AESM Vol 25, ISSUE 4 2021

REMEMBERING 9/11 

20 YEARS LATER 

IPCC WARNS OF 

RAPID CLIMATE 

CHANGE 

WHAT IT MEANS FOR 

FUTURE DISASTER 

MANAGEMENT 

SUPPORTING 

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Looking after our mental health is as 

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FEATURE 

CONTENTS 

FEATURE 

Remembering 9/11 

20 Years Later 

In recognition of the 20th 

year since 9/11 we take a 

closer look at the physical 

health implications for first 

responders who were at 

ground zero and the mental 

health impacts this day had 

on a generation. 

23 

Hotter & Drier 

Future IPCC Warns 

The latest report from 

the IPCC warns of 

unprecedented increases 

in climate extremes such 

as bushfires, floods and 

drought. 

11 

FEATURE 

Australian 

Healthcare wins 

Bronze 

Australia ranks 

third overall in a 

Commonwealth Fund 

survey of healthcare 

across 11 countries. 

33 

Disaster Mapping 

Drones 

A study on the 

use of drones, the 

global trends and 

gaps in terms of 

disaster management 

application, technology 

and geography. 

39 

17 

Supporting Young 

Adult Volunteers 

New resources that 

provide a practical and 

evidence-based starting 

point for supporting 

positive mental health 

and wellbeing in young 

adult fire and emergency 

service volunteers. 

www.ausemergencyservices.com.au 

The Health Legacy of 

Terrorism 

The health of first 

responders who 

were at the site of the 

World Trade Centre on 

September 11, 2001 is 

forever compromised 

through exposure to 

toxins. 

25

THE REGULARS 

• Editor’s Note 

3 

• Recent Events 

ESTA Triple Zero Heroes 

Emergency management training NZ 

Westpac Helicopter celebrates World Helicopter Day 

Phoenix Australia Trauma Training 

WA Officers use next-gen app 

RFS Contigent in Canada 

CFA Research shows increased high-risk bushfire days 

• Emergency Law with Dr Michael Eburn 

• Let’s Talk Mental Health with A/Prof Erin Cotter- Smith 

• On the Frontline - Abuse of Older Australians 

• In the Spotlight - Constable Tamika Clarke 

• Emergency Breaks - Lockdown Edition 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

21 

31 

41 

43 

DOWNLOAD THE 

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Apple IOS and Google 

Android platforms 

LET’S TALK MENTAL HEALTH 

Associate Professor Erin Cotter-Smith 

Course Coordinator of the School of 

Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan 

University. 

EMERGENCY LAW 

Dr Michael Eburn - PHD, Barrister 

and leading expert in law relating to 

emergency management & emergency 

services. 

ON THE FRONTLINE 

An Insight into the World of Paramedicine 

with Rasa Piggott, Registered Paramedic, 

Nurse and Lecturer in Paramedicine at 

Australian Catholic University. 

MAGAZINE CONTACTS 

Editorial Content 

press@ausemergencyservices.com.au 

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advertise@ausemergencyservices.com.au 

Distribution Enquiries 

distribution@ausemergencyservices.com.au 

POSTAL ADDRESS: 

Suite 112, Locked Bag 1 

ROBINA TC, QLD 4230 

IN THE SPOTLIGHT 

EMERGENCY BREAKS 

Each edition features a 

profile on a person, team, 

partnership, squad or unit 

to showcase their unique 

contribution to the Emergency 

Services industry. 

Explore local surrounds, or 

new places that are only a 

short plane trip or drive away, 

so you can maximise every 

minute of those days when 

your name doesn’t appear 

next to a call sign on the roster 

Scan Me 

to download the AESM App 

www.ausemergencyservices.com.au

EDITOR’S NOTE 

In this edition of the Australian Emergency Services 

Magazine we wanted to acknowledge the twenty year 

anniversary of 9/11. The lives of so many were changed 

on that day and the impact reverberated around the 

world. 

400 emergency services personnel died that morning 

in New York as they raced to save lives in response 

to the attacks on the World Trade Centre. Many first 

responders who were at ground zero have suffered 

health implications as a result of the toxic substances 

that were expelled into the air. The life expectancy of a 

first responder who was at ground zero is 55. You can 

read about the health legacy that has been left behind 

and the impact this event had on an entire generation in 

this edition. 

If you are a regular reader you will know that a focus 

on the mental health of our first responders is an 

undercurrent within the magazine. A new set of 

resources is available through the Bushfire & Natural 

Hazards CRC to support the mental health of young 

adult volunteers. Check out this article on page 17 and 

head to the BNHCRC webpage to download the full suite. 

We are living through very difficult times where fear and 

uncertainty has been the prevailing mood for well over a 

year now. This prolonged state of anxiety coupled with 

continuing lockdowns has begun to take its mental toll. 

Our incredible emergency services personnel who are 

always at the frontline of every crisis are also doing it 

tough both personally and professionally. They are 

weary and stressed and yet continue to front up to their 

job each day to carry out health directives, don PPE, 

follow protocols and keep our community safe. 

So let’s help them stay safe as well. Be kind, stay home 

and help save lives. 

Bianca Peterson 

Editor in Chief 

www.ausemergencyservices.com.au 

DISCLAIMER 

The Australian Emergency Services Magazine 

is a community educational resource 

publication and does not promote itself 

as a charity or fund raising institution, nor 

solicit on behalf of charities and is no way 

financially supported by or associated with 

any government or similar institution. 

Distribution of the publication is Bi-Monthly 

and is circulated via a database of interested 

parties, including business, subscribers, 

advertisers, volunteer organisations, 

emergency service sectors, emergency 

and disaster management, government, 

universities, TAFE and council libraries. A 

print and digital magazine is distributed to a 

targeted database in each State & Territory. 

Every effort is made to ensure that material 

presented in the Australian Emergency 

Services Magazine was correct at the time of 

printing and is published in good faith, no 

responsibility or liability will be accepted by 

Boothbook Media. 

The views and opinions expressed are 

not necessarily those of Boothbook 

Media and its employees. The content of 

any advertising or promotional material 

contained within the Australian Emergency 

Services Magazine is not necessarily an 

endorsement by Boothbook Media. 

Published by Boothbook Media 

ABN:72 605 987 031 

BOOTHBOOK MEDIA 

DIGITAL MEDIA & MARKETING 

WANT TO CONTRIBUTE? 

We are always looking for new 

and relevant content that 

our readers will enjoy. If you 

would like to be featured in 

the magazine there are many 

options. You may have a story 

you would like to share, or 

perhaps be featured in our “In 

the Spotlight” regular column. 

Please submit all articles or 

expressions of interest to the 

Editor for consideration at: 

editor@ausemergencyservices. 

com.au 

Articles should be no more than 

1000 words and be relevant 

to the content within the 

Australian Emergency Services 

Magazine. 

3 


ARE 

THEY 

TRIPLE 

OK? 

We’re always there to help. 

Let’s make sure we help each other and ask R U OK? 

ruok.org.au/triple-ok

RECENT EVENTS 

NZ EMERGENCY 

MANAGERS 

BACHELOR AND 

DIPLOMAS 

Emergency managers from oil 

& gas, fire safety, military and 

construction sectors are hardworking, 

high-performing and 

highly-trained professionals. 

The challenge has been 

receiving a university degree 

that recognizes the skills of 

EMs. 

TWENTY-ONE VICTORIANS NAMED JUNIOR 

TRIPLE ZERO HEROES 

A total of 21 young Victorians 

aged between five and 

13 will be named Junior 

Triple Zero Heroes today 

by the Emergency Services 

Telecommunications Authority 

(ESTA), for calling triple zero. 

The young heroes are 

nominated by the ESTA 

operators who took their call. 

The awards, which are in their 

seventeenth year, recognise 

young people for their 

bravery and clear thinking in 

emergencies. 

Due to Covid-19 limitations, 

the Junior Triple Zero Hero 

Awards won’t be presented in 

a formal ceremony. Instead, 

the young heroes have 

received their medal and 

certificate in the mail. 

This year’s heroes include: 

• Seven-year-old Archer, 

from Surrey Hills, who 

called triple zero when 

his diabetic mum fell 

unconscious. Archer 

followed the call-taker’s 

instructions, helped 

to open his mum’s 

airway and conducted a 

breathing test on her. 

• Nine-year-old Alia 

and six-year-old Aaya, 

from Craigieburn, who 

called triple zero when 

their dad’s face began 

drooping and showing 

signs of a stroke. Alia and 

Aaya conducted a stroke 

test on their dad and 

followed the call-taker’s 

instructions until the 

ambulance arrived. 

• 13-year-old Shylah 

Crawford is from Panton 

Hill who needed to call 

Triple 0 when her 6-yearold 

sister Piper had an 

epileptic seizure and 

required resuscitation. 

The Acting Minister for Police 

and Emergency Services, 

Danny Pearson, said, 

“The 21 young Victorians 

recognised today have shown 

great bravery and often a level 

of maturity well beyond their 

years.” 

“I want to congratulate all our 

young heroes and to thank 

them for being an inspiration 

to us all – for showing 

composure and clear thinking 

at a critical time by dialing 

triple zero and then working 

with ESTA’s dedicated calltakers 

to help save the life of a 

loved one.” 

ESTA’s CEO Marty Smyth said, 

“The awards highlight the 

importance of teaching 

children when and how to 

call triple zero. These young 

heroes have shown that by 

knowing how to get the right 

help in an emergency, a child 

might save the life of a loved 

one.” 

In response to industry 

demand, the University 

of Applied Research & 

Development (UARD) has 

developed a set of diploma, 

Bachelor and Master’s degree 

qualifications to help EMs gain 

an internationally accredited 

qualification with substantial 

academic credit. 

This helps emergency 

managers obtain a Bachelor 

or Master’s degree faster and 

cheaper. 

Associate Professor Tod 

De Voe (Founder of the EM 

Podcast) leads the online 

programmes. 

While already operating in 

the USA, SE Asia and the UK, 

UARD has recently launched 

in Africa, enabling thousands 

of fire safety officers to gain 

recognition of their expertise. 

UARD is 100% committed 

to removing all barriers 

to education. With a hightech, 

low-cost model, global 

Contributing Faculty, Google 

Certified Innovators & 

Microsoft Master Trainers 

developing & delivering 

learning experiences, the 

University of Applied Research 

& Development is cuttingedge. 

For more information on visit 

www.uard.ac.nz 

5 


RECENT EVENTS 

WESTPAC LIFESAVER 

RESCUE HELICOPTER 

SERVICE CELEBRATES 

WORLD HELICOPTER DAY 

PHOENIX AUSTRALIA 

TRAUMA RELATED 

WORKSHOPS 

The Westpac Lifesaver Rescue 

Helicopter Service (WLRHS) 

have spent more than 320 

hours in the air over the past 

year conducting routine patrols 

and carrying out a range 

of missions. 

In celebration of World Helicopter 

Day (15 August) the 

Westpac Lifesaver Rescue Helicopter 

Service have released 

key statistics for the 2020/21 

season to highlight the importance 

of their vital work. 

WLRHS Chief Pilot Paul Gibson 

said it had been a busy 

year throughout South East 

Queensland for the service. 

“Whilst on routine patrols our 

two rescue helicopters kept 

watch over swimmers from 

Rainbow Bay on the Gold 

Coast through to Noosa on the 

Sunshine Coast,” he said. 

“We sighted thousands of rips 

and relayed this information to 

lifesavers and lifeguards on the 

beach to ensure the flags were 

located in the safest area. 

“Whilst in the air the crew also 

scanned the water looking for 

marine creatures or people in 

distress.” 

The service is available 365 

days a year to conduct search 

and rescue missions, coastal 

surveillance and disaster 

response. 

Mr Gibson said the crew had 

been tasked on 96 missions 

over the past season. 

“We have been tasked to respond 

to a range of incidents, 

both at sea and over land,” he 

said. 

“The taskings have included 

searches for missing swimmers, 

overdue vessels, distress 

beacons and overdue planes.” 

World Helicopter Day aims 

to raise awareness of the 

contributions that helicopters 

make to the community and 

celebrate the diverse range 

of people that design, fly and 

support them. 

