Digital Geneva Atlas

DIGITAL

Geneva

Atlas

WHERE TECHNOLOGY

MEETS HUMANITY

Version 3.0

DIGITAL

Geneva

Atlas

WHERE TECHNOLOGY

MEETS HUMANITY

Digital Geneva Atlas

Third edition

Published by: DiploFoundation and

Geneva Internet Platform (2025)

Cartographer: Jovan Kurbalija

Editors: Slavica Karajicic, Sorina Teleanu, Marco Lotti

Copy-editing: Írj Jól Kft.

Publication design: Viktor Mijatovic

The Digital Geneva Atlas team gratefully acknowledges

the contributions of Geneva-based institutions

to the Atlas’s creation.

This version of the Digital Geneva Atlas is published on

24th June 2025 (17:45 CET) as part of KaiZen Publishing,

which combines live updates of the text with the occasional

issuing of print publications.

Impressum

ISBN: 979-8-9870052-5-5

This study has been printed with the support

of Switzerland’s Federal Department of Foreign Affairs

(FDFA)

4

Why

does technology meet humanity in Geneva?

When

did the policy interplay between

technology and humanity begin in

Geneva?

Table of Contents

What

digital technologies and policy issues

are dealt with in Geneva?

How

do legal and policy instruments

facilitate digital governance in Geneva?

Who

are the main digital actors in Geneva?

5

Welcome by the Director General of the UN Office at Geneva 13

Welcome by the Geneva State Councillor in charge of the Department of Finance 17

Welcome by the Cartographer of the Digital Geneva Atlas 21

Section 1 WHY does technology meet humanity in Geneva? 25

Section 2 WHEN did the policy interplay between technology and humanity begin in Geneva? 47

Section 3 WHAT digital technologies and policy issues are dealt with in Geneva? 53

Section 4 HOW do legal and policy instruments facilitate digital governance in Geneva? 75

Section 5 WHO are the main digital actors in Geneva? 83

Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development 85

Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (HD) 95

European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) 105

The Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) 115

Consumer Unity & Trust Society (CUTS International Geneva) 121

The CyberPeace Institute 133

Data for Change: The PARIS21 Foundation (D4C) 151

Datasphere Initiative 159

Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance (DCAF) 167

The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) 173

Ecma International 183

European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 193

Geneva Foundation for Technology Innovation (Fongit) 201

Geneva Center for Security Policy (GCSP) 213

Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights (Geneva Academy) 219

Geneva Environment Network (GEN) 227

Group on Earth Observations (GEO) 233

Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator (GESDA) 243

(GIGA) 257

Geneva Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies (Geneva Graduate Institute) 265

Geneva Science-Policy Interface (GSPI) 271

The Global Agency for Responsible AI in Health (HealthAI) 285

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 291

ICT for Peace Foundation (ICT4Peace) 303

Table of

6

Content

313 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

321 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)

333 Internet Governance Forum (IGF)

345 International Labour Organization (ILO)

355 Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)

365 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

375 International Trade Centre (ITC)

383 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

437 Joint Inspection Unit (JIU)

445 Kofi Annan Foundation

455 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)

477 Simon Institute for Longterm Governance (SI)

485 South Centre

499 Stop Killer Robots (SKR)

507 United Nations Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

523 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

545 United Nations Environment Programme –Global Resource Information Database

(UNEP/GRID-Geneva)

551 United Nations International Computing Centre (UNICC)

561 United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)

575 University of Geneva (UNIGE)

585 United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)

597 UN Office at Geneva (UNOG)

603 World Economic Forum (WEF)

617 World Health Organization (WHO)

635 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

647 World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

659 World Trade Organization (WTO)

675 International digital actors with a Geneva presence

677 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

683 Internet Society (ISOC)

689 United Nations Office for Digital and Emerging Technologies (ODET)

699 DiploFoundation / Geneva Internet Platform (Diplo / GIP)

707 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

7

12

For Geneva is not simply a place for discussions

on digital governance. It is a laboratory

in the making for a more equitable,

inclusive and human-centred

digital world.

Tatiana Valovaya

Director-General of the UN Office at Geneva

Welcome by the Director-General of the UN Office at Geneva

This year, we celebrate an important milestone – the 20 th anniversary of the World Summit

on the Information Society (WSIS). Twenty years ago, this Summit ignited a transformative

vision, laying the groundwork for a future where the vast potential of information and

communication technologies (ICT) could be harnessed for global progress.

The adoption of the Pact for the Future last year marked a watershed moment for multilateral

cooperation. As we look ahead, we face the dual challenge of bridging inequalities and

13

leveraging the opportunities presented by technology and innovation. Geneva’s contribution

to this endeavour is crucial.

As evidenced in the Atlas, many innovative solutions are being developed in International

Geneva, which represents a unique ecosystem of international organisations, member

states, NGOs, well-renowned academia, and a diverse private sector. They play a central role

in fostering multilateral collaboration, spearheading innovative governance approaches,

and testing forward-thinking frameworks to address complex global challenges.

Whether it is championing ethical AI or developing innovative practices for the future of

work, Geneva has been at the forefront of driving equitable progress and ensuring that no

one is left behind.

Notably, the Beyond Lab in my Office facilitates inclusive engagements to support the

realisation of the Pact’s commitments and long-term sustainability. One of the Lab’s practical

tools that is being developed – called the ‘Futures Balance’ – is an open-source solution

to assess the long-term impacts of political measures and investments on sustainable

development. This initiative is designed to help governments adjust their programming to

reflect on long-term impacts, in line with the Pact for the Future.

Another example of innovative collaboration is the Lab’s What’s Next series on Rethinking

Economic and Financing Systems, and the closely linked Youth Moving Beyond GDP initiative.

This initiative invites for a multi-disciplinary, multistakeholder, and inter-generational

dialogue that can help shape the future of sustainable development and create clear

pathways for measuring progress beyond GDP, in conformity with Action 53 of the Pact.

The digital divide remains a significant barrier, separating those who can access and benefit

from technology from those who cannot. Bridging this divide is a collective endeavour that

demands action across sectors. By harnessing the transformative potential of technology,

we can empower individuals, strengthen communities, and build a future that is just,

inclusive, and sustainable for every person on this planet.

14

15

16

For Geneva is not simply a place for discussions

on digital governance. It is a laboratory

in the making for a more equitable,

inclusive and human-centred

digital world.

Nathalie Fontanet

State Councillor in charge of the Department of Finance,

Human Resources and External affairs, Republic and State of Geneva

Welcome by the Geneva State Councillor in charge of the

Department of Finance, Human Resources and External affairs

International Geneva is vital. It saves lives, quite literally. It is also the guardian of the moral

bond that unites our societies. As AI reshapes our world at dizzying speed, this fundamental

role has never been more crucial.

Without International Geneva and the CERN, we might never have known the Web. This

revolution, born in our canton, now shapes every aspect of human existence. It is therefore

17

no coincidence that Geneva emerges as the natural epicentre of global AI governance. It is a

historical necessity, the logical culmination of a unique diplomatic heritage.

For exactly a decade, the Geneva Internet Platform (GIP) has been weaving the threads

of an unparalleled digital ecosystem. Its ability to connect diplomacy, technology and civil

society, to map Geneva’s digital universe and to train diplomats from around the world is

progressively transforming our city into a true global digital conscience.

In a world where technology creates as many divides as it builds bridges, Geneva embodies

a precious ideal: that of inclusive digital governance, where voices from the South resonate

as loudly as those from the North, where ethical considerations temper the imperative of

innovation, where technology serves humanity, not the other way around.

For Geneva is not simply a place for discussions on digital governance. It is a laboratory

in the making for a more equitable, inclusive and human-centred digital world. It is here

that tomorrow’s global AI is being shaped. An AI anchored in universal values, respectful of

human dignity, aware of its responsibilities toward future generations.

As we celebrate the 20th anniversary of the World Summit on the Information Society

and implement the UN Pact for the Future and the Global Digital Compact (GDC), let us

remember this fundamental truth: International Geneva is not a luxury in the landscape

of global AI governance. It is our best hope in the face of the vertiginous challenges this

technology raises.

The future will judge us not on the technologies we have developed, but on our collective

ability to govern them wisely. Geneva, through its history, ecosystem and values, carries

within it this promise of enlightened governance. It is up to all of us to ensure that this

promise becomes a reality.

18

19

20

Explore the future of digital with

EspriTech de Genève

Jovan Kurbalija

Director of DiploFoundation and Head of Geneva Internet Platform

Welcome by the Cartographer of the Digital Geneva Atlas

With the Digital Geneva Atlas, in hand or online, YOU can

…start exploring the digital future virtually or even physically, in the streets and places of

Geneva where technology meets humanity.

…unpack the meaning of the technology-humanity interplay in Geneva through reading the

following pages built around the inquiry questions of why, what, what, and who.

21

…navigate the digital Geneva landscape via specific topics of your interest. For example, you

can explore the interface between artificial intelligence (AI) and health in Geneva.

…start with the basics or dive deeper into analysis, data, and documents related to digital

issues, as illustrated on page 23.

…follow the evolution of digital governance via historical timelines.

…find many other ways to navigate digital topics, actors, and processes of interest to you.

What is unique about the Digital Geneva Atlas?

Apart from the content, the Digital Geneva Atlas represents a new way to deal with data,

information, and knowledge. It combines traditional textual narratives with knowledge nodes

inspired by the latest neural network technologies. Narratives help to have a complete and

consolidated picture. Knowledge nodes bring us closer to specific paragraphs and specific

information.

You can also find updates generated by human (expert) and machine (artificial) intelligence.

They reinforce each other and generate new types of deep, creative insights. In this way, the

Atlas is a hybrid intelligence system implementing Diplo’s approach of anchoring AI in the

core values of humanity.

You are currently reading the version of 24th June 2025, which will evolve as our system

processes updates from negotiations, policymaking, and research of Geneva-based

organisations covered in these pages.

How is the Geneva Digital Atlas developed?

The Digital Geneva Atlas is the result of Diplo’s approach of promoting innovation that

endures. It provides agility while relying on solid and tested research. For example, the

taxonomy of digital governance behind the Digital Geneva Atlas has been tested over the last

two decades by thousands of students, researchers, and experts involved in hundreds of

Diplo courses, events, and research projects.

All technological complexities ‘under the bonnet’ are transferred in simplicity of use into

the online version of this Digital Geneva Atlas. We invite you to navigate with us not only the

contents but also new forms of human creativity built around the human-centred use of AI

and other emerging technologies.

22

HOW TO NAVIGATE THE DIGITAL GENEVA ATLAS IN THREE LAYERS...

On the first layer, you can find ...

1st layer

... summary profiles of 46 actors

involved in digital policy

and governance in Geneva

On the second layer, at GIP Digital Watch, you can find …

... detailed info on the activities of each actor – events, instruments, and initiatives – organised by

2nd layer

digital policy issues (e.g. e-commerce, cybersecurity, privacy)

On the third layer, you can find …

… primary sources, raw data, maps, transcripts of events, articles, and AI analyses

3rd layer

23

Section 1

Why

does

technology

meet humanity

in Geneva?


