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Weaponizing Anthropology: Social Science in Services of the Militarized State

by David H. Price

by David H. Price

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Dedication<br />

For Laura Nader, who teaches anthropologists to study up and confront<br />

power; and who taught me that critics have to work harder than those<br />

aligned with power.


<strong>Anthropology</strong>’s Military<br />

Introduction:<br />

Shadow<br />

as it was becom<strong>in</strong>g passé to remark on anthropology’s status as<br />

Just<br />

wanton stepchild, George Bush’s Terror War rediscovered old<br />

colonialism’s<br />

uses for culture, and <strong>in</strong>vigorated new modernist dreams <strong>of</strong><br />

militarized<br />

anthropology and culture for <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs. Because I<br />

harness<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1990s us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Freedom <strong>of</strong> Information Act, <strong>in</strong>terviews,<br />

began<br />

archival research to document American anthropologists’ <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

and<br />

military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies, by <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 push by<br />

with<br />

Pentagon and CIA to aga<strong>in</strong> use anthropological knowledge as tools for<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

warfare and counter<strong>in</strong>surgency, I had a decent head start on<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence,<br />

and th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g about some <strong>of</strong> this history. By <strong>the</strong> time America<br />

document<strong>in</strong>g<br />

its terror war on, I had already documented <strong>the</strong> details <strong>of</strong> how this<br />

got<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past, and had thought about <strong>the</strong> core <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ethical, political<br />

worked<br />

<strong>the</strong>oretical fundamentals <strong>of</strong> a critical approach to questions relat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

and<br />

weaponization <strong>of</strong> anthropology.<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

beyond my work on <strong>the</strong> ways that McCarthyism limited critical<br />

But<br />

debates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1950s, this head start o ered little preparation for <strong>the</strong><br />

political<br />

<strong>of</strong> American j<strong>in</strong>goistic support for all th<strong>in</strong>gs military and CIA as <strong>the</strong><br />

wave<br />

willfully forgot <strong>the</strong> CIA’s past <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> torture, illegal arms<br />

nation<br />

assass<strong>in</strong>ations, underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g foreign democratic movements not to its<br />

deals,<br />

and embraced new forms <strong>of</strong> militarization as if this past had noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

lik<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

do with <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>of</strong> anti-American militarism around <strong>the</strong> globe.<br />

to<br />

weaponization <strong>of</strong> anthropology and o<strong>the</strong>r social sciences has been<br />

Today’s<br />

long time com<strong>in</strong>g, and post-9/11 America’s climate <strong>of</strong> fear coupled with<br />

a<br />

<strong>in</strong> traditional academic fund<strong>in</strong>g provided <strong>the</strong> conditions <strong>of</strong> a sort<br />

reductions<br />

perfect storm for <strong>the</strong> militarization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e and <strong>the</strong> academy as a<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

While all societies have l<strong>in</strong>ks between <strong>the</strong> production and use <strong>of</strong><br />

whole.<br />

and larger economic and political structures, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United<br />

knowledge<br />

<strong>the</strong> structural desires and holes that anthropological knowledge are<br />

<strong>State</strong>s,<br />

to ll have been apparent for at least <strong>the</strong> past century.<br />

desired<br />

has always been funded to ask certa<strong>in</strong> types <strong>of</strong> questions, or<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong><br />

to know certa<strong>in</strong> types <strong>of</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs: sometimes this has meant that <strong>the</strong>re were


funds available to study <strong>the</strong> languages and cultures <strong>of</strong> speci c<br />

more<br />

regions, <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r times this meant entire <strong>the</strong>oretical approaches<br />

geographic<br />

fundable (like <strong>the</strong> simplistic culture and personality studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> post<br />

were<br />

period, used to study our enemies at a distance), while o<strong>the</strong>rs (critical<br />

war<br />

ca. 1952), were not. But even while <strong>the</strong> directions taken by<br />

Marxism,<br />

were frequently steered <strong>in</strong> general directions by <strong>the</strong> selective<br />

anthropologists<br />

<strong>of</strong> funds, this arrangement allowed for some great variations <strong>in</strong><br />

availability<br />

or areas <strong>of</strong> study. But <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 world brought new<br />

approaches<br />

on <strong>the</strong>se old <strong>the</strong>mes where a new form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Security<br />

variations<br />

now wanted to cherry-pick <strong>in</strong>dividuals early <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir careers and<br />

<strong>State</strong><br />

place <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> departments even while <strong>the</strong>y ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed secret<br />

secretly<br />

and contacts with <strong>the</strong> CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r agencies. As <strong>the</strong> chapters<br />

relationships<br />

M<strong>in</strong>erva and <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Programs argue, <strong>the</strong>se<br />

on<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiatives are built out <strong>of</strong> a recognition that military and <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

new<br />

are ill-prepared to confront <strong>the</strong> issues and problems raised rst by<br />

agencies<br />

Terror Wars, and <strong>the</strong>n Obama’s Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Wars. Instead <strong>of</strong><br />

Bush’s<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g social scientists to conduct research <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own choos<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

freely<br />

government now funds academics to th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly narrow<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

ways — ways that are <strong>in</strong>stitutionally l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> damag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />

ways that <strong>the</strong> Pentagon, CIA and <strong>State</strong> already approach <strong>the</strong>se<br />

narrow<br />

problems.<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs have po<strong>in</strong>ted out, while World War I was <strong>the</strong> Chemist’s War and<br />

As<br />

War II <strong>the</strong> Physicists War, <strong>the</strong> current wars with <strong>the</strong>ir heavy reliance<br />

World<br />

<strong>the</strong> cultural knowledge needed for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency and occupation are<br />

on<br />

by many Pentagon strategists as <strong>the</strong> Anthropologists Wars; yet<br />

envisioned<br />

<strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton seemed truly surprised at <strong>the</strong> push-back from<br />

many<br />

upon news <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams and<br />

anthropologists<br />

e orts to adapt anthropology for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency and asymmetrical<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

warfare.<br />

military campaigns shi away from wars between states, to wars <strong>of</strong><br />

As<br />

conquest and gruel<strong>in</strong>g endless occupations <strong>of</strong> regions identi ed with<br />

quick<br />

or “tribal” groups ra<strong>the</strong>r than national boundaries, <strong>the</strong> needs for<br />

ethnic<br />

anthropological knowledge and skill sets grow.<br />

e needs for on-<strong>the</strong>-ground<br />

knowledge, l<strong>in</strong>guistic competence, knowledge <strong>of</strong> local customs,<br />

cultural<br />

symbols and culture history loom large, but so far, <strong>the</strong> American<br />

traditional<br />

military clearly misunderstands just how much di erence cultural


could make <strong>in</strong> hid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> nakedness <strong>of</strong> American mercenary<br />

competence<br />

But <strong>the</strong> military also misunderstand what elements <strong>of</strong><br />

ventures.<br />

<strong>the</strong>y can and can’t mean<strong>in</strong>gfully use. Much <strong>of</strong> this confusion is<br />

anthropology<br />

by <strong>the</strong> anthropologists who o en misrepresent <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

exacerbated<br />

its skill sets as <strong>the</strong>y sell <strong>the</strong>ir wares to an eager military hungry for<br />

and<br />

answers.<br />

is an <strong>in</strong>herent irony <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> military’s recurrent desires to acquire and<br />

ere<br />

anthropology. e military does not understand that<br />

weaponize<br />

is not just a product: when practiced ethically, anthropology<br />

anthropology<br />

be transformative. Anthropologists can come to have rich<br />

can<br />

not only <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>the</strong>y live with but <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> larger<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

govern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> warfare that desires to consume anthropological<br />

processes<br />

and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual, personal and pr<strong>of</strong>essional loyalties <strong>of</strong><br />

knowledge;<br />

engaged <strong>in</strong> such transformative processes <strong>the</strong>refore o en tie<br />

anthropologists<br />

to <strong>the</strong> communities <strong>the</strong>y study.<br />

<strong>the</strong>m<br />

is because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>herent relationships that <strong>the</strong> military can’t easily<br />

It<br />

anthropology for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency. I don’t mean “can’t” <strong>in</strong> some sort<br />

have<br />

de ant way — I mean that (despite a history <strong>of</strong> e orts to harness<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

for such ends) <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology to subvert<br />

anthropology<br />

movements is very unanthropological. While <strong>the</strong> military can hire<br />

political<br />

with anthropology degrees, read our work, steal it without<br />

people<br />

(as <strong>the</strong>y did <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir new COIN manual), republish our writ<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

attribution<br />

classi ed forms, and use our methods…<strong>the</strong>y can and have done all <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs: but <strong>the</strong>y are gett<strong>in</strong>g someth<strong>in</strong>g less than anthropology. Given<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

<strong>in</strong>herent sympathies that emerge from anthropologists’ process <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

observation one <strong>of</strong> two th<strong>in</strong>gs will happen: ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se<br />

participant<br />

will psychologically dissociate <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgent-anthropologists<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir betrayal <strong>of</strong> those <strong>the</strong>y study for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency — tell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from<br />

that <strong>the</strong>y are “protectors” not subvertors; or <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

identi cation will lead <strong>the</strong>m to redirect <strong>the</strong>ir own loyalties<br />

ethnographic<br />

those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir military masters to those <strong>the</strong>y study. One outcome is<br />

from<br />

less than anthropology, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r someth<strong>in</strong>g more than <strong>the</strong><br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

barga<strong>in</strong>s for.<br />

military<br />

not that we live <strong>in</strong> a universe where those who live with <strong>the</strong> “o<strong>the</strong>rs”<br />

It’s<br />

study are transformed <strong>in</strong> ways that make it impossible for<br />

anthropologists<br />

to betray <strong>the</strong>m or <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>terests (as if know<strong>in</strong>g such<br />

anthropologists


were somehow objectively clear); but it also isn’t that we live <strong>in</strong> a<br />

<strong>in</strong>terests<br />

where someth<strong>in</strong>g like this can’t happen. Perhaps this expla<strong>in</strong>s why<br />

universe<br />

under current conditions <strong>in</strong> which anthropology graduate students<br />

even<br />

graduate with debt loads that used to be associated with Medical<br />

sometimes<br />

<strong>the</strong>re still rema<strong>in</strong>s only a small handful <strong>of</strong> anthropologists<br />

School,<br />

to <strong>the</strong> outrageous fortunes be<strong>in</strong>g paid to those who will<br />

succumb<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> obvious ethical and political problems <strong>of</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g for Human<br />

overlook<br />

Teams. Today, out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> over four hundred Human Terra<strong>in</strong> System’s<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

less than eight have advanced anthropology degrees.<br />

employees,<br />

are good logistical reasons why military commanders want <strong>the</strong> sort<br />

ere<br />

cultural <strong>in</strong>formation that anthropologists possess about <strong>the</strong> cultures <strong>the</strong>y<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

— but when faced with con ict<strong>in</strong>g duties pitt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> claimed needs <strong>of</strong><br />

study<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st pr<strong>of</strong>essional standards <strong>of</strong> conduct, anthropologists must<br />

nation<br />

upon clearly thought-out ethical standards that clarify why <strong>the</strong><br />

stand<br />

satisfaction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se needs lies beyond our discipl<strong>in</strong>ary limits.<br />

ese lessons<br />

learned though anthropological experiences <strong>in</strong> past wars, but naïve<br />

were<br />

strik<strong>in</strong>g avante-garde poses dismiss <strong>the</strong> past, act<strong>in</strong>g as if<br />

anthropologists<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual goodwill could overcome this history on <strong>the</strong> y.<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

chapters <strong>in</strong> this book make pass<strong>in</strong>g references to <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />

e<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions with military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies, this is<br />

anthropologists’<br />

my analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> contemporary expansion <strong>of</strong> military and<br />

because<br />

agencies onto our campuses is deeply <strong>in</strong>formed by my academic<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

and writ<strong>in</strong>gs on <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>teractions. I nd<br />

research<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>uities <strong>of</strong> roles, status, and economic cont<strong>in</strong>gencies<br />

extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

<strong>the</strong> military and academy as many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present e orts to use<br />

between<br />

for conquest mirror speci c failed e orts to use and abuse<br />

anthropology<br />

anthropology dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Second World War and <strong>the</strong> Vietnam<br />

American<br />

with little realization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se cont<strong>in</strong>uities <strong>of</strong> failure. Beyond this<br />

War<br />

background, I also draw upon my anthropological <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />

historical<br />

relationships between cultural economic systems and cultural<br />

study<strong>in</strong>g<br />

systems <strong>of</strong> knowledge. ough it counters <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />

ideological<br />

fashion <strong>of</strong> reject<strong>in</strong>g meta narrative explanations: <strong>the</strong> political<br />

postmodern<br />

<strong>of</strong> American academia needs to be critically exam<strong>in</strong>ed as l<strong>in</strong>ked to<br />

economy<br />

<strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant militarized economy that supports American society.<br />

ese<br />

chronicle a dramatic shi <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong> academic<br />

chapters<br />

as military and <strong>in</strong>telligence sectors are now impatient to receive<br />

knowledge,


oad range <strong>of</strong> social science knowledge that has long served <strong>the</strong>m as<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

now take active measures to more directly harness <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

to more exactly t <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>telligence and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g needs.<br />

knowledge<br />

* * *<br />

book is organized <strong>in</strong> three sections: <strong>the</strong> rst section describes <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />

and political problems <strong>of</strong> anthropologists, and o<strong>the</strong>r social scientists’<br />

ethical<br />

with military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies and accounts <strong>of</strong> recent<br />

engagements<br />

(programs like <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>erva Consortium, <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts<br />

<strong>in</strong>novations<br />

Scholarship Program and <strong>the</strong> Intelligence Community Centers<br />

Intelligence<br />

Academic Excellence) designed to enmesh <strong>the</strong> military <strong>in</strong>dustrial state<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

with anthropology and o<strong>the</strong>r social sciences.<br />

e second section critically<br />

a series <strong>of</strong> leaked and publically available military documents;<br />

exam<strong>in</strong>es<br />

<strong>the</strong>se texts to understand how <strong>the</strong> new military and <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

seek to harness social science for <strong>the</strong>ir own ends <strong>in</strong> current and<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiatives<br />

military missions. ese leaked manuals demonstrate how <strong>the</strong><br />

future<br />

dreams that culture can be (has been) conceived <strong>of</strong> as an<br />

military<br />

able and controllable commodity that can be used (to quote <strong>the</strong> 2004<br />

identi<br />

Report Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g Iraqi Failures) as a “lever” to be used to move<br />

Stryker<br />

occupied, resistant) populations by smart military or <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

(enemy,<br />

Miss<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong>se manuals is any sort <strong>of</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

agencies.<br />

<strong>of</strong> culture that ll anthropologists writ<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>the</strong>se complexities<br />

complexities<br />

<strong>in</strong>stead edited out, leav<strong>in</strong>g uncomplicated heuristic narratives that create<br />

are<br />

more than <strong>the</strong>y simplify. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>the</strong> third section considers a variety<br />

ctions<br />

contemporary uses <strong>of</strong> social science <strong>the</strong>ory and data <strong>in</strong> support <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

operations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> so called “war on terror,” <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

and policies <strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams for use <strong>in</strong> Iraq and<br />

tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

Afghanistan.<br />

clear up some possible confusion about <strong>the</strong> title, from 2005-2007,<br />

To<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong> was <strong>the</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g title <strong>of</strong> my book that became<br />

<strong>Weaponiz<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />

Intelligence (Price 2008), and any published references to <strong>the</strong><br />

Anthropological<br />

<strong>Weaponiz<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>Anthropology</strong> from <strong>the</strong> 2005-2007 period refer to that re-<br />

title<br />

book. titled<br />

<strong>the</strong> weeks a er 9/11 I published my rst piece <strong>in</strong> CounterPunch, and<br />

In<br />

Cockburn and Je rey St. Clair are <strong>the</strong> people most responsible<br />

Alexander<br />

allow<strong>in</strong>g me to develop <strong>the</strong> essays that form <strong>the</strong> heart <strong>of</strong> this collection.<br />

for<br />

Without CounterPunch, I would not have had <strong>the</strong> support or venue to


<strong>the</strong>se critiques, and even if I did, o<strong>the</strong>r editors would have pushed<br />

develop<br />

to ease <strong>the</strong> directness <strong>of</strong> my critique, urg<strong>in</strong>g obscurantist prose <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

me<br />

name <strong>of</strong> “nuance.”<br />

e work bene tted from exchanges with <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

colleagues and friends: John Allison,<br />

omas Anson, Julian Assange,<br />

Besteman, Andy Bickford, Je Birkenste<strong>in</strong>, Jason Coll<strong>in</strong>s, Tony<br />

Ca<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Daniel Domscheit-Berg, Greg Feldman, Maximilian Forte, Roberto<br />

Cortese,<br />

L<strong>in</strong>da Green, Hugh Gusterson, Gustaaf Houtman, Jean Jackson,<br />

González,<br />

Jauregui, John D. Kelly, Kanhong L<strong>in</strong>, Brian Loschiavo, Ca<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>e Lutz,<br />

Bea<br />

Mead, Sean T. Mitchell, Hayder Al-Mohammad, Laura Nader, Steve<br />

Stephen<br />

David Patton, Midge Price, Milo Price, Nora Price, Lisa Queen, Eric<br />

Niva,<br />

Marshall Sahl<strong>in</strong>s, Schuyler Schild, Daniel Segal, Roger Snider, David<br />

Ross,<br />

Jeremy Walton, Michele Weisler, and Cathy Wilson.<br />

V<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

<strong>in</strong>itial sources for chapters are as follows: Chapter One: is based on a<br />

e<br />

I presented on February 9, 2009 at Pitzer College as part <strong>of</strong> Pitzer’s<br />

paper<br />

War and Con ict series; Chapter Two: CP 2005 12(1):1-6; CP<br />

Interpret<strong>in</strong>g<br />

12(5):3-4.; CP 2008 15(15):6-8; Chapter ree CP onl<strong>in</strong>e 6/25/08;<br />

2005<br />

Four CP 2010 17(2):1-5; Chapter Five: elements from CP onl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Chapter<br />

and CP onl<strong>in</strong>e 2009 4/7/09; Chapter Six: CP 2007 14(18):1-6;<br />

12/12/08<br />

Seven CP onl<strong>in</strong>e 4/18/08 & Keynote Address, War and <strong>Social</strong><br />

Chapter<br />

Symposium, University <strong>of</strong> Arizona, 1/24/09; Chapter Eight: is<br />

<strong>Science</strong>s<br />

and repr<strong>in</strong>ted with permission and is based on my 2010 article<br />

expanded<br />

e Army’s Take on Culture” <strong>Anthropology</strong> Now 12(1):57-63 and<br />

“<br />

material from a October 1, 2009, presentation at Syracuse<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporates<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong> Department on “Structural Limits <strong>of</strong><br />

University’s<br />

Engagements with <strong>the</strong> Military,”; Chapter N<strong>in</strong>e: CP onl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Anthropological<br />

2/15/10; Chapter Ten: CP onl<strong>in</strong>e 2009 12/23/09; Chapter Eleven: paper<br />

2010<br />

on April 24, 2009 at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago <strong>Anthropology</strong><br />

presented<br />

conference on Reconsider<strong>in</strong>g American Power; Chapter<br />

Department’s<br />

Twelve: CP 2009 16(17):1, 4-6.


1: Politics, Ethics, and <strong>the</strong> Military<br />

Part<br />

Complex’s Quiet<br />

Intelligence<br />

Triumphal Return to Campus


One: War is a Force that Gives<br />

Chapter<br />

Ethics<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong><br />

to learn to let what is unfair teach you.<br />

Try<br />

Foster Wallace, In nite Jest<br />

—David<br />

has always fed between <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> war. Whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se wars<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong><br />

hot <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> immediate foreground <strong>of</strong> eldwork sett<strong>in</strong>gs or <strong>in</strong> uence <strong>the</strong><br />

rage<br />

<strong>of</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g opportunities, wars and <strong>the</strong> political concerns <strong>of</strong><br />

background<br />

Security” have long <strong>in</strong> uenced <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong><br />

“National<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory and practice. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> 1960s, anthropologists have<br />

anthropological<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly conscious <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ways that knowledge honed from<br />

become<br />

was historically used by colonial and military powers aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong><br />

eldwork<br />

anthropologists share lives with and study. American<br />

populations<br />

e orts to grapple with <strong>the</strong> political and ethical problems<br />

anthropology’s<br />

with warfare have been episodic, occasionally heroic, sometimes<br />

associated<br />

and o en embarrass<strong>in</strong>gly l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> whims <strong>of</strong> market forces as<br />

timid,<br />

sources have recurrently situated <strong>in</strong>dividual anthropologists<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> needs-<strong>of</strong> and duties-to those <strong>the</strong>y study.<br />

between<br />

anthropologists have historically lent <strong>the</strong>ir skills to a range <strong>of</strong><br />

Although<br />

and colonial campaigns, <strong>the</strong> last hundred years has not been<br />

military<br />

moments <strong>of</strong> progress, m<strong>in</strong>or enlightenments, and tangible<br />

without<br />

to social justice movements. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> past half-century,<br />

contributions<br />

while <strong>the</strong> need for anthropologically <strong>in</strong>formed military maneuvers has<br />

even<br />

<strong>the</strong> fundamental ethical, moral and political issues raised by <strong>the</strong>se<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased,<br />

have periodically forced <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e to not only critically<br />

activities<br />

ethical and political questions about what anthropology is and<br />

confront<br />

it is good for, but historically for American anthropology, it has been<br />

what<br />

abuses <strong>of</strong> anthropological knowledge <strong>in</strong> times <strong>of</strong> war that forced <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> episodic spasms, to develop pr<strong>of</strong>essional ethics codes.<br />

discipl<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

a world <strong>of</strong> political power struggles and military might, knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />

In<br />

cultures has long been recognized as possess<strong>in</strong>g a strategic value. Long<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

<strong>the</strong>re was even a formal academic discipl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> anthropology,<br />

before<br />

and militaries had uses for understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> language and<br />

politicians<br />

culture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir enemies. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> structural needs <strong>of</strong> occupations a er


asic forms <strong>of</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency have been around far longer<br />

conquests,<br />

David Galula, Edward Lansdale, Sir Richard ompson and<br />

than<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency gurus. Sun Tzu understood <strong>the</strong> dangers <strong>of</strong><br />

contemporary<br />

and acknowledged that <strong>in</strong>surgencies at times lead wise leaders<br />

occupations<br />

abandon some occupations. Alexander <strong>the</strong> Great encouraged his<br />

to<br />

armies to <strong>in</strong>termarry with locals, provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m with nancial<br />

mercenary<br />

to put down local roots <strong>in</strong> ways that stabilized <strong>the</strong> empire, and<br />

<strong>in</strong>centives<br />

<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r conquerors have understood <strong>the</strong> basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong><br />

plenty<br />

population centric dom<strong>in</strong>ance.<br />

e Greek occupation <strong>of</strong> Ptolemaic Egypt<br />

a sort <strong>of</strong> historical high water mark <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cynicism <strong>of</strong> military<br />

became<br />

as <strong>the</strong> Greek occupiers calculat<strong>in</strong>gly merged <strong>the</strong>ir religious<br />

occupations,<br />

with local Egyptian beliefs <strong>in</strong> ways that eased <strong>the</strong> political scene,<br />

views<br />

<strong>the</strong> export <strong>of</strong> goods and pro ts back to <strong>the</strong> empire’s core.<br />

allow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency isn’t just concerned with occupations through<br />

But<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>direct rule. At times, counter<strong>in</strong>surgency campaigns underm<strong>in</strong>e<br />

forms<br />

power structures and traditional economic systems, assert<strong>in</strong>g<br />

traditional<br />

economic forces on <strong>in</strong>digenous political economies. ere is<br />

external<br />

modern <strong>in</strong> recogniz<strong>in</strong>g that if one can get enemy populations to<br />

noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

up <strong>the</strong>ir traditional means <strong>of</strong> economic <strong>in</strong>dependence and make <strong>the</strong>m<br />

give<br />

upon occupiers for <strong>the</strong> health or economic wellbe<strong>in</strong>g, one can<br />

dependent<br />

traditional systems <strong>of</strong> governance and dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>the</strong>se<br />

underm<strong>in</strong>e<br />

populations.<br />

ese are standard counter<strong>in</strong>surgency tactics, and <strong>the</strong> elements<br />

<strong>the</strong>se tactics can be seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Vietnam War’s failed Strategic Hamlets<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

as well as contemporary economic reformation projects <strong>in</strong><br />

Program<br />

underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g poppy production and o<strong>the</strong>r elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Afghanistan<br />

local economy.<br />

traditional<br />

provide but a s<strong>in</strong>gle pre-anthropology example <strong>of</strong> historical forms <strong>of</strong><br />

To<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency, consider American President omas<br />

<strong>in</strong>tercultural<br />

erson’s secret brie ng to Congress <strong>of</strong> January 18, 1803 <strong>in</strong> which, while<br />

Je<br />

ask<strong>in</strong>g for $2,500 to fund <strong>the</strong> Lewis and Clark Expedition, Je erson<br />

secretly<br />

plans to undertake what would later become a staple tactic <strong>of</strong><br />

described<br />

Century counter<strong>in</strong>surgency: underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> traditional<br />

Twentieth<br />

systems <strong>of</strong> enemies and <strong>the</strong>n entrapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> aggressive<br />

economic<br />

economies <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y will have di culty compet<strong>in</strong>g on an<br />

market-based<br />

equal basis. President Je erson advised congress that:


Indian tribes resid<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> limits <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. have for a considerable time been<br />

e<br />

more & more uneasy at <strong>the</strong> constant dim<strong>in</strong>ution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> territory <strong>the</strong>y occupy, altho’<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ected by <strong>the</strong>ir own voluntary sales; and <strong>the</strong> policy has long been ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g strength with <strong>the</strong>m<br />

e<br />

refus<strong>in</strong>g absolutely all fur<strong>the</strong>r sale on any conditions, <strong>in</strong>somuch that, at this time, it hazards<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

friendship, and excites dangerous jealousies [and] perturbations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir m<strong>in</strong>ds to make<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

overture for <strong>the</strong> purchase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> smallest portions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir land. A very few tribes only are<br />

any<br />

yet obst<strong>in</strong>ately <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se dispositions. In order peaceably to counteract this policy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>irs,<br />

not<br />

to provide an extension <strong>of</strong> territory which <strong>the</strong> rapid <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> our numbers will call for,<br />

and<br />

measures are deemed expedient. First, to encourage <strong>the</strong>m to abandon hunt<strong>in</strong>g, to apply to<br />

two<br />

rais<strong>in</strong>g stock, to agriculture and domestic manufacture, and <strong>the</strong>reby prove to <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

less land & labor will ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> this, better than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir former mode <strong>of</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

that<br />

extensive forests necessary <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g life will <strong>the</strong>n become useless, & <strong>the</strong>y will see<br />

e<br />

<strong>in</strong> exchang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m for <strong>the</strong> means <strong>of</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir farms, & <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

advantage<br />

comforts. Secondly to multiply trad<strong>in</strong>g houses among <strong>the</strong>m & place with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

domestic<br />

those th<strong>in</strong>gs which will contribute more to <strong>the</strong>ir domestic comfort <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />

reach<br />

extensive, but uncultivated wilds, experience & re ection will develop to <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> wisdom<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

exchang<strong>in</strong>g what <strong>the</strong>y can spare & we want, for what we can spare and <strong>the</strong>y want. (Je erson<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

Congress 1/18/1803)<br />

to<br />

erson’s counter<strong>in</strong>surgency operation recognized that <strong>the</strong> US<br />

Je<br />

could provide economic <strong>in</strong>centives for Indians to become more<br />

government<br />

on rais<strong>in</strong>g stock, and <strong>the</strong>refore “abandon<strong>in</strong>g hunt<strong>in</strong>g,” which<br />

dependent<br />

open more lands for <strong>the</strong> US government to claim. is planned<br />

would<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian’s reliance on <strong>the</strong>ir traditional economy would<br />

destruction<br />

erode cultural cohesion. With time, and a certa<strong>in</strong> amount <strong>of</strong><br />

necessarily<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency, as <strong>the</strong> forests became “useless” to <strong>the</strong>se displaced<br />

armed<br />

<strong>the</strong>y became <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly dependent as marg<strong>in</strong>al players trapped as<br />

peoples,<br />

latecomers cornered at <strong>the</strong> edge <strong>of</strong> a market economy.<br />

e lure <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

comforts,” <strong>in</strong> modern times promised by an assortment <strong>of</strong><br />

“domestic<br />

hitmen, rema<strong>in</strong>s a central carrot from Je erson’s time to <strong>the</strong><br />

economic<br />

and those pitch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se schemes are seldom held accountable for<br />

present,<br />

failures. Je erson’s approach conta<strong>in</strong>ed seeds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> standard tactics <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

dislocation and population control.<br />

population<br />

are le to wonder how much smoo<strong>the</strong>r Je erson’s counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

We<br />

might have been had President Je erson dispatched a squadron <strong>of</strong><br />

campaign<br />

anthropologists to so en <strong>the</strong> blow <strong>of</strong> conquest, o er<strong>in</strong>g microloans,<br />

applied<br />

to relocate settlements, and gett<strong>in</strong>g to know <strong>the</strong> names, l<strong>in</strong>eages and<br />

help<strong>in</strong>g<br />

songs <strong>of</strong> those succumb<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Republic. On one<br />

traditional<br />

Lewis and Clark’s role as agents <strong>in</strong> this American expansion westward<br />

level<br />

<strong>the</strong>m like members <strong>of</strong> a rst generation <strong>of</strong> development<br />

made


sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> promises <strong>of</strong> modernization to those who would<br />

anthropologists<br />

displaced and damaged by <strong>the</strong> “progress” to come.<br />

be<br />

early formalization <strong>of</strong> anthropology as a discipl<strong>in</strong>e occurred <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />

to late-n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century <strong>in</strong> a political economy where a mixture <strong>of</strong><br />

mid-<br />

gentlemen explorers, missionaries, functionaries at colonial<br />

colonialist<br />

dilettantes and occasional savants slowly came to understand <strong>the</strong><br />

outposts,<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “o<strong>the</strong>rs” that lived with<strong>in</strong> and at <strong>the</strong> edges <strong>of</strong> Empire’s borders.<br />

ways<br />

anthropologists lled that complex hole <strong>of</strong> empire’s knowledge base<br />

Early<br />

a useful understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> culture that was both enlightened and<br />

with<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong>’s roots grew <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soils <strong>of</strong> established military<br />

mercenary.<br />

<strong>in</strong> lands conquered by European powers, o en some years a er<br />

might<br />

forces laid conquest. e arrival <strong>of</strong> anthropologists o en followed a<br />

military<br />

<strong>of</strong> arrivals that owed from <strong>in</strong>fantries, to plantation or m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

progression<br />

missionaries, <strong>the</strong>n nally: anthropologists — <strong>the</strong>se at times be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

eng<strong>in</strong>eers,<br />

styled ethnographers work<strong>in</strong>g as colonial adm<strong>in</strong>istrators <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

self<br />

<strong>of</strong> empire. As <strong>the</strong> British, Dutch, French, and German, etc.<br />

h<strong>in</strong>terlands<br />

spread around <strong>the</strong> globe, national traditions <strong>of</strong> ethnology and<br />

empires<br />

emerged. e needs <strong>of</strong> colonialism o en required some<br />

anthropology<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> occupied populations <strong>the</strong>y sought to manage, and<br />

knowledge<br />

was born. As Talal Asad observed almost forty years ago,<br />

anthropology<br />

can claim to have contributed to <strong>the</strong> cultural heritage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

“anthropologists<br />

<strong>the</strong>y study by a sympa<strong>the</strong>tic record<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous forms <strong>of</strong> life<br />

societies<br />

would o<strong>the</strong>rwise be lost to posterity. But <strong>the</strong>y have also contributed,<br />

that<br />

<strong>in</strong>directly, towards ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> power<br />

sometimes<br />

by <strong>the</strong> colonial system” (Asad 1973:17).<br />

represented<br />

early American history <strong>of</strong> ethnological studies <strong>of</strong> Native Americans<br />

e<br />

be told as separate from a shameful history <strong>of</strong> conquest and<br />

cannot<br />

and while many early American ethnographers did not<br />

genocide;<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir work as be<strong>in</strong>g part <strong>of</strong> a larger history <strong>of</strong> conquest, <strong>the</strong><br />

conceptualize<br />

agencies which most o en employed <strong>the</strong>m (e.g., <strong>the</strong> Bureau <strong>of</strong><br />

federal<br />

Ethnology, Bureau <strong>of</strong> Ethnology) were organized under <strong>the</strong><br />

American<br />

<strong>of</strong> Interior which at times had direct commerce with <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />

Department<br />

agencies relocat<strong>in</strong>g, underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and controll<strong>in</strong>g Indian<br />

Army;<br />

Discipl<strong>in</strong>ary ancestors like Major John Wesley Powell o en<br />

populations.<br />

<strong>the</strong> tasks <strong>of</strong> catalog<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> geography and exploitable natural<br />

mixed<br />

on empire’s frontier <strong>in</strong> ways that added <strong>the</strong> ethnographic details <strong>of</strong><br />

resources


peoples <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se environments as curiosities ra<strong>the</strong>r than<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

natural features.<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />

anthropologists trace <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>tellectual roots back <strong>in</strong> a great variety<br />

While<br />

directions, I rema<strong>in</strong> struck by <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American tradition<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

launched by James Mooney <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late 19 th century. Mooney began<br />

quietly<br />

work for <strong>the</strong> U.S. Bureau <strong>of</strong> Ethnology even as <strong>the</strong> Department <strong>of</strong><br />

his<br />

and U.S. Army were engaged <strong>in</strong> actions and policies designed to<br />

Interior<br />

physical and cultural genocide aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> native Indian people that<br />

enact<br />

was assigned to study. James Mooney rst arrived on <strong>the</strong> Sioux<br />

Mooney<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1891 just days a er <strong>the</strong> Seventh Calvary had slaughtered<br />

reservation<br />

men, women and children at Wounded Knee. An arrival that forced<br />

Sioux<br />

to confront <strong>the</strong> political forces fram<strong>in</strong>g and fund<strong>in</strong>g his research<br />

Mooney<br />

to become aware that ethnography is not a neutral act. Record<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

and<br />

cultural <strong>in</strong>formation under such circumstances risked mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g<br />

populations vulnerable. Mooney understood early on that <strong>the</strong>re was<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

political neutrality for ethnography.<br />

no<br />

were mixed motivations guid<strong>in</strong>g Mooney’s bosses at <strong>the</strong> Department<br />

ere<br />

Interior’s Bureau <strong>of</strong> Ethnology as <strong>the</strong>y sought to make native peoples<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g a period <strong>of</strong> conquest, but <strong>the</strong> details <strong>of</strong> Mooney’s work went<br />

legible<br />

<strong>the</strong>se colonial adm<strong>in</strong>istrative demands as he produced rich<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

reports that <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g military and adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />

ethnographic<br />

with cultural tools for conquest through counter<strong>in</strong>surgency,<br />

enemies<br />

narratives establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> full humanity, equality, and cultural<br />

provided<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se peoples who were treated by o<strong>the</strong>rs as sub-humans without<br />

richness<br />

culture. Mooney’s detailed work on <strong>the</strong> Ghost Dance, Peyote<br />

proper<br />

and <strong>the</strong> Sun Dance earned him adm<strong>in</strong>istrative and<br />

Sacraments,<br />

enemies — as well as congressional <strong>in</strong>vestigations and<br />

Congressional<br />

and though Mooney su ered <strong>the</strong>se hardships he did not betray<br />

sanctions;<br />

work or those he studied (Moses 1984).<br />

his<br />

had no pr<strong>of</strong>essional ethical statements to guide him beyond his<br />

Mooney<br />

religious and personal understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> what <strong>in</strong>dividuals owed to<br />

own<br />

yet while employed by a government actively work<strong>in</strong>g to underm<strong>in</strong>e<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs;<br />

Indian culture, he chose not to create forms <strong>of</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

American<br />

psychological operations directed aga<strong>in</strong>st those he studied. ough never<br />

or<br />

as a litanized code <strong>of</strong> ethics, Mooney’s work reveals his ethical<br />

articulated<br />

to those he lived with and studied — and while <strong>the</strong><br />

commitment


nature <strong>of</strong> this understand<strong>in</strong>g was largely personal, it was also<br />

idiosyncratic<br />

— even if it would rema<strong>in</strong> uncodi ed and pr<strong>of</strong>essionally un-<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

for decades.<br />

recognized<br />

do not fully understand how Mooney came to such an enlightened<br />

I<br />

<strong>of</strong> his ethical duties to <strong>the</strong> Indians who allowed him to live<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>m, but I would like to th<strong>in</strong>k it was at least <strong>in</strong> part a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

amongst<br />

and pr<strong>of</strong>ound act this very act <strong>of</strong> shar<strong>in</strong>g his life through eldwork’s<br />

simple<br />

performance <strong>of</strong> participant observation. Shared knowledge, shared<br />

core<br />

shared lives should (yet, always doesn’t) imply if not shared loyalties<br />

meals,<br />

trust, <strong>the</strong>n at a m<strong>in</strong>imum: shared <strong>in</strong>ternalized understand<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

and<br />

American anthropological tradition is not unique <strong>in</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g its<br />

e<br />

roots rmly planted <strong>in</strong> a history <strong>of</strong> study<strong>in</strong>g populations <strong>of</strong><br />

discipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

whom governments and o<strong>the</strong>r sponsors wished to conquer or shape<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />

ways that would be today loosely recognized as counter<strong>in</strong>surgency. e<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> early anthropology establishes how British, French, Dutch, and<br />

history<br />

anthropological traditions were l<strong>in</strong>ked with colonial desires <strong>in</strong><br />

German<br />

Asia, Indonesia and elsewhere. While global colonial campaigns set a<br />

Africa,<br />

that made <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong> prolonged travel, or work at colonial outposts<br />

stage<br />

bir<strong>the</strong>d N<strong>in</strong>eteenth and early Twentieth Century anthropology, <strong>the</strong><br />

that<br />

relations <strong>of</strong> European military dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>in</strong> uenced <strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong><br />

social<br />

en racialized cultural evolutionary <strong>the</strong>ory that emerged <strong>in</strong> this colonial<br />

o<br />

European and American expansions brought occupations, and<br />

context.<br />

became rst a curiosity and <strong>the</strong>n a tool <strong>of</strong> managers ever<br />

ethnology<br />

with <strong>the</strong> prospect <strong>of</strong> native <strong>in</strong>surgency movements.<br />

concerned<br />

<strong>the</strong> early Twentieth Century, anthropology programs grew and spread to<br />

In<br />

number <strong>of</strong> American universities. At Columbia University, Franz Boas cast<br />

a<br />

great shadow, teach<strong>in</strong>g a core group <strong>of</strong> students (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g folks like<br />

a<br />

Mead, Alfred Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Ashley Montagu, etc.) an<br />

Margaret<br />

form <strong>of</strong> cultural relativism that championed racial equality,<br />

American<br />

notions <strong>of</strong> cultural evolution and valued all cultures equally. His<br />

rejected<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tense l<strong>in</strong>guistic study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> complexity and beauty <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />

<strong>in</strong>sistence<br />

<strong>in</strong>evitably taught lessons <strong>of</strong> respect for <strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>rs. By<br />

languages<br />

standards Boas had serious ethical shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs. His<br />

contemporary<br />

<strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> grave robb<strong>in</strong>g, and ly<strong>in</strong>g to an Inuit child about<br />

scandalous<br />

death and burial <strong>of</strong> his fa<strong>the</strong>r, testify to this, but Boas’ recognition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> cultures and his <strong>in</strong>sistence that anthropologists should undertake<br />

equality


shar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir lives with those <strong>the</strong>y studied, shaped <strong>the</strong> lives and<br />

eldwork,<br />

<strong>of</strong> American anthropologists <strong>in</strong> ways that warfare would<br />

sensibilities<br />

twist and test.<br />

<strong>in</strong>evitably<br />

<strong>the</strong> United <strong>State</strong>s waged foreign wars throughout <strong>the</strong> Twentieth<br />

As<br />

some anthropologists were forced to consider <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>herent<br />

