OF June July 2021 e

June/July 2021 

Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation as an 

Organic Systems-Based Approach 

Seed Production Basics 

Identification, Mitigation and 

Management Saline and Sodic Soils 

Challenges of Managing 

Fusarium in Strawberries 

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4 

16 

22 

26 

30 

IN THIS ISSUE 

Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation 

as an Organic Systems-Based 

Approach 

10 Seed Production Basics 

36 

40 

Identification, Mitigation 

and Management Saline 

and Sodic Soils 

Challenges of Managing 

Fusarium in Strawberries 

University of California 

Hemp Research to Address 

Water, N issues in 

2021 

Copper Requirements for 

Organic Growing 

Carbon Credits in 

Organic Farming 

Growing Vegetables Year- 

Round Under Cover 

22 

PUBLISHER: Jason Scott 

Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com 

EDITOR: Marni Katz 

ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons 

Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Phone: 559.352.4456 

Fax: 559.472.3113 

Web: www.organicfarmingmag.com 

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS 

& INDUSTRY SUPPORT 

David M. Butler 

University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville 

Danita Cahill 

Contributing Writer 

Taylor Chalstrom 

Assistant Editor 

Oleg Daugovish 

UC Cooperative 

Extension 

Francesco Di Gioia 

Pennsylvania State 

University 

Rex Dufour, 

Sustainable Agriculture 

Specialist, NCAT/ 

ATTRA 

Sabrina Halvorson 

Contributing Writer 

Neal Kinsey 

Kinsey Ag Services 

J.W. Lemons 

CCA, CPAg. 

Frank J. Louws 

North Carolina State 

University 

Joji Muramoto 

UC Cooperative 

Extension, UC Santa 

Cruz 

Omar Rodriguez 

Sustainable Agriculture 

Specialist, NCAT/ATTRA 

Erin Rosskopf 

USDA-ARS, Fort Pierce, 

Fla. 

Carol Shennan 

UC Santa Cruz 

Jeannette E. Warnert 

Communications 

Specialist, UC ANR 

26 UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION 

ADVISORY BOARD 

40 

Surendra Dara 

UCCE Entomology and 

Biologicals Advisor, San Luis 

Obispo and Santa Barbara 

Counties 

Kevin Day 

County Director/UCCE 

Pomology Farm Advisor, 

Tulare/Kings Counties 

Elizabeth Fichtner 

UCCE Farm Advisor, 

Tulare County 

Katherine Jarvis-Shean 

UCCE Area Orchard Systems 

Advisor, Sacramento, 

Solano and Yolo Counties 

Steven Koike 

Tri-Cal Diagnostics 

Jhalendra Rijal 

UCCE Integrated Pest 

Management Advisor, 

Stanislaus County 

Kris Tollerup 

UCCE Integrated Pest 

Management Advisor, 

Parlier 

Mohammad Yaghmour 

UCCE Area Orchard Systems 

Advisor, Kern County 

The articles, research, industry updates, 

company profiles, and advertisements in this 

publication are the professional opinions of 

writers and advertisers. Organic Farmer does 

not assume any responsibility for the opinions 

given in the publication. 

June/July 2021 www.organicfarmermag.com 3

ANAEROBIC SOIL DISINFESTATION AS AN 

ORGANIC SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACH 

Part 1: Biological Method Suppresses Soilborne Pathogens and Pests and Improves Crop Health 

By JOJI MURAMOTO | University of California Cooperative Extension, University of California Santa Cruz 

FRANCESCO DI GIOIA | Pennsylvania State University 

DAVID M. BUTLER | University of Tennessee, Knoxville 

OLEG DAUGOVISH| University of California Cooperative Extension 

FRANK J. LOUWS | North Carolina State University 

ERIN ROSSKOPF | USDA-ARS, Fort Pierce, Fla. 

and CAROL SHENNAN | University of California Santa Cruz 

Soilborne pathogens and pests, 

such as insects and weeds, are a 

frequent threat in most organic 

cropping systems. Organic farmers 

manage soilborne pathogens and pests 

by applying organic amendments such 

as composts, growing certain cover 

crops, using crop rotations and planting 

resistant varieties. 

Studies show organically managed 

fields tend to be more suppressive to 

soilborne pathogens than conventional 

counterparts. Yet, organic crops can 

experience mild to devastating damage 

by soilborne pathogens and pests, resulting 

in lower yields. Organic farmers 

continuously seek systems-based 

approaches to address soil problems, 

especially for high-value crops such as 

vegetables and fruits. 

This article, the first in a two-part series, 

discusses anaerobic soil disinfestation 

(ASD), an organically acceptable method 

within an integrated management 

system to reduce losses due to pathogens 

and other pests. 

What is ASD? How Was 

it Developed? 

ASD is a biological method to suppress 

a range of soilborne pests and pathogens. 

It was developed as an alternative 

to fumigants in the Netherlands and 

Japan independently around 2000. In 

both countries, flooding is a common 

practice in agricultural fields and has 

been known to suppress soilborne 

pathogens (e.g., Verticillium dahliae) for 

vegetables grown after draining water. 

Also, the use of solarization, which 

typically requires a daily maximum soil 

temperature of 110 degrees F or above 

at six inches depth, has been limited 

due to insufficient solar radiation. 

ASD was developed by integrating the 

principles of flooding (i.e., anaerobic 

decomposition) and solarization (i.e., 

use of plastic mulch) combined with 

the application of carbon-rich organic 

amendments. A key aspect of the ASD 

treatment is the selection of labile (easily 

decomposable) carbon (C), which 

may depend upon the availability of 

agricultural byproducts in different 

regions (Figure 1). Cover crops and 

crop residues can also be used as C 

sources for ASD (Figure 2, see page 

5, and Figure 3, see page 6). With this 

approach, ASD can be applied in areas 

with lower soil temperatures where solarization 

would not be effective and in 

Figure 1. Anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD) experiment conducted to test byproducts of the local agri-food industry such as wheat middlings, 

spent mushroom compost and brewer’s spent grain as carbon sources in Pennsylvania using a movable high tunnel structure (photo by F. Di Gioia.) 

4 Organic Farmer June/July 2021

areas where limited water availability, 

topography or soil properties do not 

allow the use of flooding. 

How Does ASD Work? 

ASD controls soilborne pests and 

pathogens by creating temporary 

anaerobic conditions which enable 

a series of fermentation processes 

to occur as microbes feed on the 

added C. During this process, volatile 

organic compounds, organic acids, 

sulfur-containing compounds and 

Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ ions are produced, and 

shifts in the soil microbial community 

occur that alter the microbial 

ecology of the soil and have direct 

and indirect activity against soilborne 

pathogens. 

At the same time, a sequence of microbial 

groups starts feeding on the labile 

C provided and then feeds on metabolites 

derived from the fermentation 

process. The soil is never sterilized or 

left void, but there is a shift of activity 

from one group to the next, leading to 

Figure 2. Buckwheat biomass produced in a cover crop ASD trial in Pennsylvania 

(photo by F. Di Gioia.) 

the generation of pest and pathogen 

suppressive soils. Finally, as the source 

of labile C is depleted, the soil returns 

to aerobic conditions and a crop can be 

established. 

Aside from suppressing soilborne pests 

and pathogens, ASD with common C 

sources modifies the soil environment 

to benefit the following crop (Figure 4, 

see page 6). ASD results in some of the 

same benefits that organic amendments 

in general provide, including increasing 

soil organic matter and cation 

exchange capacity and improved soil 

Continued on Page 6 

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and composts, are not effective. Any 

locally available labile C source can 

be used (see Part 2 of this article in 

the next issue for typical C sources for 

different regions in the U.S.) 

Figure 3. Harvested (left, cut) sunn hemp for incorporation in another location and standing 

sunn hemp to be mowed and incorporated where it grew. Both sunn hemp were used as the 

carbon source for ASD, with or without combination with molasses, applied with composted 

litter for organic production of bok choy in Alachua County, Fla. (photo by E. Rosskopf.) 

Second, as quickly as possible, cover 

the soil with plastic mulch to limit oxygen 

supply and gas exchange. Third, 

drip-irrigate 1.5 to 2 acre-inches of 

water to start and maintain the threeweek 

fermentation process. The first 

irrigation should saturate bedded soil 

uniformly as much as possible without 

collapsing the bed structure. Then 

maintain at or above field capacity 

during the treatment. In sandy soils, 

adding water in repeated increments 

can help maintain adequate soil moisture 

for anaerobic conditions. 

The stronger the anaerobic condition 

and the higher the soil temperature, 

the more suppressive the ASD 

treatment tends to be. Measuring soil 

redox potential (Eh) using oxidation-reduction 

potential (ORP) sensors 

allows researchers and growers 

to monitor the level of the anaerobic 

condition in the soil during ASD (Fig. 

5f). The pungent odor of soil cores is 

also indicative of anaerobic fermentation. 

Figure 4. Charcoal rot disease suppression and growth promotion by ASD in organic strawberries 

in Oxnard, Calif. Left: ASD using rice bran at nine tons/acre. Right: untreated control 

(photos by J. Muramoto.) 

Continued from Page 5 

physicochemical properties. Increases 

in beneficial microorganisms, such 

as non-pathogenic nematodes, fungi 

and bacteria associated with disease 

suppression and growth promotion, 

have been documented with ASD. 

Many consider this approach to be 

good for soil regeneration, decreasing 

allelochemicals and increasing microbial 

activity. 

What Are the Steps to 

Implement ASD? 

ASD is performed in three steps (Figure 

5, see page 8). First, incorporate 

a labile C source into the soil to feed 

indigenous soil microbes. A labile form 

of C is necessary for bacteria to quickly 

initiate the fermentation process. 

Non-labile C, such as bark, wood chips 

After the treatment period, holes are 

punched into the plastic mulch for 

planting, facilitating aeration of the 

treated soil. Typically, it is safe to 

plant transplants within one week of 

punching holes. 

How Widely has ASD Been Used? 

Research has been done in multiple 

areas of the U.S., including California, 

Florida, Tennessee, North Carolina, 

Washington, Oregon, Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, Michigan and Ohio, among 

others, both in field and high tunnel 

production systems. Crop types tested 

include berries, vegetables, tree fruits 

and cut flowers (Figure 6, see page 9) 

(See Part 2 of this article for ASD-applied 

crops and target pests in different 

regions of the U.S.) 



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At this stage, all would agree that this 

is a biologically based method for 

which the achievement of anaerobic 

conditions to a certain level is critical 

for the efficacy in controlling soilborne 

pests and pathogens. Regardless of the 

names used by each group, research 

continues to characterize the physical, 

chemical and biological transformations 

that take place during the treatment. 

It is likely that the broad-spectrum 

efficacy of ASD, which results 

in the simultaneous management of 

several soilborne pests and pathogens, 

is due to multiple mechanisms, 

which provides a multi-tactic approach 

that is easy to apply. 

An approach alternative to ASD 

is biosolarization developed by 

combining soil solarization with 

the application of organic amendments. 

This approach relies mainly 

on developing high soil temperatures 

through the solarization effect 

obtained using transparent mulching 

film. Therefore, its application is 

limited in regions where solarization 

is effectively used. 

