong>g<br />

different <strong>in</strong>dustries would <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

<strong>the</strong> productivity of its activities by<br />

vary<strong>in</strong>g from 3 to 8%, as shown by<br />

Sveikauskas (1975), Moomaw (1981),<br />

Tabuchi (1986) <strong>and</strong> Rosenthal <strong>and</strong><br />

Strange (2004), among ot<strong>her</strong>s –<br />

corroborat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Jacobs</strong>. Nakamura<br />

(1985) found evidence of <strong>the</strong> effects<br />

of size of an <strong>in</strong>dustry (specialization)<br />

<strong>in</strong> Japan, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of an <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

of about 4.5% <strong>in</strong> productivity, <strong>and</strong><br />

an <strong>in</strong>crease of 3.4% <strong>in</strong> productivity<br />

connected with <strong>the</strong> size of cities (a<br />

proxy for diversity). Henderson et<br />

al (1995) found that employment<br />

growth <strong>is</strong> slow when a city <strong>is</strong> not<br />

diversified, <strong>and</strong> that new <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />

thrive <strong>in</strong> large metropol<strong>is</strong>es <strong>and</strong>,<br />

as <strong>the</strong>y mature, decentralize <strong>in</strong>to<br />

more specialized cities. Henderson<br />

(2003) found evidence of Marshall’s<br />

location economies for high-tech<br />

sectors, <strong>and</strong> of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s urbanization<br />

economies for corporate enterpr<strong>is</strong>es<br />

<strong>in</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>ery manufactur<strong>in</strong>g sectors.<br />

Nakamura (2008) po<strong>in</strong>ts out that<br />

sectors that receive positive returns<br />

from diversity have relatively smaller<br />

specialization economies, <strong>and</strong> vice<br />

versa. Lee et al (2010) identified that<br />

firms <strong>in</strong> relatively young <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />

rely more heavily on diversified<br />

environments that help <strong>the</strong>m grow<br />

(cons<strong>is</strong>tent with <strong>Jacobs</strong>), while firms<br />

<strong>in</strong> relatively old <strong>in</strong>dustries receive<br />

greater external benefits <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustrial cluster.<br />

Develop<strong>in</strong>g a measure of<br />

<strong>the</strong> diversity of <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>in</strong> a city,<br />

applied <strong>in</strong> observations between<br />

1956 <strong>and</strong> 1987 <strong>in</strong> 170 American<br />

cities, Glaeser et al (1992) identified<br />

that d<strong>is</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> same type of<br />

employment <strong>in</strong> more firms <strong>in</strong>creases<br />

local competition, <strong>and</strong> consequently,<br />

<strong>the</strong> diffusion of knowledge, a<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g that supports <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> that local competition<br />

promotes growth (also corroborated<br />

by Feldman <strong>and</strong> Audretsch, 1999).<br />

<strong>Still</strong> cons<strong>is</strong>tent with <strong>Jacobs</strong>, Glaeser<br />

et al attest that smaller firms grow<br />

faster, <strong>and</strong> that economic sectors<br />

<strong>in</strong> a city grow faster when <strong>the</strong> rest<br />

of <strong>the</strong> city <strong>is</strong> less specialized (see<br />

also Rosenthal <strong>and</strong> Strange 2004).<br />

Sc<strong>her</strong>er (1982) presents systematic<br />

evidence <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that about 70%<br />

of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ventions <strong>in</strong> a given <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

are used <strong>in</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustries, which<br />

supports <strong>the</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>ian hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong><br />

of <strong>in</strong>novations via cross-fertilization.<br />

T<strong>her</strong>e are ot<strong>her</strong> studies seek<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

recognize <strong>the</strong> empirical effects of<br />

diversity on productivity, <strong>in</strong>novation<br />

<strong>and</strong> growth, lead<strong>in</strong>g to a significant<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number of citations<br />

of The Economy of Cities s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong><br />

1990s (figure 8).<br />

One of <strong>the</strong> greatest<br />

recognitions that researc<strong>her</strong>s can<br />

receive <strong>is</strong> to have a phenomenon with<br />

h<strong>is</strong> or <strong>her</strong> name – for example, <strong>the</strong><br />

Higgs Boson or <strong>the</strong> Doppler effect,<br />

<strong>in</strong> physics. The ga<strong>in</strong>s of diversity<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> space economy have come<br />

to be called ‘<strong>Jacobs</strong> economies’,<br />

apparently suggested <strong>in</strong> Glaeser et<br />

al (1992). The authors argue that<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s dynamic externality <strong>the</strong>ory<br />

<strong>is</strong> attractive because it attempts to<br />

expla<strong>in</strong> simultaneously how cities<br />

are formed <strong>and</strong> why <strong>the</strong>y grow<br />

(p.1128). Ikeda (2012) adds to<br />

th<strong>is</strong> <strong>her</strong> emphas<strong>is</strong> not just on how<br />

economies grow or produce more,<br />

but develop <strong>and</strong> produce different<br />

<strong>and</strong> better th<strong>in</strong>gs. Recently, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a more d<strong>is</strong>aggregated, sub-city unit<br />

of population density to capture<br />

more of <strong>the</strong> differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

‘flat’ averages of variables across<br />

broad geographical areas generally<br />

used by econom<strong>is</strong>ts, Gordon <strong>and</strong><br />

Ikeda (2011) po<strong>in</strong>t out that <strong>the</strong><br />

morphology suggested by <strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

capable of creat<strong>in</strong>g a diversity of<br />

attractors, enabl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>and</strong><br />

form<strong>in</strong>g networks spontaneously,<br />

would furt<strong>her</strong> support <strong>in</strong>novation<br />

<strong>and</strong> diffusion, evaluated <strong>in</strong> numbers<br />

of patent records <strong>and</strong> professionals<br />

with advanced degrees, among<br />

ot<strong>her</strong> factors. They called th<strong>is</strong><br />

environment of maximiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

potential <strong>in</strong>formal contact <strong>in</strong> public<br />

space ‘<strong>Jacobs</strong> densities’.<br />

One important nuance<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> that she avoided<br />

demoniz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> economy. In <strong>her</strong><br />

early observations of New York,<br />

she was already <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

material threads beh<strong>in</strong>d urban<br />

life, via ethnographic read<strong>in</strong>gs of<br />

microeconomic life. She realized<br />

how much our actions are l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

to <strong>the</strong> activities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

that mediate our material survival<br />

<strong>in</strong> societies with a complex div<strong>is</strong>ion<br />

of labour. <strong>Jacobs</strong> saw cont<strong>in</strong>uity<br />

between actions of association <strong>and</strong><br />

actions of material reproduction.<br />

She realized that economic life does<br />

not exclude <strong>the</strong> heterogeneities of<br />

<strong>the</strong> social – rat<strong>her</strong>, it creates <strong>the</strong><br />

fabric that puts different social fields<br />

<strong>and</strong> classes <strong>in</strong> contact. Networks of<br />

exchange animate public spaces<br />

<strong>and</strong> mix groups that ot<strong>her</strong>w<strong>is</strong>e<br />

could be segregated. She was not<br />

based on an a priori rejection of<br />

consumption, but did not accept <strong>the</strong><br />

acceleration <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ardization of<br />

43


consumption, such as <strong>the</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

streets by cha<strong>in</strong> stores that undercut<br />

microscopic networks of <strong>the</strong> local<br />

economy, mak<strong>in</strong>g places more similar<br />

to each ot<strong>her</strong>. <strong>Jacobs</strong> knew that as<br />

a complex system, no entity could<br />

fully design <strong>the</strong> social <strong>and</strong> economic<br />

fabric, emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> necessary<br />

adaptations between actors <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> need for open <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>and</strong><br />

change.<br />

If <strong>the</strong> reversal of <strong>the</strong><br />

importance of top-down dynamics<br />

controlled by a centraliz<strong>in</strong>g agent to<br />

<strong>the</strong> bottom-up processes emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>teractions of large<br />

numbers of actors had already been<br />

<strong>in</strong>tuited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> economy s<strong>in</strong>ce Adam<br />

Smith, <strong>Jacobs</strong> made th<strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong>version<br />

<strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> function<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

cities. <strong>Jacobs</strong> was not only a leader<br />

<strong>in</strong> grassroots political movements,<br />

but also <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g that<br />

societal processes are collective,<br />

rat<strong>her</strong> than guided by <strong>the</strong> few. She<br />

saw a deeper order: that of profusion<br />

<strong>and</strong> complementarity along with <strong>the</strong><br />

importance of unpredictability <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> city as an open system. In <strong>her</strong><br />

decades of activity, she <strong>the</strong>orized<br />

about systems – <strong>in</strong> streets, cities,<br />

economies <strong>and</strong> ecology – <strong>and</strong> on<br />

‘organized complexity’. <strong>Jacobs</strong> was<br />

a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t of self-organization avant<br />

la lettre fasc<strong>in</strong>ated by <strong>the</strong> evolv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fabric of collective life, <strong>and</strong> a pioneer<br />

publicly oppos<strong>in</strong>g its destruction (see<br />

<strong>her</strong> 1958 essay, “A liv<strong>in</strong>g network of<br />

relationships”, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1967 speech<br />

at <strong>the</strong> Royal Institute of Brit<strong>is</strong>h<br />

Architects, “The self-generat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

growth of cities” <strong>in</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016a).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s <strong>in</strong>ferences have<br />

attracted, <strong>and</strong> for <strong>the</strong> most part,<br />

res<strong>is</strong>ted <strong>the</strong> empirical test – a feat<br />

for any <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t, which sounds more<br />

strik<strong>in</strong>g if we consider that <strong>the</strong>y were<br />

built up from local observations. My<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cussion of <strong>the</strong>se studies should<br />

be seen as <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of a muchneeded<br />

mapp<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> verifications<br />

of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s <strong>the</strong>ories. That said, <strong>the</strong><br />

importance of <strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong>ories goes<br />

beyond whet<strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual ideas are<br />

right or wrong: it lies <strong>in</strong> what <strong>the</strong>y<br />

have opened as research agendas <strong>and</strong><br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g practices.<br />

The last hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong><br />

44<br />

I have an entirely new hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> on<br />

how economies, macroeconomies, form<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>and</strong> organize <strong>the</strong>mselves,<br />

<strong>and</strong> w<strong>her</strong>e th<strong>is</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d of life comes from.<br />

But it’s so different from <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />

idea of economic life [...]. Everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> out t<strong>her</strong>e, happen<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

<strong>and</strong> it accounts for so many th<strong>in</strong>gs that<br />

are just slid over <strong>and</strong> ignored <strong>in</strong> regular<br />

economics... I feel some urgency <strong>in</strong> my<br />

new hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong>, yet I’m dubious it will<br />

be accepted”<br />

(<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016b:114-8).<br />

Theor<strong>is</strong>ts know that <strong>in</strong>sights<br />

are like jewellery: <strong>the</strong>y come with<br />

great cost <strong>and</strong> immersion, <strong>and</strong> when<br />

<strong>the</strong>y come, <strong>the</strong>y illum<strong>in</strong>ate th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

<strong>in</strong> a new way. <strong>Jacobs</strong> had more<br />

than <strong>her</strong> share of <strong>in</strong>sights: t<strong>her</strong>e<br />

were many propositions throughout<br />

an <strong>in</strong>tellectually restless career –<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> uneas<strong>in</strong>ess probably felt<br />

by <strong>the</strong> young girl who challenged<br />

<strong>the</strong> authority <strong>and</strong> conservat<strong>is</strong>m<br />

of school life. Not converted to a<br />

book, <strong>her</strong> latest <strong>in</strong>sight appeared <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>in</strong> 2004 <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a chapter<br />

recently publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> recent<br />

commemorative collection of <strong>her</strong><br />

one hundredth anniversary <strong>in</strong> 2016.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> an economics textbook. It<br />

sets forth a new way of underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

macroeconomic behavior: how it<br />

organizes itself <strong>and</strong> operates at urban,<br />

national, cont<strong>in</strong>ental, imperial <strong>and</strong><br />

global levels, susta<strong>in</strong>s – or fails to<br />

susta<strong>in</strong> – itself. Macroeconomic life <strong>is</strong><br />

also large-scale <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sense of time.<br />

(<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 2016b [2004]:406)<br />

The hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> ties f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

from <strong>her</strong> earlier economics books<br />

of 1969 <strong>and</strong> 1985: <strong>the</strong> pattern<br />

of sporadic urban growth <strong>in</strong><br />

explosions of diversification <strong>and</strong><br />

economic recomb<strong>in</strong>ation, <strong>the</strong> import<br />

substitution process, <strong>and</strong> city import<br />

shift<strong>in</strong>g. These processes would<br />

now be <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to one, which<br />

would also organize networks of<br />

macroeconomic activity <strong>in</strong> a cha<strong>in</strong><br />

reaction. The available text boils<br />

down to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction – possibly<br />

an outl<strong>in</strong>e. I <strong>in</strong>terpret <strong>her</strong> reason<strong>in</strong>g<br />

by relat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> aspects it br<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

As ‘<strong>in</strong>cidental fractals’ <strong>in</strong>tertw<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

networks would connect, cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />

different scales: <strong>in</strong>dividual cities,<br />

city networks, rural spaces, regions...<br />

“self-organiz<strong>in</strong>g like a biological<br />

process” (p.430). <strong>Jacobs</strong> wanted to<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> roots of macroeconomy <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> actions of ord<strong>in</strong>ary people, who<br />

act with <strong>the</strong> resources <strong>the</strong>y have,<br />

from improv<strong>is</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> creativity<br />

“as an <strong>in</strong>tegral part of <strong>in</strong>novation”<br />

(p.431). She was still look<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

hypo<strong>the</strong>ses.<br />

Conclusions: th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />

with <strong>Jacobs</strong>, to go beyond<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

T<strong>her</strong>e are many authors who<br />

seem to us to merge with <strong>the</strong>ir objects.<br />

They are authors who have unveiled<br />

<strong>the</strong> ex<strong>is</strong>tence of entire phenomenal<br />

fields. Foucault red<strong>is</strong>covers power<br />

<strong>in</strong> its microphysics, d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

bodies. Chomsky identifies deep<br />

cognitive structures of <strong>the</strong> operation<br />

of m<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> language. Weber<br />

describes <strong>the</strong> centrality of social<br />

action as <strong>the</strong> unit of production<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpretation of a society.<br />

Habermas reconstructs <strong>the</strong> place of<br />

communication <strong>and</strong> rationality <strong>in</strong><br />

life <strong>and</strong> social reproduction. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

does someth<strong>in</strong>g similar with <strong>the</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>covery of <strong>the</strong> effects of morphology<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stances more microscopic than<br />

<strong>the</strong> powerful centripetal forces<br />

known to econom<strong>is</strong>ts. Her f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

open <strong>the</strong> way cities become mergers<br />

of material <strong>and</strong> social systems. Urban<br />

studies as a d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e do not yet<br />

have <strong>the</strong> corpus of knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />

recognition of areas such as sociology<br />

or economics – but if it ever achieves<br />

that status, <strong>Jacobs</strong> will be occupy<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a central place among its founders.<br />

While many struggle with obscure<br />

language <strong>and</strong> small additions, <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir work rema<strong>in</strong>s ignored, we can<br />

say that <strong>the</strong> lady with no credentials<br />

has become <strong>the</strong> most quoted <strong>and</strong><br />

important <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t of a d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

– <strong>and</strong> has gone beyond it. I cannot<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k of a story that shows more<br />

clearly <strong>the</strong> power of ideas.<br />

Of course, it <strong>is</strong> hard to<br />

make justice to <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s <strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />

trajectory <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle paper. If I<br />

were to try to summarize it, I would<br />

say that she was an iconoclast,<br />

demol<strong>is</strong><strong>her</strong> of establ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

assumptions <strong>and</strong> orthodoxies, who<br />

felt freedom to move smoothly<br />

between <strong>the</strong>mes <strong>and</strong> fields. She had<br />

an <strong>in</strong>dependent <strong>in</strong>tellectual posture,<br />

reject<strong>in</strong>g worldviews given as a priori,<br />

alternat<strong>in</strong>g moral responsibility <strong>and</strong><br />

appreciation of <strong>the</strong> material world.<br />

She was a <strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>t with an eye for<br />

<strong>the</strong> small <strong>and</strong> ord<strong>in</strong>ary, but capable<br />

of weav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong>to relations that<br />

ex<strong>is</strong>t beyond observation – a th<strong>in</strong>ker<br />

of diversity as <strong>the</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>e of systems<br />

transformation, <strong>and</strong> of <strong>the</strong> autonomy<br />

<strong>and</strong> materiality of collective life.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> article could not<br />

explore some of <strong>the</strong> limits of <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>ian <strong>the</strong>ory, such as <strong>the</strong><br />

problem of gentrification, or r<strong>is</strong>ks<br />

of material determ<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>m. Nor<br />

was it able to explore possibilities<br />

for its expansion. What would


allow us to exp<strong>and</strong> beyond <strong>the</strong><br />

edges of <strong>her</strong> ideas? What are <strong>the</strong><br />

directions, prospects, connections<br />

between <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s <strong>the</strong>mes <strong>and</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong> approaches, extend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

‘liv<strong>in</strong>g networks’? In any case, <strong>the</strong><br />

contributions of <strong>Jacobs</strong>, among<br />

those of ot<strong>her</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al authors, <strong>is</strong><br />

a step <strong>in</strong> re<strong>in</strong>vent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> deepen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e – th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g with<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, to go beyond <strong>Jacobs</strong>.<br />

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46


47


The Public Space (In)V<strong>is</strong>ible to <strong>the</strong><br />

Eyes of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

Andrei Mikhail Zaiatz Crestani*<br />

Brenda Br<strong>and</strong>ão Pontes**<br />

*Professor <strong>in</strong> Urban<strong>is</strong>m <strong>and</strong> Lansdcape Design , PUCPR<br />

**Arquitect <strong>and</strong> Urban<strong>is</strong>t, PUCPR<br />

Abstract: Everyday Everyday experience <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city <strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly marked by <strong>in</strong>difference; by temporary consumption <strong>and</strong> a lack<br />

of <strong>the</strong> spontaneous <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful social <strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> public space becomes a social form allow<strong>in</strong>g broad <strong>and</strong> unrestricted<br />

access to <strong>the</strong> most different voices <strong>and</strong> forms of appropriation (Sennet, 1992b; Delgado, 1999; 2008; Deutsche, 2007). It <strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> context that we <strong>in</strong>vestigate how much <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s “The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities” – which was concerned<br />

with <strong>the</strong> everyday public space – <strong>is</strong> still relevant <strong>in</strong> conditions that are now so different from those that stimulated <strong>the</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of <strong>her</strong> study. Besides pay<strong>in</strong>g tribute to <strong>Jacobs</strong>, we <strong>in</strong>tend to explore <strong>the</strong> connections of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> elements of <strong>her</strong> work, but also to<br />

recognize its occasional <strong>in</strong>cons<strong>is</strong>tencies <strong>and</strong> om<strong>is</strong>sions that require some contextual<strong>is</strong>ations <strong>and</strong> different approaches, reconsider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>her</strong> work by ask<strong>in</strong>g how <strong>and</strong> how much it <strong>is</strong> (or <strong>is</strong> not) still possible to call on <strong>her</strong> views when consider<strong>in</strong>g conditions for <strong>the</strong><br />

production of public space <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> contemporary city.<br />

Key words: Public space, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, Everyday, Diversity.<br />

48<br />

Introduction<br />

The public space has<br />

acquired considerable presence on<br />

<strong>the</strong> recent political <strong>and</strong> academic<br />

agenda, <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> occupied by a wide<br />

range of social struggles both <strong>in</strong><br />

Brazil <strong>and</strong> worldwide 1 . But th<strong>is</strong><br />

moment of <strong>in</strong>flection presents<br />

contradictions as well, when<br />

collective movements seem to be<br />

claim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> political dimension of<br />

<strong>the</strong> public space as a privileged locus<br />

for action <strong>and</strong> speech – <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sense<br />

put forward by Hannah Arendt<br />

1 Global examples (on different<br />

scales <strong>and</strong> for different reasons): “Occupy<br />

Wall Street”- New York (2011); “Tahrir<br />

square occupation” – Cairo (2011); “Ni una<br />

a menos” – Buenos Aires (2016). In Brazil:<br />

“Largo Vivo” - Porto Alegre (2011); “Jornadas<br />

de Junho” – nationwide (2013).<br />

<strong>and</strong> David Harvey –, at <strong>the</strong> same<br />

time our everyday experiences <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> city are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly def<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

<strong>in</strong>difference <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> lack of more<br />

diverse appropriations.<br />

It <strong>is</strong> important to note that<br />

we consider <strong>the</strong> public space <strong>her</strong>e<br />

as a social <strong>and</strong> material form that<br />

privileges encounter, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />

of differences, <strong>the</strong> possibility for<br />

varied uses, co-presence, conflict<br />

<strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>sent, with a collectively<br />

constructed symbolic system<br />

(ARENDT, 1998; LEFEBVRE,<br />

2006; SENNET, 1992b; DELGADO,<br />

1999; DEUTSCHE, 2007). But<br />

scenarios described by several<br />

authors lead us to consider that<br />

<strong>the</strong> ways of produc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> public<br />

space seem to be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

narrow. Muñoz (2008) refers to<br />

urbanal<strong>is</strong>ation 2 : <strong>the</strong> city based on<br />

total dom<strong>in</strong>ation of <strong>the</strong> image,<br />

ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g for spectacle <strong>and</strong> impr<strong>is</strong>oned<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> global network of plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

programmes. For Augé, <strong>the</strong> city has<br />

been taken over by “bl<strong>in</strong>d spots” –<br />

spaces of alienation between city<br />

<strong>and</strong> citizens. Manuel Delgado def<strong>in</strong>es<br />

th<strong>is</strong> context as “anti-city” 3 , subject<br />

to urban ideologies that favour<br />

2 Urbanal<strong>is</strong>ation refers to<br />

how <strong>the</strong> city l<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong>mat<strong>is</strong>ed <strong>and</strong><br />

how, like <strong>the</strong>me parks, fragments of cities<br />

are now be<strong>in</strong>g reproduced, replicated <strong>and</strong><br />

cloned <strong>in</strong> ot<strong>her</strong>s (MUÑOZ, 2008, p.2).<br />

3 “In th<strong>is</strong> residual territory<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> noth<strong>in</strong>g, no past, no future, noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

but <strong>the</strong> present, designed by those who cross<br />

it” (DELGADO, 2008, p. 130).