Phoenix Australia, the 

Australian National Centre of 

Excellence in Posttraumatic 

Mental Health are offering 

free trauma-related 

workshops on Thursday 26 

August in Bright, and Friday 

10 September in Corryong. 

9:00am–12:00pm | 

Psychological First Aid for 

emergency services managers 

2:00pm–5:00pm (1:00pm- 

4:00pm for Corryong) | 

Trauma-informed Care for 

emergency services staff and 

volunteers 

These free 3-hour 

workshops are tailored to 

the needs of managers, staff 

and volunteers, and will 

help you to better support 

your employees, colleagues 

and community members 

affected by the recent 2019- 

20 bushfires. 

Presented by Phoenix 

Australia with funding from 

the Australian Government. 

Phoenix Australia offers 

resources and training for 

professionals who support 

individuals and communities 

experiencing the mental 

health impacts of disasters. 

Register now for Bright 

Managers and supervisors 

– follow this link to register. 

[https://events.humanitix. 

com/trauma-related-trainingfor-emergency-managersand-supervisors-bright-vic] 

Staff and volunteers – 

follow this link to register. 


com/trauma-related-trainingfor-emergency-servicespersonnel-and-volunteersbright-vic] 

Register now for Corryong 

Managers and supervisors 

– follow this link to register. 


com/trauma-related-trainingfor-emergency-managersand-supervisors-corryongvic] 

Staff and volunteers – 

follow this link to register. 


com/trauma-related-trainingfor-emergency-servicespersonnel-and-volunteerscorryong-vic] 

www.ausemergencyservices.com.au 6

RECENT EVENTS 

FRONTLINE OFFICERS 

IN WA WITH NEXT GEN 

MOBILE APP FROM 

MOTOROLA SOLUTIONS 

A new mobile policing 

application from Motorola 

Solutions is helping all frontline 

officers with Western Australia 

Police Force (WA Police) to 

work with higher levels of 

safety and efficiency. 

OneForce Core is a featurerich 

application that puts 

essential information at 

officers’ fingertips and enables 

them to complete a number of 

different tasks on the go. 

Inspector Andrew Henderson 

from WA Police’s Digital 

Policing division has an 

important message for 

Western Australia’s community 

members who observe officers 

looking at their mobile devices. 

“You may have noticed that a 

lot of our police officers are 

spending more time on their 

mobile phones,” Henderson 

said. 

“They’re not on social media, 

they’re accessing important 

information that keeps our 

police officers better informed 

while keeping themselves and 

the community safe. 

“We receive our daily jobs on 

our phones and can also look 

up offenders’ details and check 

on custody matters. Previously 

we had to manage these tasks 

from police vehicles.” 

“This new technology means 

we spend less time doing 

administrative work at the 

station and more time out 

in the community serving 

Western Australians,” he said. 

The new technology 

represents a major initiative 

from the 2019-2020 Western 

Australia state budget to build 

stronger, safer communities 

with fresh ideas and new 

resources to fight crime. 

The solution is part of the 

government’s AUD $34.6 

million commitment to roll out 

personal mobile technology to 

free up more time for police 

officers working on the beat. 

Managing director for 

Motorola Solutions Australia 

and New Zealand, Con 

Balaskas, said the new mobility 

solution is streamlining the 

management WA Police’s 

daily operations while giving it 

greater flexibility to respond to 

peak events and emergencies. 

“The application provides 

greater collaboration, 

coordination and situational 

awareness between control 

room workers and first 

responders in the field. 

“That means WAPOL can 

place its valuable resources 

wherever they are needed 

most, as well as make faster 

and more accurate decisions 

in critical moments.” 

NSW FIREFIGHTERS AND 

EMERGENCY SPECIALISTS 

TO HELP BATTLE 

WILDFIRES IN CANADA 

Minister for Police and 

Emergency Services David 

Elliott said the firefighters and 

emergency services volunteers 

would join their colleagues 

from Western Australia as part 

of a 55-person contingent, 

including 22 experts from the 

NSW Rural Fire Service (NSW 

RFS), 10 from Fire and Rescue 

NSW (FRNSW), and three from 

NSW State Emergency Service 

(NSW SES). 

“The people of NSW know 

only too well the sense of 

devastation and heartbreak 

being felt by our friends in 

Canada, where hundreds of 

fires are being fought,” Mr 

Elliott said. 

“We send our thoughts but 

– better than that – NSW 

is sending 38 of our best: 

highly-skilled, highly-trained 

firefighters and emergency 

personnel to help those 

impacted communities. 

“In British Columbia alone, 

more than 300 fires are 

actively burning across 

the province in heatwave 

conditions and a State of 

Emergency declaration has 

been put in place. 

“I know the contribution of 

our specialist personnel will 

be invaluable and I know 

our counterparts in Canada 

welcome our people, just like 

we feel supported when they 

send their teams to help us in 

our time of bushfire crisis,” Mr 

Elliott said. 

The contingent will include 

Incident Management 

Teams, Divisional and Sector 

Commanders, Fire Behaviour 

Analysts and Aviation 

specialists. 

NSW last week sent the 

RFS-owned 737 Large Air 

Tanker ‘Marie Bashir’ to the 

United States, on a 45-day 

deployment, after requests for 

assistance. 

The Australasian Fire and 

Emergency Service Authorities 

Council’s National Resource 

Sharing Centre is facilitating 

the deployment of Australian 

and New Zealand personnel 

and resources following a 

formal request for assistance 

made by Canadian and US fire 

authorities. 

The contingent from NSW will 

fly out from Sydney Airport 

Today (Tuesday 27 July) and 

will remain in Canada for up to 

five weeks. 

7 


RECENT EVENTS 

HIGH-RISK BUSHFIRE DAYS SET 

TO SOAR THIS CENTURY 

The number of high-risk bushfire days could triple in some parts of Victoria by the end of the century, 

according to new climate research by CFA and international research bodies. 

The research, published this 

month in the International 

Journal of Wildland Fire, 

found that under different 

emissions scenarios both 

mean and extreme fire danger 

are expected to increase in 

Victoria. 

Statewide, research modelling 

indicates a 10–20% increase 

in extreme Forest Fire Danger 

Index, with the greatest 

change projected in the northwest 

region. 

However, the greatest relative 

change in the number of ‘Very 

High’ days per year will be 

in central and eastern parts 

of the state where there is 

a projected doubling and 

tripling, respectively in the 

number of ‘Very High’ days. 

Report co-author, CFA 

Manager Research and 

Development Dr Sarah Harris, 

said scenarios used in the 

research show increased 

temperature, caused by 

human-induced climate 

change, to be the main driver 

of heightened fire danger. 

“Changes in temperature, 

humidity and rainfall during 

spring and early summer 

mean the fire season will 

continue to start earlier and 

run longer. As a flow-on effect, 

springtime opportunities for 

prescribed burning could 

reduce,” she said. 

CFA Chief Officer Jason 

Heffernan said he was proud 

of CFA’s robust research 

program, which he said 

brought further understanding 

of the impacts of climate 

change in the context of 

firefighting. 

“As firefighters, we see the 

effects of these longer and 

more severe fire seasons 

and it’s important that we 

turn our minds towards what 

firefighting looks like in the 

not-too-distant future,” he 

said. 

“CFA is undertaking work to 

identify challenges brought 

on by climate change and 

increased fire risk, and ways to 

solve them through adaptation 

and mitigation.” 

“CFA also proudly works to 

reduce our own greenhouse 

emissions, through initiatives 

such as increasing our use of 

rooftop solar and the number 

of hybrid vehicles in the fleet.” 

CFA Manager Research and 

Development Sarah Harris 

and co-authored the research 

with researchers Scott Clark 

(School of Earth, Atmosphere 

and Environment, Monash 

University), Timothy Brown 

(Desert Research Institute 

in Nevada, USA), Graham 

Mills (Monash University) and 

John T. Abatzoglou (School 

of Engineering, University of 

California). 

The research was funded 

through Safer Together, a 

Victorian approach to reducing 

the risks of bushfire through 

fire and land agencies such as 

CFA, Forest Fire Management 

Victoria and Parks Victoria 

working together with 

communities, combining indepth 

local knowledge with the 

latest science and technology 

to reduce bushfire risk on both 

public and private land. 

Forest Fire Management 

Victoria Chief Fire Officer Chris 

Hardman said partnerships 

with community and agencies 

such as CFA and FRV help 

ensure we are unified in 

emergency preparedness 

and response to keep the 

community and environment 

safe. 

“We know that Victoria is one 

of the most bushfire prone 

areas in the world. Climate 

change is increasing the 

risk bushfires pose to our 

communities, our critical 

infrastructure and our 

environment,” he said. 

“That’s why our strategic 

approach to managing 

bushfire risk is based on the 

best evidence available, such 

as this research.” 

“We have a 365-day approach 

to fuel management, more 

mechanical treatment and 

increasing capacity to contain 

bushfires at first attack. We are 

also prioritising empowering 

Traditional Owners to lead 

self-determined cultural fire 

practices on country.” 


AUSTRALIAN EMERGENCY LAW with Dr Michael Eburn 

A DISCUSSION ON 

THE LAW THAT 

APPLIES TO OR 

AFFECTS AUSTRALIA’S 

EMERGENCY SERVICES 

AND EMERGENCY 

MANAGEMENT 

PARAMEDIC AS FIRST 

AIDER AND TAKING 

OBSERVATIONS 

July 27th, 2021 

Today’s correspondent is hoping I: 

… can shed some light on a discussion we have been having at work regarding the 

potential repercussions of failing to treat a patient to the standard expected of a 

paramedic (or registered health professional). 

I accepted a job as a paramedic/emergency services officer at a site in the Hunter 

Valley, only to discover on arrival that the company did not have a contract to 

provide medical services on site, nor did they have CPG’s or a drug license. I was 

originally told to “work as a paramedic”, but wasn’t given an idea of what that was, 

or the scope of that “position”. I have therefore been working as a “first-aider” at the 

medical clinic on the days there is no occupational health nurse, as a favour to the 

contract manager, at the request of my boss, while they organise the return of the 

normally full-time nurse. My question has a few sides: 

PHD 

Barrister 

Leading expert in Law 

relating to Emergency 

Management & Emergency 

Services 

Would I be negligent in my provision of care should I not perform tests such as a 

fingerstick glucose, or ECG despite these things being available to me in the clinic? As 

these tests are far outside the scope of a “first-aider”. A few recent cases of chest pain 

I have investigated with chest inspection and auscultation, ECG and a full set of observations 

but have also called an ambulance. Both with the intention of providing 

high quality clinical care, and a good handover, and almost by reflex. 

My initial thought is; if we are not contracted to provide this service, and are only 

attending on an as-needed basis, it could be considered a volunteer role, and therefore, 

the “Good Samaritan Act ” (I know you hate that phrase!) may apply. Could it 

then be argued that if I did not assess the patient appropriately, I was negligent? 

Follow Michael Eburn 

Facebook- facebook.com/ 

EburnM/ 

Twitter - @EburnM 

For his latest articles on 

Emergency Law go to: 

www.emergencylaw.wordpress.com 

Follow Michael’s podcast at your 

favourite podcast supplier or head to 

https://anchor.fm/michael-eburn 

Negligence requires proof of a 

duty of care, a breach of that duty 

and that the breach causes some 

damage. Let us consider those in 

turn. 

Duty of care 

A paramedic, a first aider or a 

nurse all owe a duty of care to 

their patient. That is axiomatic and 

will not be justified further. 

Standard of care 

The standard of care is 

problematic. There is no magic list 

that says ‘this is first aid but this 

is paramedic care’. The person 

providing care has the skills and 

knowledge that they have and are there 

to apply those skills for the benefit of 

the patient. The patient has no idea 

of the terms of any contract nor any 

control over that. They are seeking 

assistance from someone who is there 

to give it. 

A registered paramedic has to 

deliver care that would be judged as 

appropriate care by their peers in 

all the circumstances. A paramedic 

employed by a jurisdictional ambulance 

service with a drug box may administer 

some treatment. A paramedic 

employed on a site with no drugs 

cannot administer those drugs and 

cannot be remiss for not administering

treatment that they cannot administer. 