25

Why



by Jovan Kurbalija

This text takes us on a historical tour to explore Geneva’s contribution towards a

social deal that addresses both the benefits and risks of technological development.

As we seek social contracts for the future, we invite you to examine the ways in which

the cultures and thinking of your countries and communities have dealt with the

interaction between technology and society.

Over the centuries, Geneva has represented a juncture for

technology and humanity. Today, once again, in Geneva

as well as worldwide, we find ourselves at a turning

point facing both changes and challenges triggered by

fast technological growth.1 As humanity steps out of

its comfort zone into the new unknown, certainty ends,

opportunity begins, and risk increases.

Rapid advances in technologies, such as AI and robotics, are

altering the way we think about human rights, freedoms,

and agencies. Technology is revolutionising classroom

education, medical care, and agricultural planning, to

name a few examples.

While technology unlocks great potential, it also

amplifies risks and socioeconomic divides. As new

industries emerge, older ones scramble to maintain their

relevance. Jobs are at stake in fading industries. Social

security systems are under pressure.

From the militarisation of cyberspace to technological

dominance, a new geopolitical race is gaining momentum.

As we stand at this crossroads, it’s important to understand

the greater ideas and historical background that support

modernity and the way technology and people interact

today.

We invite you to ‘walk’ with us in the subsequent pages

of the Digital Geneva Atlas, or even do it literally while in

Geneva. In the Old City, you can find some of the landmarks

of the tech-humanity journey: from the Calvin Auditorium

(Auditoire de Calvin) where the interplay between progress

and society was discussed, to within a few steps, at Grand

Rue, where Rousseau was born and at the next corner, the

house where Borges died.

Just up the hill from Lake Geneva, Mary Shelley wrote

Frankenstein. You can visit Voltaire’s chateau in the nearby

commune of Ferney-Voltaire, which is named after its

most famous resident.

1

The impact of the ensuing Fourth Industrial Revolution, or Industry 4.0, bears little resemblance to previous industrial breakthroughs (water and steam

power, electricity, and computerisation), as it created ruptures in almost every industry and altered entire systems of production and governance. Furthermore,

its velocity has no historical precedent. In Schwab, K. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What it means, how to respond. https://www.

weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/.

26

Why


Our journey will have different rhythms: from slow to

sprint; and from the well-known to the less explored, yet

equally important, landmarks.

It has four important paths.

First, we start our exploration with the arrival of John

Calvin to Geneva, whose thinking influenced not only this

city but also the rest of the world, as argued by Max Weber

in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Calvinism

has had a profound impact on political, economic, and

cultural life in the USA. On board the Mayflower, the

Pilgrims brought Calvinist ideas to the new continent.

His ideas about free will and entrepreneurship were fully

realised in Silicon Valley and the development of modern

technology.

Calvinist ideas travelled globally via Weber’s writings on

religion, culture, and economy that were popular among

Chinese politicians and academics, which led to China’s

reform and opening at the end of the 20th century.

Second, we explore the philosophical terroir of Geneva

with thinkers who were born or lived in the city: Charles

Bonnet, Jorge Luis Borges, Jean-Jacques Rousseau,

Ferdinand de Saussure, Mary Shelley, and Voltaire

(François-Marie Arouet).

Third, we discuss how ideas and concepts related to tech

and humanity have evolved into governance practices via

international organisations based in Geneva.

Fourth, we take the ideas and concepts from the first three

paths and put them together to make the technological

L’esprit de Genève, which we call L’espriTech de Genève.

Let’s start our journey!

27

Why


From Calvin in Geneva via Calvinism in the USA to Silicon Valley and back

Map and caveats

This tour, which starts with Calvin’s theology and thinking,

is inspired by Max Weber’s book, The Protestant Ethic and

the Spirit of Capitalism. Although written more than a

century ago, as a result of his search for the cultural origins

of capitalism, this book is still one of the most influential

sociological works on the interplay between religion,

culture, and the economy.

Geneva

Calvin

Nothing is more dangerous

than to be blinded by prosperity.

Calvin’s initial ideas, the two pillars of his social thinking

– human agency and responsibility – as they were

implemented and interpreted, were tilted in the USA to

focus more on the former, human agency.

As Weber wrote:

We are not considering the personal views of

Calvin, but Calvinism, and also in that form to

which it had developed at the end of the 16th

and in the 17th century in large areas of his

dominating influence. 2

So, Calvin’s insight could prove to be valuable in our current

search for a balance between technological growth and

human core values.

Five centuries ago, John Calvin3 settled in Geneva and

started preaching. From his sermons grew Calvinism, a

branch of Protestantism.

Calvin’s contribution to theology and philosophy is multifaceted,

as shown during the series of events celebrating

the 500th anniversary of his birth back in 2009. His

legacy is controversial to this day. He is often criticised for

authoritarian ruling and austere morality (for example,

banning dancing). Here, we outline a few aspects of

his work that have the most direct relevance for techhumanity

interaction.

2

Stückelberger, C. (2016). Global Ethics Applied, Vol. 1: Global Ethics, Economic Ethics. https://edoc.unibas.ch/52541/1/20170104100601_586cbaf9a4c8d.

pdf.

3

John Calvin was born on 10 July 1509 in Picardy (France). He converted to Protestantism and fled to Geneva. His thinking shaped Protestant reform

thinking and became influential worldwide.

28

Why


Calvin was an innovator and a critical thinker. He challenged

many established truths of his era and created a bridge

between Protestantism and modernity.

The cornerstone of Calvin’s theology, Predestination,

states that human efforts cannot bring salvation; only

God’s grace can.

Although Calvin’s Predestination teaching did not link

human efforts to salvation, he called on believers to glorify

God throughout their lives by their deeds. At first, he talked

about moral deeds, but later, he started to talk about

other kinds of deeds, such as those done at work. On this

basis, Calvinism developed a theological justification for

hard work, wealth, and a capitalist economy, as observed

by Weber.

Calvin was a strong supporter of individual actions and

entrepreneurialism as part of a work ethic. However, he

was also aware of the danger of wealth concentration for

social stability.

Humility and modesty were important in Calvin’s

theology. He also called for intervention on behalf

of the weak as well as for banking ethics, which is

committed to justice and the global good. 4

His teachings are especially important now, when there is a

big difference between the rich and the poor that threatens

the social stability of many societies around the world. The

growing wealth of the tech industry widens inequalities.

For example, in 2022, 8 of the 10 richest companies in the

world came from the tech sector.

Calvin’s thinking could help in finding a balance between

the freedom of action and making sure that everyone’s

basic needs are met.

He, like other Protestant thinkers, was enthusiastic about

science and knowledge. If we want to change society,

we have to understand it first. This has been the main

theological reason for why Protestant societies all over

the world have supported science and technology. Calvin

lived at a time when science and discovery were taking off.

Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama made big steps

forward in geographical discoveries in the late 1500s. And

in 1543, Copernicus’s shift in astronomy happened.

At the same time, Calvin called for moderation and caution

in using scientific advances, which were later echoed in Mary

Shelley’s Frankenstein. Even today, this line of scientific

caution is still important because AI, biotechnology, and

other advances in science and technology have a profound

impact on society.

Calvin also argued for universal education, including that

for girls, which was quite a revolutionary proposal in the

sixteenth century. Later on, another Genevan, Rousseau,

put education at the centre of his philosophy.

Today, five centuries later, universal education is still not

universal.

4

Stückelberger, C. (2009). No interest from the poor. Calvin’s economic and banking ethics. https://www.christophstueckelberger.ch/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/calvinsethics.pdf.

29

Why


The United States

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, via Scotland

and the Netherlands, Calvin’s idea crossed the Atlantic

Ocean to find new life on the American continent. Even in a

symbolic way, Calvin’s copy of the Bible crossed the ocean

on the historic Mayflower voyage. On the new continent,

Calvin’s ideas grew into what is now called Calvinism, with

all the similarities and differences from his original ideas.

The centrality of individual freedom and work ethic in

Calvin’s work garnered additional relevance. Individualism

has become a key pillar of the US political, economic, and

social systems. Calvinism had a critical influence on the

inclusion of human rights in the American Constitution,

according to Georg Jellinek. This theology has emphasised

that each person is valuable and worthy in their own right,

and that freedom and self-determination are critical for

personal and societal prosperity.

Self-making and personal responsibility have become

pillars of social ethics. The delicate balance between

individuals and community, carefully crafted by Calvin,

started tilting towards the centrality of individuals.

Personal endeavours in business and technology were

almost limitless, with the hope that sometime/somehow

an invisible hand would ensure that individual action was

in sync with societal interest. As we realise more and

more, the invisible hand exists only in specific political

and economic contexts. A careful reading of Adam Smith’s

opus shows that his concept of the invisible hand should

be taken with the utmost caution. 5

With a few exceptions, Calvin’s teachings on community

responsibilities, which were at first very important to small

groups of purists in the new land, started to lose their

importance. Yet, social justice was supported by Walter

Rauschenbush (1861–1918), a key figure in the Social

Gospel movement. Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), one of

the richest people of his time, spoke out against inheriting

wealth and in favour of sharing it. 6

Silicon Valley

The departure from Calvin’s carefully balanced individual

agency and societal responsibility went far in the Silicon

Valley tech developments. Individualism prevailed over

social responsibility, especially with the fast tech growth

taking place there over the last two decades.

The long, glorious phase of Silicon Valley innovation and

growth is increasingly tarnished with stories of the selfish

elite, tax evasion, manipulation of the market, etc.

5

Smith, A. (2002). The Wealth of Nations. Oxford, England: Bibliomania.com Ltd. [Web.] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://lccn.loc.

gov/2002564559.

6

See Carnegie, A. (2017). The Gospel of Wealth. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. https://media.carnegie.org/filer_public/0a/e1/0ae166c5-fca3-

4adf-82a7-74c0534cd8de/gospel_of_wealth_2017.pdf (first published in 1889).

30

Why


A more balanced approach to society and business could

be a benefit for the tech industry. It would also help to

‘uplifting’ their societal roles.

Here, Calvin’s initial idea of freedom and responsibility,

combined with Geneva’s rich philosophical heritage, as

discussed in Section 3 of this text, could provide a backdrop

for re-establishing a balance between technological

development and societal responsibilities.

Thus, in a way, after a long journey, the core ideas and

dilemmas of modernity could return home for new

elaboration.

Charles Bonnet

Machines could be made to imitate

human intelligence.

Charles Bonnet, born in Geneva in 1720, was an exceptional

polymath. His many academic interests included being a

naturalist, botanist, lawyer, philosopher, psychologist, and

politician.

Bonnet was an early boundary spanner, crossing

disciplinary delimitations. This approach facilitated his farreaching

insights way ahead of time.