<strong>the</strong>med spaces, deny functional <strong>and</strong><br />

human differences <strong>and</strong> dra<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

h<strong>is</strong>tory from public spaces 4 .<br />

Our <strong>in</strong>vestigation of how<br />

much <strong>the</strong> <strong>legacy</strong> of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

can help us to explore <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpret<br />

<strong>the</strong> contemporary public space will<br />

beg<strong>in</strong> with <strong>her</strong> work “The Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities”,<br />

as an ethnographic portrayal that<br />

privileges observation of everyday<br />

socio-spatial relationships <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

public space as <strong>the</strong> foundation of<br />

urban life.<br />

However much we might<br />

agree with <strong>the</strong> validity of <strong>her</strong><br />

arguments, it seems that <strong>the</strong><br />

pers<strong>is</strong>tence of a general admiration<br />

of <strong>her</strong> diagnoses <strong>and</strong> solutions for<br />

<strong>the</strong> (American) cities of <strong>her</strong> times<br />

has transformed <strong>her</strong> ideas <strong>in</strong>to<br />

a k<strong>in</strong>d of panacea. We t<strong>her</strong>efore<br />

<strong>in</strong>tend to reconsider <strong>the</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

use of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context<br />

of its creation, <strong>and</strong> go beyond <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>appropriate general<strong>is</strong>ations of<br />

<strong>her</strong> study that are still so present.<br />

While we <strong>in</strong>dicate how elements of<br />

th<strong>is</strong> specific book are still valid for<br />

consideration of <strong>the</strong> public space, it<br />

also seems necessary to d<strong>is</strong>cuss <strong>the</strong><br />

possible absences, om<strong>is</strong>sions <strong>and</strong>/<br />

or contradictions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> work for<br />

<strong>the</strong> contemporary context. We will<br />

t<strong>her</strong>efore f<strong>in</strong>d a position from which<br />

Death <strong>and</strong> Life can be valued as a<br />

cornerstone <strong>in</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g about cities,<br />

but not elevated to <strong>the</strong> level of a<br />

universal manual for <strong>the</strong> urban.<br />

The first section ¬–<br />

“Situat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> viewpo<strong>in</strong>t of <strong>Jacobs</strong>”<br />

– looks briefly at <strong>the</strong> h<strong>is</strong>toricalpolitical<br />

context <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> book<br />

was written. Then, <strong>in</strong> “The everyday<br />

networks seen by <strong>Jacobs</strong>”, we<br />

explore connections between <strong>her</strong><br />

key elements that still echo through<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cussions of <strong>the</strong> city today. Next,<br />

<strong>in</strong> an exerc<strong>is</strong>e rarely performed <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> majority of studies based on<br />

<strong>her</strong> work, we attempt to illustrate<br />

“What <strong>the</strong> eyes of <strong>Jacobs</strong> did not<br />

see” <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> attributes<br />

<strong>and</strong> conditions of <strong>the</strong> public space.<br />

These considerations will seek a<br />

balance between moments when<br />

<strong>in</strong>cons<strong>is</strong>tencies <strong>and</strong> om<strong>is</strong>sions<br />

appear <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> argument, eit<strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> text or <strong>in</strong> a more underly<strong>in</strong>g<br />

way, which need some attention to<br />

prevent use of <strong>her</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>gs be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

restricted to veneration or to simple<br />

<strong>and</strong> shallow <strong>in</strong>terpretation. Faced<br />

with contemporary conditions that<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly require an updated<br />

technical-scientific repertoire <strong>and</strong><br />

“a (necessary) look beyond <strong>Jacobs</strong>”,<br />

we ask to what extent it <strong>is</strong> (or <strong>is</strong><br />

4 These aspects are d<strong>is</strong>cussed furt<strong>her</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>: CRESTANI; ALVES, 2016.<br />

not) still possible to call upon <strong>the</strong><br />

views of <strong>Jacobs</strong> when address<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> conditions of production of <strong>the</strong><br />

public space <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> contemporary<br />

city.<br />

Situat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> viewpo<strong>in</strong>t of<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

When <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s most<br />

celebrated book, “The Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life of <strong>the</strong> Great American Cities”,<br />

was publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> 1961, <strong>her</strong> country<br />

faced several problems. Great North<br />

American cities like New York – <strong>the</strong><br />

author’s home at <strong>the</strong> time –, Boston<br />

<strong>and</strong> Los Angeles were experienc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

tension between different ethnic<br />

groups <strong>and</strong> migration of <strong>the</strong> white<br />

middle classes to <strong>the</strong> suburbs<br />

<strong>in</strong> pursuit of greater safety <strong>and</strong><br />

comfort<br />

İn response, planners of <strong>the</strong><br />

period developed “Urban Renewal”<br />

strategies that <strong>in</strong>volved demolition<br />

of old neighbourhoods for <strong>the</strong><br />

construction of new apartment<br />

blocks; relocation of <strong>the</strong> ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g<br />

population <strong>and</strong> expansion of<br />

highway access to <strong>the</strong> suburbs.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> clearly opposed th<strong>is</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> first sentence: “Th<strong>is</strong> book <strong>is</strong> an<br />

attack on current city plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

rebuild<strong>in</strong>g” (JACOBS, 1961, p.1).<br />

The author believed that<br />

such practices aimed “to organ<strong>is</strong>e<br />

everyth<strong>in</strong>g” without mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

contact with <strong>the</strong> real city, <strong>and</strong> would<br />

be economically unsusta<strong>in</strong>able,<br />

elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g entire <strong>in</strong>frastructures to<br />

reconstruct ot<strong>her</strong>s without meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

real needs. <strong>Jacobs</strong> considers an<br />

alternative urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, shift<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> core of <strong>her</strong> observations away<br />

from an urban<strong>is</strong>t v<strong>is</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> towards<br />

<strong>the</strong> scale of everyday life on <strong>the</strong><br />

streets.<br />

The everyday networks<br />

seen by <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

The street <strong>is</strong> important to<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> as an anchor <strong>and</strong> active part<br />

of <strong>the</strong> production of <strong>the</strong> city as a<br />

social form, <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> metaphor<br />

of <strong>the</strong> “ballet of <strong>the</strong> sidewalk” <strong>is</strong><br />

used to evoke <strong>and</strong> syn<strong>the</strong>size a series<br />

of ideas for reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> city, such<br />

as:<br />

a. The spontaneity of <strong>the</strong><br />

public space: “But t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

simple about that order itself, or <strong>the</strong><br />

bewilder<strong>in</strong>g number of components<br />

that go <strong>in</strong>to it. […]They unite <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

jo<strong>in</strong>t effect upon <strong>the</strong> sidewalk, which<br />

<strong>is</strong> not specialized <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> least. That <strong>is</strong><br />

its strength”. (JACOBS, 2011, p. 54).<br />

Silent, unprogrammed accords occur<br />

all <strong>the</strong> time, weav<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>tricate<br />

web of relationships whose form <strong>and</strong><br />

order are found <strong>in</strong> d<strong>is</strong>order itself.<br />

b. The value of co-presence<br />

<strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> public space – <strong>the</strong><br />

narrative of <strong>the</strong> “ballet” concerns<br />

<strong>the</strong> dynamic of a social space marked<br />

by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction of strangers <strong>in</strong><br />

which <strong>in</strong>dividuals share a common<br />

experience of <strong>the</strong> world.<br />

c. And diversity – <strong>the</strong> book’s<br />

central <strong>is</strong>sue – as a necessary element<br />

for urban life, driven by a multiplicity<br />

of people <strong>and</strong> spontaneous <strong>in</strong>formal<br />

relationships.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s concern for diversity<br />

<strong>is</strong> an extension of <strong>her</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>m<br />

of <strong>the</strong> negative effect of plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

def<strong>in</strong>itions on cities: “…lively,<br />

diverse, <strong>in</strong>tense cities conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

seeds of <strong>the</strong>ir own regeneration,”<br />

(JACOBS, 1961, p.448). Loss of<br />

diversity appears as a negative effect<br />

of large-scale generic urban<strong>is</strong>ation<br />

solutions, which neglect <strong>the</strong><br />

particular features of each locale. In<br />

<strong>the</strong> second part of <strong>her</strong> book <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dicates elements that she believed<br />

shape <strong>the</strong> physical conditions for<br />

its development, such as: different<br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ed uses <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> composition<br />

of neighbourhoods, ensur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

co-presence of people at different<br />

times; short blocks, which affect<br />

<strong>the</strong> frequency of opportunities for<br />

turn<strong>in</strong>g corners; places with different<br />

ages of build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> different states<br />

of repair, which enable a range<br />

of economic <strong>in</strong>come; <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally a<br />

sufficient density of people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

place, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g residents.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> section of <strong>the</strong> book<br />

suggests a <strong>the</strong>oretical-practical<br />

idea of diversity that comb<strong>in</strong>es<br />

two dimensions – architectural <strong>and</strong><br />

social: “The architectural dimension,<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> variation of types of build<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

public spaces <strong>and</strong> of activities; <strong>and</strong><br />

a social dimension, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> variety of<br />

subjects”, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> spontaneity with<br />

which that web of <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>is</strong><br />

establ<strong>is</strong>hed (AGUIAR, 2012, p. 65).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> considers <strong>the</strong> public space<br />

as a “backdrop”, play<strong>in</strong>g a key role<br />

<strong>in</strong> form<strong>in</strong>g collective <strong>in</strong>teractions,<br />

which she sees as an active<br />

component of <strong>the</strong> socio-spatial<br />

networks that reveal diversity.<br />

Furt<strong>her</strong>more, <strong>the</strong> four<br />

conditions merge toget<strong>her</strong> on <strong>the</strong><br />

“ground” of microeconomics.<br />

The book refers frequently to <strong>the</strong><br />

importance of commercial <strong>and</strong><br />

service establ<strong>is</strong>hments along <strong>the</strong><br />

sidewalks to stimulate a cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />

49


<strong>and</strong> dynamic “ballet” (JACOBS,<br />

1961, p. 57). A place’s vitality will be<br />

activated by <strong>the</strong> presence of small<br />

traders (on <strong>the</strong> street or <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs)<br />

because <strong>the</strong>y offer sett<strong>in</strong>gs that<br />

facilitate mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>in</strong>teractions.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

connects<br />

microeconomics <strong>and</strong> space – as<br />

a condition for diversity – aga<strong>in</strong><br />

reveal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> significance of <strong>the</strong><br />

spatial (architectural) dimension <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>her</strong> support of everyday practices<br />

<strong>and</strong> appropriations responsible for<br />

<strong>the</strong> life of <strong>the</strong> public space. The first<br />

three aspects for <strong>the</strong> development<br />

of diversity (mentioned previously)<br />

guarantee <strong>the</strong> fourth element:<br />

density<br />

A factor for diversity <strong>and</strong><br />

vitality, density facilitates collective<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>and</strong> t<strong>her</strong>efore public<br />

life: “The v<strong>is</strong>itors sniff out w<strong>her</strong>e<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g vigorous ex<strong>is</strong>ts already,<br />

<strong>and</strong> come to share it, t<strong>her</strong>eby<br />

furt<strong>her</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g it” (JACOBS,<br />

1961, p.149). Moreover, <strong>her</strong> pra<strong>is</strong>e<br />

of density <strong>is</strong> part of <strong>her</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>m<br />

of modern plann<strong>in</strong>g strategies that<br />

stimulate <strong>the</strong> shift of <strong>the</strong> population<br />

to <strong>the</strong> suburbs <strong>and</strong> adoption of<br />

apartment blocks, prioritiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

vehicle routes <strong>and</strong> consequently<br />

weaken<strong>in</strong>g collective <strong>in</strong>teraction.<br />

Such design stimulates <strong>the</strong><br />

opposite of diversity: segregation,<br />

accompanied by a sense of<br />

<strong>in</strong>security <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> public space. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>troduces <strong>the</strong> concept of “eyes<br />

upon <strong>the</strong> street” as <strong>the</strong> spontaneous<br />

practice of vigilance accompany<strong>in</strong>g<br />

appropriation, which <strong>is</strong> fundamental<br />

for <strong>in</strong>formal public life.<br />

Microeconomics <strong>and</strong> density<br />

are <strong>her</strong>e comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> support of a<br />

lively, safe <strong>and</strong> diverse public life.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s “eyes upon <strong>the</strong> street” are<br />

those of co-presence, of ot<strong>her</strong>ness,<br />

which <strong>is</strong> only noticeable on <strong>the</strong> micro<br />

scale of everyday <strong>in</strong>teractions. The<br />

“ot<strong>her</strong>” <strong>is</strong> a fundamental part of <strong>the</strong><br />

city described by <strong>Jacobs</strong>, becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

part of our urban experience<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>form<strong>in</strong>g us of favourable<br />

conditions for <strong>the</strong> production of<br />

public life. “City people [do not] seek<br />

<strong>the</strong> sight of empt<strong>in</strong>ess […]. People’s<br />

love of watch<strong>in</strong>g activity <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

people <strong>is</strong> constantly evident <strong>in</strong> cities<br />

everyw<strong>her</strong>e”, (JACOBS, 1961, p. 37).<br />

The role of <strong>the</strong> “ot<strong>her</strong>” <strong>is</strong> important<br />

<strong>her</strong>e as part of an always latent<br />

social <strong>in</strong>teraction, of exchanges<br />

<strong>and</strong> social<strong>is</strong>ations that activate <strong>the</strong><br />

public space.<br />

Familiar figures – such as<br />

traders – help towards security by<br />

act<strong>in</strong>g as observers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> public<br />

space, stimulat<strong>in</strong>g mutual trust <strong>and</strong><br />

a feel<strong>in</strong>g of protection. Security also<br />

grows out of democratic self-control<br />

able to weave “a web of public<br />

respect <strong>and</strong> trust, <strong>and</strong> a resource <strong>in</strong><br />

time of personal or neighbourhood<br />

need” (JACOBS, 1961, p. 56).<br />

To summar<strong>is</strong>e <strong>the</strong> book’s<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> contributions: <strong>the</strong> street <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

scale chosen by <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong> a clash<br />

with modern<strong>is</strong>t ideals; she makes<br />

us look at <strong>the</strong> everyday, at <strong>the</strong><br />

“complex ballet” <strong>and</strong> what <strong>is</strong> driven<br />

by it – <strong>in</strong>formal public life, <strong>the</strong><br />

power of co-presence <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

street life. She sees microeconomics<br />

as a positive element for diversity<br />

that traverses <strong>and</strong> reconciles <strong>the</strong><br />

architectural <strong>and</strong> social dimensions<br />

of <strong>the</strong> public space. We will now<br />

look at certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>cons<strong>is</strong>tencies <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong><br />

ideas, <strong>in</strong> an attempt to make critical<br />

progress <strong>in</strong>to important <strong>is</strong>sues about<br />

<strong>the</strong> public space that are eit<strong>her</strong><br />

absent or <strong>in</strong>complete <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> work.<br />

What <strong>the</strong> eyes of <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

did not see<br />

While <strong>Jacobs</strong> celebrates <strong>the</strong><br />

spontaneity of everyday <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> public space, she also seems<br />

sometimes to <strong>in</strong>vite us to question<br />

how much she values that same<br />

aspect. When she speaks of <strong>the</strong><br />

“ballet” of Hudson Street <strong>in</strong> New<br />

York, she refers to a very specific<br />

sett<strong>in</strong>g: a community of white<br />

middle-class neighbours <strong>and</strong> traders,<br />

with customs that follow a particular<br />

pattern recogn<strong>is</strong>able by all, which<br />

will ensure ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of <strong>the</strong> order<br />

<strong>and</strong> safety of <strong>the</strong> street.<br />

She describes <strong>the</strong> dynamics<br />

of <strong>her</strong> street <strong>and</strong> neighbourhood,<br />

valu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> microeconomic life that<br />

supports vitality, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n refers<br />

to a population “alien” to th<strong>is</strong><br />

space, which v<strong>is</strong>its it, uses or passes<br />

through it, but <strong>is</strong> not part of it. She<br />

mentions a degree of d<strong>is</strong>comfort<br />

towards strangers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> street,<br />

stat<strong>in</strong>g that coex<strong>is</strong>tence between<br />

community <strong>and</strong> outsiders can only<br />

be successful under certa<strong>in</strong> sociospatial<br />

conditions: “Once a street <strong>is</strong><br />

well equipped to h<strong>and</strong>le strangers,<br />

once it has both a good, effective<br />

demarcation between private <strong>and</strong><br />

public spaces <strong>and</strong> has a basic supply<br />

of activity <strong>and</strong> eyes, <strong>the</strong> more<br />

strangers <strong>the</strong> merrier” (JACOBS,<br />

1961, p.40, our emphas<strong>is</strong>). <strong>Here</strong> lies<br />

one of our first concerns: how much<br />

does <strong>the</strong> spontaneity advocated by<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> depart (or not) from a view<br />

of <strong>the</strong> order<strong>in</strong>g of space? How far<br />

can <strong>the</strong> exerc<strong>is</strong>e of spontaneity be<br />

associated with material conditions?<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> considers familiar<br />

figures to be <strong>the</strong> sharpest eyes on<br />

<strong>the</strong> street because <strong>the</strong>y are able to<br />

recogn<strong>is</strong>e changes <strong>in</strong> rhythm <strong>and</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>ruptions of order, that <strong>is</strong>, conflicts.<br />

As we have seen, <strong>the</strong> possibility of<br />

conflict <strong>is</strong> a fundamental feature for<br />

<strong>the</strong> political production of <strong>the</strong> public<br />

space, which presupposes a platform<br />

open to variety, different modes<br />

of appropriation, <strong>and</strong> t<strong>her</strong>efore<br />

allows d<strong>is</strong>sent. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s view of<br />

<strong>the</strong> possibility of multiple uses <strong>and</strong><br />

appropriations diverges somewhat<br />

from <strong>the</strong>se spontaneous collective<br />

practices: “All k<strong>in</strong>ds of people can<br />

be present, but those who tum up<br />

for one reason at one time must<br />

not be sorted out <strong>in</strong> some totally<br />

<strong>in</strong>compatible fashion from those<br />

who turn up for anot<strong>her</strong> reason”<br />

(JACOBS, 1961, p. 163).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s argument seems<br />

t<strong>her</strong>efore to leave little space<br />

for <strong>the</strong> possibility of difference.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> contradiction sometimes<br />

derives from <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong><br />

neighbourhoods <strong>Jacobs</strong> uses as<br />

positive examples (such as North<br />

End <strong>in</strong> Boston <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> West Village<br />

<strong>in</strong> New York), were at <strong>the</strong> time<br />

ethnically white neighbourhoods,<br />

whose blocks had already been<br />

partially modern<strong>is</strong>ed, socially<br />

homogeneous <strong>and</strong> formed of a select<br />

group of work<strong>in</strong>g middle class:<br />

generally journal<strong>is</strong>ts, architects <strong>and</strong><br />

art<strong>is</strong>ts (GANS, 1968). These features<br />

are practically not contextual<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

by <strong>Jacobs</strong> or <strong>her</strong> followers, <strong>and</strong><br />

largely expla<strong>in</strong> why <strong>the</strong> image of<br />

<strong>the</strong> street ballet can be almost an<br />

exclud<strong>in</strong>g abstraction <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> light<br />

of <strong>the</strong> socio-economic <strong>and</strong> spatial<br />

conditions of <strong>the</strong> streets of our own<br />

cities: “Jacob’s view perpetuates <strong>the</strong><br />

image of <strong>the</strong> New York City block as<br />

a microcosm of social diversity. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> block we know from films, [...]<br />

<strong>is</strong> just as much a social construction<br />

as <strong>the</strong> movie image of a New York<br />

City” (ZUKIN, 2010, p.17).<br />

Berman addresses th<strong>is</strong><br />

somewhat acerbically:<br />

If we look back a little<br />

sceptically at <strong>her</strong> v<strong>is</strong>ion of <strong>her</strong> block,<br />

we may see <strong>the</strong> trouble. Her <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />

of <strong>the</strong> people <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> neighbourhood<br />

has <strong>the</strong> aura of […] a Hollywood<br />

version […]: every race, creed <strong>and</strong><br />

colour work<strong>in</strong>g toget<strong>her</strong> to keep<br />

America free for you <strong>and</strong> me. […]<br />

But wait - <strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem: […]<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e are no blacks on <strong>her</strong> block. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>is</strong> what makes <strong>her</strong> neighbourhood<br />

v<strong>is</strong>ion seem pastoral: it <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> city<br />

before <strong>the</strong> blacks got t<strong>her</strong>e […] T<strong>her</strong>e<br />

<strong>is</strong> noth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> no one above; what<br />

50


matters more <strong>her</strong>e, however, <strong>is</strong> that<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e <strong>is</strong> noth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> no one below<br />

(BERMAN, 1988, p. 324).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s diversity can<br />

t<strong>her</strong>efore be questioned on two levels:<br />

(1) How <strong>in</strong>clusive <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> diversity<br />

she advocates (allow<strong>in</strong>g coex<strong>is</strong>tence<br />

of greater socio-economic <strong>and</strong><br />

socio-cultural differences <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

ways of appropriat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> space)?<br />

<strong>and</strong> (2) how far does high density<br />

support a diversity that can feed <strong>the</strong><br />

public space with different forms<br />

of social<strong>is</strong>ation? These questions<br />

clearly are not aimed at <strong>in</strong>validat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> book’s contributions, <strong>and</strong> we are<br />

far from any conclusive answer. But<br />

we do have some questions about<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir directions.<br />

Firstly, we believe that<br />

diversity alone (as a concept <strong>and</strong><br />

guidel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> book) <strong>is</strong> not enough<br />

for <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cussion <strong>and</strong> proposals<br />

of a public space <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sense<br />

considered <strong>her</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> it needs to<br />

be necessarily articulated/rev<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

alongside <strong>the</strong> concept of difference.<br />

Although diversity per se suggests a<br />

d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ctive relationship between one<br />

element <strong>and</strong> anot<strong>her</strong>, it also allows<br />

different elements to be rational<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