Century,<br />

<strong>the</strong>y had to those <strong>the</strong>y studied. e end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> First World War<br />

obligations<br />

American anthropology a sem<strong>in</strong>al moment rais<strong>in</strong>g core questions<br />

brought<br />

anthropologists’ ethical discomfort <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir discipl<strong>in</strong>e to fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />

about<br />

In 1919 Franz Boas published a letter under <strong>the</strong> title “Scientists as<br />

warfare.<br />

<strong>in</strong> e Nation denounc<strong>in</strong>g four anthropologists for hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Spies”<br />

science” dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> war when <strong>the</strong>y pretended to conduct<br />

“prostituted<br />

research <strong>in</strong> order to undertake espionage <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />

archaeological<br />

for <strong>the</strong> O<br />

ce <strong>of</strong> Naval Intelligence. Boas wrote that <strong>the</strong>se spy-<br />

“have not only shaken <strong>the</strong> belief <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> truthfulness <strong>of</strong><br />

anthropologists<br />

but <strong>the</strong>y have also done <strong>the</strong> greatest possible disservice to scienti c<br />

science,<br />

In consequence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir acts every nation will look with distrust<br />

<strong>in</strong>quiry.<br />

<strong>the</strong> visit<strong>in</strong>g foreign <strong>in</strong>vestigator who wants to do honest work,<br />

upon<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ister designs. Such action has raised a new barrier aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong><br />

suspect<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational friendly cooperation” (Boas 1919). Two weeks<br />

development<br />

er his letter was published, Boas was censured by <strong>the</strong> American<br />

a<br />

Association (AAA). e irony <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA’s 1919 vote to<br />

Anthropological<br />

Boas was that <strong>the</strong> Association accused him <strong>of</strong> abus<strong>in</strong>g his position<br />

censure<br />

political ends. is was not a moment when <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e was <strong>in</strong>terested<br />

for<br />

question<strong>in</strong>g its relationship to <strong>the</strong> larger economic and political world <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

it was enmeshed, much less to develop ethical codes or pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />

which<br />

disclosure <strong>of</strong> sponsorship, or obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g voluntary <strong>in</strong>formed<br />

champion<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Boas’ censure sent clear messages to any anthropologists <strong>in</strong>terested<br />

consent.<br />

question<strong>in</strong>g who or what anthropology should serve.<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Second World War, <strong>the</strong>re was a surpris<strong>in</strong>g lack <strong>of</strong> formal or<br />

Before<br />

concern with basic political or ethical questions relat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

<strong>in</strong>formal<br />

Even basic practices such as us<strong>in</strong>g pseudonyms to protect<br />

anthropology.<br />

participants was so foreign that when Margaret Mead and her <strong>the</strong>n<br />

research<br />

Reo Fortune both studied <strong>the</strong> same Omaha Indian community,<br />

husband<br />

book used a “pseudonym <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antler Tribe, to shield <strong>the</strong> feel<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />

Mead’s<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividuals and to give no a ront to <strong>the</strong> tribal pride” (Mead 1932:16),<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

while her husband’s book fully identi ed <strong>the</strong> same town as Macy, Nebraska,


eal name. Issues <strong>of</strong> power di erentials between researchers and “research<br />

its<br />

were seldom discussed <strong>in</strong> ethnographies, even by anthropologists<br />

subjects”<br />

held o<strong>the</strong>rwise progressive political views. Many anthropologists<br />

who<br />

a research stance that valued <strong>the</strong> discovery <strong>of</strong> scienti c truths over<br />

adopted<br />

for <strong>the</strong> well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> those <strong>the</strong>y studied.<br />

concerns<br />

even a loose set <strong>of</strong> ethical standards, it was easy for<br />

Without<br />

to be swayed to set aside even basic standards <strong>of</strong> decency <strong>in</strong><br />

anthropologists<br />

quest <strong>of</strong> ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g new knowledge. A list <strong>of</strong> abusive anthropological<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

practices dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se early years would be a long one.<br />

e loot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />

for museums and private collections was widespread, voluntary<br />

objects<br />

consent was rare, Boas and o<strong>the</strong>rs secretly looted native grave<br />

<strong>in</strong>formed<br />

Leslie White bribed members <strong>of</strong> an Acoma Pueblo village to disclose<br />

sites,<br />

secrets, John Peabody Harr<strong>in</strong>gton once sent an emergency telegram<br />

sacred<br />

that a dy<strong>in</strong>g Indian elder (who had served as a l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />

demand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

be dosed with opium to keep him alive until Harr<strong>in</strong>gton could<br />

<strong>in</strong>formant)<br />

to his side <strong>in</strong> order to complete a word list he had begun compil<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

travel<br />

so on. and<br />

anthropologists’ <strong>in</strong>teractions with warfare would eventually cause<br />

While<br />

to establish (and later revise) American anthropology’s formal ethics<br />

<strong>the</strong>m<br />

it was <strong>the</strong> more mundane <strong>in</strong>teractions with research participants and<br />

codes,<br />

that showed most anthropologists <strong>the</strong> need for ethical<br />

communities<br />

Because Pre-World War II anthropology was a m<strong>in</strong>or discipl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

standards.<br />

a few scattered university departments and museum anthropologists<br />

with<br />

collect<strong>in</strong>g artifacts and cultural data, not as part <strong>of</strong> large coord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />

mostly<br />

but as <strong>in</strong>dividual e orts to collect cultural <strong>in</strong>formation for its own<br />

projects,<br />

it is easy to understand how <strong>the</strong>se codes did not develop or become<br />

sake,<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rst half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Twentieth Century. Anthropologists were<br />

formalized<br />

agents, collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation that <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>the</strong>m, o en us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

free<br />

funds to nance <strong>the</strong>ir eldwork. Before <strong>the</strong> war, <strong>the</strong>re was not much<br />

own<br />

appreciation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses to which anthropology could be put, or <strong>of</strong><br />

systemic<br />

impacts anthropologists le simply by conduct<strong>in</strong>g eldwork. But like<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

o<strong>the</strong>r elements <strong>of</strong> American life, <strong>the</strong> war changed all that.<br />

many<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r Americans, American anthropologists enlisted and served <strong>in</strong> a<br />

Like<br />

variety <strong>of</strong> capacities dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Second World War. Anthropologist<br />

wide<br />

Wax recalled that at Berkeley, “a er Pearl Harbor, Alfred Kroeber<br />

Murray<br />

came to <strong>the</strong> departmental common room and encouraged <strong>the</strong> students and


faculty by declar<strong>in</strong>g, ‘We will show <strong>the</strong>m what anthropology can do!’<br />

junior<br />

anthropologists recruited <strong>the</strong>mselves” (Wax 2002:2). Suddenly<br />

Indeed,<br />

weren’t just useless campus nerds; <strong>the</strong> military soon realized<br />

anthropologists<br />

<strong>the</strong>y needed pieces <strong>of</strong> anthropology’s skill set: th<strong>in</strong>gs like language skills,<br />

that<br />

geographical knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs who were now enemies. In<br />

customs,<br />

war social scientists were harnessed at new levels as <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

this<br />

propagandists, guerilla <strong>in</strong>surgents, language <strong>in</strong>structors, jungle<br />

analysts,<br />

specialists, saboteurs, foot soldiers, o cers, and spies.<br />

survival<br />

anthropology’s geographical, cultural and l<strong>in</strong>guistic expertise,<br />

Given<br />

had vital sources <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation for commanders and<br />

anthropologists<br />

troops ght<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir way northward from New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, through<br />

American<br />

towards <strong>the</strong> Japanese homeland — and throughout Africa,<br />

Micronesia<br />

and eastern Asia and Europe. Anthropologists scouted for <strong>the</strong><br />

sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />

natural resources like petroleum, magnesium, t<strong>in</strong>, and rubber <strong>in</strong><br />

needed<br />

and South America — sometimes ly<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>tentions while<br />

Central<br />

as eldworkers; at least one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spies that Boas had criticized<br />

pos<strong>in</strong>g<br />

World War One, reprised his role <strong>of</strong> archaeologist spy <strong>in</strong> Peru (Price<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Some anthropologists formed secret and quasi-secret agencies like<br />

2000).<br />

Ethnogeographic Board (meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian’s castle) and <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

(secretly meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Library <strong>of</strong> Congress to generate<br />

“M-Project”<br />

scenarios for relocat<strong>in</strong>g refugees at <strong>the</strong> war’s end), while o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />

fantastical<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> War Relocation Authority camps deta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Japanese<br />

worked<br />

citizens (Price 2008).<br />

American<br />

anthropologists weren’t <strong>the</strong> only anthropologists contribut<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

American<br />

global war. British, German, French, Japanese, and anthropologists from<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

nations contributed <strong>the</strong>ir cultural, geographical and l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

to <strong>the</strong>ir nations dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> war. In From Racism to Genocide:<br />

knowledge<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ird Reich, Gretchen Scha broke a deep silence<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> details <strong>of</strong> Nazi anthropologists, document<strong>in</strong>g how<br />

surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />

research, measur<strong>in</strong>g Germans and o<strong>the</strong>rs, was adapted and<br />

anthropometric<br />

to justify Nazi policies (Scha 2007). Scha raised serious questions<br />

used<br />

only about <strong>the</strong> political contexts determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> uses and abuses <strong>of</strong><br />

not<br />

but she documents anthropology’s own bl<strong>in</strong>d-spots. Scha ’s<br />

anthropology,<br />

<strong>in</strong>to Joseph Mengele’s formal anthropological tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, reveals that<br />

research<br />

anthropologist with <strong>the</strong> highest name recognition <strong>in</strong> all <strong>of</strong> history was<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Margaret Mead, but was <strong>in</strong>stead Joseph Mengele. at most<br />

not


have no idea that Mengele was formally tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />

anthropologists<br />

is a small but signi cant monument to <strong>the</strong> ways that <strong>the</strong><br />

anthropology<br />

has divorced itself from its historical <strong>in</strong>teractions with power.<br />

discipl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

anthropologists at times also worked on disturb<strong>in</strong>g war projects.<br />

American<br />

OSS study sought to identify speci c biological di erences among <strong>the</strong><br />

One<br />

that could be exploited with biological weapons. Ano<strong>the</strong>r OSS<br />

Japanese<br />

was designed to destroy food sources for <strong>the</strong> Japanese homeland,<br />

project<br />

to use ethnographic knowledge to re ne techniques <strong>of</strong> terror. Some<br />

hop<strong>in</strong>g<br />

projects used newly developed applied anthropological<br />

anthropological<br />

to manipulate studied populations (at home and abroad) <strong>in</strong> ways<br />

methods<br />

troubled some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se anthropologists at <strong>the</strong> time and at times<br />

that<br />

democratic movements. ese applications <strong>of</strong> wartime<br />

subverted<br />

anthropology with few limits led anthropologist Laura<br />

ompson to<br />

write <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se concerns <strong>in</strong> 1944, ask<strong>in</strong>g what would become <strong>of</strong> such<br />

publicly<br />

anthropology without limits, and want<strong>in</strong>g to know “are practical social<br />

an<br />

to become technicians for hire to <strong>the</strong> highest bidder?” (1944:12).<br />

scientists<br />

was <strong>the</strong> Nuremberg Trials a er <strong>the</strong> war that provided anthropology and<br />

It<br />

all <strong>the</strong> human and social sciences <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir modern ethic codes.<br />

e<br />

Code <strong>in</strong>sisted that scientists study<strong>in</strong>g human be<strong>in</strong>gs (<strong>in</strong> war and<br />

Nuremburg<br />

must obta<strong>in</strong> voluntary <strong>in</strong>formed consent, must avoid caus<strong>in</strong>g mental<br />

peace)<br />

physical su er<strong>in</strong>g, must protect research subjects, must use quali ed<br />

and<br />

and must give research subjects <strong>the</strong> power to end <strong>the</strong> studies<br />

personnel,<br />

risks appear. While it was Nazi atrocities, many <strong>of</strong> which were<br />

when<br />

not simply as acts <strong>of</strong> cruelty, but to ga<strong>in</strong> valuable <strong>in</strong>formation to<br />

conducted<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir war e ort (e.g. <strong>the</strong>ir lethal hypo<strong>the</strong>rmia studies) that led to <strong>the</strong><br />

assist<br />

<strong>of</strong> this rst modern ethical code, it would transform post-war<br />

development<br />

<strong>in</strong> public and private sett<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

research<br />

a direct result <strong>of</strong> its members’ experiences <strong>in</strong> World War II, <strong>in</strong> 1948 <strong>the</strong><br />

As<br />

for Applied <strong>Anthropology</strong> articulated <strong>the</strong> rst formalized American<br />

Society<br />

code <strong>of</strong> ethics. is code stressed that <strong>the</strong> “anthropologist<br />

anthropological<br />

take responsibility for <strong>the</strong> e ects <strong>of</strong> his recommendations, never<br />

must<br />

that he is merely a technician unconcerned with <strong>the</strong> ends<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

which his applied scienti c skills are directed” (Mead et al. 1949:20).<br />

toward<br />

stated that, “<strong>the</strong> applied anthropologist should recognize a special<br />

It<br />

to use his skill <strong>in</strong> such a way as to prevent any occurrence<br />

responsibility<br />

will set <strong>in</strong> motion a tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> events which <strong>in</strong>volves irreversible losses<br />

which


health or <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> life to <strong>in</strong>dividuals or groups or irreversible damage to<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

natural productivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> physical environment” (Mead et al. 1949:21).<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

was no accident that it was <strong>the</strong> applied anthropologists’ pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

It<br />

and not <strong>the</strong> larger, highly academic AAA, that rst developed an<br />

society,<br />

ethics code.<br />

e experiences and traumas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Second World War forced<br />

anthropologists to take a hard look at what had been and what could<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

done with <strong>the</strong>ir work. e war also le many anthropologists conclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

be<br />

<strong>the</strong> military frequently did not listen to <strong>the</strong>ir analysis because it went<br />

that<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional assumptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> agencies which sought <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> war, <strong>the</strong> academic journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA cont<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />

advice.<br />

articles about obscure k<strong>in</strong>ship systems and carry on lo y <strong>the</strong>oretical<br />

publish<br />

but Applied <strong>Anthropology</strong> carried articles detail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> logistics <strong>of</strong><br />

debates,<br />

Japanese Americans, wartime labor issues, and forms <strong>of</strong> social<br />

imprison<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> service <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war, and once <strong>the</strong> guns <strong>of</strong> war fell silent those<br />

eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

had been drawn <strong>in</strong>to contribut<strong>in</strong>g anthropology so directly to this ght<br />

who<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g hard about what it all meant, and what limits should exist.<br />

started<br />

War II taught anthropologists to work on directed research projects<br />

World<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own design, and <strong>the</strong> Cold War’s showers <strong>of</strong> previously<br />

not<br />

public and private funds for anthropological research shi ed<br />

unimag<strong>in</strong>able<br />

anthropological imag<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>in</strong> ways aligned with geopolitics.<br />

e early<br />

War brought new lucrative federal fund<strong>in</strong>g programs for foreign<br />

Cold<br />

study, and Area Study Centers (adopt<strong>in</strong>g and spread<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

language<br />

approach to regional studies developed at <strong>the</strong> OSS dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

war) mixed a new wealth <strong>of</strong> public and private funds for anthropologists<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

study <strong>the</strong> Underdeveloped World at <strong>the</strong> center <strong>of</strong> Cold War politics.<br />

to<br />

<strong>the</strong> Cold War, <strong>the</strong> CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies used fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

through ei<strong>the</strong>r agency controlled dummy foundations or by<br />

fronts,<br />

research monies to “useful” research projects through bona de<br />

channel<strong>in</strong>g<br />

research foundations without <strong>the</strong> recipient’s knowledge.<br />

ese foundations<br />

known as “pass-throughs” or fund<strong>in</strong>g fronts. In <strong>the</strong> mid-1970s, <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />

are<br />

Church Committee determ<strong>in</strong>ed that dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> mid-1960s such<br />

Congress’<br />

allowed <strong>the</strong> CIA to manipulate about half <strong>the</strong> grants made for<br />

maneuvers<br />

research <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> USA. For <strong>the</strong> most part <strong>the</strong>se were unwitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

(Church Committee 1976:182).<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

Cold War anthropologists quietly passed through <strong>the</strong> revolv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Uncounted<br />

door between <strong>the</strong> academy and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies with little notice or


concern by <strong>the</strong>ir colleagues. Anthropologists covered <strong>the</strong><br />

ird World, and<br />

most anthropologists were do<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> exact academic research <strong>the</strong>y<br />

while<br />

<strong>the</strong>y were, some anthropologists had o<strong>the</strong>r agendas. In <strong>the</strong> early<br />

claimed<br />

War Frank Hibb<strong>in</strong> used eldwork as a cover to secretly plant devices to<br />

Cold<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese atomic bomb tests. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this same period, <strong>the</strong> AAA<br />

monitor<br />

Board covertly provided <strong>the</strong> CIA with a master roster <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

Executive<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g language abilities, foreign contacts, and geographical<br />

membership,<br />

(Price 2003). Sometimes anthropologists were sponsored by<br />

specialties<br />

fronts and didn’t even know that <strong>the</strong>ir sponsors were actually <strong>the</strong><br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

such as when anthropologists writ<strong>in</strong>g about stress <strong>in</strong> di erent cultures<br />

CIA,<br />

funded by <strong>the</strong> Human Ecology Fund, a CIA front work<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> CIA’s<br />

were<br />

KUBARK <strong>in</strong>terrogation manual (Price 2007).<br />

rough such means<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r social scientists became unwitt<strong>in</strong>g CIA laboratory<br />

anthropologists<br />

exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g questions <strong>of</strong> mutual <strong>in</strong>terest while earn<strong>in</strong>g money and<br />

mules<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir academic careers. Many anthropologists were oblivious to<br />

advanc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

political context <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y worked, which Laura Nader<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> period as “sleepwalk<strong>in</strong>g” through <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />

characterized<br />

(Nader 1997).<br />

anthropology<br />

1964, <strong>the</strong> U.S. Army’s Project Camelot sought to use anthropologists<br />

In<br />

sociologists to study patterns <strong>of</strong> ird World social upheaval and<br />

and<br />

Project Camelot planned to use anthropologists’ and sociologists’<br />

revolution.<br />

to develop counter<strong>in</strong>surgency tactics to quell upris<strong>in</strong>gs (democratic<br />

research<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rwise) <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America. When <strong>the</strong> Norwegian sociologist Johan<br />

or<br />

was contacted <strong>in</strong> a futile e ort to recruit him for Camelot’s Chilean<br />

Galtung<br />

program, he publicly exposed <strong>the</strong> project. A sizable<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

uproar followed and soon <strong>the</strong> AAA began scrut<strong>in</strong>iz<strong>in</strong>g programs<br />

public<br />

to use social science to <strong>in</strong>form counter<strong>in</strong>surgency.<br />

designed<br />

anthropologists’ outrage, grow<strong>in</strong>g suspicions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

With<br />

public scrut<strong>in</strong>y and academic criticism, Project Camelot never<br />

community,<br />

o <strong>the</strong> ground. As Marshall Sahl<strong>in</strong>s wrote at <strong>the</strong> time, “as a tactic <strong>of</strong><br />

got<br />

Lat<strong>in</strong> American unrest and anti-North American sentiment,<br />

foment<strong>in</strong>g<br />

would be <strong>the</strong> envy <strong>of</strong> any Communist conspiracy. We have heard <strong>of</strong><br />

Camelot<br />

self-ful ll<strong>in</strong>g prophecy; here was <strong>the</strong> self-ful ll<strong>in</strong>g research proposal”<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

1967:73). e American Anthropological Association reacted to<br />

(Sahl<strong>in</strong>s<br />

by establish<strong>in</strong>g a committee led by Ralph Beals that wrote a 1967<br />

Camelot<br />

on “Background Information on Problems <strong>of</strong> Anthropological<br />

report


Research and Ethics.”<br />

e report identi ed many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fundamental ethical<br />

to be articulated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA’s rst ethics code four years later.<br />

pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />

Camelot was a ashpo<strong>in</strong>t for academic anger <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-1960s, but<br />

Project<br />

was but one <strong>of</strong> many counter<strong>in</strong>surgency programs draw<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

it<br />

Anthropologists worked on Strategic Hamlet Program <strong>in</strong><br />

anthropologists.<br />

and were beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to work on a number <strong>of</strong> so-called<br />

Vietnam,<br />

Programs” managed by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Agency for International<br />

“Modernization<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r agencies which had rationales similar to those<br />

Development<br />

by omas Je erson <strong>in</strong> his secret congressional brie ng.<br />

articulated<br />

work<strong>in</strong>g for RAND <strong>in</strong> Vietnam supported a number <strong>of</strong><br />

Anthropologists<br />

agricultural counter<strong>in</strong>surgency programs. In <strong>the</strong> 1960s, military<br />

rural<br />

and <strong>in</strong>telligence analysts suddenly rediscovered <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong><br />

strategists<br />

and began dream<strong>in</strong>g that culture might hold answers to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

anthropology,<br />

problems. e Special Operations research O ce (SORO) and its<br />

military<br />

CINFAC (Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Information Analysis)<br />

cous<strong>in</strong>-organization<br />

a whole series <strong>of</strong> crazy sound<strong>in</strong>g (and read<strong>in</strong>g) papers on<br />

published<br />

related topics like <strong>the</strong> 1964 classic, “Witchcra , Sorcery,<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

Magic and O<strong>the</strong>r Psychological Phenomena and<br />

eir Implications on<br />

and Paramilitary Operations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Congo,” or CINFAC’s Sta “An<br />

Military<br />

Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian Prov<strong>in</strong>ces <strong>of</strong> Harar and Sidamo,”<br />

Ethnographic<br />

and a series <strong>of</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency related documents.<br />

e military and CIA<br />

<strong>in</strong> over <strong>the</strong>ir head with a mix <strong>of</strong> overt and covert operations around <strong>the</strong><br />

were<br />

and <strong>the</strong>y held out hopes that “culture” was <strong>the</strong> panacea for <strong>the</strong> forms<br />

world,<br />

social control <strong>the</strong>y envisioned.<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

many American anthropologists <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-1960s, it was this prospect<br />

For<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency that raised <strong>the</strong> most<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

ethical and political questions about apply<strong>in</strong>g anthropology to<br />

fundamental<br />

needs <strong>of</strong> warfare. Us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology to alter and underm<strong>in</strong>e<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

cultural movements cut aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> widely shared<br />

<strong>in</strong>digenous<br />

assumptions about <strong>the</strong> rights <strong>of</strong> cultures and people to<br />

anthropological<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir own dest<strong>in</strong>y. In 1968 a full-page ad for a Vietnam War<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency position appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> back <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American<br />

PYSOP<br />

journal led over eight hundred anthropologists to sign a<br />

Anthropologist<br />

protest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> this ad <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> American Anthropologist.<br />

statement<br />

Wolf, Robert Murphy, Marv<strong>in</strong> Harris, Mort Fried, Dell Hymes, and<br />

Eric<br />

Harold Conkl<strong>in</strong> later wrote a policy forbidd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Association from


advertisements for employment that produced secretive reports.<br />

accept<strong>in</strong>g<br />

border <strong>in</strong>cursions by military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies pushed <strong>the</strong><br />

ese<br />

to undertake steps that led <strong>the</strong>m closer to dra <strong>in</strong>g its rst ethics code.<br />

AAA<br />

while <strong>the</strong> Association leadership strove to frame members concerns <strong>in</strong><br />

And<br />

<strong>of</strong> ethics, <strong>the</strong> political issues raised by us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology for<br />

terms<br />

drove much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> debate.<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

1967 a self-identi ed “Radical Caucus” <strong>of</strong> anthropologists was<br />

In<br />

and us<strong>in</strong>g grassroots techniques it seized political power at <strong>the</strong><br />

organized,<br />

annual meet<strong>in</strong>gs, draw<strong>in</strong>g massive crowds to <strong>the</strong> sessions <strong>the</strong>y<br />

AAA’s<br />

ood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> annual bus<strong>in</strong>ess meet<strong>in</strong>gs with caucus members who<br />

organized,<br />

<strong>the</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>gs to push through political resolutions aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

used<br />

contributions to <strong>the</strong> war, and support<strong>in</strong>g a broad platform<br />

anthropological<br />

progressive issues rang<strong>in</strong>g from anti-discrim<strong>in</strong>ation policies and call<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> an ethics code, to call<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> association to<br />

for<br />

provide childcare at <strong>the</strong> annual meet<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

is movement successfully<br />

<strong>the</strong> AAA’s Board to dra an ethics code (known as <strong>the</strong> Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong><br />

pressed<br />

Responsibility) that mandated members “do no harm,” disclose<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

sources and uses <strong>of</strong> research, and forbid covert research and <strong>the</strong><br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> secret reports.<br />

production<br />

1970 a graduate student at UCLA stole documents from <strong>the</strong> les <strong>of</strong><br />

In<br />

Michael Moerman. ese documents established that<br />

anthropologist<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r anthropologists <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

Moerman<br />

<strong>in</strong> ailand. Copies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se stolen documents were sent to Eric<br />

operations<br />

<strong>the</strong> chair <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA’s Ethics Committee, and to a radical newspaper,<br />

Wolf,<br />

Student Mobilizer. A er Eric Wolf publicly questioned <strong>the</strong> propriety <strong>of</strong><br />

e<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency work, <strong>the</strong> AAA Executive Board harshly criticized<br />

this<br />

and Eric Wolf resigned as Chair <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ethics Committee. ere were<br />

Wolf,<br />

charged debates between anthropologists across <strong>the</strong> country, and <strong>the</strong><br />

highly<br />

Board appo<strong>in</strong>ted an <strong>in</strong>dependent committee chaired by Margaret<br />

AAA<br />

to <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>the</strong>se matters (Wak<strong>in</strong> 1993).<br />

Mead<br />

<strong>the</strong> Mead Committee’s report was a disaster. When <strong>the</strong> committee<br />

But<br />

its report <strong>in</strong> late 1971, <strong>the</strong>ir nd<strong>in</strong>gs were seen as a cover-up by<br />

submitted<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA membership because <strong>the</strong> report focused most <strong>of</strong> its<br />

many<br />

not on <strong>the</strong> anthropologists engaged <strong>in</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency <strong>in</strong><br />

criticism<br />

Asia, but on Ethics Committee chairman Wolf for mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Sou<strong>the</strong>ast<br />

judgments without a ord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> accused anthropologists due process and


tak<strong>in</strong>g actions beyond those procedurally identi ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA bylaws<br />

for<br />

<strong>the</strong> Ethics Committee’s charge. e Radical Caucus packed <strong>the</strong> 1971<br />

and<br />

Council meet<strong>in</strong>g and used <strong>the</strong>ir numbers to seize control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

AAA<br />

and though <strong>the</strong> AAA leadership had not wanted <strong>the</strong> report to be<br />

agenda,<br />

or rejected, a motion was made, seconded and adopted which<br />

approved<br />

<strong>the</strong> Mead Report. But more signi cant than <strong>the</strong> rejection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

rejected<br />

Report was that all <strong>the</strong> commotion and anger over <strong>the</strong> weaponization<br />

Mead<br />

anthropology <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> aborted Camelot Project and Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asia<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

ed <strong>the</strong> AAA membership’s vote to adopt <strong>the</strong> Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

solidi<br />

<strong>the</strong> AAA’s rst Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics, <strong>in</strong> a vote that pushed by <strong>the</strong><br />

Responsibility,<br />

concerns <strong>of</strong> warfare.<br />

political<br />

AAA’s 1971 Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>essional Responsibility unambiguously<br />

e<br />

that anthropologists should not conduct covert research, should<br />

declared<br />

issue secret reports (to governmental agencies or anyone else) and must<br />

not<br />

to use pseudonyms to protect <strong>the</strong> identities and well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> those<br />

work<br />

studied. is 1971 code clari ed that anthropologists’ primary loyalties<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

to those <strong>the</strong>y studied. In <strong>the</strong> immediate sense, <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

were<br />

AAA Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics was a discipl<strong>in</strong>ary reaction to CIA and Pentagon<br />

1971<br />

e orts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Vietnam War; but <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> larger sense, it was<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

<strong>the</strong> product <strong>of</strong> a grow<strong>in</strong>g awareness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problems and concerns<br />

also<br />

when anthropology is used not only for warfare, but <strong>in</strong> any<br />

raised<br />

between anthropology and research participants.<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

war brought anthropology ethics, <strong>in</strong> some sense, military and<br />

While<br />

agencies’ temporary neglect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e contributed to a<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

<strong>the</strong>se ethical proclamations. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1980s, as <strong>the</strong> press<strong>in</strong>g<br />

weaken<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> abuses <strong>in</strong> wartime were replaced by market-driven concerns<br />

concerns<br />

responsibilities to sponsors; concerns that <strong>in</strong>cluded loosen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

over<br />

over secretive reports or reports conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g what <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

prohibitions<br />

“proprietary data.” Shi s <strong>in</strong> anthropology’s political economy<br />

termed<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g desires to produce proprietary reports for <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

brought<br />

which spawned successful e orts to loosen <strong>the</strong> AAA’s Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics<br />

1980s,<br />

allow for more secrecy.<br />

to<br />

shi troubled many university-based anthropologists because it<br />

is<br />

appropriate relationships between pr<strong>of</strong>essional ethics and desires to<br />

<strong>in</strong>verted<br />

produce or control knowledge.<br />

e 1990 relaxation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA’s Code <strong>of</strong><br />

Ethics allow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong> proprietary, secretive, reports, occurred


easons <strong>of</strong> commerce as <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number <strong>of</strong> anthropologists worked<br />

for<br />

<strong>of</strong> universities <strong>in</strong> corporate or governmental sett<strong>in</strong>gs, but it would be<br />

outside<br />

re-militarized America follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> attacks <strong>of</strong> 9/11 <strong>in</strong> 2001 that<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

how <strong>the</strong>se changes expressed anthropology’s commitments<br />

demonstrated<br />

responsibilities dur<strong>in</strong>g times <strong>of</strong> war.<br />

and<br />

Bush’s wars at home, Afghanistan and Iraq brought new uses for<br />

President<br />

and anthropologists, many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se engagements occurred<br />

anthropology<br />

ethical complications, while o<strong>the</strong>rs, especially those <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

without<br />

went far beyond what <strong>the</strong> previous generation <strong>of</strong><br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

would considered ethical uses <strong>of</strong> anthropology. Increas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

anthropologists<br />

<strong>of</strong> anthropologists responded to militarized calls <strong>in</strong> ways that<br />

numbers<br />

anthropological ethics as a luxury not to be a orded by those<br />

viewed<br />

need<strong>in</strong>g anthropology’s ethnographic knowledge for warfare.<br />

e clearest<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se views came from anthropologist Montgomery McFate,<br />

expression<br />

openly sought to militarize anthropology with <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong><br />

who<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency teams known as Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams.<br />

embedded<br />

McFate led <strong>the</strong> charge to recruit anthropologists, bluntly admitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Doctor<br />

“despite <strong>the</strong> fact that military applications <strong>of</strong> cultural knowledge might<br />

that<br />

distasteful to ethically <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed anthropologists, <strong>the</strong>ir assistance is<br />

be<br />

(McFate 2005:37). Ra<strong>the</strong>r than confront<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> complexity <strong>of</strong><br />

necessary”<br />

relationships, McFate’s Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams simply ignored <strong>the</strong>m.<br />

ethical<br />

9/11 e orts to militarize anthropology lean on false historical<br />

Post<br />

that construct unrealistic <strong>in</strong>terpretations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong><br />

narratives<br />

chang<strong>in</strong>g entrenched military structures, and an abandonment<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />

normative understand<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional ethics. e Pentagon, White<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

and military contractors pa<strong>in</strong>ted pictures <strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams<br />

House,<br />

“armed social workers.” But us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

as<br />

<strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e’s potential; and <strong>the</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Program took <strong>the</strong><br />

perverts<br />

<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r ethnographers and applied it for occupations <strong>in</strong> ways that<br />

research<br />

<strong>the</strong> science or art <strong>of</strong> ethnography and resold it as a sort <strong>of</strong> social science<br />

took<br />

pornography.<br />

BUT ETHICS CAN BE A FORCE THAT ALLOWS ANTHROPOLOGY TO AVOID<br />

POLITICS<br />

between 1971 and today, American anthropologists lost <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

Somewhere<br />

strong sense <strong>of</strong> outrage over <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e be<strong>in</strong>g so nakedly used<br />

collective


counter<strong>in</strong>surgency. Part <strong>of</strong> this loss <strong>of</strong> outrage comes with <strong>the</strong><br />

for<br />

<strong>of</strong> historical memory as fewer Americans know <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />

degeneration<br />

CIA’s legacy <strong>of</strong> assass<strong>in</strong>ations, coups and death squads and a history <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

democratic movements harmful to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>of</strong> American<br />

underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

elites.<br />

e <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g corporatization <strong>of</strong> university campuses over <strong>the</strong> past<br />

has reduced expectations <strong>of</strong> academic <strong>in</strong>dependence, and has le<br />

decades<br />

departments will<strong>in</strong>g to consider anyth<strong>in</strong>g that promises to<br />

under-funded<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g. Post-9/11 America has become so fervently militarized<br />

provide<br />

many anthropologists privately question<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se developments rema<strong>in</strong><br />

that<br />

silent because <strong>the</strong>y fear a mob response should Fox News target<br />

publicly<br />

as unpatriotic <strong>in</strong>tellectual snobs. Today, news <strong>of</strong> anthropologists’<br />

<strong>the</strong>m<br />

<strong>in</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency programs still mobilizes a core group <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>volvement<br />

but <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e as a whole refra<strong>in</strong>s from stat<strong>in</strong>g outright<br />

scholars,<br />

opposition to anthropologically <strong>in</strong>formed counter<strong>in</strong>surgency.<br />

e grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> American social science s<strong>in</strong>ce 2001 slowly raised concerns<br />

militarism<br />

a large number <strong>of</strong> anthropologists.<br />

among<br />

2006, <strong>the</strong>se developments pressed <strong>the</strong> AAA to form a commission, <strong>of</strong><br />

In<br />

I was a member, charged with <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> issues raised by<br />

which<br />

engagements with military, <strong>in</strong>telligence and national<br />

anthropologists’<br />

agencies; and this commission chose to del<strong>in</strong>eate <strong>the</strong> ethical issues<br />

security<br />

by <strong>the</strong>se engagements (AAA 2007 & 2009). While this exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />

raised<br />

ethics provided some guidance to <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>the</strong><br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

<strong>in</strong>ability to critique <strong>the</strong> political issues leaves <strong>the</strong> primary<br />

Association’s<br />

<strong>of</strong> many anthropologists unaddressed.<br />

concerns<br />

way that <strong>the</strong>se political issues were addressed was with <strong>the</strong> formation<br />

One<br />

<strong>the</strong> Network <strong>of</strong> Concerned Anthropologists by a group <strong>of</strong> colleagues and<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> 2007 helped focus political and ethical opposition to<br />

myself<br />

and <strong>the</strong> militarization <strong>of</strong> anthropology. Anthropologist<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

Turner drew upon widespread concerns over <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Terry<br />

<strong>of</strong> anthropology to press <strong>the</strong> AAA to restore language <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

weaponization<br />

<strong>of</strong> Ethics prohibit<strong>in</strong>g secretive research. Some anthropologists have<br />

Code<br />

that it is “unfortunate” that revisions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA’s Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics is<br />

argued<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g a time marked by active warfare — <strong>the</strong> implication be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />

political or emotional factors stand to override objective rationality.<br />

that<br />

arguments act as if political vacuums existed <strong>in</strong> nature, laboratories or<br />

Such<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong>’s consideration <strong>of</strong> ethics has always been pushed<br />

anywhere.


warfare — and a er 9/11, <strong>the</strong> mercenary nature <strong>of</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

by<br />

drives anthropological discussions <strong>of</strong> ethics.<br />

necessarily<br />

2008, <strong>the</strong> AAA membership voted to restore general prohibitions<br />

In<br />

secrecy by add<strong>in</strong>g a section to <strong>the</strong> Association’s ethics code stat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

“anthropologists should not withhold research results from research<br />

that:<br />

when those results are shared with o<strong>the</strong>rs” (AAA Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics<br />

participants<br />

2). Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems, o<strong>the</strong>r militarized forms <strong>of</strong> anthropology, as<br />

VI,<br />

as pressures and changes <strong>in</strong> applied and non-applied forms <strong>of</strong><br />

well<br />

led <strong>the</strong> AAA Executive Board <strong>in</strong> late 2008 to appo<strong>in</strong>t an ad<br />

anthropology<br />

committee charged with revis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Association’s Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics (at <strong>the</strong><br />

hoc<br />

<strong>of</strong> this writ<strong>in</strong>g, I am a member <strong>of</strong> this committee). Obama’s wars and<br />

time<br />

militarization <strong>of</strong> society casts shadows over this undertak<strong>in</strong>g —<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

just how <strong>the</strong>se shadows will <strong>in</strong> uence <strong>the</strong>se revisions to <strong>the</strong> ethics code<br />

but<br />

unclear. While <strong>the</strong> issues addressed by anthropological ethics codes<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />

address rout<strong>in</strong>e anthropological activities, war rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> force that<br />

must<br />

<strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se issues to <strong>the</strong> fore.<br />

pushes<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations like <strong>the</strong> AAA have historically taken<br />

While<br />

stances on some issues (most generally deal<strong>in</strong>g with matters <strong>of</strong><br />

political<br />

equality, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g statements on race and marriage), and adopted<br />

social<br />

l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e to support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Second World War, <strong>the</strong>re<br />

policies<br />

a great resistance to confront<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ways that discipl<strong>in</strong>ary ethics<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />

l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> political context <strong>in</strong> which anthropology is practiced.<br />

are<br />

<strong>the</strong> rank and le membership <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AAA have adopted<br />

Although<br />

condemn<strong>in</strong>g particular unpopular wars or military actions (<strong>the</strong><br />

resolutions<br />

War, <strong>the</strong> Iraq War, etc.), <strong>the</strong> Association rema<strong>in</strong>s skittish <strong>in</strong><br />

Vietnam<br />

stances on <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> anthropology <strong>in</strong> non-defensive wars <strong>of</strong><br />

adopt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

or wars <strong>of</strong> imperialism. Instead, pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations like <strong>the</strong><br />

aggression,<br />

are pressured to keep <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional focus on del<strong>in</strong>eat<strong>in</strong>g ethical, not<br />

AAA<br />

practices.<br />

political,<br />

<strong>the</strong> surface, <strong>the</strong>se dist<strong>in</strong>ctions between ethical and political concerns<br />

On<br />

a certa<strong>in</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> sense if you follow <strong>the</strong> logic that pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

make<br />

have legitimate concerns with establish<strong>in</strong>g “best practices.” But this<br />

ethics<br />

stops short <strong>of</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g fundamental issues rang<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong><br />

reason<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> associations support<strong>in</strong>g some political causes (e.g., racial<br />

<strong>in</strong>consistency<br />

<strong>the</strong> Second World War) and not o<strong>the</strong>rs, and it fails to address just<br />

equality,<br />

problematic notions <strong>of</strong> “best practices” are if <strong>the</strong>y don’t <strong>in</strong>clude basic<br />

how


stances like oppos<strong>in</strong>g imperialism, neo-colonialism, and support<strong>in</strong>g<br />

political<br />

rights <strong>of</strong> nations to self determ<strong>in</strong>ation. While pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> AAA, o en embrace doctr<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> universal human rights (<strong>the</strong> AAA<br />

like<br />

such positions can <strong>in</strong>solate organizations from adopt<strong>in</strong>g positions on<br />

does),<br />

c issues.<br />

speci<br />

dist<strong>in</strong>ctions between ethics and politics limit <strong>the</strong> critiques that<br />

ese<br />

with<strong>in</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations. Such dist<strong>in</strong>ctions mean <strong>the</strong><br />

develop<br />

erence <strong>in</strong> organizations, like <strong>the</strong> AAA, oppos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

di<br />

use <strong>of</strong> anthropologists for ethical reasons (because it does not<br />

program’s<br />

voluntary <strong>in</strong>formed consent, endangers studied populations etc.), or<br />

obta<strong>in</strong><br />

it for political reasons (because it assists <strong>the</strong> American military <strong>in</strong><br />

oppos<strong>in</strong>g<br />

unjust project <strong>of</strong> empire, occupation, and exploitation). As long as<br />

an<br />

associations limit <strong>the</strong>se discussions to <strong>the</strong> realm <strong>of</strong> ethics, and<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se political issues embedded <strong>in</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g<br />

avoid<br />

research <strong>in</strong> a nation engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> global military expansion,<br />

anthropological<br />

critiques <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se associations must be limited to critiques <strong>of</strong> manners<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

techniques, not <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> underly<strong>in</strong>g political program employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and<br />

for conquest.<br />

anthropology<br />

associations focus<strong>in</strong>g on ethics while sett<strong>in</strong>g aside politics,<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