In 1789, by building on the idea of neural networks, he

envisaged AI by arguing that machines could mimic human

intelligence. 7

In his Essai de Psychologie (1755), he describes the concept

of neural networks:

‘If all our ideas, even the most abstract, depend ultimately

on motions that occur in the brain, it is appropriate to

ask whether each idea has a specific fiber dedicated to

producing it, or whether different motions of the same

fiber produce different ideas.’ 8

For more on Bonnet and neural networks, consult Trends

in Cognitive Sciences. 9

The idea of early neural networks was inspired by his theory

of associations, which holds that ideas are connected in

the mind through associations.

This idea was further developed by the American

psychologist William James and John Stuart Mill, a British

philosopher.

7

Bonnet, C. (1789). Betrachtung über die Natur. Wien: Schrämbl.

8

Bonnet, C. (1755). Essai de Psychologie. Londres.

9

Mollon, J., Takahashi, C., & Danilova, M. (2022). What kind of network is the brain? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Anunresolved-issue-from-the-18th-century-A-Charles-Bonnet-and-a-passage-from-his_fig1_358792552.

31

Why


Thinking the terroir of Geneva and the tech-humanity interplay

Geneva has been the birthplace or home of many philosophers, writers, and scientists whose

work is directly relevant to our study of how technology and humans interact.

As a keen observer of nature, Bonnet identified numerous

patterns and interesting phenomena. He also found that

leaves on a plant stem are arranged in a way that matches

the Fibonacci sequence. He was interested in how math

could be used to describe patterns in nature.

His work was largely forgotten until it was rediscovered in

the early twenty-first century.

Jorge Luis Borges

Nothing is built on stone; All is built on

sand, but we must build as if the sand

were stone. 10

Borges chose Geneva as his home and, ultimately, the

place where he is laid to rest.

Borges, one of the leading writers of the 20th century, was

the master of discovering paradoxes and of addressing

irreconcilable contradictions in human existence.

He rarely provides answers in his writings. Instead, he

takes us on a journey showing that every certainty triggers

a new uncertainty. Borges’s work gives a sobering look

at the human condition and the limits of reason when it

comes to solving personal and social problems.

His fiction is inspirational reading for addressing the core

questions of humanity’s future, centred on the interplay

between science, technology, and philosophy. His short

story The Library of Babel, written in 1941, is prophetic;

it outlines the search for meaning in endless volumes of

information, as we do today on the internet. Borges writes:

‘Nonsense is normal in the Library and that the reasonable

(and even humble and pure coherence) is an almost

miraculous exception.’ 11

The truth exists somewhere in Borges’ library, but is almost

impossible to find as it is overwhelmed by irrelevant

information, fake news, and competing narratives.

In addressing informational chaos, Borges shies away from

giving a naive hope of certainty, but he does provide some

hope: he advocates for order in chaos and argues that

by taking an occasional rest, we can stop, or at least slow

down, the constantly shifting kaleidoscope of meaning.

10

Jorge Luis Borges quotes. Available at: https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/367840-nothing-is-built-on-stone-all-is-built-on-sand.

11

Borges, J. L. (1970). The Library of Babel, in J. L. Borges, Labyrinths. Penguin.

32

Why


Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The strongest man is never strong

enough to be always master, unless he

transforms his power into right, and

obedience into duty. 12

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva on 28 June

1712, was one of the most important philosophers of

the Enlightenment. His most influential works were the

Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract.

The call of the UN Secretary-General for societies worldwide

to work on social contracts, addressing profound changes

in modern society, renewed the relevance of Rousseau’s

thinking. His Social Contract will be important reading as

we try to answer critical questions about modernity and

our future.

According to Rousseau, social contracts are not formal

contracts signed on the dotted line by all citizens. They are

representations of the general will of all citizens around

a few key principles. A process in which citizens regularly

participate in public debates and decision-making is at the

core of a social contract. It is much more than an occasional

vote.

Rousseau’s social contract is demanding on citizens. It

requires being very involved in politics and always learning

more about how to be a good citizen.

His home city, Geneva, has come close to his ideal of a

lively and engaging democracy.

Rousseau also argued that sovereignty stays with

individuals, not the state. This idea could be important in

the current talk about digital sovereignty, which usually

means that states have control over digital networks and

data. If we apply Rousseau’s thinking, digital sovereignty

should be based on a person’s right to control his or her

data and digital assets.

The question of a social contract was popular among other

Enlightenment thinkers.

Hobbes, for example, in his Leviathan, proposed a less

demanding form of the social contract for citizens than

Rousseau’s. 13 Citizens were supposed to give up their

natural rights to a sovereign (state) in exchange for the

state guaranteeing their safety.

12

Rousseau, J.-J. (1762). The Social Contract. Book I. Chapter III. https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/socialcontract/full-text/book-i-chapter-iii/.

13

Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/hobbess-leviathan.

33

Why


Ferdinand de Saussure

developments is represented in Alan Turing’s paper titled

‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’. 15

Time changes all things; there is no

reason why language should escape

this universal law.

Mary Shelley

The beginning is always today. 16

Ferdinand de Saussure was a Geneva-born linguist whose

book, Course in General Linguistics (1916) 14 became the

cornerstone of modern linguistics.

Saussure’s work on language and systems was the

foundation for natural language processing (NLP) and

modern AI.

Saussure’s pioneering linguistic research on identifying

language patterns and relationships between signifiers

and signifieds (or words and their meanings) is key to

understanding how NLP systems can map words and

other linguistic units to the concepts they represent,

allowing them to perform tasks such as text classification

and machine translation.

The conceptual bridge between Saussure and the latest AI

Mary Shelley, a British writer, started writing Frankenstein

in 1816 in the Villa Diodati in Geneva. Together with Lord

Byron and a group of friends, Shelley came to Geneva in

search of better weather, as Geneva typically has more

sunny days than London. This was not the case in 1816.

That year, both cities missed summer weather because of

the eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia.

Shelley was a big fan of science and experimentation.

She believed that science and technology could improve

the human condition. However, she also recognised the

14

Published by Saussure’s students from lecture notes after his premature death. de Saussure, F. (1916). Course in General Linguistics. https://openlibrary.

org/books/OL23291521M/Course_in_general_linguistics.

15

A. M. Turing (1950). Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind 49: 433-460. Available at https://redirect.cs.umbc.edu/courses/471/papers/turing.pdf.

16

Shelley, M. (2014). Short stories, Vol. II. Miniature Masterpieces.

34

Why


potential for abuse and misuse of these new technologies.

In this way, Shelley brought into focus important questions

about the ethics of progress and how to use scientific

knowledge in a responsible way.

Even though technology and society have come a long

way since 1816, the dilemma that people faced then is still

relevant today. How far can technology go in affecting core

human features? Are there ethical limits to technological

development?

Voltaire

The human brain is a complex organ

with the wonderful power of enabling

man to find reasons for continuing to

believe whatever it is that he wants

to believe. 17

François-Marie Arouet (1694–1778), better known as

Voltaire, was one of the key figures of the Enlightenment.

Voltaire lived in Geneva and in the neighbouring village

of Ferney-Voltaire, named after him, between 1755

and his death in 1778. His major works include Candide,

Philosophical Letters, and Treatise on Toleration. Voltaire

is still the symbol of Enlightenment philosophy, which is

based on reason, critical thinking, and scientific inquiry.

He was a strong advocate for the advancement of science

and technology. Voltaire thought that everyone should

have access to knowledge and that progress in science

and technology should help society. In his writings, he

frequently criticised the church and state for hindering

scientific progress.

Inspired by Newton’s empirical science and other works,

Voltaire remained Newton’s proponent his whole life and

always insisted on the use of evidence and facts in social

sciences and public life.

Liberty and freedom were crucial to Voltaire’s philosophy.

He argued that freedom of thought is a fundamental

human right. He also advocates for freedom of expression

and freedom of religion. In historical works, he often

champions the cause of oppressed peoples and fights

against tyranny.

I disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your

right to say it., is often attributed to Voltaire. Although there

is no proof that these are his words, they capture the core

of his philosophy of liberty very well. 18

17

Voltaire quotations. Available at https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/51535-the-human-brain-is-a-complex-organ-with-the-wonderful.

18

In 1943, Burdette Kinne of Columbia University published a short article in “Modern Language Notes” which contained an important letter Hall sent to Kinne in

1939. Hall stated that she had crafted the saying and not Voltaire: The phrase “I wholly disapprove of what you say and will defend to the death your right to say

it” which you have found in my book “Voltaire in His Letters” is my own expression and should not have been put in inverted commas. Please accept my apologies

for having, quite unintentionally, misled you into thinking I was quoting a sentence used by Voltaire (or anyone else but myself). Available at https://quoteinvestigator.com/2015/06/01/defend-say/.

35

Why


International organisations: From ideas to practical governance

Voltaire’s pursuit of critical thinking and engaging debates

is just as important today as it was a few hundred years

ago. This is because public debates and spaces are very

divided and full of biases and false information.

With this cultural and historical backdrop, it is not

surprising that Geneva became an international centre,

hosting many organisations that relate to ensuring the

positive impact of technology on society. International

organisations convert principles into regulations and

policies.

When it comes to governing digital technologies, there are

two types of organisations.

The first group comprises organisations dealing with

technology, per se. Here, the most prominent and oldest

organisation is the International Telecommunication

Union (ITU). ITU deals with technological standards,

radio communication, and development issues. The

main challenge for ITU is to find an activity niche in the

fast-changing digital realm. In recent decades, ITU’s

role in internet governance has been a central issue of

debate and controversy.

Together with ITU, the International Organization

for Standardization (ISO) and the International

Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) set standards for

digital telecommunication, software, and devices.

They are increasingly called to set new types of

standards for data, AI, the internet of things (IoT), and

other developments.

This second group includes organisations whose initial

focus was not on technology, but who now have to

deal directly and indirectly with digital effects in their

fields of specialisation. The World Intellectual Property

Organization (WIPO), for instance, deals with issues related

to the protection of intellectual property in the digital era.

Digital health appears on the agenda of the World Health

Organization (WHO), e-commerce on that of the World

Trade Organization (WTO), and protection of humanitarian

data lies with the International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC) and other humanitarian organisations.

As the WHO section of this Atlas shows, more and more

digital issues are being addressed by international

organisations. In the coming years, multilateral diplomacy

will be dominated by this trend of digitalising traditional

policy issues, such as health, trade, and the protection of

people in need.

36

Why



EspriTech de Genève (the tech spirit of Geneva) is inspired by

L’esprit de Genève (the spirit of Geneva), which refers to the

city’s tradition as a place for peace, tolerance, international

cooperation, human rights, and inclusion.

Robert de Traz coined L’esprit de Genève in his book of the

same title, where he traced the origins of this concept to

Jean Calvin, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Henri Dunant. 19

At the core of EspriTech de Genève is humanism, a

philosophical and ethical approach that is centred

around human beings, individually and collectively. 20 We

summarise it by the 12 values, principles, and approaches

explained below.