<strong>in</strong> large groups: we can talk of a<br />

“diverse group” <strong>and</strong> still celebrate<br />

<strong>the</strong> ex<strong>is</strong>tence of specific features<br />

<strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> it. “Diversity” <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>is</strong>olation can become an <strong>in</strong>strument<br />

for exclusion <strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>crim<strong>in</strong>ation,<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>the</strong> sociology of <strong>the</strong><br />

public space, a conceptual pitfall<br />

<strong>and</strong> political strategy for <strong>the</strong> erasure<br />

<strong>and</strong>/or mollification of difference<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>equality:<br />

Diversity erases difference<br />

because <strong>the</strong> diverse conta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong><br />

idea of identities that relate to each<br />

ot<strong>her</strong>, that are composed <strong>and</strong> tolerate<br />

each ot<strong>her</strong> as if egalitarian dialogues<br />

could be establ<strong>is</strong>hed without power/<br />

knowledge hierarchies, when <strong>the</strong><br />

very function of difference <strong>is</strong><br />

to blur identities rat<strong>her</strong> than to<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitute <strong>the</strong>m. (RODRIGUES;<br />

ABRAMOWICZ, 2013, p. 3).<br />

“Difference” – also a key<br />

concept for Lefebvre (1970) – <strong>is</strong>, <strong>in</strong><br />

contrast, what allows us to recogn<strong>is</strong>e<br />

different values <strong>and</strong> release ourselves<br />

from homogen<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g patterns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

production of <strong>the</strong> spaces of life.<br />

Difference offers <strong>the</strong> possibility of<br />

<strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong>, of <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

sides of <strong>the</strong> city <strong>and</strong> valu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m<br />

as legitimates sides of our everyday<br />

ex<strong>is</strong>tence.<br />

Secondly, <strong>Jacobs</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />

to density as a factor generat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

diversity, facilitat<strong>in</strong>g proximity<br />

between groups, which might lead<br />

to co-presence between <strong>in</strong>dividuals.<br />

But we should note that although<br />

proximity enables significant<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions between <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />

<strong>and</strong> between <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> space, it<br />

does not necessarily produce <strong>the</strong>m.<br />

Coex<strong>is</strong>tence of <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong>/<br />

or groups <strong>in</strong> a particular section<br />

of space does not predeterm<strong>in</strong>e copresence,<br />

which implies cohesive<br />

<strong>and</strong>/or conflictive dynamics, deep<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions between context, <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>and</strong> group, <strong>and</strong> which<br />

t<strong>her</strong>efore cons<strong>is</strong>ts of social difference<br />

<strong>and</strong> its consequences (DOXA, 2001;<br />

NETTO, 2012). Thus we can say that<br />

it <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> quality (not <strong>the</strong> quantity)<br />

of socio-spatial <strong>in</strong>teractions that<br />

significantly differentiates some<br />

spaces from ot<strong>her</strong>s: that <strong>is</strong>, <strong>in</strong>tensity.<br />

Consider<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> public<br />

space <strong>is</strong> produced from collective<br />

experience that allows for difference,<br />

we need to question <strong>the</strong> extent of<br />

density as a concept/<strong>in</strong>strument.<br />

Intensity 5 <strong>is</strong> a measure of emphas<strong>is</strong><br />

rat<strong>her</strong> than volume; of <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />

<strong>and</strong> not <strong>the</strong> mere coex<strong>is</strong>tence of<br />

a number of people; of what <strong>is</strong><br />

significant, acquir<strong>in</strong>g mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />

through contrast rat<strong>her</strong> than what<br />

<strong>is</strong> homogenous <strong>and</strong> even. As Sennet<br />

says (1992a, p. 117): “Emphas<strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>is</strong> an act that veers toward<br />

exaggeration. The italicized word,<br />

for <strong>in</strong>stance, serves as a marker<br />

that it <strong>is</strong> important. Emphas<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong><br />

a concentration of mean<strong>in</strong>g”. The<br />

means (aggregated or re<strong>in</strong>forced)<br />

by which as space acquires <strong>in</strong>tensity<br />

are not neutral, t<strong>her</strong>efore, <strong>and</strong> are<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by specific politicalcultural<br />

content.<br />

Density <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensity are<br />

complementary, but a f<strong>in</strong>e l<strong>in</strong>e of<br />

differentiation <strong>is</strong> needed to prevent<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir weaken<strong>in</strong>g as <strong>in</strong>struments<br />

that affect different aspects of our<br />

perception/experience <strong>and</strong> reveal<br />

different processes develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> city. Although density <strong>is</strong> an<br />

important element of vitality, it<br />

<strong>is</strong> not itself a character<strong>is</strong>tic of<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>and</strong>/or collective actions<br />

that create ties of sociability <strong>and</strong> an<br />

urbanity of difference, <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />

<strong>and</strong> communication. <strong>Jacobs</strong> offers<br />

us density as a powerful generator<br />

of a city’s dynam<strong>is</strong>m <strong>and</strong> diversity,<br />

5 The def<strong>in</strong>ition of <strong>in</strong>tensity related to<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g that “<strong>is</strong> manifest of felt <strong>in</strong> abundance,<br />

vigour”, “that exceeds <strong>the</strong> customary”.<br />

So although <strong>the</strong> bas<strong>is</strong> of density <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensity<br />

concerns quantitative relationships, <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>is</strong><br />

a manifestation that <strong>is</strong> characterized qualitatively,<br />

conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> itself that prime<br />

quali-value condition: “<strong>is</strong> manifest or felt”.<br />

yet she does not consider <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tersubjective<br />

relationships of <strong>the</strong><br />

production of <strong>the</strong> public space<br />

that might come from <strong>the</strong> study of<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity. In short: not every space<br />

<strong>is</strong> dense <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tense, <strong>the</strong> opposite <strong>is</strong><br />

also true.<br />

Anot<strong>her</strong> <strong>is</strong>sue concerns <strong>her</strong><br />

advocation of <strong>the</strong> need for clear<br />

separation between <strong>the</strong> public<br />

<strong>and</strong> private space as a way of<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g security. <strong>Jacobs</strong> does<br />

not clarify th<strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong> depth, but states<br />

that <strong>the</strong> area to be monitored<br />

(<strong>the</strong> street) needs to relate to <strong>the</strong><br />

clear physical boundaries between<br />

public <strong>and</strong> private space. <strong>Here</strong><br />

aga<strong>in</strong> she <strong>is</strong> question<strong>in</strong>g one of<br />

<strong>the</strong> formal models of modern<strong>is</strong>m,<br />

which for <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong>terferes with<br />

<strong>the</strong> performance of “eyes on <strong>the</strong><br />

street” <strong>and</strong> comprom<strong>is</strong>es <strong>the</strong> feel<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of security. Agree<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

that socio-spatial <strong>in</strong>teractions tend<br />

be weakened by <strong>the</strong> modern model<br />

of <strong>the</strong> city 6 , we still question <strong>her</strong><br />

emphas<strong>is</strong> on <strong>the</strong> separation of<br />

private <strong>and</strong> public, which seems<br />

somewhat detached from <strong>the</strong> rest<br />

of <strong>her</strong> argument. Initially offer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a more <strong>in</strong>tegrative approach – able<br />

to overcome dichotomies <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<br />

a possible reconciliation of spatial<br />

<strong>and</strong> social dimensions, connect<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> micro economy – th<strong>is</strong><br />

later idea seems to resonate with<br />

a physical determ<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>m that <strong>is</strong> far<br />

from that view.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally, we consider what<br />

Herb Gams <strong>and</strong> Sharon Zuk<strong>in</strong><br />

suggest as an “abst<strong>in</strong>ence” of<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> power<br />

of two important actors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

production of cities: <strong>the</strong> State <strong>and</strong><br />

property owners. Urban plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> State: it <strong>is</strong> part of it. The<br />

“death of life <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cities” weighs<br />

heavily on <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>ds of urban<strong>is</strong>ts,<br />

who despite hav<strong>in</strong>g some <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

on <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> city are<br />

a relatively powerless group aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

<strong>the</strong> political force of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests of<br />

capital:<br />

It <strong>is</strong> true that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

first half of twentieth <strong>century</strong><br />

Le Corbusier <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> architects<br />

popularized designs for superblocks<br />

<strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>da<strong>in</strong>ed narrow, crowded<br />

streets. But developers <strong>and</strong> state<br />

agencies built <strong>the</strong>se designs, <strong>and</strong>,<br />

with <strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence <strong>and</strong> progressive<br />

political activ<strong>is</strong>m, <strong>Jacobs</strong> should not<br />

have ignored <strong>the</strong> power of capital<br />

that <strong>the</strong>y wielded (ZUKIN, 2010,<br />

p.25).<br />

6 Some studies <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>in</strong> more<br />

detail <strong>the</strong> effect of architectural morphology<br />

on <strong>the</strong> quality of <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>and</strong> vitality. See:<br />

NETTO, et al.(2012).<br />

51


<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s lack of critique of<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests of <strong>the</strong> State <strong>and</strong> capital<br />

– which drive out populations <strong>in</strong><br />

pursuit of profit from exploitation<br />

of urban l<strong>and</strong> values – <strong>is</strong> somewhat<br />

questionable, <strong>and</strong> needs to be<br />

addressed. (MARICATO, 2001;<br />

ZUKIN, 2010). Blam<strong>in</strong>g planners<br />

for design<strong>in</strong>g whole neighbourhoods<br />

as spaces that alienated <strong>the</strong><br />

relationship between occupants <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> city, she did not use <strong>the</strong> same<br />

force <strong>in</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cussion of <strong>the</strong> powers of<br />

capital <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> State, which def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

(<strong>and</strong> still do) what <strong>is</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> not built<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city (ZUKIN, 2010). Silence<br />

towards <strong>the</strong>se agents <strong>in</strong> some way<br />

author<strong>is</strong>ed m<strong>is</strong>appropriation of <strong>her</strong><br />

repertoire (RYBCZYNSKI, 2010).<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s rhetoric of stimulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ued vitality <strong>and</strong> dynam<strong>is</strong>m of<br />

<strong>the</strong> urban space has today taken on<br />

a negative sense far from <strong>her</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />

suggestions: <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of a public<br />

space <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly subject to market<br />

criteria, controlled <strong>and</strong> stereotyped<br />

<strong>in</strong> different modes of consumption<br />

<strong>and</strong> which falsely meet expectations<br />

of improvements to <strong>the</strong> city. Such<br />

expressions of a public space are<br />

exactly <strong>the</strong> opposite of those of<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>.<br />

Considerations – a<br />

(necessary) look beyond<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s work <strong>is</strong> one<br />

of <strong>the</strong> cornerstones <strong>in</strong> urban studies<br />

of <strong>the</strong> last <strong>century</strong>, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g new<br />

areas <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> academic <strong>and</strong> political<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cussion of urban plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

call<strong>in</strong>g attention to <strong>the</strong> social web<br />

of everyday urban relations. Her<br />

work surpasses its literary quality<br />

to become a manifesto <strong>in</strong> favour<br />

of urban life, spar<strong>in</strong>g no efforts<br />

<strong>in</strong> critic<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g modern<strong>is</strong>t ideals <strong>and</strong><br />

shak<strong>in</strong>g up <strong>the</strong> status of planners<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> rational<strong>is</strong>ation of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

methodologies, which still echoes<br />

through urban plann<strong>in</strong>g today.<br />

Her arena <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> everyday<br />

public space. Readers’ direct<br />

identification with <strong>her</strong> language <strong>is</strong><br />

perhaps based on <strong>her</strong> position <strong>in</strong> that<br />

place: alongside <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong><br />

relationships she w<strong>is</strong>hed to describe,<br />

allow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> spontaneity <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>formality of <strong>the</strong> street to affect<br />

<strong>the</strong> style <strong>and</strong> flow of <strong>her</strong> critique <strong>and</strong><br />

response, on each page encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

us to observe <strong>the</strong> public space more<br />

closely <strong>and</strong> from with<strong>in</strong>.<br />

But <strong>her</strong> achievement merits<br />

more than unquestion<strong>in</strong>g reverence<br />

– on <strong>the</strong> contrary, she seems to<br />

have been concerned with shift<strong>in</strong>g<br />

us <strong>in</strong>to a more critical view about<br />

reflections <strong>and</strong> practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city.<br />

So, without detract<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong><br />

virtues of The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of<br />

Great American Cities, we also w<strong>is</strong>h<br />

to look at <strong>the</strong> work with slightly<br />

more <strong>in</strong>vestigative eyes – a difficult<br />

exerc<strong>is</strong>e of self-control <strong>in</strong> face of<br />

<strong>the</strong> enthusiasm that we (like many<br />

ot<strong>her</strong>s) sense when turn<strong>in</strong>g its pages.<br />

In th<strong>is</strong> work <strong>Jacobs</strong> acutely<br />

questions our roles as architects <strong>and</strong><br />

planners <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> design of cities <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> impacts that might ar<strong>is</strong>e. But<br />

<strong>her</strong> political engagement aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong><br />

proposals of Robert Moses seems<br />

to have overly affected <strong>her</strong> book’s<br />

aims, so that ot<strong>her</strong> agents <strong>and</strong><br />

processes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shap<strong>in</strong>g of cities are<br />

almost <strong>in</strong>v<strong>is</strong>ible <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> reflections.<br />

The energy expended on th<strong>is</strong><br />

crusade – first <strong>and</strong> foremost as an<br />

activ<strong>is</strong>t – provides us with effective<br />

ammunition aga<strong>in</strong>st Moses <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

modern plan but does not reach<br />

ot<strong>her</strong> important targets. While <strong>the</strong><br />

figure of <strong>the</strong> urban special<strong>is</strong>t suffers<br />

at <strong>her</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> powers of State<br />

<strong>and</strong> capital seem almost untouched 7<br />

, <strong>and</strong> yet <strong>the</strong>y def<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> city <strong>in</strong> ways<br />

that contrast greatly with <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

<strong>in</strong>terests (whet<strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> present<br />

or when she was writ<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

preservation of <strong>the</strong> community, its<br />

au<strong>the</strong>nticity <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />

of diversity <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> spontaneity<br />

of public spaces. In th<strong>is</strong> regard (at<br />

least <strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> book) <strong>Jacobs</strong> left us<br />

without a broader critique even for<br />

<strong>her</strong> times – s<strong>in</strong>ce Robert Moses did<br />

not act alone, <strong>and</strong> was f<strong>in</strong>anced by<br />

federal <strong>and</strong> private fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

supported by <strong>the</strong> political platform<br />

of <strong>the</strong> local adm<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>tration, <strong>in</strong><br />

material<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g h<strong>is</strong> plan <strong>in</strong> North<br />

America. <strong>Jacobs</strong> t<strong>her</strong>efore addresses<br />

<strong>the</strong> city from a considerably partial,<br />

d<strong>is</strong>connected reality, ignor<strong>in</strong>g forces<br />

such as property speculation,<br />

demographic growth <strong>and</strong> even <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational<strong>is</strong>ation of New York.<br />

We consider <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s neglect<br />

of <strong>the</strong>se aspects to be unsound,<br />

not just from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpretative<br />

viewpo<strong>in</strong>t (of <strong>the</strong> city as it <strong>is</strong>),<br />

7 Remember<strong>in</strong>g that our<br />

focus <strong>is</strong> based on “Death <strong>and</strong> Life”. It <strong>is</strong><br />

important to recogn<strong>is</strong>e that critic<strong>is</strong>m of <strong>the</strong><br />

State appears <strong>in</strong> later works, such as “Dark<br />

ages ahead”. But throughout <strong>her</strong> career of<br />

manifestos <strong>and</strong> political activ<strong>is</strong>m “Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life” might have been accurate <strong>and</strong><br />

considered as a broader conjuncture between<br />

actors <strong>and</strong> powers of <strong>the</strong> forces that she<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cusses about <strong>the</strong> city.<br />

but because at several <strong>in</strong>stances<br />

<strong>her</strong> work presents a proscriptive<br />

approach (of <strong>the</strong> city that should<br />

be) <strong>and</strong> should t<strong>her</strong>efore reveal <strong>the</strong><br />

connections of forces that shape <strong>the</strong><br />

urban space, which are not restricted<br />

to <strong>the</strong> planner’s draw<strong>in</strong>g board <strong>and</strong><br />

pencil. In th<strong>is</strong> respect <strong>the</strong> work fails<br />

to <strong>in</strong>clude a critique that <strong>is</strong> more<br />

technical than social:<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s critique suggests<br />

quite d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ctive approaches to <strong>the</strong><br />

form of plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> city. On <strong>the</strong> one<br />

h<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> requirement for diversity<br />

as au<strong>the</strong>ntic <strong>and</strong> derived from <strong>the</strong><br />

everyday <strong>is</strong> a strong argument<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st any k<strong>in</strong>d of external<br />

<strong>in</strong>tervention, pr<strong>in</strong>cipally by <strong>the</strong><br />

State. […] On <strong>the</strong> ot<strong>her</strong>, it <strong>is</strong> not<br />

really social critic<strong>is</strong>m, but <strong>in</strong>stead<br />

a critic<strong>is</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> technical as <strong>the</strong><br />

only legitimate criterion for dec<strong>is</strong>ion<br />

mak<strong>in</strong>g that affects people’s lives<br />

(TAVOLARI, 2015, p.11).<br />

We suspect that th<strong>is</strong><br />

om<strong>is</strong>sion <strong>is</strong> what makes <strong>her</strong> work<br />

accessible to a more divergent range<br />

of “tastes”, turn<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong>to a common<br />

d<strong>is</strong>course that <strong>is</strong> easily adopted by<br />

design practices that are totally<br />

antagon<strong>is</strong>tic to <strong>her</strong> v<strong>is</strong>ion: “<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

work has been unduly appropriated<br />

<strong>and</strong> romantic<strong>is</strong>ed by <strong>in</strong>fluential<br />

groups such as urban planners <strong>and</strong><br />

adm<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>trators – groups which have<br />

an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> homogen<strong>is</strong>ation of<br />

<strong>the</strong> spaces of <strong>the</strong> city” (LYES, 2016,<br />

p. 58).<br />

Indeed it <strong>is</strong> not unusual to<br />

hear “<strong>Jacobs</strong> would say” 8 stated<br />

by actors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of an<br />

urban space totally alien to <strong>the</strong> real<br />

objectives that she was fight<strong>in</strong>g for.<br />

Much of th<strong>is</strong> also seems<br />

to stem from a relatively one-sided<br />

<strong>and</strong> convenient appropriation of <strong>her</strong><br />

advocation of microeconomic life<br />

as a positive factor for <strong>the</strong> vitality<br />

<strong>and</strong> diversity of <strong>the</strong> public space.<br />

Although we agree about <strong>the</strong> value<br />

of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s argument <strong>her</strong>e – <strong>and</strong> that<br />

it deserves greater consideration <strong>in</strong><br />

studies about <strong>the</strong> public space – it has<br />

been attacked by some scholars with<br />

extreme views about its negative<br />

effects – which seems <strong>in</strong>appropriate.<br />

Of course th<strong>is</strong> negative view <strong>is</strong><br />

based on effects establ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong><br />

8 Her centenary was<br />

commemorated last year. At events we<br />

attended <strong>in</strong> New York we often heard th<strong>is</strong><br />

expression <strong>in</strong> highly controversial d<strong>is</strong>cussions<br />

of <strong>her</strong> <strong>legacy</strong>. Which <strong>is</strong> furt<strong>her</strong> evidence of<br />

<strong>the</strong> “common place” occupied by <strong>her</strong> work<br />

because of <strong>in</strong>accurate consideration of <strong>her</strong><br />

writ<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

52


<strong>the</strong> city when <strong>the</strong> “d<strong>is</strong>course <strong>in</strong><br />

favour of microeconomic life” has<br />

long supported developmental<strong>is</strong>t<br />

proposals which only break <strong>the</strong><br />

city down <strong>in</strong>to stereotypes of<br />

consumption accord<strong>in</strong>g to market<br />

criteria <strong>and</strong> directed towards specific<br />

social classes, restrict<strong>in</strong>g forms<br />

of encounter <strong>and</strong> social<strong>is</strong>ation<br />

<strong>and</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g exclusive spaces of<br />

segregation.<br />

We know that <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong><br />

careful not to general<strong>is</strong>e. Neit<strong>her</strong><br />

does she impose <strong>her</strong> work as a model!<br />

But <strong>her</strong> argument <strong>is</strong> constructed <strong>in</strong> a<br />

tone of recommend<strong>in</strong>g ways towards<br />

better cities: <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong>e<strong>in</strong> lies <strong>the</strong><br />

danger of accept<strong>in</strong>g “what <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

said” as valid for every situation.<br />

The l<strong>is</strong>t of conditions for diversity,<br />

for example, chooses not to consider<br />

<strong>the</strong> specific relations of each context<br />

(be <strong>the</strong>y spatial, economic or<br />

cultural) <strong>and</strong> forgets that diversity <strong>is</strong><br />

sometimes not a positive effect on <strong>the</strong><br />

space, depend<strong>in</strong>g on what lies beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />

it. It can be <strong>the</strong> effect of completely<br />

exclusive <strong>and</strong> selective changes <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> urban sett<strong>in</strong>g. Harlem 9 <strong>in</strong> New<br />

York 10 , provides a clear example,<br />

when <strong>in</strong> 2000 it began to be adopted<br />

by different cultures from all corners<br />

of <strong>the</strong> world, driv<strong>in</strong>g out its au<strong>the</strong>ntic<br />

Afro-American population. The<br />

neighbourhood that had long been<br />

known as <strong>the</strong> “Mecca of black<br />

culture” <strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong> fact today highly<br />

diverse culturally, yet extremely<br />

selective socioeconomically <strong>and</strong><br />

considerably dra<strong>in</strong>ed of its orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />

population.<br />

Of course, th<strong>is</strong> also concerns<br />

gentrification – a phenomenon that<br />

was still embryonic <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United<br />

States <strong>and</strong> began to acquire greater<br />

<strong>and</strong> more deeply felt impact years<br />

after <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s book was publ<strong>is</strong>hed,<br />

<strong>and</strong> about which we can hardly<br />

dem<strong>and</strong> she have some prior<br />

knowledge. Although <strong>Jacobs</strong> did not<br />

ignore <strong>the</strong> problem (of gentrification)<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> later works (which are beyond<br />