<strong>the</strong> larger political issues <strong>of</strong> how anthropological engagements with<br />

ignore<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence, national security sectors relate to US foreign policy,<br />

military,<br />

military campaigns, <strong>the</strong> Global War on Terror and a grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

neo-colonial<br />

reliance on anthropologically <strong>in</strong>formed counter<strong>in</strong>surgency. But<br />

military<br />

or not, <strong>the</strong>se political issues rema<strong>in</strong> at <strong>the</strong> forefront <strong>of</strong> many<br />

addressed<br />

concerns over <strong>the</strong>se issues, even while <strong>the</strong>ir pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

anthropologists’<br />

generally limit <strong>the</strong>ir focus on ethics.<br />

associations<br />

associations like <strong>the</strong> AAA hope to position <strong>the</strong>mselves as<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

neutral, but <strong>the</strong>re is no political neutrality. ere is only silence or<br />

politically<br />

on <strong>the</strong>se issues — and silence most usually means acquiescence<br />

engagement<br />

national policies, which is itself a dangerous political position. e AAA<br />

to<br />

address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> political mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology <strong>in</strong> military<br />

avoids<br />

that <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> occupation and conquest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peoples<br />

contexts<br />

work with and study. It is as if some anthropologists believe<br />

anthropologists<br />

address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se issues would underm<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> scienti c (or humanistic)<br />

that<br />

<strong>of</strong> our work — yet <strong>the</strong> measures <strong>of</strong> anthropologists’ work are<br />

nature<br />

measured by criteria such as reliability, validity, rigor <strong>of</strong> method<br />

generally


criteria that need not be underm<strong>in</strong>ed by directly address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> political<br />

etc.,<br />

that seeks anthropologists, our data and methods.<br />

project<br />

<strong>the</strong> Obama Adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s <strong>in</strong>creased reliance on<br />

Given<br />

so power <strong>in</strong> Afghanistan, <strong>the</strong> political and ethical<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency’s<br />

raised by anthropologists manipulat<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r cultures <strong>in</strong> ways aligned<br />

issues<br />

US foreign policy will grow <strong>in</strong> importance. Anthropologists need to<br />

with<br />

limit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir critiques to issues <strong>of</strong> ethics and br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> political issues<br />

resist<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ation to <strong>the</strong> fore <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir critiques.<br />

<strong>of</strong>


and academe with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g a powerful post-9/11 national security<br />

complex<br />

is that <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g militarization <strong>of</strong> higher education is itself a problem that may be<br />

state<br />

more <strong>in</strong>sidious, damag<strong>in</strong>g, and dangerous to <strong>the</strong> fate <strong>of</strong> democracy than that posed by<br />

even<br />

who “hate our freedoms.<br />

terrorists<br />

Two: The CIA’s University Spies<br />

Chapter<br />

PRISP, ICSP, NSEP, and <strong>the</strong> Big<br />

-<br />

Payback<br />

is overlooked <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g, enthusiastic collaboration between <strong>the</strong> military-<strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

What<br />

— Henry Giroux<br />

9/11 changes on American university campuses transformed university<br />

Post<br />

<strong>in</strong>to covert tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g grounds for <strong>the</strong> CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r agencies <strong>in</strong><br />

classrooms<br />

that <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly threaten fundamental pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> academic<br />

ways<br />

as well as <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong> a wide array <strong>of</strong> academic discipl<strong>in</strong>es.<br />

openness<br />

programs developed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past half decade found new ways to<br />

Several<br />

place students with undisclosed ties to <strong>the</strong> CIA, FBI, NSA, <strong>the</strong><br />

secretly<br />

Intelligence Agency and Homeland Security <strong>in</strong> American university<br />

Defense<br />

classrooms.<br />

have long been tensions between <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> academia and <strong>the</strong><br />

ere<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Security <strong>State</strong>; and even before <strong>the</strong> events <strong>of</strong> 9/11<br />

needs<br />

<strong>the</strong> powers <strong>of</strong> American <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies, universities were<br />

expanded<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g modi ed to serve <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies <strong>in</strong> new and<br />

quietly<br />

covert ways.<br />

e most visible <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se reforms was <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Security Education Program (NSEP) which siphoned-o students<br />

National<br />

traditional foreign language fund<strong>in</strong>g programs such as Fulbright or<br />

from<br />

VI. While traditional fund<strong>in</strong>g sources provide students with small<br />

Title<br />

<strong>of</strong> a few thousand dollars to study foreign languages <strong>in</strong> American<br />

stipends<br />

<strong>the</strong> NSEP gives graduate students a wealth <strong>of</strong> funds (at times<br />

universities,<br />

$40,000 a year) to study “<strong>in</strong> demand” languages, but with<br />

exceed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

pay-back stipulations mandat<strong>in</strong>g that recipients later work for<br />

troubl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ed U.S. national security agencies. Upon its debut <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early<br />

unspeci<br />

<strong>the</strong> NSEP was harshly criticized for reach<strong>in</strong>g through an assumed<br />

1990s,<br />

separat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> desires <strong>of</strong> academia and state (Rub<strong>in</strong> 1996).<br />

barrier<br />

academic organizations, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> Middle East Studies<br />

Numerous<br />

and <strong>the</strong> African Studies Association, Lat<strong>in</strong> American Studies<br />

Association


and even <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream Boards <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Social</strong> <strong>Science</strong> Research<br />

Association,<br />

and American Council <strong>of</strong> Learned Societies expressed deep<br />

Council<br />

over scholars’ participation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> NSEP. And though <strong>the</strong> NSEP<br />

concerns<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g students despite <strong>the</strong>se protests, <strong>the</strong>re was some solace <strong>in</strong><br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ues<br />

so many diverse academic organizations condemned this program.<br />

know<strong>in</strong>g<br />

while many academics and pr<strong>of</strong>essional associations openly opposed<br />

But<br />

NSEP’s entrance onto American campuses, <strong>the</strong>re has been little public<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

to an even more troubl<strong>in</strong>g post-9/11 fund<strong>in</strong>g program which<br />

reaction<br />

<strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g American <strong>in</strong>telligence-university-<strong>in</strong>terface. With little<br />

upgrades<br />

Congress approved section 318 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2004 Intelligence Authorization<br />

notice<br />

which appropriated four million dollars to fund a pilot program known<br />

Act<br />

<strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program (PRISP). Named a er<br />

as<br />

Pat Roberts (R. Kansas, <strong>the</strong>n Chair, Senate Select Committee on<br />

Senator<br />

PRISP was designed to tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence operatives and<br />

Intelligence),<br />

<strong>in</strong> American university classrooms for careers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

analysts<br />

PRISP now operates on an undisclosed number <strong>of</strong> American<br />

agencies.<br />

and university campuses, and a er <strong>the</strong> pilot phase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> program<br />

college<br />

to be a useful means <strong>of</strong> recruit<strong>in</strong>g and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g members <strong>of</strong><br />

proved<br />

agencies, <strong>the</strong> program cont<strong>in</strong>ues to expand to campuses across<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

country. <strong>the</strong><br />

participants must be American citizens who are enrolled fulltime <strong>in</strong><br />

PRISP<br />

degree programs with a m<strong>in</strong>imum GPA <strong>of</strong> 3.4, <strong>the</strong>y need to<br />

graduate<br />

at least one summer <strong>in</strong>ternship at CIA or o<strong>the</strong>r agencies,” and<br />

“complete<br />

must pass <strong>the</strong> same background <strong>in</strong>vestigations as o<strong>the</strong>r CIA employees.<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

students receive nancial stipends rang<strong>in</strong>g up to $25,000 per year and<br />

PRISP<br />

are required to participate <strong>in</strong> closed meet<strong>in</strong>gs with o<strong>the</strong>r PRISP<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

and <strong>in</strong>dividuals from <strong>the</strong>ir adm<strong>in</strong>ister<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence agency.<br />

scholars<br />

2003, <strong>the</strong> Lawrence Journal World (11/29/03) describ<strong>in</strong>g plans for<br />

In<br />

this new program claimed that, “those <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> program would be<br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ROTC program specializ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g how to analyze a variety<br />

part<br />

conditions and activities based on a thorough understand<strong>in</strong>g and deep<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> particular areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world” (Simons 2003). Beyond <strong>the</strong><br />

knowledge<br />

requirements that participants <strong>of</strong> both programs commit years <strong>of</strong><br />

similar<br />

to <strong>the</strong>ir sponsor<strong>in</strong>g military or <strong>in</strong>telligence branches <strong>the</strong>re are few<br />

service<br />

between ROTC and PRISP. ROTC programs mostly operate <strong>in</strong><br />

similarities<br />

open, as student-ROTC members register for ROTC courses and are<br />

<strong>the</strong>


and visibly identi ed as members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ROTC program, while<br />

proudly<br />

students are <strong>in</strong>structed to keep <strong>the</strong>ir PRISP-a liations hidden from<br />

PRISP<br />

on campus.<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />

CIA’s website describes PRISP and lists sought academic specialties;<br />

e<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude experts on: Ch<strong>in</strong>a, <strong>the</strong> Middle East, Asia, Korea, Russia, <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

Africa and South America, and seek<strong>in</strong>g language tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g or<br />

Caucasus,<br />

ciency <strong>in</strong>: Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, Dari, Turkish,<br />

pro<br />

or a Central Asian or Caucasian language such as Georgian,<br />

Korean,<br />

Tajik, or Uzbek<br />

Turkmen,<br />

(https://www.cia.gov/careers/opportunities/analytical/pat-roberts-<br />

12/15/10). PRISP also funds<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence-scholars-program-prisp.html,<br />

studies scholars and scientists with expertise <strong>in</strong> bioterrorism,<br />

Islamic<br />

chemistry, physics, computer science and eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

counterterrorism,<br />

PRISP was rst launched <strong>in</strong> 2005, it was advertised on <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

When<br />

web sights (such as www.<strong>in</strong>telligencecareers.com or <strong>the</strong> National<br />

recruit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Intelligence Center; <strong>the</strong>se l<strong>in</strong>ks have long s<strong>in</strong>ce been removed) and<br />

Ground<br />

pitched on select university campuses <strong>in</strong> small, controlled recruit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

was<br />

In <strong>the</strong> years s<strong>in</strong>ce its rst fund<strong>in</strong>g, PRISP developed a low pro le<br />

sessions.<br />

an <strong>in</strong>dividualistic approach to nd<strong>in</strong>g candidates for PRISP fund<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

and<br />

I made <strong>in</strong>itial <strong>in</strong>quiries about PRISP to Senator Roberts’ sta <strong>in</strong><br />

When<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> size and scope <strong>of</strong> PRISP I was given little useful<br />

2005<br />

but <strong>in</strong> response to my <strong>in</strong>quires Senator Roberts’ sta referred<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation,<br />

to Mr. Tommy Glakas at <strong>the</strong> CIA. Mr. Glakas was reluctant to discuss<br />

me<br />

speci c details <strong>of</strong> PRISP, but he did con rm that PRISP <strong>the</strong>n funded<br />

many<br />

100 students study<strong>in</strong>g at an undisclosed number <strong>of</strong> American<br />

about<br />

When I asked Mr. Glakas <strong>in</strong> 2005 if PRISP was already up and<br />

universities.<br />

on college campuses, he rst answered that it was, <strong>the</strong>n said it<br />

runn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>n clari ed that PRISP wasn’t <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong> program that was tied to<br />

wasn’t,<br />

campuses-it was decentralized and tied to students, not campuses.<br />

university<br />

pressed fur<strong>the</strong>r on what this meant Mr. Glakas gave no fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />

When<br />

He said that he had no way <strong>of</strong> know<strong>in</strong>g exactly how many<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation.<br />

currently have students participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> PRISP, claim<strong>in</strong>g he<br />

universities<br />

not know this because PRISP is adm<strong>in</strong>istered not just by <strong>the</strong> CIA, but<br />

could<br />

through a variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies like <strong>the</strong> NSA, MID,<br />

also<br />

Naval Intelligence. He stressed that PRISP was a decentralized<br />

or<br />

program which funds students through various <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

scholarship


Mr. Glakas told me that he didn’t know who might know how<br />

agencies.<br />

campuses had PRISP scholars and he would not identify which<br />

many<br />

are host<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se covert PRISP scholars. PRISP’s organizational<br />

campuses<br />

is rem<strong>in</strong>iscent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong> limited contact “cells” used by<br />

structure<br />

agencies, where an <strong>in</strong>dividual with<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>telligence cell has only<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

knowledge <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong> this same cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> connections —<br />

limited<br />

commonly only know<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>dividual “handler,” but not know<strong>in</strong>g<br />

most<br />

identities <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> greater cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> connections.<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

was largely <strong>the</strong> bra<strong>in</strong>child <strong>of</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Kansas anthropologist<br />

PRISP<br />

Moos-a longtime advocate <strong>of</strong> anthropological contacts with military<br />

Felix<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Vietnam War Moos worked <strong>in</strong> Laos<br />

and<br />

ailand on World Bank- nanced projects and over <strong>the</strong> years he has<br />

and<br />

<strong>in</strong> various military advisory positions. He worked on <strong>the</strong> Pentagon’s<br />

worked<br />

Project emis, and has been an <strong>in</strong>structor at <strong>the</strong> Naval War College<br />

ARPA<br />

at <strong>the</strong> U.S. Sta and Command College at Fort Leavenworth. For years<br />

and<br />

taught courses on “Violence and Terrorism” at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong><br />

Moos<br />

In <strong>the</strong> months a er <strong>the</strong> 2001 attacks on <strong>the</strong> World Trade Center and<br />

Kansas.<br />

Moos elicited <strong>the</strong> support <strong>of</strong> his friend, former CIA DCI,<br />

Pentagon<br />

eld Turner to curry support <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> senate and CIA to fund his vision<br />

Stans<br />

a merger between anthropology, academia, <strong>in</strong>telligence analysis and<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />

espionage<br />

Moos <strong>in</strong>itially proposed that all PRISP students be required to<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />

two foreign languages, and to enroll <strong>in</strong> a battery <strong>of</strong> university<br />

master<br />

and history courses to learn <strong>the</strong> culture history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

anthropology<br />

regions (Kansas University Radio 2003). Moos’s vision for PRISP<br />

selected<br />

more comprehensive than <strong>the</strong> program that eventually developed. Moos<br />

was<br />

hav<strong>in</strong>g an active CIA campus presence where PRISP students<br />

proposed<br />

beg<strong>in</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g as freshmen and, “by <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong>y would be<br />

would<br />

<strong>the</strong>y would be ready to go to <strong>the</strong> branch <strong>in</strong>telligence units <strong>of</strong><br />

commissioned,<br />

choice” (Kansas University Radio 2003).<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

is tempt<strong>in</strong>g to describe Felix Moos as an anachronistic anthropologist<br />

It<br />

<strong>of</strong> sync with his discipl<strong>in</strong>e’s ma<strong>in</strong>stream, but while many anthropologists<br />

out<br />

concerns about discipl<strong>in</strong>ary ties to military and <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

express<br />

contemporary anthropology has no core with which to ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />

organizations,<br />

or collide and <strong>the</strong>re are o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eld who openly (and quietly)<br />

sync<br />

such developments. Moos is a bright man, but his writ<strong>in</strong>gs echo <strong>the</strong><br />

support


United <strong>State</strong>s is at war, and thus, simply put, <strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g cultural divide between <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />

community, <strong>the</strong> U.S. military and academe has become a critical, dangerous, and<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

tone and sentiments found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> limited bedside read<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> Tom-<br />

musty<br />

as he prefers to quote from <strong>the</strong> wisdom <strong>of</strong> Sun Tzu<br />

Clancy-literate-colonials,<br />

Samuel Hunt<strong>in</strong>gton over anthropologists like Franz Boas or Laura<br />

and<br />

Nader.<br />

2002 I jo<strong>in</strong>ed Moos (and anthropologists Robert Rubenste<strong>in</strong>, Anna<br />

In<br />

Murray Wax and Hugh Gusterson) on one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rst post-9/11<br />

Simons,<br />

Anthropological Association panels to exam<strong>in</strong>e American<br />

American<br />

contributions to military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies. Moos<br />

anthropologists’<br />

<strong>in</strong>credulous that all anthropologists would not jo<strong>in</strong> his crusade, and he<br />

acted<br />

asked, “Have anthropologists learned so little s<strong>in</strong>ce 9/11/2001, as<br />

rhetorically<br />

not recognize <strong>the</strong> truth-and practicability, <strong>in</strong> Sun Tzu’s rem<strong>in</strong>der that:<br />

to<br />

someone is subtle and perspicacious, he cannot perceive <strong>the</strong><br />

‘unless<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence reports. It is subtle, subtle.” From <strong>the</strong> dais I could<br />

substance<br />

not so subtle anthropologists <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> audience employed by RAND and<br />

see<br />

Pentagon nodd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir heads as if his words had hit a secret chord.<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

was clearly onto someth<strong>in</strong>g, though at <strong>the</strong> time it was di cult to<br />

Moos<br />

just how far reach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se new connections between<br />

imag<strong>in</strong>e<br />

and military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies would become.<br />

anthropologists<br />

became <strong>the</strong> early post-9/11 leader publicly push<strong>in</strong>g for more open<br />

Moos<br />

between anthropology and <strong>the</strong> CIA, but he was rotated out <strong>of</strong><br />

connections<br />

public spotlight pretty early on <strong>in</strong> this discourse. I’ve heard several<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

erent reasons suggested, rang<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> o -putt<strong>in</strong>g media e ect <strong>of</strong> his<br />

di<br />

l<strong>in</strong>ger<strong>in</strong>g German accent and his penchant for speak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> what has<br />

fa<strong>in</strong>tly<br />

described as “1940s sound bites.” A er I published my <strong>in</strong>itial PRISP<br />

been<br />

<strong>in</strong> CounterPunch, o<strong>the</strong>r media picked up <strong>the</strong> story (e.g., Will<strong>in</strong>g<br />

exposé<br />

and David Glenn wrote a story on PRISP <strong>in</strong> e Chronicle <strong>of</strong> Higher<br />

2006)<br />

and later had a live onl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>terview (3/23/05) with Pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />

Education<br />

answer<strong>in</strong>g live questions from readers about PRISP, and his answers<br />

Moos<br />

his awkward read<strong>in</strong>g from a dated script.<br />

showcased<br />

expla<strong>in</strong>ed to David Glenn how <strong>the</strong> War on Terror must sweep aside<br />

Moos<br />

reticence about br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies onto our<br />

all<br />

and <strong>in</strong>to our hearts, argu<strong>in</strong>g that:<br />

classrooms<br />

very real detriment to our national security at home and abroad.


some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir data, if for no o<strong>the</strong>r reason than to protect <strong>the</strong> lives <strong>of</strong><br />

classify<br />

subjects and <strong>the</strong>mselves” (Moos 1995). More recently, when <strong>the</strong> AAA<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

ethical prohibitions aga<strong>in</strong>st secret research <strong>in</strong> 2008, Moos<br />

re<strong>in</strong>stated<br />

<strong>in</strong> silence and did not even bo<strong>the</strong>r argu<strong>in</strong>g his position with <strong>the</strong><br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

Association.<br />

is PRISPs devotion to secrecy that is <strong>the</strong> root problem <strong>of</strong> its presence on<br />

It<br />

campuses as well as with Moos’ vision <strong>of</strong> anthropology harnessed for <strong>the</strong><br />

our<br />

<strong>of</strong> state. Moos’ fallacy is his belief that <strong>the</strong> fundamental problem with<br />

needs<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies is that <strong>the</strong>y are lack<strong>in</strong>g adequate cultural<br />

American<br />

<strong>of</strong> those <strong>the</strong>y study, and spy upon-this fallacy is exacerbated<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

orthodox assumptions that good <strong>in</strong>telligence operates best <strong>in</strong> realms <strong>of</strong><br />

by<br />

America needs good <strong>in</strong>telligence, but <strong>the</strong> most useful and important<br />

secrecy.<br />

can largely be ga<strong>the</strong>red openly without <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong> covert<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

<strong>of</strong> our campuses that PRISP silently br<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

<strong>in</strong>vasion<br />

claim that more open source, non-classi ed <strong>in</strong>telligence is what is<br />

e<br />

is less far fetched than it might seem. In Cloak and Gown: Scholars <strong>in</strong><br />

needed<br />

Secret War, 1939-1961 historian Rob<strong>in</strong> W<strong>in</strong>ks recounts how <strong>in</strong> 1951, <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Sherwood Kent conducted an experiment <strong>in</strong> which a handful <strong>of</strong> Yale<br />

CIA’s<br />

used noth<strong>in</strong>g but declassi ed materials <strong>in</strong> Yale’s library to<br />

historians<br />

CIA analysts (with access to classi ed data) to produce compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

challenge<br />

on U.S. military capacities, strengths and weaknesses focus<strong>in</strong>g on a<br />

reports<br />

<strong>of</strong> detail down to <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> military divisions (W<strong>in</strong>ks 1996:457-459).<br />

scale<br />

written evaluation <strong>of</strong> this contest was known as <strong>the</strong> “Yale Report,” which<br />

e<br />

that over 90% <strong>of</strong> material <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s report was found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

concluded<br />

library. Kent fur<strong>the</strong>r estimated that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 10% <strong>of</strong> “secret”<br />

Yale<br />

only half <strong>of</strong> this could be expected to rema<strong>in</strong> secret for any length<br />

materials,<br />

time. President Truman was so furious with <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Yale Report<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

he suppressed its distribution, argu<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> press needed more<br />

that<br />

govern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> release <strong>of</strong> such sensitive materials, while<br />

restrictions<br />

pundits jo<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> furor claim<strong>in</strong>g that Yale liberals were try<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Republican<br />

leak state secrets.<br />

to<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong> open <strong>in</strong>telligence is close at hand, consider only<br />

Evidence<br />

American scholars’ (us<strong>in</strong>g publicly available sources) analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

how<br />

for post-<strong>in</strong>vasion Iraq out-performed <strong>the</strong> CIA’s best estimates. As<br />

dangers<br />

who has lived <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle East and read Arabic news dailies onl<strong>in</strong>e for<br />

one<br />

while watch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> expansion <strong>of</strong> American policies that appear to<br />

years


<strong>the</strong> Arab world I suspect that a repeat <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Yale Report<br />

misread<br />

focus<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> Middle East would nd ano<strong>the</strong>r 10%<br />

experiment<br />

gap, but with <strong>the</strong> academy now w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g due to <strong>the</strong> deleterious<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

ects <strong>of</strong> generations <strong>of</strong> CIA <strong>in</strong>tellectual <strong>in</strong>breed<strong>in</strong>g. Perhaps <strong>the</strong> Agency has<br />

e<br />

self-aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se limits brought on by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternal reproduction <strong>of</strong><br />

become<br />

own limited <strong>in</strong>stitutional culture, and <strong>in</strong> its own misshapen view it sees<br />

its<br />

as a means <strong>of</strong> supply<strong>in</strong>g itself with new blood to rejuvenate under<br />

PRISP<br />

provided by public classrooms. But such secrecy-based reforms are <strong>the</strong><br />

cover<br />

<strong>of</strong> a damaged <strong>in</strong>stitutional m<strong>in</strong>d try<strong>in</strong>g to repair itself.<br />

products<br />

might misread criticism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s secret presence on our<br />

Some<br />

as contradict<strong>in</strong>g my critique <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> need for more outside and<br />

campuses<br />

<strong>in</strong>put <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence circles, but such a read<strong>in</strong>g would<br />

dissent<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> openness <strong>in</strong> academic and political<br />

misunderstand<br />

e fundamental problems with American <strong>in</strong>telligence are<br />

processes.<br />

by secrecy-when <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies are allowed to classify and<br />

exacerbated<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir assumptions, reports and analysis from public view <strong>the</strong>y generate<br />

hide<br />

narrow visions that coalesce ra<strong>the</strong>r than challenge top-down<br />

self-referential<br />

from <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrations <strong>the</strong>y serve. Intelligence agencies do need<br />

policies<br />

understand <strong>the</strong> complex cultures <strong>the</strong>y study, but to suggest that<br />

to<br />

agencies like <strong>the</strong> CIA are simply amass<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

political and cultural <strong>in</strong>formation is a dangerous fantasy:<br />

e CIA ful lls a<br />

role <strong>of</strong> ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence, <strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence, and<br />

tripartite<br />

as a supraconstitutional covert arm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> presidency. It is this nal<br />

work<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that should give scholars and citizens pause when consider<strong>in</strong>g how<br />

role<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r university-<strong>in</strong>telligence-l<strong>in</strong>ked programs will use <strong>the</strong><br />

PRSIP<br />

<strong>the</strong>y take from our open classrooms.<br />

knowledge<br />

CIA has made sure we won’t know which classrooms PRSIP scholars<br />

e<br />

this is rationalized as a requirement for protect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> identities <strong>of</strong><br />

attend;<br />

personnel. But this secrecy shapes PRISP as it takes on <strong>the</strong> form<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

a cell-based covert operation <strong>in</strong> which PRISP students study chemistry,<br />

like<br />

sociology, psychology, anthropology and foreign languages without<br />

biology,<br />

fellow classmates, pr<strong>of</strong>essors, advisors, department chairs or<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

even research subjects (creat<strong>in</strong>g serious ethics problems under<br />

presumably<br />

post-Nuremberg pr<strong>of</strong>essional ethics code or Institutional Review Board)<br />

any<br />

that <strong>the</strong>y are work<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong> CIA, DIA, NSA or o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

know<strong>in</strong>g<br />

agencies.


almost two decades <strong>of</strong> Freedom <strong>of</strong> Information Act research I have read<br />

In<br />

many FBI reports <strong>of</strong> students detail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> deviant political views <strong>of</strong><br />

too<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir pr<strong>of</strong>essors (<br />

ese range from <strong>the</strong> hilarious: As anthropologist Norman<br />

was reported to have called President Eisenhower a “duckbilled<br />

Humphrey<br />

to <strong>the</strong> Dadaist: where<strong>in</strong> former Miss America, Marilyn van<br />

n<strong>in</strong>compoop”;<br />

reported that sociologist Howard Higman mocked J. Edgar Hoover<br />

Derbur,<br />

class; to <strong>the</strong> chill<strong>in</strong>g: as when <strong>the</strong> FBI arranged for a graduate student to<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

topics <strong>of</strong> “<strong>in</strong>formal” conversation with anthropologist Gene Welt sh<br />

guide<br />

were later <strong>the</strong> focus an <strong>in</strong>quiry by Joseph McCarthy) to not mention <strong>the</strong><br />

that<br />

that <strong>the</strong>se PRSIP students are also secretly compil<strong>in</strong>g dossiers on<br />

likelihood<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essors and fellow students (Higman 1998; Price 2004). I would be<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

to not mention that students are not <strong>the</strong> only ones sneak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA<br />

remiss<br />

our campuses. ere are also unknown thousands <strong>of</strong> university<br />

onto<br />

who periodically work with and for <strong>the</strong> CIA--<strong>in</strong> 1988 CIA<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />

Sharon Foster bragged that <strong>the</strong> CIA <strong>the</strong>n secretly employed<br />

spokeswoman<br />

university pr<strong>of</strong>essors “to sta a large university.” Most experts<br />

enough<br />

that this presence has grown s<strong>in</strong>ce 2001 (Mills 1991:37).<br />

estimate<br />

quiet rise <strong>of</strong> programs like PRISP or ICCIE (see Chapter Four) should<br />

e<br />

surprise anyone given <strong>the</strong> steady cuts <strong>in</strong> federal fund<strong>in</strong>g for higher<br />

not<br />

and <strong>the</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g pressures for more mercenary roles for <strong>the</strong><br />

education,<br />

In <strong>the</strong> post-World War Two decades, scholars naively self-<br />

academy.<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves or followed classmates to <strong>the</strong> CIA, but <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

recruited<br />

<strong>of</strong> us who have studied <strong>the</strong> languages, culture and histories <strong>of</strong> peoples<br />

those<br />

<strong>the</strong> world have also learned about <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA <strong>in</strong><br />

around<br />

<strong>the</strong> autonomy <strong>of</strong> those cultures we study, and <strong>the</strong> steady<br />

underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> this history has hurt <strong>the</strong> agency’s e orts to recruit <strong>the</strong> best<br />

construction<br />

brightest post-graduates. For decades <strong>the</strong> students study<strong>in</strong>g Arabic,<br />

and<br />

Basque or Farsi were predom<strong>in</strong>antly curious admirers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cultures<br />

Urdu,<br />

languages <strong>the</strong>y studied, <strong>the</strong> current shi now nds a visible <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

and<br />

whose studies are driven by <strong>the</strong> market forces <strong>of</strong> new Wars on<br />

students<br />

If <strong>the</strong> CIA can use PRISP to <strong>in</strong>denture students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early days<br />

Terrorism.<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir graduate tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g-supplemented with mandated summer camp<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

immersed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> workplace ethos <strong>of</strong> CIA-<strong>the</strong> company can mold<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternships<br />

ideological <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ations even before <strong>the</strong>ir grasp <strong>of</strong> cultural history is<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> relatively open environment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir university. As <strong>the</strong>se<br />

shaped<br />

PRISP graduates enter <strong>the</strong> CIA’s <strong>in</strong>stitutional environment <strong>of</strong> self-re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g


Group<br />

<strong>in</strong>k <strong>the</strong>y will present a reduced risk <strong>of</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g cognitive<br />

by br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g new views that threaten <strong>the</strong> agency’s narrow view <strong>of</strong><br />

dissonance<br />

world. Institutional Group <strong>in</strong>k can thus safely be protected from<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>fection.<br />

external<br />

academic environments need openness because <strong>the</strong>y, unlike <strong>the</strong><br />

Healthy<br />

are nourished by <strong>the</strong> self-corrective features <strong>of</strong> open disagreement,<br />

CIA,<br />

and syn<strong>the</strong>tic-reformulation. e presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> PRISP’s secret<br />

dissent,<br />

br<strong>in</strong>gs hidden agendas that sabotage <strong>the</strong>se fundamental processes <strong>of</strong><br />

sharers<br />

e Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program <strong>in</strong>fects all <strong>of</strong><br />

academia.<br />

with a germ <strong>of</strong> dishonesty and distrust as participant scholars<br />

academia<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>tentions and <strong>the</strong>ir ties to <strong>the</strong> hidden masters <strong>the</strong>y serve.<br />

cloak<br />

INTELLIGENCE SCHOLAR LOAN SHARKS<br />

er I published my <strong>in</strong>itial CounterPunch exposé on PRISP <strong>in</strong> January<br />

A<br />

secondary stories followed on newspaper wire services, Democracy<br />

2005,<br />

NPR, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chronicle <strong>of</strong> Higher Ed. Senator Pat Roberts soon began<br />

Now,<br />

speak<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>the</strong> program, assur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> public <strong>the</strong>re were no<br />

publicly<br />

to worry about PRISP spread<strong>in</strong>g domestic surveillance on campus.<br />

reasons<br />

anthropologist Stanley Kurtz used his column <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Neoconservative<br />

Review to claim that I wouldn’t be happy until CIA agents killed<br />

National<br />

absurdly writ<strong>in</strong>g, “So long as CIA recruits openly identify<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves,<br />

to every Pakistani villager <strong>the</strong>y talk to, Price is happy. Assisted<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

for aspir<strong>in</strong>g CIA analysts may be morally acceptable to Pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />

suicide<br />

Price, but I suspect Roberts Fellows may feel di erently” (Kurtz 2005).<br />

e<br />

Eagle reported, “Roberts noted that legal safeguards aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

Wichita<br />

spy<strong>in</strong>g are <strong>in</strong> place that weren’t <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1950s and 1960s, when <strong>the</strong><br />

domestic<br />

fervor <strong>of</strong> former Sen. Joe McCarthy and FBI chief J. Edgar<br />

anti-Communist<br />

created a climate that contributed to agency abuses. Speci cally, a<br />

Hoover<br />

presidential executive order clearly prohibits physical surveillance <strong>of</strong><br />

1981<br />

citizens by agencies o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> FBI” (Wichita Eagle 2/13/05).<br />

American<br />

was a remarkable statement. Pat Roberts, <strong>the</strong>n Chair <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Senate<br />

is<br />

Committee, appeared to not even understand that <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />

Intelligence<br />

Act dismantled safeguards prevent<strong>in</strong>g domestic surveillance by <strong>the</strong><br />

Patriot<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r agencies. More reveal<strong>in</strong>g is that when pressed by reporters,<br />

CIA<br />

and sources at CIA did not dispute <strong>the</strong> likelihood that hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Roberts<br />

CIA operatives amongst <strong>the</strong> ranks <strong>of</strong> academics could seriously<br />

undisclosed


<strong>the</strong> credibility <strong>of</strong> American academics conduct<strong>in</strong>g domestic and<br />

damage<br />

research. is blasé attitude concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> collateral damage <strong>of</strong><br />

foreign<br />

academic bystanders won Roberts no friends <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> academy as most<br />

hapless<br />

realize <strong>the</strong> damage from such actions can be widespread.<br />

academics<br />

beyond Roberts’ reassur<strong>in</strong>g words on <strong>the</strong> propriety <strong>of</strong> secretly send<strong>in</strong>g<br />

But<br />

agents to our classrooms, <strong>the</strong>re was a quiet enthusiasm for <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

cloned o spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> PRISP. And like its progenitor PRISP, this program<br />

rst<br />

bir<strong>the</strong>d <strong>in</strong> an atmosphere <strong>of</strong> public silence. In December 2004 when<br />

was<br />

approved <strong>the</strong> Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act<br />

Congress<br />

2845), <strong>the</strong>y established a Director <strong>of</strong> National Intelligence. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

(S.<br />

charges is to oversee a new scholarship program known as <strong>the</strong><br />

Director’s<br />

Community Scholars Program (ICSP). ough modeled a er<br />

Intelligence<br />

<strong>the</strong> similarities and di erences between <strong>the</strong>se two programs reveal<br />

PRISP,<br />

trends not only <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence fund<strong>in</strong>g, but <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

new expectations for outcome-based fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> higher education.<br />

apparat’s<br />

Director <strong>of</strong> National Intelligence is responsible for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g which<br />

e<br />

c elds and subjects <strong>of</strong> study will be funded under ICSP. Like <strong>the</strong> Pat<br />

speci<br />

Intelligence Scholars Program, <strong>the</strong> ICSP authorizes directors <strong>of</strong><br />

Roberts<br />

unnamed <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies to make contractual agreements with<br />

various<br />

But unlike <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program, <strong>the</strong>se<br />

students.<br />

students receive unspeci ed levels <strong>of</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g for up to four years <strong>of</strong><br />

ICSP<br />

tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Congress speci es that ICSP participants owe two years<br />

university<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agency work for every year <strong>of</strong> funded education, with a<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> four years <strong>of</strong> study allowed unless overridden by <strong>the</strong> Director <strong>of</strong><br />

ceil<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Intelligence.<br />

National<br />

previous <strong>in</strong>telligence-l<strong>in</strong>ked scholarship programs, <strong>the</strong> ICSP does<br />

Unlike<br />

speci cally limit <strong>the</strong> expenses <strong>in</strong>curred by participants. But given that<br />

not<br />

National Security Education Program’s current authorization <strong>of</strong> over<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> annual “academic” expenses for students, it is reasonable to<br />

$40,000<br />

that <strong>the</strong> ICSP will likewise allow over $160,000 <strong>of</strong> expenses over a<br />

assume<br />

period.<br />

four-year<br />

reason why <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies are so <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> recruit<strong>in</strong>g social<br />

One<br />

and area studies students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early stages <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir education is<br />

sciences<br />

<strong>of</strong> a desire for early <strong>in</strong>doctr<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se students. Regardless <strong>of</strong><br />

because<br />

e orts to select and shape <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>dividuals, it seems <strong>in</strong>evitable that at<br />

such<br />

some will develop more critical attitudes towards <strong>the</strong>se agencies as a<br />

least


<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir education or experiences with <strong>the</strong>se agencies. But suppose a<br />

result<br />

ICSP students’ studies <strong>in</strong> a university history class lead <strong>the</strong>m to read<br />

few<br />

like Philip Agee’s Inside <strong>the</strong> Company (Agee 1976) or John Stockwell’s<br />

works<br />

Search <strong>of</strong> Enemies (Stockwell 1979) and <strong>the</strong>y decide <strong>the</strong>y made a mistake<br />

In<br />

enroll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ICSP? If so, <strong>the</strong>y will face serious penalties.<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

2004 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act stated that if<br />

e<br />

recipients decl<strong>in</strong>e to work for <strong>the</strong>ir sponsor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence agency<br />

ICSP<br />

complet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir education, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> student “shall be liable to <strong>the</strong><br />

upon<br />

<strong>State</strong>s for an amount equal to <strong>the</strong> total amount <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scholarships<br />

United<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest on <strong>the</strong> amounts <strong>of</strong> such awards which would be<br />

received[and]<br />

if at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> awards were received <strong>the</strong>y were loans bear<strong>in</strong>g<br />

payable<br />

at <strong>the</strong> maximum legal prevail<strong>in</strong>g rate, as determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United <strong>State</strong>s, multiplied by three” (US Congress 2004,<br />

Treasurer<br />

Law 108-458:h, 2. b). In o<strong>the</strong>r words, spy or have a lousy credit rat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Public<br />

<strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> your life.<br />

for<br />

penalties are rout<strong>in</strong>e boilerplate language used <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r “payback”-<br />

Such<br />

federal scholarship legislation. But <strong>the</strong> CIA, NSA, FBI and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

based<br />

agencies are not like <strong>the</strong> Department <strong>of</strong> Education, <strong>the</strong> NSF, or<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

mundane federal agencies. A er all, CIA lawyers who argue that<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

<strong>in</strong>tense shak<strong>in</strong>g, shabah-postur<strong>in</strong>g, and prolonged-<br />

“water-board<strong>in</strong>g,”<br />

do not constitute illegal torture might just as easily argue that <strong>the</strong><br />

hood<strong>in</strong>g<br />

legal prevail<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>in</strong>terest rate is that established by <strong>the</strong> payday<br />

“maximum<br />

loan <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />

GET READY FOR THE BIG PAYBACK<br />

2008 I was contacted by a recipient <strong>of</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r pay-back national<br />

In<br />

related scholarship program who provided me with documentation<br />

security<br />

how <strong>the</strong> US government was pressur<strong>in</strong>g him to engage <strong>in</strong><br />

establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

security related work, <strong>of</strong> face nancial penalties. Over a decade<br />

national<br />

Nicolas Flattes, <strong>the</strong>n an anthropology student at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong><br />

earlier,<br />

was award ed a Boren Scholarship from <strong>the</strong> National Security<br />

Hawai’i,<br />

Program (NSEP), <strong>the</strong>n a relatively new fund<strong>in</strong>g source for<br />

Education<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> social sciences study<strong>in</strong>g foreign cultures <strong>of</strong> strategic <strong>in</strong>terest<br />

students<br />

U.S. policy makers. Flattes’ NSEP schol arship allowed him to travel<br />

to<br />

to study food security issues and susta<strong>in</strong>able agriculture <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />

abroad


<strong>in</strong> a gender development studies program focus<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

India,<br />

organizations’ com munity <strong>in</strong>itiatives.<br />

nongovernmental<br />

signed a standard NSEP con tract stat<strong>in</strong>g that a er graduation he<br />