The standard of care question can 

always be distilled down to ‘did you act 

reasonably and in the patient’s best 

interests, taking into account all the 

circumstances?’ 

Damage 

The real answer to these questions is 

about damage. What difference does 

or would it make if you do, or do not, 

take blood sugar levels, an ECG or listen 

for breath sounds particularly if an 

ambulance has already been called. 

If it would make no difference to the 

treatment, then failure to do it won’t 

make a difference to the outcome. 

If it would make an immediate 

treatment difference then failure to 

take those observations if the means 

are available may be negligent. 

Take blood sugar levels as an example. 

If there is glucose paste (a nonscheduled 

item (see https://www. 

ambulance.qld.gov.au/docs/clinical/ 

dtprotocols/DTP_Glucose%20gel.pdf 

) so it doesn’t need a drug licence) 

available and a blood sugar monitor, 

failure to take the blood sugar level, 

identify hypoglycaemia and get the 

patient to suck on the glucose syrup 

would be negligent if it can be shown 

that whilst waiting for the ambulance 

they fell into a coma and suffered 

permanent injuries that could have 

been avoided. But that’s true for 

anyone who knows how to use a blood 

glucose monitor whether they hold a 

first aid certificate or are a registered 

paramedic. 

On the other hand, taking an ECG may 

reveal some heart condition but if the 

paramedic on scene has no means to 

treat it then failure to take the ECG can’t 

cause any damage. The jurisdictional 

crew may need to take an ECG if they 

have equipment or drugs that can make 

a difference. 

Good Samaritan 

If you are being paid to provide a health 

care service, even as a ‘first aider’ you 

are not a ‘good Samaritan’ for the 

purposes of the Civil Liability Act 2002 

(NSW). 

Conclusion 

You are employed to provide some 

level of care. There is no magic line 

between first aid and other care. You 

use the skills and knowledge you have 

in the best interests of the patient. Not 

taking observations is not negligent 

unless it would make a difference to 

your treatment decisions and patient 

outcomes and that, in turn depends on 

what equipment you have at hand. You 

cannot be liable for not administering 

drugs or using equipment that you 

don’t have. If the outcome of the tests 

wouldn’t make a difference, then it’s 

not negligent not to do them. Equally 

there’s no negligence if you take the 

observations, identify the condition and 

even know the treatment (particularly 

drug treatment) but don’t administer 

that treatment as you do not have the 

means to do so. You wait like anyone 

else does, for the ambulance to arrive. 

This article originally appeared on the 

blog Australian Emergency Law (https:// 

emergencylaw.wordpress.com/) and is reproduced 

with the permission of the author. 

As a blog post it represents the author’s opinion 

based on the law at the time it was written. 

The blog, or this article, is not legal advice and 

cannot be relied upon to determine any person’s 

legal position. How the law applies to any 

specific situation or event depends on all the 

circumstances. 

If you need to determine legal rights and 

obligations with respect to any event that has 

happened, or some action that is proposed, 

you must consult a lawyer for advice based on 

the particular circumstances. Trade unions, 

professional indemnity insurers and community 

legal centres can all be a source for initial legal 

advice. 


Climate change has already hit Australia. 

Unless we act now, a hotter, drier and more 

dangerous future awaits, IPCC warns 

Australia is experiencing widespread, rapid climate change 

not seen for thousands of years and may warm by 4℃ or 

more this century, according to a highly anticipated report 

by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

The assessment, released on Monday, also warns of 

unprecedented increases in climate extremes such as 

bushfires, floods and drought. But it says deep, rapid 

emissions cuts could spare Australia, and the world, 

from the most severe warming and associated harms. 

The report is the sixth produced by the IPCC since 

it was founded in 1988 and provides more regional 

information than any previous version. This gives us a 

clearer picture of how climate change will play out in 

Australia specifically. 

It confirms the effects of human-caused climate change 

have well and truly arrived in Australia. This includes 

in the region of the East Australia Current, where the 

ocean is warming at a rate more than four times the 

global average. 

We are climate scientists with expertise across historical 

climate change, climate projections, climate impacts 

and the carbon budget. We have been part of the 

international effort to produce the IPCC report over the 

past three years. 

The report finds even under a moderate emissions 

scenario, the global effects of climate change will 

worsen significantly over the coming years and 

decades. Every fraction of a degree of global warming 

increases the likelihood and severity of many extremes. 

That means every effort to reduce greenhouse gas 

emissions matters. 

Australia is, without question, warming 

Australia has warmed by about 1.4℃ since 1910. The 

IPCC assessment concludes the extent of warming in 

both Australia and globally are impossible to explain 

without accounting for the extra greenhouse gases in 

the atmosphere from human activities. 

The report introduces the concept of Climate Impact- 

Drivers (CIDs): 30 climate averages, extremes and 

events that create climate impacts. These include heat, 

cold, drought and flood. 

The report confirms global warming is driving a 

significant increase in the intensity and frequency of 

extremely hot temperatures in Australia, as well as a 

decrease in almost all cold extremes. The IPCC noted 

with high confidence that recent extreme heat events in 

Australia were made more likely or more severe due to 

human influence. 

These events include: 

• the Australian summer of 2012–13, also known 

as the Angry Summer, when more than 70% of 

Australia experienced extreme temperatures 

• the Brisbane heatwave in 2014 

• extreme heat preceding the 2018 Queensland fires 

• the heat leading into the Black Summer bushfires 

of 2019-20.

The IPCC report notes very high confidence in further 

warming and heat extremes through the 21st century – 

the extent of which depends on global efforts to reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions. 

spring is also likely to continue. This phenomenon is 

depicted in the graphic below. 

If global average warming is limited to 1.5℃ this century, 

Australia would warm to between 1.4℃ to 1.8℃. If global 

average warming reaches 4℃ this century, Australia 

would warm to between 3.9℃ and 4.8℃ . 

Climate extremes on the rise 

Heat and drying are not the only climate extremes set to 

hit Australia in the coming decades. The report also notes: 

• observed and projected increases in Australia’s 

dangerous fire weather 

The IPCC says as the planet warms, future heatwaves in 

Australia – and globally – will be hotter and last longer. 

Conversely, cold extremes will be both less intense and 

frequent. 

Hotter temperatures, combined with reduced rainfall, will 

make parts of Australia more arid. A drying climate can 

lead to reduced river flows, drier soils, mass tree deaths, 

crop damage, bushfires and drought. 

The southwest of Western Australia remains a globally 

notable hotspot for drying attributable to human 

influence. The IPCC says this drying is projected to 

continue as emissions rise and the climate warms. In 

southern and eastern Australia, drying in winter and 

• a projected increase in heavy and extreme rainfall in 

most places in Australia, particularly in the north 

• a projected increase in river flood risk almost 

everywhere in Australia. 

Under a warmer climate, extreme rainfall in a single hour 

or day can become more intense or more frequent, even 

in areas where the average rainfall declines. 

For the first time, the IPCC report provides regional 

projections of coastal hazards due to sea level rise, 

changing coastal storms and coastal erosion – changes 

highly relevant to beach-loving Australia. 

This century, for example, sandy shorelines in places such 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

13 


as eastern Australia are projected 

to retreat by more than 100 metres, 

under moderate or high emissions 

pathways. 

Hotter, more acidic oceans 

The IPCC report says globally, climate 

change means oceans are becoming 

more acidic and losing oxygen. Ocean 

currents are becoming more variable 

and salinity patterns – the parts of 

the ocean that are saltiest and less 

salty – are changing. 

It also means sea levels are rising and 

the oceans are becoming warmer. 

This is leading to an increase in 

marine heatwaves such as those 

which have contributed to mass coral 

bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef in 

recent decades. 

Notably, the region of the East 

Australia Current which runs south 

along the continent’s east coast is 

warming at a rate more than four 

times the global average. 

The phenomenon is playing out in 

all regions with so-called “western 

boundary currents” – fast, narrow 

ocean currents found in all major 

ocean gyres. This pronounced 

warming is affecting marine 

ecosystems and aquaculture and is 

projected to continue. 

Where to from here? 

Like all regions of the world, Australia 

is already feeling the effects of a 

changing climate. 

The IPCC confirms there is no 

going back from some changes in 

the climate system. However, the 

consequences can be slowed, and 

some effects stopped, through 

strong, rapid and sustained 

reductions in global greenhouse gas 

emissions. 

And now is the time to start adapting 

to climate change at a large scale, 

through serious planning and onground 

action. 

To find out more about how climate 

change will affect Australia, the latest 

IPCC report includes an Interactive 

Atlas. Use it to explore past trends 

and future projections for different 

emissions scenarios, and for the 

world at different levels of global 

warming. 

Authors: 

Michael Grose 

Climate projections scientist, CSIRO 

Joelle Gergis 

Senior Lecturer in Climate Science, 

Australian National University 

Pep Canadell 

Chief research scientist, Climate Science 

Centre, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere; 

and Executive Director, Global Carbon 

Project, CSIRO 

Roshanka Ranasinghe 

Professor of Climate Change impacts and 

Coastal Risk 

This article was published on The Conversation 

under creative commons licence 

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DISASTER RELIEF AUSTRALIA PREPARES 

AUSSIE COMMUNITIES FOR DISASTER 

The expectation that disasters will become both more frequent and more 

intense represents a significant challenge to the nation. 

Community driven plans designed to reduce exposure to hazards, lessen the vulnerability of people and 

property and improve preparedness for adverse events have proven to help communities become more 

resilient to natural disasters. 

Disaster Relief Australia seeks to address a significant disconnect between the desire to have community 

led approaches to disaster resilience and the provision of simple, actionable information and the 

manpower to deliver them. 

Announcing Project Resilience 

Project Resilience is Disaster Relief 

Australia’s contribution to the Minderoo 

Foundation’s broader Resilient 

Communities initiative. Resilient 

Communities aims to lift Australia’s 50 

most vulnerable communities to be 

on par with Australia’s most resilient 

communities by 2025. 

A STRONG COMMUNITY RESILIENCE PLAN WILL 

ENABLE EACH COMMUNITY TO: 

• Prioritise the social and 

infrastructure assets that are 

most important to them, including 

understanding and managing the 

local natural environment. 

• Mitigate the impact of emergencies 

and disasters and enable more rapid 

recovery. 

• Foster community connection 

to improve social and mental 

health outcomes and community 

cohesion in times of need. 

• Take ‘ownership’ of the 

community resilience plan. 

15 


www.disasterreliefaus.org 

Who is Disaster Relief Australia? 

Australia is a volunteer workforce able 

to rapidly deploy disaster relief teams 

in Australia and around the world in 

the wake of natural disasters. Despite 

the many challenges of operating in a 

COVID-19 environment, during the first 

six months of 2021, DRA has deployed 

multiple large-scale operations across 

Australia. 

Adopting local communities 

DRA operates seven Disaster Relief 

Teams (DRTs) in Townsville, Brisbane, 

Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide 

and Perth. Each DRT has the capability to 

conduct disaster relief and community 

support operations with scaled capacity 

dependent on the skills and deployment 

readiness of volunteers as well as the 

location, size and complexity of the 

disaster. 

Under Project Resilience, each DRT will 

adopt a community and work through 

a nationally led program to help that 

community build its resilience to natural 

disasters. 

Raising community resilience 

Project Resilience aims to help 

communities understand how they can be 

more prepared for disasters through costeffective 

efforts like improved warnings, 

community engagement, training, 

volunteering and the prioritisation of 

protection of assets and community led 

planning. 

‘Disaster Wise’ assessment 

Disaster Relief Australia is a lead agency 

for the provision of localised pre and post 

disaster aerial imagery and mapping data. 

In the first phase of the project Aerial 

Damage Assessment Teams (ADAT) deploy 

to map infrastructure, community assets 

and topography. 

Risk Mitigation Planning 

Data gathered from the Disaster Wise 

assessment is overlayed with community 

knowledge to generate contextualised 

picture of what is important to the 

community. 