<strong>the</strong> scope of th<strong>is</strong> article), she could<br />

obviously not address all urban<br />

<strong>is</strong>sues <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle study <strong>and</strong> did not<br />

have enough time before <strong>her</strong> death<br />

to respond to those who even s<strong>in</strong>gled<br />

<strong>her</strong> out as a gentrifier <strong>her</strong>self (a view<br />

we do not support).<br />

Many of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s ideas<br />

ultimately became general<br />

parameters for diagnos<strong>is</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

9 The neighbourhood <strong>is</strong><br />

a current doctoral subject for one of <strong>the</strong><br />

authors.<br />

10 Such as: Gans, 1965;<br />

Zuk<strong>in</strong>, 2010<br />

solutions to American cities, over<br />

emphas<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> attributes of space 11<br />

on <strong>the</strong> quality of <strong>in</strong>teractions.<br />

But we believe that t<strong>her</strong>e are<br />

<strong>in</strong>cons<strong>is</strong>tencies <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> use<br />

of <strong>her</strong> work that are beyond <strong>her</strong><br />

control – beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> actual<br />

translation of <strong>the</strong> title of <strong>the</strong> book<br />

<strong>in</strong>to ot<strong>her</strong> languages, <strong>in</strong> which The<br />

death <strong>and</strong> life of great American<br />

cities “loses” “American” to become<br />

“Death <strong>and</strong> life of great cities”.<br />

The importance of th<strong>is</strong><br />

should not be ignored, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

<strong>the</strong> translation leads to a sociocultural,<br />

spatial <strong>and</strong> political<br />

decontextual<strong>is</strong>ation that h<strong>in</strong>ders<br />

how <strong>the</strong> work <strong>is</strong> used by its readers.<br />

The absence of “American” <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

title “author<strong>is</strong>es”, or at least provides<br />

a (negative) excuse for <strong>the</strong> undue<br />

use of some aspects of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

reflections both by politicians <strong>and</strong><br />

academics. Not to d<strong>is</strong>credit <strong>the</strong> work<br />

of <strong>Jacobs</strong>, many of <strong>the</strong> references<br />

sought for underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g cities do<br />

not necessarily fit <strong>the</strong> h<strong>is</strong>torical,<br />

political, cultural etc. aspects of<br />

<strong>the</strong> formation of our cities, <strong>and</strong> are<br />

t<strong>her</strong>efore unable to expla<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong><br />

several respects. Her work <strong>is</strong> anot<strong>her</strong><br />

of those omnipresent references that<br />

we (not she) have chosen to elevate<br />

beyond critic<strong>is</strong>m, which impedes<br />

<strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong>oretical <strong>and</strong><br />

practical updat<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cussions<br />

of our urban problems today.<br />

In terms of <strong>the</strong> public space,<br />

we have shown that several om<strong>is</strong>sions<br />

need to be overcome <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s work. S<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g out three:<br />

<strong>the</strong> first <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> need to relativ<strong>is</strong>e <strong>her</strong><br />

conditions for diversity, turn<strong>in</strong>g our<br />

attention also to <strong>the</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> implications of consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study/design of<br />

<strong>the</strong> contemporary public space<br />

<strong>and</strong> recogn<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g that – spatial or<br />

social – <strong>the</strong>y are fundamental <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

establ<strong>is</strong>hment of different <strong>in</strong>tensities<br />

of urban experiences. Secondly, it <strong>is</strong><br />

important to differentiate <strong>in</strong>tensity<br />

<strong>and</strong> density, not just semantically but<br />

also because <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>in</strong>struments<br />

that act <strong>in</strong> very different ways on our<br />

view of <strong>the</strong> city <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> elements we<br />

value with<strong>in</strong> it. It should be stressed<br />

that th<strong>is</strong> does not mean choos<strong>in</strong>g<br />

“a side”. Both are important <strong>and</strong><br />

tenuously relate to each ot<strong>her</strong>, but<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensity clearly touches on symbolic<br />

dimensions of <strong>the</strong> public space that<br />

density alone cannot if we w<strong>is</strong>h to<br />

speak of a mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>and</strong> genu<strong>in</strong>e<br />

space of co-presence. F<strong>in</strong>ally, it<br />

11 Such as morphology,<br />

age of cities, width of sidewalks <strong>and</strong> facade<br />

open<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

<strong>is</strong> crucial that we recogn<strong>is</strong>e <strong>and</strong><br />

make our <strong>in</strong>terventions (practical<br />

or <strong>the</strong>oretical) on <strong>the</strong> public space<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> awareness that its autonomy<br />

(which allows for d<strong>is</strong>sent, different<br />

appropriations <strong>and</strong> variety etc.) <strong>is</strong> a<br />

fundamental condition for its social<br />

<strong>and</strong> political form. <strong>Jacobs</strong> may have<br />

begun <strong>in</strong> that way with <strong>her</strong> pra<strong>is</strong>e<br />

of <strong>the</strong> spontaneity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal life<br />

of <strong>the</strong> street, but she <strong>the</strong>n focuses<br />

more on material conditions for<br />

social life, without concentrat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> same effort on sensory aspects<br />

of <strong>the</strong> production of <strong>the</strong> public<br />

space, which cannot be reta<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />

its material conditions.<br />

In scientific terms, <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

offers <strong>in</strong>struments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />

of space that require some care/<br />

updat<strong>in</strong>g, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>her</strong> book presents<br />

no clear methodology. Her<br />

strategies concern<strong>in</strong>g “successful<br />

neighbourhoods”, for example,<br />

were not carried out systematically,<br />

conta<strong>in</strong>ed no r<strong>and</strong>om sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> were not concerned with be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

representative accord<strong>in</strong>g to a<br />

sufficient number of neighbourhoods<br />

(Saboya et al, 2015).<br />

Her ethnography of <strong>the</strong><br />

everyday has provided us with a<br />

scale of real underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of urban<br />

life <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vited us to leave our offices<br />

to make contact with <strong>the</strong> social<br />

relations that give life to <strong>the</strong> city. But<br />

<strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> book <strong>Jacobs</strong> avoids a broader<br />

scale (<strong>her</strong> critique of <strong>the</strong> modern<strong>is</strong>ts)<br />

<strong>and</strong> ends up concentrat<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong><br />

ot<strong>her</strong> extreme – <strong>the</strong> scale of <strong>the</strong> city<br />

block. So <strong>the</strong> question <strong>is</strong>: what are<br />

<strong>the</strong> possible (physical <strong>and</strong> social)<br />

effects of <strong>her</strong> recommendations<br />

for <strong>the</strong> public space? If we were<br />

to follow <strong>the</strong> material conditions<br />

of <strong>her</strong> proposal, would a diverse<br />

city be guaranteed, one full of life,<br />

full of different <strong>and</strong> spontaneous<br />

appropriations? A hiatus rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />

relation to <strong>the</strong> connection between<br />

<strong>the</strong> micro scale of <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> major <strong>in</strong>frastructures that<br />

ensure <strong>the</strong> function<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> city as<br />

a whole, with costs on ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />

<strong>and</strong> economic accessibility, with<br />

direct effects on <strong>the</strong> quality of<br />

<strong>the</strong> urban space <strong>and</strong> its social<br />

composition, <strong>and</strong> t<strong>her</strong>efore on <strong>the</strong><br />

socio-spatial conditions shap<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

ballet of <strong>the</strong> street.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> article does not aim to<br />

dim<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>h <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s analytical effort<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> important step it has allowed<br />

us to make towards <strong>the</strong> study of<br />

cities. But we do believe t<strong>her</strong>e to be<br />

om<strong>is</strong>sions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> contextual<strong>is</strong>ation<br />

of several dimensions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> use of <strong>her</strong> text, especially if<br />

we are not to reduce <strong>the</strong> scope of<br />

53


d<strong>is</strong>cussion of <strong>the</strong> public space. If we<br />

want to confront <strong>the</strong> “great plague<br />

of monotony”, as <strong>Jacobs</strong> describes<br />

st<strong>and</strong>ard<strong>is</strong>ed spaces that are without<br />

doubt segregated <strong>and</strong> exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

– <strong>the</strong> previously mentioned “anticity”<br />

of Manuel Delgado <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

“urbanal<strong>is</strong>ation” of Muñoz – we<br />

need to recogn<strong>is</strong>e <strong>and</strong> accept without<br />

too much sensitivity that t<strong>her</strong>e may<br />

be some limitations not just <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong><br />

work but also <strong>in</strong> that of many ot<strong>her</strong>s<br />

whose work we use to read <strong>the</strong> city.<br />

In a climate of <strong>the</strong><br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uous deification (because it<br />

d<strong>is</strong>penses with critical th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g) of<br />

works like The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of<br />

Great American Cities, we urgently<br />

need to progress towards empiricalanalytical-<strong>the</strong>oretical<br />

exerc<strong>is</strong>es<br />

that can question <strong>the</strong> conditions<br />

of produc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> public space <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> contemporary city, restore <strong>the</strong><br />

ga<strong>in</strong>s brought about by reflections<br />

like those of <strong>Jacobs</strong>, update overaffected<br />

gazes <strong>and</strong> prevent so many<br />

repeated (<strong>and</strong> now unproductive)<br />

approaches.<br />

References<br />

AGUIAR, D. Urbanidade e a<br />

qualidade da cidade. In:<br />

AGUIAR, D; NETO, V. M.<br />

(orgs.). Urbanidades. Rio de<br />

janeiro: Folio Digital, Letra e<br />

Imagem, 2012, p. 61 - 79.<br />

ARENDT, H. The Human<br />

Condition. Chicago: University<br />

of Chicago, 1998.<br />

AUGE, M. Por uma antropologia da<br />

mobilidade. Maceió: EDLTFAL:<br />

UNESP, 2010.<br />

BERMAN, M. All That Is Solid<br />

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Books, 1988.<br />

CRESTANI, A. M. Z. “In-Between<br />

Spatialities: an approach to <strong>the</strong><br />

contemporary urban space of<br />

(t)<strong>her</strong>e(s)” Artigo apresentado<br />

e publicado nos ana<strong>is</strong> da<br />

conferência LASA International<br />

Congress, Nova York, Estados<br />

Unidos, 2016.<br />

CRESTANI, A. M. Z.; ALVES, M.<br />

R. “Public Space, mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

from everyw<strong>her</strong>e <strong>and</strong> now<strong>her</strong>e:<br />

The spatial conditions of<br />

alienation?” In: Anals of<br />

Regional Urban<strong>is</strong>m In <strong>the</strong> Era<br />

of Globalization, Huddersfield,<br />

Re<strong>in</strong>o Unido, 2016.<br />

DELGADO, M. El animal público.<br />

Hacia una antro-pología de los<br />

espacios urbanos. Barcelona:<br />

Anagrama, 1999<br />

DELGADO, M. Barcelona. La<br />

falacia da la Ciudad Mentirosa.<br />

Madrid: Ediciones Siruela, 2008.<br />

DEUTSCHE, R. ‘Evictions. Art <strong>and</strong><br />

Spatial Politics’. Cambridge,<br />

MIT Press, 2007.<br />

DOXA, Maria. Morphologies of<br />

Co-presence <strong>in</strong> Interior Public<br />

Space <strong>in</strong> Places of Performance.<br />

In: Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs, Atlanta: 2001.<br />

GANS, H. J. “Urban Vitality<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Fallacy of Physical<br />

Determ<strong>in</strong>sm”<strong>in</strong> People <strong>and</strong><br />

PLans: essays on urban<br />

problems <strong>and</strong> solutions. New<br />

York: Basic Books, 1968.<br />

JACOBS, J. The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of<br />

Great American Cities. New<br />

York: R<strong>and</strong>om House, 1961.<br />

LEFEBVRE, H. A produção do<br />

espaço. Trad. Doralice Barros<br />

Pereira e Sérgio Mart<strong>in</strong>s (do<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>al: La production de<br />

l’espace. 4e éd. Par<strong>is</strong>: Éditions<br />

Anthropos, 2000. 2006<br />

LYES, M. “<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> & Sharon<br />

Zuk<strong>in</strong>: Gentrification <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> Legacy”. In:<br />

Contemporary Perspectives on<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>: Reassess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

Impacts of an Urban V<strong>is</strong>ionary.<br />

New York: Routledge, 2016.<br />

MARICATO, Ermínia. Morte e<br />

vida do urban<strong>is</strong>mo moderno.<br />

Resenha do livro Morte e Vida<br />

de Gr<strong>and</strong>es Cidades. D<strong>is</strong>ponível<br />

em:<br />

[http://www.usp.br/fau/depprojeto/<br />

labhab/biblioteca/textos/<br />

maricato_resenhajacobs.pdf].<br />

MUÑOZ, F. Urbanalización. Pa<strong>is</strong>ajes<br />

Comunes, Lugares Globales.<br />

Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo<br />

Gili S.A., 2008<br />

NETTO, V. M.; VARGAS, J. C;<br />

SABOYA, R. T. de. (Busc<strong>and</strong>o)<br />

Os efeitos socia<strong>is</strong> da morfologia<br />

arquitetônica. In: urbe, Rev.<br />

Bras. Gest. Urbana, Curitiba, v.<br />

4, n. 2, p. 261-282, Dec. 2012.<br />

RYBCZYNSKI, W. Makeshift<br />

Metropol<strong>is</strong>: Ideas About Cities.<br />

Indiebound, 2010.<br />

RODRIGUES, T. C;<br />

ABRAMOWICZ, A. O<br />

debate contemporâneo sobre<br />

a diversidade e a diferença<br />

nas políticas e pesqu<strong>is</strong>as em<br />

educação. Educ. Pesqu<strong>is</strong>a. São<br />

Paulo, v. 39, n. 1, p. 15-30, Mar.<br />

2013.<br />

SABOYA, R. T. de; NETTO, V. M.;<br />

CELSO VARGAS, J. Fatores<br />

morfológicos da vitalidade<br />

urbana. Uma <strong>in</strong>vestigação<br />

sobre o tipo arquitetônico e seus<br />

efeitos. Arquitextos, São Paulo,<br />

ano 15, n. 180.02, Vitruvius,<br />

maio 2015<br />

SENNET, R. The Conscience of <strong>the</strong><br />

Eye: <strong>the</strong> design <strong>and</strong> social life of<br />

cities. New York: W.W. Norton<br />

<strong>and</strong> Company, 1992a.<br />

SENNET, R. The Fall of public<br />

man. New York: W. W. Norton<br />

& Company, 1992b.<br />

TAVOLARI, B. M. D. <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>:<br />

Contradições E Tensões.<br />

In: Ana<strong>is</strong> do XVI Enanpur<br />

– Espaço, planejamento e<br />

<strong>in</strong>surgências. Belo Horizonte:<br />

2015. D<strong>is</strong>ponível em:<br />

http://xvienanpur.com.br/<br />

ana<strong>is</strong>/?wpfb_dl=622<br />

ZUKIN, S. Naked City: The Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life of Au<strong>the</strong>ntic Urban<br />

Places. New York: Oxford, 2010.<br />

54


55


56<br />

Key note speakers


Dirk Schubert<br />

Dirk Schubert <strong>is</strong> Professor for Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g at HafenCity<br />

University Hamburg. H<strong>is</strong> research <strong>and</strong> publications are focused on<br />

Comparative Perspectives of Urban Waterfront Transformations<br />

<strong>and</strong> Urban Renewal Strategies <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volvement of people <strong>and</strong><br />

participation. Th<strong>is</strong> leads directly to <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, <strong>her</strong> work, publications<br />

<strong>and</strong> impact not only <strong>in</strong> North America, but also <strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong><br />

countries. <strong>Jacobs</strong> famous book has challenged <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e of urban<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> led to a paradigm shift. Controversial <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1960s, most<br />

of <strong>her</strong> ideas became generally accepted with<strong>in</strong> a decade or so after<br />

publication.<br />

Dirk Schubert organized an <strong>in</strong>ternational conference <strong>in</strong><br />

Hamburg <strong>in</strong> 2011 on <strong>the</strong> 50th anniversary of <strong>the</strong> famous book “Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities” with <strong>in</strong>ternational experts:<br />

“Queen <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>. <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Paradigm Shifts <strong>in</strong> Urban<br />

Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Urban Redevelopment”. Now, more than 50 years<br />

after <strong>her</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial publication, <strong>in</strong> a period of rapid globalization <strong>and</strong><br />

deregulated approaches <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g, new challenges ar<strong>is</strong>e. Of course<br />

it <strong>is</strong> not possible simply to follow <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s ideas to <strong>the</strong> letter<br />

(“What would have <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> said?”), but <strong>in</strong>stead it <strong>is</strong> necessary to<br />

contextualize <strong>the</strong>m, to look for relevant lessons for cities <strong>and</strong> planners,<br />

<strong>and</strong> critically to re-evaluate <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> how some of <strong>her</strong> ideas might<br />

be updated.<br />

Dirk Schubert has publ<strong>is</strong>hed two books on <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

several articles <strong>in</strong> German, Engl<strong>is</strong>h <strong>and</strong> Turk<strong>is</strong>h <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> also Chairman<br />

of <strong>the</strong> Fritz Schumac<strong>her</strong> Society (FSG) <strong>and</strong> President of <strong>the</strong><br />

International Plann<strong>in</strong>g H<strong>is</strong>tory Society (IPHS).<br />

57


Anti-planner” or “urban<br />

v<strong>is</strong>ionary” – Paradigm Shifts <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s Paradoxes<br />

of Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Dirk Schubert<br />

Professor of Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g at Hafencity<br />

University, Hamburg, Germany<br />

dirk.schubert@hcu-hamburg.de<br />

(City) plann<strong>in</strong>g was <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> controversial <strong>in</strong> many ways. It conta<strong>in</strong>s normative elements <strong>and</strong><br />

seeks to control spatial development with social implications. <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s critic<strong>is</strong>m was<br />

directed at urban plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> USA <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late 1950s <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> drastic area remediation<br />

projects at <strong>the</strong> time. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n paradigm shifts towards an <strong>in</strong>volvement of parties affected<br />

by plann<strong>in</strong>g developments have taken place, <strong>and</strong> not only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> USA. The <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

developed about cities be<strong>in</strong>g organ<strong>is</strong>ed complexity, <strong>the</strong> paradox of plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> non-plann<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

<strong>in</strong>terdependence of chaos <strong>and</strong> order are still <strong>in</strong>tegral components of plann<strong>in</strong>g processes <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> debate on <strong>the</strong> future of cities.<br />

Keywords: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, Paradoxes of Plann<strong>in</strong>g, Paradigm Shifts<br />

58<br />

Introduction<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> often called upon by<br />

neoliberal authors to depict urban<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g as bureaucratic, top-down<br />

<strong>and</strong> essentially unnecessary. She<br />

d<strong>is</strong>credited city plann<strong>in</strong>g as a “pseudo-science”<br />

<strong>and</strong> understood <strong>her</strong><br />

iconoclastic book “Death <strong>and</strong> Life”<br />

as “an attack on current city plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> rebuild<strong>in</strong>g” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962a: 3].<br />

Current – th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> important to note<br />

– refers to <strong>the</strong> practice <strong>and</strong> situation<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> USA at <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> 1950s.<br />

Plann<strong>in</strong>g projects <strong>and</strong> developments<br />

extended over long time frames,<br />

were vague <strong>and</strong> too general, result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> hidden conflicts which did not<br />

emerge until “practical constra<strong>in</strong>ts”<br />

had already ar<strong>is</strong>en. Th<strong>is</strong> was <strong>and</strong> still<br />

<strong>is</strong> an important argument. Diverse<br />

circumstances, turn<strong>in</strong>g politics, new<br />

actors <strong>and</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> office markets can h<strong>in</strong>der <strong>the</strong><br />

implemention of a development or<br />

generate dramatic changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>itial plan. But cities worldwide<br />

have benefitted even from m<strong>in</strong>imal<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions for provid<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>frastructure, water supplies, sewer<br />

systems, streets <strong>and</strong> often build<strong>in</strong>g<br />

regulations. How can we best <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

urban development, resilient<br />

<strong>and</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able cities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> longrun,<br />

what degree of comprehensive<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>is</strong> necessary, or would<br />

non-plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> ab<strong>and</strong>on<strong>in</strong>g cities<br />

to market forces <strong>and</strong> private devel-


59


opers generate <strong>the</strong> best solutions?<br />

Incidentally, non-plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>is</strong> also<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g of a k<strong>in</strong>d.<br />

In general, plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> participation<br />

of relevant stakeholders <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

preparation of plans <strong>is</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>in</strong> various<br />

ways to <strong>the</strong> h<strong>is</strong>tory, culture <strong>and</strong><br />

politics of cities, regions <strong>and</strong> countries<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir regulatory regimes.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> t<strong>her</strong>efore touches upon <strong>the</strong> old<br />

<strong>is</strong>sue of power <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> structural<br />

problem of legitimacy: can planners<br />

act <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> public <strong>in</strong>terest, as it <strong>is</strong><br />

def<strong>in</strong>ed, <strong>and</strong> how can poorer, d<strong>is</strong>advantaged<br />

groups be <strong>in</strong>cluded. <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

already critic<strong>is</strong>ed participation<br />

[1962b: 1] as a “fashionalbe catchword”:<br />

“Urban renewal, <strong>in</strong> short, <strong>is</strong><br />

not sav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> people. Maybe, <strong>the</strong>n,<br />

<strong>the</strong> people can save urban renewal<br />

<strong>and</strong>, t<strong>her</strong>eby, save <strong>the</strong>mselves”.<br />

Plans <strong>in</strong>clude many long-term dimensions<br />

while urban reality changes<br />

quickly, whet<strong>her</strong> planned or unplanned.<br />

The only predictable aspect<br />

<strong>is</strong> its unpredictibility.<br />

Time <strong>and</strong> many side effects may<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong> implementation of a<br />

plan. When everyth<strong>in</strong>g seems to be<br />

plannable, controllable <strong>and</strong> calculable,<br />

<strong>the</strong> unforeseen side effects can<br />

be even more dramatic. The German<br />

sociolog<strong>is</strong>t Ulrich Beck talked of<br />

“r<strong>is</strong>k-society”, referr<strong>in</strong>g to catastrophies<br />

like C<strong>her</strong>nobyl [Beck, 1986].<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> implies <strong>the</strong> question of whet<strong>her</strong><br />

non-plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>is</strong> <strong>in</strong> fact <strong>the</strong> best plan?<br />