Flattes<br />

work at an approved U.S. govern mental agency deal<strong>in</strong>g with national<br />

would<br />

curity issues, by post<strong>in</strong>g his resume on NSEP’s website or apply<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

se<br />

c federal agencies. All NSEP scholars enter <strong>in</strong>to such payback<br />

speci<br />

— though <strong>the</strong>re are con ict<strong>in</strong>g accounts <strong>of</strong> what participants<br />

agreements<br />

been told <strong>the</strong>y must do to meet <strong>the</strong>se demands.<br />

have<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pre-9/11 days <strong>of</strong> 1998, Flattes was comfortable with <strong>the</strong><br />

Back<br />

<strong>of</strong> ful ll<strong>in</strong>g this national security work a er graduation. But <strong>the</strong><br />

prospect<br />

shi <strong>in</strong> militaristic foreign and domestic policy and <strong>the</strong> ascendancy<br />

radical<br />

unchecked pow ers for U.S. <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies quelled Flattes’ desire to<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> any national se curity capacity a er 9/11.<br />

work<br />

Flattes completed his Master’s degree <strong>in</strong> June 2001, he posted his re -<br />

When<br />

as he was required to do under <strong>the</strong> guidel<strong>in</strong>e and he went on to o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

sume<br />

Flattes had no fur<strong>the</strong>r contact with NSEP until 2008, when he<br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

a letter from <strong>the</strong> Department <strong>of</strong> Defense (eventually forwarded<br />

received<br />

a decade-old address) notify<strong>in</strong>g him that he must ei<strong>the</strong>r beg<strong>in</strong> work for<br />

from<br />

U.S. agency <strong>in</strong> volved <strong>in</strong> national security work, or repay <strong>the</strong> cost <strong>of</strong> his<br />

a<br />

along with penalties. As <strong>the</strong> parent <strong>of</strong> a young child, Flattes<br />

scholarship<br />

part time and lived on lim ited <strong>in</strong>come. Upon receiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> letter, he<br />

worked<br />

NSEP and tried to work out a ve-year payment plan but was told<br />

contacted<br />

could ei<strong>the</strong>r beg<strong>in</strong> work at a national secu rity related position (which<br />

he<br />

both forgive <strong>the</strong> debt and provide a salary), or he must repay his loan<br />

would<br />

a two-year period. A er some discussion, he was told he could pay o<br />

over<br />

loan <strong>in</strong> three years. Flattes could a ord a four-year re payment schedule,<br />

his<br />

on his budget a three-year schedule was impossible.<br />

but<br />

personnel told Flattes that a four-year repayment plan was out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

NSEP<br />

and that if he did not meet NSEP’s demands he would have to pay<br />

question,<br />

28 per cent penalty, could have his wages garnished, and collections would<br />

a<br />

turned over to a private collection agency. Flattes says he le messages for<br />

be<br />

Scholarship and Fellowship Director Christopher Powers, say<strong>in</strong>g he<br />

Boren<br />

send<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rst <strong>of</strong> his four-year payments. Flattes described a bizarre<br />

was<br />

isode that occurred a er he sent <strong>the</strong> rst <strong>of</strong> his four-year payments via<br />

ep<br />

Registered Purolator service, when he received a frighten<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Canadian<br />

call from someone claim<strong>in</strong>g that FBI and D.C. po lice were<br />

phone


<strong>the</strong> letter he’d sent as a suspected anthrax scare, and <strong>the</strong>y<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to know <strong>the</strong> contents <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> envelope. e check Flattes sent to<br />

demanded<br />

was never signed for, and he believes this was done to produce a trail<br />

NSEP<br />

plausible deniability, allow<strong>in</strong>g NSEP to claim he was <strong>in</strong> default so that<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

could <strong>in</strong>crease pressure on him to seek national security related work.<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

er NSEP failed to accept his pay ment, Flattes received a letter from <strong>the</strong><br />

A<br />

Department demand<strong>in</strong>g re payment <strong>of</strong> his NSEP scholarship with<br />

Treasury<br />

added 28 per cent penalty. Flattes’ believed that NSEP “had no <strong>in</strong>tention<br />

an<br />

sett<strong>in</strong>g up a payment plan and wanted to turn <strong>the</strong> matter over to ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

as soon as possible.” Flattes told me he felt like he was “be<strong>in</strong>g shaken<br />

agency<br />

by a loan shark <strong>in</strong> a government suit,” but <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g given <strong>the</strong><br />

down<br />

between pay<strong>in</strong>g up now or tak<strong>in</strong>g a tire-iron to his kneecap, he was<br />

choice<br />

he could ei<strong>the</strong>r come up with payments beyond his budget, sell his skills<br />

told<br />

national security work as part <strong>of</strong> a terror war he does not support, or he<br />

for<br />

have his credit rat<strong>in</strong>g decimat ed. Not pleasant choices for a man with<br />

could<br />

conscience and a child to feed. Flattes acknowledged that he must pay back<br />

a<br />

scholarship funds. What he objected to is NSEP’s harsh tactics and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

his<br />

orts to pressure him <strong>in</strong>to national security work.<br />

e<br />

questioned what events triggered <strong>the</strong> push for him to ful ll his<br />

Flattes<br />

re quirement at this particular po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> time. e NSEP service<br />

service<br />

he signed <strong>in</strong> 1998 did not specify when this service must be<br />

agreement<br />

(today, <strong>the</strong> program requires services with<strong>in</strong> three years <strong>of</strong><br />

completed<br />

Because Flattes served as a Cryptologic Technician Technical <strong>in</strong><br />

graduation).<br />

U.S. Navy from 1985-1989, he believed <strong>the</strong> NSEP’s actions could be an<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

ort designed to press him back <strong>in</strong>to ser vice <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence work. In<br />

e<br />

Navy, Flattes specialized <strong>in</strong> Electronic Intelligence where he obta<strong>in</strong>ed “a<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

rity clearance that was two levels above Top Secret which is rare for<br />

secu<br />

personnel. is eld has de nite l<strong>in</strong>ks and cooperation with U.S.<br />

enlisted<br />

agencies. Basically you work for one, you work for all <strong>in</strong> a sense.”<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

says he had specialized tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> areas that would now be <strong>of</strong> direct<br />

Flattes<br />

to <strong>in</strong>tel ligence agencies regardless <strong>of</strong> speci c changes over <strong>the</strong> last<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<br />

decades, and he can’t help but wonder if his NSEP debt was be<strong>in</strong>g used<br />

two<br />

try and leverage him <strong>in</strong>to <strong>in</strong>telligence work that he is unwill<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

to<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> political sett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> post 9/11 America.<br />

undertake<br />

signi cance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NSEP’s pres sure on Flattes is not that he has to pay<br />

e<br />

his scholarship funds: he contrac tually agreed to do this when he<br />

back


signed his NSEP contract.<br />

e signi cance <strong>of</strong> Flattes’ account is threefold:<br />

Flattes raises <strong>the</strong> possibility that NSEP may be us<strong>in</strong>g his debt to<br />

rst,<br />

him to get him to do classi ed national security work; second, it<br />

pressure<br />

<strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> coer cion await<strong>in</strong>g participants <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence and<br />

documents<br />

security payback scholar ship programs, who come to th<strong>in</strong>k better<br />

national<br />

work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> national security sett<strong>in</strong>gs once <strong>the</strong>y nish <strong>the</strong>ir education;<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

his treatment counters claims that schol ars participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> NSEP will<br />

nally,<br />

later be forced to ei<strong>the</strong>r complete <strong>the</strong>ir national security requirements or<br />

not<br />

back funds with penalties.<br />

pay<br />

<strong>the</strong> most unusual element <strong>of</strong> Flattes’ case is that we, <strong>the</strong> public,<br />

Perhaps<br />

some knowledge <strong>of</strong> it. Flattes’ will<strong>in</strong>gness to speak out helps establish<br />

have<br />

<strong>the</strong> coer cive potential <strong>of</strong> NSEP and o<strong>the</strong>r national security l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

how<br />

programs lever age scholars <strong>in</strong>to governmental service support<strong>in</strong>g<br />

payback<br />

that <strong>the</strong>y personally oppose. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> private nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

policies<br />

demands, it is unknow able how rout<strong>in</strong>e such high-pressure de -<br />

repayment<br />

are. mands<br />

privacy policies prevented Boren Scholarship Director,<br />

Institutional<br />

Powers, from comment<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> spe ci cs <strong>of</strong> Flattes’ case, but<br />

Christopher<br />

did tell me that <strong>the</strong> “vast majority <strong>of</strong> [NSEP funded scholars] to date have<br />

he<br />

lled <strong>the</strong> pro gram’s service requirement through a variety <strong>of</strong> jobs<br />

ful<br />

<strong>the</strong> federal sector and <strong>in</strong> higher education.” But <strong>the</strong> public does<br />

throughout<br />

know how many former NSEP recipients have caved to <strong>the</strong> pro gram’s<br />

not<br />

and quietly slunk o to work for <strong>the</strong> CIA, NSA, FBI, Homeland<br />

demands<br />

or o<strong>the</strong>r agencies designated to meet contractual obligations <strong>of</strong><br />

Security<br />

We don’t know how many NSEP scholar ship recipients later work<br />

servitude.<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence or national security sett<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

at some meet <strong>the</strong>ir payback<br />

<strong>in</strong> ways that have little or noth<strong>in</strong>g directly to do with national<br />

requirements<br />

does not dim<strong>in</strong> ish <strong>the</strong> signi cance <strong>of</strong> those who do, and such<br />

security<br />

between scholars and national security are <strong>the</strong> stated reason for<br />

connections<br />

existence.<br />

NSEP’s<br />

NSEP’s “payback” is always distant, uid and ill-de ned at <strong>the</strong><br />

Because<br />

that students jo<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> program, participants cannot know what <strong>the</strong>y are<br />

time<br />

to do when <strong>the</strong>y receive <strong>the</strong>se funds. Faculty advisors at students’<br />

agree<strong>in</strong>g<br />

o en play a key role <strong>in</strong> students’ NSEP decisions.<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />

<strong>the</strong> past decade, numerous NSEP re cipients have told me that <strong>the</strong>y<br />

Over<br />

<strong>in</strong> formally told by academic advisers and o<strong>the</strong>rs that student wouldn’t<br />

were


claimed that NSEP’s goals were rooted <strong>in</strong> “peace” not war, writ<strong>in</strong>g:<br />

Frank<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> post-cold war “peace dividend” programs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> senior Bush Adm<strong>in</strong>istration, NSEP<br />

One<br />

created <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1990s by an act <strong>of</strong> Congress. Adm<strong>in</strong>istered by <strong>the</strong> Defense<br />

was<br />

<strong>the</strong> program is similar to <strong>the</strong> older (and less conspicuously named) Fulbright<br />

Department,<br />

NSEP provides money for research abroad <strong>in</strong> a wide variety <strong>of</strong> academic elds. What<br />

program:<br />

NSEP from Fulbright is that it comes with a service obligation that requires<br />

dist<strong>in</strong>guishes<br />

have to undertake national security work at a later date and that <strong>the</strong><br />

really<br />

obliga tions were rout<strong>in</strong>ely downplayed when <strong>the</strong>y applied to <strong>the</strong><br />

program’s<br />

Some NSEP scholars have been told that if <strong>the</strong>y later nd work<br />

program.<br />

<strong>in</strong> universities, <strong>the</strong>ir national security service requirement may be<br />

teach<strong>in</strong>g<br />

met, though <strong>the</strong> word <strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> contracts has varied on this po<strong>in</strong>t<br />

considered<br />

<strong>the</strong> years. For example, Flattes’ 1998 NSEP service agreement states his<br />

over<br />

ment to be “employed <strong>in</strong> a national secu rity position <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Federal<br />

agree<br />

or work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eld <strong>of</strong> higher education <strong>in</strong> [his] study-related<br />

Government<br />

while current Boren Scholarships <strong>in</strong>formation states that ful ll<strong>in</strong>g<br />

area,”<br />

national security re quirements by work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> education “is available<br />

NSEP<br />

a er exhaust<strong>in</strong>g all oppor tunities to ful ll <strong>the</strong> requirement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

only<br />

Government <strong>in</strong> accordance with conditions established by NSEP.”<br />

Federal<br />

NSEP scholars bank<strong>in</strong>g on a career <strong>in</strong> academia as a hedge aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

Current<br />

na tional security work underestimate <strong>the</strong> odds <strong>of</strong> secur<strong>in</strong>g such<br />

required<br />

and risk fac <strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> same sort <strong>of</strong> coercion as Flattes is experienc<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

work<br />

on NSEP’s payback re quirements is widespread. Back <strong>in</strong><br />

Mis<strong>in</strong>formation<br />

a er I criticized NSEP’s payback obliga tions <strong>in</strong> an article published <strong>in</strong><br />

2000,<br />

Nation (Price 2000), Adam Frank, <strong>the</strong>n an anthropology graduate<br />

e<br />

student do<strong>in</strong>g NSEP sponsored research <strong>in</strong> Shanghai, wrote a letter to<br />

e<br />

compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g that I had misrepresented NSEP’s pay back<br />

Nation<br />

Frank claimed that he and o<strong>the</strong>r NSEP scholars had been told<br />

requirements.<br />

really didn’t have to ful ll <strong>the</strong>ir NSEP contracts’ pay back clause. Frank’s<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

that NSEP fund<strong>in</strong>g was really just like Fulbright fund<strong>in</strong>g or any o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

claims<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g were po<strong>in</strong>t by po<strong>in</strong>t exactly <strong>the</strong> same talk<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts I heard<br />

research<br />

few weeks earlier when a disgruntled NSEP adm<strong>in</strong>istrator unhappy with<br />

a<br />

critique had tried to <strong>in</strong>timidate me on <strong>the</strong> telephone. Frank’s view <strong>of</strong><br />

my<br />

as be<strong>in</strong>g fundamentally like <strong>the</strong> Fulbright program appeared to h<strong>in</strong>ge<br />

NSEP<br />

his misunderstand<strong>in</strong>g that he could never be pressured to work for a<br />

on<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> government concerned with national security (views that n<strong>in</strong>e<br />

branch<br />

months later would be more di<br />

cult to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> post-9/11 America).<br />

recipients to make a “good faith e ort” to nd employment <strong>in</strong> a “security related” government


with<strong>in</strong> ve years <strong>of</strong> graduation. If <strong>the</strong>y cannot nd such employment, <strong>the</strong>y may<br />

agency<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir service agreement through teach<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> college level.<br />

complete<br />

scholars ful ll <strong>the</strong> requirement to work for <strong>the</strong> government simply by post<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

…NSEP<br />

to <strong>the</strong> NSEP website (beyond that, <strong>the</strong>y are nei<strong>the</strong>r assisted <strong>in</strong> nd<strong>in</strong>g government<br />

resume<br />

nor compelled to do so); only a t<strong>in</strong>y percentage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research funded by NSEP <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

work<br />

ve years has explicit l<strong>in</strong>ks to security issues; and “security-related agencies” <strong>in</strong>clude more<br />

past<br />

that <strong>the</strong> National Security Education Program is similar to <strong>the</strong><br />

Argu<strong>in</strong>g<br />

conspicuously named” Fulbright program is like say<strong>in</strong>g borrow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

“less<br />

from a loan shark is similar to borrow<strong>in</strong>g money from a bank. It is<br />

money<br />

that <strong>the</strong> loan shark and <strong>the</strong> bank both loan money, and <strong>the</strong>y will both<br />

true<br />

loan payments <strong>in</strong> what <strong>the</strong>y hope are pro table ventures, but <strong>the</strong><br />

re<strong>in</strong>vest<br />

di erences between forms <strong>of</strong> customer service and collection services<br />

stark<br />

<strong>the</strong>se comparisons <strong>in</strong>congruous. I would not argue that Fulbright’s<br />

render<br />

has been completely separate from <strong>the</strong> state’s agenda, but compar<strong>in</strong>g<br />

agenda<br />

to Fulbright ignores how, despite <strong>the</strong> truth that both programs fund<br />

NSEP<br />

do<strong>in</strong>g research both related and unrelated to <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> state,<br />

scholars<br />

directly ties scholars’ future to unspeci ed national security needs. In<br />

NSEP<br />

to Frank, I wrote that:<br />

reply<strong>in</strong>g<br />

concern with NSEP derives from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>herent con ict it presents to practitioners <strong>in</strong> a eld<br />

My<br />

commitment and loyalty must be to those we study — not to those who pay our way<br />

whose<br />

graduate school.<br />

through<br />

do not know who told Frank that his only mandated payback to NSEP was “post<strong>in</strong>g [his]<br />

I<br />

to <strong>the</strong> NSEP website.” is is clearly not true. e Defense Department states that all<br />

resume<br />

must post resumes and seek federal employment at an NSEP-approved national<br />

grantees<br />

oriented agency. Participants are allowed to request that <strong>the</strong>ir resumes not be<br />

security<br />

among <strong>the</strong> CIA, DIA and NSA — though <strong>the</strong> [FBI], <strong>the</strong> <strong>State</strong> Department and many<br />

circulated<br />

agencies that are <strong>the</strong> so -core <strong>in</strong>terface <strong>of</strong> our national security state’s apparatus do not<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

on this list <strong>of</strong> o -limits agencies….<br />

appear<br />

just <strong>in</strong> case Frank was plann<strong>in</strong>g not to follow through with <strong>the</strong> required “good<br />

Incidentally,<br />

e ort” to seek national security-related employment upon graduation, he should be<br />

faith<br />

that NSEP policy states that “recipients are required to reimburse <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />

forewarned<br />

for <strong>the</strong> full amount <strong>of</strong> assistance provided by <strong>the</strong> NSEP Fellowship, plus <strong>in</strong>terest,<br />

Government<br />

<strong>the</strong>y fail to ful ll <strong>the</strong> service requirement.” True, NSEP fellows can ful ll <strong>the</strong>ir payback<br />

should<br />

at US <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong> higher education a er <strong>the</strong>ir good-faith e ort to nd<br />

requirement<br />

at NSEP-approved government agencies, but given <strong>the</strong> job market for<br />

employment<br />

anyone count<strong>in</strong>g on repay<strong>in</strong>g NSEP through such an anticipated maneuver is<br />

anthropologists,<br />

<strong>in</strong> denial.<br />

liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> most basic concept <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formed consent, anthropologists receiv<strong>in</strong>g NSEP<br />

…Under<br />

must <strong>in</strong>form those <strong>the</strong>y study that upon <strong>the</strong>ir graduation <strong>the</strong>y are required to seek<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from a limited list <strong>of</strong> national security-related government agencies. But I am<br />

employment<br />

than twenty Congressional subcommittees, <strong>the</strong> International Trade O<br />

ce and <strong>the</strong> Treasury<br />

Department among o<strong>the</strong>rs (Frank 2001).


that Adam Frank has done this <strong>in</strong> Shanghai and that <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Texas has required<br />

sure<br />

to do so <strong>in</strong> compliance with its Human Subject Review Board’s policies (Price 2001).<br />

him<br />

<strong>of</strong> course, while U.S. scholars are required to present research<br />

But<br />

to Institutional Review Boards or Human Subject Review Boards,<br />

proposals<br />

panels do not universally require NSEP research applicants to disclose<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

research populations that <strong>the</strong>y have future commitments to work for <strong>the</strong><br />

to<br />

<strong>in</strong> undeterm<strong>in</strong>ed national security employment — though such<br />

government<br />

are mandated by ethical codes <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional organizations such<br />

disclosures<br />

<strong>the</strong> American Anthropological Association or <strong>the</strong> American Sociological<br />

as<br />

Press<strong>in</strong>g university Institutional Review Boards to require all<br />

Association.<br />

recipients to disclose that <strong>the</strong>y are required to pursue future national<br />

NSEP<br />

employment to all research participants might be a good campaign<br />

security<br />

campus activists or pr<strong>of</strong>essional organizations concerned about <strong>the</strong><br />

for<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> icted by NSEP. University Institutional Review Boards<br />

damage<br />

that <strong>the</strong>ir failure to abide by basic ethical requirements to disclose<br />

know<br />

sources and obligations could jeopardize <strong>the</strong>ir ability to receive<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

grants.<br />

federal<br />

with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ranks <strong>of</strong> those partici pat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> various national security<br />

Even<br />

l<strong>in</strong>ked payback programs, <strong>the</strong>re exists an <strong>in</strong>for mal hierarchy <strong>of</strong> disda<strong>in</strong>.<br />

e<br />

front-end l<strong>in</strong>kage with <strong>in</strong>telligence agen cies, and <strong>the</strong> extreme levels<br />

secrecy,<br />

servitude <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> PRISP and ICSP programs give <strong>the</strong> willies to some NSEP<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

When PRISP rst appeared on <strong>the</strong> scene, one scholar who had<br />

loyalists.<br />

NSEP funds <strong>in</strong> graduate school and later worked with NSEP <strong>in</strong><br />

received<br />

capacity wrote to me that “NSEP is very upset about <strong>the</strong> PRISP<br />

ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />

because <strong>the</strong>y feel <strong>the</strong>y’ll be ta<strong>in</strong>ted by it, because <strong>the</strong>y don’t like<br />

fellowship<br />

secrecy aspects, and because <strong>the</strong>y fear some enterpris<strong>in</strong>g young PRISP-er<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

end up be<strong>in</strong>g killed and/or could threaten NSEP-ers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eld. As<br />

could<br />

probably know, NSEP recipients are not allowed to be work<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong><br />

you<br />

<strong>in</strong> any ca pacity dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir award.” Like <strong>the</strong>se<br />

government<br />

payback programs, NSEP holds <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>of</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g a revolv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

between <strong>the</strong> worlds <strong>of</strong> academia and national security. Nicolas Flattes<br />

door<br />

if NSEP and o<strong>the</strong>r na tional security payback programs were<br />

wondered<br />

a way for U.S. <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies to get around <strong>the</strong> ban limit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

provid<strong>in</strong>g<br />

personnel from travel<strong>in</strong>g to foreign countries or ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

with <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong> countries listed as hostile.<br />

contact


told me that “<strong>the</strong>re are two reasons given for this ban. One is that an<br />

Flattes<br />

operative may acciden tally reveal security secrets to an agent<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

from a hostile country.<br />

e o<strong>the</strong>r reason is that an operative may be<br />

uenced or bribed by an agent from a hostile country and <strong>in</strong>tentionally<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

national security. I th<strong>in</strong>k this has a great bear<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> NSEP,<br />

compromise<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r similar government programs. S<strong>in</strong>ce an <strong>in</strong>tel ligence agent<br />

PRISP,<br />

usually unable to travel <strong>in</strong> or to a hostile or unfriendly, country this makes<br />

is<br />

good surrogates and even undergraduate students could be a<br />

academics<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence tool. ey can travel freely, and have no obvious asso -<br />

useful<br />

ciation with an <strong>in</strong>telligence agency.<br />

ey can provide <strong>in</strong>valuable <strong>in</strong>formation<br />

countries and places that U.S. <strong>in</strong>telligence agents are unable to visit.”<br />

about<br />

sees <strong>the</strong>se payback programs as provid<strong>in</strong>g unique opportunities for<br />

Flattes<br />

who will face travel and contact restric tions when <strong>the</strong>y later work for<br />

those<br />

agencies. All former students fac<strong>in</strong>g hard choices on how to pay<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

for <strong>the</strong>ir educa tion have my sympathy.<br />

e education <strong>in</strong>dustry’s means and<br />

<strong>of</strong> produc tion provide <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly narrow choices for students not<br />

relations<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent means, and as American foreign policy becomes ever more<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

to <strong>in</strong>vasion, occupation and counter<strong>in</strong>surgency, <strong>the</strong> state’s needs for<br />

tied<br />

science swell. Programs like Robert Gates’ M<strong>in</strong>erva Consortium (see<br />

social<br />

three) provide funds for scholars located out side <strong>the</strong> government’s<br />

chapter<br />

<strong>in</strong> ways that simultaneously subdue what might have been<br />

walls<br />

academic critiques <strong>of</strong> national policy while produc<strong>in</strong>g knowl -<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

for <strong>the</strong> state and empire; while <strong>in</strong> dentured payback programs like<br />

edge<br />

ICSP, and PRSIP can help produce those who can harness and use<br />

NSEP,<br />

with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> walls <strong>of</strong> government. rough such nancial means<br />

knowledge<br />

are <strong>in</strong> creas<strong>in</strong>gly becom<strong>in</strong>g if not comfortable, <strong>the</strong>n compliant<br />

academics<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state.<br />

appendages<br />

<strong>the</strong> most troubl<strong>in</strong>g elements <strong>of</strong> ICSP and PRISP are those <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

But<br />

academia is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly te<strong>the</strong>red to hidden patrons and clients. If you<br />

how<br />

<strong>the</strong> dots from “non-payback” programs like Fulbright and Title VI<br />

connect<br />

“payback” programs like <strong>the</strong> National Security Education Program<br />

to<br />

PRISP and <strong>the</strong>n ICSP, <strong>the</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se fund<strong>in</strong>g programs<br />

(NSEP),<br />

directional changes and likely reiterations to come.<br />

suggest<br />

<strong>the</strong> shi from non-ideological programs like Title VI, or some<br />

While<br />

argue even NSEP to some degree, to <strong>in</strong>telligence-agency-l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

would<br />

programs <strong>in</strong>dicates an obvious change, <strong>the</strong> subtle variations between PRISP


ICSP may <strong>in</strong>dicate future fund<strong>in</strong>g developments. From this vantage<br />

and<br />

<strong>the</strong> National Security Education Program appears to be an unstable<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t,<br />

transitional evolutionary form.<br />

e transient <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>of</strong> NSEP<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir studies is not to <strong>the</strong> lik<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies, and<br />

students<br />

and ICSP take direct steps to tie students to speci c agencies<br />

PRISP<br />

early, also irrevocably. Changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> speci c<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

requirements from NSEP to PRISP to ICSP also <strong>in</strong>dicate an<br />

“payback”<br />

<strong>in</strong> mandatory employment periods. In a budgetary world <strong>of</strong> zero<br />

escalation<br />

ga<strong>in</strong>s, both PRISP and ICSP br<strong>in</strong>g a growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence-l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

sum<br />

<strong>in</strong> a time when traditional <strong>in</strong>dependent academic fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

scholarships<br />

face cutbacks, and <strong>the</strong>se conditions <strong>of</strong> scarcity will draw students<br />

programs<br />

<strong>the</strong>se “payback” programs.<br />

to<br />

PRISP and ICSP are transform<strong>in</strong>g aspects <strong>of</strong> higher education<br />

While<br />

<strong>the</strong> consent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> universities, many <strong>in</strong>stitutions are cultivat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

without<br />

relations with <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies. New campus <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

closer<br />

are form<strong>in</strong>g. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se are organizations like <strong>the</strong> National<br />

consortia<br />

Consortium for Homeland Security (did <strong>the</strong>y really th<strong>in</strong>k we<br />

Academic<br />

call it: NACHoS?) which aligns research and teach<strong>in</strong>g at member<br />

wouldn’t<br />

with <strong>the</strong> requirements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war on terror. But NACHoS is<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />

<strong>of</strong> a programmatic loyalty marker than it is a key to <strong>in</strong>ner sanctum<br />

more<br />

Member <strong>in</strong>stitutions range from Clackamas Community College to<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> universities that one might suspect would be<br />

MIT.<br />

apex <strong>in</strong>stitutions (Harvard, Yale, Chicago etc.) are miss<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

NACHoS<br />

rolls. <strong>the</strong><br />

251 universities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> consortium (www.homelandsecurity.osu.edu)<br />

e<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir vague commitment to study<strong>in</strong>g national security issues,<br />

declare<br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g new Homeland Security technologies and to<br />

antiterrorism,<br />

and tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> people required by governmental and nongovernmental<br />

“educate<br />

organizations, to e ectively accomplish <strong>in</strong>ternational and<br />

security roles and responsibilities”. While such proclamations may<br />

homeland<br />

like advertisements for a le -handed monkey wrench, <strong>the</strong>y can<br />

sound<br />

as welcome mats or hobo signs for students secretly hold<strong>in</strong>g PRISP<br />

function<br />

ICSP fund<strong>in</strong>g as <strong>the</strong>y shop around for spook-friendly campuses.<br />

or<br />

an unexam<strong>in</strong>ed world <strong>in</strong> which second and third tier universities<br />

ere’s<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g used to tra<strong>in</strong> future <strong>in</strong>telligence personnel; whe<strong>the</strong>r it is backdoor<br />

are<br />

connections between <strong>the</strong> CIA and FBI with fundamentalist Christian


RAMPS UP PRISP<br />

OBAMA<br />

news <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program generated<br />

While<br />

at places like Patrick Henry College, or <strong>the</strong> ICCAE pilot<br />

homeschoolers<br />

at Tr<strong>in</strong>ity Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University (see Chapter Four), or no-bid<br />

program<br />

for Homeland Security tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g at Mercyhurst College, <strong>in</strong> Tom<br />

contracts<br />

hometown, Erie, Pennsylvania (see Field 2005). ere are fortunes to<br />

Ridge’s<br />

made by universities <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> cash<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> on <strong>the</strong> national security<br />

be<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Steven R. David, director <strong>of</strong> Johns Hopk<strong>in</strong>s University’s<br />

craze,<br />

certi cate program, “Homeland security is probably go<strong>in</strong>g to be <strong>the</strong><br />

security<br />

biggest employer <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> next decade” (K<strong>in</strong>zie & Horwitz 2005).<br />

government’s<br />

Dana Priest and William Ark<strong>in</strong>’s Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post <strong>in</strong>vestigative series on<br />

As<br />

Security Inc.” (7/20/10) and “Monitor<strong>in</strong>g America” (12/20/10)<br />

“National<br />

<strong>the</strong> spread <strong>of</strong> public and private sector “national security”<br />

documents,<br />

has been one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fastest grow<strong>in</strong>g parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American<br />

employment<br />

(Priest & Ark<strong>in</strong> 2010).<br />

economy<br />

one perspective, <strong>the</strong> changes brought by PRISP, ICSP or NACHoS to<br />

From<br />

university campuses are changes <strong>of</strong> degree, not <strong>of</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d.<br />

ere is little new <strong>in</strong><br />

purpose <strong>of</strong> such fund<strong>in</strong>g programs o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong>ir sheer nakedness and<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tent. roughout <strong>the</strong> Cold War federal fund<strong>in</strong>g produced<br />

impatience<br />

<strong>of</strong> scholars and highly educated functionaries happy, will<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

hordes<br />

<strong>of</strong> carry<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>the</strong> desires <strong>of</strong> state. e number <strong>of</strong> dissident scholars<br />

capable<br />

is easily exaggerated, but <strong>the</strong> impacts have mattered.<br />

with<strong>in</strong> progressive elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. academic community, <strong>the</strong><br />

concern<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Obama Adm<strong>in</strong>istration did not br<strong>in</strong>g a reduction <strong>in</strong> PRISP<br />

com<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Instead, <strong>the</strong> Obama Adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s 2010 budget ended PRISP<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

ICSP’s status as pilot programs and designated <strong>the</strong>se programs as<br />

and<br />

budget items.<br />

ongo<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uities and disjunctures between <strong>the</strong> Bush and Obama<br />

As<br />

rst came <strong>in</strong>to focus <strong>in</strong> 2009, it became <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly clear<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrations<br />

while Obama’s domestic agenda had some identi able breaks with<br />

that<br />

at its core, <strong>the</strong> new adm<strong>in</strong>istration rema<strong>in</strong>ed committed to stay<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Bush’s,<br />

course <strong>of</strong> American militarization. e United <strong>State</strong>s now had an<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

nuanced president who supported elements <strong>of</strong> progressive<br />

articulate,<br />

policies, could even comfortably say <strong>the</strong> phrase LGBT <strong>in</strong> public<br />

domestic<br />

speeches, while fund<strong>in</strong>g military programs at alarm<strong>in</strong>g levels and cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g


Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s military and <strong>in</strong>telligence <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>of</strong> what used to<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

civilian life.<br />

be<br />

clear manifestation <strong>of</strong> this cont<strong>in</strong>uity came <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> 2009 when<br />

One<br />

C. Blair, Director <strong>of</strong> National Intelligence, announced plans to<br />

Dennis<br />

PRISP from a pilot project <strong>in</strong>to a permanent budget item. Blair<br />

transform<br />

announced plans to establish a “Reserve O cers’ Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Corps” to<br />

also<br />

tra<strong>in</strong> unidenti ed future <strong>in</strong>telligence o<br />

cers <strong>in</strong> US college classrooms. Like<br />

receiv<strong>in</strong>g PRISP funds, <strong>the</strong> identities <strong>of</strong> students participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

students<br />

programs would not be known to pr<strong>of</strong>essors, university adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

fellow students — <strong>in</strong> e ect, <strong>the</strong>se future <strong>in</strong>telligence analysts and agents<br />

or<br />

conduct <strong>the</strong>ir rst covert missions <strong>in</strong> our university classrooms.<br />

would<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> a ected academic discipl<strong>in</strong>es will o er resistance and some<br />

None<br />

quickly warm to announcements <strong>of</strong> any new fund<strong>in</strong>g stream.<br />

may<br />

<strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> political science, history or area specialists<br />

Traditionally,<br />

from <strong>the</strong> humanities have seldom resisted such developments; but<br />

com<strong>in</strong>g<br />

discipl<strong>in</strong>es like anthropology, <strong>the</strong>se undisclosed <strong>in</strong>telligence-l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

for<br />

present devastat<strong>in</strong>g ethical and practical problems, as <strong>the</strong> non-<br />

programs<br />

<strong>of</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g and l<strong>in</strong>ks to <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies ies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

discloser<br />

ethical pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> discipl<strong>in</strong>e. But even without <strong>the</strong> problems for<br />

basic<br />

discipl<strong>in</strong>ary ethics codes, <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se undisclosed secret<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

<strong>in</strong> our classrooms betrays fundamental trusts that lie at <strong>the</strong> core <strong>of</strong><br />

sharers<br />

academic endeavors.<br />

honest<br />

<strong>the</strong> National Intelligence Director’s move to make PRISP a<br />

While<br />

budget item damaged <strong>the</strong> academic freedom and <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong><br />

permanent<br />

universities, it was not questioned by university adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />

American<br />

fac<strong>in</strong>g crashed university endowments and dw<strong>in</strong>dl<strong>in</strong>g budgets.<br />

at some<br />

would so easily accommodate <strong>the</strong>mselves and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrity for <strong>the</strong> promise <strong>of</strong> funds should be <strong>of</strong> little surprise,<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />

we should be concerned that <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed forces <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> current<br />

but<br />

collapse conjo<strong>in</strong>ed with President Obama’s ability to br<strong>in</strong>g a new<br />

economic<br />

credibility to <strong>the</strong> this warmed-over Bush era project will <strong>in</strong>duce more<br />

liberal<br />

and students to seriously consider participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se programs.<br />

faculty<br />

Times are hard and as funds get scarce it will be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly di<br />

cult for<br />

to say no.<br />

many<br />

PRISP as a permanent budgetary item sped through congress<br />

Establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> part because supporters claimed <strong>the</strong>y were both support<strong>in</strong>g education


and military and <strong>in</strong>telligence sectors, with a bonus feel-good workethic<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

mandate thrown-<strong>in</strong> by requir<strong>in</strong>g students to payback <strong>the</strong>ir funds<br />

through required future governmental service.<br />

is push was accomplished<br />

an outside assessment <strong>of</strong> PRISP as a pilot program. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

without<br />

<strong>of</strong> transparency surround<strong>in</strong>g PRISP, we have little idea what is really<br />

lack<br />

on with <strong>the</strong> program. In 2008 I identi ed one social science recipient<br />

go<strong>in</strong>g<br />

PRISP funds who expla<strong>in</strong>ed to me that PRISP had been such a failure <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

social scientists to fund that PRISP had sought <strong>the</strong>m out and<br />

nd<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>m with funds for work that was already underway just to<br />

provided<br />

spend-down <strong>the</strong> PRISP budget. Given <strong>the</strong>se di<br />

culties with <strong>the</strong> program, I<br />

if <strong>the</strong> current expansion <strong>of</strong> PRISP is a supply-side e ort to troll <strong>the</strong><br />

wonder<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly underfunded and debt-carry<strong>in</strong>g desperate young<br />

pool<br />

with few o<strong>the</strong>r fund<strong>in</strong>g options.<br />

scholars<br />

associations like <strong>the</strong> American Association <strong>of</strong> University<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

<strong>the</strong> American Psychological Association and <strong>the</strong> American<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>essors,<br />

Association need to establish pr<strong>of</strong>essional policies<br />

Anthropological<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir opposition to members receiv<strong>in</strong>g PRSIP or ICSP funds.<br />

establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

risks fur<strong>the</strong>r blurr<strong>in</strong>g already hazy borders mark<strong>in</strong>g proper<br />

PRISP<br />

academic roles, and it stands to confuse academic identities <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

that many will not even realize. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se processes are<br />

ways<br />

<strong>of</strong> a recurrent motif <strong>in</strong> Philip K. Dick’s stories where<br />

rem<strong>in</strong>iscent<br />

becomes unclear <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own agency and identity; becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

protagonists<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own histories and memories, or true political alliances — <strong>in</strong><br />

unsure<br />

ect becom<strong>in</strong>g undercover agents with identities unknown even to<br />

e<br />

As this new generation <strong>of</strong> programs covertly br<strong>in</strong>gs undeclared<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />

unidenti able students <strong>in</strong>to our universities <strong>the</strong>y disrupt university<br />

and<br />

and transforms <strong>the</strong> roles <strong>of</strong> all who teach, research, study and work<br />

identities<br />

<strong>in</strong> ways that <strong>the</strong>y will not necessarily understand — as <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>re<br />

learn<strong>in</strong>g fur<strong>the</strong>r lose <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>dependence and become unwitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

higher<br />

<strong>of</strong> state <strong>in</strong>telligence functions.<br />

agents


<strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>erva Initiative<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

Paracelsus’s time <strong>the</strong> energy <strong>of</strong> universities resided <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> con ict between humanism and<br />

In<br />

<strong>the</strong> energy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern university lives <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> love-a air between government and<br />

<strong>the</strong>ology;<br />

and sometimes <strong>the</strong> two are so close it makes you shudder.<br />

science,<br />

Three: <strong>Social</strong> <strong>Science</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

Chapter<br />

- The Gravitational Distortions<br />

Harness<br />

— Robertson Davies, e Rebel Angels<br />

<strong>the</strong> 1930s <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> 1960s, Tro m Lysenko’s crackpot biological <strong>the</strong>ories<br />

From<br />

<strong>the</strong> Soviet Union’s leadership with scienti c justi cations for <strong>the</strong><br />

provided<br />

collectivization <strong>of</strong> farms and o<strong>the</strong>r centralized policy dreams.<br />

forced<br />

rejected Mendelian genetics and Darw<strong>in</strong>ian models <strong>of</strong> natural<br />

Lysenko<br />

<strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> Lamarkian notions <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>heritability <strong>of</strong> acquired<br />

selection<br />

and for decades all Soviet biologists needed to work <strong>in</strong> ways<br />

characteristics,<br />

did not challenge Lysenko’s doctr<strong>in</strong>e. Lysenko’s claim that changes<br />

that<br />

<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dividual dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir lifetime could be passed on to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />

spr<strong>in</strong>g seemed to o er scienti c pro<strong>of</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Soviet dream that<br />

o<br />

revolutionary formations could transform not just society, but nature<br />

rapid<br />

So powerful was Lysenko’s impact that <strong>the</strong> bogus experimental data he<br />

itself.<br />

to justify his work stood unchallenged for decades as valid<br />

produced<br />

work. Soviet biologists learned to align <strong>the</strong>ir work with <strong>the</strong> state’s<br />

empirical<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, and <strong>the</strong> careers <strong>of</strong> those dissidents who would not<br />

conception<br />

align <strong>the</strong>ir views fell by <strong>the</strong> wayside.<br />

so<br />

demands <strong>of</strong> conform<strong>in</strong>g scienti c knowledge with <strong>the</strong> ideological<br />

e<br />

<strong>of</strong> a powerful state stunted <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> Soviet biology for<br />

positions<br />

But today, American social science faces new forms <strong>of</strong> ideologically<br />

decades.<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g that stand to transform our universities’ production <strong>of</strong><br />

controlled<br />

<strong>in</strong> ways rem<strong>in</strong>iscent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union’s ideological control over<br />

knowledge<br />

c <strong>in</strong>terpretations. As non-directed <strong>in</strong>dependent fund<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

scienti<br />

social scientists decreases, <strong>the</strong>re are steady <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> new<br />