Figure 5. A typical process of ASD in California strawberry fields: a) broadcast rice bran at a 

rate of six to nine tons/acre to feed indigenous soil microbes that will create the fermentation 

process during ASD; b) incorporate rice bran into the soil; c) list beds; d) lay drip tapes and 

cover beds with plastic mulch as soon as the incorporation is completed; e) saturate and then 

maintain field capacity soil moisture in bed soil by drip irrigation and allow three weeks for the 

ASD treatment; and f) monitor soil redox potential (Eh mV) during the ASD treatment and apply 

additional water when the soil is getting aerobic (photos by J. Muramoto.) 


ASD has been used at commercial scale 

in California berry fields since 2011, 

but it is just starting in other regions 

and crops. There is research on ASD 

being conducted worldwide, including 

continued study in the Netherlands, 

Japan, China, Nepal, Spain and Italy. 

Many producers in these regions utilize 

ASD commercially, particularly on 

small farms and protected cultivation 

systems that offer limited opportunities 

for adequate crop rotation. 

Different Names for this Practice 

ASD was originally described as 

biological soil disinfestation (BSD) 

or reductive soil disinfestation (RSD). 

Work in the U.S. on this topic has more 

consistently been referred to as ASD 

as the need for anaerobic conditions is 

a principal difference between this approach 

and other methods. Each name 

emphasizes the component that each 

research group considered to be a vital 

characteristic of the approach. 

Does ASD Control Weeds? 

When properly applied, especially 

in warmer regions, ASD significantly 

reduces weed pressure. In some 

studies, broadleaf weed germination 

was reduced 40% to 60%, and 

perennial weeds such as nutsedges 

were reduced by more than 75% 

compared to totally impermeable 

film without ASD treatment. Grass 

weeds are consistently suppressed 

under ASD treatments, preventing 

grass weed emergence in planting 

holes through the season. Anaerobic 

conditions and changes in soil 

chemistry may be responsible for 

inhibiting the growth of germinated 

weeds, which can be influenced by 

the type of C source used and its 

application rate. 

Does ASD Affect Nutrient 

Availability? 

The amendments that are used for ASD 

application strongly influence nutrient 

dynamics. Increased availability 

of potassium, calcium, magnesium 

and micronutrients is common with 

many different organic amendments 

used for ASD. It largely depends on the 

composition and application rate of the 

amendment used. In defining the application 

rates for every source of C, it is 

important to consider the composition 

of the organic amendment to avoid an 

excess of nutrients. 

The inputs definitely influence nitrogen 

dynamics under ASD, and the C:N 


atio of the C sources can affect the subsequent 

release and availability of N and other 

nutrients for the crop. For example, when 

composted broiler litter is used for ASD, soil 

ammonium and nitrate are lowered by the 

combined application of litter and molasses. 

Generally, plant nutrient uptake is improved 

with ASD. In some cases, this has also 

been reflected by higher concentrations of 

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, 

magnesium, iron, boron and zinc in fruit. 

See next month’s issue for more information 

on working with ASD in organic cropping 

systems. 

Comments about this article? We want 

to hear from you. Feel free to email us at 

article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Figure 6. ASD can be used to start new citrus plantings for organic or conventional 

production and results in larger crowns and stem diameters and earlier fruit set than 

trees started without ASD (photo by E. Rosskopf.) 

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SEED PRODUCTION 

BASICS 

Some tips for Growers Looking to Produce Their Own Seed 

By TAYLOR CHALSTROM | Assistant Editor 

For a majority of the season, growing seed crops is similar to growing market crops 

(photo courtesy J. Zystro.) 

The boom in sustainable food 

production during the COVID-19 

pandemic has created a higher demand 

for seed, resulting in low supply 

and a need for increased seed production. 

The organic food market has grown at 

a consistent, increasing rate every year 

for the past two decades, and this past 

year has been no exception. Having 

a close or direct connection to food 

sources and information has been more 

important than ever to consumers. 

However, there are not enough seed 

producers or seed to keep up with current 

demand. 

“Seed companies had two to 10 times 

the sales than usual in 2020, using up 

all of their inventory. 2021 sees this 

trend continuing,” said Research and 

Education Assistant Director Jared 

Zystro of Organic Seed Alliance. “It’s 

a good time to be considering growing 

seed for yourself so that you don’t end 

up in a situation where you’re looking 

through the catalogs or finding your 

varieties out of stock at the seed companies,” 

he added. 

Seed Crop Characteristics 

In a presentation during the 2021 

California Small Farm Conference, 

Zystro explained the basics of seed 

production, noting important 

characteristics of seed crops. 

“A basic difference between various 

seed crops is flower arrangement. This 

is relevant to how plants are able to 

reproduce and how to manage plants 

when you’re growing them for seed,” he 

said. 

Types of flower arrangements include 

perfect, monoecious and dioecious 

flowers. Perfect flowers have pollen-bearing 

and seed-bearing parts on 

the same flower, are found in self-pollinating 

crops and often produce relatively 

few yet large seeds per plant. 

Tomatoes, beans, peas, broccoli, 

cabbage, carrots, sunflowers, lettuce 

and ornamental flowers are 

examples of crops with perfect 

flowers. “Many of the crops you 


Jared Zystro of 

Organic Seed Alliance 

recommends 

these general tips 

for beginning seed 

growers: 

Start small and with 

a crop you like 

Consider your 

climate 

Try annuals first 

Make sure the crop 

works in your 

system 

Have infrastructure 

for drying (shed, 

barn space, high 

tunnel, cleaning 

tools) 

Meet other seed 

savers and share 

information 

How-to publications and webinars on 

seed production are available for free 

download at seedalliance.org. 


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know have these flowers, but they may 

not all be self-pollinating plants themselves,” 

Zystro noted. 

Monoecious flowers have either 

seed-bearing or pollen-bearing parts. 

Monoecious crops, such as corn, squash, 

cucumber, melon and watermelon, have 

both types of flowers on the same plant. 

Dioecious flowers have either seed-bearing 

or pollen-bearing parts as well, but a 

dioecious plant, such as spinach, asparagus, 

ginkgo and hemp, will only have 

one type of flower. Both monoecious 

and dioecious flowers, along with perfect 

flowers, make up cross-pollinating crops 

that often have large numbers of small 

flowers that produce many seeds. 

According to Zystro, it isn’t cut and dry 

as to whether or not a plant is self-pollinating 

or cross-pollinating. “There is a 

Drying postharvest allows the seeds to complete maturity and makes extraction easier. spectrum,” he said. “Crops that are more 

Drying can be done in a number of ways, but plant material shouldn’t be dried on a self-pollinating have different requirements 

for population size and isolation 

non-permeable surface as this allows moisture to build up (photo courtesy J. Zystro.) 

distance, typically requiring smaller 

populations and minimum isolation. Crops that are more 

cross-pollinating require much greater isolation and larger 

populations.” 

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Population size, Zystro said, is the amount of plants needed 

to save seed from in order to maintain a healthy, vigorous 

variety year after year. Isolation distance is the distance a 

crop needs to be from other flowering varieties of the same 

species. 

Another important difference between various seed crops is 

the crop’s life cycle, according to Zystro. “Annuals produce 

seed in one year provided there is a long enough season 

for full maturity, while biennials take two years to produce 

seed and require overwintering and/or vernalization to set 

seed.” 

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Growing Practices 

Zystro said that, for a majority of the season, 

growing seed crops is similar to growing market 

crops. Growing practices for seed crops, like 

market crops, include timing, spacing, staking, 

irrigation and fertility and weed management. 

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Timing 

Seed crops typically take much longer to mature than the 

market equivalent, according to Zystro. For example, lettuce 

crops will require several more months in the ground 

than market crops for seed. Some crops, like tomato or 

winter squash, require timing that is about the same. 


L 

Spacing 

The amount of space needed for seed 

crops is often much larger. Since the 

crop stays in the ground longer, they 

will grow larger; thus, greater spacing 

is needed to provide airflow between 

rows, which helps to mitigate disease. It 

might be beneficial to grow at normal 

spacing first and harvest the market 

crop every other row, leaving adequate 

spacing for remaining plants to continue 

to grow for seed production, Zystro 

advised. 

Staking 

Staking may only be necessary for 

some seed crops depending on how 

large they are at maturity. 

Irrigation 

Once crops begin to flower and seed, 

overhead irrigation should be avoided 

as it can cause sprouting and diseases 

when the plant flowers, Zystro said. 

Drip or furrow irrigation works best in 

the seed stage. 

One technique for cleaning seeds from dry-seeded crops is screening, which includes 

screens large enough to allow seed to fall through while the non-seed, or chaff, stays on 

top, or screens small enough to allow seeds to stay on top while dust and fine chaff fall 

through (photo courtesy J. Zystro.) 

Fertility Management 

Management will be mostly the same 

for seed and market crops. Zystro said 

to keep in mind that the growing season 

is longer for seed production and 

will require more fertility and water 

until the crop matures. 

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Weed Management 

Weeds that otherwise could be ignored 

during the regular season where harvest 

occurs earlier cannot be ignored 

for seed production’s longer season. 

Remove weeds throughout the season 

so that there aren’t any tangled up with 

the plants. 


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Seed Saving 

Harvest and postharvest practices 

for seed production, known as seed 

saving, include harvesting, drying, 

threshing, cleaning and storing seed. 

Harvesting 

There are multiple techniques for 

harvesting seed, Zystro said, including 

cutting or hand harvesting plants, pulling 

plants, the bucket method (bending 

plant into a bucket so seeds shatter into 

it,) hand collecting seeds and mechanical 

tools. 

“I don’t recommend [pulling plants] 

because you want to avoid having dirt 

mixed in with seeds,” Zystro said. 

Drying 

Drying postharvest allows the seeds to 

complete maturity and makes extraction 

easier. Drying can be done in 

a number of ways, but plant material 

shouldn’t be dried on a non-permeable 

surface as this allows moisture to build 

up, according to Zystro. 

Threshing 

Threshing involves separating seeds 

from plant matter/stems and can 

occur in different ways, including 

stomping and driving over the seed 

with a vehicle. Only use a vehicle for 

threshing on a soft surface like grass 

and with a small-seeded crop, Zystro 

said. Large-seeded crops may experience 

damage to seed with driving in 

the form of cracks, reducing the quality 

and vigor of the seed. 

Cleaning 

“Cleaning method depends on whether 

the crop is dry-seeded or wet-seeded,” 

Zystro said. Dry-seeded crops, such as 

lettuce, have dry seed and fruit when 

they reach maturity. Wet-seeded crops, 

such as tomatoes, have wet seeds at 

maturity. 

One technique for cleaning seeds from 

dry-seeded crops is screening, which 

includes screens large enough to allow 

seed to fall through while the non-seed, 

or chaff, stays on top, or screens small 

enough to allow seeds to stay on top 

while dust and fine chaff fall through. 

Often, both methods should be used to 

remove the bulk of the non-seed material, 

Zystro said. Another technique 

for dry-seed screening is winnowing. 

Winnowing uses wind to separate seeds 

from the chaff. 

“Basically, pour seeds and chaffs into 

a wind stream, and the seeds being 

denser than the chaffs will fall faster 

into a closer container while chaffs 

being lighter fall farther into a separate 

container,” Zystro said. 

A technique for cleaning seeds from 

wet-seeded crops is fermentation, 

which helps to control disease. Fermentation 

dissolves the slimy, mucilaginous 

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Making the 

Transition to 

Seed Producer 

Kalan Redwood, owner of Redwood Seeds, 

said growers making the transition from vegetable 

market to seed production need to keep 

in mind some important considerations. 