“Does <strong>the</strong> unpredictable flour<strong>is</strong>h<br />

best by refus<strong>in</strong>g to look ahead”?<br />

[Hellweg, 2011: 107]. Beck suggests<br />

a typology of uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty <strong>and</strong><br />

differentiates between temporary<br />

uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty, unaware uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty,<br />

<strong>in</strong>tended uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>advertant<br />

uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty. He quotes <strong>the</strong> Sw<strong>is</strong>s<br />

author <strong>and</strong> dramaturge Friedrich<br />

Dürenmatt: “The more planned <strong>the</strong><br />

action of man <strong>the</strong> more unexpectedly<br />

he <strong>is</strong> struck by accident” [Beck,<br />

2007: 242]. Beck d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>is</strong>hes between<br />

not be<strong>in</strong>g able to have knowledge<br />

<strong>and</strong> not want<strong>in</strong>g knowledge.<br />

“We live <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> era of side effects. It<br />

<strong>is</strong> not means-end rationality but <strong>the</strong><br />

side effect which becomes <strong>the</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>e<br />

of social h<strong>is</strong>tory. Scientification<br />

underm<strong>in</strong>es scientification. These<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>e those. Not know<strong>in</strong>g but<br />

non-knowledge <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> medium of<br />

“reflexive modernity” [Beck, 1994:<br />

25]. Lov<strong>in</strong>g paradoxes, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

might have said: Only plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ensures <strong>the</strong> preconditions for <strong>the</strong><br />

unpredictable, only urban plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

offers options for niches <strong>and</strong> spaces<br />

for flexible, temporary uses, <strong>in</strong>novations<br />

<strong>and</strong> can serve as an <strong>in</strong>cubator<br />

for <strong>in</strong>ventions. To summar<strong>is</strong>e: “How,<br />

not whet<strong>her</strong> to plan […] The first<br />

– <strong>the</strong> most elementar – lesson for<br />

downtown <strong>is</strong> simply <strong>the</strong> importance<br />

of plann<strong>in</strong>g” wrote <strong>Jacobs</strong> already <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> 1950s <strong>in</strong> an article on shopp<strong>in</strong>g<br />

centres [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1953: 122].<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> often accused of black <strong>and</strong><br />

white th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g, of conceiv<strong>in</strong>g only<br />

“for” <strong>and</strong> “aga<strong>in</strong>st” <strong>and</strong> deny<strong>in</strong>g<br />

nuance. Her sources were The New<br />

York Times, The Wall Street Journal<br />

<strong>and</strong> a vast number of books taken<br />

out of <strong>the</strong> public library. She used<br />

observations, stories <strong>and</strong> anecdotes<br />

to make general<strong>is</strong>ations. Her early<br />

polemics were directed at planners<br />

[<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962b]. Despite a dearth<br />

of prec<strong>is</strong>e concepts, she provided an<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluential critique of <strong>the</strong> “omnipotent”<br />

planners who conceive <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

plans “from above”, from a bird’s<br />

eye-view <strong>and</strong> from <strong>the</strong> comfort of<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir “ivory towers.” She questioned<br />

<strong>the</strong> planners’ d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>ary identity,<br />

professional authority <strong>and</strong> v<strong>is</strong>ion,<br />

challenged <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e’s self-image<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> decades that followed<br />

[Glazer, 1974: 346] <strong>and</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

<strong>the</strong> “pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of sort<strong>in</strong>g out” spatial<br />

functions [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962b: 25],<br />

planners “th<strong>in</strong>k big” us<strong>in</strong>g deductive<br />

reason<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

“Most city architectural designers<br />

<strong>and</strong> planners are men” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

1962b: 83] <strong>and</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

view, was based on modern<strong>is</strong>tic<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g approaches. She thought<br />

<strong>her</strong> adversary, Robert Moses <strong>in</strong> New<br />

York, exemplified that plann<strong>in</strong>g was<br />

often <strong>in</strong>effective, <strong>in</strong>efficient <strong>and</strong> unsuccessful<br />

<strong>and</strong>, despite its v<strong>is</strong>ionary<br />

ambitions, had contributed little to<br />

<strong>the</strong> recovery <strong>and</strong> v<strong>is</strong>ual enhancement<br />

of cities. Moses’s projects were fully<br />

f<strong>in</strong>anced, agreed upon with politicians<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestors, <strong>the</strong> l<strong>and</strong> acquired<br />

<strong>and</strong> designs completed well before<br />

<strong>the</strong>y were presented to <strong>the</strong> press <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> bulldozers moved <strong>in</strong>. Who was to<br />

oppose “improvements” under those<br />

conditions? In <strong>her</strong> op<strong>in</strong>ion, plans<br />

that had been drawn up with <strong>the</strong><br />

noble aims of improv<strong>in</strong>g society by<br />

naïve functional<strong>is</strong>m <strong>and</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />

“top down” efficiency had failed.<br />

These plans were not <strong>in</strong>ductive but a<br />

k<strong>in</strong>d of gesamtkunstwerk that did not<br />

relate to <strong>the</strong> urban context. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

pro-urban attack on often anti-urban<br />

planners had a last<strong>in</strong>g effect. The<br />

bewildered planners needed to f<strong>in</strong>d<br />

new allies as <strong>the</strong>y saw <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly confronted with critical<br />

questions from <strong>the</strong> “bottom up” for<br />

which <strong>the</strong>y had no adequate answers.<br />

A d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e which had been on <strong>the</strong><br />

road to be<strong>in</strong>g a profession found<br />

itself shaken to its foundations [Campanella,<br />

2001: 146]. The streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of <strong>the</strong> position of campaigns<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals connoted a weaken<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of professional competence <strong>and</strong> a<br />

“can-do” attitude.<br />

Look<strong>in</strong>g back<br />

At <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> 1950s – when<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> started writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong> book – a<br />

new, young squad of movers, shakers<br />

<strong>and</strong> technocrats sought to modern<strong>is</strong>e<br />

<strong>the</strong> economy <strong>and</strong> society along <strong>the</strong><br />

l<strong>in</strong>es of <strong>the</strong> dynamic model found <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> USA. Improv<strong>in</strong>g “sick cities” by<br />

urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, often a paternal<strong>is</strong>tic<br />

notion, was considered a sign of<br />

progress, an orderly beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

better times ahead, <strong>and</strong> pursued <strong>the</strong><br />

worldwide task of provid<strong>in</strong>g adequate<br />

spatial contexts for <strong>the</strong> economy <strong>and</strong><br />

60


critical scrut<strong>in</strong>y. The planners were<br />

held responsible for urban problems<br />

as well as many of <strong>the</strong> excesses of city<br />

redevelopment, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir core competency<br />

for <strong>the</strong> structural <strong>and</strong> spatial<br />

design of <strong>the</strong> environment began to<br />

be underm<strong>in</strong>ed [Campanella, 2011].<br />

The casualties of redevelopment<br />

projects turned <strong>in</strong>to experts, while<br />

<strong>the</strong> planners had <strong>the</strong> bas<strong>is</strong> of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

activities on behalf of <strong>the</strong> community<br />

withdrawn from <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> legality<br />

of projects was questioned. The<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g profession was implod<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong>s were be<strong>in</strong>g made for<br />

<strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>empowerment of planners.<br />

Fig.1: The former townhouse of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> West Village<br />

of Manhattan, occupied by Next Step Realty s<strong>in</strong>ce 2015. Photo by author.<br />

a grow<strong>in</strong>g population. In 1961, age<strong>in</strong>g<br />

President Dwight D. E<strong>is</strong>enhower<br />

was succeeded by <strong>the</strong> young <strong>and</strong><br />

char<strong>is</strong>matic John F. Kennedy. Slum<br />

clearance, later more optim<strong>is</strong>tically<br />

referred to as urban renewal (co<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

as “negro removal” by James Baldw<strong>in</strong>),<br />

was considered by politicians<br />

<strong>and</strong> planners to provide an opportunity<br />

for improv<strong>in</strong>g urban liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions.<br />

The migration of <strong>the</strong> white<br />

middle class to <strong>the</strong> suburbs (“white<br />

flight”) made space for lower-<strong>in</strong>come<br />

households <strong>and</strong> population groups<br />

with an immigrant background. The<br />

future seemed plannable, <strong>and</strong> even a<br />

voyage to <strong>the</strong> moon was conceivable.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> optim<strong>is</strong>tic period was followed<br />

soon by grow<strong>in</strong>g opposition to <strong>the</strong><br />

ideology of growth <strong>and</strong> faith <strong>in</strong> technocracy,<br />

especially from <strong>the</strong> younger<br />

generation. Hippies <strong>and</strong> flower children<br />

“made love not war” under <strong>the</strong><br />

gaze of a global telev<strong>is</strong>ion audience<br />

<strong>and</strong> advocated flower power. The<br />

dem<strong>and</strong>s of students, not only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

United States, for a “participatory<br />

democracy” promptly led to global<br />

protests aga<strong>in</strong>st paternal<strong>is</strong>m <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> establ<strong>is</strong>hment, as participation<br />

seemed only a “mask of democracy”.<br />

Beh<strong>in</strong>d th<strong>is</strong> generational community<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e lay hidden a wide variety of<br />

commonalities, mostly anti-authoritarian,<br />

left<strong>is</strong>t <strong>and</strong> tied to <strong>is</strong>sues of<br />

culture <strong>and</strong> lifestyle.<br />

Residents, tenants <strong>and</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>esses<br />

began to show an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

surround<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g environments,<br />

<strong>and</strong> became active campaigners.<br />

Top-down urban redevelopment<br />

projects to bulldoze <strong>the</strong> “hopeless<br />

slums”, implemented by means of<br />

divide-<strong>and</strong>-conquer strategies, were<br />

challenged. Res<strong>is</strong>tance grew <strong>and</strong><br />

opponents began to organ<strong>is</strong>e. The<br />

political climate saw a phase <strong>in</strong> which<br />

co-determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> participation<br />

were be<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong>ed. New <strong>and</strong><br />

relevant formats of co-determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

<strong>and</strong> participation <strong>in</strong> civil society were<br />

sought <strong>in</strong> order to assert common<br />

<strong>in</strong>terests.<br />

The planners, who had previously<br />

referred only to <strong>the</strong> “facts” provided<br />

by eng<strong>in</strong>eers, traffic experts, stat<strong>is</strong>ticians<br />

<strong>and</strong> architects, now had to deal<br />

with econom<strong>is</strong>ts, sociolog<strong>is</strong>ts, lawyers<br />

<strong>and</strong> political scient<strong>is</strong>ts. Furt<strong>her</strong>more,<br />

<strong>the</strong>se d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>es did not simply<br />

accept <strong>the</strong> planners’ arguments<br />

but <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly subjected <strong>the</strong>m to<br />

In many cities, <strong>the</strong> adverse consequences<br />

of urban plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> its<br />

“orgies” of demolition could no<br />

longer be ignored. The dem<strong>and</strong>s<br />

for participation, cooperation <strong>and</strong><br />

co-dec<strong>is</strong>ion mak<strong>in</strong>g opportunities for<br />

residents <strong>and</strong> stakeholders became<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly urgent. The objects of<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g for urban renewal, <strong>the</strong> people,<br />

were, accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>Jacobs</strong>, <strong>the</strong><br />

experts for <strong>the</strong>ir neighbourhoods.<br />

In 1965, Paul Davidoff called for a<br />

debate about tangible alternatives<br />

<strong>in</strong>stead of cont<strong>in</strong>ued reference to<br />

“practical constra<strong>in</strong>ts”. He questioned<br />

<strong>the</strong> planners’ value systems<br />

<strong>and</strong> technical language <strong>and</strong>, referr<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, did not accept<br />

that planners always had to st<strong>and</strong><br />

beh<strong>in</strong>d state urban redevelopment<br />

programmes. Planners <strong>and</strong> tenants<br />

called for <strong>in</strong>formation, choice, <strong>the</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>closure of (party) political <strong>in</strong>terests<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>volvement of stakeholders.<br />

“Who gets what, when,<br />

w<strong>her</strong>e, why, <strong>and</strong> how are <strong>the</strong> basic<br />

political questions” [Davidoff, 1965:<br />

336].<br />

Davidoff argued that <strong>in</strong> addition to<br />

its structural <strong>and</strong> spatial dimension,<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g also compr<strong>is</strong>ed a social<br />

component. He d<strong>is</strong>cerned that<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g was becom<strong>in</strong>g politic<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

<strong>and</strong> emphas<strong>is</strong>ed that a change <strong>in</strong><br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g practice necessitated a<br />

61


different way of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g planners <strong>and</strong><br />

giv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m additional qualifications.<br />

The delegation of responsibility <strong>and</strong><br />

dec<strong>is</strong>ion-mak<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> local level<br />

was thus accommodated <strong>and</strong> constructively<br />

turned <strong>in</strong>to a top-down<br />

approach by critical, politic<strong>is</strong>ed planners.<br />

A debate about <strong>the</strong> self-conception<br />

of <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g profession<br />

<strong>and</strong> its effects had been <strong>in</strong>voked <strong>and</strong><br />

would come to make itself felt across<br />

<strong>the</strong> entire globe. Referr<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />

old guard of “top-down planners”,<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> paraphrased <strong>the</strong> German<br />

nobel prize w<strong>in</strong>ner Max Planck<br />

“Progress occurs funeral by funeral”.<br />

Platt [2015: 119] identifes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

period of 1960-1968 “<strong>the</strong> upr<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st plann<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> “implosion<br />

of <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g profession”.<br />

A critique of planners<br />

<strong>and</strong> plans<br />

Work<strong>in</strong>g as a journal<strong>is</strong>t for Architectural<br />

Forum <strong>Jacobs</strong> approved of<br />

state-funded regeneration measures<br />

[Laurence, 2016: 134]. She did not<br />

critic<strong>is</strong>e urban plann<strong>in</strong>g generally<br />

but d<strong>is</strong>cussed <strong>the</strong> practice of area<br />

remediation, bulldoz<strong>in</strong>g, tidy<strong>in</strong>g up<br />

<strong>and</strong> clearance, d<strong>is</strong>placement, destruction<br />

of neighbourhoods <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ance of car-friendly plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Only once <strong>the</strong> consequences of <strong>the</strong><br />

demolition orgies had emerged did<br />

<strong>her</strong> stance become <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

critical. She believed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> self-heal<strong>in</strong>g<br />

properties of neighbourhoods<br />

<strong>and</strong> conceived top-down government<br />

programmes <strong>and</strong> grants to be counter-productive<br />

(“cataclysmic money”).<br />

Under Edward Bacon, <strong>the</strong> chief<br />

planner <strong>in</strong> Philadelphia, exemplary<br />

contextually sensitive, small-scale<br />

<strong>in</strong>terventions were implemented,<br />

which would now be called “adaptive<br />

re-use”, “urban acupuncture”,<br />

“<strong>in</strong>fill” or “tactical urban<strong>is</strong>m”. An<br />

article <strong>in</strong> Architectural Forum <strong>in</strong><br />

April 1952 used medical metaphors,<br />

“clear<strong>in</strong>g slums with penicill<strong>in</strong>,<br />

not surgery”. Her use of <strong>the</strong> term<br />

Fig 2. The White Horse Tavern, w<strong>her</strong>e Ms. <strong>Jacobs</strong> posed for a photo<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1961, right after <strong>her</strong> book was publ<strong>is</strong>hed. Photo by author.<br />

planner <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e of urban<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g was rat<strong>her</strong> unclear.<br />

• Was she referr<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g of blocks, neighbourhoods,<br />

cities or regions – ie which spatial<br />

level of plann<strong>in</strong>g did she mean?<br />

• Was she referr<strong>in</strong>g “only” to<br />

public planners or also planners <strong>in</strong><br />

private practice?<br />

• How <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ction<br />

between architects/planners def<strong>in</strong>ed?<br />

Were projects such as <strong>the</strong><br />

World Trade Center <strong>in</strong> New York or<br />

Pruitt-Igoe <strong>in</strong> St Lou<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> work of<br />

planners or <strong>the</strong> work of architects?<br />

• Why have architects been<br />

spared <strong>her</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>m – consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that <strong>Jane</strong> Jacob’s husb<strong>and</strong> was an<br />

architect?<br />

• What <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ction to<br />

<strong>the</strong> private property sector, <strong>in</strong> which<br />

architects <strong>and</strong> planners work?<br />

• What <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> significance of<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g, plans <strong>and</strong> (non)implementation?<br />

In <strong>the</strong> context of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s loose<br />

use of <strong>the</strong> term planner, Victor<br />

Gruen asked a counter question:<br />

“How would one classify Leonardo<br />

da V<strong>in</strong>ci? As an architect? A city<br />

planner? An eng<strong>in</strong>eer? A sculptor?<br />

An <strong>in</strong>dustrial designer? A graphic<br />

designer? A transport expert? He<br />

had no title, no license, no academic<br />

degree” [Gruen, 1967: 12]. Cities,<br />

urban neighbourhoods <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs are generally perceived<br />

as <strong>the</strong> work of architects not (city)<br />

planners because <strong>the</strong> architect <strong>and</strong><br />

client for s<strong>in</strong>gle build<strong>in</strong>gs are mostly<br />

known – at least with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> profession<br />

– while <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field of urban <strong>and</strong><br />

neighbourhood plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> reason,<br />

date, client <strong>and</strong> architect cannot be<br />

readily identified. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s scold<strong>in</strong>g<br />

also negates that <strong>the</strong> urban fabric <strong>is</strong><br />

shaped by <strong>the</strong> actions of a diverse<br />

range of organ<strong>is</strong>ations <strong>and</strong> groups,<br />

private <strong>and</strong> public, largely outside<br />

<strong>the</strong> control of planners.<br />

Critic<strong>is</strong>m of radical urban transformation<br />

by area remediation was one<br />

of <strong>the</strong> central components of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

work. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to th<strong>is</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g,<br />

people are both subject <strong>and</strong> object<br />

<strong>in</strong> modern<strong>is</strong>ation processes that<br />

are selectively asserted over time,<br />

regions, language <strong>and</strong> behavioural<br />

patterns [Berman, 1988: 5]. M. Berman<br />

described <strong>the</strong> forced reorgan<strong>is</strong>ation<br />

<strong>and</strong> brutal consequences of slum<br />

clearance by quot<strong>in</strong>g Karl Marx <strong>and</strong><br />

Friedrich Engels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Commun<strong>is</strong>t<br />

Manifesto:<br />

62


Alle festen, e<strong>in</strong>gerosteten<br />

Verhältn<strong>is</strong>se mit ihrem Gefolge<br />

von altehrwürdigen Vorstellungen<br />

und Anschauungen<br />

werden aufgelöst, alle neugebildeten<br />

veralten, ehe sie<br />

verknöc<strong>her</strong>n können. Alles<br />

Ständ<strong>is</strong>che und Stehende<br />

verdampft, alles Heilige wird<br />

entweiht […].<br />

[“All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir tra<strong>in</strong> of ancient <strong>and</strong> venerable<br />

prejudices <strong>and</strong> op<strong>in</strong>ions, are swept<br />

away, all new-formed ones become<br />

antiquated before <strong>the</strong>y can ossify. All<br />

that <strong>is</strong> solid melts <strong>in</strong>to air, all that <strong>is</strong><br />

holy <strong>is</strong> profaned, (…)].” [Marx/Engels,<br />

1970: 46].<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> also opposed fixed, planned<br />

end states <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al<strong>is</strong>ed plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

“Death <strong>and</strong> Life” became <strong>the</strong> slaughterhouse<br />

for <strong>the</strong> holy cows of urban<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> triggered a paradigm<br />

shift <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e [Fulford,<br />

1997]. For <strong>Jacobs</strong>, urban neighbourhoods<br />

were a form of liv<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

culture <strong>and</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g that had to be<br />

defended as a susta<strong>in</strong>able perspective.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>her</strong> ideas were<br />

<strong>and</strong> still are enthusiastically revived<br />

by neighbourhood <strong>in</strong>itiatives. Her<br />

v<strong>is</strong>ion of a vital urban neighbourhood<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>s adaptable, <strong>is</strong> considered<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able, does not seem to grow<br />

old but <strong>is</strong> ageless.<br />

She was often <strong>the</strong> master strateg<strong>is</strong>t,<br />

often <strong>the</strong> public face of protest, an<br />

organ<strong>is</strong>er, activ<strong>is</strong>t <strong>and</strong> a radical at<br />

<strong>the</strong> same time [Kanigel, 2016]. But<br />

<strong>her</strong> ideas must be contextual<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

<strong>and</strong> cannot be used as recipes for<br />

all plann<strong>in</strong>g problems around <strong>the</strong><br />

world. She never was particularly<br />

<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> push<strong>in</strong>g one particular<br />

type of ideal city, <strong>in</strong> “<strong>Jacobs</strong>ian<br />

Urban<strong>is</strong>m”. Instead, she preferred<br />

improvements, accepted changes,<br />

<strong>in</strong>cremental measures, small plans<br />

prepared <strong>and</strong> implemented bottom-up<br />

by neighbourhoods. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

was a provocative concept <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

1960s when a regime of technicians<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ated plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> it was to<br />

become a challenge 50 years later<br />

<strong>in</strong> a rapidly global<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g world, w<strong>her</strong>e<br />

real estate dom<strong>in</strong>ates cities. After <strong>the</strong><br />

“cr<strong>is</strong><strong>is</strong> of <strong>the</strong> city” at <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong><br />

last <strong>century</strong>, <strong>the</strong> <strong>21st</strong> <strong>century</strong> will<br />

be <strong>the</strong> “millennium of cities”, which<br />

calls for (more) susta<strong>in</strong>able, dense,<br />

compact <strong>and</strong> mixed-use cities. In th<strong>is</strong><br />

rapidly chang<strong>in</strong>g world <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

publications offer an abundance of<br />

ideas that we can use to make better<br />

cities, as complex systems <strong>in</strong> constant<br />

self-renewal.<br />

Paradigm Shifts<br />

Referr<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> [too] often quoted<br />

fight <strong>and</strong> m<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>terpreted “David<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st Goliath”, <strong>Jacobs</strong> was fight<strong>in</strong>g<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st ideas <strong>and</strong> practices of plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that destroyed neighbourhoods<br />