American<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g programs such as <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars<br />

directed<br />

<strong>the</strong> National Security Education Program, and <strong>the</strong> Intelligence<br />

Program,<br />

Community Scholars Program.<br />

ese programs leave our universities


Low argued that,<br />

President<br />

Association wholeheartedly believes that social science research can contribute to<br />

e<br />

<strong>of</strong> armed con ict but we believe that as Project M<strong>in</strong>erva moves towards<br />

reduction<br />

its nd<strong>in</strong>gs will be considered more authoritative if its fund<strong>in</strong>g is routed<br />

implementation,<br />

<strong>the</strong> well-established peer-reviewed selection process <strong>of</strong> organizations like <strong>the</strong><br />

through<br />

<strong>Science</strong> Foundation, <strong>the</strong> National Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health, and <strong>the</strong> national Endowment<br />

National<br />

<strong>the</strong> Humanities.<br />

for<br />

Gates identi ed four areas <strong>of</strong> work that Project M<strong>in</strong>erva might fund: an archive <strong>of</strong><br />

Secretary<br />

on Ch<strong>in</strong>ese military and technology developments; work on documents captures <strong>in</strong><br />

sources<br />

research on relationship between terrorism and religion, especially Islam; and <strong>the</strong> “New<br />

Iraq;<br />

Project,” which seeks to leverage anthropology and o<strong>the</strong>r discipl<strong>in</strong>es historically<br />

Discipl<strong>in</strong>es<br />

by <strong>the</strong> U.S. military (Gates speci cally mentioned history, anthropology,<br />

under-utilized<br />

and evolutionary psychology, voic<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> hope that support for <strong>the</strong>se discipl<strong>in</strong>es<br />

sociology<br />

produce new areas <strong>of</strong> study analogous to e orts undertaken dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Cold War).<br />

might<br />

believe that it is <strong>of</strong> paramount importance for anthropologists to study <strong>the</strong> roots <strong>of</strong><br />

We<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r forms <strong>of</strong> violence, and to seek answers to <strong>the</strong> urgent questions voiced by<br />

terrorism<br />

to <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> state. And that it did, even though it funded critics <strong>of</strong><br />

use<br />

policies openly study<strong>in</strong>g critical <strong>the</strong>ory, dependency <strong>the</strong>ory, <strong>the</strong><br />

American<br />

<strong>of</strong> poverty, and strati cation <strong>of</strong> race, class and gender just as it<br />

culture<br />

modernization <strong>the</strong>ory, development, and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>ories l<strong>in</strong>ked with<br />

funded<br />

susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> status quo.<br />

is open model <strong>of</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g was productive for all,<br />

it produced plenty <strong>of</strong> scholars who thought <strong>in</strong> ways aligned with <strong>the</strong><br />

and<br />

<strong>of</strong> state. e U.S. government got a good return for its <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />

needs<br />

<strong>the</strong>y realized it or not.<br />

whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />

anthropology <strong>the</strong>re is an overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g discipl<strong>in</strong>ary amnesia<br />

In<br />

<strong>the</strong> extent to which research has been directed by <strong>the</strong> Pentagon<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past. ere has been a broad spectrum <strong>of</strong><br />

and<br />

and covert control over this fund<strong>in</strong>g, with <strong>the</strong> full range runn<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

overt<br />

direct<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> unwitt<strong>in</strong>g scholars do<strong>in</strong>g research <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest to<br />

secret<br />

CIA and o<strong>the</strong>rs, to <strong>the</strong> open, massive fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a full spectrum <strong>of</strong> social<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

and language projects through agencies like <strong>the</strong> NSF or Fulbright<br />

science<br />

Programs.<br />

e orts to nd middle ground, <strong>in</strong> 2008 <strong>the</strong> leadership <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American<br />

In<br />

Association (AAA) suggested that ra<strong>the</strong>r than runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

Anthropological<br />

and management <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>erva through <strong>the</strong> Department <strong>of</strong> Defense,<br />

selection<br />

program could be run through “external” agencies such as <strong>the</strong> National<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Foundation (NSF). In a letter from AAA President Setha Low to Jim<br />

<strong>Science</strong><br />

Nussle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> US Congressional O<br />

ce <strong>of</strong> Management and Budget,<br />

many <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United <strong>State</strong>s and o<strong>the</strong>r countries s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> attacks <strong>of</strong> September 11. However we


knowledge will be put. M<strong>in</strong>erva seeks to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> e<br />

ciency <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Bush Doctr<strong>in</strong>e, not <strong>the</strong> question<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> it.<br />

implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />

projects funded by M<strong>in</strong>erva all study subjects <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest to <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />

<strong>in</strong> particular, limited, ways that <strong>in</strong> turn <strong>in</strong> uence <strong>the</strong> questions<br />

Pentagon<br />

and answers found. For example, from <strong>the</strong> 2009 fund<strong>in</strong>g cycle,<br />

asked<br />

funded: Susan Shirk’s (UCSD) study <strong>of</strong> how Ch<strong>in</strong>ese technology<br />

M<strong>in</strong>erva<br />

to <strong>the</strong>ir national security; Mark Woodward’s (Arizona <strong>State</strong><br />

relates<br />

research mapped “<strong>the</strong> di usion and <strong>in</strong> uence <strong>of</strong> counter-radical<br />

University)<br />

discourse;” David Matsumoto (SFSU) studied cross cultural facial<br />

Muslim<br />

<strong>of</strong> emotion (with obvious uses for doomed e orts to identify<br />

expressions<br />

recognize terrorists). e 2010 jo<strong>in</strong>t NSF/DoD M<strong>in</strong>erva grants <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />

and<br />

Crenshaw (Stanford) “mapp<strong>in</strong>g terrorist organizations;” Eli Berman<br />

Martha<br />

present<strong>in</strong>g a workshop on “ e Political Economy <strong>of</strong> Terrorism and<br />

(UCSD)<br />

Insurgency.”<br />

e 2010 DoD funded M<strong>in</strong>erva Grants had even more direct<br />

applications, with Suzanne Logan’s (USMC) research on “Iraqi and<br />

military<br />

Perspectives;” William Spa<strong>in</strong>’s (Naval War College) on “Iraqi and<br />

Terrorist<br />

Perspectives/Culture and Strategy;” and Judith Yaphe and Kamal<br />

Terrorist<br />

research<strong>in</strong>g “Religious and Cultural Change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Muslim<br />

Beyoghlow’s<br />

(http://m<strong>in</strong>erva.dtic.mil/funded.html). Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>erva<br />

World”<br />

funded e orts to make social forces legible <strong>in</strong> particular ways are<br />

projects<br />

to produce new forms <strong>of</strong> if not control, <strong>the</strong>n predictive<br />

designed<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

doesn’t appear to be fund<strong>in</strong>g projects designed to tell Defense<br />

M<strong>in</strong>erva<br />

<strong>the</strong> US shouldn’t <strong>in</strong>vade and occupy o<strong>the</strong>r countries. Its programs are<br />

why<br />

concerned with <strong>the</strong> nuts and bolts <strong>of</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency, and<br />

more<br />

speci c questions related to <strong>the</strong> occupation and streaml<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

answer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> empire. M<strong>in</strong>erva <strong>in</strong>stead generates select views that<br />

problems<br />

enemies and problems <strong>in</strong> ways that are already familiar and<br />

conceptualize<br />

understood by those who fund this research.<br />

ere is no M<strong>in</strong>erva funded<br />

<strong>of</strong> dissent and warn<strong>in</strong>g, M<strong>in</strong>erva funds only those who already are<br />

research<br />

with Defense’s basic vision <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world. is sort <strong>of</strong> Soviet model <strong>of</strong><br />

aligned<br />

social science fund<strong>in</strong>g will make America’s critical perspective<br />

directed<br />

narrow precisely at an historical moment when we need a new breadth<br />

more<br />

knowledge and perspective.<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

and o<strong>the</strong>rs at Defense need to hear from <strong>in</strong>dependent, un<strong>in</strong>dentured<br />

Gates<br />

critical scholars who will tell <strong>the</strong>m that counter<strong>in</strong>surgency won’t work <strong>the</strong>


that <strong>the</strong> current social science salesmen are pitch<strong>in</strong>g it to <strong>the</strong> Pentagon<br />

way<br />

<strong>the</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k tanks <strong>of</strong> Dupont Circle’s hegemony row would have <strong>the</strong>m<br />

and<br />

and <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>erva Consortium will not take social science <strong>in</strong> this<br />

believe,<br />

critical direction.<br />

needed<br />

problem with Gate’s M<strong>in</strong>erva vision is <strong>the</strong> problem with Soviet science:<br />

e<br />

dependent science’s purse str<strong>in</strong>gs cannot lead to good results. If<br />

ideologically<br />

really wanted good social science, not social science that tastes good<br />

Gates<br />

familiar to <strong>the</strong> Pentagon’s limited palate), he would be lobby<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(and<br />

to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> generalized social science — <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Congress<br />

social science — not push<strong>in</strong>g to Sovietize <strong>the</strong> social sciences.<br />

dissident


Four: Silent Coup - How <strong>the</strong><br />

Chapter<br />

Welcomed Itself Back onto<br />

CIA<br />

University Campuses Without<br />

American<br />

Protest<br />

Public<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state has become a secular religion for which <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectuals serve as<br />

Worship<br />

priesthood.<br />

— Noam Chomsky<br />

<strong>the</strong> 1970s, 80s and 90s, <strong>in</strong>dependent grassroots movements to<br />

roughout<br />

<strong>the</strong> Central Intelligence Agency o American university campuses<br />

keep<br />

broadly supported by students, pr<strong>of</strong>essors and community members.<br />

were<br />

ethos <strong>of</strong> this movement was captured <strong>in</strong> Ami Chen Mill’s 1990 book,<br />

e<br />

O Campus: Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Movement aga<strong>in</strong>st Agency Recruitment and<br />

C.I.A.<br />

(Mills 1991). Mills’ book presented tactics for campus activists to<br />

Research<br />

CIA campus <strong>in</strong>cursions, but it also gave voice to <strong>the</strong> multiple reasons<br />

resist<br />

so many academics dur<strong>in</strong>g this period opposed <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA<br />

why<br />

university campuses; reasons that ranged from <strong>the</strong> recognitions <strong>of</strong><br />

on<br />

anti<strong>the</strong>tical relationship to academic freedom and <strong>the</strong> production<br />

secrecy’s<br />

critical knowledge, to political objections to <strong>the</strong> CIA’s unbridled use <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

and assass<strong>in</strong>ation, to e orts on campuses to recruit pr<strong>of</strong>essors and<br />

torture<br />

and <strong>the</strong> CIA’s longstand<strong>in</strong>g role <strong>in</strong> underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g democratic<br />

students,<br />

around <strong>the</strong> world. For those who lived through <strong>the</strong> dramatic<br />

movements<br />

shock<strong>in</strong>g revelations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church Committee Hear<strong>in</strong>gs and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

and<br />

<strong>in</strong>quiries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1970s document<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA’s rout<strong>in</strong>e<br />

congressional<br />

<strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> global and domestic atrocities, it made sense to<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />

<strong>in</strong> our universities to construct and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional rewalls<br />

many<br />

an agency so deeply l<strong>in</strong>ked with <strong>the</strong>se actions and educational<br />

between<br />

dedicated to at least promises <strong>of</strong> free enquiry and truth. But <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />

dozen years has seen <strong>the</strong> retirements and deaths <strong>of</strong> generations <strong>of</strong><br />

last<br />

who had lived through this history and had been vigilant about<br />

academics<br />

<strong>the</strong> CIA o campus; and with <strong>the</strong> terror attacks <strong>of</strong> 9/11 came new<br />

keep<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA back onto American campuses.<br />

campaigns


post-9/11 America, <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration spun a narrative that was<br />

In<br />

by Congress and <strong>the</strong> media claim<strong>in</strong>g that one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reasons that<br />

accepted<br />

9/11 attacks occurred was because <strong>the</strong> US did not have well tra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

who understood <strong>the</strong> Middle East. Ra<strong>the</strong>r than acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

analysts<br />

<strong>in</strong> US policy and <strong>in</strong>telligence were related to <strong>the</strong> extreme<br />

shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

<strong>of</strong> political perspectives allowed to exist with<strong>in</strong> agencies like<br />

narrowness<br />

<strong>State</strong>, and Defense Department, governmental agencies moved to<br />

CIA,<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir own narrowness <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional knowledge by export<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

spread<br />

dysfunctional <strong>in</strong>stitutional culture and groupth<strong>in</strong>k externally to<br />

CIA’s<br />

universities.<br />

Henry Giroux’s book,<br />

e University <strong>in</strong> Cha<strong>in</strong>s: Confront<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Military-<br />

Academic Complex, details how shi s <strong>in</strong> university fund<strong>in</strong>g over<br />

Industrial<br />

past two decades brought <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong>trusions by corporate and military<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

onto university campuses <strong>in</strong> ways that transformed <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong><br />

forces<br />

(Giroux 2007). Over <strong>the</strong> past twenty years, U.S. universities<br />

knowledge<br />

ed from a reliance on traditional fund<strong>in</strong>g sources for research and<br />

shi<br />

<strong>in</strong>struction as both private and public universities welcomed<br />

classroom<br />

private corporations’ money and external research agendas.<br />

is shi <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>creased most universities reliance on outside corporate<br />

corporatization<br />

and an acquiescence towards external agendas positioned university<br />

funds<br />

to see post-9/11 advances by <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies as just<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />

revenue stream.<br />

ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />

er 9/11, <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies pushed campuses to see <strong>the</strong> CIA and<br />

A<br />

secrecy <strong>in</strong> a new light, and as traditional fund<strong>in</strong>g sources for<br />

campus<br />

research did not keep up with perceived fund<strong>in</strong>g needs, military<br />

university<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies launched a well- nanced bureaucratic push to ga<strong>in</strong><br />

and<br />

on university campuses <strong>in</strong> a so campaign that largely escaped<br />

footholds<br />

notice, though privately on each campus where <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

public<br />

nest and reproduce, shock waves <strong>of</strong> concern, outrage and<br />

programs<br />

quietly <strong>in</strong>ternally emerged among faculty and students.<br />

disapproval<br />

scholarship programs like <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars<br />

Post-9/11<br />

(PRISP) and <strong>the</strong> Intelligence Community Scholarship Programs<br />

Program<br />

now sneak unidenti ed scholars as secret sharers with undisclosed<br />

(ICSP)<br />

to <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies <strong>in</strong>to university classrooms. A new generation<br />

l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />

so called “ agship” programs have taken root on campuses, and with each<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

agship our universities are transformed <strong>in</strong>to vessels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> militarized<br />

new


as academics learn to sublimate <strong>the</strong>ir unease about <strong>the</strong>se relationships.<br />

state<br />

programs most signi cantly l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA with university campuses<br />

e<br />

<strong>the</strong>: “Intelligence Community Centers <strong>of</strong> Academic Excellence” (ICCAE,<br />

are<br />

“Icky”) and <strong>the</strong> “Intelligence Advance Research Projects<br />

pronounced<br />

(IARPA); both programs share a vision <strong>of</strong> quietly us<strong>in</strong>g exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Activity”<br />

to tra<strong>in</strong> present and future <strong>in</strong>telligence operatives by establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

universities<br />

least partially non-transparent programs on <strong>the</strong>se campuses that can<br />

at<br />

onto exist<strong>in</strong>g educational programs. Campuses that can learn to<br />

piggyback<br />

<strong>the</strong>se outsourced programs as nonthreaten<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir open educational<br />

see<br />

research missions are rewarded with a wealth <strong>of</strong> funds, useful contacts<br />

and<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies for pr<strong>of</strong>essors and students, and o<strong>the</strong>r less<br />

with<strong>in</strong><br />

bene ts.<br />

tangible<br />

new programs are di erent from <strong>the</strong> Cold War’s language and area<br />

ese<br />

center fund<strong>in</strong>g programs that provided funds for students and faculty<br />

study<br />

somewhat <strong>in</strong>dependently study languages, regions and topics <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<br />

to<br />

<strong>the</strong> American national security state. Cold War language programs like<br />

to<br />

funded by <strong>the</strong> 1958 National Defense Education Act, funded th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

those<br />

<strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong> Russian Language and Soviet culture and history (or later,<br />

like<br />

American language and culture) <strong>in</strong> ways bene cial to <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong><br />

Lat<strong>in</strong><br />

without l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g scholars to agencies <strong>in</strong> ways that so obviously limited<br />

state<br />

While <strong>the</strong>re were troubl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stances where <strong>the</strong>se programs<br />

scholarship.<br />

<strong>in</strong>terfered with academic freedom, <strong>the</strong> extent that <strong>the</strong>se programs<br />

covertly<br />

funded critical scholarship demonstrates a break with present trends.<br />

ese<br />

programs created critical scholarship without front load<strong>in</strong>g academics<br />

past<br />

<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence communities <strong>in</strong>stitutional world view.<br />

with<br />

January 25th, 2010, James O’Keefe and three o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dividuals were<br />

On<br />

<strong>in</strong> connection with e orts to wiretap Democratic Sen. Mary<br />

arrested<br />

Landrieu’s o<br />

ce <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hale Boggs Federal Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> downtown New<br />

One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals arrested was Mr. Stan Dai, who was arrested<br />

Orleans.<br />

few blocks away from Landrieu’s o ce <strong>in</strong> a car with a small radio listen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a<br />

Independent journalist L<strong>in</strong>dsay Beyerste<strong>in</strong> soon identi ed Stan Dai<br />

device.<br />

a former Assistant Director <strong>of</strong> Tr<strong>in</strong>ity Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University’s ICCAE<br />

as<br />

program.<br />

e extent <strong>of</strong> Mr. Dai’s ongo<strong>in</strong>g connections with <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>s unclear, but <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> summer <strong>of</strong> 2009 he gave a public talk on<br />

agencies<br />

topics <strong>of</strong> terrorism and torture at a multi-campus “CIA Day” student<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

program <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Junior <strong>State</strong>smen <strong>of</strong> America’s summer school. Dai’s arrest


him ICCAE’s reluctant poster child, a status that belies ICCAE<br />

makes<br />

rout<strong>in</strong>e claims <strong>the</strong> program is simply ano<strong>the</strong>r federally funded<br />

supporters<br />

program, essentially no di erent from fund<strong>in</strong>g programs like<br />

academic<br />

<strong>the</strong> National <strong>Science</strong> Foundation or <strong>the</strong> Department <strong>of</strong><br />

Fulbright,<br />

Agriculture.<br />

is is ludicrous; none <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>r federally funded<br />

openly l<strong>in</strong>k scholars with military or <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies.<br />

programs<br />

er Beyerste<strong>in</strong> blogged <strong>of</strong> Dai’s connections to ICCAE, Newsweek<br />

A<br />

Ann Pauley, Vice President <strong>of</strong> Tr<strong>in</strong>ity Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University,<br />

<strong>in</strong>terviewed<br />

con rmed Dai’s work <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ICCAE campus program. Pauley described<br />

who<br />

program as seek<strong>in</strong>g “to expose female and m<strong>in</strong>ority students to <strong>the</strong><br />

Tr<strong>in</strong>ity’s<br />

<strong>of</strong> work spy agencies do and potentially <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

k<strong>in</strong>d<br />

o cers.” e publicity surround<strong>in</strong>g Dai’s arrest was certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

way <strong>of</strong> “expos<strong>in</strong>g students to <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> work spy agencies do.” Pauley<br />

one<br />

Newsweek that Dai’s work with ICCAE was only on an<br />

assured<br />

level, but Newsweek determ<strong>in</strong>ed that “onl<strong>in</strong>e records <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />

did <strong>in</strong>teract with high-rank<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence personnel” (Newsweek<br />

Dai<br />

Dai pled guilty to charges <strong>of</strong> “enter<strong>in</strong>g real property belong<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />

2010).<br />

<strong>State</strong>s under false pretenses,” was ned $1,500, and sentenced to two<br />

United<br />

probation.<br />

years<br />

should be no surprise that ICCAE personnel would be arrested <strong>in</strong> a<br />

It<br />

blackbag operation. e history <strong>of</strong> American <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies<br />

bungled<br />

full <strong>of</strong> characters mixed up <strong>in</strong> harebra<strong>in</strong>ed misadventures, and when<br />

is<br />

succumb to <strong>the</strong> economic pressures to br<strong>in</strong>g ICCAE on campus<br />

universities<br />

need to know <strong>the</strong>y are embrac<strong>in</strong>g ignoble <strong>in</strong>stitutional histories packed<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

a motley cast <strong>of</strong> characters like E. Howard Hunt, G. Gordon Libby and<br />

with<br />

Wilson. Given <strong>the</strong> CIA’s well documented history and university<br />

Edw<strong>in</strong><br />

refusals to acknowledge that <strong>the</strong>re are fundamental<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrators’<br />

erences between <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies and universities, this state <strong>of</strong> denial<br />

di<br />

we can expect to see more connections between ICCAE-l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

guarantees<br />

and all sorts <strong>of</strong> nefarious activities.<br />

personnel<br />

shi to br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g programs like ICCAE onto American campuses is<br />

Today’s<br />

one part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g acceptance <strong>of</strong> what anthropologist Ca<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>e<br />

but<br />

calls “<strong>the</strong> military normal,” as <strong>the</strong> American military and <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

Lutz<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ues to grow <strong>in</strong> un<strong>in</strong>hibited ways that <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly take over all<br />

state<br />

<strong>of</strong> our culture. It isn’t enough that U.S. military spend<strong>in</strong>g makes up<br />

facets<br />

49% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> planet’s military budget: this core militarism reaches <strong>in</strong>to all


<strong>of</strong> cultural life until its presence is seen as proper, normal and<br />

elements<br />

is is how culture works; pastoralist cultures tend to idealize <strong>the</strong><br />

good.<br />

and imag<strong>in</strong>ed personality traits <strong>of</strong> cattle <strong>in</strong>to countless facets <strong>of</strong> daily<br />

virtues<br />

and religion (it’s no co<strong>in</strong>cidence that <strong>the</strong> Lord is my shepherd came from<br />

life<br />

shepherds), <strong>in</strong>sect eaters normalize what to us is grotesque,<br />

semi-nomadic<br />

and collectors value egalitarianism and shar<strong>in</strong>g, collective cultures<br />

hunters<br />

<strong>the</strong> private, capitalists come to see sel shness, bragg<strong>in</strong>g, and greed as<br />

shun<br />

and private ga<strong>in</strong> is valued over public good. at economic cultural<br />

virtues,<br />

are <strong>in</strong>ternalized, viewed as natural virtues is not surpris<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

values<br />

so <strong>in</strong> this anthropological sense we should expect a military<br />

anthropologists;<br />

<strong>the</strong> likes <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong> world has never seen before should spread<br />

economy<br />

acceptance <strong>of</strong> militarization <strong>in</strong>to all forms <strong>of</strong> social life. We should expect<br />

an<br />

<strong>in</strong> such a society to be encouraged to accept as normal conditions<br />

citizens<br />

basic medical care, food and education are seen as secondary<br />

where<br />

to nanc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> uncontrolled growth <strong>of</strong> military spend<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

importance<br />

is part <strong>of</strong> larger e orts to coax Americans <strong>in</strong>to see<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

ICCAE<br />

as a normal part <strong>of</strong> life; as a way to get us to <strong>in</strong>ternalize surveillance<br />

agencies<br />

a new element <strong>of</strong> American freedom. None <strong>of</strong> us are immune from such<br />

as<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternalizations. When edit<strong>in</strong>g a rst dra <strong>of</strong> an article on ICCAE,<br />

subtle<br />

Cockburn po<strong>in</strong>ted out to me how many times I had used <strong>the</strong><br />

Alexander<br />

“community,” <strong>in</strong> various ways, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g seamlessly switch<strong>in</strong>g between<br />

word<br />

to academic and citizen “community” resistance e orts to CIA<br />

references<br />

programs and non-ironically referr<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> spy agencies as “<strong>the</strong><br />

campus<br />

community” — this be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> self-christened <strong>in</strong>nocuous phrase<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

desensitized preference used by a broad range <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

from <strong>the</strong> CIA to <strong>the</strong> Defense Intelligence Agency. e so <strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g “community” to refer to spy agencies devoted to antidemocratic<br />

glow<br />

means, imperialism, torture, and any-means-necessary is but<br />

small example <strong>of</strong> how we are all be<strong>in</strong>g socialized to accept <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

one<br />

<strong>in</strong>trusions as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> normal fabric <strong>of</strong> American life. In <strong>the</strong><br />

agencies<br />

movie,<br />

ree Days <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Condor, Mr. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Cli Robertson), tells Joe<br />

(Robert Redford) that someone with<strong>in</strong> “<strong>the</strong> community” must be<br />

Turner<br />

<strong>the</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>gs that have Turner on <strong>the</strong> run. Turner repeats Higg<strong>in</strong>s’<br />

beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />

back to him, say<strong>in</strong>g “community” with disda<strong>in</strong>. Higg<strong>in</strong>s clari es,<br />

phrase<br />

“<strong>in</strong>telligence eld,” and Turner says, “Community! Jesus, you guys are<br />

say<strong>in</strong>g<br />

k<strong>in</strong>d to yourselves. Community!”<br />

e CIA’s colonialization <strong>of</strong> America’s


has progressed so well that <strong>the</strong> words “<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

consciousness<br />

has taken on a normal so and natural feel.<br />

community”<br />

even <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> extreme militarization found <strong>in</strong> America today, it is <strong>the</strong><br />

But<br />

silence surround<strong>in</strong>g this quiet <strong>in</strong>stallation and spread <strong>of</strong> programs<br />

public<br />

ICCAE and IARPA on campuses that is extraord<strong>in</strong>ary. S<strong>in</strong>ce 2005<br />

like<br />

has more rapidly progressed along a trajectory <strong>of</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA<br />

ICCAE<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies openly to multiple American university<br />

and<br />

than any previous <strong>in</strong>telligence agency’s <strong>in</strong>trusion onto American<br />

campuses<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> Second World War. Yet <strong>the</strong> program has spread with<br />

campuses<br />

public notice or organized multi-campus resistance. In 2004 a $250,000<br />

little<br />

was awarded to Tr<strong>in</strong>ity Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University by <strong>the</strong> Intelligence<br />

grant<br />

for <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> a pilot “Intelligence Community<br />

Community<br />

<strong>of</strong> Academic Excellence” program. Tr<strong>in</strong>ity was <strong>in</strong> many ways an ideal<br />

Center<br />

for a pilot program, as a vulnerable, tuition driven struggl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

campus<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> D.C. area, <strong>the</strong> promise <strong>of</strong> desperately needed<br />

nancial<br />

and a regionally assured potential student base l<strong>in</strong>ked-with or seek<strong>in</strong>g<br />

funds<br />

to DC-based <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies made <strong>the</strong> program<br />

connections<br />

attractive.<br />

nancially<br />

2005, <strong>the</strong> rst wave <strong>of</strong> ICCAE centers were <strong>in</strong>stalled at ten university<br />

In<br />

California <strong>State</strong> University San Bernard<strong>in</strong>o, Clark Atlanta<br />

campuses:<br />

Florida International University, Norfolk <strong>State</strong> University,<br />

University,<br />

<strong>State</strong> University, Tr<strong>in</strong>ity University, University <strong>of</strong> Texas El Paso,<br />

Tennessee<br />

<strong>of</strong> Texas Pan American, University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, and Wayne<br />

University<br />

University. Between 2008-2010 ano<strong>the</strong>r wave <strong>of</strong> expansion brought<br />

<strong>State</strong><br />

programs to ano<strong>the</strong>r eleven campuses: Carnegie Mellon, Clemson,<br />

ICCAE<br />

Carol<strong>in</strong>a A&T <strong>State</strong>, University <strong>of</strong> North Carol<strong>in</strong>a-Wilm<strong>in</strong>gton,<br />

North<br />

A&M, Miles College, University <strong>of</strong> Maryland, College Park,<br />

Florida<br />

<strong>of</strong> Nebraska, University <strong>of</strong> New Mexico, Pennsylvania <strong>State</strong><br />

University<br />

and Virg<strong>in</strong>ia Polytechnic Institute. But <strong>the</strong> CIA and FBI aren’t <strong>the</strong><br />

University,<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies that ICCAE br<strong>in</strong>gs to American university<br />

only<br />

ICCAE quietly br<strong>in</strong>gs a smorgasbord <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies to<br />

campuses.<br />

with een agencies, such as <strong>the</strong> National Security Agency,<br />

campuses<br />

Intelligence Agency, and Homeland Security on our campuses.<br />

Defense<br />

González’s research explores how ICCAE’s university programs<br />

Roberto<br />

but part <strong>of</strong> a larger project that also seeks to connect <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

are<br />

with American students <strong>in</strong> high school and even younger. In<br />

agencies


efore 2008’s economic downturn, <strong>the</strong>re were decreased traditional<br />

Even<br />

sources for students and faculty conduct<strong>in</strong>g research <strong>in</strong> university<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

— but fur<strong>the</strong>r reductions <strong>in</strong> funds exacerbated a fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

environments<br />

characterized by extremely scarce nancial resources. Layo s<br />

environment<br />

university sta became a common occurrence at many universities. Such<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> funds leads scholars to shi <strong>the</strong> academic questions <strong>the</strong>y are<br />

scarcity<br />

to pursue and suspend previous ethical and political concerns about<br />

will<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sources; and many scholars who are unwill<strong>in</strong>g to set aside ethical<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

political concerns are keenly aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional pressures to keep<br />

and<br />

outrage and protests <strong>in</strong>-house and rema<strong>in</strong> publicly silent.<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

2010, Alumni and pr<strong>of</strong>essors at historically black colleges and<br />

In<br />

wrote me with accounts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ways that ICCAE and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

universities<br />

l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> FBI and CIA are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly embedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

programs<br />

<strong>the</strong>se campuses to <strong>in</strong>crease m<strong>in</strong>ority recruitment for <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

on<br />

agencies.<br />

is correspondence shared concerns that Howard University and<br />

College gured prom<strong>in</strong>ently on <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> new ICCAE <strong>in</strong>stitutions.<br />

Miles<br />

Howard alumnus wrote me that various e orts to connect <strong>the</strong> campus<br />

One<br />

CIA personnel have made Howard “CIA central;” while a Howard<br />

with<br />

wrote me about <strong>the</strong> university’s consortium relationship with<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />

Polytechnic Institute and <strong>State</strong> University connect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> FBI,<br />

Virg<strong>in</strong>ia<br />

Security and <strong>the</strong> CIA with Howard faculty and students; writ<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

Homeland<br />

agencies would love to make connections with our students, and <strong>the</strong><br />

“<strong>the</strong>se<br />

<strong>of</strong> funds <strong>the</strong>y can o er to students without nancial means makes it<br />

amount<br />

di<br />

cult for many to say no.” American <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies need<br />

overhauls, but mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> FBI and CIA onto historically<br />

transformational<br />

colleges and universities won’t transform <strong>the</strong> FBI, it will transform<br />

black<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>in</strong> ways <strong>the</strong>y aren’t critically consider<strong>in</strong>g. With <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

loss <strong>of</strong> memory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> roles <strong>the</strong>se agencies played <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

generational<br />

and <strong>in</strong>ternational suppression <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>ority power movements, one<br />

domestic<br />

if <strong>the</strong> FBI will try and sponsor a Fred Hampton Intelligence<br />

wonders<br />

designed to recruit students from historically black colleges and<br />

Scholarship<br />

universities.<br />

target<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>ority populations on campuses clari es systemic<br />

e<br />

with <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies try<strong>in</strong>g to reform <strong>the</strong>mselves. e United<br />

problems<br />

never had anyth<strong>in</strong>g like a truth and reconciliation commission to sort<br />

<strong>State</strong>s<br />

past accountabilities for <strong>the</strong>se agencies; <strong>in</strong>stead, it has named <strong>the</strong><br />

out


<strong>of</strong> our secret police a er J. Edgar Hoover himself, embrac<strong>in</strong>g<br />

headquarters<br />

agency’s l<strong>in</strong>ks to Hoover’s shameful practices. If <strong>the</strong> FBI and CIA want to<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

ICCAE as a front to set up shop on our campuses, <strong>the</strong>y must be held<br />

use<br />

accountable for <strong>the</strong>ir own <strong>in</strong>stitutional history, but <strong>the</strong>y have yet to<br />

publicly<br />

a public history clarify<strong>in</strong>g exactly where <strong>the</strong>y break with past<br />

produce<br />

and <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> critical public discourse on ICCAE fur<strong>the</strong>r reduces<br />

atrocities,<br />

possibility that <strong>the</strong>se campus <strong>in</strong>telligence centers will br<strong>in</strong>g about needed<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

reforms.<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post published two articles mention<strong>in</strong>g ICCAE a er <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />

had quietly been runn<strong>in</strong>g for a few years, but <strong>the</strong>re has been no<br />

program<br />

coverage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se programs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> national press; <strong>the</strong>re certa<strong>in</strong>ly has<br />

critical<br />

no mention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> faculty and student dissent that <strong>the</strong>se programs<br />

been<br />

Despite <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> media coverage <strong>of</strong> student and faculty misgiv<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

create.<br />

ICCAE programs com<strong>in</strong>g to campuses, some traces <strong>of</strong> dissent can be<br />

over<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternet records <strong>of</strong> faculty senate m<strong>in</strong>utes from various campuses.<br />

found<br />

records show th<strong>in</strong>gs like, when Dean Van Reidhead at <strong>the</strong> University<br />

ese<br />

Texas PA, brought a proposal for ICCAE to establish a center on campus,<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

faculty and graduate students spoke out aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> damages to<br />

some<br />

freedom that <strong>the</strong> program would likely br<strong>in</strong>g. At <strong>the</strong> senate<br />

academic<br />

where this was raised, <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>utes record that faculty<br />

meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

spoke aga<strong>in</strong>st and for UTPA submitt<strong>in</strong>g a proposal to<br />

“representatives<br />

for federal money to establish an Intelligence Community Center<br />

compete<br />

Academic Excellence (ICCAE).” At this meet<strong>in</strong>g, graduate students<br />

for<br />

<strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g demands: 1) <strong>in</strong>form <strong>the</strong> community via press release<br />

“listed<br />

<strong>the</strong> possible ICCAE proposal, 2) release <strong>the</strong> proposal dra for public<br />

about<br />

3) establish a community forum on ICCAE, and 4) abolish <strong>the</strong><br />

review,<br />

<strong>of</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g for ICCAE funds” (UTPA Senate 4-26-06). And at<br />

process<br />

as at o<strong>the</strong>r ICCAE campuses, adm<strong>in</strong>istrators noted <strong>the</strong>se concerns<br />

UTPA,<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ued with plans to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies to campus.<br />

and<br />

onl<strong>in</strong>e m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Faculty Senate and<br />

e<br />

Council on Research, record shadows <strong>of</strong> dissent that are so vaguely<br />

Faculty<br />

<strong>the</strong>y are easily missed. For example, while po<strong>in</strong>ts raised <strong>in</strong><br />

referenced<br />

and discussions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> UW’s senate are generally itemized and<br />

debates<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>utes on o<strong>the</strong>r topics, <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>utes for <strong>the</strong> December<br />

characterized<br />

2008 meet<strong>in</strong>g publicly gloss over even <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> issues raised when<br />

4,<br />

Giebel, act<strong>in</strong>g as a member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton’s<br />

Christoph


Executive Board, submitted a request to <strong>the</strong> Faculty Senate for<br />

AAUP<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g INSER’s contacts with <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies.<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation<br />

ese<br />

simply read: “…both Giebel and Je ry Kim [INSER director]<br />

m<strong>in</strong>utes<br />

a series <strong>of</strong> good questions that resulted <strong>in</strong> a fair, tough and serious<br />

answered<br />

but what <strong>the</strong>se “good questions” were and <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> this<br />

conversation,”<br />

and serious conversation” were not mentioned <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>utes, as if<br />

“tough<br />

questions” were not important enough to enter <strong>in</strong>to a public record<br />

“good<br />

Faculty Senate M<strong>in</strong>utes, 12/4/08, pp 5). Likewise, <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> faculty<br />

(UW<br />

to INSER are glossed over <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> January 29, 2009 University <strong>of</strong><br />

objections<br />

Senate m<strong>in</strong>utes which simply reported that: “a number <strong>of</strong> email<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />

have come through <strong>the</strong> faculty senate that re ect a range <strong>in</strong><br />

communications<br />

towards <strong>the</strong> INSER program” (UW Faculty Senate M<strong>in</strong>utes 1/29/09,<br />

attitude<br />

3). pp<br />

signi cant portion <strong>of</strong> this faculty “range <strong>in</strong> attitudes towards <strong>the</strong> INSER<br />

A<br />

could best be characterized as outraged. I have heard from faculty<br />

program”<br />

a dozen <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ICCAE agship campuses that some form <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />

at<br />

has occurred on each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir campuses, and pr<strong>of</strong>essors at <strong>the</strong><br />

dissent<br />

<strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton have sent me documents clarify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong><br />

University<br />

campus’ anguish over <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies’ <strong>in</strong>sertion onto <strong>the</strong>ir campus;<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>sertion whose success can best described as a silent coup for <strong>the</strong> CIA.<br />

an<br />

faculty and students’ public silence at ICCAE universities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong><br />

e<br />

developments needs some comment. While some public attitudes<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

<strong>the</strong> CIA changed a er 9/11, <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 political climate casts a<br />

towards<br />

<strong>of</strong> orthodoxy over critical discussions <strong>of</strong> militarization and national<br />

pall<br />

and <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>of</strong> anti-<strong>in</strong>tellectual rightw<strong>in</strong>g media pundits attack<strong>in</strong>g<br />

security,<br />

who question <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g American militarization adds pressure to<br />

those<br />

vocal dissent on anyth<strong>in</strong>g framed as a national security matter —<br />

muzzle<br />

at public universities o en feel <strong>the</strong>se pressures more than <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

faculty<br />

colleagues at private <strong>in</strong>stitutions.<br />

ere are also natural <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ations to try<br />

keep elements <strong>of</strong> workplace dissent <strong>in</strong>ternal, but two factors argue<br />

and<br />

such a public silence. First, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ICCAE <strong>in</strong>stitutions are<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

funded universities draw<strong>in</strong>g state taxes; <strong>the</strong> state citizens fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />

publicly<br />

universities deserve to be alerted to concerns over <strong>the</strong> ways <strong>the</strong>se<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

can damage public <strong>in</strong>stitutions. Second, university adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />

programs<br />

been free to ignore faculty’s harsh, publicly silent, <strong>in</strong>ternal dissent.<br />

have<br />

Keep<strong>in</strong>g dissent <strong>in</strong>ternal has not been a very e ective tactic; <strong>in</strong>stitutions like


CIA don’t want to operate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong> sunlight that public scrut<strong>in</strong>y<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

and <strong>the</strong>se ICCAE programs deserve lots <strong>of</strong> public scrut<strong>in</strong>y.<br />

br<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />

a healthy step towards mov<strong>in</strong>g beyond <strong>in</strong>ternal private critiques <strong>of</strong><br />

In<br />

programs, multiple pr<strong>of</strong>essors at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />

ICCAE<br />

provided me <strong>in</strong>ternal memos sent from pr<strong>of</strong>essors to adm<strong>in</strong>istrators.<br />

ese<br />

document <strong>the</strong> form and breadth <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternal faculty dissent on this<br />

memos<br />

over adm<strong>in</strong>istrators’ October 2006 decisions to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA and<br />

campus<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies on campus. University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

not alone <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>ternal critiques, my contacts with pr<strong>of</strong>essors at o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

are<br />

universities nds that similar <strong>in</strong>ternally expressed concerns are<br />

ICCAE<br />

on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r ICCAE campuses.<br />

happen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

2008, AAUP campus executive board member and history pr<strong>of</strong>essor,<br />

In<br />

Giebel led e orts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Faculty Senate<br />