Community Scenario Modeling 

Under Project Resilience, DRA offers 

communities the opportunity to conduct 

scenario modeling based on an allhazards 

model. Scenario modeling helps 

communities identify and understand 

their risks, as well as how to mitigate 

them. This includes identifying areas 

where volunteers can have a meaningful 

impact. 

Disaster Resilience Volunteering 

Once the actionable tasks are identified, 

it’s time to mobilise a community 

Drone mapping in NSW – Mogo flood analysis 

volunteer workforce. Each disaster relief 

team manages the induction and training 

of motivated community volunteers. A 

series of working weekends are planned 

where DRA volunteers work side by side 

with community volunteers on disaster 

resilience activities. These types of 

activities vary depending on the risk, but 

can include tree-felling, clearing debris 

and relocating small structures. 

An ambitious plan 

Over four years Disaster Relief Australia 

aims to work with one community per 

year per DRT as part of a broader effort, 

we will see Australia’s 50 most vulnerable 

communities lifted to be on par with our 

most resilient. 

* Fire & Flood Resilience Blueprint, Minderoo 

Foundation, https://www.minderoo.org/fire-andflood-resilience/ 

DRA’s Adam Moss, facilitating a community-led resilience activity in Gympie, Queensland. 


Supporting the mental health of 

young adult volunteers 

New research has developed a package of resources that 

provide a practical and evidence-based starting point for 

supporting positive mental health and wellbeing in young adult 

fire and emergency service volunteers. 

These mental health and 

wellbeing resources were 

developed as part of the 

Bushfire and Natural 

Hazards CRC’s Tactical 

Research Fund program. 

They were designed to 

support the positive mental 

health and wellbeing of 

young adult volunteers by 

improving mental health 

literacy and establishing 

stronger support networks 

within fire and emergency 

service agencies. 

The research project, 

Positive mental health in 

young adult emergency 

services personnel, was led 

by Dr Amanda Taylor at 

the University of Adelaide 

and was a partnership 

with Flinders University, 

the University of Western 

Australia, the University of 

British Columbia in Canada, 

the Hospital Research 

Foundation, AFAC, Military 

and Emergency Services 

Health Australia (MESHA), 

several key emergency 

service agencies and the 

young adult members 

of the project’s Young 

Volunteers Advisory 

Committee. 

“This study is the first 

in Australia to focus 

specifically on the mental 

health needs of young 

adult fire and emergency 

service volunteers aged 16 

to 25,” said Dr Taylor. 

“The resources developed 

from this research include 

both simple practical 

strategies for young 

volunteers to support 

their own mental health 

and wellbeing, as well as 

a Wellbeing Framework 

and Implementation Guide 

for fire and emergency 

agencies to better support 

younger volunteers. 

“Most importantly, these 

resources have been 

designed by subject 

matter experts across 

Australia together with 

fire and emergency 

agencies and the young 

volunteers themselves, 

17 


which is a unique way 

of ensuring that they 

are understandable and 

relevant to those who will 

be using them,” Dr Taylor 

said. 

The suite of resources 

includes the Care4Guide, 

a practical self-completed 

guide designed with 

and for young fire and 

emergency service 

volunteers to maintain 

their positive mental 

health and wellbeing. The 

guidance provided by the 

study’s Young Volunteers 

Advisory Committee, was 

critical to the project, 

explained Bushfire and 

Natural Hazards CRC CEO 

Dr Richard Thornton. 

“The Care4Guide gives 

young volunteers, their 

agencies and the whole 

fire and emergency sector 

the tools they need to 

have a conversation about 

mental health early in their 

engagement,” Dr Richard 

Thornton said. 

The package of research-backed mental health resources available online includes the Care4Guide, posters, social 

media assets and fact sheets. Source: Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC. 

Other resources include 

an Agency Implementation 

Guide aimed at agency 

leaders, fact sheets that 

summarise key findings, 

and shareable assets 

such as posters and 

social media graphics 

that fire and emergency 

service agencies can 

use to promote positive 

mental health within 

brigades, groups and units. 

These resources will not 

only benefit all fire and 

emergency services, but 

will also contribute more 

widely to the sustainability 

of Australia’s critical 

volunteer service and 

emergency sector. 

AFAC CEO Stuart Ellis 

said that it is the duty 

of emergency service 

agencies to meet 

the commitment of 

young volunteers with 

appropriate and relevant 

support. 

“Volunteering is a 

rewarding venture in and 

Some of the key research findings included: 

• Volunteer exposure to potentially traumatising events is common. 

• 25 per cent of surveyed young volunteers had experienced an event that affected them deeply during 

their volunteering. 4 in 5 young firefighters had experienced at least one stressful event in the course of 

their role. 

• 75 per cent had an active role in the 2019–20 Australian bushfires. 44 per cent lived in a bushfire 

affected area. 

• Young volunteers generally perceived that their volunteer role benefited their wellbeing via a sense of 

contributing to the community. 

• Young volunteers have higher levels of probable post-traumatic stress disorder (8.8 per cent) compared 

to older volunteers (4.7 per cent). 

• Young volunteers believed that they had good skills for identifying and responding to potential mental 

health concerns in others but had less well-developed skills for identifying mental health concerns in 

themselves. 

• Young volunteers perceived mental health-related stigma is still present within many brigades, groups 

and units, particularly among older volunteers and personnel. 


of itself, and this research shows 

us that young volunteers’ sense of 

wellbeing is improved through their 

participation, and their service to 

their communities is invaluable to the 

fire and emergency services sector,” 

he said. 

“However, we cannot ignore the risks. 

Their willingness to step up for their 

communities must be reciprocated 

by fire and emergency services 

through mental health and wellbeing 

support.” 

The resources developed through 

the research will be valuable for years 

to come, explained Dr Miranda Van 

Hooff, Executive Director of MESHA. 

“The Hospital Research Foundation 

Group, through MESHA, is proud 

to have co-funded and 

collaborated on this important 

piece of research, which will 

have a positive impact on the 

young people who serve our 

community. 

Access the full suite of 

mental health and wellbeing 

resources at 

www.bnhcrc.com.au/resources/ 

volunteer-mental-health 

The full project report is also 

available at 

www.bnhcrc.com.au/ 

volunteermentalhealth/report 

“We hope the practical and 

tailored resources that have been 

developed can be utilised by 

both young emergency services 

volunteers as well as their agencies 

to promote and support the 

health and wellbeing of our young 

emergency service volunteers now 

and into the future,” Dr Van Hooff 

said. 

The research team for this project 

comprised Dr Amanda Taylor, Dr Jane 

Cocks (University of Adelaide); Prof 

Sharon Lawn (Flinders University); A/ 

Prof David Lawrence, Wavne Rikkers 

(University of Western Australia); Dr 

Louise Roberts (Flinders University); A/ 

Prof Maureen Ashe (University of British 

Columbia, University of Adelaide); A/ 

Prof Rachel Roberts, Prof Alexander 

McFarlane, Prof Paul Delfabbro, Holly 

Caruso (University of Adelaide); and 

Dr Miranda Van Hooff (Military and 

Emergency Services Health Australia, 

Hospital Research Group, University of 

Adelaide). 

The research team created several shareable assets that can be used to promote positive mental health 

practices, all available online, including Skill Spotlight social media graphics such as this one about daily 

mindfulness. Source: Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

impactboats.com.au info@impactboats.com.au Contact 1300 363 586 or 0413 610 975 

19 


There are four fact sheets available online that present key findings from the research, including this one that shows the main perspectives of young volunteers 

regarding mental health and wellbeing. Source: Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC. 


Associate Professor 

Erin Cotter-Smith 

PhD, MPH, MClinEpi 

Course Coordinator 

School of Medical and 

Health Sciences 

Edith Cowan University 

Lets 

‘ 

Talk 

Mental Health 

with Associate Professor 

Erin Cotter-Smith 

DEAR MARIAN - A letter to a friend 

Dear Marian, 

Twenty years ago, you were blissfully 

unaware of how your life was about 

to irrevocably change. The towers 

were still standing. Dave was still 

alive. 

We did not know each other then, 

on that morning with the perfect 

blue sky. I was at work on my side of 

the world, you were at a coffee shop 

waiting for Dave. 

Then, the sky turned black. 

Next month will mark the twenty-year 

anniversary. Of losing Dave. Of the 

world losing its innocence. It is often 

said flippantly how 9/11 “changed 

everything”, yet with each passing 

year, the sheer enormity of that 

change seems to slip slowly from our 

collective memory. 

For many young people, 9/11 is a 

subject to be learned from history 

books, lessons that will never 

adequately convey the gut-wrenching 

Above: Marian, Dave, and Aidan Fontana. Firefighter David J. Fontana’s name at the 9/11 Memorial. Author supplied 

21 


and reverberating pain that was 

caused by that single day. The trauma 

and grief caused fault lines that 

divided family and friends. But for a 

short period of time, it was as if the 

entire world was determined to come 

together. 

We have learned so much over 

these past two decades. We have a 

much better understanding of how 

to support the mental health of first 

responders like Dave, and family 

members like you and Aidan. We 

have watched the long-term impact 

of the attacks unfold, continuing 

to batter the tens of thousands of 

responders who rescued, searched, 

and recovered. Emergency services 

around the world continue to learn 

from these difficult lessons. 

From what I have come to know 

about Dave, I think he would be 

proud that some good has come 

from that tragic day. 

Mental health is no longer the taboo 

topic that it once was. There is still 

work to be done in breaking down 

stigma, but we are getting so much 

better at asking RUOK? and having 

conversations about mental health 

and wellbeing. 

We are learning the importance of 

“reaching in” to first responders who 

are struggling, rather than expecting 

them to “reach out” when they are in 

crisis. 

If Dave had survived the collapse of 

the towers, do you think he would 

still be a firefighter today? What toll 

would “the pile” have taken? I am sure 

he would have watched the growing 

impact on the physical and mental 

health of his fellow responders with 

concern, perhaps even recognising 

this impact personally. 

As the years progressed, would he 

have become burned out by the job, 

like so many first responders around 

the world? In Australia, a firefighter, 

paramedic, or police officer dies by 

suicide every six weeks – and that is 

when it’s “business as usual”. 

Research shows that our first 

responders are around twice as likely 

to be diagnosed with a mental health 

condition when compared to the 

overall Australian population. They 

are more than twice as likely to think 

Chris, Erin, Marian, and Ron in Hawaii, 2019. Author supplied. 

about suicide, and three times as 

likely to have a suicide plan. 

The length of time they dedicate to 

their careers also makes a difference 

to their mental health; responders 

who work for more than ten years are 

almost twice as likely to experience 

psychological distress, and six times 

more likely to experience symptoms 

of post-traumatic stress disorder 

(PTSD). 

This paints a grim picture of the 

wellbeing of a population who 

dedicate their professional lives to 

helping others. 

So, we will keep learning. We will 

keep sharing stories in the hope that 

their voices are never forgotten. And 

we will keep finding reasons to be 

hopeful. 

I know the past twenty years have 

been terribly difficult at times. Raising 

Aidan alone has not been without its 

challenges. The middle of the bed 

was lonely and dating after Dave was 

daunting. 

Then there was cancer, for both of 

us, and for your beautiful sister Leah. 

What kind of world is so cruel that it 

robs you of both the love of your life, 

and your “Irish twin”? 

But throughout the cascading 

trauma, there have been moments 

of joy. A beautiful friendship forged 

uniquely in the aftermath of tragedy, 

is proof that a true bond between 

two people scales past fear and 

heartbreak. I married my best friend 

Chris, and Dave – after sending you a 

few interesting first dates – sent you 

Ron. 

Our holiday in Hawaii is a cherished 

memory, right up there with getting 

drive-through “Maccas” in a limousine 

with you! 

As the anniversary approaches, 

there will be much time to reflect. 

There has been so much loss. So, I 

am choosing to focus on the gains; 

unfortunately, that includes perimenopausal 

facial hair. As if life has 

not been tough enough, here is a 

delightful new moustache! 

However, my treasured friend, the 

most important gain has been you. 

I love you. 