1. Human life and dignity

Geneva’s humanitarian traditions are centred on

protecting human life and dignity. These traditions have

been revisited, as digitalisation and AI raise questions such

as:

What makes us human?

How can we protect lives and dignity?

What is the future of humanitarianism?

Protecting human life is a core value in religious texts,

political statements, and laws. In the digital realm, the

centrality of human life has been reiterated, as well. For

example, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) Recommendation on the

ethics of AI stresses that ‘life and death decisions’ should

not be delegated or ceded to AI systems.

In Geneva, the very question of human lives and

technological developments has come up in negotiations

on lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS), often

referred to as ‘killer robots’. In LAWS negotiations and

other policy processes, there is consensus that decisions

on life and death in armed conflicts should rest with

humans. Even though this consensus is sound and

strongly endorsed, it is still unclear how it will be put into

practice in a world where AI, drones, and other high-tech

weapons are making war increasingly automated. The

ICRC has been working on bringing clarity to this matter

via awareness building, training, and the development of

policy guidelines.

The question of what it means to be human also becomes

central as bio and digital technologies, such as brainmachine

interfaces and neural technologies, advance

faster.

Virtual reality (VR), such as the metaverse, is another way

to alter our perception of the physical space we live in.

Immersive VR may make our bodily experience less central

to our identity. Human dignity will also be affected by

19

De Traz, R. (1929). L’esprit de Genève. Paris.

20

The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. In our research

humanism is an approach centred around three aspects of human existence: life, dignity, and agency.

37

Why


changes in human embodiment, and our very identity will

be altered. The development of metaverse virtual reality is

going to raise a whole new set of questions:

What will our real identity be between virtual and

real spaces?

Will we maintain free will as a key pillar of our dignity?

How will our different identities be reconciled when

technology starts ‘optimising’ us?

Will technology ‘tolerate’ our inherently human

imperfection?

Whether inside us, like implants and biotech changes, or

outside, like the metaverse, these challenges to human

embodiment and dignity will speed up discussions about

the future social contract. 21

L’esprit de Genève, which puts people at the centre

of technological and scientific developments, gives

Switzerland and Geneva a place for these kinds of critical

discussions.

2. Freedom and the right to choose

As a city of refuge for the persecuted and dissidents from

all over the world throughout history, freedom has always

been of great importance in Geneva.

At the core of freedom is the right to choose in personal,

economic, and political life. The ability to choose is essential

for human dignity, well-being, and societal progress. The

right to choose is realised through freedom of movement,

thought, expression, and religious practice, among others.

For a long time, the internet has been a major enabler of

choice by helping people overcome geographical, social,

gendered, and other limitations. 22

However, digitalisation started profoundly affecting the

right to choose, from the censorship and filtering of online

content conducted both by governments and by tech

companies, to more sophisticated ways of restricting our

opportunity to choose in the name of ‘optimisation’ (with

the claim that AI should know better than we do about

what is good for us, from selecting partners to buying

goods and making political decisions).

21

Erin Green argues that meaningful dealing with AI should be anchored in understanding that our ‘embodied experience shapes all reasoning, both

theological and technological’. In Green, E. (2020). Sallie McFague and an Ecotheological Response to Artificial Intelligence. The Ecumenical Review, 72(2),

183–196. doi:10.1111/erev.12502.

Sallie McFague puts embodiment at the centre of dealing with technological developments. In McFague, S. (1993). The body of God: An Ecological Theology.

Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press.

22

Switzerland proposed the concept of digital self-determination as a way for citizens to be empowered on all matters related to their personal data.

Available at https://via.diplomacy.edu/https://digitale-selbstbestimmung.swiss/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Digital-Self-Determination-Discussion-Paper.pdf#annotations:NeD1dFbREeyK91Pb3-CEeQ.

38

Why


With awareness of these risks, UNESCO called for an

assessment of the ‘sociological and psychological effects of

AI-based recommendations on humans in their decisionmaking

autonomy’.

Civic space and freedom of information are also impacted

by the tendency of tech platforms to foster ‘bubbles’ and

binary atmospheres in debates framed as ‘my opinion vs.

wrong opinion’. The space for free and civic debates has

been shrinking worldwide. Critical and alternative thinking

is often missing in public debates at a time when it is

badly needed. This ideological shift creates fertile ground

for mis- and disinformation. There is a growing need for

neutral and free discussion spaces. Geneva can provide

such spaces, not only in diplomatic settings, but also in

public or academic debates.

In the digital age, many societies are looking for the best

way to balance individual freedom and social responsibility.

Geneva’s long history, since Calvin’s time, could be a good

example of how to do this. The rule of law and respect for

the common good could help us come up with solutions

that give people as many options as possible while taking

into account the needs of our communities and society as

a whole.

3. Openness and inclusion

Openness and inclusion have been fundamental

characteristics of Geneva for centuries. In the digital realm,

openness and inclusion flourished in the early years of the

39

internet, with more people getting connected. However,

these trends have been slowing down recently, and there

is a risk that they could be reversed with the increased

fragmentation of the internet. Thus, there is a need for a

renewed push for digital openness and inclusion.

The open-source movement, which has a solid base in

Geneva, should play a more important and active role in

the development of infrastructure and apps.

Digital inclusion has to do with more than just being

connected and having access to the internet. First, access

should be affordable. But what’s even more important is

that the full use of digital potential requires the right digital

skills, content in local languages and multilingualism,

and the participation of women, youth, and other parts

of society that have been left behind in the past or since

digitalisation began.

All of these aspects of inclusion should be considered

holistically. For example, development assistance for

increasing connectivity and internet access should be

paired with the aid for improving digital skills, creating

enabling environments (like policies, regulations, and

institutions), and addressing all other aspects of inclusion

in a comprehensive way.

Geneva is home to many entities that work on various

aspects of digital inclusion, such as ITU, which works

on connectivity, and WTO, UN Trade and Development

(UNCTAD), which work on e-commerce and the digital

economy. Switzerland, as a well-known donor country, has

a long history of helping small and developing countries in

ways that are effective and impactful. This convergence of

Why


International Geneva and Swiss development assistance

could facilitate a holistic approach to digital inclusion

worldwide.

4. Diversity and subsidiarity

Diversity starts with our uniqueness compared to other

human beings: age, sex, race, culture, religion, profession,

and other aspects of our identity. Diversity is also about

our local communities, regions, and nations. Respect for

diversity is key to building a prosperous, inclusive, and

harmonious society.

As diversity nurtures innovation and creativity, it has

helped spur many digital developments. Since its early

days, the internet has been a key promoter of diversity

because it connects people from all over the world. Lately,

however, tech platforms have facilitated the creation of

echo chambers among groups, entrenching like-minded

individuals in spaces where they are not exposed to

diversity in individuals, language, and communication

styles. Diversity in the digital world may not have a bright

future because tech companies may put profit ahead of

diversity and other non-commercial values.

The principle of subsidiarity, which makes sure that

policy decisions are made close to the people who are

affected by them, helps support diversity. Subsidiarity

could also prevent abuses by higher-level authorities while

contributing to administrative and policy decentralisation.

Geneva and Switzerland have a long tradition of diversity

and subsidiarity. The Swiss federal system ensures that

decisions are made closest to the people and communities

affected by them.

5. Progress and well-being

There is but one solution to the intricate riddle of life; to

improve ourselves, and contribute to the happiness of

others.

Mary Shelley

Progress is driven by science and technology and aimed at

increasing the well-being of society. Support for science and

progress has had a long tradition in Geneva since Calvin’s

teachings. Voltaire and other thinkers also saw science as

a way to improve human well-being. Today, it’s no surprise

that the European Council for Nuclear Research (CERN),

Swiss Federal Technology Institute of Lausanne (EPFL), and

the University of Geneva are among the most prominent

scientific institutions in Europe and beyond.

The link between scientific progress and well-being has

been the focus of Geneva’s actors, especially in the context

of the realisation of the UN’s Agenda 2030. The scientific

community in Geneva and UN bodies and agencies have

been working together to find connections between

scientific breakthroughs and the sustainable development

goals (SDGs), which address problems like health, food,

poverty, climate, and more.

40

Why


During the pandemic, when most societal functions

were carried out via digital networks, the link between

digitalisation and human well-being became much clearer.

6. Trust and confidence

Trust and confidence are the values that resonate strongly

with Geneva and Switzerland. Switzerland is one of the

countries with the highest ‘trust capacity’. This is often

shown by people’s trust and confidence in the Swiss

banking system, technology, and government solutions.

Some projects, like the Swiss Digital Initiative’s Trust Label

and Trust Valley, are trying to bring Switzerland’s trustbased

tradition into the digital world.

Trust in the online domain is as important as it is offline.

It is the social glue that binds people, communities, and

countries together. It helps to improve the well-being,

success, and stability of societies by reducing conflict and

making it easier for people to work together.

There are many levels of trust and confidence in the

digital space, from trusting the technology itself to trusting

the companies that develop and provide the services or

products, and the governments that should protect our

rights both online and offline.

Trust in technology, the government, and tech companies

is built through clarity about the roles and responsibilities

of digital actors, participation in the creation of digital

policy, oversight (especially of actions that could affect

rights and freedoms), and confidence-building measures

between countries and digital communities.

41

Technology itself – as it has been argued in the case of

blockchain – could facilitate trust and confidence. While the

search for the ‘automation’ of trust continues, Geneva and

Switzerland should focus on contributing their traditional

‘trust capacity’ to discussions and processes focused, for

example, on protecting data, ensuring cybersecurity, and

finding future digital governance solutions.

7. Peace and security

Peace is one of the core values of humanity, and the

UN Charter and many other international agreements

describe it as a cornerstone of the international system.

In Esprit de Geneve, peace has a central role. Geneva has

been the place where many peace negotiations have been

conducted throughout history. It also has a vibrant role

in other activities related to peace: mediation, conflict

prevention and resolution, peace-building, etc. This

connection between peace and security can be clearly

seen in the work done by international organisations in

Geneva.

But peace also goes beyond security, as it is more than

just the absence of violence and conflict. Peace requires

a comprehensive approach to human development that

addresses the root causes of conflict; such an approach

would result in greater stability and less social inequality.

Digital technology impacts all phases of peace-related

activities, from focused ones dealing with conflict

resolutions, to a broader, more holistic approach to peace.

The links between peace and digitalisation are highlighted

Why


across a wide range of activities in Geneva. For example, the

GIP, Humanitarian Dialogue, the UN office in Geneva, and

Swiss Peace have all started research and networking on

cyber mediation. Peace is central in debates on the cyber

aspects of disarmament. The Human rights community

in Geneva addresses false information and hate speech,

which are becoming more important to international

peace and security efforts.

8. Entrepreneurship and human agency

Geneva has been a trading post for centuries. It can be

traced back as far as Roman times. However, business

dynamics have taken off since Calvin’s time, when

he created a theological framework that encouraged

entrepreneurship.