Christoph<br />

pressure <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration to publicly answer faculty questions about<br />

to<br />

contacts with ICCAE. e campus attention that Giebel generated<br />

university<br />

a wave <strong>of</strong> memos from departments to <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />

triggered<br />

<strong>the</strong> appropriateness <strong>of</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g an ICCAE center on<br />

question<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Giebel took his concerns public and he worked hard to try and raise<br />

campus.<br />

awareness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se developments. He worked to get local newspaper<br />

public<br />

<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> cover<strong>in</strong>g plans to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA onto campus, but<br />

reporters<br />

a small piece <strong>in</strong> a local alternative paper, <strong>the</strong> local media completely<br />

beyond<br />

<strong>the</strong>se developments (Spancenthal-Lee 2008)<br />

ignored<br />

<strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton’s adm<strong>in</strong>istration appeared to<br />

Initially,<br />

<strong>the</strong> concerns raised by faculty. In October 2005, David Hodge,<br />

appreciate<br />

<strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton’s Dean <strong>of</strong> Arts and <strong>Science</strong>s met with School <strong>of</strong><br />

University<br />

International Studies faculty to discuss proposals to establish a<br />

liations<br />

US <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies a er International Studies faculty wrote <strong>the</strong><br />

with<br />

express<strong>in</strong>g opposition to any a liation l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m with <strong>the</strong><br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies (though one faculty member reported<br />

CIA<br />

was less diplomatic <strong>in</strong> private). is group <strong>of</strong> faculty wrote that such<br />

Hodge<br />

would, “jeopardize <strong>the</strong> abilities <strong>of</strong> faculty and students to ga<strong>in</strong><br />

developments<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> foreign research and study permits, visas, and open access to<br />

and<br />

unfettered <strong>in</strong>teraction with <strong>in</strong>ternational research hosts, partners, and<br />

and<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutions;” and <strong>the</strong>y worried that any such relationships<br />

counterpart<br />

“endanger <strong>the</strong> safety and security <strong>of</strong> faculty and students study<strong>in</strong>g<br />

would<br />

conduct<strong>in</strong>g research abroad as well as <strong>the</strong>ir foreign hosts.” One<br />

and


<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se meet<strong>in</strong>gs told me that <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>in</strong>itially<br />

participant<br />

that <strong>the</strong>re were real risks that students and faculty work<strong>in</strong>g<br />

acknowledged<br />

could lose research opportunities because <strong>of</strong> negative views <strong>of</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

abroad<br />

CIA-l<strong>in</strong>ked program on campus, and that <strong>the</strong>se concerns led <strong>the</strong><br />

a<br />

programs.<br />

agency-l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

<strong>the</strong>se privately raised concerns did not derail <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s<br />

But<br />

<strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies on campus, and <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g year<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration decided to establish <strong>the</strong> new ICCAE funded Institute for<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Security Education and Research (INSER) on campus. But even<br />

National<br />

er INSER’s open<strong>in</strong>g, concerned memos cont<strong>in</strong>ued to come from faculty<br />

a<br />

<strong>the</strong> campus. Letters voic<strong>in</strong>g strong protest from at least ve academic<br />

across<br />

were sent by groups <strong>of</strong> concerned faculty to Deans.<br />

units<br />

October 2008 Pr<strong>of</strong>essors Bett<strong>in</strong>a Shell-Duncan and Janelle Taylor,<br />

In<br />

a challeng<strong>in</strong>g memo that was approved by <strong>the</strong> anthropology<br />

composed<br />

as a whole, and sent to Dean Howard, Dean Cauce, and Provost<br />

faculty<br />

rais<strong>in</strong>g concerns about INSER’s presence on campus, and <strong>the</strong> damage<br />

Wise,<br />

could br<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> University and its students, writ<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

INSER<br />

anthropologists, we also have more speci c concerns relat<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> our research,<br />

As<br />

<strong>in</strong>volves long-term <strong>in</strong>-depth studies <strong>of</strong> communities, <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> which are located<br />

which<br />

<strong>the</strong> United <strong>State</strong>s. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se communities are very poor, some face repressive<br />

outside<br />

and some are on <strong>the</strong> receiv<strong>in</strong>g end <strong>of</strong> U.S. projections <strong>of</strong> military power.<br />

governments,<br />

that anthropologists o en “study down steep gradients <strong>of</strong> power” ([Paul] Farmer<br />

Recogniz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

our pr<strong>of</strong>ession’s Code <strong>of</strong> Ethics requires rst and foremost that we cause no harm to <strong>the</strong><br />

2003),<br />

among whom we conduct research (Shell-Duncan to Howard, Cauce & Wise,<br />

people<br />

& Taylor tied discipl<strong>in</strong>ary concerns to anthropology’s core<br />

Shell-Duncan<br />

issues and also raised apprehensions that INSER fund<strong>in</strong>g could<br />

ethical<br />

<strong>the</strong> university <strong>in</strong>to a host<strong>in</strong>g facility for “military <strong>in</strong>telligencega<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g<br />

convert<br />

e orts.” is memo voiced concerns over reports that INSER<br />

would debrief some students complet<strong>in</strong>g studies abroad.<br />

personnel<br />

cally, concerns were raised about,<br />

Speci<br />

<strong>the</strong> reports that students are required to submit to INSER at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir studies, and 2)<br />

1)<br />

“debrie ng” that <strong>the</strong>y are required to undergo upon <strong>the</strong>ir return. Although our faculty<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

already been asked [to be] academic advisors for students with INSER fund<strong>in</strong>g, we have<br />

have<br />

been given any <strong>in</strong>formation on <strong>the</strong> guidel<strong>in</strong>es for <strong>the</strong> reports, or <strong>the</strong> nature, scope or<br />

never<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>in</strong>itially to not pursue an a<br />

liation with <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

10/31/08).<br />

purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> debrie ng process.<br />

is is <strong>of</strong> particular concern given that National Security is<br />

not an academic eld <strong>of</strong> study, but a military and government e ort. Unless and until we are


to <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>in</strong> a memo that:<br />

compla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

light <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> US Intelligence Community’s extensive track-record <strong>of</strong> underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

and <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> human rights violations <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America and elsewhere, we<br />

democracies<br />

it unconscionable that <strong>the</strong> UW would have formal ties with <strong>the</strong> newly created O ce <strong>of</strong><br />

nd<br />

Director <strong>of</strong> National Intelligence (ODNI), let alone <strong>in</strong>volve our students <strong>in</strong> an exercise <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence <strong>in</strong>formation and assist it with its public relations campaign among<br />

ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g<br />

behavior <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America are torture at Guantanamo detention centers,<br />

<strong>in</strong>excusable<br />

with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>famous School <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Americas, <strong>the</strong> back<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> paramilitary forces as<br />

collaboration<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “drug war,” <strong>the</strong> shoot<strong>in</strong>g down <strong>of</strong> a civilian aircra <strong>in</strong> Peru, and support for <strong>the</strong><br />

part<br />

coup <strong>in</strong> Venezuela…<br />

failed<br />

would argue that UW should engage <strong>the</strong> Intelligence Community as a method <strong>of</strong><br />

…Some<br />

<strong>in</strong> uenc<strong>in</strong>g or reform<strong>in</strong>g it. To our m<strong>in</strong>d this argument is naïve and misguided<br />

constructively<br />

among <strong>the</strong> various entities, such as <strong>the</strong> CIA, which form a part <strong>of</strong> ODNI. In e ect,<br />

cultures<br />

we would be enabl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Intelligence Community to be more e ective at carry<strong>in</strong>g out<br />

<strong>the</strong>n,<br />

<strong>in</strong>defensible activities. It is our position that until <strong>the</strong> ODNI and <strong>the</strong> various sectors <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

Intelligence Community which it oversees demonstrate a clear break from <strong>the</strong>ir anti-<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

practices, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> UW, as a global leader, should not be partnered with it. We<br />

democratic<br />

that <strong>the</strong> UW faces a number <strong>of</strong> nancial constra<strong>in</strong>ts, perhaps now more than ever, but<br />

realize<br />

needs for monies can never justify collaboration with an Intelligence Community which is<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

for hundreds <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> deaths and immeasurable human su er<strong>in</strong>g<br />

responsible<br />

<strong>the</strong> world (Jonathan Warren, Chair <strong>of</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> American Studies, to Secretary<br />

throughout<br />

Vice Provost Hason, Dean Cauce and Dean Howard 11/25/08).<br />

Killian,<br />

wrote that <strong>the</strong>ir,<br />

ey<br />

concerns are related to <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> US relations with Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asia [(SEA)], and<br />

particular<br />

unanswered, as do questions <strong>of</strong> what <strong>in</strong>formation about l<strong>in</strong>ks or<br />

rema<strong>in</strong><br />

for future employment between students and <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

agreements<br />

is be<strong>in</strong>g disclosed to academic advisors.<br />

agencies<br />

academic departments wrote <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration express<strong>in</strong>g<br />

O<strong>the</strong>r<br />

<strong>in</strong> November 2008, members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> American Studies<br />

concerns;<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Henry M. Jackson School <strong>of</strong> International Studies<br />

division<br />

children <strong>in</strong> our local schools.<br />

e most recent examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> US Intelligence Community’s<br />

at best.<br />

e tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g we provide is unlikely to change <strong>the</strong> deeply entrenched <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />

argument voiced historical concerns that <strong>the</strong> CIA’s unapologetic role<br />

is<br />

human rights violations, torture, assass<strong>in</strong>ation, and thuggish policies<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

brutal dictators throughout <strong>the</strong> third world, but it is <strong>the</strong><br />

support<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> clos<strong>in</strong>g paragraph acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong><br />

reference<br />

“faces a number <strong>of</strong> nancial constra<strong>in</strong>ts” that touches on<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrator’s motivation for embrac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong><br />

university<br />

unease <strong>in</strong> ways that underm<strong>in</strong>es pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> shared governance.<br />

faculty<br />

letter from a broad group <strong>of</strong> faculty from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asian Studies<br />

A<br />

Center anchored its concerns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s dark history.<br />

fall <strong>in</strong>to two <strong>in</strong>ter-related categories:


<strong>of</strong> impartial pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism” across <strong>the</strong> campus,<br />

“strategy<br />

enabled us to create collections <strong>of</strong> such depth over <strong>the</strong> years. It is also this pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

has<br />

that has <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past protected us from undue scrut<strong>in</strong>y by <strong>the</strong> governments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dependence<br />

that we visit and from which we solicit <strong>in</strong>formation sources — sometimes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

countries<br />

sensitive nature — for our scholarly collections. We feel that <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> INSER<br />

most<br />

not just on campus, but <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> very pr<strong>of</strong>essional school that purports to tra<strong>in</strong><br />

program,<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ethics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir mission, is damag<strong>in</strong>g to our credibility as <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

librarians<br />

serv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> scholarly endeavor. Indeed, <strong>in</strong> some <strong>in</strong>stances, it could endanger our<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essionals<br />

safety and liberty as we travel on behalf <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Libraries to certa<strong>in</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world<br />

personal<br />

<strong>the</strong> US foreign policy apparatus that INSER represents is not perceived as a benign<br />

where<br />

programs attract secondary secretive fund<strong>in</strong>g through programs like<br />

ICCAE<br />

or ICSP, <strong>the</strong> odds <strong>of</strong> compromis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se pr<strong>of</strong>essional obligations<br />

PRISP<br />

Given this lack <strong>of</strong> transparency, many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se transgressions will<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease.<br />

unwitt<strong>in</strong>g and unknown to many <strong>in</strong>volved.<br />

be<br />

<strong>the</strong> problems fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton’s adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />

Among<br />

creat<strong>in</strong>g INSER was to nd an exist<strong>in</strong>g academic structure where <strong>the</strong>y<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

park such a stigmatized program; because <strong>the</strong> social sciences<br />

could<br />

hostile territory, adm<strong>in</strong>istrators looked to <strong>the</strong> Information<br />

represented<br />

(I-School). But librarian and Information School faculty weren’t<br />

School<br />

about hav<strong>in</strong>g to house INSER.<br />

happy<br />

Studies Fund Group Librarians privately raised multiple<br />

International<br />

concerns about transparency, about develop<strong>in</strong>g a program outside<br />

concerns;<br />

normal standards <strong>of</strong> peer review, and <strong>the</strong> damage <strong>the</strong>y would receive<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

hav<strong>in</strong>g INSER housed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir adm<strong>in</strong>istrative structure, concerns<br />

from<br />

this relationship would naturally generate suspicions that <strong>the</strong> I-School<br />

that<br />

facilitat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence “data m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and exploitation.” A letter signed<br />

was<br />

a dozen faculty from <strong>the</strong> International Studies Fund Group Librarians<br />

by<br />

deep concerns that that hous<strong>in</strong>g “a CIA O cer <strong>in</strong> Residence”<br />

expressed<br />

pollute perceptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> ways that could “damage our ability to<br />

would<br />

<strong>the</strong> [o<strong>the</strong>r campus constituencies],” argu<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong>ir long stand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

serve<br />

force (Judith Henchy, Michael Begg<strong>in</strong>s et al. to Bill Jordan & Tim Jewel, undated memo).<br />

I-School faculty were unhappy with hav<strong>in</strong>g to manage such a<br />

Many<br />

program and <strong>the</strong> prospect <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g le hold<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> bag when<br />

problematic<br />

goes wrong with one <strong>of</strong> INSER’s <strong>in</strong>telligence agency partners was<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g anyone <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> I-School wanted to contemplate.<br />

not<br />

* * *<br />

as a whole, this correspondence <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essorial dissent produces a<br />

Taken<br />

broad critique <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> damag<strong>in</strong>g impacts that INSER br<strong>in</strong>gs to <strong>the</strong> University


Wash<strong>in</strong>gton. While some critics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s presence on campus will be<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

to nd faculty privately push<strong>in</strong>g adm<strong>in</strong>istrators to avoid such<br />

encouraged<br />

for ethical, historical, political and very practical reasons; but it’s not<br />

pitfalls<br />

that <strong>the</strong>se private critiques really mattered precisely because <strong>the</strong>y<br />

clear<br />

so private. It is strik<strong>in</strong>g that activists at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong><br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

have organized protests over <strong>the</strong>ir Provost Phyllis Wise’s,<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />

on Nike’s board, yet public campaigns aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong><br />

membership<br />

<strong>in</strong>vitation to <strong>the</strong> CIA rema<strong>in</strong> publicly dormant.<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s<br />

INSER hosts at least one CIA funded post-doc on <strong>the</strong> UW campus.<br />

Today,<br />

is unknown how many CIA l<strong>in</strong>ked employees or CIA l<strong>in</strong>ked students are<br />

It<br />

on <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton’s campus. We don’t know what all<br />

now<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> so called “<strong>in</strong>telligence community” on campus are do<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

members<br />

those scholars who study <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> agency know that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past<br />

but<br />

campus operatives have performed a range <strong>of</strong> activities, activities that<br />

CIA<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g fund<strong>in</strong>g fronts to get unwitt<strong>in</strong>g social scientists to conduct<br />

<strong>in</strong>cluded<br />

<strong>of</strong> research that were used to construct an <strong>in</strong>terrogation and torture<br />

pieces<br />

<strong>the</strong>se contacts have been used to recruit foreign students to collect<br />

manual,<br />

for <strong>the</strong> CIA, <strong>the</strong>y’ve debriefed graduate students upon return<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

foreign travel, we know <strong>the</strong> CIA has cultivated relationships with<br />

from<br />

<strong>in</strong> order to recruit students (Mills 1991; Price 2007). When<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />

br<strong>in</strong>g IACCE programs to <strong>the</strong>ir campus, <strong>the</strong>y are br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g this<br />

universities<br />

with <strong>the</strong>m, and as students from IACCE universities travel abroad,<br />

history<br />

<strong>of</strong> CIA activity will travel with <strong>the</strong>m and underm<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> safety<br />

suspicions<br />

opportunities to work and study abroad for all.<br />

and<br />

campus adm<strong>in</strong>istrators are quick to mouth smooth assurances that<br />

ICCAE<br />

are simply government funded academic programs, ak<strong>in</strong> to National<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

Foundation, or Fulbright, or o<strong>the</strong>r governmental programs, <strong>the</strong>y are<br />

<strong>Science</strong><br />

half-truths; half-truths that do not confront <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> very<br />

tell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>y seek to embed <strong>in</strong> our classrooms and that ignore how ICCAE<br />

agencies<br />

<strong>the</strong> universities that host it.<br />

transforms<br />

TAKING STOCK AND BREAKING THE SILENCE<br />

<strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton faculty unease about ICCAE programs is not an<br />

University<br />

it isn’t <strong>the</strong> only <strong>in</strong>stitution with apprehensions about <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

anomaly;<br />

rapid move <strong>in</strong>to education; pr<strong>of</strong>essors and sta at o<strong>the</strong>r ICCAE<br />

agencies’<br />

have privately voiced <strong>the</strong>se same concerns. ese concerns move<br />

schools


universities. I’ve spoken with sta and adm<strong>in</strong>istrators at<br />

beyond<br />

education NGO’s who are so troubled by <strong>the</strong> rapid advances <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

agencies <strong>in</strong>to new agship programs, that <strong>the</strong>y are consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

careers.<br />

switch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ideologues like to argue that academics do not want <strong>the</strong> CIA<br />

Conservative<br />

campus because <strong>of</strong> claimed un-American tendencies; such claims make<br />

on<br />

scarecrows to frighten away <strong>the</strong> un<strong>in</strong>formed, but <strong>the</strong>se claims are even<br />

good<br />

than claims that ICCAE is just like any o<strong>the</strong>r governmental funded<br />

sillier<br />

program. While <strong>the</strong> American public is expected to have little<br />

academic<br />

memory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speci cs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s history, academics <strong>in</strong><br />

historical<br />

like anthropology, sociology, political science and history know<br />

discipl<strong>in</strong>es<br />

history too well to be easily distracted by hasty j<strong>in</strong>goistic arguments that<br />

this<br />

not confront this history.<br />

will<br />

are lots <strong>of</strong> good reasons to keep <strong>the</strong> CIA o <strong>of</strong> our campuses, <strong>the</strong><br />

ere<br />

obvious ones stress <strong>the</strong> reprehensible deeds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> agency’s past (and<br />

most<br />

and while not deny<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se powerful arguments, for me <strong>the</strong> best<br />

present),<br />

is that this move fur<strong>the</strong>r dim<strong>in</strong>ishes America’s <strong>in</strong>telligence capacity<br />

reason<br />

damag<strong>in</strong>g academia. ICCAE, like <strong>the</strong> Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars<br />

while<br />

<strong>the</strong> Intelligence Community Scholars Program or <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>erva<br />

Program,<br />

strives to expand <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> military and <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

Consortium<br />

by mov<strong>in</strong>g operations onto university campuses, but this will not be<br />

agencies<br />

primary impact. e primary impact will be to transform segments <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

so that <strong>the</strong>y learn to limit <strong>the</strong>mselves and to adapt to <strong>the</strong><br />

universities<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies, and as <strong>the</strong>se processes occur, our<br />

cultures<br />

capacity, and scholarship, will dim<strong>in</strong>ish and narrow. ICCAE<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

<strong>the</strong> Soviet model <strong>of</strong> centralized, state directed scholarship, and this<br />

mimics<br />

will sti e <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependent development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> braches <strong>of</strong> scholarship<br />

tactic<br />

touches as scholars follow those who can learn to th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ways<br />

it<br />

desired by <strong>the</strong> CIA and ICCAE.<br />

e memo from <strong>the</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> American Studies<br />

half <strong>of</strong> this po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> observ<strong>in</strong>g that, “<strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g we provide is unlikely<br />

got<br />

change <strong>the</strong> deeply entrenched <strong>in</strong>stitutional cultures among <strong>the</strong> various<br />

to<br />

such as <strong>the</strong> CIA,” if one adds to this a dose <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional back- ow<br />

entities,<br />

can see how this “entrenched <strong>in</strong>stitutional culture” over ows <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />

we<br />

that house ICCAE programs and learn to chase <strong>the</strong>ir funds.<br />

universities<br />

dynamics will weaken American universities and our <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

ese<br />

capacities, as scholars learn to th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly narrow ways.


<strong>the</strong> United <strong>State</strong>s wants <strong>in</strong>telligence reform, it needs to fund <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />

If<br />

not narrow down <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong> discourse on our campuses by<br />

scholarship:<br />

cash-strapped universities to house revolv<strong>in</strong>g doors between <strong>the</strong><br />

pay<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and <strong>the</strong> CIA. If <strong>the</strong> CIA, FBI, Homeland Security and <strong>the</strong> Pentagon<br />

academy<br />

to change <strong>the</strong> way <strong>the</strong>y approach problems <strong>the</strong>y should encourage<br />

want<br />

to fund research and education on American university campuses<br />

Congress<br />

restrictions (as <strong>the</strong>y did with signi cant self-<strong>in</strong>terested returns<br />

without<br />

<strong>the</strong> Cold War); and <strong>the</strong>y should resist <strong>the</strong> urge to spread <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

throughout<br />

— spread<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional limits and problems that <strong>the</strong>y are<br />

tendrils<br />

to elim<strong>in</strong>ate — onto American campuses.<br />

try<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>re are o<strong>the</strong>r damages that will follow <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies’ presence<br />

But<br />

campus. Br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies onto campuses damages academic<br />

on<br />

and threatens academic freedom. In my book on McCarthyism’s<br />

<strong>in</strong>quiry<br />

on anthropology ( reaten<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Anthropology</strong>) I used tens <strong>of</strong><br />

impact<br />

<strong>of</strong> FOIA documents to show how <strong>in</strong>creased presence <strong>of</strong><br />

thousands<br />

operatives and <strong>in</strong>formers on American campuses wounded <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

<strong>of</strong> anthropology as endless dossiers were compiled on<br />

development<br />

disagree<strong>in</strong>g with US policies on war, race, class, gender etc.<br />

academics<br />

one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs that <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies do: <strong>the</strong>y collect <strong>in</strong>telligence on<br />

is<br />

<strong>the</strong>y come <strong>in</strong> contact with, and especially those <strong>the</strong>y see as di erent.<br />

those<br />

Lazarsfeld and Wagner ielens’ classic book, e Academic M<strong>in</strong>d:<br />

Paul<br />

Scientists <strong>in</strong> a Time <strong>of</strong> Crisis, is full <strong>of</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> how <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

<strong>Social</strong><br />

on campuses deadened academic freedom <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1950s. In one<br />

agencies<br />

a pr<strong>of</strong>essor tried to caution a student that his comments <strong>in</strong> class<br />

example,<br />

close to follow<strong>in</strong>g “<strong>the</strong> Communist Pravda l<strong>in</strong>e,” and <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essor tried<br />

were<br />

warn <strong>the</strong> student to be more careful. But <strong>the</strong> student’s response was:<br />

to<br />

<strong>the</strong> university anyth<strong>in</strong>g goes, any idea — just so it’s with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bounds <strong>of</strong> propriety and<br />

“In<br />

At <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> session [<strong>the</strong> student] announced that he knew <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>cident would<br />

decency.”<br />

reported s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>re were unknown <strong>in</strong>telligence men <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> class. I felt that I ought to<br />

be<br />

this <strong>in</strong>cident, but I felt like a rat. A friend who is also teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> military told me to<br />

report<br />

myself. I phoned <strong>the</strong> next day to <strong>the</strong> civilian security man, and expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> situation to<br />

cover<br />

I later learned that <strong>the</strong> F.B.I. had already heard most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conversation. I didn’t have to<br />

him.<br />

need to be places where people can freely explore ideas, but<br />

Universities<br />

<strong>in</strong>evitably br<strong>in</strong>gs chills to open classrooms. How long will it take<br />

ICCAE<br />

is<br />

repeat <strong>the</strong> story to <strong>the</strong>m.<br />

ey had already received reports <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>cident (Lazarsfeld &<br />

ielens 1958:210).<br />

until students at ICCAE universities start to wonder about who’s report<strong>in</strong>g


free- ow<strong>in</strong>g discussions <strong>in</strong> classes; with cadres <strong>of</strong> future FBI and CIA<br />

on<br />

on campus, those who question such th<strong>in</strong>gs as <strong>the</strong> wisdom <strong>of</strong><br />

employees<br />

drug policies, immigration policies and spend<strong>in</strong>g on military and<br />

American<br />

programs will nd <strong>the</strong>mselves choos<strong>in</strong>g between silence,<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

en<strong>in</strong>g what might have been harsh honest critiques, or speak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

so<br />

Academic enquiry su ers <strong>in</strong> such environments. As ICCAE students<br />

m<strong>in</strong>d.<br />

and beg<strong>in</strong> careers at <strong>the</strong> CIA, NSA, FBI and o<strong>the</strong>r agencies<br />

graduate<br />

security clearances, accounts <strong>of</strong> all sorts <strong>of</strong> academic discussions<br />

requir<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to make <strong>the</strong>ir way <strong>in</strong>to <strong>in</strong>telligence les as clearance background<br />

stand<br />

comb through records on any known “subversive” acqua<strong>in</strong>tances<br />

checks<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividuals encountered dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir university years.<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

problems are not <strong>in</strong>tended outcomes <strong>of</strong> ICCAE br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA,<br />

ese<br />

Homeland Security etc. on campus; but as un<strong>in</strong>tended consequences,<br />

FBI,<br />

problems will emerge. e history <strong>of</strong> how this worked <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past is<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

clear, and <strong>the</strong>se problems are why legislation prohibit<strong>in</strong>g forms <strong>of</strong><br />

pretty<br />

political surveillance (later undone with <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act) were<br />

domestic<br />

It’s easy to see this past as prologue, and now that <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act<br />

written.<br />

vital legal rewalls prohibit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se forms <strong>of</strong> domestic political<br />

removed<br />

<strong>the</strong> stage has been set for a dark renaissance to beg<strong>in</strong>.<br />

surveillance,<br />

ICCAE’s successful embedment on campuses depends on<br />

Because<br />

memory-loss, silence and a lack <strong>of</strong> student and faculty<br />

<strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />

academics opposed to <strong>the</strong>se developments can draw on <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

resistance,<br />

strengths to break <strong>the</strong> silence and ll <strong>the</strong> sizable gaps <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />

memory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s <strong>in</strong>stitutional history. Historians and political<br />

public’s<br />

can develop curriculum draw<strong>in</strong>g on scholarly materials and<br />

scientists<br />

sources to teach students <strong>the</strong> unsanitized details <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CIA’s history.<br />

primary<br />

faculty rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> curriculum, <strong>the</strong>n document<strong>in</strong>g this past<br />

If<br />

be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> best ways to defend <strong>the</strong> present.<br />

may<br />

CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies have always relied on secrecy for<br />

e<br />

operations, and with <strong>the</strong> public silence over ICCAE’s <strong>in</strong>telligence-<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

onto our campus communities; this silence has been a real boon for<br />

gateway<br />

CIA’s quiet entrance onto our campuses. If students, faculty and citizens<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

concerned about ICCAE’s impact on our universities, <strong>the</strong>n break<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

are<br />

is <strong>the</strong> simplest and most e ective tactic available.<br />

silence<br />

who wants speci c <strong>in</strong>formation on contacts between university<br />

Anyone<br />

and ICCAE o cials or o<strong>the</strong>r members <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrators


can use state public records laws and <strong>the</strong> federal Freedom <strong>of</strong><br />

agencies<br />

Act to request <strong>the</strong>se records. Given university adm<strong>in</strong>istrators’<br />

Information<br />

that everyth<strong>in</strong>g is above board, <strong>the</strong>se records should not be blocked<br />

claims<br />

national security exemptions, and if <strong>the</strong>y are, this would be important<br />

by<br />

In most states, public records laws can be used to access <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>formation.<br />

<strong>of</strong> public employees. Concerned members <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

correspondence<br />

can use <strong>the</strong>se tools to access correspondence and verify claims by<br />

campuses<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istrators about <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir contact with ICCAE.<br />

university<br />

sta , students, alumni and community members concerned about<br />

Faculty,<br />

presence on university campuses should form consortiums onl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

ICCAE’s<br />

share <strong>in</strong>formation from various campuses and make common cause.<br />

to<br />

has made signi cant and rapid headway because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternal and<br />

ICCAE<br />

c, isolated nature <strong>of</strong> resistance to ICCAE. Someth<strong>in</strong>g like an<br />

campus-speci<br />

Watch” or “CIA Campus Watch” website could be started by a<br />

“ICCAE<br />

member or grad student on an ICCAE campus, provid<strong>in</strong>g forums to<br />

faculty<br />

documents, stories and resistance tactics from across <strong>the</strong> country.<br />

collect<br />

Zwerl<strong>in</strong>g has written about how a group <strong>of</strong> undergraduate and<br />

Philip<br />

students at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Texas Pan American organized<br />

graduate<br />

to protest <strong>the</strong> CIA’s campus presence, and to raise awareness<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

2009:256-257). O<strong>the</strong>r campuses resist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> CIA’s campus<br />

(Zwerl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

need to open channels <strong>of</strong> communication with each o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />

expansion<br />

tenured pr<strong>of</strong>essors on campuses with ICCAE programs, or on<br />

F<strong>in</strong>ally,<br />

contemplat<strong>in</strong>g ICCAE programs, need to use <strong>the</strong>ir tenure and<br />

campuses<br />

out, on <strong>the</strong> record, <strong>in</strong> public: <strong>the</strong> threats presented by <strong>the</strong>se sorts <strong>of</strong><br />

speak<br />

are exactly why tenure exists. If pr<strong>of</strong>essors like <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong><br />

developments<br />

<strong>the</strong> CIA on campus (<strong>the</strong>y need to read more about <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />

br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />

agency…), ne, <strong>the</strong>y have <strong>the</strong> right to publicly express <strong>the</strong>se views, but<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

split between <strong>the</strong> strongly voiced <strong>in</strong>ternal dissent while rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

silent has helped usher <strong>the</strong> CIA silently back onto American<br />

publicly<br />

campuses, and if this move is to be countered, it must be done<br />

university<br />

with academic voices demand<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> CIA and o<strong>the</strong>r members<br />

publicly<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies expla<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>m self and <strong>the</strong>ir history <strong>in</strong> public.<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence community thrives on silence; and <strong>the</strong> only way for<br />

e<br />

to challenge <strong>the</strong> threats to academic <strong>in</strong>dependence and<br />

academicians<br />

that ICCAE presents is for tenured pr<strong>of</strong>essors to speak out and<br />

<strong>in</strong>tegrity<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir concerns <strong>in</strong> public.<br />

raise


2: Manuals: Deconstruct<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

Part<br />

<strong>of</strong> Cultural Warfare<br />

Texts


Five: The Leaky Ship <strong>of</strong> Human<br />

Chapter<br />

Systems<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

fact that some social scientists have received [Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems] so warmly reveals<br />

e<br />

amnesia and a pr<strong>of</strong>ound lack <strong>of</strong> imag<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

historical<br />

— Roberto González<br />

<strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> 2007, a new form <strong>of</strong> anthropologically <strong>in</strong>formed<br />

In<br />

was publicly announced as <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration and<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

military placed great hopes on a new program known as Human<br />

U.S.<br />

Systems (HTS). e Human Terra<strong>in</strong> program embeds social<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

such as anthropologists, with troops operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> battle <strong>the</strong>atre<br />

scientists,<br />

as members <strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams (HTT). ese teams are part<br />

sett<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency operations designed to provide military personnel<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

cultural <strong>in</strong>formation that will help <strong>in</strong>form troop activities <strong>in</strong> areas <strong>of</strong><br />

with<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> rst public acknowledgement <strong>of</strong> HTS <strong>in</strong> 2007, it has<br />

occupation.<br />

criticized by anthropologists for betray<strong>in</strong>g fundamental pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong><br />

been<br />

ethics, as be<strong>in</strong>g politically aligned with neo-colonialism,<br />

anthropological<br />

as be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>e ective <strong>in</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>g its claimed outcomes. For <strong>the</strong> most part,<br />

and<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>stream media has acted as cheerleaders for <strong>the</strong> program by<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

a seem<strong>in</strong>gly endless series <strong>of</strong> uncritical features highlight<strong>in</strong>g what<br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

frame as k<strong>in</strong>d hearted <strong>in</strong>dividuals try<strong>in</strong>g to use <strong>the</strong>ir knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

to save lives; while misrepresent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> reasons and extent <strong>of</strong><br />

culture<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> program.<br />

criticism<br />

<strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> claim <strong>the</strong> program uses embedded social<br />

Supporters<br />

to help reduce “k<strong>in</strong>etic engagements,” or unnecessary violent<br />

scientists<br />

with <strong>the</strong> populations <strong>the</strong>y encounter. e idea is to use <strong>the</strong>se social<br />

contacts<br />

to <strong>in</strong>teract with members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community, creat<strong>in</strong>g relationships<br />

scientists<br />

reduce misunderstand<strong>in</strong>gs that can lead to unnecessarily violent<br />

to<br />

(Kamps 2008; Stannard 2007).<br />

<strong>in</strong>teractions<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems is not some neutral humanitarian project, it is an<br />

Human<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. military and is part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> military’s mission to occupy and<br />

arm<br />

opposition to U.S. goals and objectives. HTS cannot claim <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong><br />

destroy<br />

claimed by groups like Doctors Without Borders, or <strong>the</strong><br />

neutrality<br />

Committee <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Red Cross. HTS’s goal is a gentler form <strong>of</strong><br />

International<br />

military dom<strong>in</strong>ation. Pretend<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> military is a humanitarian


writ<strong>in</strong>g that,<br />

claims,<br />

rst test <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HTS went almost too well to be believed, with a local commander <strong>in</strong><br />

e<br />

credit<strong>in</strong>g his Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Team with an astonish<strong>in</strong>g 60 to 70 percent drop <strong>in</strong><br />

Afghanistan<br />

number <strong>of</strong> bombs-and-bullets strikes he had to make. e program grew exponentially, to<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

does not make it so, and pretend<strong>in</strong>g that HTS is anyth<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

organization<br />

an agent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> military engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a speci c form <strong>of</strong> conquest is sheer<br />

than<br />

dishonesty.<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most remarkable th<strong>in</strong>gs about <strong>the</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> program has<br />

One<br />

<strong>the</strong> ongo<strong>in</strong>g uncritical, fawn<strong>in</strong>g coverage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> program uniformly<br />

been<br />

by <strong>the</strong> American media. From <strong>the</strong> rst coverage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> program by<br />

presented<br />

Rohde <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> New York Times <strong>in</strong> 2007, to a dozen glossy magaz<strong>in</strong>e<br />

David<br />

les and dozens <strong>of</strong> national newspaper stories, a consistent hopeful news<br />

pro<br />

has prevailed portray<strong>in</strong>g Human Terra<strong>in</strong> “social scientists” not as<br />

narrative<br />

violators <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imal pr<strong>of</strong>essional ethics standards that <strong>the</strong>y have been<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

by <strong>the</strong> Executive Board <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American Anthropological<br />

chastised<br />

but <strong>in</strong>stead as sensitive humanitarians.<br />

Association,<br />

Rohde’s 2007 front page New York Times article framed <strong>the</strong><br />

David<br />

political and ethical issues surround<strong>in</strong>g HTS <strong>in</strong> distorted ways<br />

functional,<br />

set <strong>the</strong> stage for much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> debates and discussions that followed<br />

that<br />

2007). I spoke with Rohde as background for <strong>the</strong> story, patiently<br />

(Rohde<br />

details and historical background, and like o<strong>the</strong>r reporters who<br />

expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

follow, Rohde trimmed o elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> story that overly<br />

would<br />

a simple narrative. Most importantly he uncritically <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />

complicated<br />

<strong>in</strong>credible claim by Army Col. Mart<strong>in</strong> Schweitzer (82 nd Airborne<br />

an<br />

who claimed that a er HTS anthropologists embedded with<br />

Division),<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir “combat operations had been reduced by 60 percent” (Rohde<br />

units,<br />

A er read<strong>in</strong>g this unbelievable claim <strong>in</strong> Rohde’s article, I led a<br />

2007).<br />

<strong>of</strong> Information Act (FOIA) request with <strong>the</strong> Army, request<strong>in</strong>g any<br />

Freedom<br />

that would substantiate or support Schweitzer’s outrageous claim. In<br />

records<br />

to my FOIA request I received a series <strong>of</strong> emails from Col. Schweitzer,<br />

reply<br />

conceded that he had no actual data on this and had simply given<br />

who<br />

that expressed what seemed to be occurr<strong>in</strong>g (see Price 2010). Yet,<br />

gures<br />

exaggerated gures took on a life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own and would not die and<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

recycled <strong>in</strong> dozens <strong>of</strong> news stories, with Col. Schweitzer himself later<br />

were<br />

<strong>the</strong>m, unchallenged, <strong>in</strong> congressional testimony. Years later,<br />

repeat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Ackerman politely questioned <strong>the</strong> veracity <strong>of</strong> Col. Schweitzer’s<br />

Spencer


that, 2007<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r publicly funded researchers, HTT anthropologists do not have to clear <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

Unlike<br />

<strong>the</strong> standard Pentagon to citizen ratio <strong>of</strong> arguments and<br />

spokespersons,<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ation were <strong>the</strong>n three-to-one (Rehm 2007). In a number <strong>of</strong><br />

airwave<br />

I heard from reporters (who sometimes send along portions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

cases<br />

dra to have me check sections to see if <strong>the</strong>ir quotes <strong>of</strong> me <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />

are correct) tell<strong>in</strong>g me, without apparent irony, that my words and <strong>the</strong><br />

dra<br />

<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r critics were removed from nal versions <strong>of</strong> stories <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

words<br />

not overly complicate <strong>the</strong> narrative.<br />

at’s one way to keep <strong>the</strong> story<br />

to <strong>the</strong> public <strong>in</strong> simple terms: remove critics’ views from <strong>the</strong> story.<br />

presented<br />

press journalists like Amy Goodman at Democracy Now or<br />

Alternative<br />

L<strong>in</strong>dsay Beyerste<strong>in</strong> at In<br />

ese Times, <strong>the</strong> great writer Dahr Jamail at<br />

or foreign journalists <strong>in</strong> Holland, F<strong>in</strong>land, Germany, Spa<strong>in</strong> or <strong>the</strong><br />

Truthout,<br />

have had no problems describ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fundamental problems for <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

UK<br />

but <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream American press seems committed to keep<strong>in</strong>g<br />

readers,<br />

story one-sidedly simple and manifestly j<strong>in</strong>goistic (Democracy Now<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Jamail 2010). Between 2008-2010, American journalist John Stanton<br />

2007;<br />

a remarkable series <strong>of</strong> damag<strong>in</strong>g exposés detail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> failures <strong>of</strong><br />

wrote<br />

Human Terra<strong>in</strong> management and <strong>the</strong> program’s overall <strong>in</strong>e<br />

ciency <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

(see Stanton 2009). Stanton’s work drew largely on unidenti ed<br />

eld<br />

Human Terra<strong>in</strong> personnel and pa<strong>in</strong>ts a picture <strong>of</strong> scal<br />

disgruntled<br />

poor eld supervision, lack <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g before send<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mismanagement,<br />

scientists <strong>in</strong>to life-threaten<strong>in</strong>g situations, and a non-work<strong>in</strong>g “reach-<br />

social<br />

system” that was supposed to connect deployed eld Human Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

back<br />

with personnel located at HTS headquarters at Ft. Leavenworth.<br />

personnel<br />

most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream media repr<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>the</strong> talk<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts provided<br />

While<br />

Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems’ personnel, Stanton, Roberto González, and a<br />

by<br />

<strong>in</strong>dependent journalists like Laurie Beyerste<strong>in</strong> wrote critical pieces<br />

few<br />

<strong>the</strong> controversies and problems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> program<br />

exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

2007; González 2008, González & Price 2007, NCA 2009;<br />

(Beyerste<strong>in</strong><br />

2009).<br />

Stanton<br />

Beyerste<strong>in</strong>’s piece <strong>in</strong> In<br />

ese Times was one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rst pieces to push back<br />

<strong>the</strong> uniform narrative uncritically echo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> program’s narrative<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

HTS reduces harm among occupied populations. Beyerste<strong>in</strong> wrote <strong>in</strong><br />

that<br />

research methods with any k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternal review board.<br />

ey are tasked with collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />

whatever operationally relevant cultural <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>the</strong> brigade commander needs. It’s not a


as <strong>the</strong> HTT are bound by <strong>the</strong> same rules that apply to any U.S. contractor on <strong>the</strong><br />

free-for-all,<br />

eld. ey operate <strong>in</strong> what <strong>the</strong> military calls a “non-permissive environment,” under <strong>the</strong><br />

battle<br />

<strong>of</strong> military commanders. Never<strong>the</strong>less, it’s a far cry from <strong>the</strong> strict standards that<br />

supervision<br />

human subjects research <strong>in</strong> peacetime.<br />

govern<br />

is reluctant to set speci c ground rules for research <strong>in</strong> advance because <strong>the</strong> program is<br />