Remembering the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks, 

20 Years Later

On the morning of September 11, 2001, a coordinated terrorist attack the likes of which the world had never 

seen, was carried out by Al Qaeda using four commercial airliners. Two of these airplanes would be used 

to strike the World Trade Centre in New York, killing 2996 citizens. 400 of these victims were emergency 

services personnel. In the days, months and years that followed the legacy of this morning has continued to 

impact the lives of not only the victims and their families but also the nation and world at large. 

In recognition of the 20th year since 9/11 we take a closer look at the physical health implications for first 

responders who were at ground zero and the mental health impacts this day had on a generation.

Terrorism has a hidden health legacy – 

as 9/11 shows 

On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda hijackers took control of four commercial airliners and 

launched a series of coordinated attacks. As two of the commandeered planes hurtled into 

the World Trade Centre that morning, they devastated the urban landscape of Manhattan 

and killed 2,996 people, including 400 emergency responders. 

F 

ires smouldered among the remains of the Twin Towers for 

99 days after the attack. It took eight months and 19 days 

for responders and volunteers to clear away the wreckage 

of rubble, gnarled concrete and twisted girders. Architects 

and developers began to design a new centre of commerce in 

2004 and One World Trade Centre was completed a decade 

later, taking its place alongside the other new skyscrapers that 

decorate the Manhattan skyline. The architectural scars of the 

attack are now almost erased and this urban space has been 

reinvented. 

But recent studies have shown that there are long-term physical 

and mental health challenges arising for the people who 

survived 9/11. Acts of terrorism and irregular warfare can have 

unforeseen long-term public health consequences. 

The collapse of the Twin Towers released plumes of toxic 

substances into the air. Inhalable contaminants included 

powdered cement, pulverised glass, asbestos, jet fuel, silica 

and splinters of metal. This dust and chemical “peasouper” 

lingered across Lower Manhattan, corralled and canyoned 

by the surrounding high-rise architecture. The fire released 

carcinogens across the city. While emergency responders and 

local people worked together to recover from the attack, they 

were unknowingly exposing themselves to contaminated dust 

and debris. 

Responders received a greater airborne exposure to 

contaminants. They are more likely to develop respiratory 

illnesses and certain cancers, and have an increased allcause 

mortality and suicide rate, compared to other exposed 

groups. Rescue and recovery workers are also at greater risk of 

depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), alongside 

those who work and live near Ground Zero. This is an ongoing 

issue, and more people have now died due to pollution from 

9/11 than from the attack itself. 

It is difficult to ascertain the full scale of future health challenges 

that could arise. Responders have already been affected by 

decreased cognitive function, increased risk of strokes, and there 

is evidence that cancer likelihood and incidence has increased 

– especially lung, throat, stomach, myeloma, leukemia and 

lymphoma type cancers. 

Standardised incidence ratios for these conditions are already 

moderately elevated among New York emergency services 

and humanitarian aid responders who worked on 9/11. 

Approximately 10,000 people have been diagnosed with cancer 

linked to 9/11, to date. The statistics suggest that many more will 

be killed by toxic exposure than by the original act of terrorism. 

The average age of a 9/11 first responder is now about 55. Many 

people face a cancer diagnosis as they age, but this community 

are much more likely to become unwell. 

SUPPORTING SURVIVORS 

So, what can be done to manage and support the responders 

and local community who are suffering from the long-term 

effects of 9/11? A lot can be learned from the historical outcomes 

for similar communities who have been affected by a toxic 

environmental exposure. 

Plumes of toxic smoke from the South Tower after being hit during the 9/11 attacks. 

We know from studies of the atomic veterans who worked 

on nuclear weapons tests during the Cold War that when 

25 


New York City firefighters working after the collapse of the Twin Towers on September 11, 2001. 

communities become aware of a previously unknown risk 

from exposure, then they are more likely to worry about it. 

This then creates a burden of mental health for survivors. The 

greatest challenge for these communities is that of gaining an 

understanding of the long-term implications of their exposure. 

The long-term outlook for 9/11 survivors is uncertain. Their 

outcome is compounded by day-to-day exposure to other 

pollutants, and their lifestyle choice – for instance, drinking or 

smoking. These other circumstances are known as confounding 

factors and make it more difficult to discern if illness is occurring 

due to environmental exposure, or for other reasons. There 

is also something that is known as the “healthy soldier effect”, 

where the regular exercise and bodily monitoring of a military 

lifestyle offers a protective effect, long after military service has 

ended. 

The World Trade Centre Health Program has been set up to 

provide monitoring and treatment for responders who were at 

the World Trade Centre and related sites, and survivors who were 

in the New York City Disaster Area. The US government allocated 

US$4.2 billion to support this provision, under the “James 

Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act of 2010” – named 

after a NYPD officer who died from toxic exposure. This act was 

extended in 2015, to provide medical support and benefits to 

affected people until 2090. 

But it does not provide support to those who have since moved, 

and neglects those who are part of the informal economy. There 

are also difficulties in proving exposure and effectively being 

diagnosed as a “deserving” 9/11 survivor, similarly to those who 

have experienced other toxic exposures. 

There is also a globally uneven distribution of support for 

terrorism survivors. We must remember that when an act of 

terror occurs in the Global North, it gains extensive media 

coverage. But the US and Europe make up only 1% of terrorism 

fatalities. The other 99% of terrorism occurs in places in 

political conflict across the less developed world such as Iraq, 

Afghanistan, Nigeria, Syria and Pakistan. Survivors in these places 

have few opportunities for long-term monitoring and support. 

These differences matter a great deal, as they represent the 

uneven distribution of vulnerability to terrorism. It is now time to 

extend support to terrorism survivors worldwide. 

Author: 

Becky Alexis-Martin 

Lecturer in Political Geographies of Health, 

Manchester Metropolitan University 

This article was first publishished on The Conversation under a Creative Commons licence 

www.t-1print.com.au 

SCREEN PRINTING TRANSFERS TEXTILE FINISHING 

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How the pain of 

9/11 still stays 

with a generation 

Dana Rose Garfin 

Research Scientist, 

Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, 

University of California, Irvine

T 

he Sept. 11, 2001 terrorist attacks 

were the worst acts of terrorism on 

American soil to date. Designed to 

instill panic and fear, the attacks were 

unprecedented in terms of their scope, 

magnitude and impact on the American 

psyche. 

The vast majority (over 60 percent) of 

Americans watched these attacks occur 

live on television or saw them replayed 

over and over again in the days, weeks 

and years following the attacks. 

As we reflect on the anniversary of this 

tragic event, a question to consider 

is: How has this event impacted those 

individuals who are too young to 

remember a world before 9/11? 

As an applied social psychologist, I 

study responses to natural and humancaused 

adversities that impact large 

segments of the population – also called 

“collective trauma.” My research group 

at the University of California, Irvine (UCI) 

has found that such exposures have 

compounding effects over the course of 

one’s lifespan. This is particularly relevant 

for children who have grown up in a post- 

9/11 society. 

PTSD and Ground Zero 

Many of the outcomes on which my team 

and I focus involve mental health, such as 

post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTS) and 

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 

Post-traumatic stress symptoms include 

feeling the event is happening again 

(e.g., flashbacks, nightmares), avoiding 

situations that remind individuals of the 

event (e.g., public places, movies about 

an event), negative feelings and beliefs 

(e.g., the world is dangerous) or feeling 

“keyed up” (e.g., difficulty sleeping or 

concentrating). 

In order to meet diagnostic criteria for 

PTSD, an individual must have been 

directly exposed to a “traumatic event” 

(e.g., assault, violence, accidental injury). 

Direct exposure means that an individual 

(or their loved one) was at or very near the 

site of the event. It might be somewhat 

obvious that people directly exposed to 

a collective trauma like 9/11 might suffer 

A firefighter pays his respects at the Memorial Wall at FDNY Engine 10 Ladder 10 House on Liberty St . The 

firehouse is directly across from the WTC site. 

from associated physical and mental 

health problems. What is less obvious is 

how people geographically distant from 

the epicenter or “Ground Zero” might 

have been impacted. 

This is particularly relevant when 

considering the impact of 9/11 on children 

and youth across America: Many reside 

far from the location of the actual attacks 

and were too young to have experienced 

or seen the attacks as they occurred. The 

point is people can experience collective 

trauma solely through the media and 

report symptoms that resemble those 

typically associated with direct trauma 

exposure. 

Impact on physical and mental health 

The events of 9/11 ushered in a new era 

of media coverage of collective trauma, 

where terrorism and other forms of 

large-scale violence are transmitted into 

the daily lives of children and Americans 

families. 

I have been exploring these issues with 

my collaborators Roxane Cohen Silver and 

E. Alison Holman. My colleagues surveyed 

a nationally representative sample of over 

3,400 Americans shortly after 9/11 and 

then followed them for three years after 

the attacks. 

In the weeks and months following the 

9/11 attacks, media-based exposure was 

associated with psychological distress. 

This included acute stress (which is similar 

to PTS but must be experienced in the 

first month of exposure), post-traumatic 

stress and ongoing fears and worries 

about future acts of terrorism (in the 

months following the attacks). 

These harmful effects persisted in the 

years following 9/11. For example, the 

team found measurable impact on the 

mental and physical health (such as 

increased risk of heart diseases) of the 

sample three years after the attacks. 

Importantly, those who responded with 

distress in the immediate aftermath 

were more likely to report subsequent 

problems as well. 

These findings bear close resemblance 

to research led by psychologist William 

 

 

 

02 9326 7000 


Collective trauma is experienced by those who might not be near at the time of the event. Jim Young/Reuters 

Schlenger, whose team found that 

Americans who reported watching more 

hours of 9/11 television in the immediate 

aftermath of 9/11 were more likely to 

report symptoms resembling PTSD. For 

example, those who reported watching 

four to seven hours were almost four 

times as likely to report such symptoms 

compared to those who watched less. 

These findings were echoed in work 

conducted by Michael W. Otto, who also 

found that more hours of 9/11-related 

television watching was associated with 

higher post-traumatic stress symptoms 

in children under 10 in the first year 

following the attacks. 

9/11’s impact on children 

However, it is also the case that studies 

have found the number of children who 

reported longer-term distress symptoms 

to be relatively low. Among other factors, 

children whose parents had low coping 

abilities or themselves had learning 

disabilities tended to report higher 

distress. 

For example, my collaborator Virginia Gil- 

Rivas, who studied American adolescents 

exposed to 9/11 only through the media, 

found that symptoms of post-traumatic 

distress decreased in most adolescents at 

the one-year mark. An important finding 

of her study was how parental coping 

abilities and parental availability to discuss 

the attacks made a difference. 

Furthermore, children who had prior 

mental health problems or learning 

disabilities tended to be at higher risk 

for distress symptoms. That could be 

because children prone to anxiety in 

general experienced increased feelings of 

vulnerability. 

Despite the number of studies that 

have followed children over the course 

of several years, no studies have 

comprehensively examined the long-term 

impact of 9/11 on children’s development 

and adjustment. That is because it is 

difficult to compare American children 

who lived through 9/11 with those who 

did not, since almost every American child 

was exposed to images of 9/11 at some 

point in time. 

This limits the ability of researchers to 

examine how children’s lives might have 

changed over time. 

However, some researchers believe that 

even media-based exposure to collective 

trauma could likely have a longer-term 

impact on the attitudes and beliefs of 

those who grew up in a post-9/11 world. 

It is possible, for example, that exposure 

to 9/11 and other acts of terrorism has 

led to fears of perceived threats, political 

intolerance, prejudice and xenophobia in 

some American children. 

How 9/11 trauma impacts people today 

Years later, a bigger question is: How does 

the collective trauma of 9/11 affect people 

today? 

Over the past several years, my team and 

I have sought to address many of the 

issues that remained unanswered in the 

scientific literature after 9/11. We sought 

to replicate and extend the findings 

initially produced after 9/11 through an 

examination of responses to the 2013 

Boston Marathon bombing, the worst act 

of terrorism in America since 9/11. 

To this end, we surveyed 4,675 Americans. 

Our sample was demographically 

representative, meaning that our sample 

proportionally matched the U.S. Census 

data on key indicators such as ethnicity, 

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29 


income, gender and marital status. 