“Seed production is all about letting the plants 

complete their natural life cycle,” Redwood said. 

“Plants become tall, rangy and inedible as they 

mature and produce seeds. A market gardener 

harvests fruits and veggies at peak edibility while a 

seed farmer allows plants to ‘go to seed’.” 

Seed production is a different take on farming, she 

said, adding that most market producers will pull 

out their lettuce, for example, when it starts to bolt 

to make way for a new crop. 

Kalan Redwood, owner of Redwood Seeds, said a market gardener harvests 

fruits and veggies at peak edibility while a seed farmer allows plants 

to ‘go to seed’ (photo by Abby Lawless.) 

layer around tomato or cucumber seeds and stringy placenta 

on squash seeds. Fermentation temperatures should be regulated 

between 75 to 90 degrees F and seeds should be stirred 

twice per day. 

“Once fermentation has occurred, rinse and decant seed by 

filling the seed container up with water and streaming out 

any seed or pulp until the good seeds, which are settled to the 

bottom, are left,” Zystro said. “Then, spread seed out in a thin 

layer and apply air so they dry quickly and don’t sprout from 

leftover moisture.” 

Storage 

The final stage of seed production process before sale, saving 

or shipment is proper storage. Seed should be stored in a cool, 

dry, dark place with little to no fluctuation in storage conditions. 

A general rule, according to Zystro, is that the heat (in 

degrees F) and relative humidity values added together should 

not be more than 100 for optimal conditions. Seeds should be 

well labeled and protected from any rodent or insect pests as 

well. 

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel 

free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

“The seed farmer eats from their seed crops, but 

the real harvest comes in the fall when plants are 

laden with seed.” 

When asked what she believes to be the most 

difficult aspect of seed production, Redwood 

noted that the high standards for cleaning seed 

are particularly challenging. “Over the years, we 

have acquired tools to help us with this process, 

including air columns, screens and, most recently, 

a Winnow Wizard,” she said. “It is the job of the 

seed grower to learn the process for each seed type 

with whatever tools you may have, often by trial 

and error.” 

Although aspects of seed production may be difficult 

and/or niche, Redwood recommends getting 

educated as the most important thing a grower 

can do if they’re looking to produce seed. 

“It is important to learn the basics of plant reproduction 

and know which crops will easily cross 

pollinate,” she said. “There are many strategies 

to grow true-to-type seeds, including isolation 

through distance and time and knowing your 

scientific names. Many resources and books are 

available on this subject. We learned the basics 

from a book called Seed to Seed by Suzanne Ashworth. 

Another great resource is the Organic Seed 

Alliance.” 


Identification 

Mitigation and 

Management of 

Saline and Sodic Soils 

By OMAR RODRIGUEZ and REX DUFOUR | Sustainable Agriculture 

Specialists, NCAT/ATTRA 

FREE online information 

on soil health, produce safety, water management and more 

ara.org/publicaons 

Help line: 800-346-9140 

How can ATTRA help you? 

Trusted technical assistance for over 30 years 

Soils and plants impacted by excess salts can exhibit 

detrimental effects on their physical, chemical and 

biological properties. (Photo: R. Dufour, NCAT) 

The presence of excess salts in the 

ground is a far-reaching and expanding 

threat to agriculture across 

the globe. Increases in soil salinity are 

considered to be the primary stress to 

global crop production (Laidero 2012). 

According to the Food and Agriculture 

Organization of the United Nations, 1% 

to 2% of all irrigated acreage is taken 

out of production every year due to 

excessive salt loads. Addressing these 

issues before it is too late has become 

imperative to maintaining the continued 

productivity of certain regions. 

The destruction of arable land has had 

some profound and lasting social and 

economic effects. In their Assessment 

Report on Land Degradation and 

Restoration, the Intergovernmental 

Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity 

and Ecosystem Service (IPBES) says 

that 190 million acres of primarily 

irrigated land have been permanently 

lost to salinity. Furthermore, there are 

currently 150 million acres of arable 

land damaged by salinization (Montanarella 

et al. 2018). Within the U.S., 

the most affected areas are located in 

the arid western portion of the country. 

The Colorado River Basin, which 

includes parts of California, Colorado, 

Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah 

and Wyoming, has seen particularly 

concentrated effects (LaHue 2017). 

Cadillac Desert, by Marc Reisner (1993), 

provides a warning to all who plough 

forward untempered into the American 

desert: 

Desert, semidesert, call it what you will. 

The point is that despite heroic efforts 

and many billions of dollars, all we have 

managed to do in the arid west is turn 

a Missouri-size section green – and that 

conversion has been wrought mainly 

with nonrenewable groundwater. But a 

goal of many … has long been to double, 

triple, quadruple the amount of desert 

that has been civilized and farmed, and 

now these same people say that the 

future of a hungry world depends on it, 

even if it means importing water from 

as far away as Alaska. What they seem 

not to understand is how difficult it will 

be just to hang on to the beachhead they 

have made. Such a surfeit of ambition 

stems, of course, from the remarkable record 

of success we have had in reclaiming 

the American desert. But the same 

could have been said about any number 

of desert civilizations throughout history 

– Assyria, Carthage, Mesopotamia; the 

Inca, the Aztec, the Hohokam – before 

they collapsed. And it may not have 

even been drought that did them in. It 

may have been salt. 

Arid and semi-arid environments are 


Figure 1. Type and severity levels of salt-affected soils around the world. Wicke et al. 2011. The global technical and economic potential of 

bioenergy from salt-affected soils. Energy & Environmental Science - ENERGY EN 

most at-risk due to a dependence on 

irrigation water that tends to contain 

higher levels of salt. Once on the 

surface, water evaporates, leaving salts 

behind. Notice the correlation between 

arid regions of the world and the distribution 

of saline, sodic and saline-sodic 

soils in Figure 1. 

It doesn’t take many years for salt 

deposits to build up to levels that are 

toxic to many species of plants. Soils 

and plants impacted by excess salts 

can exhibit detrimental effects on their 

physical, chemical and biological properties. 

Land-use options and productivity 

are adversely affected by excess salts, 

which can lead to drops in productivity 

and property value. Depending on the 

amount and type of salt in the soil, impacts 

will differ (McCauley and Jones 

2005). 

Sources and Causes 

The vast majority of salts come from 

the natural weathering of parent material, 

which includes minerals from 

bedrock and ancient sea beds (Cardon 

et al. 2007). Water-soluble salts are 

flushed from the parent material and 

flow downward into subterranean water 

basins, which are a primary source of 

irrigation water. Other sources of salts 

include damming of rivers, excessive 

use of agricultural fertilizers, municipal 

runoff and water treatment with 

“softeners”. In coastal areas, excessive 

pumping of groundwater can create 

intrusion zones where salty sea water 

penetrates freshwater aquifers. Sea 

water intrusion of groundwater pumping 

sites occurs most prominently 

when there is insufficient groundwater 

recharge from rain and rivers to offset 

the amount being pumped out. 

Arid and semi-arid regions are characterized 

in part by their limited annual 

precipitation. During dry periods, 

groundwater recharge slows and 

pumping and evaporation from the 

soil increases. These combined factors 

cause groundwater levels to drop and 

salt deposition on the soil surface to 

increase. Droughts in these regions 

further exacerbate the issue. To take 

an example from California’s Central 

Valley, “…salt in the San Joaquin Valley 

continues to increase, especially during 

drought years. That’s because during 

droughts, California’s farms and cities 

rely on groundwater for up to 60% of 

their freshwater supply, up from 35% in 

non-drought years, and groundwater 

tends to be saltier than river water. People 

have been using groundwater faster 

than it naturally replenishes, dropping 

water levels deeper underground” (Gies 

2017). 

Salinity Impact on Plant 

Growth and Yield 

Stress in the form of salinity is the most 

limiting environmental factor affecting 

plant growth in regions where rainfall 

is limited (Parida and Das 2005). Salts 

limit plant growth via several pathways. 

First, saline soils reduce a plant’s 

ability to absorb water. “Osmotic stress 

symptoms are very similar to those 

of drought stress, and include stunted 

growth, poor germination, leaf burn, 

wilting and possibly death” (McCauley 

and Jones, 2005). These symptoms, 

similar to drought stress, occur even 

when water is present in the soil. In 

addition to affecting a plant’s ability to 

take up water, excess salinity can affect 

nutrient availability and uptake, and it 

can cause toxicity issues from sodium 

and chlorine (Evelin et al. 2009). 

The effects that salt have on plants vary 

depending on the type of crop being 

grown, the amount of salt, and the type 

of salts in the soil. The presence of salts 

in the shallow layers of the soil profile 

will have a greater negative impact than 

those at layers further down in the 

profile due to their proximity to plant 

roots. 

Salt tolerance varies greatly from crop 

to crop. Carrots and strawberries, for 

example, are sensitive enough to suffer 

yield and growth losses in soils considered 

to be “very slightly saline,” while 

asparagus and chard are tolerant to 

much higher levels of salts. Each crop 

species has a corresponding level of 

tolerance to salinity, and beyond this 

level, growth and yield begin to diminish 

(see Table 1 on page 18, for more 

information on crop-specific tolerance 

levels.) Many plants will not display 

negative effects of salinity stress; thus, 

observational analysis may not be sufficient 

to determine if salts are affecting 

the yield of a particular crop. In order 

to be certain and establish an appropriate 

management plan, soil and irrigation 

water testing are essential. 



Table 1. The Effect of Electrical Conductivity on Plant Yield (Ayers and Westcot 1985). Top row of numbers represents percentage of potential 

yield. Numbers in table represent soil EC (measured using saturated paste method). 


Example from Table 1: Sweet potato 

grown in soil where EC measures 3.8 

can be expected to yield around 75% 

of maximum. Note: These numbers 

represent rough guidelines that will 

be influenced by a number of factors, 

including cultivar chosen, soil temperature, 

cultural practices and use of 

rootstocks, to name a few. 

Salinity and the Soil 

Salinity and sodicity are the two 

salt-related problems that impact land 

managers around the globe. They are 

similar in many of their characteristics 

but should be managed differently due 

to the chemical differences in their 

composition. Saline-sodic soil is the 

third possibility. These soils exhibit 

traits of both types and require a management 

approach similar to that for 

sodic soils. 

The most common salts include sodium 

(Na + ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ) and calcium 

(Ca 2+ ). Other salts present to a lesser 

extent include potassium (K + ), chloride 

(Cl - ), bicarbonate (HCO 3- 

) and sulfate 

(SO 4 

2- 

). 

Soil structure is one of the fundamental 

aspects of a soil that can help us 

understand whether it is functioning 

properly. Soils are composed of varying 

proportions of sand, silt and clay. 

Structure relates to the way these particles 

aggregate, or clump together, on 

a chemical level. Well aggregated soils 

allow for healthy soil function, which 

includes the soil’s ability to circulate air 

and percolate water down into the profile. 

Changes observed in soil structure 

or function may be indicative of certain 

salinity issues. 

Soils characterized as saline or saline-sodic 

can be a wolf in sheep’s 

clothing because they can appear to 

have good structure while negatively 

impacting other biological and chemical 

properties. Sodicity, on the other 

hand, is a specific salinity issue in 

which excess sodium can contribute to 

the breakdown of soil structure. Sodic 

soils will facilitate the development of 

surface crusts, which hamper the germination 

and emergence of seedlings. 