HTS<br />

<strong>in</strong> an exploratory phase. “We don’t know what we don’t know,” says Fondacaro, “ ere’s no<br />

still<br />

review board because this is all uncharted territory.”<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternal<br />

easy to envision circumstances <strong>in</strong> which HTTs might compromise <strong>the</strong> anthropological<br />

It’s<br />

to do no harm. While HTTs don’t participate <strong>in</strong> combat, <strong>the</strong>y do o er direct<br />

<strong>in</strong>junction<br />

to combat brigades. e participat<strong>in</strong>g anthropologists also have no control over how<br />

support<br />

work might be used by <strong>the</strong> brigade commander. If anthropologists gure out who <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

power brokers are, commanders can use that <strong>in</strong>formation to make a peaceful<br />

local<br />

maps can be used to build a bridge or blow one up.<br />

same<br />

and k<strong>in</strong>entic operations are someth<strong>in</strong>g that must be done, part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> military,”<br />

“Target<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Fondacaro. He stresses that <strong>the</strong> goal <strong>of</strong> HTT is to move towards less violence, and less<br />

says<br />

to <strong>in</strong>nocent people when force is used (Beyerste<strong>in</strong> 2007).<br />

harm<br />

proposition, or to call <strong>in</strong> an air strike. Human terra<strong>in</strong> is analogous to geographical terra<strong>in</strong>.<br />

e<br />

<strong>the</strong> years, Human Terra<strong>in</strong>’s saleswoman, anthropologist Montgomery<br />

Over<br />

adopted a policy <strong>of</strong> not answer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> academic critiques <strong>of</strong> her<br />

McFate,<br />

many critics regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> documentation <strong>of</strong> her critics.<br />

is policy<br />

Dr. McFate to avoid answer<strong>in</strong>g some pretty serious questions;<br />

allowed<br />

about her reported <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surveillance <strong>of</strong> an<br />

questions<br />

gun control group (Ridgeway et al., 2008); questions about <strong>the</strong><br />

American<br />

writ<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r anthropologists appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> new<br />

unattributed<br />

Field Manual (Price 2007); Questions about why, ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g that Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams raise complex ethical issues<br />

than<br />

be negotiated, she has <strong>in</strong>stead moved forward without even try<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

to<br />

address <strong>the</strong>se issues (AAA 2007 & 2009). And while this approach<br />

publicly<br />

well <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> political environment <strong>of</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C., where<br />

works<br />

and memories are short, this is <strong>the</strong> most non-academic<br />

accountability<br />

imag<strong>in</strong>able — academics engage with each o<strong>the</strong>r when disputes<br />

approach<br />

<strong>the</strong>y answer critiques with data and arguments ra<strong>the</strong>r than rely on<br />

arise,<br />

and pr<strong>of</strong>essionals to sp<strong>in</strong> stories <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> press.<br />

silence<br />

McFate’s position <strong>of</strong> leav<strong>in</strong>g critiques unanswered appears to have<br />

Dr.<br />

that <strong>of</strong> HTS, and a compliant corporate media has followed this lead<br />

become<br />

it <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly refused to report on <strong>the</strong> problems, corruptions, and<br />

as<br />

<strong>of</strong> HTS, <strong>in</strong>stead only provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> public with narratives that<br />

complexities<br />

have <strong>the</strong>m believe that HTS anthropologists are good car<strong>in</strong>g people<br />

would<br />

to lessen harm, while critics are ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>visible or portrayed as ivory<br />

try<strong>in</strong>g<br />

America-hat<strong>in</strong>g kooks.<br />

tower


esemblance between some suggested HTT methods — for example, <strong>the</strong> appropriately<br />

strik<strong>in</strong>g<br />

‘SPIIEOP’ — and methods employed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>famous Vietnam War-era<br />

named<br />

Program. Speci cally, CORDS/Phoenix ‘census grievance’ teams collected<br />

CORDS/Phoenix<br />

and ethnographic data and <strong>in</strong>terviewed people about <strong>the</strong>ir needs, compla<strong>in</strong>ts and<br />

census<br />

towards <strong>the</strong> Viet Cong — <strong>in</strong> much <strong>the</strong> same way that HTT members are <strong>in</strong>structed<br />

sentiments<br />

do. ‘Census grievance’ data was submitted to databases that Phoenix operatives used to<br />

to<br />

on how <strong>the</strong> supposedly non-classi ed collected Human Terra<strong>in</strong> data<br />

silent<br />

be protected from <strong>the</strong> “un<strong>in</strong>tended” uses by o<strong>the</strong>rs. It does state that<br />

will<br />

e commander has an <strong>in</strong>telligence section for lethal target<strong>in</strong>g, what <strong>the</strong>y<br />

“<br />

is a section that can expla<strong>in</strong> and del<strong>in</strong>eate <strong>the</strong> non-lethal<br />

require<br />

(e.g. tribal relationships and local power structures), as well as<br />

environment<br />

second and third order e ects <strong>of</strong> planned lethal and non-lethal<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

(F<strong>in</strong>ney 2008a:82).<br />

operations”<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems naively believes that it can control <strong>the</strong> uses to<br />

Human<br />

its data is put by o<strong>the</strong>rs. In a similar state <strong>of</strong> denial, <strong>the</strong> Handbook<br />

which<br />

<strong>the</strong> admonition that personnel should: “avoid direct <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes<br />

question<strong>in</strong>g. Tactical question<strong>in</strong>g is a function <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

tactical<br />

and designed to elicit primarily lethal-target<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation. It would<br />

world<br />

endanger relationships with <strong>the</strong> local population if HTTs are seen be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

also<br />

with <strong>the</strong> “<strong>in</strong>terrogat<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> friends/family” (F<strong>in</strong>ney 2008a:83). is<br />

<strong>in</strong>volved<br />

shows how HTT falsely envisions that <strong>the</strong> world <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

statement<br />

and process<strong>in</strong>g is neatly compartmentalized and that <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g<br />

o<br />

cers could not possibly have access to HTT reports. It is as if HTT<br />

avoidance <strong>of</strong> “direct <strong>in</strong>volvement” with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence<br />

personnel’s<br />

means that whatever passive <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>the</strong>y have with <strong>the</strong><br />

community<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence community is acceptable.<br />

e Handbook does not address <strong>the</strong><br />

that when Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Personnel collect <strong>in</strong>formation<br />

possibility<br />

identities <strong>of</strong> cooperative and compliant <strong>in</strong>dividuals or groups as<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Taliban or “not” sympa<strong>the</strong>tic to al-Quaida, that those o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />

“not”<br />

groups occupy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> negative space <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se composite pictures risk<br />

or<br />

targets.<br />

becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Gonzalez observed that <strong>the</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Handbook shares a,<br />

Roberto<br />

deta<strong>in</strong>, torture and kill 26,000 suspected Viet Cong supporters (Gonzalez 2009:28).<br />

out <strong>the</strong>se clear historical connections <strong>of</strong> method and purpose<br />

Po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Human Terra<strong>in</strong> supporters, who <strong>in</strong>sist <strong>the</strong>y operate outside <strong>of</strong> any<br />

rankle<br />

<strong>of</strong> structural or historical forces that would limit or necessarily l<strong>in</strong>k<br />

form<br />

e orts to any such outcome. Some HTS supporters imag<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir


human terra<strong>in</strong> ensigns had <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al Star Trek series. But this<br />

shirted<br />

isn’t explor<strong>in</strong>g where no [hu]man has gone before, it is only a broken<br />

project<br />

tech version <strong>of</strong> colonial projects that many anthropologists hoped had<br />

high<br />

part <strong>of</strong> a shameful discipl<strong>in</strong>ary past.<br />

become<br />

to l<strong>in</strong>k HTS data to <strong>the</strong> Human Relations Area Files also l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />

Plans<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong>’s counter<strong>in</strong>surgency operations with HRAF’s poorly<br />

Human<br />

understood Cold War counter<strong>in</strong>surgency research projects.<br />

e most absurd<br />

<strong>the</strong> HRAF-l<strong>in</strong>ked counter<strong>in</strong>surgency programs from <strong>the</strong> 1960s <strong>in</strong>volved<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

military’s Special Operations Research O ce’s <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> expand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

cross cultural <strong>in</strong>dex<strong>in</strong>g system to <strong>in</strong>clude categories that could be<br />

HRAF’s<br />

to code data for U.S. counter<strong>in</strong>surgency operations. As <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />

used<br />

today <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly prepares for rapid deployment<br />

military<br />

operations around <strong>the</strong> globe (with AFRICOM operations<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

on an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g importance), we can expect that <strong>the</strong>se old broken<br />

tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

orts to prepare readily available geographically-speci c<br />

e<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation databases will be revived and made available<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

handheld iPhone like devices to be used by culturally confused personnel<br />

as<br />

with troops. Such high tech e orts to ll <strong>in</strong> cultural gaps will<br />

embedded<br />

attractive to military contractors and military personnel entrapped<br />

rema<strong>in</strong><br />

eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g problem solv<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>dsets, and <strong>the</strong>re are fortunes to be made<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

military contractors generat<strong>in</strong>g poor quality data (pirated from <strong>the</strong><br />

for<br />

ethnographic literature) to be used <strong>in</strong> ridiculous mobile-global<br />

published<br />

databases. e Handbook’s vision <strong>of</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g HRAF<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

data report<strong>in</strong>g thus ful lls <strong>the</strong> dual purposes <strong>of</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> selfserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ready<br />

pretense that HTT is engaged <strong>in</strong> scholarly activity, while also<br />

data organized <strong>in</strong> ways that can be retrieved as part <strong>of</strong> what may<br />

collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a larger counter<strong>in</strong>surgency database.<br />

become<br />

a few places <strong>the</strong> Handbook makes eet<strong>in</strong>g suggestions that issues <strong>of</strong><br />

In<br />

ethics are be<strong>in</strong>g dealt with by someone or someth<strong>in</strong>g else. Without<br />

research<br />

<strong>the</strong> Handbook states that “an accompany<strong>in</strong>g document is<br />

explanation,<br />

outl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g how <strong>the</strong> research will comply with <strong>the</strong> protection <strong>of</strong><br />

written<br />

research subjects accord<strong>in</strong>g to 45 CFR 46 to ensure <strong>the</strong> research falls<br />

human<br />

accepted ethical guidel<strong>in</strong>es” (F<strong>in</strong>ney 2008a:55). My correspondence<br />

with<strong>in</strong><br />

HTT defector John Allison (see Chapter N<strong>in</strong>e) clari ed that HTT<br />

with<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes little mean<strong>in</strong>gful discussions <strong>of</strong> ethnographic ethics, and<br />

tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

while ethics were brie y mentioned <strong>in</strong> Allison’s tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sessions, <strong>the</strong> larger


Dr. Gri n: “Don’t fool yourself. ese Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y want to<br />

Dear<br />

it or not, <strong>in</strong> a generalized and subtle way, do at some po<strong>in</strong>t contribute to <strong>the</strong><br />

acknowledge<br />

knowledge <strong>of</strong> a commander which allows him to target and kill <strong>the</strong> enemy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Civil<br />

collective<br />

<strong>in</strong> Iraq. I commanded an Armored Reconnaissance Squadron <strong>in</strong> West Baghdad <strong>in</strong> 2006.<br />

War<br />

I did not have one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se HTTs assigned to me (and I certa<strong>in</strong>ly would have liked<br />

Although<br />

I did have a Civil A airs Team that was led by a major who <strong>in</strong> his civilian life was an<br />

to)<br />

banker <strong>in</strong> New York City and had been <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area I operated for about 6 months<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestment<br />

He knew <strong>the</strong> area well and understood <strong>the</strong> people and <strong>the</strong> culture <strong>in</strong> it; just like a HTT<br />

prior.<br />

would. I o en used his knowledge to help me sort through who was <strong>the</strong> enemy and<br />

adviser<br />

was not and from that understand<strong>in</strong>g that he contributed to I was able to target and<br />

who<br />

kill <strong>the</strong> enemy. So stop sugarcoat<strong>in</strong>g what <strong>the</strong>se teams do and end up be<strong>in</strong>g a part<br />

sometimes<br />

to deny this fact is to deny <strong>the</strong> reality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wars <strong>in</strong> Iraq and Afghanistan. I am <strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong>;<br />

program <strong>of</strong> HTTs and see great utility <strong>in</strong> it for combat commanders. I understand <strong>the</strong><br />

this<br />

too between <strong>the</strong>se eld anthropologists who are part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HTTs and academia. I<br />

debate<br />

academia is wrong to chastise <strong>the</strong>se people for be<strong>in</strong>g a part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HTTs. But I also th<strong>in</strong>k<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k<br />

people like you should call a spade a spade and accept <strong>the</strong> reality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> e ects that <strong>the</strong>se<br />

that<br />

was on tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g HTT social scientists to comply with <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

focus<br />

units with whom <strong>the</strong>y embed. e Handbook claims that, “<strong>the</strong><br />

military<br />

<strong>of</strong> our research provide non-target data that suggests Courses <strong>of</strong><br />

results<br />

to <strong>the</strong> commander and his sta . Our research is performed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Action<br />

manner <strong>in</strong> which academic social scientists conduct <strong>the</strong>ir research and<br />

same<br />

similarly rooted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory and complete with ethical review boards”<br />

is<br />

(F<strong>in</strong>ney 2008a:56). It is di<br />

cult to evaluate <strong>the</strong> claims <strong>of</strong> non-target<strong>in</strong>g. In<br />

book American Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency: Human <strong>Science</strong> and <strong>the</strong> Human<br />

his<br />

anthropologist Roberto González quotes U.S. Army, Lt. Colonel<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong>,<br />

Gian Gentile, sco<br />

ng at suggestions that such cultural data would not be<br />

for target<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> active war situations, respond<strong>in</strong>g to similar claims by<br />

used<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong> anthropologist Marcus Gri n, Gentile wrote:<br />

Human<br />

HTTs produce. (Lieutenant Colonel Gian P. Gentile <strong>in</strong> Gonzalez 2008:70-71, emphasis added).<br />

Handbook’s claim HTT’s research is “complete with ethical review<br />

e<br />

contradicts <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation I have garnered <strong>in</strong> my <strong>in</strong>terviews with<br />

boards”<br />

HTT social scientists, or HTT social scientists <strong>in</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. I am<br />

former<br />

that HTT has <strong>in</strong> fact implemented any mean<strong>in</strong>gful ethical tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,<br />

skeptical<br />

used “ethical review boards” <strong>in</strong> any ongo<strong>in</strong>g mean<strong>in</strong>gful way.<br />

or<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems is a failed attempt to approach problems <strong>of</strong><br />

Human<br />

or occupation with tools and understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> cultural nuance<br />

subjugation<br />

culturally appropriate manipulation. Many anthropologists like myself<br />

and<br />

oppose <strong>the</strong>se methods on ethical and political grounds.<br />

e ethical<br />

problems <strong>of</strong> voluntary <strong>in</strong>formed consent, and protection <strong>of</strong> research


paid for <strong>the</strong>ir central roles <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> program that <strong>the</strong>y<br />

handsomely<br />

later criticize a er cash<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> on <strong>the</strong> boondoggle.<br />

would<br />

a steady drumm<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> corporate media’s coverage pitch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Despite<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong> Systems as a miraculous cure-all for America’s<br />

Human<br />

woes, <strong>in</strong> December 2010, a er a report by <strong>the</strong> House<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

<strong>Services</strong> Committee (highly critical <strong>of</strong> HTS), <strong>the</strong> U.S. House’s<br />

Armed<br />

fund<strong>in</strong>g bill stated that it would only provide 85% <strong>of</strong> HTS’s budget<br />

defense<br />

until, “<strong>the</strong> Army submits to <strong>the</strong> congressional defense committees<br />

funds<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g: (1) A validation <strong>of</strong> all HTS requirements <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

each<br />

prior jo<strong>in</strong>t urgent operational needs statements. (2) A certi cation that<br />

any<br />

procedures, and guidance are <strong>in</strong> place to protect <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong><br />

policies,<br />

science researchers participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> HTS <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g ethical guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />

social<br />

human studies research procedures” (111 th Congress, 2 nd Session, H.R.<br />

and<br />

6523).<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r words, despite HTS’s steady media barrage <strong>of</strong> pro-HTS<br />

In<br />

<strong>the</strong> House Armed <strong>Services</strong> Committee nally put Human<br />

propaganda,<br />

Systems on notice that it needs to produce evidence support<strong>in</strong>g its<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

claims <strong>of</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g “k<strong>in</strong>etic engagements,” and <strong>the</strong> program must<br />

remarkable<br />

that it is <strong>in</strong> compliance with normal ethical research guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />

demonstrate<br />

for human subjects. Over three years <strong>of</strong> criticism com<strong>in</strong>g from<br />

used<br />

anthropologists, <strong>the</strong> Network <strong>of</strong> Concerned Anthropologists, a<br />

numerous<br />

American Anthropological Association commission report (AAA<br />

critical<br />

and critical articles by progressive journalists pushed <strong>the</strong> House<br />

2009),<br />

<strong>Services</strong> Committee to conduct its own <strong>in</strong>vestigation lead<strong>in</strong>g to this<br />

Armed<br />

hold on program fund<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

(m<strong>in</strong>or)<br />

methodological and political di<br />

e<br />

culties <strong>of</strong> design<strong>in</strong>g a fair and honest<br />

<strong>of</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g a battle eld program like HTS are signi cant enough<br />

means<br />

it would be possible to concoct a scienti c-look<strong>in</strong>g study with low-<br />

that<br />

that won’t negatively evaluate <strong>the</strong> program’s e ectiveness. Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

validity<br />

social scientists’ compliance with normal standards <strong>of</strong> research ethics<br />

HTS<br />

present very serious problems for <strong>the</strong> program, and it seems impossible<br />

will<br />

<strong>the</strong> program can legitimately pass this second requirement.<br />

that<br />

ly<strong>in</strong>g beyond <strong>the</strong> technicalities <strong>of</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g outcomes and ethics<br />

But<br />

<strong>the</strong> immovable politics <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology for occupation. No<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />

bill <strong>of</strong> health from <strong>in</strong>dependent social science contractors evaluat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

clean<br />

e ciency or ethical propriety <strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams can overcome<br />

<strong>the</strong>


core political problems <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g anthropology for neo-colonial<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

and subjugations.<br />

occupations


Six: Commandeer<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Chapter<br />

- The New<br />

Scholarship<br />

Manual,<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

and Academic Pillag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>Anthropology</strong>,<br />

I could sum up <strong>the</strong> book <strong>in</strong> just a few words, it would be: “Be polite, be pr<strong>of</strong>essional, be<br />

If<br />

to kill.<br />

prepared<br />

— John Nagl, pitch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> new Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Field Manual on e Daily Show<br />

a er <strong>the</strong> U.S. Army and Mar<strong>in</strong>e Corps published <strong>the</strong>ir new<br />

Soon<br />

Field Manual (No. 3-24), <strong>in</strong> December 2006, <strong>the</strong><br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

public was subjected to a well orchestrated publicity campaign<br />

American<br />

to conv<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>m that a smart new plan was underway to salvage<br />

designed<br />

lost war <strong>in</strong> Iraq. In policy circles, <strong>the</strong> Manual became an artifact <strong>of</strong> hope,<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> move away from <strong>the</strong> crude logic <strong>of</strong> “shock and awe” toward<br />

signify<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that ri e-tot<strong>in</strong>g soldiers can w<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hearts and m<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong><br />

calculations<br />

Iraq through a new scholarly appreciation <strong>of</strong> cultural nuance.<br />

occupied<br />

<strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> this media blitz, th<strong>in</strong>gs were go<strong>in</strong>g poorly <strong>in</strong> Iraq, and <strong>the</strong><br />

At<br />

public was assured that <strong>the</strong> Manual conta<strong>in</strong>ed plans for a new<br />

American<br />

<strong>in</strong>tellectually fueled “smart bomb” for an Iraqi victory.<br />

is contrivance was<br />

<strong>in</strong> July 2007, when <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press republished <strong>the</strong><br />

bolstered<br />

<strong>in</strong> a stylish, olive drab, faux- eld ready edition, designed to slip <strong>in</strong>to<br />

Manual<br />

jackets or Urban Out tter accessory bags (US Army & USMC 2007).<br />

ack<br />

Chicago edition <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al forward by General David<br />

e<br />

and Lt. General James Amos, with a new forward by<br />

Petraeus<br />

expert Lt. Col. John Nagl and <strong>in</strong>troduction by Harvard’s<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

Sewell. Chicago’s republication <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Field Manual spawned a media<br />

Sarah<br />

and Nagl became <strong>the</strong> Manual’s poster boy, appear<strong>in</strong>g on NPR, ABC<br />

frenzy,<br />

NBC, and <strong>the</strong> pages <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NYT, Newsweek, and o<strong>the</strong>r publications,<br />

News,<br />

<strong>the</strong> Manual as <strong>the</strong> philosophical expression <strong>of</strong> Petraeus’ <strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />

pitch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

for victory <strong>in</strong> Iraq (see Ephron 2006; Kaplan 2007; Kerley 2006;<br />

strategy<br />

2007; Su<strong>the</strong>rland 2008).<br />

NPR<br />

Pentagon’s media pitch claimed <strong>the</strong> Manual was a rare work <strong>of</strong> applied<br />

e<br />

and old Pentagon hands were shu ed forth to sell this new<br />

scholarship,


<strong>of</strong> cultural eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g to America. Robert Bateman wrote <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

dream<br />

Tribune that it is “probably <strong>the</strong> most important piece <strong>of</strong> doctr<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Chicago<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past 20 years,” credit<strong>in</strong>g this success to <strong>the</strong> high academic<br />

written<br />

and <strong>in</strong>tegrity that <strong>the</strong> Army War College historian, Conrad Crane,<br />

standards<br />

to <strong>the</strong> project. Bateman touted Crane’s devotion to us<strong>in</strong>g an “honest<br />

brought<br />

open peer review” process, and his reliance on a team <strong>of</strong> top scholars to<br />

and<br />

dra <strong>the</strong> Manual.<br />

is team <strong>in</strong>cluded “current or former members <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong><br />

combat branches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Army or Mar<strong>in</strong>e Corps.” As well as be<strong>in</strong>g combat<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

“<strong>the</strong> more <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g aspect <strong>of</strong> this group was that almost all <strong>of</strong><br />

veterans,<br />

had at least a master’s degree, and quite a few could add ‘doctor’ to<br />

<strong>the</strong>m<br />

military rank and title as well. At <strong>the</strong> top <strong>of</strong> that list is <strong>the</strong> o cer who<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir<br />

<strong>the</strong> need for a new doctr<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>the</strong>n-Lt. Gen. David Petraeus, Ph.D”<br />

saw<br />

2007).<br />

(Bateman<br />

Manual’s PR campaign was extraord<strong>in</strong>ary. In an August 23, 2007, Daily<br />

e<br />

<strong>in</strong>terview, John Nagl hammed it up <strong>in</strong> uniform with Jon Stewart, but<br />

Show<br />

<strong>the</strong> banter Nagl stayed on mission and described how Gen. Petraeus<br />

amidst<br />

a “team <strong>of</strong> writers [who] produced <strong>the</strong> [Manual] strategy that<br />

collected<br />

Petraeus is implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Iraq now.” When Jon Stewart<br />

General<br />

on <strong>the</strong> speed at which <strong>the</strong> Manual was produced, Nagl<br />

commented<br />

that this was “very fast for an Army eld manual; <strong>the</strong> process<br />

remarked<br />

takes a couple <strong>of</strong> years”; but for Nagl this still was “not fast enough”.<br />

usually<br />

rst dra <strong>of</strong> each chapter was produced <strong>in</strong> two months before be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

e<br />

at an Army conference at Ft. Leavenworth. e speed at which <strong>the</strong><br />

reworked<br />

was produced should have warned <strong>in</strong>volved academics that corners<br />

Manual<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g cut, but none <strong>of</strong> those <strong>in</strong>volved seemed to worry about such<br />

were<br />

problems.<br />

e Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Field Manual’s <strong>in</strong>sertion <strong>in</strong>to ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />

popular culture was part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> military’s larger scheme to use<br />

American<br />

glossy outlets to conv<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> American public that new military<br />

will<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> culture would lead to success <strong>in</strong> Iraq. While one conservative<br />

uses<br />

criticized <strong>the</strong>se e orts (e.g. e Weekly Standard), <strong>the</strong> liberal press<br />

magaz<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Yorker, Elle, More, Wired, Harper’s etc.) climbed on board, runn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(New<br />

uncritical pro les <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cultural counter<strong>in</strong>surgency’s pitchmen <strong>in</strong><br />

glossy<br />

write-ups portray<strong>in</strong>g this new generation <strong>of</strong> anthropologists as a<br />

glamorous<br />

new breed <strong>of</strong> scholars who could build culture traps for foreign foes<br />

brilliant<br />

capture <strong>the</strong> hearts and m<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> those we’d occupy (see: Burleigh 2007;<br />

and<br />

2008; Kamps 2008; Marlowe 2007; Packer 2006; Shachtman<br />

Fea<strong>the</strong>rstone


e will<strong>in</strong>g press pitched <strong>the</strong> Pentagon’s message that top scholars<br />

2007).<br />

now us<strong>in</strong>g scholarship to prepare America for victory <strong>in</strong> Iraq.<br />

were<br />

American public was assured that <strong>in</strong> Iraq and Afghanistan, <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />

was implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Manual’s approach to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> culture as a<br />

military<br />

eld weapon. Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams embed anthropologists with<br />

battle<br />

operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Iraq and Afghanistan, and <strong>the</strong> Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Field<br />

troops<br />

Manual was hailed as <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual tool guid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir com<strong>in</strong>g success.<br />

THE SECRETS OF CHAPTER THREE<br />

e heart <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual is Chapter<br />

ree’s discussion <strong>of</strong> “Intelligence <strong>in</strong><br />

Chapter three <strong>in</strong>troduces basic social science views <strong>of</strong><br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency.”<br />

<strong>of</strong> culture that underlie <strong>the</strong> Manual’s approach to teach<strong>in</strong>g<br />

elements<br />

how to weaponize <strong>the</strong> speci c <strong>in</strong>digenous cultural<br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgents<br />

<strong>the</strong>y encounter <strong>in</strong> speci c <strong>the</strong>aters <strong>of</strong> battle. General Petraeus<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation<br />

that troops work<strong>in</strong>g alongside Human Terra<strong>in</strong> System teams could apply<br />

bet<br />

Manual’s pr<strong>in</strong>ciples to stabilize and pacify war-torn Iraq.<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

I read an onl<strong>in</strong>e copy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual <strong>in</strong> early 2007, I was<br />

When<br />

by its watered-down anthropological explanations, but hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

unimpressed<br />

anthropological contributions to <strong>the</strong> Second World War, I was<br />

researched<br />

with such oversimpli cations. Like any manual, it is written <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

familiar<br />

dry, detached voice <strong>of</strong> basic <strong>in</strong>struction. But when I re-read Chapter<br />

ree a<br />

months later, I found my eyes struggl<strong>in</strong>g through a crudely constructed<br />

few<br />

and <strong>the</strong>n suddenly be<strong>in</strong>g graced with a ow<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> precise<br />

sentence<br />

“A ritual is a stereotyped sequence <strong>of</strong> activities <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g gestures,<br />

prose,<br />

and objects performed to <strong>in</strong> uence supernatural entities or forces on<br />

words,<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> actors’ goals and <strong>in</strong>terest” (FM 3-24, 3-51).<br />

behalf<br />

phrase “stereotyped sequence” leapt o <strong>the</strong> page. Not only was it out <strong>of</strong><br />

e<br />

but it sparked a memory. I knew that I’d read <strong>the</strong>se words years ago.<br />

place,<br />

a little search<strong>in</strong>g, I discovered that this unacknowledged l<strong>in</strong>e had been<br />

With<br />

from a 1977 article written by <strong>the</strong> anthropologist Victor Turner, who<br />

taken<br />

wrote that religious ritual is, “a stereotyped sequence <strong>of</strong> activities<br />

brilliantly<br />

gestures, words, and objects, performed <strong>in</strong> a sequestered place,<br />

<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

designed to <strong>in</strong> uence preternatural entities or forces on behalf <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

and<br />

goals and <strong>in</strong>terests” (Turner 1977:183).<br />

actors’<br />

Manual simpli ed Turner’s poetic voice, trimm<strong>in</strong>g a few big words and<br />

e<br />

substitut<strong>in</strong>g “supernatural” for “preternatural”.<br />

e Manual used no


marks, attribution, or citations to signify Turner’s authorship <strong>of</strong><br />

quotation<br />

barely altered l<strong>in</strong>e. Hav<strong>in</strong>g encountered students pass<strong>in</strong>g o <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong><br />

this<br />

scholars as <strong>the</strong>ir own, I know that such acts are seldom isolated<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

this s<strong>in</strong>gle kidnapped l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> Turner got me wonder<strong>in</strong>g if <strong>the</strong><br />

occurrences;<br />

had taken o<strong>the</strong>r unattributed passages. With a little search<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

Manual<br />

three alone I found about twenty passages show<strong>in</strong>g ei<strong>the</strong>r direct use<br />

chapter<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs’ passages without quotes, or heavy reliance on unacknowledged<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

materials.<br />

source<br />

numerous <strong>in</strong>stances I found shared a consistent pattern <strong>of</strong><br />

e<br />

use. While any author can accidentally drop a quotation<br />

unacknowledged<br />

from a work dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> production process, <strong>the</strong> extent and consistent<br />

mark<br />

<strong>of</strong> this practice <strong>in</strong> this Manual is more than common editorial<br />

pattern<br />

carelessness.<br />

e cumulative e ect <strong>of</strong> such non-attributions is devastat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

Manual’s academic <strong>in</strong>tegrity, and claims <strong>of</strong> such <strong>in</strong>tegrity are <strong>the</strong> heart<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

soul <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pentagon’s claims for <strong>the</strong> Manual.<br />

and<br />

use <strong>of</strong> unquoted and uncited passages is pervasive throughout this<br />

e<br />

For example, when <strong>the</strong> Manual’s authors wanted to de ne “society”<br />

chapter.<br />

simply “borrowed” every word <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> de nition used by David<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

<strong>in</strong> his Sociology textbook (cf. FM 3-24 3-20, Newman 2006:16),<br />

Newman<br />

li ed <strong>the</strong>ir de nition <strong>of</strong> “race” from a 1974 edition <strong>of</strong> Encyclopedia<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

(cf. FM 3-24 3-25, Encyclopedia Britannica. “Race.” 1974, vol.<br />

Britannica<br />

and <strong>the</strong>ir de nition <strong>of</strong> “culture” was swiped from Fred Plog and Daniel<br />

15.),<br />

Cultural <strong>Anthropology</strong> textbook (cf., FM 3-24 3-37; Plog & Bates<br />

Bates’<br />

e Manual’s de nition <strong>of</strong> “tribe” was purlo<strong>in</strong>ed from an obscure<br />

1988:7).<br />

by Kenneth Brown (cf., FM 3-24 3-27; Brown 2001:206), and not<br />

chapter<br />

is Victor Turner’s de nition <strong>of</strong> “ritual” hijacked without attribution but<br />

only<br />

Manual’s de nition <strong>of</strong> “symbols” was a truncated li <strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Turner (cf.,<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

3-24 3-51 ; Turner 1967:19). Several sections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual are identical<br />

FM<br />

entries <strong>in</strong> onl<strong>in</strong>e encyclopedia sources. e Manual’s authors used an<br />

to<br />

truncated version <strong>of</strong> Anthony Giddens’ de nition <strong>of</strong> “ethic<br />

unacknowledged<br />

(cf., FM 3-24 3-26; Giddens 2006:487). Max Weber’s de nition <strong>of</strong><br />

groups”<br />

is taken from Economy and Society and used without attribution<br />

“power”<br />

FM 3-24 3-55; Weber 1922:53). And so on. Each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se passages was<br />

(cf.,<br />

without <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r quotation marks or any acknowledgement<br />

taken<br />

real scholars had orig<strong>in</strong>ally written <strong>the</strong>se words.<br />

that


for “ethnic groups” says:<br />

entry<br />

ethnic group is a human community whose learned cultural practices, language, history,<br />

“An<br />

or religion dist<strong>in</strong>guish <strong>the</strong>m from o<strong>the</strong>rs. Members <strong>of</strong> ethnic groups see<br />

ancestry,<br />

as di erent from o<strong>the</strong>r groups <strong>in</strong> a society and are recognized as such by o<strong>the</strong>rs”<br />

<strong>the</strong>mselves<br />

erent characteristics may serve to dist<strong>in</strong>guish ethnic groups from one ano<strong>the</strong>r, but <strong>the</strong><br />

“Di<br />

usual are language, history, or ancestry (real or imag<strong>in</strong>ed), religions and …Members<br />

most<br />

ethnic groups see <strong>the</strong>mselves as culturally dist<strong>in</strong>ct from o<strong>the</strong>r groups <strong>in</strong> a society, and are<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

by those o<strong>the</strong>r groups to be so <strong>in</strong> return” (Giddens 2006:487)<br />

seen<br />

sections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual have unacknowledged borrow<strong>in</strong>gs from<br />

O<strong>the</strong>r<br />

sources. Roberto González discovered that <strong>the</strong> Manual’s Appendix A<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

“<strong>in</strong>spired by T.E. Lawrence, who <strong>in</strong> 1917 published <strong>the</strong> piece ‘Twentyseven<br />

was<br />

articles’ for Arab Bullet<strong>in</strong>, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence journal <strong>of</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>’s<br />

Arab Bureau” (González 2010:79). González compared several<br />

Cairo-based<br />

<strong>of</strong> Lawrence with David Kilcullen’s Appendix A, and found parallel<br />

passages<br />

where paragraphs were reworded but followed set formations<br />

constructions<br />

<strong>the</strong> two texts . González observed that while <strong>the</strong>se parallel<br />

between<br />

can be seen, “Lawrence is never mentioned <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> appendix.”<br />

constructions<br />

shows that “Kilcullen’s o<strong>the</strong>r written work makes a pass<strong>in</strong>g<br />

González<br />

but does not acknowledge <strong>the</strong> degree to which Lawrence’s ideas<br />

reference,<br />

style have been <strong>in</strong> uential” (González 2010:81).<br />

and<br />

complicat<strong>in</strong>g element <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual’s reliance on unattributed sources is<br />

A<br />

<strong>the</strong> Manual <strong>in</strong>cludes a bibliography list<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> over 100 sources, yet not a<br />

that<br />

source I have identi ed is <strong>in</strong>cluded. My experience with students<br />

s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

to pass o <strong>the</strong> previously published work <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs as <strong>the</strong>ir own is that<br />

try<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>variably omit citation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bibliographic sources <strong>the</strong>y copy, so as not<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

draw attention to <strong>the</strong>m. Even without us<strong>in</strong>g bibliographic citations, <strong>the</strong><br />

to<br />

could have just used quotes and named sources <strong>in</strong> a standard<br />

Manual<br />

format, but no such attributions were used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>stances.<br />

journalistic<br />

EXAMPLES OF LIFTED TEXT<br />

some sentences, <strong>the</strong> Manual directly follows <strong>the</strong> vocabulary and<br />

In<br />

<strong>of</strong> identi able sentences <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r works. For example, <strong>the</strong> Manual’s<br />

structure<br />

(US Army & USMC 2006: 3-26).<br />

<strong>of</strong> this de nition follow <strong>the</strong> model sentence patterns <strong>of</strong> a passage<br />

Elements<br />

Anthony Giddens’ 2006 Sociology text discuss<strong>in</strong>g ethnicity:<br />

<strong>in</strong>


Manual, section 3-20: Society<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

de ne society as a population liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same<br />

“...sociologists<br />

area that shares a culture and a common identity and whose<br />

geographic<br />

are subject to <strong>the</strong> same political authority” (US Army & USMC<br />

members<br />

2006:3-20).<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

sociologists de ne society as a population liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same<br />

“Formally,<br />

area that shares a culture and a common identity and whose<br />

geographic<br />

Manual, section 3-24: Groups<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

group is two or more people regularly <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong><br />

“A<br />

expectations <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs’ behavior and who have <strong>in</strong>terrelated status<br />

shared<br />

roles” (US Army & USMC 2006: 3-24).<br />

and<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

two or more people regularly <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> shared<br />

“Group:<br />

<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs’ behavior; <strong>in</strong>terrelated statuses and roles.” (Silbey<br />

expectations<br />

2002)<br />

Manual, section 3-25: Race<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

race is a human group that de nes itself or is de ned by o<strong>the</strong>r groups<br />

“A<br />

di erent by virtue <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>nate physical characteristics. Biologically, <strong>the</strong>re<br />

as<br />

no such th<strong>in</strong>g as race among human be<strong>in</strong>gs; race is a social category”<br />

is<br />

Army & USMC 2006: 3-25).<br />

(US<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

COMPARISONS OF UNACKNOWLEDGED SOURCES FOR PASSAGES IN THE<br />

COUNTERINSURGENCY FIELD MANUAL<br />

are speci c examples <strong>of</strong> portions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Field<br />

Here<br />

derived from o<strong>the</strong>r unacknowledged sources. e hyphenated<br />

Manual,<br />

preced<strong>in</strong>g passages <strong>in</strong>dicate <strong>the</strong> citation used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

numbers<br />

Manual. Bold writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dicates <strong>the</strong> portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

that has been used without attribution from ano<strong>the</strong>r source;<br />

passage<br />

passages present <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al unacknowledged source passage<br />

<strong>in</strong>dented<br />

(references for source passages appear <strong>in</strong> paren<strong>the</strong>sis).<br />

members are subject to <strong>the</strong> same political authority.” (Newman 2006:19)


“refers to a human group that de nes itself or is de ned by o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />

[Race]<br />

di erent by virtue <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>nate and immutable physical characteristics”<br />

as<br />

Manual, section 3-26: Ethnic groups<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

<strong>of</strong> ethnic groups see <strong>the</strong>mselves as di erent from o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

“Members<br />

<strong>in</strong> a society and are recognized as such by o<strong>the</strong>rs” (US Army &<br />

groups<br />

2006: 3-26).<br />

USMC<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

<strong>of</strong> ethnic groups see <strong>the</strong>mselves as culturally dist<strong>in</strong>ct from<br />

Members<br />

groups <strong>in</strong> a society, and are seen by those o<strong>the</strong>r groups to be so <strong>in</strong><br />

o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

(Giddens 2006: 487).<br />

return”<br />

Manual, section 3-27: Tribes<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

are generally de ned as autonomous, genealogically structured<br />

“Tribes<br />

<strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> rights <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals are largely determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

groups<br />

and membership <strong>in</strong> a particular l<strong>in</strong>eage” (US Army & USMC<br />

ancestry<br />

3-27). 2006:<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

Tribe is an] autonomous, genealogically structured group <strong>in</strong> which<br />

“[A<br />

rights <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals are largely determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong>ir membership <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Manual, section 3-37: Culture<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

is a system <strong>of</strong> shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and<br />

“Culture<br />

that members <strong>of</strong> a society use to cope with <strong>the</strong>ir world and with<br />

artifacts<br />

ano<strong>the</strong>r” (US Army & USMC 2006: 3-37).<br />

one<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

e system <strong>of</strong> shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts<br />

“<br />

<strong>the</strong> members <strong>of</strong> society use to cope with this world and with one<br />

that<br />

(Plog & Bates 1988:7).<br />

ano<strong>the</strong>r.”<br />

Manual, section 3-44: Values<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

value is an endur<strong>in</strong>g belief that a speci c mode <strong>of</strong> conduct or end<br />

“A<br />

<strong>of</strong> existence is preferable to an opposite or converse mode <strong>of</strong><br />

state<br />

or end state <strong>of</strong> existence” (US Army & USMC 2006: 3-44).<br />

conduct<br />

(Encyclopedia Britannica 1974).<br />

corporate descent groups such as l<strong>in</strong>eages” (Brown 2001:206).<br />