Today, Geneva has a strong banking sector, a fast-growing

tech industry, and a lot of innovative start-ups. In the

city’s tradition, the private sector has helped solve social

problems by supporting humanitarianism and taking part

in activities that aim to move forward with sustainable

development goals.

Geneva is home to FONGIT, which is one of the oldest and

most successful start-up generators in Europe. Among

others, it helps researchers from CERN, EPFL, and the

University of Geneva turn research breakthroughs into

business opportunities.

As tech companies around the world look for the best ways

to combine entrepreneurship and social responsibility,

International Geneva has a few things that make it stand

42

out: the Calvinist tradition of combining entrepreneurship

and care for the community, a thriving academic and

business scene, and an international governance space.

9. Environment and natural habitat

Man argues. Nature acts.

Voltaire

The interplay between the environment and digitalisation

is being placed at the core of modern governance. The two

impact each other profoundly.

Progress and industrialisation have put a lot of stress

on our environment. Because of this, the environmental

agenda has become more important than ever, with issues

like pollution, climate change, and biodiversity protection.

Digitalisation has both negative and positive effects on

the environment. Examples of negative effects include the

significant energy used by data servers, which account for

2% of global electricity consumption, and the extensive

exploitation of rare materials for the manufacturing of

digital products, which results in e-waste that damages

natural habitats. On the positive side, digitalisation is used

to find and track environmental problems and to model

possible solutions for climate change, ocean pollution,

overfishing, and many other problems.

In Geneva, the interplay between the environment and

digitalisation is addressed in policy discussions on climate

Why


and weather (at the World Meteorological Organization

– WMO), climate change (the Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change – IPCC), pollution (the UN Economic

Commission for Europe – UNECE), and environment (the

UN Environment Programme – UNEP – Office for Europe).

The main challenge is to promote more convergence

between environmental and digitalisation policy fields.

10. Solidarity and the common good

Solidarity and the common good have been important

pillars of Esprit de Geneve, introduced during Calvin’s time

and carefully nurtured for centuries. This is shown not

only in the work of humanitarian organisations such as

the ICRC, but also in the support provided to the poor and

migrant populations, who are the most vulnerable part of

society.

Solidarity and the common good are becoming more

important as societies around the world try to restore

social stability, which is now increasingly shaken. Restoring

social stability is not only about sorting out existing societal

problems, but also accounting for emerging ones. When it

comes to social media, online games, VR, and other online

platforms, solidarity takes a new shape and meaning.

Empathy and emotions are nurtured in different ways, in

terms of both shape and depth.

We are facing a rupture in the traditional, face-to-face,

social and emotional bonds that people have had since the

beginning of time. The ways we engage with others and

develop emotional and social links will shape the social

fabric of tomorrow, with far-reaching consequences for

family life, law, and other aspects of society.

Common goods are tangible aspects of solidarity in society.

The concept of digital common goods (digital commons) is

increasingly brought up in discussions around software,

data, and AI. The open-source movement places common

goods at its foundation. Data and AI are being talked

about and worked on as ‘common goods’ that could be

used for sustainable development, reducing inequality,

and promoting social peace.

11. Equality, justice, and fairness

When it comes to equality, justice, and fairness, Geneva’s

religious, legal, and political traditions could be very helpful

in figuring out how to deal with the impact of digitalisation

on these three elements of social dynamics.

Equality, justice, and fairness are important for preserving

the social fabric and building vibrant economic and social

dynamics.

Today’s world isn’t as fair as it could be because digital

technology tends to concentrate data and economic

power in the hands of a few. As digital growth does not ‘lift

all boats equally’, many communities are left behind.

Inequality in the digital sphere takes multiple forms, such

as unequal access to networks and devices (for example,

because of a lack of infrastructure or money), gaps in digital

skills, and gender imbalances (such as the fact that men

still tend to be more represented in the engineering and

43

Why


computer industries than women). Digital divides are also

triggered by generational divides and language barriers.

The search for justice and dispute resolution is also

associated with Geneva’s legal institutions. In 1872, Great

Britain and the USA came to Geneva to settle their dispute

in the Alabama Arbitration, one of the first international

legal arbitrations. Geneva is also one of the key places for

companies to settle business disputes through arbitration.

The adjustment of the arbitration system to the digital

realm is gaining momentum. WIPO has set up a system

for dealing with disagreements about internet domain

names. Researchers and academics are searching for new

types of online dispute resolution mechanisms.

With AI apps that can amplify biases based on race, gender,

age, and other factors, fairness has become a highly

important issue. Most of the time, AI is biased because it

was built using biased data that reflects a biased reality.

For example, AI makes decisions on providing loans or

prioritising patients based on a wide range of gender,

racial, and age biases. In Geneva, fairness is addressed in

policy discussions on human rights and in research carried

out by academic institutions.

12. Compromise, trade-offs, and pragmatism

Uncertainty is an uncomfortable position. But certainty is

an absurd one.

Voltaire

Achieving a win-win solution is the holy grail of public

policy. But the reality is that we often end up with a zerosum

outcome in which some gain and others lose. Because

digital technology has so many different technological,

economic, moral, and policy aspects, it makes it harder to

find good trade-offs.

Geneva has a long history of solving problems in a practical

way, often by compromising to find the best trade-offs.

This part of EspriTech de Geneve is particularly important as

the need for delicate trade-offs in the digital world grows.

Here are just some examples:

• Freedom of expression vs protection of public

order. The well-known debate between Article 19

(freedom of expression) and Article 27 (protection

of the public order) of the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights has been extended to the internet.

It is very often discussed in the context of content

control and censorship on the internet.

• Cybersecurity vs privacy. Like security in real life,

cybersecurity may endanger some human rights,

such as the right to privacy. The balance between

44

Why


cybersecurity and privacy is in constant flux,

depending on the overall global political situation.

After 9/11, with the securitisation of the global

agenda, the balance shifted towards cybersecurity.

Snowden turned it back to privacy. Currently, this

balance is in a delicate flux.

• Protection of authors’ rights vs fair use of

materials, aka intellectual property, is another ‘real’

law dilemma that has taken a new perspective in the

online world.

Geneva’s tradition and current policy environment are

favourable to finding trade-offs between digitalisation’s

multiple, and sometimes contradictory, impacts on society.

Conclusion

We have come to the end of our journey through eras

and fields of relevance for the future of digitalisation

and humanity. During our journey, we gathered ideas,

concepts, and traditions that could become part of

EspritTech de Geneva’s values. While each of those values

is important on its own, they are even more important

when they work together. For example, digital trust helps

bring about peace and justice, and entrepreneurship and

free will help make progress and improve people’s lives.

The journey described in this text is just one of many

that humanity takes in search of formulas to deal with

the impact of digitalisation on society. This search is

happening worldwide, from local communities to national

parliaments, from regional organisations to the UN. During

this search, we are slowly building a social contract for our

digital and overall future.

As the pages that follow show, Geneva can make important,

useful, and timely contributions to the search for a social

contract for our digital future and our future in general.

45

Section 2

When

did the policy interplay

between technology

and humanity begin in

Geneva?

47

1536

Calvin settles in Geneva

Calvin's theology had an important impact on

science, technology, entrepreneurship, and

social cohesion. Later on, it became Calvinism,

and hugely impacted the economic,

cultural, and political development of the

United States.

Geneva historical timeline

1712

Birth of Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (b. 28 June 1712,

Geneva, Switzerland), was one of the most

important philosophers of the Enlightenment.

His most influential works include the

Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract.

1720

Birth of Charles Bonnet,

conceptual father of AI

Charles Bonnet (b. 1720, Geneva) was a

naturalist, botanist, lawyer, philosopher,

psychologist, and politician. In 1769, Bonnet

wrote that 'machines could be made to

imitate human intelligence'. This insight was

built upon his conceptual outline of neural

networks, the key AI technology of our era.

1816

Mary Shelly starts writing

Frankenstein in Villa Diodati

Mary Shelley, the British writer, started

writing Frankenstein in 1816 in Villa Diodati in

Geneva. She believed that science and

technology could improve the human

condition and bring about a utopia. However,

she also recognised the potential for the

abuse and misuse of these new technologies.

As such, Shelley raised important questions

about the ethics of progress and the

responsible use of scientific knowledge.

1863

ICRC established

Established in 1863, the ICRC is an

independent international humanitarian

organisation headquartered in Geneva. The

ICRC is part of the International Red Cross

and Red Crescent Movement, along with the

International Federation of Red Cross and

Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and over 190

National Societies.

1755

Voltaire settles in Geneva

François-Marie Arouet (1694–1778), better

known as Voltaire, was one of the key figures

of the Enlightenment. Voltaire lived in

Geneva and the neighbouring village of

Ferney-Voltaire, named after him, from 1755

until his death in 1778. His major works

include Candide, Philosophical Letters, and

Treatise on Toleration. Voltaire remains the

icon of Enlightenment philosophy, centred

on reason, critical thinking, and scientific

inquiry.

1857

Birth of Ferdinand de Saussure

Ferdinand de Saussure was a Geneva-born

linguist, whose book Course in General

Linguistics (1916) became the cornerstone of

modern linguistics. Saussure’s work on

language and systems laid the basis for

natural language processing (NLP) and

modern AI.

1865

ITU established

The International Telecommunication

Union (ITU) is a UN specialised agency for

information and communications

technologies (ICTs) comprising 193 member

states and over 900 companies,

universities, and international and regional

organisations.

48

1948

WHO founded

The WHO is a specialised agency of the UN whose role

is to direct and coordinate international health

developments within the UN system. WHO is

increasingly involved in dealing with digital issues,

particularly focusing on the role of digital technologies

in the attainment of health and well-being globally.

1949

ISO headquartered in Geneva

The ISO is a non-governmental international

organisation composed of 173 national

standard-setting bodies that are either part of

governmental institutions, or mandated by their

respective governments. ISO, through experts from

across multiple sectors and disciplines, sets standards

on a wide range of issues, from quality management

and environmental sustainability, to ICTs and

information security.

2003

WSIS in Geneva

The WSIS was a two-phase UN summit (2003, Geneva;

2005, Tunis). Its key outcomes include the Geneva

Declaration of Principles and the Working Group on

Internet Governance (WGIG). WSIS Forums have taken

place periodically since then.

2009

WSIS Forum branded

The WSIS Forum, launched in 2009, builds on WSIS

action lines to promote an inclusive information

society. Held annually and co-organised by ITU,

UNESCO, UNDP, and UNCTAD, it reviews progress,

trends, and challenges, linking WSIS goals with SDGs.

1948

IEC headquartered in Geneva

Founded in 1906, the IEC is the world’s leading

organisation for the development of

international standards for all electrical and

electronic technologies. While its formal

membership includes national

standardisation bodies, the IEC’s

standardisation work is advanced by nearly

20,000 experts from government, industry,

commerce, research, academia, and other

stakeholder groups.