These crusts form dense layers that 

inhibit root growth and make tillage 

more difficult. The destruction of soil 

aggregates also reduces pore structure 

and causes a settling of soil particles 

that are loosely or not at all associated 

to their neighboring particles (Abrol et 

al. 1988). 

The physical structure of sodic soils, as 

described above, also leads to topsoil 

that is highly susceptible to the erosive 

forces of wind and water. Another distinguishing 

characteristic of sodic soils 

is that they have a high pH, usually 8.5 

or higher. It is the tendency of highpH 

soils to decrease the availability of 

essential nutrients, including calcium, 

magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, 

iron, manganese and zinc, which is 

cause for concern. 

Remediating Saline Soils 

Aside from a few very expensive 

management options, flushing salts 

further down into the soil profile with 

clean (low-salt) water is the only way 

to directly lower salt concentrations 

in managed soils. Limiting the use of 

inputs that have high concentrations 

of salt, such as saline irrigation water, 

chemical fertilizers or dairy manure, 

will serve as a good first step in reducing 

salt loads. Because good drainage 

is important to the leaching of salts, 

employing soil-management practices 

that improve soil structure and hydraulic 

flow through your farm’s soil will 

aid in moving salts away from sensitive 

crop-growing areas. 

Measuring Salinity and Sodicity 

Three factors typically examined in order 

to determine a soils classification in 

terms of salinity are Electrical Conductivity 

(EC), Sodium Absorption Ratio 

(SAR) and pH. 

Electrical Conductivity (EC), sometimes 

referred to as specific conductance, 

measures the ease with which 

current can pass through an object. In 

this case, the object is the soil (ECe) or 

irrigation water (ECw). The more salt in 

a sample, the more easily a current will 

pass through that sample. Lab test results 

will provide measurements in the 

form of millimhos per cm (mmhos/cm) 

or decisiemens per meter (dS/m). These 

units are equivalent to one another: 1 

mmho/cm = 1 dS/m. 



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when applied directly to the soil. 


Bare soil, exposed to both the sun and wind, 

loses moisture more rapidly than mulched 

soil. Water evaporates, leaving a crust of 

salts behind. (Photo: R. Dufour, NCAT) 


The most reliable test for sodicity of soil 

or water is the sodium absorption ratio 

(SAR), which compares the concentration 

of sodium to calcium and magnesium. 

An alternate test that is also used 

to determine sodicity is the exchangeable 

sodium percentage (ESP). This 

test compares the amount of sodium 

relative to the cation exchange capacity 

(CEC) of the soil sample. CEC is a 

term that describes the ability of a soil 

particle (negatively charged) to bind to 

positively charged molecules or elements 

like salt (Hazelton and Murphy 

2016). 

Remediating Sodic and 

Saline-Sodic Soils 

Due to low permeability, soils classified 

as saline-sodic or sodic require an additional 

step in order to effectively flush 

salts down into the soil profile while 

maintaining or improving soil function. 

Some form of calcium, usually gypsum, 

is used to replace excess sodium 

present in the soil. Due to its stronger 

charge, calcium can replace the sodium 

attached to soil particles. Freed sodium 

then converts to salt in the form of 

Na 2 

SO 4 

, which is more easily leached 

from the soil. Some organic amendments 

have been shown to be excellent 

options when remediating alkaline 

soils (sodic soils tend to be alkaline). 

Whether biochar, biosolids, compost 

or green waste compost is applied, 

each will reduce EC, ESP and SAR to 

varying degrees, and when combined 

with gypsum, will reduce salinity to a 

greater degree than gypsum or organic 

components alone (Chaganti et al. 

2015). 

Management for Soil Remediation 

Particular management practices and 

related factors can increase the likelihood 

that salts will deposit on the soil 

surface. Poor management of irrigation 

water and excess tillage can exacerbate 

salinity problems. Excessive tillage, for 

example, can create a hardpan under 

the soil surface. This is a layer through 

which water percolates very slowly or 

not at all. Also, saline water sitting 

just below the soil surface can rise to 

the surface through capillary action. 

Capillary action describes the ability of 

water to move through narrow spaces 

regardless of external forces, including 

gravity. If you have ever left a paper 

towel to soak up water and watched the 

water spread across its fibers, you were 

observing capillary action. This is the 

same process that occurs in the soil 

when water is able to migrate upward 

through the soil profile. In this case, 

the water, with its load of salt, migrates 

to the surface, and as the water evaporates 

continually, it leaves ever-increasing 

amounts of salt behind. 

The above-listed remediation techniques 

will do little to improve soil 

salinity conditions when hardpan 

layers or excessive soil compaction are 

present on the farm. In these situations, 

it may be advisable to break up impermeable 

layers mechanically (“ripping” 

the soil with deep ploughing or subsoiler) 

followed by a reduction in soil 

management practices that create these 

adverse conditions (Abrol et al. 1988). 

The reduction in salinity-enhancing 

management practices must be accompanied 

by implementation of practices 

that can help mitigate saline conditions. 

Role of Organic Matter 

Adding organic amendments is a viable 

method of addressing the negative 

impacts of salinity in the soil. Saline 

soils have been shown to benefit from 

compost, manure, green wastes and 

other organic amendments, which 

reduce the impact of erosive forces and 

improve soil structure and soil function 

(Diacono and Montemurro 2015). 

Additionally, organic matter aids in 

jump-starting biological and chemical 

processes, which can buffer the negative 

effects imposed by salt and help to 

increase nutrient cycling and availability 

(Rao and Pathak 1996). 

Adding organic matter helps maintain 

the soil ecosystem, which can improve 

soil physical properties through the 

stabilization of aggregates. Bacteria 

and fungi release various glue-like 

substances through their metabolic 

processes that contribute to the 

adhesion of soil particles, creating soil 

aggregates. Increases in organic matter 

in soils impacted by excess salts have 

been shown to increase soil porosity 

and aeration (organic matter has much 

the same effect in non-saline soils), 

resulting in greater infiltration rates 

and reduction in soil salt content when 

flushed with water that is low in soluble 

salts (Diacono and Montemurro 2015). 

In other experiments, under saline 

conditions, the addition of poultry 

manure and compost has been shown 

to increase available potassium. The 

addition of soluble and exchangeable 

potassium (K + ) acts in a similar capacity 

to calcium and magnesium; that is to 

say, under sodic conditions, potassium 

will compete with sodium for space on 

the soil particles. What’s more, K plays 

an important role in the physiological 

function of plants, which can buffer 

some of the detrimental effects of salt 

stress (Diacono and Montemurro 2015). 

Mulching is another practice that 

effectively limits the amount of salt 

accumulation on the soil surface because 

it reduces evaporation from the 

soil surface by 50% to 80%. Mulches 

can take various forms and can be 

used in a number of ways. Plastic cover 

and organic mulches are both effective 

options. Although both plastic and 

organic mulches are viable options 

for the reduction of salt accumulation, 

there are associated costs and benefits 

to both. Plastic mulches may require 

lower management and labor cost than 

organic mulches, but they are less 

effective than organic mulches when it 

comes to reducing salt accumulation 


(on average, 32% less salt accumulation 

on organic mulches) (Aragues et 

al. 2014). Plastic mulches can intercept 

precipitation, which reduces any 

potential leaching effect from rainfall. 

Plastic mulches also deteriorate over 

time and require disposal (Aragues et 

al. 2014). Organic mulches, on the other 

hand, may decompose rapidly and need 

to be replaced more often. They also 

benefit the soil ecosystem by feeding it 

and promoting earthworm populations 

(Jodaugiene et al. 2010) 

Concluding Thoughts 

American agriculture is facing increasing 

challenges and experiencing severe 

climate events more often. Farmers 

are having to deal with unprecedented 

droughts, flooding, and fires, as well as 

more erratic and extreme precipitation 

and temperatures. If we are to avoid the 

fates of the civilizations Marc Reisner 

noted in the introduction—Assyria, 

Carthage, Mesopotamia, the Inca, the 

Aztec, the Hohokam—we, as a society, 

must pay more attention to the way 

we manage our soils and learn to treat 

them as the complex ecosystems that 

they are. Fortunately, we have more 

knowledge than ever before about how 

soils should be managed for soil health, 

and about the impacts of irrigation in 

arid environments. 

Resources 

To learn more about related topics, 

please visit the ATTRA website (www. 

attra.ncat.org) 

If you would like to learn more about 

testing for salinity, salt mitigating 

management practices and a complete 

resource list, please check out the full 

publication Saline and Sodic Soils: Identification, 

Mitigation, and Management 

Considerations at attra.ncat.org/product/saline-and-sodic-soils-identification-mitigation-and-management-considerations/. 

Practices that increase soil health and 

promote beneficial microbial species 

can mitigate many of the challenges 

presented by salty soils. Management 

practices that encourage the presence 

of beneficial microbes are discussed 

further in the following ATTRA publications 

that may be found at https:// 

attra.ncat.org/topics/soils-compost/: 

• Sustainable Soil Management 

• Drought Resistant Soil 

• Overview of Cover Crops and Green 

Manures 

• Managing Soils for Water: How Five 

Principles of Soil Health Support Water 

Infiltration and Storage 

Omar and Rex can be contacted via 

email (omarr@ncat.org, rexd@ncat.org) 

or via phone (530) 530-7338. 





Challenges 

of Managing 

Fusarium in 

Strawberries 

By SABRINA HALVORSON | Contributing Writer 

A 

threat to California’s strawberries 

for 15 years now, Fusarium 

wilt is challenging to control. 

Organic growers face even more 

difficulties in eradicating the underlying 

fungus. 

Fusarium wilt is caused by the fungus 

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae. It 

causes wilting of foliage, plant stunting 

and drying and death of older leaves; 

however, the younger leaves in the 

center of the plant often remain alive. 

The plants can eventually die from the 

infection. According to the University 

of California, plants bearing heavy 

fruit loads or subjected to stress often 

show the most severe symptoms. 

UCCE Strawberry and Caneberry Farm 

Advisor in Santa Cruz County Mark 

Bolda explains there are several types 

of Fusarium, but only one that is of real 

concern to strawberry growers. 

“What was very important for people, 

they get a soil report back that says 

‘Fusarium’ on it. Well, there’s tens of 

thousands of Fusarium. There’s actually 

some that are beneficial. Most of them 

don’t do anything,” Bolda explained. 

“Then for strawberries, there’s fragariae. 

It is host-specific, meaning it only 

infects strawberries. And that’s the 

one that’s been expanding by leaps and 

bounds here on the Central Coast.” 

He said while Fusarium wilt was first 

found in southern California in 2006, 

the fungus fragariae was first found in 

the Central Coast growing area about 

six years ago in a single field. 

“Now, it’s 10, maybe even 100 fields that 

are infected with this pathogen, and 

it’s continuing to move,” he said. It was 

found first in the sandy soil of Watsonville. 

“That’s been kind of the epicenter 

for the whole thing. Most growers have 

it and they have it heavy.” 

Treatment Options 

Treatment of the pathogen is difficult, 

even for conventional growers. Traditionally, 

growers would fumigate with 

products such as methyl bromide and 

chloropicrin. Bolda said anecdotal 

evidence showed those treatments 

were containing the fungus. However, 

California law changed and phased out 

methyl bromide in 2016. 