This allowed us to make stronger 

inferences about how “Americans” 

responded. Within the first two to four 

weeks of the Boston Marathon bombings, 

we surveyed our sample about their direct 

and media-based exposure to the 2013 

Boston Marathon bombing and their 

subsequent psychological responses. 

Our study found that as media exposure 

(a sum of daily hours of Boston Marathon 

bombing-related television, radio, print, 

online news and social media coverage) 

increased, so did respondents’ acute 

stress symptoms. This was even after 

statistically accounting for other variables 

typically associated with distress 

responses (such as mental health). 

People who reported more than three 

hours of media exposure had higher 

probability of reporting high acute stress 

symptoms than were people who were 

directly exposed to the bombing. 

Then, last year, we sought to explore 

whether the accumulation of exposure 

to events like 9/11 and other collective 

trauma might influence responses to 

subsequent events like the Boston 

Marathon bombing. 

Once again, we used data from 

demographically representative samples 

of people who lived in the New York and 

Boston metropolitan areas. We assessed 

people who lived in the New York and 

Boston areas to facilitate a stronger 

comparison of direct and media-based 

exposure to 9/11 and the Boston 

Marathon bombing: people who lived in 

New York or Boston were more likely to 

meet criteria for “trauma exposure.” 

This study had two primary, congruent 

findings. First, people who experienced 

greater numbers of direct exposure to 

prior collective trauma (e.g., 9/11, the 

Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, 

Superstorm Sandy) reported higher 

acute stress symptoms after the Boston 

Marathon bombings. 

Firefighters salute during a ceremony at the Firefighters Memorial on September 11, 2011 in New York. Firefighters from 

around the world attended the ceremony. 

Second, greater amounts of media-based 

live exposure (i.e., people watched or 

listened to the event as it occurred on 

live television, radio, or online streaming) 

to prior collective trauma were also 

associated with higher acute stress 

symptoms after the Boston Marathon 

bombing. 

So greater direct and media-based 

exposure to prior collective trauma was 

linked with greater acute stress responses 

(e.g., anxiety, nightmares, trouble 

concentrating) after a subsequent event. 

Stay informed, but limit exposure 

Overall, our research indicates that the 

impact on children growing up post-9/11 

likely extends well beyond the physical 

and mental health effects of exposure – 

be it direct or media-based. Each tragic 

incident that individuals witness, even 

if only through the media, likely has a 

cumulative effect. 

Nevertheless, the positive finding is that 

most people are resilient in the face 

of tragedy. In the early years following 

9/11, several studies examined how 

9/11 impacted children nationally. Like 

adults, children exposed both directly and 

through the media tended to be resilient 

in the early years following the attacks and 

symptoms generally decreased over time. 

Even so, being aware of the potential 

for distress through media exposure is 

important. Even small percentages can 

have large implications for our nation’s 

physical and mental health. For example, 

in the case of 9/11, 10 percent of a 

nationally-representative sample reporting 

post-traumatic stress represents 

32,443,375 Americans with similar 

symptoms. 

So, people should stay informed, but limit 

repeated exposure to disturbing images, 

which can elicit post-traumatic stress 

and lead to negative psychological and 

physical health outcomes. 

This articles was published on The Conversation under a 

Creative Commons licence 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


ON THE FRONTLINE 

Lecturer in Paramedicine 

Registered Paramedic 

Registered Nurse 

with RasaPiggott 

An Insight into the World of Paramedicine with Registered 

Paramedic and Lecturer in Paramedicine, Rasa Piggott 

ABUSE OF OLDER AUSTRALIANS 

Recognition and Response 

“Elder abuse is a single or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within 

any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress 

to an older person. This type of violence constitutes a violation of human rights and 

includes physical, sexual, psychological, and emotional abuse; financial and material 

abuse; abandonment; neglect; and serious loss of dignity and respect.” 

(World Health Organisation, 2021). 

A 2018 survey conducted for the Royal 

Commission into Aged Care Quality and 

Safety estimated 39.2% of Australian Aged 

Care residents experience physical abuse, 

emotional abuse and/or neglect (1). 

Global reports evidence that the number 

of individuals over 60 experiencing elder 

abuse in community and institutional 

settings has dramatically increased during 

the COVID-19 pandemic (1,2,3). 

Australia’s 65-plus population is steadily 

growing, and COVID-19 remains firmly 

afoot. This reality astutely reminds health 

professionals and organisations of their 

role in recognising and responding to 

evidence of elder abuse. 

The Attorney General’s 2019 – 2023 

National Plan to respond to the Abuse of 

Older Australians (Elder Abuse) (4) involves 

all states and territories undertaking 

relevant research, bolstering services, 

developing policies and engaging in law 

reform. 

In 2020, legislation was passed in 

Canberra to criminalise abuse of older 

/ vulnerable persons. New laws apply to 

individuals and institutions. It is an offence 

to perpetrate abuse. It is an offence for 

institutional authorities to inadequately 

respond to known abuse risks (5). 

The health professional’s role involves 

comprehensively evaluating a person’s 

social, emotional, psychological and 

physiological health. Scanning for human 

rights violations is a feature of all health 

assessments. 

As Registered Health Professionals, 

paramedics who work for Ambulance 

Services hold the privileged position 

of serving as identifiers of institutional 

or community elder abuse. Identifying 

physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, 

financial abuse and neglect leans heavily 

on routinely scanning for their risk factors. 

Shared living situations, social isolation, 

physical ailment, caring for adult children, 

loss of friends or family are but a sample 

of these risk factors. Institutionally, elder 

abuse risk factors include overworking 

and poorly training staff, as well as 

engendering policies that are driven by 

the interests of an institution, rather than 

its residents. (3) 

Adequately responding to elder abuse 

is facilitated when workplace policies 

and systems are driven by patient safety 

indicators. Whilst paramedics have 

made their long-awaited transition to 

Registration and with this, embraced 

their legislated requisites as health 

professionals, Ambulance Services 

remain structured in a manner befitting 

their bygone era as a transport service. 

This reality can create hurdles for the 

Registered Paramedic’s attempt to 

respond to elder abuse recognition. 

By taking steps to align workplace systems 

with health professional requisites, 

paramedics will be better placed to 

meaningfully respond to elder abuse 

as conduits to victim-specific care and 

resources. 

31 


Physical abuse is an act that causes 

physical pain or injury to an older 

person. It can include, but is not 

limited to, actions such as hitting, 

pushing or kicking. Inappropriate use 

of drugs or physical restraints is also 

an example of physical abuse. 

Sexual abuse is any sexual behaviour 

without a person’s consent. It 

includes sexual interactions and noncontact 

acts of a sexual nature. 

Psychological or emotional abuse 

is an act that causes emotional pain 

or injury to an older person. It can 

include insulting or threatening 

a person, acts of humiliation or 

disrespect, and controlling behaviours 

including confining or isolating a 

person. 

Financial abuse is the misuse or theft 

of an older person’s money or assets. 

It can include but is not limited to, 

behaviours such as using finances 

without permission, using a legal 

document such as an enduring power 

of attorney for purposes outside what 

it was originally signed for, witholding 

care for financial gain, or selling 

or transferring property against a 

person’s wishes. 

Neglect is the failure to meet a 

person’s basic needs such as food, 

housing and essential medical care. 

From the National Plan to Respond to 

the Abuse of Older 

Australians (Elder Abuse) 

2019–2023 

1800 ELDERHelp (1800 

353 374) is the national 

elder abuse phone line 

Calling 1800 353 374 redirects 

callers seeking elder abuse 

advice to their state or territory 

services. (Australian Human 

Rights Commission, 2021.)

How does Australia’s health system 

rate internationally? 

This year it wins bronze 

Stephen Duckett 

Director, Health Program, Grattan Institute 

33 


In the wake of the Tokyo Olympics, another 

international scorecard has been released, and 

Australia does well here too. 

The US-based Commonwealth Fund conducts 

regular surveys of health care in 11 countries: 

Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the 

Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, 

Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United 

States. 

In its latest comparison, Australia ranks third 

overall, slipping from second in the previous 

comparison in 2017. 

The US, not unexpectedly, ranks last overall, and 

last on four of the five component rankings. 

Why did Australia get bronze overall? 

Australia was awarded gold for two of the five 

component rankings: equity and health care 

outcomes. 

The equity score is based on measures of 

disparity. For example, how different is access 

to care for people with above-average income 

compared to people with below-average income? 

Australia’s Medicare scheme helps explain our 

good performance on this dimension. 

Health care outcomes incorporates measures 

such as life expectancy and infant mortality rates. 

Australia scored well on these and on outcomes 


on access to primary care, which 

includes general practitioners. 

More than 30 separate indicators 

were used to judge processes of 

care, for which New Zealand was 

awarded gold. Here, Australia was 

judged in the middle of the pack, 

doing moderately well on preventive 

care, and moderately well on “patient 

engagement/preferences”, such as 

nurses and doctors always treating 

patients with respect. 

But it was dragged down by measures 

of safe care, such as failure to have 

alert systems to provide pathology 

results back to patients, and high 

hospital infection rates. 

Australia comes in at number 3 overall, after The Netherlands and Norway. Eric C. Schneider et al., Mirror, 

Mirror 2021 — Reflecting Poorly: Health Care in the U.S. Compared to Other High-Income Countries 

(Commonwealth Fund, Aug. 2021) 

of health care, such as the rate of 

women dying in childbirth, or of 

people dying in the month after being 

discharged from hospital after a heart 

attack. 

Australia scored silver on 

administrative efficiency. Although 

primarily a measure of paperwork 

and its electronic equivalent, this also 

measures the ease with which medical 

practitioners can navigate the health 

system for their patients. 

Australia’s good score again reflects 

well on Medicare as a single insurer. 

But it might also reflect Australia’s 

absence of a scheme requiring 

patients to get a second opinion 

from another doctor before surgery. 

Second opinions can be useful, 

so it might actually be disguising a 

shortcoming in the system. 

Now for the bad news 

Our overall score was dragged 

down by poor performance on the 

remaining two dimensions: access to 

care (where we were ranked 8th out 

of 11); and care processes (6th out of 

11). 

The first of these is not a surprise – 

stories about long waits for hospital 

care including elective procedures 

and outpatient appointments, and 

ambulance ramping, regularly feature 

in the media. 

Poor affordability of dental care also 

contributed to Australia’s low score on 

access to care. 

Australia performed somewhat better 

Australia’s processes of care score 

was also brought down by poor 

care coordination. For example, GPs 

aren’t necessarily notified when their 

patient presents to an emergency 

department. And specialists’ reports 

on patients aren’t sent to GPs within a 

week of the patient’s visit. 

What do we need to improve? More 

funding 

Problems with access to health care 

will not be easy to fix. The federal 

government has limited growth in its 

funding to the states for hospital care 

to 6.5% each year. This does not keep 

pace with growth in demand. 

States can either find the additional 

money elsewhere to meet rising 

demand for health care (for example, 

by increasing state taxes such as 

payroll tax, or making cuts elsewhere). 

Or it can ration services, such as not 

providing enough operating theatre 

time (which results in longer waiting 

times for elective procedures). Or it 

can improve efficiency – and there is 

DESIGNED AND BUILT IN AUSTRALIA TO 

THE HIGHEST INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS 

 

35 


some scope for that in almost every 

state. States will typically do a mix of 

all three. 

However, states alone can’t improve 

efficiency, because some measures 

fall within the federal government’s 

control. The federal government 

is responsible for primary care, for 

example, so it’s difficult for the states 

to design strategies to keep people 

out of hospital by making better use of 

primary care. 

An easier option for states is to apply 

political pressure to get the federal 

government to lift the cap on funding 

and give the states more money. We 

can expect to see more of this in the 

lead up to the next federal election, 

which will be held before mid-May 

2022. 

Improving processes of care will also 

be difficult, but hopefully improved 

electronic patient records in hospitals 

will facilitate quicker communication 

between hospitals and GPs. 

Why do these rankings matter? 

International comparisons help us 

identify opportunities to improve – but 

only if we avoid simply basking in a 

self-congratulatory glow from our high 

overall ranking. 