1995

WTO founded

The WTO is an intergovernmental organisation

that deals with the rules of trade between its

members. Its main functions include:

administering WTO trade agreements;

providing a forum for trade negotiations;

settling trade disputes; monitoring national

trade policies; providing technical assistance

and training for developing countries; and

ensuring cooperation with other international

organisations.

2006

IGF established

The Internet Governance Forum (IGF),

established by the WSIS Tunis Agenda,

promotes multistakeholder dialogue on key

internet governance issues. Its mandate

includes fostering internet sustainability,

security, and development. Based in Geneva,

the IGF Secretariat hosts annual global

meetings and regular consultations through

its Multistakeholder Advisory Group.

2014

GIP established

Launched in 2014 by Switzerland’s Federal

Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA) and

Federal Office of Communications (OFCOM),

the GIP offers a neutral platform for digital

policy dialogue. The GIP, operated by

DiploFoundation, also contributes to

developing the capacities of Geneva-based

missions to meaningfully engage in global

digital governance processes.

49

2017

AI for Good Summit established

The first edition of the AI for Good Summit was held,

organised by ITU in partnership with several other UN

entities. The summit explores issues related to the

application of AI across different sectors and the role

of the technology in advancing progress towards

sustainable development.

2023

eWeek branded

The eCommerce Week, hosted by UNCTAD for the first

time in 2015, becomes the eWeek in 2023, reflecting

the changing digital landscape. The event serves as a

platform for dialogue on ways towards achieving an

inclusive and sustainable digital future, with a focus on

various dimensions of the digital economy.

2025

Geneva input for the WSIS+20 review

Twenty-two years after WSIS Geneva, the city remains

key to the WSIS+20 review. While the main meeting is

held in the UN General Assembly in New York, Geneva

contributes through the permanent missions, CSTD,

the WSIS Forum, and the expertise of the IGF, various

UN agencies, and other actors.

2019

GESDA established

The aim of the Geneva Science and Diplomacy

Anticipator (GESDA) is to leverage the

International Geneva ecosystem to anticipate,

accelerate, and translate into concrete actions

the use of emerging science-driven topics.

GESDA organises an annual Geneva Science

and Diplomacy Anticipation Summit and

produces the Science Breakthrough Radar.

2024

Geneva input for the Global Digital Compact

Though negotiated in New York, the GDC was

a key focus in Geneva in 2024, as permanent

missions, UN agencies, and other actors

contributed digital governance expertise to

support GDC negotiations. Adopted in

September 2024, it outlines a vision for an

‘inclusive, open, sustainable, fair, safe, and

secure digital future for all’.

50

Section 3

What

digital technologies

and policy issues are

dealt with in Geneva?

53

What

Digital Technologies and

Policy Topics

Technologies and Policy Topics

The Digital Geneva Atlas provides cross-cutting coverage of digital technologies and

governance issues as they are addressed by Geneva-based organisations. In this

section, you will find a survey of what these issues are.

Technologies

Digital technologies are electronic tools, systems, devices,

and resources that can be used to create, store, or process

data for different purposes.

Most of these technologies are intertwined through their

combined use. For instance, data underpins AI, while

internet platforms and applications facilitate the use of

certain digital technologies.

Internet platforms and applications

Internet platforms and applications shape most of our

daily digital experiences, from social media networks to

email, websites, and e-commerce platforms. They are also

the space where some of society’s most prevalent policy

challenges take place, including data breaches, attacks

on privacy, and the spread of misinformation and hate

speech.

A few main protocols enable the functioning of the internet

and its platforms and applications. The transport control

protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) connects different

networks and ensures the flow of data. HyperText Markup

Language (HTML) facilitates the management and display

of information on websites, social media networks, and

e-commerce platforms, among others.

Cloud computing

Cloud computing offers ubiquitous access to data and

services from any device with an internet connection. The

first wave of cloud computing started with the use of email

servers (Gmail, Yahoo, etc.), social media applications

(Facebook, Twitter, etc.), and online applications (wikis,

blogs, online collaborative docs, etc.). Nowadays, more

and more of our digital assets are moving from our hard

disks to the cloud. Apart from everyday applications, cloud

computing is used extensively for business software.

Employing their large server farms, tech giants such as

Apple, Amazon, Google, and Microsoft are among the

main cloud computing players in the private sector.

Given its relevance to digital activities and society,

cloud computing is considered part of the critical

information infrastructure. It is directly impacted by policy

processes related to security, privacy, data localisation,

standardisation, and interoperability.

54

What


Policy Topics

Artificial intelligence

AI refers to a combination of data and algorithms

to perform certain tasks or replicate certain specific

behaviours that normally require human intelligence, such

as visual perception, speech recognition, and decisionmaking.

AI is an umbrella concept that includes machine

learning, neural networks, speech processing, and

robotics. The common element across different types of AI

are algorithms, i.e. computer codes carrying the necessary

instructions to process data into information, knowledge,

and creative insights.

AI is used in internet services (such as search engines,

social media platforms, e-commerce), manufacturing,

transportation, agriculture, healthcare, and many other

areas. AI is a multifaceted phenomenon with significant

potential for good. However, it can also pose risks to human

rights and safety, and generate labour market disruptions

and other societal issues.

In the field of security, AI empowers lethal autonomous

weapons systems (LAWS); this carries enormous

consequences for the conduct of war and for humanitarian

law. In law, AI automates court proceedings in many

countries. In human rights, AI may impact humans’ right

to free choice in social, economic, and political life. In the

economy, AI facilitates new business models and furthers

the automation of labour. In medicine, AI has fostered lifealtering

innovations.

Virtual and augmented reality

Virtual reality (VR) is a set of applications and tools that

simulate the physical environment through digitally

generated images, sounds, and even touch and smell.

Augmented reality (AR) enables users to view the realworld

environment with augmented (added) elements

generated by digital devices (e.g. smartphones).

Major investments by big tech companies in the metaverse

(virtual reality) are likely to make AR and VR ubiquitous and

highly immersive. The shift between the real and the virtual

will be seamless. It will alter our perception of physical

reality with numerous impacts on personal identity, law,

and overall societal organisation. 1

Blockchain

Blockchain is built around a decentralised record of

transactions in the form of a ledger, copies of which are

distributed among users (or nodes). Through distributed

technology and cryptography for the verification of

transactions, blockchain relays trust from a single central

authority to the entire involved community, replacing

traditional structures. Transactions are validated by all

nodes simultaneously, and the transactions are protected

against tampering and revision. The more digital eyes

around the transactions, the lower the chance of fraud.

Cryptography provides a highly reliable automated system

of validating transactions instead of relying on humans.

1

The potential impact of VR/AR on society can be seen in the way that online games affect children and youth.

55

What


Policy Topics

Cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, are

the best-known applications of blockchain technologies.

Blockchain has also been applied to facilitating free and

fair elections, documenting supply chain performance for

increased efficiency, and facilitating transparent property

transactions.

Blockchain has potential applications and impacts for

security, in the context of the growing demand for verifiable

and reliable information; law, in support of preserving

legal evidence; the economy, via its potential to develop

reliable and inclusive financial mechanisms; government,

in helping reduce administrative burdens, and health, with

its potential to more effectively handle protected data.

In these fields and many others, we are just starting to

witness the full potential of blockchain applications.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology covers many convergences between digital

technologies and biology with numerous potential uses:

the discovery of new drugs; gene editing, which is the

insertion, deletion, modification, or replacement of DNA in

the genome of a living organism, which has the potential to

correct genetic defects to fight certain medical syndromes;

and brain-machine interfaces (also called brain-computer

interfaces), which allow direct communication between

the human brain and external devices with a mix of

potentials for treatment of health problems and the

mitigation of major risks from the possibility of hacking

human characteristics and actions.

Nanotechnology supports the development of devices on

a very small scale, using atoms and molecules. In addition

to applications in medicine for the delivery of drugs to

specific cells or organs, nanotechnology is used in the

hardware industry to develop smaller and smarter sensors

and more compact microprocessors. In environmental

protection, it finds applications in detecting impurities

in water and cleaning up pollutants and other uses that

might help control climate change.

The internet of things

The IoT offers a new generation of internet-connected

devices and has the potential to make significant

impacts on environmental monitoring, agriculture, and

disaster recovery, among others. IoT applications include

consumer electronics (internet-connected smart devices

and automated or connected home appliances), vehicles

(including self-driving cars), municipal infrastructure (smart

cities and smart houses, which connect in wide systems),

and medical devices (which, for instance, allow medical

professionals and patients to monitor health issues).

Other sectors that use IoT technology include energy,

infrastructure, agriculture, and manufacturing. IoT devices

and systems are often empowered by sensors that collect

a lot of data, which triggers many questions on data

ownership and protection.

The main issues related to the IoT are security (which

looks at the vulnerability of smart devices, and the need

56

What


Policy Topics

for security by design and default practices); infrastructure

(including standards and protocols); privacy issues

(including access to, misuse of, and the protection of data);

and issues related to emerging technologies (such as

drones, driverless cars, and 3D printing of human organs).

Quantum computing

Quantum technology powers the shift from storing

and processing information in binary 0 and 1 states to

quantum bits (qubits) that can represent 0 and 1 at the

same time, reducing the time needed to process a data set.

Today’s computing systems, although having significantly

improved decade after decade, can only solve problems

up to a certain size and complexity. Larger and more

complex issues require advanced processing capabilities,

and quantum computing promises to offer these.

The potential for quantum computing is often seen in

the following fields: secure communication via secure

cryptographic key exchange with major applications

in health, military, financial, and other areas of major

concerns for the security of data exchanges; powerful

computing that can bring about a new level of AI and other

technologies that require enormous processing power;

and measuring and censoring that can increase the high

precision required in medical research and treatment,

such as neural surgery.

While it remains to be seen if and how all of this potential

will be realised, quantum computing is attracting significant

research support from governments and venture capital

investment.

57

3D printing

3D printing enables the fabrication of diverse objects,

from those we use every day, such as household items,

to medical prosthetics and implants, and even entire

houses. 3D printing opens new economic possibilities for

automated manufacturing with far-reaching consequences

on the labour market. It also poses new security risks, such

as the possibility of printing weapons.

As a relatively new technological field, 3D printing

lacks globally adopted standards that can facilitate the

interoperability of the various 3D printing systems and

platforms. Legally speaking, 3D printing opens new issues

related to intellectual property rights in the chain from

designing to printing 3D objects (especially based on 2D

blueprints and designs), and the regulation of trade that

involves only electronic transactions, as it will be the

consumer who prints the physical goods.

5G networks

5G, the fifth-generation mobile network technology,

provides more bandwidth and faster transfer of data.

Compared to previous generations of mobile networks,

5G comes with significant improvements in speed, latency,

and bandwidth, enabling the real-time remote control of

automated processes and the greater optimisation of

network traffic.

What


Policy Topics

5G is likely to unlock further potential of the IoT, AI, and

other advanced technologies described in this section.