“But, I’ve been talking with some growers 

who have used methyl bromide and 

chloropicrin recently because they have 

a research exemption or some kind 

of special permit and they’re getting 

[fragariae] too,” Bolda said. “So, we are 

now in the post-methyl bromide era 

and now it’s just chloropicrin, which 

is fine because it was always doing the 

heavy lifting in controlling soil pathogens, 

but those soils get [fragariae] too.” 

He said he and researcher Dr. Peter 

Henry with USDA and collaborating 

growers have looked at using crop 

termination. This method kills the 

pathogen by using the soil fumigant 

metam potassium (KPam) at the end 

of the season when the infection is at 

its heaviest. Bolda said the method can 

work on its own but is most effective 

when used with chloropicrin. 

However, those fumigant options are 

not available for organic growers. So, 

what can organic growers do? Bolda 

said to start by knowing what you have. 

“If you’re going into the field and you’re 

going to plant, you should know if you 

have this Fusarium or not,” he said. 

And if you do have Fusarium, Bolda 

said, “Rotate away.” 

“Fragariae is form specific to strawberries. 

It grows on everything else, but 

not very well,” he explained. “So, if you 

rotate away (from strawberries) for a 

while, two to three years, minimum, 

those populations of Fusarium should 

go down.” 

Resistant Varieties 

Bolda also pointed out that many of the 

strawberry varieties now are resistant 

to Fusarium. 

“A lot of people are now switching 

to the Fusarium-resistant varieties 

because even in the presence of fumi- 



Fortify cell wall 

structure 

Dark-colored plastics absorb heat into the soil bed, which helps Fusarium 

thrive. Researchers are looking at the effects of cooling the soil down using 

a light-colored plastic to reflect heat away from the bed and see if Fusarium 

can be mitigated. 

Improve 

Abiotic Stress 

Defense 

Call to learn more: 

(208) 678-2610 

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According to the University of California, plants bearing heavy fruit loads or 

subjected to stress often show the most severe symptoms. 

redoxgrows.com 


A key for all strawberry growers is to remain vigilant in finding, treating 

and preventing Fusarium at all stages (photo courtesy M. Bolda.) 

According to UC data, field tests have shown that cultivars such as 

Fronteras, Portola and San Andreas are resistant to Fusarium wilt 

(photo courtesy M. Bolda.) 


gation, they’re losing too many plants. 

But what happens is, at least within the 

University of California, our best, most 

flavorful varieties are not the resistant 

ones,” he said. “So if you’re a direct 

marketer of strawberries, you want 

to identify and grow the best tasting, 

most productive varieties, and those 

are not resistant. There have been some 

new ones that have come out which 

are resistant, but there have been some 

questions about the flavor. And we’re 

talking strawberries. We’re not talking 

spinach. It’s all about flavor.” 

If a grower does have Fusarium, they must be diligent 

to not spread it (photo courtesy M. Bolda.) 

According to UC data, field tests have 

shown that cultivars such as Fronteras, 

Portola and San Andreas are resistant 

to Fusarium wilt. Albion and Monterey 

are susceptible. 

Bolda also pointed out that even 

though a cultivar is resistant now, it 

may not be resistant in the future. 

“We’re not done here,” he said. “We’ve 

seen pathogen resistance break in other 

crops. It hasn’t happened in strawberries 

yet, but it could. As we move forward, 

that resistance may be overcome 

by just all the genetic variations 

within the Fusarium 

population.” 

Additional Considerations 

Another method to managing 

Fusarium in strawberries is 

to manage crop stress. Bolda 

explained the Fusarium 

affects the vascular system 

within the plant, which is why 

growers tend to see the problem 

expand in June and July 

when the plant is producing a 

lot of fruit and drawing a lot 

of water. 

“So, the plumbing is getting 

backed up by this disease and 

it’s making it more difficult to 

draw water,” Bold explained. 

“You’re not going to void the 

problem, but you can mitigate 

the problem by making sure 

that plant has enough water.” 

Bolda and Henry are also researching 

the effects of soil temperature on 

Fusarium. Fusarium needs a warmer 

soil temperature to thrive, so they are 

researching the effects of cooling the 

soil down using a light-colored plastic 

to reflect heat away from the bed. 

A critical point Bolda said he wanted 

to make was if a grower does have 

Fusarium, they must be diligent to not 

spread it. 

“Especially if you’re an organic grower 

because you have no way out, if you 

have a tractor and you move it from a 

contaminated field to a field that’s clean, 

you are contaminating that clean field,” 

he said. “That’s a big mistake and it’s 

completely avoidable.” 

He mentioned a grower in the epicenter 

of the Central Coast Fusarium outbreak 

with little or no Fusarium in his 

field. “Because he’s super strict about 

what comes in and out of his field,” 

Bolda said. “This is backed up by Tom 

Gordon and his researchers up at UC 

Davis. They tested people’s shoes and 

shovels and, sure enough, they were 

transferring Fusarium from one field to 

the other.” 

Bolda said a key for all strawberry 

growers is to remain vigilant in finding, 

treating and preventing Fusarium at all 

stages. 






UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 

HEMP RESEARCH 

TO ADDRESS HEMP RESEARCH TO ADDRESS WATER, N ISSUES IN 2021 

By JEANNETTE E. WARNERT | Communications Specialist, UC ANR 

Researchers found that hemp appears to be tough under deficit 

irrigation, a method of conserving water by applying less than what 

might be considered optimum for maintaining rapid growth (all photos 

courtesy B. Hutmacher.) 

UCCE and UC Davis research efforts 

to understand the opportunities 

and challenges for industrial 

hemp production in California are 

growing. 

As a crop relatively new to California 

growers and researchers, there is still 

much to learn about variety choices, 

how varieties and crop responses differ 

across regions with different soils and 

climates, best practices for nutrient 

management, and pest and disease 

issues. 

valued for its fiber 

and edible seeds; 

however, in California, 

producing 

hemp primarily 

for essential oils, 

including medicinal 

cannabidiol 

(CBD), is thought 

to offer the best 

economic outlook. 

U.S. and California 

hemp acreage 

surged in 2019, but 

fell in 2020. 

Hemp Water-Use 

Study Expands 

In a study coordinated 

by Jeff Steiner 

of Oregon State 

University’s (OSU) 

Global Hemp 

Innovation Center, 

drip irrigation trials 

are underway 

in California, Oregon 

and Colorado. 

Research was conducted in 2020 at the 

UC West Side Research and Extension 

Center in Five Points and at the UC 

Davis campus in addition to three sites 

in Oregon, with an additional site in 

Colorado added in 2021. These studies 

were set up to determine water use of 

industrial hemp for CBD production 

under irrigation regimes ranging from 

about 40% to 100% of estimated crop 

water requirements, with comparisons 

of responses observed across the five 

sites with different soils, climate and 

other environmental conditions. 

not require shortening day length to 

flower. 

Some of the irrigation treatments 

impose moderate to more severe deficit 

irrigation to help assess the crop responses 

to water stress. Deficit irrigation 

is a method of conserving water 

by applying less than what might be 

considered optimum for maintaining 

rapid growth. 

“This plant appears to be quite tough 

under deficit irrigation,” said UCCE 

Specialist Bob Hutmacher at the UC 

WSREC. 

“We need to learn more about benefits 

and drawbacks to stressing the plants,” 

Hutmacher said. 

The auto-flower cultivars tested tend 

to use less water than the photoperiod-sensitive 

cultivars because they can 

be grown in a shorter season. In the 

San Joaquin Valley, auto-flower cultivars 

in these studies were ready for 

harvest in 75 to 90 days after seeding. 

“Water use is very variety-specific” 

Hutmacher said. “Auto-flower varieties 

may have potential to be grown in the 

spring and harvested by early summer, 

or planted in late summer and harvested 

before winter. With a short-season 

crop, and with a decent water supply, 

farmers could consider double-cropping 

with such varieties, potentially 

increasing profits.” 

Yields were variable, but showed promise 

for auto-flower varieties. 

Industrial hemp field research efforts 

began at the University in 2019 after 

the previous year’s Farm Bill declared 

the crop should no longer be considered 

a controlled substance, but rather 

an agricultural commodity. Hemp is 

The study, funded by USDA and OSU, 

includes photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, 

where the flowering response is 

triggered by shortening day lengths in 

mid- to late summer in central California, 

and auto-flower varieties that do 

“In our studies, the highest-yielding 

auto-flower cultivars have produced 

80% to 90% of yields of the much 

larger full-season, photoperiod-sensitive 

plants, and some varieties may be 

equal,” he said. 


Hemp Planting Density Studies 

In cooperation with Kayagene Company 

of Salinas, Dan Putnam, UCCE 

forage crops specialist at UC Davis, and 

Hutmacher have conducted studies 

in 2019 and 2020 with two auto-flower 

varieties to determine the effect of 

plant density on crop growth, yield and 

chemical concentrations. Since some 

of the auto-flower varieties are smaller 

and earlier maturing than many photoperiod-sensitive 

cultivars, data in these 

studies will help determine the tradeoff 

between higher densities needed to 

increase yields versus increases in the 

cost of higher seeding rates. 

A key concern for growers is producing 

a crop with economic levels of CBD or 

other compounds of commercial interest, 

while staying within regulatory 

limits for THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), 

the psychoactive compound found in 

marijuana, a related plant. According 

to CDFA, an industrial hemp crop 

grown in the state may have no more 

than 0.3% THC when plant samples are 

analyzed. 

“This is a challenge for growers. You 

don’t want to risk too high a THC 

level,” Hutmacher said. “Farmers must 

test to make sure THC is at a level to 

meet regulations. If it’s too high, CDFA 

regulations would require the crop be 

destroyed.” 

The studies provide opportunities for 

the scientists to assess plant-to-plant 

variation and impacts of flower bud 

position on THC and CBD concentrations. 

The data collected across a range 

of cultivars differing in plant growth 

habit may help better inform both 

researchers and regulatory groups in 

decisions regarding how to monitor 

plant chemical composition. 

Hutmacher and Putnam are also 

working with commercial companies to 

test lines in the field, including Arcadia 

Biosciences in Davis, Phylos Biosciences 

in Portland and Front Range Biosciences 

in Salinas. 

“There are a lot of challenges when it 

comes to estimating maturity with 

these varieties,” Putnam said. “Each 

variety will mature at different times, 

and deciding when is the best time is a 

key decision. We’re still learning about 

this issue” 

In 2021, in variety trials also coordinated 

by OSU’s Global Hemp Initiative 

Center, data will be collected from 

studies at up to 12 locations ranging 

from Oregon, Washington and California 

in the West to New York, Vermont 

and Kentucky in the eastern U.S. to 

compare varieties grown for CBD and 

other essential oils. 

“Our participation in these multi-site 

trials is important in efforts to identify 

across very diverse environments and 



Another study is using data from 2019 and 2020 to help determine the tradeoff between higher densities needed to increase yields versus 

increases in the cost of higher seeding rates. 


latitudes the plant response in terms 

of attained levels of CBD and THC,” 

Hutmacher said. 