[Fl<strong>in</strong>t, 2009; Br<strong>and</strong>es Gratz, 2010].<br />

The well-known biography by “master<br />

builder” Robert Moses does not<br />

mention <strong>Jacobs</strong> even <strong>in</strong> a footnote<br />

[Caro, 1975]. She did not “wrestle”<br />

on an equal foot<strong>in</strong>g with Moses, but<br />

was later made an icon of res<strong>is</strong>tance<br />

[Mennel, 2011: 629]. She was not<br />

concerned with Moses, <strong>the</strong> opposition<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>in</strong>dividual act<strong>in</strong>g persons<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir conduct but with <strong>the</strong> structures<br />

<strong>and</strong> strategies, values <strong>and</strong> paradigms<br />

that he, <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong>s who acted<br />

similarly, embodied. She considered<br />

th<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>is</strong>sue to be challenged <strong>and</strong><br />

sought to develop alternative pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />

She denied <strong>the</strong> idea of oversimplified<br />

pseudo-city plann<strong>in</strong>g, of copy<br />

<strong>and</strong> paste of models, of “best practices”<br />

implemented somew<strong>her</strong>e else<br />

[Schmidt / Hartmannn, 2016: 46 ].<br />

Not top-down plann<strong>in</strong>g from afar but<br />

recognition of local problems <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>volvement<br />

of neighbours <strong>is</strong> required.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> openend up <strong>the</strong> question of<br />

civic participation, <strong>and</strong> she polemic<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st participation for often<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g noth<strong>in</strong>g but a catchword that<br />

had been degraded to acceptance<br />

management while <strong>the</strong> real <strong>is</strong>sue was<br />

a rev<strong>is</strong>ion of plann<strong>in</strong>g culture with a<br />

more direct democracy [Schubert,<br />

2009: 179].<br />

More than half a <strong>century</strong> later,<br />

an analys<strong>is</strong> of <strong>the</strong> great variety of<br />

participation <strong>and</strong> community driven<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g examples shows a richness<br />

of diverse types <strong>and</strong> formats. “Success”<br />

<strong>is</strong> difficult to evaluate because<br />

it depends on its def<strong>in</strong>ition. Often<br />

<strong>the</strong> actual effect was limited, while<br />

eventual externalities were larger.<br />

T<strong>her</strong>e are many ways of multicultural<br />

community-based plann<strong>in</strong>g, but <strong>the</strong><br />

best <strong>in</strong>tentions may fail because <strong>the</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>advantaged, poorer <strong>and</strong> powerless<br />

groups are more difficult to organ<strong>is</strong>e<br />

<strong>and</strong> often cannot be <strong>in</strong>volved,<br />

as Wilson stated already <strong>in</strong> [1963:<br />

245]. Through extended formats of<br />

participation local knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />

“social capital” can be exploited,<br />

conflicts can be recogn<strong>is</strong>ed earlier<br />

<strong>and</strong>, last not least, plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> plans<br />

have a wider legitimation <strong>and</strong> acceptance.<br />

Social capital [Bordieu, 1982]<br />

<strong>and</strong> democratic competence can be<br />

extended although t<strong>her</strong>e are barriers<br />

of language, knowledge <strong>and</strong> education.<br />

But extended participation <strong>is</strong><br />

not per se positive, it <strong>is</strong> often costly,<br />

slow<strong>in</strong>g down dec<strong>is</strong>ions, sometimes<br />

<strong>in</strong>efficient <strong>and</strong> may just be symbolic<br />

politics [Schubert, forthcom<strong>in</strong>g].<br />

Paradigm shifts cannot be dated with<br />

equal prec<strong>is</strong>ion for all <strong>the</strong> various<br />

national <strong>and</strong> local contexts d<strong>is</strong>cussed<br />

<strong>her</strong>e. Dat<strong>in</strong>g must reflect <strong>the</strong> political<br />

parameters, complex ideological<br />

changes, different plann<strong>in</strong>g laws,<br />

diverse plann<strong>in</strong>g cultures <strong>and</strong> local<br />

configurations of stakeholders <strong>and</strong><br />

problems. But <strong>the</strong> (plann<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>is</strong>sues<br />

that drove citizens onto <strong>the</strong> streets<br />

were local. Citizens dem<strong>and</strong>ed that<br />

<strong>the</strong> structures of <strong>the</strong>ir built <strong>and</strong><br />

social environment be drawn on to<br />

streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> local “endogenous<br />

potential”. The change <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g models from <strong>the</strong> late<br />

1960s onwards came about not<br />

63


only as a result of pressure “from<br />

<strong>the</strong> outside” <strong>and</strong> “from below”; it<br />

also came “from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>side”, ie from<br />

with<strong>in</strong> urban plann<strong>in</strong>g itself. Experts<br />

around <strong>the</strong> world were also ra<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>is</strong>sues about <strong>the</strong> democrat<strong>is</strong>ation of<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> procedures were politic<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

<strong>and</strong> made more scientific.<br />

It <strong>is</strong> d<strong>is</strong>putable whet<strong>her</strong> <strong>the</strong> term<br />

paradigm <strong>is</strong> apt for an action science<br />

like urban plann<strong>in</strong>g which feeds from<br />

ot<strong>her</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>es, or whet<strong>her</strong> it <strong>is</strong><br />

a mere fad. While ot<strong>her</strong> academic<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>es can generally refer back<br />

to textbooks as <strong>the</strong> core of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>in</strong>terprets <strong>the</strong> central<br />

paradigms, urban plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

urban design cannot draw on such<br />

a secure stock of basic knowledge.<br />

Gerd Albers [1988: 17-18] noted<br />

that <strong>the</strong> “<strong>the</strong>ory of urban plann<strong>in</strong>g”<br />

cannot rely on <strong>the</strong> same prec<strong>is</strong>ion<br />

dem<strong>and</strong>s of scientific <strong>the</strong>ories, that it<br />

<strong>is</strong> impossible to produce evidence by<br />

repeat<strong>in</strong>g an experiment under <strong>the</strong><br />

same conditions at any time. However,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> uses th<strong>is</strong> analogy <strong>and</strong><br />

challenges urban planners. “Cities<br />

are an immensive laboratory of trial<br />

<strong>and</strong> error, failure <strong>and</strong> success, <strong>in</strong><br />

city plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> city design. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> laboratory <strong>in</strong> which city plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

should have been learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

form<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g its <strong>the</strong>ories”<br />

[<strong>Jacobs</strong>: 1962b: 6]. She adopts <strong>the</strong><br />

approach first developed by L. Fleck<br />

<strong>and</strong> later exp<strong>and</strong>ed by Kuhn [1970:<br />

10] when sketch<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>the</strong> ideological<br />

transitions. “If a paradigm <strong>is</strong> truly<br />

obsolete, it must give way, d<strong>is</strong>credited<br />

by test<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> world” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

2005: 70].<br />

Reject<strong>in</strong>g a paradigm without replac<strong>in</strong>g<br />

it by anot<strong>her</strong> means reject<strong>in</strong>g<br />

science [Kuhn, 1970: 92]. The<br />

process of paradigm shift takes place<br />

<strong>in</strong> several steps [Holl<strong>in</strong>ger, 1973:<br />

374]:<br />

- “verified” f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> experience<br />

- <strong>in</strong>novations <strong>and</strong> challenge<br />

- d<strong>is</strong>putes <strong>and</strong> coalitions of<br />

h<strong>and</strong>ed down or new paradigms<br />

- confederacies of new paradigms<br />

- new <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong> “verified”<br />

results <strong>and</strong> experiences.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s ideas did not attempt to plan<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al end conditions but sought to<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiate a process which allowed cities<br />

<strong>and</strong> neighbourhoods, forever unf<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>hed,<br />

to be cont<strong>in</strong>ually changed <strong>and</strong><br />

adapted through <strong>the</strong> participation of<br />

citizens. Plann<strong>in</strong>g processes rat<strong>her</strong><br />

than plans were <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> focus of <strong>the</strong>oretical considerations<br />

<strong>and</strong> were be<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong>ed<br />

“from below”. The era of “gr<strong>and</strong><br />

designs” <strong>and</strong> important planners<br />

seems to be over. The complexity of<br />

development projects requires <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>volvement of stakeholders <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terested<br />

parties – <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> th<strong>is</strong> respect<br />

it would be unusual if t<strong>her</strong>e were a<br />

right solution <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> plan, rat<strong>her</strong><br />

than a variety of alternatives that require<br />

careful consideration. W<strong>her</strong>eas<br />

“more science” was called for from a<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ory perspective, practice<br />

<strong>and</strong> policy required “more democracy”.<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> created new problems<br />

for urban plann<strong>in</strong>g; it gave urbanity<br />

a range of different <strong>in</strong>terpretations.<br />

The term could not be translated <strong>in</strong>to<br />

urban benchmarks, related to built<br />

<strong>and</strong> spatial structures as much as to<br />

people, <strong>and</strong> could not be generated<br />

on <strong>the</strong> draw<strong>in</strong>g board. “Wicked<br />

problems” [Rittel / Webber, 1973:<br />

161] encountered by plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>ate outside <strong>and</strong> cannot be<br />

resolved with <strong>the</strong> relevant canon of<br />

prescriptions. Many examples attest<br />

to difficult implementation or failure<br />

of projects [which may or may not<br />

comply with <strong>the</strong> ideas of some of<br />

<strong>the</strong> population], <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> immense<br />

balanc<strong>in</strong>g act between representative<br />

democracy <strong>and</strong> active citizenship <strong>is</strong><br />

part of all Western democracies.<br />

Aga<strong>in</strong>st th<strong>is</strong> convergent background,<br />

t<strong>her</strong>e were <strong>and</strong> are many nationally,<br />

regionally <strong>and</strong> locally divergent<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g cultures with <strong>the</strong> power<br />

to promote or impede a “participatory<br />

turnaround” <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

“Hard” <strong>in</strong>struments have become<br />

less important than “soft” ones, <strong>and</strong><br />

diverse new forms of negotiation<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g, dialogue, cooperation <strong>and</strong><br />

partnerships are be<strong>in</strong>g tested. The<br />

era of certa<strong>in</strong>ties, classifications <strong>and</strong><br />

freedom from ambiguities <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

cultures <strong>is</strong> long past. With<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> context of beliefs, values <strong>and</strong><br />

alignments, it <strong>is</strong> important that <strong>the</strong><br />

juxtaposition of diversity with <strong>the</strong><br />

“synchronicity of <strong>the</strong> nonsynchronous”<br />

<strong>and</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cultures<br />

of plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> participation are<br />

reflected by organ<strong>is</strong>ations, legal <strong>and</strong><br />

adm<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>trative structures, <strong>and</strong> by<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g functions <strong>and</strong> projects.<br />

Density Turn<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> was critical of many urban<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g ideas, rang<strong>in</strong>g from Ebenezer<br />

Howard’s to Le Corbusier’s<br />

concepts, for be<strong>in</strong>g anti-city. The<br />

“decentral<strong>is</strong>ts” like Lew<strong>is</strong> Mumford,<br />

Cat<strong>her</strong><strong>in</strong>e Bauer <strong>and</strong> Clarence Ste<strong>in</strong><br />

m<strong>is</strong>understood <strong>the</strong> essence of <strong>the</strong><br />

city [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962b: 28-29] <strong>and</strong>,<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g suburban pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, “countrified”<br />

cities. By pursu<strong>in</strong>g anti-urban<br />

goals of decongestion, <strong>the</strong> character<strong>is</strong>tics<br />

of cities, such as compactness,<br />

diver<strong>is</strong>ty <strong>and</strong> density, would be<br />

counteracted. Less density was <strong>the</strong><br />

unchallenged plann<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciple for<br />

slum clearance. High build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

population densities were generally<br />

associated with high crime <strong>and</strong> high<br />

suicide rates, po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g at pathological<br />

conditions which had to be<br />

“healed” [Spiegel, 2000: 45]. Th<strong>is</strong><br />

reason<strong>in</strong>g – accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>Jacobs</strong> –<br />

would only lead to slums shift<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce Unw<strong>in</strong>’s classic “Noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ga<strong>in</strong>ed by overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g” [1912],<br />

planners were merely d<strong>is</strong>cuss<strong>in</strong>g data<br />

for “acceptable” densities, while<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> [1962b: 210] considered<br />

density <strong>the</strong> essential precondition for<br />

mixed-use, diversity, vibrancy <strong>and</strong><br />

rich experiences <strong>in</strong> cities.<br />

At <strong>the</strong> time of <strong>the</strong> Cold War such<br />

64


decentral<strong>is</strong>ation perspectives were<br />

fortified by <strong>the</strong> posited ever-present<br />

danger of air raids. W<strong>her</strong>ever<br />

opportunities for th<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g-out <strong>and</strong><br />

decentral<strong>is</strong>ation arose <strong>the</strong>y were to<br />

be implemented by means of shift<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> population <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>in</strong>to<br />

<strong>the</strong> perip<strong>her</strong>y. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s take on <strong>the</strong><br />

advantages of dense, mixed neighbourhoods<br />

seemed to be outdated<br />

<strong>and</strong> backward. At a time when <strong>the</strong><br />

segregation of functions <strong>and</strong> clearly<br />

separated uses implied modernity<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern world, complexity,<br />

mix<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> backwardness seemed to<br />

be relicts of <strong>the</strong> past.<br />

Only decades later did th<strong>is</strong> tendency<br />

towards unambiguity give way to a<br />

recognition of <strong>the</strong> benefits of mixeduse,<br />

diversity <strong>and</strong> density [Roskamm,<br />

2014: 90]. It <strong>is</strong> not a matter of<br />

oversimplified parrot<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

ideas from almost 60 years ago but<br />

of contextual<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>her</strong> iideas aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

a changed, diverse background of<br />

problems <strong>and</strong> stakeholders <strong>in</strong> North<br />

America <strong>and</strong> worldwide. Orientation<br />

<strong>is</strong> focused on <strong>the</strong> underly<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />

shaped by error friendl<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>and</strong><br />

imperfection rat<strong>her</strong> than <strong>the</strong> city’s<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al condition, so that <strong>the</strong> city <strong>is</strong> not<br />

understood as a f<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>hed result but<br />

as a cont<strong>in</strong>uous process of reorientation<br />

<strong>and</strong> restructur<strong>in</strong>g [Schmidt /<br />

Hartmann, 2016: 44].<br />

While density can be controlled by<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g it does not quasi-automatically<br />

generate urbanity <strong>and</strong> diversity.<br />

Moreover, high densitities are not<br />

caused by a paradigm shift <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

but driven by lack of space <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>ner cities, competition for uses<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestors’ <strong>in</strong>terests. Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

perceptions of compact cities, smart<br />

cities <strong>and</strong> new urban<strong>is</strong>m fall short as<br />

<strong>the</strong>y over estimate <strong>the</strong> sig<strong>in</strong>ficance<br />

of <strong>the</strong> built spatial environment.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s perception of <strong>the</strong> city as a<br />

natural ecosystem aims for complementary<br />

processes of appropriation<br />

<strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uous bottom-up changes<br />

which open up diverse opportunities.<br />

“To see complex systems of<br />

functional order as order, <strong>and</strong> not as<br />

chaos, takes underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

1962: 376]. <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s city model <strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> unf<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>hed city that cons<strong>is</strong>ts of a<br />

complex natural ecosystem.<br />

Right to <strong>the</strong> City<br />

The current “right to <strong>the</strong> city” movement<br />

offers anot<strong>her</strong> perspective of<br />

participation [Harvey 2008: 30]. It<br />

not only dem<strong>and</strong>s more democratic<br />

ways of plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> participation<br />

but a right for all people to live <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

city <strong>and</strong> to fight aga<strong>in</strong>st gentrification<br />

(“we will not be moved”). “Not<br />

a sparrow shall be moved” was <strong>the</strong><br />

slogan of <strong>the</strong> “save <strong>the</strong> West Village”<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiative which opposed <strong>the</strong> area<br />

remediation <strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>placement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

early 1950s, when <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s neighbourhood<br />

was to be “refurb<strong>is</strong>hed”.<br />

And when Moses planned to route<br />

a road through Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Square<br />

Park more than half a <strong>century</strong> ago,<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> ot<strong>her</strong>s rallied opposition.<br />

A <strong>the</strong>n unknown s<strong>in</strong>ger, Bob Dylan,<br />

was alleged to have [along with <strong>Jane</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>] addressed a song (never<br />

played by him) directly to Robert<br />

Moses.<br />

Its all about our neighbourhood<br />

that you’re try<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

condemn,<br />

We aren’t go<strong>in</strong>g to sit back <strong>and</strong><br />

see our homes go down<br />

So take away your superhighway<br />

<strong>and</strong> keep it out of town.<br />

We won’t be moved, buddy,<br />

we won’t be moved<br />

We’re fight<strong>in</strong>g our rights <strong>and</strong><br />

we won’t be moved.<br />

[http://gotham<strong>is</strong>t.<br />

com/2016/05/01/confirmed_<br />

bob_dylan_did_co-write_a.php]<br />

These examples demonstrate <strong>the</strong><br />

diverse, more or less radical ways <strong>and</strong><br />

semi-legal strategies, like squatt<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

occupy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> temporary uses of<br />

public spaces <strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs, not only<br />

found <strong>in</strong> North America. Many of <strong>the</strong><br />

various movements had not l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

up, were not related to ot<strong>her</strong> superior<br />

movements <strong>and</strong> often focussed<br />

“only” on short-term <strong>is</strong>sues relat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to current local problems. The “right<br />

to s<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Square Park<br />

was anot<strong>her</strong> movement supported by<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> a web of social relations<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> neighbourhood [Petrus /<br />

Cohen, 2015: 115]. Often <strong>the</strong>y pursued<br />

a defensive outlook of h<strong>in</strong>derence<br />

(NIMBY – not <strong>in</strong> my backyard;<br />

BANANA – build absolutely noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

anyw<strong>her</strong>e near anyone) without<br />

hav<strong>in</strong>g any pro-active, expedient<br />

perspectives for mediation between<br />

controversial <strong>in</strong>terests or offer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

solutions to plann<strong>in</strong>g problems.<br />

With<strong>in</strong> two decades after <strong>the</strong> publication<br />

of <strong>her</strong> masterpiece, most<br />

of <strong>her</strong> ideas had become generally<br />

accepted [Bless<strong>in</strong>g, 2017: 85]. Planners<br />

<strong>and</strong> politicians started to take<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s ideas on board, while <strong>in</strong> reality<br />

<strong>the</strong>y pursued a more market-led<br />

perspective [Larson, 2013]. The<br />

bulldozer-approach to old build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

was reversed <strong>and</strong> transformed <strong>in</strong>to<br />

an attitude of conservation which<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporated ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

“Old ideas can sometimes use new<br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs. New ideas must use old<br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962b]. So<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>’s mantra of three Ds, density,<br />

diversity <strong>and</strong> d<strong>is</strong>organ<strong>is</strong>ed-complexity<br />

[Seamon, 2012: 142] can be<br />

achieved by urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

perspectives of uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty<br />

<strong>and</strong> unpredictability.<br />

The concept of participation has also<br />

become widespread. Many of <strong>the</strong><br />

d<strong>is</strong>putes surround<strong>in</strong>g urban plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> participation were sparked by<br />

specific local projects. <strong>Jacobs</strong> warned<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> “doctr<strong>in</strong>e of salvation by<br />

bricks” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962b: 113], <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> illusion of be<strong>in</strong>g able to causally<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence social structures <strong>and</strong><br />

coex<strong>is</strong>tence by means of <strong>the</strong> built<br />

65


environment. However, <strong>the</strong> <strong>is</strong>sue <strong>is</strong><br />

to decip<strong>her</strong> “<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tricate social <strong>and</strong><br />

economic order under <strong>the</strong> seem<strong>in</strong>g<br />

d<strong>is</strong>order of cities” [<strong>Jacobs</strong>, 1962b:<br />

15].<br />

Maybe we can agree with Berthold<br />

Brecht “Go make yourself a plan /<br />

And be a sh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g light. / Then make<br />

yourself a second plan, / For neit<strong>her</strong><br />

will come right” [Brecht, 1928].<br />

Current approaches underst<strong>and</strong><br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g by non-plann<strong>in</strong>g to be <strong>the</strong><br />

flexibil<strong>is</strong>ation of <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g system<br />

[Schubert, 2012: 36]. But non-plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

destroys natural resources as<br />

experience has shown <strong>in</strong> many thirdworld<br />

cities with a lack of plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The consequences of non-plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

can be foreseen more easily <strong>and</strong><br />

more reliably. Urban plann<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes local participation, offers<br />

flexibility <strong>and</strong> alternatives, leaves<br />

niches, supports diversity <strong>and</strong> mixeduse<br />

developments would be accepted<br />

by <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>. But she’s no longer<br />

<strong>her</strong>e to ask.<br />

References<br />

Albers, G., Stadtplanung. E<strong>in</strong>e<br />

prax<strong>is</strong>orientierte E<strong>in</strong>führung,<br />

Darmstadt 1988: W<strong>is</strong>senschaftliche<br />

Buchgesellschaft.<br />

Beck, U., R<strong>is</strong>ikogesellschaft. Auf<br />

dem Weg <strong>in</strong> e<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong>ere Moderne,<br />

Frankfurt/Ma<strong>in</strong> 1986:<br />

Suhrkamp.<br />

Beck, U., Weltr<strong>is</strong>ikogesellschaft: Auf<br />

der Suche nach der verlorenen<br />

Sic<strong>her</strong>heit, Frankfurt am Ma<strong>in</strong><br />

2007: Suhrkamp.<br />

Beck, U., Reflexive Modern<strong>is</strong>ierung,<br />

<strong>in</strong>: Noller, P., Prigge, W.,<br />

Ronneberger, K. (eds.), Stadt-<br />

Welt. Über Modern<strong>is</strong>ierung<br />

städt<strong>is</strong>c<strong>her</strong> Milieus, Frankfurt/Ma<strong>in</strong><br />

1994: Campus, pp.<br />

24-321.<br />

Brecht, B., (K. Weil), Die Dreigroschenoper,<br />

Berl<strong>in</strong> 1928.<br />

Berman, M., All that <strong>is</strong> solid melts<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> air, The Experience of<br />

Modernity, London 1988:<br />

Pengu<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Bless<strong>in</strong>g, R., <strong>Jane</strong> Eternal: The Last<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Influence of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great American<br />