U S :


value is an endur<strong>in</strong>g belief that a speci c mode <strong>of</strong> conduct or end<br />

“A<br />

<strong>of</strong> existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or<br />

state<br />

Manual, section 3-51: Cultural Forms<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

ritual is a stereotyped sequence <strong>of</strong> activities <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g gestures,<br />

“A<br />

and objects performed to <strong>in</strong> uence supernatural entities or forces<br />

words,<br />

behalf <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> actors’ goals and <strong>in</strong>terest” (US Army & USMC 2006: 3-<br />

on<br />

51).<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

ritual is “a stereotyped sequence <strong>of</strong> activities <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Religious<br />

words, and objects, performed <strong>in</strong> a sequestered place, and<br />

gestures,<br />

to <strong>in</strong> uence preternatural entities or forces on behalf <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

designed<br />

goals and <strong>in</strong>terests” (Turner 1977:183).<br />

actors’<br />

Manual, section 3-51: Cultural Forms<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

can be objects, activities, words, relationships, events, or<br />

“Symbols<br />

(US Army & USMC 2006: 3-51).<br />

gestures”<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

e symbols I observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eld were, empirically, objects, activities,<br />

“<br />

events, gestures, and spatial units <strong>in</strong> a ritual situation”<br />

relationships,<br />

Manual, section 3-55: Power and Authority<br />

Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency<br />

is <strong>the</strong> probability that one actor with<strong>in</strong> a social relationship will<br />

“Power<br />

<strong>in</strong> a position to carry out his or her own will despite resistance.”<br />

be<br />

S :<br />

U<br />

[Macht] is <strong>the</strong> probability that one actor with<strong>in</strong> a social<br />

“Power<br />

will be <strong>in</strong> a position to carry out his or her own will despite<br />

relationship<br />

converse mode <strong>of</strong> conduct or end state <strong>of</strong> existence” (Rokeach 1973:5).<br />

(Turner, 1967:19).<br />

resistance” (Weber 1922:53).<br />

sections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> manual are identical to entries <strong>in</strong> onl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Several<br />

sources like www.answers.com. For example, <strong>the</strong> Handbook’s<br />

encyclopedia<br />

nition <strong>of</strong> “language” is <strong>the</strong> same as that on<br />

de<br />

portions <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r entries<br />

http://www.answers.com/topic/duration-poem-4),<br />

appear on wikipedia. Because such onl<strong>in</strong>e entries are not dated, it cannot be


position to be that:<br />

cial<br />

messages conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> manual are valid, regardless <strong>of</strong> any discussion <strong>of</strong> academic<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

Any argument over miss<strong>in</strong>g citations should <strong>in</strong> no way dim<strong>in</strong>ish <strong>the</strong> manual’s<br />

standards.<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> current counter<strong>in</strong>surgency ght. . . . e Human Terra<strong>in</strong> System is recognition <strong>of</strong><br />

utility<br />

fact that academic study and applied social science has practical uses, and those who have<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

to devote <strong>the</strong>ir time and e orts to explor<strong>in</strong>g non-lethal alternatives to combat are<br />

chosen<br />

a vital contribution to <strong>the</strong> nation’s e orts to secure a peaceful, stable and secure future<br />

mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong> Iraq and Afghanistan. e long term by-product <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir heroic e orts will be<br />

for<br />

<strong>in</strong>formed military decisions that m<strong>in</strong>imize casualties and su er<strong>in</strong>g, and ultimately,<br />

better<br />

policy decision mak<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> government that is harmonized with <strong>the</strong> ethical<br />

optimized<br />

shown which text is <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al, but <strong>the</strong> overall pattern <strong>of</strong><br />

demonstrably<br />

use suggests that <strong>the</strong> Handbook relied on <strong>the</strong>se sources.<br />

unacknowledged<br />

<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> this chapter’s authors to come up with <strong>the</strong>ir own basic<br />

e<br />

nitions <strong>of</strong> such simple sociocultural concepts as “race,” “culture,” “ritual,”<br />

de<br />

“social structure” not only raises questions about <strong>the</strong> ethics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> authors<br />

or<br />

also furnishes a useful measure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual and its authors’ weak<br />

but<br />

foundation. In all, I quickly found over a dozen examples <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />

ed passages from uncredited source.<br />

li<br />

I published an exposé <strong>in</strong> October 2007 document<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong><br />

When<br />

Manual’s unacknowledged “borrowed” passages <strong>in</strong> CounterPunch, <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

had a variety <strong>of</strong> responses (Price 2007). U.S. Army Spokesman<br />

military<br />

Tom McCu<strong>in</strong> issued a doublespeak statement declar<strong>in</strong>g a mistakes-<br />

Major<br />

admission that passages were<br />

were-made-but-<strong>the</strong>-message-rema<strong>in</strong>s-true<br />

used <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>appropriate manner. Major McCu<strong>in</strong> o cially<br />

<strong>in</strong>deed<br />

proclaimed Army’s o<br />

pr<strong>in</strong>ciples social science values <strong>the</strong> most (McCu<strong>in</strong> 2007).<br />

Less-o<br />

cially, a mob <strong>of</strong> blood-boil<strong>in</strong>g COIN believers furiously blogged on<br />

Small Wars website and sent emails attack<strong>in</strong>g me, my credentials, and<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

reputation and discussed plots designed to get me red from my job or<br />

my<br />

cause me trouble <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> workplace.<br />

e comments were a pretty good<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> anti-<strong>in</strong>tellectual currents prevail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> American.<br />

example<br />

were blog rants <strong>of</strong> angry warriors carry<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong> ways that<br />

ese<br />

<strong>the</strong>y did not understand academia or even basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong><br />

demonstrated<br />

freedom, <strong>the</strong> discourse failed to address how <strong>the</strong> Manual was<br />

academic<br />

used to sell <strong>the</strong> American public on <strong>the</strong> war, much less that <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong><br />

be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

unsourced passages ran counter to Manual’s own claims that <strong>the</strong> work<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs was properly cited and acknowledged.<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

McFate issued no statement concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sourc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Montgomery<br />

problems <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> manual, and to <strong>the</strong> best <strong>of</strong> my knowledge, to this day she


<strong>in</strong> all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> responses to <strong>the</strong> Price piece to <strong>in</strong>clude yours not one has o ered a<br />

However,<br />

explanation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> passages that are used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Co<strong>in</strong> manual that Price shows to be<br />

satisfy<strong>in</strong>g<br />

li ed from o<strong>the</strong>r sources. Now <strong>the</strong> garden variety explanation for this has been oh yes,<br />

directly<br />

well what should we realistically expect s<strong>in</strong>ce it is a doctr<strong>in</strong>al manual and it can not be<br />

oh<br />

with footnotes and quotation marks.<br />

cluttered<br />

I look at it this way, like you I have an advanced degree (a PhD <strong>in</strong> history from Stanford<br />

But<br />

I was not an author <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Co<strong>in</strong> manual. You were along with o<strong>the</strong>rs like Dr<br />

University).<br />

Crane. Con was <strong>in</strong> fact a senior mentor <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e at Stanford and read and critiqued my<br />

Conrad<br />

So I have to tell you that if I was <strong>in</strong>volved with <strong>the</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> this manual and<br />

dissertation.<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> limits <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g footnotes, if I would have pulled so many direct quotes<br />

even<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r sources and placed <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> quotations and <strong>the</strong>n found out that <strong>the</strong> publisher had<br />

from<br />

<strong>the</strong> quotations <strong>the</strong>n I would have taken that to be a “fall on my sword issue” for me.<br />

removed<br />

that <strong>the</strong> way it was with you, Con, and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r scholars who were <strong>in</strong>volved with <strong>the</strong><br />

Is<br />

<strong>of</strong> this manual?<br />

writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and to sum up, I am look<strong>in</strong>g for an explanation for <strong>the</strong> reason so many passages from<br />

Aga<strong>in</strong><br />

manual were pulled directly from o<strong>the</strong>r sources (as <strong>the</strong> Price piece demonstrates) but were<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

set o <strong>in</strong> quotations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> manual. I mean heck on page 1-4 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> manual <strong>the</strong> publishers<br />

not<br />

nd it <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir means to use quotation marks to quote directly from TE Lawrence; So why<br />

did<br />

<strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>r passages? (Gian P. Gentile to Nagl 11/2/07<br />

not<br />

)<br />

http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/2007/11/desperate-people-with-limited/<br />

never expla<strong>in</strong>ed what happened. John Nagl issued a statement claim<strong>in</strong>g<br />

has<br />

<strong>the</strong> Manual, as military doctr<strong>in</strong>e, did not need footnotes or attributions<br />

that<br />

any type — this was <strong>of</strong> course counter to <strong>the</strong> Manual’s own claims (Nagl<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

Nagl’s response skirted <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual’s li <strong>in</strong>g exact<br />

2007).<br />

(and <strong>of</strong> slightly modify<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>rs) and reproduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

sentences<br />

without quotation marks as if <strong>the</strong> problem was simply one <strong>of</strong><br />

manual<br />

footnotes and citations and not <strong>of</strong> quotations. Nagl wrote that it was<br />

miss<strong>in</strong>g<br />

“understand<strong>in</strong>g that this longstand<strong>in</strong>g practice <strong>in</strong> doctr<strong>in</strong>e writ<strong>in</strong>g is well<br />

his<br />

<strong>the</strong> provisions <strong>of</strong> “fair use” copyright law.” A few military scholars,<br />

with<strong>in</strong><br />

historian Lt. Col. Gian Gentile <strong>of</strong> West Po<strong>in</strong>t publicly criticized Lt. Col.<br />

like<br />

excuses and argued that <strong>the</strong> academic credibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual has<br />

Nagl’s<br />

underm<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

been<br />

Col. Gentile posted a public letter on <strong>the</strong> Small Wars Journal website to<br />

Lt.<br />

stat<strong>in</strong>g that scholarship matters, and ask<strong>in</strong>g Nagl to publicly respond<br />

Nagl,<br />

how this steal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs had happened. He wrote that he<br />

to<br />

with Nagl that my piece had an angry strident tone and was us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

agreed<br />

<strong>of</strong> Human Terra<strong>in</strong> Teams because a deeper disapproval <strong>of</strong><br />

critique<br />

contribut<strong>in</strong>g to warfare, but <strong>the</strong>n he wrote:<br />

anthropologists<br />

questions are fundamental questions that still demand answers.<br />

Gentile’s<br />

chose silence to <strong>the</strong>se direct questions about how and why <strong>the</strong> passages<br />

Nagl


o<strong>the</strong>rs appeared <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual. Montgomery McFate and o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong>volved<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se chapters have jo<strong>in</strong>ed Nagl <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> silence over how<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

occurred; a silence assisted by a national media un<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> hold<strong>in</strong>g<br />

this<br />

military accountable.<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

one sense, <strong>the</strong> particular details <strong>of</strong> how <strong>the</strong> Manual came to repr<strong>in</strong>t <strong>the</strong><br />

In<br />

writ<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> scholars do not matter. If quotation marks and<br />

unacknowledged<br />

were removed by someone o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> chapter’s authors, <strong>the</strong><br />

attributions<br />

result is <strong>the</strong> same as if <strong>the</strong> authors <strong>in</strong>tentionally took this material. e<br />

end<br />

on <strong>the</strong> reproduction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se passages, <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> any authorial<br />

silence<br />

and <strong>the</strong> failure to add quotation marks even when Chicago Press<br />

erratum,<br />

<strong>the</strong> Manual seems to argue aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong> a simple<br />

republished<br />

mix-up, but who knows. e ways that <strong>the</strong> processes produc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

editorial<br />

so easily abused <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong>form us <strong>of</strong> larger dynamics <strong>in</strong><br />

Manual<br />

when scholars and academic presses lend <strong>the</strong>ir reputations, and<br />

play,<br />

control, to projects mix<strong>in</strong>g academic with military goals.<br />

surrender<br />

<strong>the</strong> Manual’s rejection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most basic <strong>of</strong> scholarly practices is<br />

Criticiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(as Nagl later tried to argue) hold<strong>in</strong>g it to external standards, it is to hold<br />

not<br />

manual to its own standards (Nagl 2007). Lt. Col Nagl later argued that<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> un-attributed passages <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs is acceptable when writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

doctr<strong>in</strong>e. But <strong>the</strong> preface <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press’s edition<br />

military<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual clearly says: “<br />

is publication conta<strong>in</strong>s copyrighted material.<br />

material is identi ed with footnotes. O<strong>the</strong>r sources are<br />

Copyrighted<br />

ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> source notes” (US Army & USMC 2007:xlviii). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

identi<br />

preface: doctr<strong>in</strong>e should have footnotes; and Nagl rema<strong>in</strong>s silent<br />

doctr<strong>in</strong>e’s<br />

<strong>the</strong> glar<strong>in</strong>g contradiction. e <strong>in</strong>stances <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> Manual does use<br />

on<br />

and attributions provides one measure <strong>of</strong> its status as an extrusion <strong>of</strong><br />

quotes<br />

ideology ra<strong>the</strong>r than scholarly labor, as <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>stances most<br />

political<br />

occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> quot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> apparently sacred words <strong>of</strong><br />

frequently<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r military gures — <strong>the</strong>reby, denot<strong>in</strong>g not only di erential<br />

generals<br />

<strong>of</strong> respect but di erent treatment <strong>of</strong> who may and may not be quoted<br />

levels<br />

attribution.<br />

without<br />

er my critique was published <strong>in</strong> CounterPunch, <strong>the</strong> Small War’s website<br />

A<br />

a document full <strong>of</strong> citations and quoted passages that purported to be<br />

posted<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>al dra <strong>of</strong> one <strong>the</strong> problematic section <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual’s third chapter<br />

an<br />

Dra n.d.). Even as a dra this document has a lot <strong>of</strong> problems.<br />

(COIN<br />

While it has an impressive use <strong>of</strong> footnotes, <strong>the</strong>re rema<strong>in</strong> sentences (o en


that <strong>the</strong> Manual<br />

observed<br />

like a manual for <strong>in</strong>direct colonial rule — though ‘empire’ and ‘imperial’ are taboo<br />

reads<br />

French and Japanese colonial counter<strong>in</strong>surgency campaigns <strong>in</strong> Malaya, Vietnam,<br />

British,<br />

and Ch<strong>in</strong>a. ey euphemistically refer to local leaders collaborat<strong>in</strong>g with occupy<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Algeria<br />

as <strong>the</strong> ‘host nation’ (ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>in</strong>direct rulers) and uniformly describe opponents as<br />

forces<br />

Yet <strong>the</strong>y never mention empire — hardly surpris<strong>in</strong>g, s<strong>in</strong>ce FM 3-24 is a document<br />

‘<strong>in</strong>surgents’.<br />

for <strong>the</strong> US Army and Mar<strong>in</strong>e Corps, and from a perspective ensconced with<strong>in</strong> US<br />

written<br />

culture. Indeed, is it possible to imag<strong>in</strong>e that any US Army eld manual would ever<br />

military<br />

such terms?<br />

use<br />

FM 3-24’s authors imply that a culturally <strong>in</strong>formed occupation — with native power<br />

Instead,<br />

safely co-opted by coalition forces, community polic<strong>in</strong>g duties carried out by a<br />

brokers<br />

sensitive occupy<strong>in</strong>g army, development funds doled out to local women, etc. — will<br />

culturally<br />

<strong>in</strong> a lighter colonial touch, with less ‘collateral damage’ and a lower price tag (González<br />

result<br />

2010:83).<br />

with footnotes) that have no quotation marks yet are <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong><br />

marked<br />

I don’t know <strong>the</strong> provenance <strong>of</strong> this document, but even if it were <strong>the</strong><br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />

dra <strong>of</strong> a chapter that was later altered by unknown citation-andquote-remov<strong>in</strong>g<br />

orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />

editors, it does not answer basic questions <strong>of</strong> why McFate,<br />

or o<strong>the</strong>rs rema<strong>in</strong>ed silent when <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press<br />

Nagl<br />

a work <strong>the</strong>y would have <strong>the</strong>n known to have conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />

republished<br />

work <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs. If this is what happened, why was no errata<br />

unacknowledged<br />

e mysterious production <strong>of</strong> this claimed early dra without<br />

forthcom<strong>in</strong>g?<br />

explanation solves noth<strong>in</strong>g, and raises more questions than it answers.<br />

any<br />

numerous footnotes <strong>in</strong> this supposed “dra ” document do shed more<br />

e<br />

on <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> anthropologists whose work was consulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

light<br />

<strong>of</strong> this chapter; <strong>the</strong>se anthropologists <strong>in</strong>clude: Cli ord Geertz,<br />

production<br />

Evans-Pritchard, Napoleon Chagnon, Raymond Firth, A.R. Radcli e-<br />

E.E.<br />

Ralph L<strong>in</strong>ton, Bronislaw Mal<strong>in</strong>owski, and Sherry Ortner. I assume<br />

Brown,<br />

many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “dra ’s” cited non-anthropologist radicals such as C.<br />

that<br />

Mills, Antonio Gramsci or Pierre Bourdieu, would have been<br />

Wright<br />

to have his work used for such manipulative needs <strong>of</strong> military<br />

disgusted<br />

(See Chapter Eleven for a critique <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> worthless form <strong>of</strong><br />

occupation<br />

this haphazard mix<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> social <strong>the</strong>ory produces).<br />

<strong>the</strong>ory<br />

few published critical exam<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual focus on <strong>the</strong> text’s<br />

e<br />

provenience and philosophical roots. In<br />

e Nation, Tom Hayden l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>the</strong><br />

to <strong>the</strong> philosophical roots <strong>of</strong> U.S. Indian Wars, reservation policies,<br />

Manual<br />

<strong>the</strong> Vietnam War’s Phoenix Program (Hayden 2007). Roberto González<br />

and<br />

words, never used <strong>in</strong> reference to US power.<br />

e authors draw historical examples from


a press as drenched <strong>in</strong> “re exive” critiques <strong>of</strong> colonialism as Chicago<br />

at<br />

publish such a manual is an ironic testament to just how depoliticized<br />

would<br />

<strong>of</strong> postmodernism’s salon bound critiques have become; and a New<br />

many<br />

Times op-ed by University <strong>of</strong> Chicago anthropologist, Richard Shweder,<br />

York<br />

a stance <strong>of</strong> so postmodern <strong>in</strong>action from which <strong>the</strong> travesties <strong>of</strong><br />

voiced<br />

Terra<strong>in</strong> could be lightly critiqued while anthropologists are urged<br />

Human<br />

to declare <strong>the</strong>mselves as be<strong>in</strong>g “counter-counter<strong>in</strong>surgency” (cf.,<br />

not<br />

2007, Gusterson & Lutz 2007).<br />

Shweder<br />

THE POLITICS OF REPUBLICATION<br />

role <strong>of</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press <strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Manual to a<br />

e<br />

audience is a crucial element <strong>of</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g my critique <strong>of</strong> how<br />

broader<br />

manual was publicly praised, while fake scholarship was a critical<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual’s domestic propaganda function. at such shoddy<br />

element<br />

passed so briskly through <strong>the</strong> press’ editorial processes raises<br />

scholarship<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g Chicago’s <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> rush<strong>in</strong>g out this faux academic<br />

questions<br />

— though some authors writ<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>the</strong> ap follow<strong>in</strong>g revelations <strong>of</strong><br />

work<br />

problems misunderstood <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago<br />

<strong>the</strong>se<br />

role <strong>in</strong> transform<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Manual <strong>in</strong>to a work <strong>of</strong> domestic propaganda<br />

Press’s<br />

Was<strong>in</strong>ki 2007). Rush<strong>in</strong>g a book through <strong>the</strong> production process at an<br />

(e.g.<br />

press <strong>in</strong> about half a year’s time is a blitzkrieg requir<strong>in</strong>g a serious<br />

academic<br />

<strong>of</strong> will. ere was more than a casual <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> gett<strong>in</strong>g this book to<br />

focus<br />

— whe<strong>the</strong>r it was simply a shrewd recognition <strong>of</strong> market forces, or<br />

market<br />

ected political concerns or commitments. e Press enjoyed robust sales<br />

re<br />

a hot title (it was one <strong>of</strong> Amazon’s top 100 <strong>in</strong> September 2007); but it did<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

adequately consider <strong>the</strong> damage to <strong>the</strong> Press’ reputation that could<br />

not<br />

its association with this deeply tarnished service manual for Empire.<br />

follow<br />

highlight <strong>the</strong> Manual’s scholarly failures is not to hold it to some over-<br />

To<br />

external standard <strong>of</strong> academic <strong>in</strong>tegrity. It is important to<br />

demand<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

that claims <strong>of</strong> academic <strong>in</strong>tegrity are <strong>the</strong> very foundation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

recognize<br />

promotional strategy. Somewhere along <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e, Petraeus’<br />

Manual’s<br />

became more important than his general’s stars, touted by<br />

doctorate<br />

claque <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> media as token<strong>in</strong>g a shi from Bush’s “br<strong>in</strong>g ‘em on”<br />

Petraeus’<br />

shoot-out to a nuanced th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g-man’s war.<br />

cowboy<br />

a September 2007 phone call, University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press acquisitions<br />

In<br />

John Tryneski, told me <strong>the</strong> Manual went through <strong>the</strong> standard peer<br />

editor,


process, but <strong>the</strong>re are unusual dynamics <strong>in</strong> review<strong>in</strong>g an already<br />

review<br />

work whose authors are not just unknown (common <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> peer<br />

published<br />

process), but essentially unknowable. Tryneski acknowledged that<br />

review<br />

reviewers came from policy and th<strong>in</strong>k tank circles. When I asked<br />

peer<br />

if <strong>the</strong>re had been any <strong>in</strong>ternal debate over <strong>the</strong> decision by <strong>the</strong> Press<br />

Tryneski<br />

dissem<strong>in</strong>ate military doctr<strong>in</strong>e, he said <strong>the</strong>re were some discussions and<br />

to<br />

without elaboration, changed <strong>the</strong> subject, argu<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> Press<br />

<strong>the</strong>n,<br />

this publication more along <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> republication <strong>of</strong> a key<br />

viewed<br />

historic document.<br />

is might make sense if this was an historic document,<br />

a component <strong>of</strong> a campaign be<strong>in</strong>g waged aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> American people<br />

not<br />

a Pentagon, surg<strong>in</strong>g to conv<strong>in</strong>ce a skeptical American public that Bush<br />

by<br />

already lost <strong>the</strong> war <strong>in</strong> Iraq.<br />

hasn’t<br />

republication <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual was a transformative event for <strong>the</strong><br />

Chicago’s<br />

document.<br />

is transformed <strong>the</strong> Manual from an <strong>in</strong>ternal document <strong>of</strong><br />

doctr<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>to a public document designed to conv<strong>in</strong>ce a weary<br />

military<br />

that <strong>the</strong> war <strong>of</strong> occupation could be won. But <strong>the</strong> act <strong>of</strong> republication<br />

public<br />

forced arguments <strong>of</strong> academic legitimacy. It is remarkable that <strong>the</strong><br />

also<br />

who worked on <strong>the</strong> Manual rema<strong>in</strong>ed silent about attribution<br />

scholars<br />

when <strong>the</strong>y learned <strong>of</strong> Chicago’s plans to republish <strong>the</strong> Manual. If,<br />

problems<br />

some later claimed, quotation marks and citations had been removed by<br />

as<br />

a er <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial dra was submitted, <strong>the</strong>se authors should have alerted<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />

University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press <strong>of</strong> this. In at least one case, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>of</strong> Manual chapter three was noti ed that Chicago would be<br />

authors<br />

<strong>the</strong> manual, but no such warn<strong>in</strong>g was forthcom<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

republish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

militaries commandeer food, wealth, and resources to serve <strong>the</strong> needs<br />

at<br />

war is a basic rule <strong>of</strong> warfare — as old as war itself. ucydides,<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

and o<strong>the</strong>r ancient historians record standard practices <strong>of</strong> seiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Herodotus<br />

and food to feed armies on <strong>the</strong> move; and <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> warfare nds<br />

slaves<br />

con scations to keep armies on <strong>the</strong>ir feet. But <strong>the</strong> requirements <strong>of</strong><br />

similar<br />

warfare go far beyond <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> funds and sustenance; military<br />

modern<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies also require knowledge, and <strong>the</strong>se agencies<br />

and<br />

ideas for use to <strong>the</strong>ir own purposes <strong>in</strong> ways not <strong>in</strong>tended by<br />

commandeer<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir authors.<br />

COMMANDEERING SCHOLARSHIP FOR DIRTY WARS


<strong>of</strong> this abuse, say<strong>in</strong>g:<br />

learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

must admit hav<strong>in</strong>g been shocked, but not by <strong>the</strong> disda<strong>in</strong> for <strong>in</strong>ternational copyright laws<br />

I<br />

such an act <strong>in</strong>dicates — on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> a bureaucracy which is at <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se laws,<br />

which<br />

shows such <strong>in</strong>dignation when o<strong>the</strong>rs bypass <strong>the</strong>m — or by <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> courtesy shown <strong>the</strong><br />

and<br />

because I well know that technocrats have little respect for those who <strong>in</strong>dulge <strong>in</strong><br />

author,<br />

table occupations. Not! at which irritated me above all was <strong>the</strong> translation, very bad<br />

unpro<br />

<strong>the</strong> way, had been distributed to <strong>the</strong> all too famous ‘green berets.’ How can one accept,<br />

by<br />

trembl<strong>in</strong>g with rage, that this work, <strong>in</strong> which I wanted to describe <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir human<br />

without<br />

<strong>the</strong>se men who have so much to teach us about life, should be o ered to <strong>the</strong><br />

plenitude<br />

<strong>of</strong> death — <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir death! I know very well that <strong>the</strong>se mercenaries, <strong>the</strong>se well-oiled<br />

technicians<br />

with human faces, are too proud <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir lack <strong>of</strong> culture to be <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> that <strong>of</strong><br />

mach<strong>in</strong>es<br />

especially if it is lled with poetry and without <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> money or technology. But<br />

o<strong>the</strong>rs,<br />

will understand my <strong>in</strong>dignation when I tell you that I learned about <strong>the</strong> ‘pirat<strong>in</strong>g’ [<strong>of</strong> my<br />

you<br />

only a few years a er hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> pro<strong>of</strong> that Srae, whose marriage I described <strong>in</strong> Nous<br />

book]<br />

Mangé la Forêt, had been tortured by a sergeant <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Special Forces <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> camp <strong>of</strong><br />

Avons<br />

Ko’ (Condom<strong>in</strong>as 1973:4).<br />

Phii<br />

requisition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> anthropological knowledge for military applications<br />

e<br />

occurred <strong>in</strong> colonial contexts, world wars and proxy wars. A er World<br />

has<br />

II, Carleton Coon recounted how he produced a 40-page text on<br />

War<br />

propaganda for <strong>the</strong> OSS by tak<strong>in</strong>g pages <strong>of</strong> text straight from his<br />

Moroccan<br />

Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> <strong>Anthropology</strong>. “[He] padded it with enough technical<br />

textbook,<br />

to make it ponderous and mysterious, s<strong>in</strong>ce [he] had found out <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

terms<br />

world that people will express much more awe and admiration for<br />

academic<br />

complicated which <strong>the</strong>y do not quite understand than for<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

simple and clear” (see Price 2008: 251).<br />

someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

most egregious known <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> military’s recycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> an<br />

e<br />

text occurred <strong>in</strong> 1962, when <strong>the</strong> U.S. Department <strong>of</strong><br />

anthropological<br />

secretly, and without authorization or permission from <strong>the</strong><br />

Commerce<br />

translated <strong>in</strong>to English from French <strong>the</strong> anthropologist Georges<br />

author,<br />

ethnographic account <strong>of</strong> Montagnard village life <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> central<br />

Condom<strong>in</strong>as’<br />

highlands <strong>of</strong> Vietnam, Nous Avons Mangé la Forêt.<br />

e Green Berets<br />

weaponized <strong>the</strong> document <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eld.<br />

e military’s uses for this<br />

knowledge were obvious, as assass<strong>in</strong>ation campaigns tried to<br />

ethnographic<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir skills and learn to target village leaders. For years, nei<strong>the</strong>r<br />

hone<br />

nor author knew this work had been stolen, translated, and<br />

publisher<br />

for militarized ends. In 1971, Condom<strong>in</strong>as described his anger <strong>in</strong><br />

repr<strong>in</strong>ted<br />

anthropologists serv<strong>in</strong>g on militarily “embedded” Human Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

Today,<br />

study Iraqis and Afghans with claims that <strong>the</strong>y are teach<strong>in</strong>g troops<br />

Teams<br />

how to recognize and protect noncombatants. But as Bryan Bender reports


<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Boston Globe, “one Pentagon o<br />

cial likened [Human Terra<strong>in</strong><br />

to <strong>the</strong> Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development<br />

anthropologists]<br />

project dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Vietnam War. at e ort helped identify<br />

Support<br />

suspected as communists and Viet Cong collaborators; some<br />

Vietnamese<br />

later assass<strong>in</strong>ated by <strong>the</strong> United <strong>State</strong>s” (Bender 2007). is chill<strong>in</strong>g<br />

were<br />

revelation clari es <strong>the</strong> role that Pentagon o<br />

cials envision for<br />

anthropologists <strong>in</strong> today’s counter<strong>in</strong>surgency campaigns.<br />

MILITARIZED ANTHROPOLOGY<br />

is a real demand with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> military and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies for <strong>the</strong><br />

ere<br />

<strong>of</strong> disarticulated and simplistic view <strong>of</strong> culture found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual not<br />

type<br />

it is <strong>in</strong>novative — but because, beyond <strong>in</strong>formation on speci c<br />

because<br />

and customs <strong>of</strong> lands <strong>the</strong>y are occupy<strong>in</strong>g, this simplistic view <strong>of</strong><br />

manners<br />

culture tells <strong>the</strong>m what <strong>the</strong>y already know.<br />

is has long been a problem<br />

by anthropologists work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such con ned military sett<strong>in</strong>gs. My<br />

faced<br />

exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> frustrations and contributions <strong>of</strong> World War II era<br />

research<br />

identi es a recurrent pattern <strong>in</strong> which anthropologists with<br />

anthropologists<br />

ow<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> bureaucratic precepts <strong>of</strong> military and<br />

knowledge<br />

<strong>in</strong>telligence agencies faced o en impossible <strong>in</strong>stitutional barriers.<br />

ey faced<br />

choice <strong>of</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r coalesc<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>in</strong>gra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>stitutional views and<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se bureaucracies, or endur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g frustrations<br />

advanc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

marg<strong>in</strong>alized status. Such wartime frustrations led Alexander Leighton<br />

and<br />

conclude <strong>in</strong> despair that “<strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrator uses social science <strong>the</strong> way a<br />

to<br />

uses a lamppost, for support ra<strong>the</strong>r than illum<strong>in</strong>ation” (see Price<br />

drunk<br />

In this sense, <strong>the</strong> Manual’s selective abuse <strong>of</strong> anthropology —<br />

2008:197).<br />

ignores anthropological critiques <strong>of</strong> colonialism, power,<br />

which<br />

hegemony, warfare, cultural dom<strong>in</strong>ation and globalization —<br />

militarization,<br />

<strong>the</strong> military with just <strong>the</strong> sort <strong>of</strong> support, ra<strong>the</strong>r than illum<strong>in</strong>ation,<br />

provides<br />

<strong>the</strong>y seek. In large part, what <strong>the</strong> military wants from anthropology is to<br />

that<br />

er basic courses <strong>in</strong> local manners so that <strong>the</strong>y can get on with <strong>the</strong> job <strong>of</strong><br />

o<br />

e fact that so many military anthropologists appear disengaged<br />

conquest.<br />

question<strong>in</strong>g conquest exposes <strong>the</strong> fundamental problem with military<br />

from<br />

anthropology.<br />

<strong>the</strong> occupations <strong>of</strong> Iraq and Afghanistan present <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g concrete<br />

As<br />

for <strong>the</strong> Manual’s lo y claims <strong>of</strong> counter<strong>in</strong>surgency, <strong>the</strong> Manual’s<br />

problems<br />

“authors” and defenders take on an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly cult-like devotion to thieir


text, a devotion that even nds some betray<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> lost cause <strong>of</strong> Iraq<br />

guid<strong>in</strong>g<br />

an e ort to save <strong>the</strong> Manual’s sacred doctr<strong>in</strong>e. In a December 24, 2007<br />

<strong>in</strong><br />

Charlie Rose gently questioned Sarah Sewell about ongo<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>terview,<br />

<strong>in</strong> Iraq; Sewell quickly disserted <strong>the</strong> war she had been recruited to<br />

disasters<br />

<strong>in</strong> order to save <strong>the</strong> Manual, <strong>in</strong>sist<strong>in</strong>g: “<strong>the</strong> surge isn’t <strong>the</strong> eld<br />

rationalize<br />

Iraq is not <strong>the</strong> eld manual. And I th<strong>in</strong>k many Americans tend to<br />

manual;<br />

ate <strong>the</strong>se th<strong>in</strong>gs at <strong>the</strong>ir peril. And I th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>the</strong>y risk <strong>of</strong> throw<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>the</strong><br />

con<br />

with <strong>the</strong> bathwater. If and when we look back on Iraq, it will not mean<br />

baby<br />

<strong>the</strong> manual was wrong, it will mean that Iraq had very di erent<br />

that<br />

start<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> legitimacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasion to beg<strong>in</strong> with” (Rose<br />

problems,<br />

With this twisted logic, <strong>the</strong> Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Field Manual’s use as<br />

2007).<br />

<strong>in</strong>strument <strong>of</strong> domestic propaganda comes full-Orwellian-circle, as <strong>the</strong><br />

an<br />

is asked to forget that just months prior to <strong>the</strong>se revelations <strong>of</strong> poor<br />

public<br />

practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Manual, a barrage <strong>of</strong> media appearances by Lt. Co.<br />

scholarly<br />

and o<strong>the</strong>rs had pitched <strong>the</strong> Manual as <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual foundation for<br />

Nagl<br />

<strong>in</strong> Iraq.<br />

victory<br />

those sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> American public <strong>the</strong> Counter<strong>in</strong>surgency Field Manual<br />

But<br />

full well that counter<strong>in</strong>surgencies, just like “<strong>in</strong>surgencies[,] are not<br />

know<br />

by truth and create propaganda that serves <strong>the</strong>ir purposes,” (FM<br />

constra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

5-23) and <strong>the</strong> Manual’s tactics are embraced by <strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />

3-24:<br />

battl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> American public’s wish to abandon <strong>the</strong><br />

counter<strong>in</strong>surgents<br />

occupations <strong>of</strong> Iraq and Afghanistan.<br />

disastrous


Report Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g Iraq Failures<br />

Stryker<br />

can no longer pretend to be <strong>the</strong> anthropologist as hero,as Lévi-Strauss once called <strong>the</strong><br />

We<br />

embark<strong>in</strong>g on adventures <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> unknown. We are on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

anthropologist<br />

glass, where <strong>the</strong> dark side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> image we cast is re ected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eyes <strong>of</strong> those who<br />

look<strong>in</strong>g<br />

us. observe<br />

June Nash<br />

—<br />

Seven: The Military Leverag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Chapter<br />

Cultural Knowledge - The 2004<br />

<strong>of</strong><br />

December 2004, Wikileaks released <strong>the</strong>, “Army Stryker Brigade Initial<br />

In<br />

Report on Operations <strong>in</strong> Mosul, Iraq.” is document was<br />

Impressions<br />

by <strong>the</strong> Center for Army Lessons Learned at Ft. Leavenworth, and<br />

produced<br />

an <strong>in</strong>ternal view on <strong>the</strong> Army’s late-2004 self-perception <strong>of</strong> how <strong>the</strong><br />

provides<br />

was go<strong>in</strong>g and outl<strong>in</strong>es perceived military shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><br />

occupation<br />

(CFALL 2004). Given David Petraeus’ role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> occupation and<br />

Mosul<br />

<strong>of</strong> Mosul, some elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> document pre gured Petraeus’<br />

management<br />

for <strong>in</strong>creased reliance on cultural knowledge for counter<strong>in</strong>surgency.<br />

push<br />

report’s six chapters cover <strong>the</strong> topics <strong>of</strong>: Command and Control,<br />

e<br />

Systems, Non-Lethal Operations, Stryker Vehicle Performance and<br />

Digital<br />

Intelligence, and Operations. Much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> report evaluates<br />

Survivability,<br />

speci c hardware was perform<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Iraq; o<strong>the</strong>r discussions focus on<br />

how<br />

lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>atre speci c tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, or evaluate <strong>the</strong> merits <strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g new<br />

<strong>the</strong><br />

centers <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g preexist<strong>in</strong>g structures. While <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>terrogation<br />

<strong>of</strong> speci c military gear could be dealt with by replacements,<br />

shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

ts and redesigns, <strong>the</strong> cultural shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> occupation<br />

retro<br />

presented more serious obstacles.<br />

e report’s residual image is <strong>of</strong> a pelagic<br />

only beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to become aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> depths <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own<br />

military<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> complex environment <strong>the</strong>y are attempt<strong>in</strong>g to occupy and<br />

ignorance<br />

Even at this early stage <strong>the</strong> Army had reasons to know it was <strong>in</strong><br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ate.<br />

its head.<br />

over<br />

report remarks on <strong>the</strong> military’s weak understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> culture<br />

e<br />

were occupy<strong>in</strong>g, but it also documents that <strong>the</strong> military understood<br />

<strong>the</strong>y<br />

to use members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> media, and it praises <strong>the</strong> compliance <strong>of</strong><br />

how<br />

media for not report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> failures <strong>of</strong> American occupiers.<br />

embedded<br />

e report recounts that,


embedded media representative was stay<strong>in</strong>g with elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> brigade and had been<br />

An<br />

access to an event where school supplies were to be handed out to needy students.<br />

granted<br />

took <strong>the</strong> reporter to a school which <strong>the</strong>y had recently built. When <strong>the</strong>y arrived <strong>the</strong>y were<br />

unit<br />

to nd that no children were present and that an Iraqi family was homestead<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

surprised<br />

issued. Fortunately <strong>the</strong> reporter elected not to cover <strong>the</strong> event, which could have made us<br />

be<br />

bad, s<strong>in</strong>ce we didn’t know what was go<strong>in</strong>g on with <strong>the</strong> school a er we funded its<br />

look<br />

and SIGINT [Signal Intelligence] collection. Communications channels,<br />

Intelligence]<br />

dialects and slang terms and cultural customs and courtesies make collection even<br />

l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />

level assets has helped <strong>the</strong> brigade overcome many challenges. Attached and reachback<br />

national<br />

capabilities aided analysis and collectors overcome a steep learn<strong>in</strong>g curve. Many analysts<br />

collectors argue no tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g could fully prepare an <strong>in</strong>telligence pr<strong>of</strong>essional for <strong>the</strong><br />

and<br />

Real-world experience for <strong>in</strong>telligence analysts and collectors is irreplaceable.<br />

challenges.<br />

<strong>of</strong> this caliber cannot be replicated at national tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g centers. Hired <strong>in</strong>terpreters<br />

Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

enhanced <strong>the</strong> capability <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence pr<strong>of</strong>essionals <strong>in</strong> both collection and analysis.<br />

have<br />

developed <strong>in</strong> country and via production from <strong>the</strong>ater and national level assts <strong>in</strong><br />

Databases<br />

[<strong>the</strong> Cont<strong>in</strong>ental United <strong>State</strong>s] on topics such as tribes, <strong>the</strong> spell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> names and<br />

CONUS<br />

Cultural understand<strong>in</strong>g is an endless endeavor that must overcome leverag<strong>in</strong>g whatever<br />

*<br />

are available.<br />

assets<br />

Cultural tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g prior to deployment, reach-back capabilities, and a resourceful and<br />

*<br />

use <strong>of</strong> assets available <strong>in</strong> country is <strong>the</strong> key to overcom<strong>in</strong>g challenges (CFALL<br />

knowledgeable<br />

e<br />

<strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

e Iraqi police were unwill<strong>in</strong>g to remove <strong>the</strong> family and no school supplies to<br />

construction.<br />

e reporter understood what had happened and had o<strong>the</strong>r good coverage to<br />

use [ra<strong>the</strong>r] than air<strong>in</strong>g any <strong>of</strong> this event (CFALL 2004).<br />

section’s “Lessons Learned” summary concludes that “assist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

e<br />