Launch of Hemp Fertilizer 

Project in 2021 

As a new crop in California, little is 

known about crop nitrogen needs and 

application optimization to prevent 

environmental problems related to 

overuse. In 2021, a team of UC Davis 

researchers are launching a three-year 

nitrogen management trial supported 

by the CDFA Fertilizer Research Education 

Program (FREP). An important 

part of the project is THC and CBD 

analysis, a costly enterprise. 

Three companies are providing seeds or 

clones for the project: Cultivaris Hemp 

“Our participation 

in these multi-site 

trials is important in 

efforts to identify 

across very diverse 

environments and 

latitudes the plant 

response in terms of 

attained levels of CBD 

and THC.” 

—Bob Hutmacher, UCCE 

of Encinitas, Kayagene of Salinas and 

Phylos Biosciences of Portland. Alkemist 

Labs of Garden Grove is donating 

services for analyzing crop samples. 

“These are incredibly valuable donations 

to assist with this project, certainly 

in excess of $50,000 in donated 

materials and services from each of 

those companies,” Hutmacher said. The 

collaboration with the donors makes 

the development of environmentally 

sound nitrogen optimization information 

for growers possible together with 

the money provided by CDFA-FREP for 

the trials. 




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COPPER 

REQUIREMENTS 

FOR ORGANIC 

GROWING 

By NEAL KINSEY | Kinsey Ag Services 

In winegrapes, keeping copper levels above 2 ppm will prevent losses from skins splitting at the stem of each grape (all photos courtesy N. Kinsey.) 

Every organically farmed soil 

requires adequate copper to produce 

the most nutritious food from 

organically grown plants. Consequently, 

each soil sample received for analysis 

and recommendations to be used for 

organic production should be tested for 

copper availability. Considering soils 

analyzed from thousands of growers 

in over 75 countries and all continents 

except Antarctica, the great majority of 

them are deficient in copper. In fact, on 

almost half of the soils that are tested, 

the copper content could be doubled 

and they would still be deficient in 

copper. And many are found to be far 

worse than that. 

So, if copper levels are that bad and 

the crops are still growing, why worry 

about trying to build up copper levels 

in organic production? What does copper 

do for the soil and the crops and 

how does that translate to beneficial 

results for livestock, people in general 

and organic growers in particular? 

And while keeping all the points above 

in mind, how much copper should be 

considered as adequate on a soil test? 

There are many useful indicators of 

copper deficiency in growing organic 

crops. This article will point out some 

of those as good reasons to consider 

testing for copper when soils have not 

been sufficiently analyzed to correctly 

determine whether copper is adequate 

or not. Especially note that the reported 

desired level can vary greatly 

depending on the testing procedures 

used and how those tests are expressed 

in terms of numbers on each soil test. 

Copper is necessary to grow stronger 

and more resilient plants. And along 

with adequate boron, copper is needed 

to naturally ward off rust and fungus 

diseases. For nutrition, sufficient copper 

is needed for the proper conversion 

of protein in livestock. And as needed 

in the same way for people, nutrient 

dense food will not be continually 

assured until copper deficiency in the 

soil is correctly eliminated. Furthermore, 

combined with adequate boron it 

helps the body fight against all types of 

inflammation. 

Plants need copper, combined with 

enough potassium and manganese, 

to build strong stalks. Copper also 

provides more resilience so stalks and 

limbs can bend and straighten back up 

instead of breaking. For green snap in 

corn or broken limbs on windy days in 

newly planted tree crops, correcting the 

copper level in the soil is a vital part of 

putting an end to such problems. 

Copper Deficiency 

Tomatoes are a good indicator crop regarding 

whether a soil test is measuring 

the minimum amount of copper needed 

by each soil. When tomatoes have 

cracks near the stem, this indicates they 

are not able to acquire enough copper. 

Specifically based on the laboratory 

analysis still being used that was developed 

by Dr. William A. Albrecht in 

the mid-1900s, when the soil analysis 

shows 2 ppm, the copper level is sufficient 

to solve this problem. This is also 

the minimum amount any soil should 

have based on Dr. Albrecht’s work. That 

required amount may be represented 

as a quite different number on soil tests 

done by other soil laboratories. 

But even when nutrient-available 

copper is sufficiently supplied to the 

soil, tomatoes can still have a copper 

deficiency as indicated by splits around 

the stem. That is because just making 

sure enough copper in an available 



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form is there is not all that is required. 

Soils that do not contain at least 60% 

base saturation of calcium (which can 

even include soils with a high pH) can 

still cause plants to be deficient in copper 

as well as any other of the needed 

nutrient under such conditions. This 

is one reason why so much “research” 

done on copper and other micronutrients 

conclude that adding them is not 

necessary. 

Another similar example of copper deficiency 

is when gray spots can be seen 

on boiled potatoes as the peeling is 

being removed. Some believe that this 

problem is due to a calcium deficiency, 

and if calcium is too low in the soil and 

there is sufficient copper there, then 

adding the needed calcium will solve 

the problem. But if copper is barely sufficient 

or deficient where more calcium 

is added, it does not solve the problem 

until the true Albrecht test measures 

enough available copper, which is at 

least 2 ppm for potatoes grown in such 

soils. 

Using this test, where the soil contains 

sufficient calcium and the copper level 

is barely above 2 ppm, potatoes from 

some areas may still have the gray spots 

while those from other parts of the field 

do not. Check the copper levels from 

both areas and notice the difference 

between sufficient (no gray spots in the 

potatoes) versus deficient (gray spots 

are still evident) levels of copper. 

Some vegetable crops that are considered 

as most susceptible to copper 

deficiency include carrots and onions. 

Lettuce also suffers when copper is too 

low, but it can require much higher 

amounts to be successful in the control 

of troublesome rust and fungal diseases. 

Common Applications 

Wheat is a good example of how important 

copper is and responds well 

at the minimum level shown to be 

required for any soil. When levels are 

only moderately below 2 ppm, just applying 

five pounds per acre of 26% pure 

copper sulfate the previous autumn can 

be expected to control rust in wheat, 

again considering that there must be 

sufficient calcium in the soil for the 

plants to take it in. When that is the 

case, experimental field applications 

show no rust right to the line if copper 

has been sufficiently applied on some 

portion of the field. 

Just like lettuce mentioned above, not 

all types of plants are able to take up 

enough copper for resistance to rust 

and fungal disease when a soil analysis 

shows the soil is just above the minimum 

requirement of 2 ppm. Soybeans 

need close to 2.5 times that much along 

with adequate boron to ward off sudden 

death syndrome and Brazilian soybean 

rust. For the more perishable fruits, 

such as blackberries and raspberries, 

the copper levels in the soil should be 

between 12 to 15 ppm for maximum 

resistance to rust type diseases. 

There are those who maintain that since 

copper sulfate is a powerful fungicide, 

it should not be used on the soil. Before 

making such a judgment, consider 

what tends to be the end result. In their 

book, Soil and the Microbe, Dr. Selman 

Waksman and Dr. Robert Starkey, both 

at the time being professor and assistant 

professor of soil microbiology at 

Rutgers University, studied the effects 

of soil sterilization on microbes. The 

bacteria recover quickly, but the fungi 

and protozoa are frequently almost all 

destroyed and require an “extended 

interval of time” to recover (pages 224- 

225). 

Initially, when copper sulfate is applied, 

depending on how that is done, it can 

be a powerful fungicide. When liquified 

and sprayed uniformly on plants 

and soils, copper sulfate can be highly 

effective for that purpose. A safer form 

of foliar copper for soil organisms is 

copper chelate, which is not harmful to 

the fungi in the soil. 

But even though highly effective as a 

foliar, chelates do not contain enough 

copper at such rates to correct any significant 

amount of measurable copper 

needed in the soil. However, to encourage 

and maximize beneficial organisms 

in the soil and allow the crops being 

grown there to properly fight off rust 

and fungal diseases, the needed copper 

level must be attained. 

Therefore, the recommended form 

of material application for building 

copper in the soil is to use an available 

form of copper as part of a dry broadcast 

application. And the only form of 

copper that will work well enough to 

do this is pure copper sulfate. 

Consider a dry blend of materials such 

as 10 pounds per acre of copper sulfate 

(2.3 pounds of actual copper per acre) 

blended with enough other fertilizers 

to be accurately spread over the soil, 

such as potassium sulfate. Though 

easily seen in the mix due to its bluegreen 

color, one can readily observe 

that, accordingly, there are very few of 

those particles in the mix. How much 

soil would each of those particles have 

to cover to adversely affect the fungi 

on a per acre basis? Even at three times 

the 10 pounds per acre rate mentioned 

above, when shown to be needed to 

reach necessary levels to provide for 

crops on organic farms, that does not 

happen. 

Furthermore, copper sulfate becomes 

stabilized when added to the soil, thus 

losing its toxic properties. There are 

several implications that this happens 

rather quickly when copper sulfate is 

added to the soil. And once there is 

enough stabilized copper available as 

shown by a proper soil analysis, no 

more is needed until less than the minimum 

desired level shows up again on 

the soil test. 

A number of clients who have applied 

the needed amount of copper sulfate to 

reach just above 2 ppm in the late 1970s 

still have a sufficient amount and have 


One positive indication that soils and crops contain sufficient copper is the condition of livestock on the farm. Adequate copper is needed in the feed for 

conversion of protein in the animals. Animals have shiny hair coat with adequate copper in grass. 

not had to apply any additional copper 

to fight rust and fungal diseases in 

wheat crops since that time. So, the use 

of copper sulfate is not a constant need. 

Once enough is there to supply what 

each growing crop needs, it can be 

years if not decades before just a small 

amount for maintenance is required. 

Although other micronutrients such 

as iron, manganese and zinc provide a 

pound for pound response in the soil 

when being supplied as sulfates, this is 

not the case even with a pure source of 

copper sulfate. Like iron and manganese, 

the measured response should not 

be expected until at least 12 months 

after being applied. But the difference 

is that the maximum available copper 

response will only be about 25% of the 

total pounds of elemental copper that is 

applied. 

In other words, applying five pounds 

of 26% copper sulfate should only be 

expected to raise the soil’s available 

copper by a maximum of 0.3 ppm. The 

other 75% never suddenly becomes 

available, and its slow release over time 

is likely the reason copper levels remain 

so stable for years once they have been 

attained. 

Moderate use of manure or compost, 

depending on the content of the material 

and the total copper content of 

the soil, can help build copper levels 

when used over a span of several years. 

For example, using four tons per acre 

of composted turkey manure (which 

is normally expected to contain the 

highest copper levels of all animal manures 

for building available copper in 

the soil) has proven to be sufficient to 

build copper levels above the minimum 

requirement of 2 ppm. 

Thoroughly decomposed organic matter, 

measured and reported as the soil’s 

colloidal humus content, when present 

in moderate to good amounts of 4% to 

5%, can help reduce the need for copper 

in growing crops. But it still requires 

just as much to diminish any significant 

need, and normally there is not 

enough in soil organic matter content, 

compost or manures to do so. 

As measured by laboratory tests 

utilized by Dr. Albrecht, 5% to 7.5% 

colloidal humus is considered as most 

beneficial for growing crops. But in that 

regard, especially in the case of copper 

availability, more is not better. When 

the actual measurable soil humus is 

above 7.5% it is detrimental to copper 

availability and its uptake from the soil. 

Once that level is exceeded, the use of 

foliar copper becomes extremely important 

to avoid problems from copper 

deficiency. Just be careful when relying 

on a tissue or plant analysis alone to 

show whether there is enough. 