Cities on Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

<strong>in</strong>: Journal of Plann<strong>in</strong>g H<strong>is</strong>tory,<br />

1/2017, pp. 85-90.<br />

Bordieu, P., Die fe<strong>in</strong>en Unterschiede.<br />

Kritik der gesellschaftlichen<br />

Urteilskraft,<br />

Frankfurt am Ma<strong>in</strong> 1982:<br />

Suhrkamp.<br />

Br<strong>and</strong>es Gratz, R., The Battle for<br />

Gotham. New York <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Shadow of Robert Moses<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, New York<br />

21010: Perseus Books Group.<br />

Campanella, Th. J., <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Death <strong>and</strong> Life of American<br />

Plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>: Page, M.,<br />

Mennel, T., (eds.), Reconsider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, Chicago<br />

<strong>and</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton D. C. 2011:<br />

APA Planners Press, pp. 141-<br />

160.<br />

Caro, R., Power Broker: Robert<br />

Moses <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Fall of New<br />

York, New York 1975: Alfred<br />

A. Knopf.<br />

Davidoff, P., Advocacy <strong>and</strong> Plural<strong>is</strong>m<br />

<strong>in</strong> Plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>: Journal of <strong>the</strong><br />

American Institute of Planners,<br />

4/1965, pp. 331-338.<br />

Fl<strong>in</strong>t, A., Wrestl<strong>in</strong>g with Moses.<br />

How <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> Took on New<br />

York’s Master Builder <strong>and</strong><br />

Transformed <strong>the</strong> American<br />

City, New York 2009, R<strong>and</strong>om<br />

House.<br />

Fulford, R., Abattoir for Sacred<br />

Cows: Three decades <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Life of a Classic, <strong>in</strong>: Allen, M.<br />

(ed.) Ideas that Matter: The<br />

Worlds of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, Ontario<br />

1997: Isl<strong>and</strong> Press.<br />

Glazer, N., The Schools of M<strong>in</strong>or<br />

Professions, <strong>in</strong>: M<strong>in</strong>erva<br />

3/1974, pp. 346 – 364.<br />

Gruen, V., The Heart of our Cities.<br />

The Urban Cr<strong>is</strong><strong>is</strong>: Diagnos<strong>is</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> Cure, New York 1967:<br />

Simon <strong>and</strong> Schuster.<br />

Harvey, D., The Right to <strong>the</strong> City,<br />

New Left Review 53, September/October<br />

2008, pp.<br />

23-40.<br />

Hellweg, U., The Donkey’s Path or<br />

Urban Development <strong>and</strong> Unpredictability,<br />

<strong>in</strong>: Vorkeuper,<br />

U., Knobloch, A. (eds.) Art of<br />

Anot<strong>her</strong> City, Berl<strong>in</strong> 2011,<br />

pp. 104-113.<br />

Holl<strong>in</strong>ger, D. A., T. S. Kuhn’s Theory<br />

of Science <strong>and</strong> Its Implications<br />

for H<strong>is</strong>tory, <strong>in</strong>: American<br />

H<strong>is</strong>torical Review, 78/2,<br />

1973, pp. 370-393.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J., New Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g on Shopp<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Centers, <strong>in</strong>: Architectural<br />

66


Forum, March 1953, pp.<br />

122-131.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J., Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great<br />

American Cities. New York<br />

1962b (1961), R<strong>and</strong>om<br />

House.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J., The Citizen <strong>in</strong> Urban Renewal.<br />

Participation or manipulation?,<br />

1962a, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

Papers, John J. Burns Library,<br />

Boston College Boston.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J. Dark Age Ahead, New<br />

York 2005: V<strong>in</strong>tage Books.<br />

Kanigel, R., Eyes on <strong>the</strong> Street. The<br />

Life of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>, New York<br />

2016: Alfred A. Knopf.<br />

Kuhn, T., Die Struktur w<strong>is</strong>senschaftlic<strong>her</strong><br />

Revolutionen, Frankfurt/Ma<strong>in</strong><br />

1970: Suhrkamp.<br />

Larson, S., “Build<strong>in</strong>g like Moses<br />

with <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>in</strong> M<strong>in</strong>d”.<br />

Contemporary Plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

New York City, Philadelphia<br />

2013: University of Pennsylvania<br />

Press.<br />

Mennel, T., A Fight to Forget: Urban<br />

Renewal, Robert Moses, <strong>Jane</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Stories of Our<br />

Cities, <strong>in</strong>: Journal of Urban<br />

H<strong>is</strong>tory 2011/4, pp. 627-<br />

634.<br />

Laurence, P., Becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

Philadelphia 2016: University<br />

of Pennsylvania Press.<br />

Marx, K., Engels, F., Manifest der<br />

Kommun<strong>is</strong>t<strong>is</strong>chen Partei, Berl<strong>in</strong><br />

1970: Dietz (1872).<br />

Moroni, St., Urban density after<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>: <strong>the</strong> crucial role of<br />

diversity <strong>and</strong> emergence, <strong>in</strong>:<br />

City, Territory <strong>and</strong> Architecture<br />

216/3, pp. 1-8.<br />

Petrus, St., Cohen, R., Folk City.<br />

New York <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> American<br />

Folk Music Revival, New York<br />

2015: Oxford University<br />

Press.<br />

Platt, H. L., Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Urban<br />

Environment. V<strong>is</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong><br />

Organic City <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United<br />

States, Europe <strong>and</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong><br />

America, Philadelphia, Rome,<br />

Tokyo, Temple University<br />

Press.<br />

Rittel, H, W. J., Webber, M. M., Dilemmas<br />

<strong>in</strong> a General Theory of<br />

Plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>: Policy Sciences<br />

4/1973: pp. 155-169.<br />

Roskamm, N., Takes Sides with a<br />

Man-eat<strong>in</strong>g Shark; <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1960s “Density Turn”<br />

<strong>in</strong> Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>: Schubert,<br />

D. (ed.), Contemporary<br />

Perspectives on <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

Reassess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Impacts of<br />

an Urban V<strong>is</strong>ionary, Farnham<br />

2014: Ashgate.<br />

Seamon, D., “A jump<strong>in</strong>g, joyous<br />

urban jumble”: <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

Death <strong>and</strong> Life of Great<br />

American Cities as a phenomenology<br />

of urban place: <strong>in</strong>:<br />

JoSS, Journal of Space Syntax<br />

3/2012: 139-149.<br />

Schmidt, S.-M., Hartmann, Th.,<br />

Clumsy City by Design – A<br />

Theory for <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ Imperfect<br />

Cities?, <strong>in</strong>: Urban Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

1/2016, pp. 42-50.<br />

Schubert, D., <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’ Infragestellung<br />

der Stadtplanung<br />

– oder benötigen wir (neue)<br />

Paradigmen?, <strong>in</strong>: Jahrbuch<br />

Stadteneuerung 2012, 40<br />

Jahre Städtebauförderung –<br />

50 Jahre Nachmoderne, Berl<strong>in</strong><br />

2012: TU Berl<strong>in</strong>, pp. 21-40.<br />

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Zukunft der Stadt. D<strong>is</strong>kurse<br />

– Perspektiven – Paradigmenwechsel,<br />

Stuttart 2014:<br />

Ste<strong>in</strong>er.<br />

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on <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>.<br />

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2014: Ashgate.<br />

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Dylan. Stadt literar<strong>is</strong>ch und<br />

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6/2016, pp. 35-36.<br />

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<strong>and</strong> Community Driven<br />

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Routledge.<br />

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H. (ed.), Großstadt.<br />

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Wiesbaden 2000: VS Verlag<br />

für Sozialw<strong>is</strong>senschaften.<br />

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Overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g!, Westm<strong>in</strong>ster<br />

1912: P.S. K<strong>in</strong>g & Son.<br />

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Citizen Participation <strong>in</strong> Urban<br />

Renewal, <strong>in</strong>: Journal of <strong>the</strong><br />

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Nov. 1963, pp. 242-<br />

249.<br />

67


Susanne Komossa<br />

“<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> probably one of <strong>the</strong> most important th<strong>in</strong>kers<br />

of <strong>the</strong> 20th <strong>century</strong>. Like Hannah Ahrendt, she felt obliged to<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigate freely <strong>and</strong> without fear of be<strong>in</strong>g caught by<br />

conventions. Her critique of Lew<strong>is</strong> Mumford, The Culture of Cities<br />

(1938) <strong>is</strong> pivotal for our underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of contemporary cities <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> forces that drive change. Basically, she marks <strong>the</strong> transition from<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> urban design based on large scale labor to – what we<br />

would call today – <strong>the</strong> creative <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive city that <strong>is</strong> character<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

by <strong>the</strong> dynamics between small/medium <strong>and</strong> large companies <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>and</strong> overlap of work, le<strong>is</strong>ure <strong>and</strong> everyday life of citizens.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cussed <strong>the</strong>se <strong>is</strong>sues not only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> book ‘The Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life of Great American Cities’ (1961) but also <strong>in</strong> ‘The Economy<br />

of Cities’ (1969) <strong>and</strong> ‘Cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Wealth of Nations’ (1984). For a<br />

long time, th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g ‘economy’ was regarded as m<strong>in</strong>or to cultural or<br />

political engagement. However, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> taught me to jump over<br />

<strong>the</strong>se gaps <strong>and</strong> to ‘observe’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>the</strong> mutual relationship<br />

between <strong>the</strong>se three with<strong>in</strong> our physical environment, <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

we design <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> public realm of cities. I feel honored to elaborate<br />

<strong>the</strong>se lessons I learned dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> clos<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> centennial<br />

year at <strong>the</strong> Faculty of AB+E <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>deed: ‘<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> still <strong>her</strong>e’!”<br />

Susanne Komossa <strong>is</strong> Associate Professor at Bouwkunde,<br />

coord<strong>in</strong>ator of <strong>the</strong> research group ‘Architecture <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> City: Public<br />

Build<strong>in</strong>g /Public Realm, Composition & Tectonics’, author of <strong>the</strong><br />

book ‘The Dutch Urban Block <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Public Realm: Models, Rules,<br />

Ideals’<br />

68


Lessons taught by J.J.; lessons<br />

learned by an architect<br />

Susanne Komossa<br />

Associate Professor of Architecture<br />

at TU Delft<br />

The Net<strong>her</strong>l<strong>and</strong>s<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> article d<strong>is</strong>cusses <strong>the</strong> importance of observation <strong>in</strong> architecture <strong>and</strong> urban<strong>is</strong>m <strong>and</strong><br />

subsequently, <strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> that decod<strong>in</strong>g space through observation of form, use <strong>and</strong> design<br />

<strong>and</strong> typo-morphological research leads to an underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>ternal logic of spatial patterns<br />

<strong>in</strong>stead of outer forms.<br />

Introduction<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>is</strong> probably<br />

one of <strong>the</strong> most important th<strong>in</strong>kers<br />

of <strong>the</strong> 20th <strong>century</strong>. Like Hannah<br />

Arendt she felt obliged to th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigate freely <strong>and</strong> without fear<br />

of be<strong>in</strong>g caught by conventions<br />

or <strong>in</strong>stitutions. Her critique of<br />

Lew<strong>is</strong> Mumford, The Culture of<br />

Cities (1938) <strong>is</strong> pivotal for our<br />

underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of contemporary<br />

cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> forces that drive<br />

change. Basically she marks<br />

<strong>the</strong> transition from d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> urban design based<br />

on large scale labor to - what we<br />

would call today - <strong>the</strong> creative <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>clusive city that <strong>is</strong> characterized<br />

by <strong>the</strong> dynamics between small/<br />

medium <strong>and</strong> large companies <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>and</strong> overlap of work,<br />

le<strong>is</strong>ure <strong>and</strong> everyday life of citizens.<br />

These <strong>is</strong>sues <strong>Jacobs</strong> did not only<br />

d<strong>is</strong>cuss <strong>in</strong> het book The Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life of Great American Cities (1961)<br />

but also <strong>in</strong> The Economy of Cities<br />

(1969) <strong>and</strong> Cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Wealth<br />

of Nations (1984). For long time<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g ‘economy’ was regarded<br />

m<strong>in</strong>or to cultural or political<br />

engagement. However, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

taught us to jump over <strong>the</strong>se gaps<br />

<strong>and</strong> to ‘observe’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>the</strong><br />

mutual relationship between <strong>the</strong>se<br />

three aspects of society with<strong>in</strong> our<br />

physical environment, <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

we design <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> public realm of<br />

cities. Basically, th<strong>is</strong> article d<strong>is</strong>cusses<br />

<strong>the</strong> importance of observation <strong>in</strong><br />

architecture <strong>and</strong> urban<strong>is</strong>m <strong>and</strong><br />

subsequently, <strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>s<strong>is</strong> that<br />

decod<strong>in</strong>g space through observation<br />

of form, use <strong>and</strong> design <strong>and</strong> typomorphological<br />

research leads to an<br />

underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>ternal logic of<br />

spatial patterns <strong>in</strong>stead of outer<br />

forms.<br />

Observation <strong>in</strong>stead of<br />

prefabricated recipes<br />

Basically, Jacob’s book<br />

Death <strong>and</strong> Life - dat<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

1961- taught us as architects<br />

<strong>and</strong> urban designers to actually<br />

observe everyday street life <strong>and</strong><br />

to underst<strong>and</strong> how it <strong>is</strong> mirrored<br />

<strong>in</strong> architectural <strong>and</strong> urban form.<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> saw <strong>the</strong> city as <strong>the</strong> laboratory<br />

<strong>and</strong> not as some ideal ‘tabula rasa’,<br />

on which policy-makers, urban<br />

designers <strong>and</strong> architects could freely<br />

project future ideals. Th<strong>is</strong> was, <strong>in</strong><br />

fact, what representatives of <strong>the</strong><br />

Modern Movement propagated.<br />

Tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ‘real’ city as <strong>the</strong> object<br />

of study differed very much from<br />

Lou<strong>is</strong> Mumford’s assumptions that<br />

<strong>in</strong>terpreted <strong>the</strong> city as a construct<br />

on which ideas could be tested,<br />

<strong>and</strong> which could be completely<br />

planned as an ideal environment.<br />

Today we underst<strong>and</strong> what <strong>the</strong><br />

Modern<strong>is</strong>ts method meant: an<br />

endless series of trials <strong>and</strong> errors,<br />

which frequently led to failures.<br />

(Marzot 2017 p. 74-93) The Dutch<br />

hous<strong>in</strong>g area <strong>the</strong> Bijlmermeer <strong>in</strong><br />

Amsterdam, for example, was<br />

30 years after its completion up<br />

to a complete remake. Moreover,<br />

Death <strong>and</strong> Life attacked anti-<br />

69


70


Fig 1: ‘The<br />

Mumford <strong>Jacobs</strong> debate<br />

of Modern<strong>is</strong>m’s anti<br />

urban doctr<strong>in</strong>e’. Book<br />

cover The Culture of Cities<br />

1938, The Death <strong>and</strong> Life<br />

of Great American 1961<br />

Cities <strong>and</strong> The Economy<br />

of Cities 1969<br />

urban sanitary ideals of <strong>the</strong> urban<br />

zon<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of functions.<br />

Instead, it pleaded for an overlap<br />

of functions. The period between<br />

World War One <strong>and</strong> Two <strong>and</strong> of <strong>the</strong><br />

end<strong>in</strong>g 40s <strong>and</strong> early 50s had been<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ated by Modern<strong>is</strong>t th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ‘city as it <strong>is</strong>’, with all its<br />

complexities <strong>and</strong> contradiction, was<br />

new <strong>and</strong> a radically different way of<br />

approach<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

In architecture <strong>and</strong> urban<strong>is</strong>m<br />

at <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> 1950s when Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life was written a series of<br />

critic<strong>is</strong>ms appeared which all focused<br />

<strong>in</strong> fact on actual or h<strong>is</strong>torical urban<br />

form <strong>in</strong>stead of future ideals. To<br />

start with, Saverio Muratori (1959)<br />

studied <strong>in</strong> h<strong>is</strong> book Studi per una<br />

Operante Storia Urbana di Venezia<br />

<strong>the</strong> h<strong>is</strong>tory of Venice <strong>in</strong> its built<br />

form. By draw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> morphology<br />

of <strong>the</strong> urban blocks, <strong>the</strong> fondamente,<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>terior div<strong>is</strong>ion, he was<br />

able to document <strong>the</strong> ex<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g city<br />

<strong>in</strong> a very accurate way. With<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>se draw<strong>in</strong>gs he d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

<strong>and</strong> ordered <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual houses<br />

<strong>and</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g typologies, which<br />

shared certa<strong>in</strong> character<strong>is</strong>tics <strong>in</strong> socalled<br />

tabelloni. From <strong>the</strong>se series<br />

of comparable build<strong>in</strong>g types he<br />

d<strong>is</strong>tillated ma<strong>in</strong> types def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

typical lay-out of Venetian houses<br />

which could serve as a model for<br />

<strong>the</strong> next step <strong>in</strong> design h<strong>is</strong>tory. So,<br />

basically Muratori states that ‘<strong>the</strong><br />

city <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong> only model’ (Castex, 2013<br />

p.19-41) <strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong> past already<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong> future (build<strong>in</strong>g). Th<strong>is</strong><br />

return to <strong>the</strong> city was followed<br />

by writ<strong>in</strong>gs of diverse architects<strong>the</strong>or<strong>is</strong>ts,<br />

like Aldo Rossi (1966),<br />

Robert Venturi, (1972), Col<strong>in</strong> Rowe<br />

(1975), Jean Castex, Jean Charles<br />

Depaule, Philip Panerai (1977), <strong>and</strong><br />

Rem Koolhaas (1978). The school<br />

of Versailles of Jean Castex cum<br />

su<strong>is</strong>, questioned specifically <strong>the</strong><br />

relationship between <strong>the</strong> h<strong>is</strong>tory<br />

of urban form <strong>and</strong> society. They<br />

state ‘The term architectural model<br />

makes clear that <strong>the</strong> development<br />

of form <strong>is</strong> not directly related to<br />

<strong>the</strong> translation of a social aim, but<br />

that dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> development of<br />

<strong>the</strong> design, form uses mediations<br />

that are specific to architecture <strong>and</strong><br />

whose h<strong>is</strong>tory yet has to be written.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>tance between th<strong>is</strong> unusual<br />

h<strong>is</strong>tory (of form S.K.) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> more<br />

general h<strong>is</strong>tory of society lays <strong>the</strong><br />

potential <strong>in</strong>put of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>is</strong>cipl<strong>in</strong>e:<br />

architecture, but also its limits.’<br />

(Castex 1977, Dutch edition p.222)<br />

Th<strong>is</strong> citation implies <strong>the</strong> important<br />

statement of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ner logic that<br />

b<strong>in</strong>ds urban form to society; i.e.<br />

as architects we need to trace <strong>and</strong><br />

underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ner logic of spatial<br />

patterns <strong>and</strong> how <strong>the</strong>y have been<br />

related to everyday life of <strong>the</strong> city<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g past <strong>and</strong> present.<br />

public realm<br />

Everyday life <strong>and</strong><br />

2011<br />

Fig. 2: ‘The Worlds of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>’,Book cover ‘Ideas that matter’<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> Jacob was also one<br />

of <strong>the</strong> first authors call<strong>in</strong>g for an<br />

approach to <strong>the</strong> public realm at<br />

<strong>the</strong> neighborhood or d<strong>is</strong>trict level<br />

<strong>in</strong> which everyday lives of all those<br />

participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> urban life, whet<strong>her</strong><br />

children at play, shopkeepers,<br />

loiterers or bus<strong>in</strong>essmen, were<br />

important. For <strong>her</strong>, but also Hannah<br />

Arendt (1958) en Jürgen Habermas<br />

(1962), <strong>and</strong> later Henri Lefebvre<br />

(1970, 1980 p. 147, 1996 p. 205)<br />

<strong>and</strong> Richard Sennett (1991) <strong>and</strong><br />

71


Fig 3:<br />

‘The city <strong>is</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

only model’,<br />

Jean Castex<br />

2013. Book<br />

cover Sacerio<br />

Muratori,<br />

‘Studi per una<br />

operante storia<br />

urbana di<br />

Venezia’, 1960.<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> actual use of <strong>the</strong> chosen<br />

(prototypical) urban blocks <strong>and</strong><br />

build<strong>in</strong>gs. With regard to <strong>the</strong> use of<br />

street photography as research tool<br />

we follow George Baird. He states<br />

that street photography <strong>is</strong> not only<br />

suitable for illustrative, but also<br />

analytical purposes to underst<strong>and</strong><br />

public space (Baird 2011 p. 58).<br />

Urban economy<br />

<strong>the</strong> notions of everyday life of city<br />

dwellers <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> public realm are<br />

closely connected.<br />

The everyday life forms <strong>in</strong><br />

fact <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k between city dwellers’<br />

public <strong>and</strong> private life. For quite<br />

some part it takes place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

public realm as <strong>the</strong> physical doma<strong>in</strong><br />

w<strong>her</strong>e people go out, are <strong>in</strong> love or<br />

go to work, exchange ideas <strong>and</strong> form<br />

op<strong>in</strong>ions but also are <strong>in</strong> conflict, pick<br />

up knowledge of all k<strong>in</strong>ds, enjoy<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves, can see <strong>and</strong> be seen, <strong>and</strong><br />

meet ot<strong>her</strong>s. Or to put it <strong>in</strong> more<br />

architectural terms, ‘The public<br />

realm can be seen as a specific part of<br />

urban public space <strong>is</strong> closely related<br />

to <strong>the</strong> notion of <strong>the</strong> urban ‘public<br />

sp<strong>her</strong>e’, for it <strong>is</strong> t<strong>her</strong>e that both<br />

<strong>the</strong> virtual <strong>and</strong> physical exchange<br />

of ideas, op<strong>in</strong>ions, experience,<br />

knowledge, ideologies, goods <strong>and</strong><br />

labor take place’, i.e. it <strong>is</strong> ‘<strong>the</strong> turf<br />

w<strong>her</strong>e strangers meet’ (Komossa<br />

2010, p.37, Sennett, 1991 p. XVII)).<br />

Urban Form<br />

Follow<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>is</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> of<br />

thought, for us as architects <strong>and</strong><br />

urban designers it <strong>is</strong> important to<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d how <strong>the</strong> relationship between<br />