The Commonwealth Fund survey is 

by no means perfect – there is some 

volatility in rankings of components 

from edition to edition – but it 

does allow us to drill down into the 

important attributes of health care, 

and to identify where others are doing 

better. 

We should now set ourselves an 

agenda of what we want to learn and 

from whom. 

This article was published on The Conversation under a 

Creative Commons licence. 

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At last, health, aged care and quarantine 

workers get the right masks to protect 

against airborne coronavirus 

C Raina MacIntyre 

Professor of Global Biosecurity, 

NHMRC Principal Research Fellow, 

Head, Biosecurity Program, 

Kirby Institute, UNSW 

Benjamin Veness 

Adjunct Professorial Fellow, 

CQUniversity Australia 

Michelle Ananda-Rajah 

Consultant physician General Medicine & 

Infectious Diseases, Alfred Health, 

past MRFF TRIP Fellow, Monash University 

lmost a year ago, in July 2020, 

our calls for the government to 

Aurgently upgrade the guidelines 

to protect health workers from airborne 

SARS-CoV-2 fell on deaf ears. 

The existing guidelines said health 

providers working around COVID-19 

patients should wear a surgical mask. 

It restricted use of the more protective 

P2 or N95 masks, which stop airborne 

particles getting through, to very 

limited scenarios. These involved 

“aerosol-generating procedures”, such 

as inserting a breathing tube. This was 

expanded slightly in August 2020 but still 

left most health workers without access 

to P2/N95 masks. 

More than 4,000 Australian health 

workers were infected by COVID-19 

during the Victorian second wave. Health 

authorities denied the importance of 

airborne transmission and blamed 

clinical staff for “poor habits” and 

“apathy”. Health workers expressed 

despair and a sense of abandonment, 

cataloguing the opposition they faced 

to get adequate protection against 

COVID-19. 

Last week, 15 months after the COVID-19 

pandemic was declared, the Australian 

guidelines on personal protective 

equipment (PPE) for health workers, 

including masks, were finally revised.

What do the new guidelines say? 

The new guidelines expand the range 

of situations in which P2/N95 masks 

should be available to staff – essentially 

anywhere where COVID-19-infected 

people are expected to be – and remove 

all references to “aerosol-generating 

procedures”. 

This recognises that breathing, speaking, 

sneezing and coughing all generate 

aerosols which can accumulate in indoor 

spaces, posing a higher risk than “aerosolgenerating 

procedures”. 

“Fit testing” is an annual procedure that 

should be done for all workers wearing a 

P2/N95 mask or higher grade respirator, 

to ensure air can’t leak around the edges. 

But this was previously denied to many 

Australian health workers. 

The new guidelines unequivocally state fittested 

P2/N95 masks are required for all 

staff managing patients with suspected or 

confirmed COVID-19. This means health 

workers can finally receive similar levels 

of respiratory protection to workers on 

mining and construction sites. 

The new guidelines leave ambiguity 

around which workplaces are within the 

scope by stating that health care: 

• may include hospitals, non-inpatient 

settings, managed quarantine, 

residential care facilities, COVID-19 

testing clinics, in-home care and 

other environments where clinical 

care is provided. 

The guidelines also allow employers to 

decide what comprises a high risk and 

what doesn’t, allowing more wiggle room 

to deny workers a P2/N95 mask. 

The guidelines say when a suitable P2/N95 

mask can’t be used, a re-usable respirator 

(powered air purifying respirators, or 

PAPRs) should be considered. 

But the guideline’s claim that a PAPR may 

not provide any additional protection 

compared to a “well-sealed” disposable 

P2/N95 mask, is not accurate. In fact, reusable 

respirators such as PAPRs afford a 

higher level of protection than disposable 

N95 masks. 

The new guidelines should also apply 

to workers in hotel quarantine – both 

health care and non-clinical staff. This 

will help strengthen our biosecurity, as 

long as they’re interpreted in the most 

precautionary way. 

That means not using the wiggle room 

that allows workplaces to deem a 

situation lower risk than it actually is or 

that their workplace is exempt. When 

working around a suspected or confirmed 

COVID-19 case, all workers must be 

provided with a fit-tested P2/N95 mask. 

Otherwise they are not protected from 

inhaling SARS-CoV-2 from the air. 

In aged care and health care, where 

cases linked to quarantine breaches 

can be amplified and re-seeded to 

the community, the new guidelines go 

some way towards better protecting 

our essential first responders and their 

patients. 

Guidelines miss the mark on ventilation 

The guidelines fail to explicitly 

acknowledge COVID-19 spreads through 

air but nonetheless recommend the use 

of airborne precautions for staff. 

Airborne particles are usually less 

than 100 microns in diameter and can 

accumulate indoors, which means they’re 

an inhalation risk. 

The old guidelines focused on “large 

droplets”, which were thought to fall 

quickly to the ground and didn’t pose a 

risk in breathed air. This was based on 

debunked theories about airborne versus 

droplet transmission. 

The new guidelines fail to 

comprehensively address ventilation, 

which is only mentioned in passing with 

a reference to separate guidelines for 

health-care facilities. This may not cover 

aged care or hotel quarantine. 

We must ensure institutions such as 

hospitals, hotel quarantine facilities, 

residential care, schools, businesses and 

public transport have plans to mitigate 

the airborne risk of COVID-19 and other 

pandemic viruses through improved 

ventilation and air filtration. 

Australia could follow Germany, which has 

invested €500 million (A$787 million) in 

improving ventilation in indoor spaces. 

Meanwhile, Belgium is mandating the 

use of carbon dioxide monitors in public 

spaces such as restaurants and gyms 

so customers can assess whether the 

ventilation is adequate. 

Cleaning shared air would add an 

additional layer of protection beyond 

vaccination and mask-wearing. Secondary 

benefits include decreased transmission 

of other respiratory viruses and improved 

productivity due to higher attention and 

concentration levels. 

No updated advice on hand-washing 

The United States Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention (CDC) now 

acknowledges exposure to SARS-CoV-2 

occurs through “very fine respiratory 

droplets and aerosol particles” and states 

the risk of transmission through touching 

surfaces is “low”. 

Yet this is not acknowledged in the latest 

Australian health-care guidelines. 

Australians have been repeatedly 

reminded to wash or sanitise their hands, 

wipe down surfaces and stand behind 

near-useless plexiglass barriers. 

The promotion of hand hygiene and 

cleaning surfaces is not based on science, 

which shows it is the air we breathe that 

matters most. 

Revised public messaging is needed for 

Australians to understand shared air is the 

most important risk for COVID-19. 

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Disaster-mapping drones often neglect 

deadliest, costliest events and 

hardest-hit areas 

Every year, disasters kill an average of 60,000 people, affect 200 million and cause 

US$150 billion in damage. To combat these devastating impacts, governments and other 

stakeholders routinely rely on images captured by satellites and crewed aircraft for crucial 

tasks such as identifying and monitoring areas most at risk, evacuation routes, damage 

severity and extent, and recovery progress. 

Alongside these standard spaceborne and 

airborne platforms, small aerial drones 

equipped with cameras are relatively 

newer tools. Praised for their low cost, 

easy use and capture of on-demand 

visuals, drones may be a game-changing 

technology for emergency response. 

Drones are now routine photojournalistic 

tools used to capture compelling images 

and videos of the devastation occurring 

from major events. Their fly-through 

videos are a staple feature of many 

news articles covering floods, landslides, 

volcanic eruptions, storms, wildfires and 

earthquakes. 

DRONES AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT 

International organizations like the Red 

Cross have been using drones across their 

global networks. But there exists a critical 

knowledge gap of standard applications 

and lack of standard procedures within 

and across the humanitarian sector. This 

contrasts with the highly standardized 

use of satellites and crewed aircraft by 

disaster management organizations. 

To help illuminate common uses and 

disparities of disaster-mapping drones 

around the world, we looked at a 

variety of research papers. In our new 

study published in Remote Sensing of 

Environment, we examined over 600 

scientific case studies of pre- and postdisaster 

mapping. We identified global 

trends and gaps in terms of disaster 

management application, technology and 

geography, leading to a list of priorities for 

future research. 

DRONE USE IN EMERGENCIES 

Disaster management activities serve four 

core functions: mitigation, preparedness, 

response and recovery. 

39 


We found that the majority of studies (87 

per cent) were focused on demonstrating 

drone-based support of mitigation 

and recovery activities. Commonly 

supported activities included mitigationrelated 

vulnerability assessment and 

risk modeling, as well as environmental 

recovery. Drones were often used to map 

and monitor the topography and surface 

features of areas susceptible to and 

impacted by landslides, earthquakes and 

floods. 

We found a relative lack of responserelated 

research, with only 16 studies 

indicating that data collection occurred 

during the emergency phase of a 

real event. This contradicts a major 

selling point of drones as on-demand 

information retrieval tools for disaster 

response. 

We attribute this research gap to the 

real-world challenges of flying drones 

in emergencies. These factors include 

adverse weather conditions and the 

paramount safety of first-response 

aircraft. 

UNDERSTUDIED DISASTERS 

Earthquakes, floods and storms are 

the natural hazard-related disasters 

associated with the most deaths, affected 

populations and economic losses. 

However, we found that only a small 

percentage of studies focused on these 

events: 14 per cent (earthquakes), 18 per 

cent (floods) and 12 per cent (storms). 

Landslides and other mass movements 

received the most research attention (38 

per cent of studies). 

This is likely related to the small footprint 

of landslides and mass movements 

relative to other disaster types, which 

is compatible with the typical area 

coverage of drone flights. Relatedly, 

we found that 76 per cent of studies 

flew drones over small areas (less than 

one square kilometre) and 70 per cent 

used multirotor drones with less than 

30-minute endurance. 

LOWER-INCOME AND URBAN AREAS ARE 

NEGLECTED 

Lower-income countries and territories 

are disproportionately impacted by 

disasters in terms of deaths, people 

affected and economic losses. We found 

that the most studies — 64 per cent — 

were conducted in high-income countries 

and territories. We suspect this is due to 

a higher availability of research resources 

and supportive airspace regulations in 

high-income areas. 

Studies also tended to perform research 

in rural areas (79 per cent), which likely 

reflects the challenge of obtaining flight 

approvals in cities. However, the impact 

of disasters will tend to be greater where 

people and assets are concentrated, 

so a lack of research in urban areas is 

concerning. 

FUTURE RESEARCH PRIORITIES 

Based on our review of the existing 

research, we propose that future research 

is directed toward demonstrating dronebased 

mapping support of neglected 

disaster management activities. These 

include response-related applications 

where the advantages of drones are 

perhaps most striking. In emergencies, 

locally available drones have the potential 

to acquire visuals in a more timely manner 

than satellites and crewed aircraft. 

We also recommend more focus on 

earthquakes, floods and storms to target 

the deadliest and costliest disaster 

types. Finally, future studies should be 

conducted in larger, urban and lowerincome 

areas to help the hardest-hit 

locations. As research progresses, 

effective and standard applications 

of drones for supporting disaster 

management will emerge. 

Authors 

Maja Kucharczyk 

PhD Candidate, Geography, University of Calgary 

Chris Hugenholtz 

Professor, Geography, University of Calgary 

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IN THE SPOTLIGHT 

In each edition of the Australian Emergency Services Magazine we 

feature a profile on a person, team, partnership, squad or unit 

to showcase their unique contribution to the emergency services 

industry. If you would like to be featured or know someone who 

deserves some recognition get in touch with our team. 

Meet proud Kamilaroi woman, 

loving dog mum and general 

duties officer, Constable Tamika 

Clarke. 

She was born and raised on Dharawal 

Country on the South Coast of NSW 

and she and her family all place 

a strong value on connection to 

community and cultural identity. 

“I come from a strong family of First 

Nations people who have passed 

down and instilled the importance of 

cultural identity and connection to 

community and country within me,” 

Constable Clarke said. 