Tissue and Soil Analyses 

Many growers or their consultants rely 

on leaf or tissue analyses to determine 

if crops are getting enough copper. 

Such testing can be misleading. The 

first rule to consider in such cases is to 

use a plant test to treat the plants and 

use a soil test to treat the soil. Even 

then, the two should correlate to show 

if there is a problem. Just be aware that 

plant or leaf analysis will often indicate 

good levels when the soil and crop are 

still showing that is not the case. 

As an example, consider a group of 

clients where testing showed their soil 

would benefit from the extra moisture 

provided from higher potassium levels 

for growing grapes without irrigation 

in an area that usually tended to be 

quite dry. They were warned that the 

soil test not only indicated a need for 

potassium, but most of those soils also 

had deficient copper. An additional 

caution was that if the soils received 

more than the normal rainfall, then 

this would result in larger grapes. Then, 

in those soils with deficient copper, the 

grapes would split at the stem. 

Note that splits can also happen when 

there is adequate copper if calcium 

saturation levels in the soil are too low. 

However, this was not the case in the 

high-calcium soils where these European 

vineyards were located. 




The very first year this was done, that 

area received an inordinate amount of 

rainfall. In August, calls began coming 

in that many of the vineyards were 

suffering significant losses due to the 

skins splitting where they added the 

needed potassium. Even though all 

had acknowledged and agreed to apply 

any needed copper based on the soil 

tests, none of them had done it. But in 

each case, it was because they had to 

have a leaf blade analysis to prove they 

needed to apply copper. And in each 

case, the leaf blade analysis came back 

as sufficient. 

Based on actual field results, the leaf 

analysis was wrong because the vineyards 

that had above the minimum 

recommended requirement of 2 ppm 

copper on the soil test had no problem 

with splits, but all those below that 

recommended minimum level were the 

grapes that suffered with great losses 

from the skins splitting at the stem of 

each grape. This happened even though 

the leaf blade analysis indicated good 

levels of copper in both grapes that did 

have the problem and those that did 

not. 

How soon is copper taken up by the 

crop when added to the soil? A potato 

farm of 1,250 acres of land was sampled 

and found to be deficient in copper. 

All but 365 acres also showed a need 

for calcium lime. But the lime was not 

applied due to the grower’s fear of it 

causing common potato scab. 

All other recommended fertilizer was 

applied, including 10 pounds of 23% 

copper sulfate just before planting, 

except for 40 acres that did not receive 

any copper sulfate and another 40 that 

received only five pounds per acre. 

Leaf samples were taken at bloom on all 

fields. A lack of copper was the greatest 

deficiency on the 40 acres where the 

rest of the fertilizer was applied, but 

no copper sulfate. The 40 acres that 

received five pounds of copper sulfate 

showed calcium as the most limiting 

factor and copper as next most limiting. 

On all the rest of the fields which had 

received the recommended amount 

needed, copper was not shown to be a 

limiting factor at all. 

Based on detailed soil testing, the 

copper content was shown to be just 

as deficient on all the other fields as on 

the one where no copper was applied. 

Yet, when applied at planting, the copper 

was already getting into the plants 

at bloom. The sooner needed micronutrients 

are applied, the sooner the 

crops can benefit. Even copper, which 

is considered far less soluble than the 

other trace element products, is able to 

be taken up by plants when applied in 

the right form at planting time. 

Excess N and Copper 

Excessive applications of nitrogen 

can cause copper deficiencies in soils 

that show to have enough. The results 

are even worse when soils are already 

deficient in copper. Dr. Andre Voisin, 

in his book Fertilizer Application: Soil, 

Plant, Animal, points out how exceeding 

the needed amount of nitrogen has 

been shown to cause copper deficiencies 

in crops. 

This is one of the greatest reasons for 

stalk lodging in wheat and corn. Until 

2 ppm of copper is achieved in the soil, 

even normally needed amounts of nitrogen 

can cause lodging. But once that 

level is achieved and the soil also has 

sufficient calcium, potassium and manganese, 

the problem with lodging can 

be overcome unless excessive amounts 

of nitrogen (generally 50% or greater 

than the yields being made requires) is 

being applied. 

Excessive use of phosphate can also 

cause a copper deficiency in crops. Normally, 

this is only found where continued 

use of phosphate-containing materials 

is occurring and P levels there are 

extremely excessive. This is, at times, a 

problem when exorbitant amounts of 

compost and manure are being applied 

by those who feel you cannot apply too 

much of such materials. 

One positive indication that soils and 

crops contain sufficient copper is the 

condition of livestock on the farm. Adequate 

copper is needed in the feed for 

conversion of protein in the animals. 

Adequate conversion of protein shows 

up quickly in the hair coat. A slick, 

shiny hair coat in livestock on pasture 

is a good indicator of at least the 

minimum requirement of copper in the 

soils producing the crops being used 

for feed. Once the minimum level of 2 

ppm copper in the soil is reached, this 

type of result can be seen. Note that 

due to the extra time required to perform 

the analysis and the higher cost 

of the extractants used for the method 

of analysis, the recommended 2 ppm 

level for copper in the soil based on the 

Albrecht-type testing used here will 

usually be much different on those soil 

tests performed by other laboratories. 

Adequate Micronutrients 

Are a Must 

True nutrient-dense food production 

will never be achieved without adequate 

copper, and most soils tested, 

even for certified organic growers, do 

not even meet the very minimum level 

of copper needed to provide for the 

crops and solve the disease problems 

such deficiencies can cause from not 

enough being present in the soil. 

To build the most fertile and productive 

soils without sacrificing top quality 

from the disregard of natural laws of 

nutrient uptake requires an understandable 

program for all growers in 

order to educate and consider the longterm 

outcome and expected results. 

Using micro-nutrients properly will not 

be achieved just by adopting a supposedly 

simple yet deceptive plan for better 

looking crops and higher yields. 

Resources 

The Soil and the Microbe: An Introduction 

to the Study of the Microscopic Population 

of the Soil and its Role in Soil Processes and 

Plant Growth by Robert Lyman Starkey and 

Selman A. Waksman. New York: John Wiley 

& Sons, Inc. 1931. 

Fertilizer Application: Soil, Plant, Animal by 

Andre Voisin, published by Crosby Lockwood. 

1965. 





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CARBON CREDITS IN 

ORGANIC FARMING 

DON’T IGNORE THE POSSIBILITIES OF 

CARBON PROGRAMS TO IMPROVE LAND 

By J.W. LEMONS | CCA, CPAg. 

There is a great amount of research regarding the benefits of organic matter or soil carbon in improving soil quality and the sustainability 

of balanced agriculture productivity. 

Over the past century, CO2 levels have risen 

significantly. There is considerable debate about the 

reasons (whether it’s a natural cycle or the result of 

increased CO 2 

emissions due to human activities,) but a 

general agreement is that human activity accounts for part of 

the increase, especially in view of the continuing increase of 

CO 2 

levels following the on-set of the industrial age. 

There is a great amount of research regarding the benefits of 

organic matter or soil carbon in improving soil quality and 

the sustainability of balanced agriculture productivity. Less 

research has been done to quantify and measure the benefits 

of using the soil as a carbon bank. The consensus on the 

benefits of organic matter or soil carbon is far from being 

agreed upon. Climate mitigation projects in the agriculture 

sector, particularly those focused on storing carbon in soils, 

are increasingly being tied to carbon markets. But the impact 

of these initiatives is highly questionable. 

Carbon Credits and Marketplaces 

There are numerous sources of information on carbon 

credits. Some still call it hype while others posture it as an 

environmental must to combat rising temperatures associated 

with global warming. Some scientists are still on the 

fence while others still work on either side of the fence. Much 

of the farm and agriculture industry still asks the basic 

questions: What is carbon credit? Is it important? Can I accomplish 

the needed changes on my farm? Is there a return 

on investment (ROI) for expenses incurred? How do I get 

started? Who can I trust to advise me? Can I sell the credits, 

where, who buys them, and what are they worth? What 

approaches are there for entering a carbon marketplace? 

Carefully consider all marketplaces and the terms and conditions 

of participating. There are typically two approaches for 

farmers entering carbon markets: using an aggregator or a 

data manager. 

Aggregator 

Farmer sells entire project, control and credits to the aggregator 

in terms and conditions set up in a contract. The aggregator 

then has complete control over carbon credits, when to 

sell, price and data shared. 

Data Manager 

Farmer pays a data manager to help them enter the marketplace 

for a fee or revenue percentage. The farmer has not sold 

real interests in the projects or carbon credits. How much 

will the farmer actually get seems like an important question. 

Some companies may have a price floor. 

Available information on company websites appears to have 

wide ranges of compensation per metric ton of CO 2 

-eq. The 

farmer may have to pay the fees or the company may keep 

a portion of the payment or percentage of carbon credits to 

cover the fees, so the actual amount the farmer gets is typically 

less than the price listed. 


We're back in 2021 for the 

Register at progressivecrop.com/conference 

As a crop consultant, I am not going 

to judge any one system of operation 

regarding carbon. I have decided not to 

discuss the details and lengthy technical 

sides to carbon sequestration or 

climate mitigation as some refer to it. 

Many articles and papers have been 

done on the history of the agriculture 

carbon credit programs. These were 

started on a large scale back in 2006 

and by 2010 suffered massive failures. 

Some states, including California, started 

to renew these efforts with programs 

such as The Cap and Trade Program. 

Much of the effort in agriculture focused 

on the dairy industry. 

Use Caution, Educate Yourself 

Rather than comparing the ‘what to 

do’ and ‘what not to do’ examples, I 

will share my humble opinion with 

you. Please use caution. Opinion on 

soil’s potential to sequester carbon has 

mixed reviews and scientific consensus. 

There are those who believe soil carbon 

is the future of the planet’s climate mitigation. 

Others say the numbers are too 

little too late. As is often the case, the 

truth likely lies somewhere in between. 

As a consultant/conservationist, I believe 

soil carbon in agriculture to be a 

much-needed tool and at least a partial 

solution to sustainable agriculture. 

Educate yourself and seek trained experts 

in carbon sequestration. I would 

personally get comparisons from multiple 

sources. I would also discuss your 

plans with your local NRCS. I worked 

for that organization for a decade in 

my early career. Since the 1950s, they 

have been consulting on sustainable 

farm practices, or regenerative farming 

if that is what you want to call it. Back 

then, it did not carry the same titles. It 

was simply considered conservation 

farm acres and involved rebuilding the 

soil health by increasing the organic 

matter, erosion control, setting aside 

acres and planting grasses on them to 

let marginal land rest and recuperate. 

Fallowing fields coupled with reduced 

tillage and no till, grassed waterways 

and wind brakes, cover crops, crop 

rotation, irrigation water efficiency 

and improved grazing management on 



Don’t ignore the possibilities carbon programs offer to improve your land, but use caution and seek out help and viable information (photo by 

Danita Cahill.) 


rangelands were all encouraged. Private 

forest management with selective harvest 

and dual cropping, such as properly 

grazing forest land while continuing 

to let the land be covered by trees, and 

replanting forested areas, creating 

buffer strips and riparian restoration 

along stream banks, are both practices 

developed to protect and enhance the 

land. 