<strong>the</strong> private space of a house or<br />

build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> public realm of <strong>the</strong><br />

city are actually composed. Basically<br />

th<strong>is</strong> relationship <strong>is</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />

composition of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terior spaces<br />

as such, <strong>the</strong> access typology, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

elements that form <strong>the</strong> transition<br />

from <strong>in</strong>side to outside.<br />

Moreover, <strong>the</strong> qualities of<br />

<strong>the</strong> space around build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

<strong>and</strong> blocks, but also <strong>the</strong> way<br />

<strong>in</strong> which corners <strong>and</strong> stoops<br />

are designed <strong>in</strong>form us.<br />

T<strong>her</strong>e are different ways to<br />

analyse th<strong>is</strong> relationship <strong>in</strong><br />

draw<strong>in</strong>gs but also by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

street photography. Typomorphological<br />

research<br />

provides us with <strong>the</strong> tool<br />

of draw<strong>in</strong>g through scales;<br />

i.e. rang<strong>in</strong>g form a scale 1:<br />

200 for sections <strong>and</strong> plans<br />

of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual house or<br />

build<strong>in</strong>g to1:5000 of a city<br />

quarter. To select, document<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpret areas th<strong>is</strong> way<br />

renders <strong>in</strong>formation about<br />

<strong>the</strong> composition but also<br />

helps to detect <strong>and</strong> deal with<br />

<strong>the</strong> immanent contradictions<br />

of (today’s) architecture<br />

<strong>and</strong> built environment.<br />

In th<strong>is</strong> research approach<br />

street photography <strong>is</strong><br />

complementary <strong>and</strong> util<strong>is</strong>ed<br />

to document changes<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> was a pioneer to<br />

comment on <strong>the</strong> mutual relationship<br />

between physical structure of cities<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> urban economy. She states<br />

‘Cities are not chaotic. They have<br />

an order of economic development,<br />

but <strong>the</strong>y work without ideology.<br />

Ideology only prevents us from<br />

see<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> order.’(Allen 2011, p.23)<br />

In <strong>her</strong> book The economy of of<br />

cities she d<strong>is</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>is</strong>hes between<br />

corporate cities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>novative cities.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>her</strong>, corporate cities<br />

like Detroit are character<strong>is</strong>ed by big<br />

scale labour; i.e. a limited number<br />

of bus<strong>in</strong>esses that fabricate a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

product like cars. Already <strong>in</strong> 1968<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> states that <strong>the</strong>se bus<strong>in</strong>esses<br />

will have difficulties with <strong>in</strong>novation<br />

<strong>and</strong> t<strong>her</strong>efore will be vulnerable <strong>in</strong><br />

case of economic change. In contrast<br />

to <strong>the</strong>se big scale labour cities that<br />

served as <strong>the</strong> model for Le Corbusier’s<br />

Fig 4: Proposal for urban renewal<br />

of <strong>the</strong> Str<strong>and</strong>, Galveston, Texas, by Venturi,<br />

Rauch & Scott Brown 1975. Source: VSBA<br />

72


plead for <strong>the</strong> div<strong>is</strong>ion of functions<br />

<strong>in</strong> urban plann<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>novative cities<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> view are character<strong>is</strong>ed by all<br />

k<strong>in</strong>ds of bus<strong>in</strong>esses <strong>and</strong> spaces, <strong>and</strong><br />

a vivid public realm to support <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tegration of work <strong>and</strong> le<strong>is</strong>ure,<br />

Fig 5:<br />

Observation<br />

– Street: New<br />

York, Park as<br />

stage for urban<br />

performance<br />

Source:<br />

Photograph by<br />

<strong>the</strong> author<br />

<strong>the</strong> exchange of knowledge <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

spread<strong>in</strong>g of r<strong>is</strong>ks between a series<br />

of smaller companies. Today, due<br />

to economic change <strong>and</strong> migration<br />

of work <strong>and</strong> people we witness th<strong>is</strong><br />

change from big scale labour to <strong>the</strong><br />

much more divers palette of <strong>the</strong><br />

service, knowledge <strong>and</strong> creative<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustries. In fact, follow<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>is</strong><br />

development, <strong>the</strong> physical structure<br />

of blocks <strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs also had<br />

to change too to supply a smaller<br />

gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> small <strong>and</strong> big spaces, old<br />

<strong>and</strong> new ones, cheap <strong>and</strong> expensive<br />

ones to allow <strong>the</strong> start-up <strong>and</strong><br />

growth of bus<strong>in</strong>esses. Moreover<br />

th<strong>is</strong> structure will have to provide<br />

spatial co<strong>her</strong>ence, <strong>the</strong> possibility to<br />

mix functions, <strong>the</strong> ability to allocate<br />

a high density of <strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>and</strong><br />

bus<strong>in</strong>esses, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> overlap of<br />

work <strong>and</strong> dwell<strong>in</strong>g. If we look at<br />

Dutch cities like Amsterdam <strong>and</strong><br />

Rotterdam we can see that th<strong>is</strong> shift<br />

starts be<strong>in</strong>g part of urban policies<br />

<strong>and</strong> design at <strong>the</strong> end of 1980s which<br />

actually was marked by a returnto-<strong>the</strong>-city<br />

that was advocated by<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> above mentioned<br />

critical literature from 1960 onward.<br />

Conclusion<br />

In Ideas matter <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

states ‘Change <strong>is</strong> so major a truth<br />

that we underst<strong>and</strong> process to be<br />

<strong>the</strong> essence of th<strong>in</strong>gs.’ (Allen 2011,<br />

p.165) Th<strong>is</strong> refers to <strong>the</strong> economical,<br />

social <strong>and</strong> cultural developments<br />

which cont<strong>in</strong>uously take place<br />

<strong>in</strong> cities. Th<strong>is</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g use,<br />

architectural form <strong>and</strong> design are<br />

mirrored <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> character of public<br />

spaces, specifically <strong>the</strong> urban public<br />

realm, build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> urban blocks.<br />

Decod<strong>in</strong>g space through<br />

observation of form, use <strong>and</strong> design<br />

<strong>and</strong> typo-morphological research<br />

leads to an underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of<br />

Fig. 6:<br />

Market Hall<br />

Boqueria <strong>in</strong><br />

Barcelona 2008.<br />

‘The everyday <strong>is</strong><br />

composed of a<br />

multiplicity of<br />

moments, such as<br />

games, love, work,<br />

rest, struggle,<br />

knowledge, poetry<br />

<strong>and</strong> justice, <strong>and</strong><br />

l<strong>in</strong>ks professional<br />

life, direct social<br />

life, le<strong>is</strong>ure <strong>and</strong><br />

culture.‘ Henri<br />

Lefebvre. Source:<br />

Photograph by <strong>the</strong><br />

author<br />

73


Fig. 7: Corners, early 20th<br />

<strong>century</strong> block comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g shopp<strong>in</strong>g<br />

& dwell<strong>in</strong>g. Café on <strong>the</strong> corner<br />

comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g different worlds, Nieuwe<br />

B<strong>in</strong>nenweg Rotterdam Source:<br />

Photograph by <strong>the</strong> author. Manuel<br />

de Sola Morales A wide range of<br />

façades <strong>and</strong> people are found on<br />

corners, which produces <strong>in</strong>novation<br />

<strong>and</strong> stimulation. The “Cities,<br />

Corners” exhibition will show how<br />

<strong>the</strong> idea of corner extends beyond<br />

<strong>the</strong> purely geometric to become a<br />

vital<strong>is</strong><strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>and</strong> a genu<strong>in</strong>e<br />

metaphor for <strong>the</strong> city. Forum<br />

Barcelona 2004 Source: http://www.<br />

publicacions.bcn.es/b_mm/abmm_<br />

forum/131-134ang.pdf<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternal logic of spatial patterns<br />

<strong>in</strong>stead of outer forms. Basically<br />

th<strong>is</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g enables us, as<br />

architects <strong>and</strong> urban designers, to<br />

produce more adequate designs.<br />

Look<strong>in</strong>g back, it took a long time<br />

before critical th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> 1950s,<br />

60s <strong>and</strong> 70s became daily practice<br />

<strong>and</strong> for sure, th<strong>is</strong> process <strong>is</strong> not yet<br />

f<strong>in</strong><strong>is</strong>hed.<br />

Moreover, <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong><br />

like Hannah Arendt, triggered<br />

‘unorthodox’ th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g by be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a radical outside <strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />

present<strong>in</strong>g –at <strong>the</strong>ir timeuncomfortable<br />

messages. By<br />

do<strong>in</strong>g so, she also made tangible<br />

<strong>the</strong> difficult relationship between<br />

academe <strong>and</strong> critical women. Even<br />

today we encounter qualifications<br />

<strong>and</strong> defamations v<strong>is</strong>-à-v<strong>is</strong> women<br />

like ‘excuus truus’ (apology woman),<br />

suggest<strong>in</strong>g a woman on a official<br />

board <strong>is</strong> not qualified but only be<br />

hired of <strong>her</strong> gender or ‘f<strong>is</strong>h wife’,<br />

d<strong>is</strong>crim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g outspoken women<br />

who are ventilat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir op<strong>in</strong>ions <strong>in</strong><br />

public. However, defensive reactions<br />

or call<strong>in</strong>g thoughts ‘malaprop<strong>is</strong>m’<br />

Allen, 2011 do not hold: <strong>the</strong> process<br />

of change has already started!<br />

Fig. 9: Access systems,<br />

architects have difficulties<br />

with <strong>the</strong> relationship between<br />

architecture <strong>and</strong> everyday life.<br />

Often we are still pr<strong>is</strong>oners<br />

of CIAM Modern<strong>is</strong>t thought<br />

<strong>and</strong> mobil<strong>is</strong>e collective space<br />

as <strong>the</strong> ideal physical enclave.<br />

Urban regeneration of <strong>the</strong><br />

Oude Westen <strong>in</strong> Rotterdam<br />

1970s <strong>and</strong> 1980s; <strong>the</strong> city as<br />

laboratory. Source: Photograph<br />

by <strong>the</strong> author<br />

74<br />

Fig 8: ‘Women <strong>in</strong> public; collective realms are needed to avoid excessive conversations <strong>and</strong> neighbours’<br />

quarrels’. Rotterdam, Spangen hous<strong>in</strong>g complex with collective facilities <strong>in</strong> its <strong>in</strong>ner court 1919, perspective section,<br />

Tim Vermeend


Fig 10: 17th <strong>century</strong> Amsterdam, typo-morphological draw<strong>in</strong>gs ‘through’ scales 1:5000, 1:500, 1:200 <strong>and</strong><br />

perspective section, Tim Vermeend. Source: Draw<strong>in</strong>gs author c.s.<br />

75


References<br />

Arendt, H. (1958) The human<br />

condition, Chicago, The<br />

University of Chicago<br />

Allen, M. (2011), Ideas that matter:<br />

The worlds of <strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong>,<br />

Ontario, G<strong>in</strong>ger Press<br />

Baird, G. (2011) Public Space:<br />

Cultural / Political Theory;<br />

Street Photography, an<br />

<strong>in</strong>terpretation. The 1999<br />

Preston Thomas Lectures<br />

at Cornell University,<br />

Amsterdam, SUN.<br />

Castex, J. (2014) ‘Saverio Muratori<br />

(1910-1973): The city<br />

as <strong>the</strong> only model’ <strong>in</strong>:<br />

Roberto Cavallo, Susanne<br />

Komossa, Nicola Marzot,<br />

Meta Berghauser Pont,<br />

Joran Kuyper, ‘New Urban<br />

Configurations’ proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

EAAE-ISUF conference,<br />

Amsterdam, IOS Press<br />

Castex, J. Jean Charles Depaule,<br />

Philip Panerai (2004) Urban<br />

Forms: Death <strong>and</strong> Life of<br />

Urban Blocks, London,<br />

Architectural Press, Orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />

publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> French (1977), as<br />

Formes Urba<strong>in</strong>es: de l’ilôt à la<br />

bar Dutch edition (1984): De<br />

rationale stad; van bouwblok<br />

tot wooneenheid, Nijmegen,<br />

SUN<br />

Habermas, J. (1989) The structural<br />

transformation of <strong>the</strong> public<br />

sp<strong>her</strong>e: an <strong>in</strong>quiry <strong>in</strong>to a<br />

category of bourgeo<strong>is</strong> society,<br />

Cambridge, Polity. Orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />

publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> German<br />

(1962) as Strukturw<strong>and</strong>el<br />

de<br />

Öffentlichkeit:<br />

Untersuchungen zu e<strong>in</strong>er<br />

Kategorie der bürgerlichen<br />

Gesellschaft<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J. (1961) The Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life of Great American Cities,<br />

New York, R<strong>and</strong>om House<br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J. (1969) The Economy<br />

of Cities, Harmondsworth,<br />

Pengu<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>Jacobs</strong>, J. (1984) Wealth of Nations,<br />

New York, R<strong>and</strong>om House<br />

Lefebvre, H. (1970), La revolution<br />

urba<strong>in</strong>e, Par<strong>is</strong>, Editions<br />

Gallimard<br />

Lefebvre, H. (1996) ‘The right to<br />

<strong>the</strong> city’ (1980),‘No salvation<br />

away from <strong>the</strong> center?’ (?)<br />

<strong>in</strong>terview with Henri Lefebvre,<br />

<strong>in</strong>: Kofman <strong>and</strong> Lebas, Henri<br />

Lefebvre: Writ<strong>in</strong>gs on cities,<br />

Oxford/Cambridge Mass.,<br />

Blackwel<br />

Komossa, S. (2010) The Dutch<br />

urban block <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> public<br />

realm, models, rules, ideals,<br />

Nijmegen, Vantilt<br />

Koolhaas, R. (1978) Delirious New<br />

York, London, Academy<br />

Editions<br />

Marzot, N (2017) Rossi, Ungers,<br />

Koolhaas; Three positions<br />

on <strong>the</strong> relation between<br />

architecture <strong>and</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>: Komossa, S, Est<strong>her</strong><br />

Gramsbergen, Eireen Scheurs,<br />

Lidw<strong>in</strong>e Spoormans, Hans<br />

Teerds, Delft Lectures<br />

on Architectural Design,<br />

BK Books https://books.<br />

bk.tudelft.nl/<strong>in</strong>dex.php/press<br />

Mumford, L. (1938) The Culture<br />

of Cities, New ork, arcourt,<br />

Brace <strong>and</strong> Company<br />

Muratori, S. (1960) Studi per una<br />

Operante Storia Urbana<br />

di Venezia, Rome, Istituto<br />

Poligrafico dello Stato<br />

Sennett, R. (1992), The fall of public<br />

man, New York, Norton<br />

Rossi, A. (1984) The architecture of<br />

<strong>the</strong> city, Cambridge, Mass.,<br />

The MIT Press, Orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />

publ<strong>is</strong>hed <strong>in</strong> Italian (1966)<br />

as L’archittetura della città,<br />

Padua, Marsilio Editori<br />

Rowe, C., Fred Koetter, (1975)<br />

Collage City, Cambridge,<br />

Mass., MIT Press<br />

Venturi, R., Den<strong>is</strong>e Scott Brown,<br />

Steve Izenour (1972/1977)<br />

Learn<strong>in</strong>g from Las Vegas,<br />

Cambridge, Mass., The MIT<br />

Press<br />

76


Peter Laurence<br />

Associate Professor of Architectural H<strong>is</strong>tory, Theory, <strong>and</strong><br />

Design/ PhD Director of Graduate Studies at Clemson University,<br />

South Carol<strong>in</strong>a, US. Author of BECOMING JANE JACOBS, Peter<br />

L. Laurence, PhD, <strong>is</strong> Associate Professor of Architecture <strong>and</strong> Director<br />

of Graduate Studies at Clemson<br />

University School of Architecture,<br />

w<strong>her</strong>e he teaches architectural <strong>and</strong><br />

urban h<strong>is</strong>tory, <strong>the</strong>ory, <strong>and</strong> design.<br />

He holds a Master of Architecture<br />

from Harvard Graduate School of<br />

Design <strong>and</strong> a PhD <strong>in</strong> Architectural<br />

H<strong>is</strong>tory <strong>and</strong> Theory from<br />

University of Pennsylvania. He<br />

<strong>is</strong> a longtime student of <strong>Jacobs</strong>’s<br />

work <strong>and</strong> <strong>is</strong> currently writ<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

reader’s guide to The Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life of Great American Cities.<br />

77


<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> Was No “Sa<strong>in</strong>t,”<br />

“Great Man,” or “Ord<strong>in</strong>ary Mom”<br />

Peter L. Laurence<br />

Associate Professor of Architectural<br />

H<strong>is</strong>tory, Theory, <strong>and</strong> Design at Clemson<br />

University, South Carol<strong>in</strong>a, USA<br />

While <strong>Jacobs</strong> was no sa<strong>in</strong>t as a human be<strong>in</strong>g, nor was she a sa<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> ways more<br />

commonly suggested, <strong>in</strong> terms of hav<strong>in</strong>g an all-see<strong>in</strong>g, supernatural <strong>in</strong>tellect. As one would<br />

expect, <strong>her</strong> ideas, <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of cities, evolved over time<br />

78<br />

<strong>Jane</strong> <strong>Jacobs</strong> made grown<br />

men cry on a number of occasions.<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> battle to Save Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />

Square from Robert Moses’s plan to<br />

b<strong>is</strong>ect <strong>the</strong> park with an extension<br />

of Fifth Avenue, she hammered so<br />

hard on a fellow committee leader<br />

about how a press release should be<br />

written that <strong>the</strong> man was reduced<br />

to tears. He was a good man, but a<br />

comprom<strong>is</strong>er. She wasn’t. When it<br />

came to sav<strong>in</strong>g Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Square,<br />

or <strong>the</strong> West Village, or stopp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

Lower Manhattan Expressway, she<br />

didn’t comprom<strong>is</strong>e. She didn’t try to<br />

be a “nice lady.”<br />

In a similar way, when<br />

one reads The Death <strong>and</strong> Life of<br />

Great American Cities, it <strong>is</strong> not<br />

easy to see <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence of people<br />

who helped <strong>Jacobs</strong> to write <strong>the</strong><br />

book. Yes, t<strong>her</strong>e are people named<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> acknowledgments, but she<br />

harshly criticized some, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Lew<strong>is</strong> Mumford <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong> one-time<br />

friend Cat<strong>her</strong><strong>in</strong>e Bauer, with<strong>in</strong> it.<br />

When writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> book, cities <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tellectual differences about cities<br />

superseded sentimentality. She<br />

took <strong>the</strong>ir ideas apart, despite <strong>the</strong><br />

fact that <strong>the</strong>y, along with a l<strong>is</strong>t of<br />

ot<strong>her</strong>s little recognized, had written<br />

enthusiastic letters to recommend<br />

<strong>her</strong> book project for foundation<br />

support, aid she was probably aware<br />

of.<br />

While <strong>Jacobs</strong> was no sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />

as a human be<strong>in</strong>g, nor was she<br />

a sa<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> ways more commonly<br />

suggested, <strong>in</strong> terms of hav<strong>in</strong>g an<br />

all-see<strong>in</strong>g, supernatural <strong>in</strong>tellect. As<br />

one would expect, <strong>her</strong> ideas, <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong><br />

underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of cities, evolved over<br />

time. Yes, <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> very first publ<strong>is</strong>hed<br />

essays on <strong>the</strong> city, written while she<br />

was <strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> late teens, we can see<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tersection of<br />

geography, h<strong>is</strong>tory, <strong>in</strong>habitation,<br />

<strong>and</strong> economics that characterized<br />

<strong>her</strong> life’s work. However, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

early 1950s, when <strong>the</strong> nation was<br />

decid<strong>in</strong>g between suburbaniz<strong>in</strong>g or<br />

moderniz<strong>in</strong>g its cities, she not only<br />

backed urban renewal, she wrote<br />

favorably about it. She pra<strong>is</strong>ed city<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> suburban <strong>and</strong> urban<br />

redevelopment <strong>in</strong> ways she would<br />

unequivocally recant <strong>in</strong> Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life. As she wrote to a confidant <strong>in</strong><br />

1959, while she was writ<strong>in</strong>g Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life, she regretted beliefs she<br />

had held <strong>and</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs she had written<br />

some years earlier, feel<strong>in</strong>g guilt for<br />

<strong>her</strong> personal <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

impact on cities. Part of <strong>the</strong> anger<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>her</strong> book was anger at <strong>her</strong>self for<br />

hav<strong>in</strong>g believed <strong>in</strong> bad ideas about<br />

cities <strong>and</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

As for writ<strong>in</strong>g Death <strong>and</strong><br />

Life, a project that transformed<br />

from a modest series of articles <strong>in</strong>to<br />

a volume meant to offer noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

less than a new “system of thought<br />

about <strong>the</strong> great city,” <strong>the</strong> book was<br />

a struggle. Her ideas cont<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />

evolve <strong>and</strong> develop as she wrote it.<br />

However, th<strong>is</strong> does not change <strong>the</strong><br />

fact that she had been follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g about American urban<br />

redevelopment from at least <strong>the</strong><br />

passage of <strong>the</strong> US Hous<strong>in</strong>g Act of<br />

1949, a def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g h<strong>is</strong>torical moment<br />

for cities, for many years, first for <strong>the</strong><br />

State Department’s Amerika, <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>n for Time Inc.’s Architectural<br />

Forum. And dur<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>is</strong> decade<br />

of learn<strong>in</strong>g, when she became<br />

recognized as one of <strong>the</strong> nation’s<br />

most notable writers on cities<br />

(already before Death <strong>and</strong> Life), she<br />

absorbed ideas from many sources<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those, once aga<strong>in</strong>, she later<br />

criticized. For example, <strong>in</strong> Death<br />

<strong>and</strong> Life, <strong>her</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>m of Cat<strong>her</strong><strong>in</strong>e<br />

Bauer <strong>and</strong> <strong>her</strong> comment, “Fry<br />

Bacon!,” a delicious recollection of


79


80<br />

public sentiment about Philadelphia<br />

plann<strong>in</strong>g chief Ed Bacon, belies <strong>the</strong><br />

positive <strong>in</strong>fluence that Bauer (for<br />

<strong>her</strong> critic<strong>is</strong>m of various plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ideas) <strong>and</strong> Bacon (for ideas about<br />

urban redevelopment very similar<br />

to those she <strong>is</strong> now associated<br />

with) had on <strong>her</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. Indeed,<br />