Constable Clarke has been in the 

Queensland Police Service for 

five years now after following the 

Indigenous Police Recruitment Our 

Way Delivery Program (IPROWD) 

pathway to join the QPS. All five years 

have been based in the Townsville 

Policing District and Constable 

Clarke says she loves the variety of 

opportunities she’s exposed to in her 

role. 

“I love the variety of being a police 

officer,” she said. 

“No two days are ever going to be the 

same and I find having the opportunity 

to change peoples’ perception of 

police super rewarding.” 

Despite thoroughly enjoying her job so 

far, Constable Clarke has found that 

a lot of people haven’t always had the 

most positive views of the police and 

that the life experience, knowledge of 

culture and understanding she brings 

to her role can bring a lot to changing 

that for the better. 

“Sometimes people haven’t got 

positive views of the police and you 

can change their perspectives on 

that,” Constable Clarke said. 

Constable Tamika Clarke 

As part of the 2021 NAIDOC Week celebrations, the Queensland 

Police Service shared the stories of some First Nations members of 

the force. Constable Tamika Clarke is one of those stories. Constable 

Clarke completed the Indigenous Police Recruitment Our Way Delivery 

Program 5 years ago and is now working in Townsville. She loves the 

variety of being a police officer and the positive impact she can have 

on the community. 

“Being a First Nations woman 

myself, I do find that I have a better 

understanding of the issues that the 

indigenous people in our community 

face. 

“If I can make people feel more 

comfortable about coming to police, 

particularly when they are in trouble 

or if they’ve been victims of crime, 

then that’s a good thing.” 

When we asked her what ‘Heal 

Country’ meant to her, Constable 

Clarke said it was all about 

understanding. 

41 


members and colleagues and looks 

forward to seeing more people follow 

a similar journey to herself. 

“Ultimately, it would be great to 

see more indigenous people within 

the QPS to help build important 

relationships between police and our 

indigenous communities,” she said. 

“Together, we can help the 

Service better engage with those 

communities by educating not only 

those indigenous communities about 

policing but our colleagues about First 

Nations cultures and values as well.” 

Constable Clarke competed the IPROWD program in NSW prior to commencing training at the Townsville Police Academy 

“Being an active and accepted part 

of the Kamilaroi and Dharawal 

communities has played a large role 

in shaping the person I am today,” she 

said. 

“To me, Heal Country means working 

together to grow knowledge, 

education and improve understanding 

of the importance of connection to 

land and country to First Nations 

people and the large role in which 

country has played for generations in 

traditions, lore, ceremony and survival. 

educate the broader community and 

build rapport and share experiences. 

“I believe by portraying myself in an 

open, positive and approachable 

manner I can continue to break down 

barriers as well as be a role model to 

younger generations of First Nations 

people. 

Constable Clarke is still glad she joined 

the Service and has the opportunity 

to work alongside her community 

Constable Clarke is currently stationed 

in Townsville on Wulgurukaba and 

Bindal land. 

The QPS is proud to come together 

in celebration of the rich and 

diverse cultures of our First Nations 

communities for NAIDOC Week. We 

thank our First Nations members for 

sharing their stories. 

Thanks to the QPS for sharing the story and 

images for Constable Tamika Clarke. 

“Encouraging understanding between 

everyone, no matter where they’re 

from can really go a long way. 

“By working together to Heal Country, 

we can persevere and maintain sacred 

sites for our future generations.” 

“My cultural identity has always been 

something that I have been proud of 

and I try to bring that into my role as a 

police officer,” she said. 

“I am often approached by members 

of community and asked about my 

cultural heritage and I use my role to 

Constable Clarke has been a general duties officer for around five years now and is currently enjoying her role at the 

Townsville Community Police Beat 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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TRAVEL 

EMERGENCY 

Breaks 

Words: Brooke Turnbull 

LOCKDOWN EDITION 

This is a very different Emergency Breaks this month 

Lockdowns have us longing for a getaway, or even just the chance to see our families and friends 

again. Sadly, at the moment, we’re just not able to do that. So to protect ourselves, our loved 

ones and the wider community the advice is to stay at home, stay indoors and only head out for 

essentials. 

It can be hard, it can be lonely and it can be debilitating mentally, which is why we decided it was 

important to try as hard as we can to find the fun in the options available. 

So, welcome to the latest Emergency Breaks – Lockdown Edition.

Location: 

The best part about this Lockdown Edition 

is that you don’t need to go very far. 

There aren’t any airports, no rental car 

fees, no having to coordinate the timing 

of the public transport systems to your 

flight arrival times. The location is right at 

your doorstep, literally. So wherever you 

are in Australia at the moment, whether 

it be a snap lockdown or a longer version, 

(our hearts are with you NSW) your 

location is right where you are. We have 

cut the travel stress right out! 

Places to Stay: 

They say home is where the heart is. 

Well, now it can also be where the luxury 

accommodation is as well. 

We always endeavour to bring you three 

recommendations for accommodation in 

each issue and the Lockdown EditionTM 

is going to be no different. Sure, you’re 

unable to leave your house right now, but 

you’ll be surprised with what is available 

right at your fingertips. 

First option is our luxury 

recommendation, obviously this one 

can come at a price, but if you’ve got the 

means then it’s completely worth it. 

Ok, ok, it’s your bedroom. But! It comes 

with new linens, that you have purchased 

online and had delivered right to your 

door (side note, how good is post 

delivery day? Our favourite.). 

We recommend trying out Adairs or 

Bed Bath and Table for a good sale, but 

if you’re feeling particularly luxurious 

then check out Bed Threads. Starting at 

a cool $90-$140 (depending on the size 

you require) for a fitted sheet, it’s on the 

pricey side but the feel of the French flax 

linen as you lie down and stretch out 

makes you feel like you’re living the high 

life in a luxury resort on a tropical island 

somewhere. 

Create a little bit of a luxury getaway in your bedroom courtesy of some luxe linens. 

For a small purchase price of around $17 

a month for a subscription streaming 

service (or just double off the back of 

your mate’s password if you’ve got it) 

the loungeroom has the cosy comfort 

of the couch. Grab a blanket from the 

linen cupboard and wile away the hours 

watching some good old fashioned binge 

worthy series’. 

We recommend Bloodline on Netflix if 

you like a good drama (and who doesn’t), 

Zoey’s Extraordinary Playlist on Stan for 

a lighthearted and fun dance around 

the living room, The Mare of Easttown on 

Binge for a perfect gloomy crime drama 

and Shark Beach on Disney+ for the 

Water and music - a great way to soothe what troubles you. 

perfect blend of documentary and Chris 

Hemsworth in a wetsuit. This, of course, 

goes out the window if you have kids. 

Then it’s all Frozen all the time. Trust us, 

we know from firsthand experience. 

Finally, our budget option comes 

courtesy of too many lockdown wines 

and the inability to function cohesively 

while working from home and trying 

to homeschool, while also baking the 

perfect, Instagram worthy banana bread 

of our lockdown dreams. 

It generally involves grabbing your closest 

music streaming vessel, be it your phone 

or the UE Boom and taking off to the 

And look, you’re in lockdown, so why 

not treat yourself to a pair of the Bed 

Threads pajamas as well. Double linen 

and they make the perfect house wear. 

Make up your new bed, light a fresh 

smelling candle and do a quick vacuum 

and voila…ready made luxury right in 

your own home. 

The next option is our mid-range 

recommendation. This one isn’t quite as 

luxurious as your bedroom, but still has 

the creature comforts that you require to 

make you feel at home…uh, in your own 

home. 

Your loungeroom is a great place to get 

away to if you’re looking for comfort but 

aren’t looking to spend the extra for 

proper luxury.

athroom. Lock the door, run a bath and have a fraction 

of peace in your otherwise hectic life that you are currently 

unable to escape from, other than that hour of exercise you 

get. Even the dog has gone into hiding because he also 

doesn’t want to be walked for the 5th time today. 

While we don’t recommend staying here overnight because 

that’s at best deeply uncomfortable without water in the tub, 

and extremely dangerous with said water, it’s still a great 

escape. Water has a healing quality to it and you may just find 

some semblance of sanity for yourself while the world around 

us descends into varying degrees of chaos. 

Things to do: 

Now, we’re sure you’re aware of all the things there are to do 

in your house. Afterall, we’ve been doing this lockdown thing 

on and off for the better part of 18 months now. 

Connecting to others keeps us mentally resilient - Zoom or facetime your 

loved ones for a fun catch up. 

However, sometimes it can be hard to see the forest for the 

trees and it’s easy to get caught up in the stress of trying to 

stay mentally well, physically healthy and emotionally stable 

while also juggling your worries of how long this will continue 

for. So, in order to try and take your mind off things and give 

you a bit of inspiration of things to do around the house, 

here’s some of our Lockdown Edition recommendations. 

First things first, put down the phone. Mindless scrolling and 

looking at other people in other places doing other things 

that we desperately wish we were doing (holidaying, seeing 

loved ones, going to the pub) can be extremely detrimental 

to our mental health. If you find that you’re feeling worse 

after a session of Instagram reel scrolling, or watching people 

doing dances on the beach on TikTok then, and we cannot 

stress this enough, turn your phone off. Even just an hour 

away from social media and doing something productive for 

yourself can be uplifting when you just feel like it’s getting too 

much. 

What isn’t detrimental for our mental health, while still feeling 

connected to each other online is a Zoom or FaceTime party, 

which is why it’s our first recommendation. 

So, right now, we can’t see each other for real, but that 

doesn’t have to stop us from seeing each other altogether. 

Go the whole shebang and send out paper invitations to 

make it feel as close to normal as possible (also, who doesn’t 

love receiving personalised mail?) do a theme, dress up to the 

nines, or just simply hang out and talk to your nearest and 

dearest. It might not beat holding your new little nephew for 

the first time, but it’s the next best thing and it’ll make that 

Join an online book club or movie club to find connection to others 

 

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first time we all see each other in person again just that much 

sweeter. 

The biggest and hardest part of these lockdowns is the 

inability to connect with each other personally. It can be 

challenging for many of us who may already face mental 

health issues and loneliness only contributes to those issues. 

Given this, the second recommendation also has us chasing 

human connection. An online book or movie club is the 

perfect way to both expand our knowledge, start new 

conversations with each other and look at others’ way of 

thinking in a new and different light. You could make these 

weekly online events, otherwise a bi-monthly or monthly 

event is perfect to get in your allotted reading or watching in 

time for the discussion. And who knows, once you’ve made 

the connections, this could continue out of lockdown and you 

can all meet in person at the park for a in-person look at your 

chosen book or movie. 

Finally, to keep our heads above water and ensure we’re 

doing everything we can to try and stay on top of our feelings 

about these lockdowns, our last recommendation is learn a 

new skill. 

Learning a new skill can be a way to help you to still feel productive and keep your mind 

off the anxiety of lockdown. 

Maybe a short online course in Project Management or fiction 

writing. Something you’ve never considered before. Maybe 

you’ve had the Casio keyboard sitting in your garage storage 

for longer than you’d like. Maybe you’re not that great at 

baking but love the smell and taste of freshly baked goods. 

Now is the perfect time to start learning. 

A positive takeaway from these lockdowns is that many 

businesses changed the way they deliver information. So 

those that perhaps were in person learning only before, now 

are online everywhere. You can learn these new skills taught 

by masters in their field. It will keep your mind occupied and 

instil a sense of pride and achievement, even if you’re not 

feeling that great about other aspects of what is happening 

nationally and globally right now. 

Remember, we’re all in this together and we all need to help 

each other out as much as possible. So call a friend, ask for 

help, ask them if they need help, and above all be kind and 

respect yourself and your loved ones as much as possible. 

And we’ll all see each other as soon as we can…hopefully at 

the pub! 

If you or a loved one is experiencing any form of distress or mental 

health issues as a result of lockdowns call Lifeline on 13 11 14 or 

Beyond Blue 1300 224 636. 

Be kind to yourself during this difficult time, ask for help if you need it. 

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A CRISIS OUT THERE 

IS NO EXCUSE FOR 

VIOLENCE IN HERE. 

THERE'S NO PLACE FOR 

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 

If you or someone you 

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or domestic violence, help is 

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online and phone advice 

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AESM Vol 25, ISSUE 4 2021

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