More Work is Needed 

Adding another layer to the transition 

to carbon sequestration involves the 

type of farming being done. Many have 

asked if organic farming has a fit in the 

new wave of potential income generation 

on a farm. I don’t need to tell 

organic farmers why they grow organic. 

We know these certified farms adhere 

to a way of farming to build natural soil 

health. They strive to reduce or eliminate 

synthetic inputs with organically 

certified inputs. 

Organic farmers try to increase the 

organic and biological matter in their 

soil. Since soil is one of the biggest 

sinks, or storage units, for carbon, this 

alone makes it important. Some studies 

claim that organic farming does not 

improve soil health over conventional 

farming. A new study from Northeastern 

University and nonprofit research 

organization The Organic Center 

(TOC), though, has reached a different 

conclusion: Soils from organic farms 

had 26% more potential for long-term 

carbon storage than soils from conventional 

farms, along with 13% more soil 

organic matter. Having consulted on 

organic farms and personally looked at 

soil samples and the soil itself, I have to 

report I have seen a notable change. 

I know I am not sending out a message 

of blanket hope for the carbon program 

for organic farmers, but I do believe 

there is merit here. It just shows that 

there is still not enough collaborating 

information available to make a huge 

leap. Credible, reliable information is 

the key. 

Another key point agreed upon by 

most writers on this topic is it will take 

incentive funding to get enough acres 

involved to make any major impact. 

We need technical assistance from 

multiple levels, from implementation 

of long-term plans to conclusive and 

quantitative data through monitoring 

and measurement. We need a more 

uniform direction so the various aggregators 

and data management organizations 

are on the same playing field. It is 

a complicated process, and those who 

would tell you different are not taking 

into account all the variables. 

Do I as a Certified Crop Consultant 

and Certified Professional Agronomist 

think carbon programs are a good idea 

for organic farmers? The answer is yes. 

We need healthier soils and reduced 

inputs where possible. We need sustainable 

farm practices to ensure food 

production for years to come. We have 

an obligation to be better stewards of 

the land. 

Regenerative agriculture is not a whim 

but a necessity. We need to reduce CO 2 

emissions, and using plants and farm 

soils to do this makes environmental 

sense. As I said previously, don’t ignore 

the possibilities this offers to improve 

your land. Simply use caution, seek out 

help and viable information. Make an 

educated decision based on science, 

economics, lifestyle and your capabilities 

on your farm to achieve your goal. 

The internet is full of reading, and if 

you ask many of your consulting firms, 

independents and suppliers, they can 

guide you to additional information. 





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GROWING 

VEGETABLES 

YEAR-ROUND 

UNDER COVER 

EVEN PULL FARM KEEPING DISEASES 

AND INSECT PESTS UNDER CONTROL 

Vegetable seedlings nearly ready to transplant (all photos 

by D. Cahill.) 

By DANITA CAHILL | Contributing Writer 

Early spring found Beth Satterwhite 

and Erik Grimstad growing 

radishes and carrots in a caterpillar 

tunnel and other vegetable crops in high 

tunnels. The husband-and-wife team 

are in their seventh year of operating 

Even Pull Farm, which is located on two 

acres of rented ground in McMinnville, 

Ore. The couple grow cut flowers and 

many different varieties of vegetables. 

Controlling Disease Under Cover 

“We do get some disease pressure in the 

tunnels,” Satterwhite said. “We manage 

it with rotation.” 

Jeff Timpone, garden manager of Wepler 

Farms in Brownsville, Ore., also 

uses rotation as a disease prevention 

strategy. 

“We are pretty fortunate,” Timpone 

said. “We don’t have too many issues 

growing under cloth or plastic. Some 

downy mildew, but it usually isn’t too 

severe. But when we do have issues, 

we will burn the bed with a propane 

torch before we till it in. Constant crop 

rotation definitely helps, too. Most 

spots in our garden get turned over 

four to five times a year. It just depends 

on what was planted there. For some 

longer crops like tomatoes, it’s less, but 

those will be planted somewhere else 

the following year.” 

Wepler Farms has been in operation 

since the 1980s. They grow baby vegetables 

and salad greens which they send 

weekly by airplane to high-end restaurants 

all over the country. 

Insect Pests 

Satterwhite and Grimstad had spider 

mite issues last year in their cucumbers 

and eggplants. They have recurring 

problems with other insects, too. 

“Flea beetles and aphids are always 

around,” Satterwhite said. 

Timpone also has problems with flea 

beetles. “We’re dealing with flea beetles 

now,” he said. “We seal the beds up 

under cloth to combat them. Then if we 

have a big hatch out, we will often burn 

the bed to get as many as we can.” 

Aphids aren’t too much of an issue 

at Wepler Farms, Timpone said. “We 

are generally pretty lucky with aphids, 

which is fortunate because they are 

tricky.” 

Most of Even Pull Farm cut flowers 

are field-grown outdoors. The more 

than 50 types of flowers, and over 150 

cultivars, are grown on just under 0.25 

acres. 

As for vegetables, there are plenty of 

those, too. 

“We grow all of the vegetables, from 

arugula to zucchini,” Beth said. 

Some of the veggies are heirloom 

varieties. Some are just plain weird. 

Kosaitai is one of the oddballs. 

“It’s a new-to-us sprouting green. I love 

these kinds of greens; full of flavor, fast 

cooking and beautiful,” Satterwhite 

said. “Non-standard veggies are really 

where it’s at. Radishes are cool, bell 

peppers are fine, red round tomatoes 

from a local farm do taste pretty amazing, 

spinach is good. But the weirdos, 

unique varieties, things you’ve never 

heard of and the ‘ugly’ veggies really 

have my heart.” 

Satterwhite and Grimstad, along with a 

crew of four employees, grow crops 50 

weeks out of the year. They love growing 

delicious, healthy things to eat, and 

although a labor of love, as all farmers 

know, it’s also labor-intensive work. 

The couple have plans to cut back their 

total weeks of vegetable production 

somewhat, “So we can get some rest,” 

Satterwhite said. 



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Rows of carrots and radishes sprouting in a tunnel. 


Bok choy and cut flowers were just harvested from this 

tunnel. 

Correction: 

In a 2020 Almond Conference recording titled “Organic 

Almonds: Why and How from a Grower’s Perspective”, 

Wes Sperry of Sperry Farms spoke about specific products 

and tools he has used to manage pests in his organic 

almond orchard. A direct quote, which was published 

in the February/March 2021 edition of Organic Farmer, 

attempted to reference what Sperry said but did not reflect 

his words accurately. 

The quote should have read, “Pest management has been 

one of the larger concerns we’ve had here on the organic 

farm. We’ve had pretty good success I think for our first 

year. With only one year under our belt, it’s hard to really 

know what the future is going to hold. The first year, we 

used a number of different organic-labeled fungal sprays, 

bloom sprays. It all seemed to do really well for us. On 

the NOW side, we went with a product from Semios, their 

mating disruption. We had extreme success in that range. 

After harvest, we had worm damage results that were on 

par with or below even our conventional. We also did put 

in some hull split sprays along with the mating disruption 

from Semios, but we really felt that was a strong point of 

our pest management program.” 

For a link to the full updated article, go to 

Organicfarmermag.com. 

Evolving Business Model 

Satterwhite and Grimstad’s business model has changed and 

evolved since they first began. For the first few years, they 

did Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) gardening. 

“But we only had about 30 subscribers,” Satterwhite said. “It 

wasn’t sustainable.” 

They also had constant interruptions from subscribers and 

others stopping by the farm to hang out, look around and 

chat. It’s not that Satterwhite and Grimstad minded the 

visitors, per se, but the constant need to stop and answer 

questions and give tours took up too many precious daylight 

hours. After some consideration, they took the farm address 

off their website. 

Since abandoning the CSA business model, Satterwhite and 

Grimstad now grow for local restaurants, all within 25 miles 

of their farm. They make delivery runs three days a week to 

provide fresh ingredients for the Yamhill Valley chefs to use 

in their dishes. 

Even Pull Farm also sells vegetables and cut flowers at the 

seasonal farmers market in downtown McMinnville. They 

host pop-up events for special holidays such as Thanksgiving 

– think squashes and other fall veggies – and Mother’s Day 

with offerings of spring flower bouquets. Satterwhite keeps 

an email list to notify customers of upcoming pop-up events. 

She also sells “market shares,” which is basically a prepaid 

credit card with a built-in discount. Customers can purchase 

the card before the farmers market starts each spring, thus 

giving some extra supply money to the farm during the 

slower winter months. 

Even Pull Farm maintains their own cooler at Mac Market 

in downtown McMinnville. They are soon expanding to two 

coolers, which they will stock twice a week with whatever 

vegetables are in season. They also provide mixed bouquets 


of flowers at Mac Market. Located inside a renovated historical 

warehouse that was once a shoe-grease factory, Mac Market is a 

“collaborative and community-driven eating, drinking and gathering 

place.” 

Online Presence 

COVID-19 forced many farmers to pivot to remain relevant and in 

business. Satterwhite stayed active online to reach out to customers 

and those interested in how their food is grown. Even Pull Farm, 

with a double oxen yoke as a logo, has an informative, colorful 

website. Satterwhite also keeps up with active social media accounts, 

using her farm’s Instagram account almost like a blog. 

Keeping It Upbeat Online 

“We spent Earth Day planting and cultivating all of the things 

before the rain, among the birdsong and sunshine and strong, chilly 

spring winds. The best thing about farming is working outside. All 

year long, no matter the weather, we get to see and experience it all. 

We are grateful every day for this amazing planet, for the plants, the 

soil, the sunshine and rain. The generosity of it all is overwhelming 

and beautiful,” Satterwhite said on Instagram. 

Remembering to Say ‘Thank You’ 

“You can also, as always, find our veggies on the menu at many fine 

eateries around our county,” Satterwhite said. “Thank you, chefs, 

we love you all. There’s a lot of good future in all of our futures! 

Thanks for your support, each and every one of you out there—you 

make it all possible!” 

Keeping It Local 

On April 18, Satterwhite wrote, “It is verrrrrry weird for it to be 

in the 80s when there are barely leaves on the trees. And the river 

already looks alarmingly low because of like three days of irrigation 

in the county... BUT, the summer babies in the prop house finally 

don’t look like death which means they will get to graduate to the 

tunnels this week! Yay!” 

Overwintered garlic is mulched with straw. 

Even Pull Farm irrigates with drip tape inside the 

tunnels. They irrigate outdoor crops overhead. 

On April 29, Satterwhite wrote, “Got my second dose of vaccine this 

morning, planted summer crops all afternoon, and ended the day 

by making these pretties [with a photo of flower bouquets]. I really 

missed making bouquets in 2020. With everything falling apart in 

so many ways last season, I didn’t have the bandwidth to maintain 

the flower block or to do anything with the blooms we had beyond 

making bunches. We kept a few key crops going, but didn’t have the 

ingredients for making mixed bouquets, which meant that I didn’t 

have this creative outlet, which I didn’t fully know I needed until 

it was gone. Longest way ever to say that bouquets are BACK. And 

we’re happy about it.” 

Satterwhite ends each online post with several hash tags. Here is a 

sampling of some she has used: #flowersforthepeople #grownwithlove 

#climatechangeisreal #trysomethingnew #somanytastythings 

#expandyourplate. 

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to 

email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Beth Satterwhite and her farm dog, Maddie. 


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