For example, it can support a massive sensor network

with thousands of simultaneous connections, which prior

generations of mobile networks could not come close to

hosting.

Infrastructure

Policy topics

The COVID-19 pandemic has vividly shown that digital

infrastructure is the critical infrastructure of modern

society.2 Many vital services from food supply to health

assistance and education were delivered online. As our

lives shifted online during the lockdowns, the importance

of a safe and running internet increased.

The smooth operation of the internet infrastructure relies

on three main layers: (a) the telecommunication layer,

which carries all digital traffic, for example, a medium like

fibre cables or wireless signals; (b) the technical standards

(internet) layer, which enables computers and networks

to communicate with each other and exchange data (like

Transport Communication Protocol/Internet Protocol –

TCP/IP); (c) the content and standards layer, which enables

computers to communicate with users, including, for

example, HTML for web browsing.

The telecommunication layer encompasses a wide range

of technologies and systems that carry digital traffic,

including landline and mobile telephone networks,

power grids, undersea cables, and satellite links. Frontier

technologies in this field include 5G mobile networks,

innovative wireless solutions, such as low-orbit satellite

networks providing access to remote areas, and smarter

use of unused frequencies in the radio spectrum (e.g.

white spaces). With the fast growth of the internet, the

telecommunications infrastructure has and continues to

expand with more cables and satellites providing increased

bandwidth and speed.

The internet layer ensures the flow of data among internet

applications. This flow is enabled by TCP/IP and other

standards set by the IETF. Given the core relevance of

these standards to the internet, they are carefully and

constantly reviewed by the IETF. Any changes to TCP/IP

require extensive prior discussion and proof that they are

an effective solution (i.e. the ‘running code’ principle).

Internet protocol (IP) numbers are unique numeric

addresses that every device connected to the internet

must have; each address specifies how to reach a network

location (e.g. a website) via the internet routing system.

Generally speaking, no two devices connected to the

internet can have the same IP address.

One of the main challenges to the system is the depleting

pool of internet protocol version 4 (IPv4) numbers and

the slow transition to version 6 (IPv6). The pressure for a

2

On the Common Heritage of Mankind and the internet’s critical infrastructure, see the statement by Dr Alex Sceberras Trigona, Malta.

58

What


Policy Topics

swift transition towards IPv6 will continue to increase as

users demand more IP numbers due to each user utilising

more devices, as well as future IP number needs for IoTconnected

devices. There are also ongoing discussions

– within the technical community and standard-setting

organisations – about the need to upgrade TCP/IP in order

to handle new digital developments.

The content and application layer is the top layer, which

facilitates development and uses web applications, apps,

and other tools. The user experience of digital technology

comes through apps and web pages on this layer.

The main standard for running the web is HTML, which

is managed by W3C. At the content and application layer,

digital policy takes greater prominence, including content

policy, dealing with fake news, and filtering hate speech.

Accessibility for people with disabilities is also managed

at the content and application layer of the internet

infrastructure.

Security and safety

However, security has mostly been an afterthought since

the early days of the internet as many market-driven tech

companies have employed a ‘release now, patch later’

approach. The growing use of cyberspace by state and

non-state actors for malicious purposes threatens peace

and security, trust in the digital economy and services, and

the potential for the digital transformation of societies and

economies.

Security risks for citizens, companies, and countries are

interrelated. Vulnerabilities exploited by criminals can

easily slide into a military arsenal and vice versa. Thus,

effective digital security requires a holistic approach to

better tackle the interplays between security, economic

development, human rights, as well as sociocultural and

infrastructural aspects.

Four main sets of topics are covered in security and safety

online: international peace and security, cybercrime, child

safety online, and online violent extremism.

International peace and security

The vulnerability of the internet is the vulnerability of

modern society. With more than 3 billion users, the

internet is the critical infrastructure of today’s society.

The financial sector, governmental services, the security

sector, schools, hospitals, and citizens are increasingly and

irreversibly dependent on the internet. A cyberattack on

a hospital during the pandemic crisis can result in the loss

of human lives, while attacks on financial institutions can

destabilise the entire economy of a country.

59

As countries invest in defensive and offensive cyber

capabilities, their impact on international peace and

security is intensively discussed. These capabilities range

from developing cyber tools to attack the information

security of other parties or protecting from such attacks,

to leveraging technologies such as AI, robotics, and 3D

printing in the context of military operations. It is in

this context that cyber conflicts and responsible state

behaviour in cyberspace are now placed high on the

agendas of regional and international organisations, as

What


Policy Topics

states attempt to agree on key issues such as conduct

in cyber conflicts (How can existing international law be

applied to cyberspace? Should new legal instruments

be developed as well?); humanitarian law (How can

the Geneva Conventions be applied to cyber conflicts?

Should new instruments be devised?); and weapons and

disarmament (How can cyberweapons be introduced into

the disarmament process?).

Digital technologies also impact the use of nuclear

technology and associated risks. Another area of security

and safety concerns is the use of facial recognition

technology (FRT) and biometrics. The use of FRT without

proper checks and balances, and outside the rule of law,

can lead to mass surveillance and the violation of human

rights.

Cybercrime

Cybercrime is a crime committed via the internet and

computer systems. One category of cybercrime is the

one affecting the confidentiality, integrity, and availability

of data and computer systems. It includes unauthorised

access to computer systems, illegal interception of data

transmissions, data interference (damaging, deletion,

deterioration, alteration of suppression of data), system

interference (the hindering without right of the functioning

of a computer or other device), forgery, fraud, and identity

theft.

Other types of cybercrimes are content-related and involve

the production, offering, distribution, procurement, and

possession of online content deemed as illegal according

to national laws. Examples include online child sexual

abuse material, material advocating a terrorist-related act,

extremist material (material encouraging hate, violence

or acts of terrorism), and cyberbullying (engaging in

offensive, menacing, or harassing behaviour through the

use of technology).

The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Interpol,

and various other organisations coordinate a wide range

of activities against cybercrime, and tech companies are

also active participants in fighting cybercrime and making

cyberspace more stable and secure.

Child safety online

Combating online child sexual abuse and exploitation

is the most developed area of international cooperation

against cybercrime. Many efforts focus on education

and awareness raising to increase the safety of users, in

particular children (who make up a third of online users),

and to prevent cybercrime, scams, and cyberbullying.

The protection of children online summons the most

intensive international cooperation in the digital policy

field, involving tech companies, civil society, governments,

and international organisations.

60

What


Policy Topics

Online violent extremism

Violent extremism online can be defined as the use of the

internet to promote terrorist causes and recruit terrorists.

Terrorists use online propaganda to radicalise or recruit

supporters and new members, and even to inspire ‘lone

wolf attacks’. Online propaganda also contributes to the

main goal of terrorist activities: disseminating fear in

society.

The online distribution of terrorist propaganda and

violent extremist content has become a recurring theme

in international politics, as well as a cause of concern for

internet companies. Terrorist groups have mastered the

use of the internet for propaganda, attempting to win

the ‘information war’, especially through social media

campaigns.

Human rights

‘The same rights that people have offline must also

be protected online’ is a widely accepted principle

in human rights law. Online, like offline, the value of

freedom, as an expression of the singularity of each

human being, is respected when every member of

society is permitted to fulfil their vocation, seek truth

and profess their religious, cultural, and political ideas,

express their opinions, choose their state of life and, as

far as possible, their line of work, and pursue initiatives

of an economic, social, or political nature.

The impact of digital technology on human rights is

mixed. Whereas the digital realm has opened new

possibilities for the advancement of human rights

and freedoms, it has also triggered and amplified

infringements of the very same rights. Our fundamental

rights are now subject to increased risks. To illustrate

this mixed impact of digitalisation, social networking

platforms have facilitated the exercise of our right to

freedom of expression and information, but have also

enabled censorship and violence against journalists.

The right to privacy and data protection have come into

sharper focus following the revelation of the extensive

amassing and use of personal data by social media and

other tech companies. The right to privacy underpins

other rights and freedoms, including the freedoms of

expression, association, and belief.

Moreover, the use of surveillance technologies that gather

our sensitive information has made the exercising of our

right to privacy increasingly complex.

The EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR),

which came into force in May 2018, has strengthened data

protection and privacy worldwide by inspiring new policy

conversations and the adoption of new laws.

61

What


Policy Topics

Data protection and/vs privacy

Privacy is usually defined as the right of citizens to

control their personal information and decide whether

to disclose it. Data protection is a legal mechanism

that ensures privacy. Privacy is a fundamental right,

recognised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

(UDHR), the International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights (ICCPR), and many other international and regional

human rights conventions. Data protection discussions

usually revolve around communication privacy (no

surveillance of communication) and information privacy

(the right of individuals to determine the handling of their

personal data).

Given the centrality of personal data in issues such as

privacy and consumer protection, the topics of big data,

e-commerce and digital business models, freedom of

expression, AI, the IoT, and emerging technologies are

very relevant to this right.

Freedom of expression is one of the fundamental

human rights, enshrined in several international and

regional human rights instruments. The internet,

with the opportunities it offers people to express

themselves, is an enabler of the exercise of this right.

However, online freedom of expression has also been

a contentious policy area in recent years. The right is

being curtailed through content control, censorship,

and surveillance.

Gender rights online address a major gender gap that

digital developments have amplified. Fewer women

access the internet than men, particularly in developing

regions. In addition, tech industry jobs, especially

decision-making positions in tech, are mostly held

by men. Gender rights online are also important for

containing increasing online violence against women

and girls.

The rights of people with disabilities have been

strengthened with new online tools and services that

can overcome disabilities barriers. Yet, there are still

major obstacles due to the limited accessibility of some

platforms and tools. The main framework for digital

cooperation is provided by the Convention on the

Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The right to be forgotten derives from the right to

erasure, a long-standing principle in EU data protection

laws. In 2014, the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU)

extended this right to what is known today as the ‘right

to be de-indexed’. Users can request platforms to deindex

names (i.e. remove them from search results) in

justifiable circumstances. The right to be forgotten is

now also regulated by the EU GDPR. In other regions,

several countries (such as Indonesia and South Korea)

have codified this right into law. Court cases have also

been interpreting and applying this right to other online

spaces, such as online company registries and court

databases.

Children’s rights online are of high importance as

62

What


Policy Topics

one-third of internet users are under 18 years of age.

The human rights approach introduced a new angle

to the previously predominant focus on child security

and safety. The main international instrument is the

Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989).

The rights of the elderly online are gaining new

relevance as, by 2035, the number of people over 65

is expected to outnumber those under the age of 18

worldwide. Online technologies can help the elderly

live independent, autonomous, dignified lives, improve

their emotional well-being, and increase their access to

education and lifelong learning.

Legal and regulatory

This cluster includes topics that have a strong legal

component, from data governance and jurisdiction, to

intellectual property rights and arbitration. The topics

interact with other digital policy issues, and, similarly,

legal aspects are prevalent in most internet governance

and digital policy discussions.

Data governance

Data has come into sharper public focus due to its

relevance for personal freedom and agency, economic

activities, and political life. Countries have started

considering data as a national asset. The flow and

storage of data have fast become a geopolitical issue.

Data governance has therefore climbed political

agendas worldwide. The regulation of data technologies

is shaped by policies and laws on security, privacy,

data localisation, standardisation, and interoperability.

The question of jurisdiction over data is becoming

particularly important as authorities around the world

request access to data held on cloud servers beyond

their national jurisdiction. Increasingly, countries are

pushing for data localisation (i.e. requiring domestic

and foreign companies to store data of residents within

national borders), especially when it comes to sensitive

data.

Jurisdiction

Every country has the right to exercise jurisdiction over

its citizens, territory, and subject matter. However,

the relationship between jurisdiction and the internet

has been ambiguous, due to the fact that the internet

is global. Jurisdiction depends predominantly on

the geographical division of the world into national

territories, while the internet facilitates considerable

cross-border exchange, which is difficult (although

not impossible) to monitor via traditional government

mechanisms. The question of jurisdiction of the internet

highlights one central dilemma: How is it possible to

‘anchor’ the internet within existing legal and political

geographies?

63

What


Policy Topics

Intellectual property rights

Knowledge and ideas are core resources in the global

economy. Their protection, through intellectual property

rights, has become a key issue in internet governance

debates. For instance, the traditional concept of copyright

has been challenged in numerous ways, from the simple

‘cutting and pasting’ of texts from the internet, to activities

such as the mass distribution of music and video materials

online.

The protection of trademarks in the context of domain

name registrations was one of the early internet

governance issues attracting the attention of the private

sector. AI advancements have brought into focus new

issues such as whether an AI system can or should be

recognised as a creator and granted certain intellectual

property rights.

Liability of intermediaries

Internet intermediaries play a key role in our daily use of

the internet and comprise a wide range of actors, including

internet access providers, hosting providers, search

engines, e-commerce platforms, and social networking

platforms. Given that intermediaries facilitate the flow

of third-party information online, they are often at the

centre of legal disputes involving copyright infringement,

the distribution of illegal and harmful content online, and

freedom of expression breaches.

Intermediaries are the most direct ways for governments

and courts to enforce laws in the digital space. From a legal

perspective, intermediaries can be held liable for thirdparty

illegal content in many contexts, including across

jurisdictions. To avoid legal responsibility for internet

users’ activities, some intermediaries – such as hosting

providers and search engines – have started introducing

certain controls for third-party content.

Development

Development and technology have been twins of progress

for centuries. More technology has often led to greater

overall societal development. The record of tech-driven

progress is impressive in many segments, from improving

our well-being to more innovations and economic growth.

While technology has contributed to alleviating poverty

and improving the well-being of many, it has posed risks

to society. For example, technologies like AI may challenge

the centrality of human beings in the growth of society

and, consequently, the relevance of progress. As the

singularity movement argues, humans may have to share

their unique rule with artificial systems. Progress may take

on a different shape, becoming more of an ethical issue

than a technological one.

64

What


Policy Topics

Access and the digital divide

The digital divide can be defined as a rift between

those who have access and the capability to use digital

technology, and those who, for technical, political, social,

or economic reasons, do not.

The COVID-19 crisis exacerbated digital divides. Many

communities in rural, remote, and low-income areas

remained unconnected as the rest of the world shifted

online. Already achieved levels of access to education,

health, and markets deteriorated as they remained

disconnected.

Inclusion and inequalities

Inclusion starts with access to networks as a precondition

of all other inclusions. But it is far from being sufficient. It is

also important to foster locally created content in familiar

languages (which are often different from the official

national language). Content also needs to be adjusted to

the local cultural context, to enable individuals to perceive

the usefulness and relevance of connecting to the internet.

Inclusion has other aspects, including financial inclusion

(i.e. access to affordable, useful, and trusted financial

and banking services) and economic inclusion (i.e.

participation of all individuals, groups, and communities in

the labour market, and equal access to entrepreneurship

opportunities and other business activities in the digital

economy). Policy inclusion requires the development of

individual and institutional capacities to formulate and

execute policy initiatives around issues of concern of

specific communities, such as women, the elderly, or the

youth. 3

Digital technology tends to amplify existing socioeconomic

inequalities, as we have seen during the COVID-19

pandemic. Many communities in rural, remote, and lowincome

areas have remained unconnected as most of our

economic and social life has shifted online. Without access

to the internet, people in such communities are unable to

participate in vital activities on digital networks.

Capacity development

Capacity development is often defined as the improvement

of knowledge, skills, and institutions for the effective use of

resources and opportunities. When it comes to internet and

digital-related matters, capacity development comprises

both the development of individual competences (skills

and abilities to meaningfully use digital technologies,

including digital literacy, privacy safeguards, etc.) and

the strengthening of institutional capacities (in particular

3

Inclusion often boils down to the simple participation of a few missing actors in the events. Very often, it does not imply the representation of these communities.

Thus, genuine representation would require much more bottom-up capacity development and discussions, which should probably take place first at the

national level, through associations (e.g. student unions, associations of indigenous groups, etc.). The conclusions of these discussions would feed into the global

debate ( individuals travelling to events would be carrying a more mature message forward, due to previous discussions). This is clearly stated by advocacy

groups for persons with disabilities: Nothing about us without us.

65

What


Policy Topics

for the deployment of infrastructures and technologies,

policymaking, and implementation). The effectiveness

of digital policy and governance depends greatly on the

capacity of nations, organisations, and individuals to

meaningfully participate in policy processes.

Sustainable development

As digital technologies transform industries, economies,

and societies, the concept of sustainable development is

becoming all the more relevant. As enablers, the internet,

AI, the IoT, and other technologies can help bridge digital

divides, tackle global challenges such as poverty and

climate change, and accelerate human well-being. But

digital transformation also increases inequalities and

disrupts social cohesion. It is therefore a joint responsibility

of all actors – public, private, and civil society – to mitigate

and minimise the adverse effects of technology and ensure

that it is the driving force behind sustainable development.

Digital and environment

Digitalisation has a multifaceted impact on nature and the

environment. While technologies such as AI and big data

can monitor and preserve endangered species on land or

detect overfishing practices and pollution levels in ocean

habitats, rapid digital transformation comes at a cost to

our environment. In part, the answer to this challenge lies

in developing technologies that are sustainable by design

to help move the needle towards a more sustainable and

circular economy.

The nexus between environment and digital could be

observed in the following aspects of environmental

policy: atmosphere, biodiversity, climate change, energy

consumption, food and agriculture, land and deforestation,

oceans and seas, use of rare materials, pollution and

e-waste, and water. However, three policy areas stand

out and cover the lifecycle of digital products and

infrastructure: energy consumption and its relationship to

climate change, raw material extraction and e-waste, and

the pursuit of a circular economy.

The impact of digital growth on energy consumption

and climate change. Digital technology consumes

significant amounts of energy. This is even more so

the case with the latest tech developments, such as AI,

blockchain, and cryptocurrency. Digitalisation’s demand

for energy will only grow as more integrated systems

emerge, especially as 5G and the IoT are adopted and

developed. Thus, there is a need for action aimed at both

reducing energy consumption and ensuring it comes from

renewable sources.

E-waste and the use of raw and rare earth materials.

Digital hardware uses a lot of raw and rare earth

materials, particularly when it comes to the production

of microprocessors, cameras, batteries, and electronic

displays.

The use of raw and rare earth materials has a twofold

impact on the environment. First, their extraction

process is toxic and expensive. ‘Rare’ is not related to their

availability in nature, but rather their toxic and expensive

extraction process. Second, the recycling of raw and rare

66

What


Policy Topics

earth materials has become a significant issue when it

comes to digital products, resulting in significant amounts

of so-called e-waste. Of the over 50 million tons of e-waste

generated annually, only around 20% is recycled, while the

rest is landfilled or incinerated, degrading our earth, air,

and water. This is a long-term threat to human nature, as

heavy metals such as mercury, lead, bromine, and arsenic

seep into the soil and groundwater.

Inequality is inherent to current e-waste practices as most

e-waste is sent to developing countries, meaning that

the greatest consumers of digital products (developed

countries) are largely spared its adverse effects. To this

end, both the production and disposal of raw and rare

materials open a wide range of environmental and human

rights issues.

Circular economy as a holistic solution for digital

technology and the environment. The circular economy

is often considered an integral solution that can protect

the environment while maximising the use and potential

of digital technologies.

The circular economy opens new possibilities, including

reducing pressure on the environment, improving

the security of the supply of raw materials, increasing

competitiveness, stimulating innovation, boosting

economic growth, and creating jobs.

Sustainable by design and circular economy approaches

are essential in reducing the impacts associated with digital

products. Far greater efforts must be made to ensure the

longevity of digital products and the effective recycling of

such products.

67

Economy

The impact of digitalisation on the economy is crosscutting

and profound. On the one hand, digital technology

is a major enabler of economic dynamism.

Humankind can use technology to boost innovation,

increase consumer choices, and enhance human wellbeing.

In addition, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the

digital industry played an important role in providing

critical services for society, from the delivery of food to

online learning and work.

On the other hand, the benefits of the digital economy

– in terms of productivity and labour opportunities, for

instance – are neither as big nor as evenly distributed as it

is often claimed.

There is a persistent concentration of digital assets, such

as data sets, in the hands of certain large technology

companies located in a few jurisdictions, and market forces

alone have not been able to ensure the structural change

and technological upgrading of developing countries.

In addition, the centralisation of the economic power of

tech companies increases as digitalisation penetrates

other segments of the economy, from services to

manufacturing, transportation, and traditional retail.

Through mergers and acquisitions, large companies are

consolidating further across sectors, and the data they

amass in each sector gives them even more of an edge.

Apple, Microsoft, Amazon, Alphabet (Google), Meta,

Tencent, and Alibaba are increasingly investing in all parts

of the global data value chain: data collection through

What


Policy Topics

platform services; data transmissions through submarine

cables and satellites; data storage (data centres); and data

analysis, processing, and use.

Competition policy and anti-monopoly

Market regulators worldwide, from Beijing to Brussels and

Washington DC, are trying to curb the market domination

of tech monopolies and ensure the vibrancy and innovation

of global economic life.

The tech sector is prone to concentrating economic power

naturally, as it benefits from the networking effect by

which each additional user adds to the value of companies

exponentially. New users also trigger the data-network

effect. Companies use data to attract more users, who

then generate more data, which in turn helps improve

services, and ultimately, attract more users. This dynamic

creates new market distortions, in particular through the

use of data and AI.

The main underlying challenge is that the data network

effect creates natural monopolies that strengthen

consolidation and concentration in the digital economy

and distort market competition.

In dealing with digital antitrust cases, market competition

authorities worldwide enter uncharted terrain, facing a

number of challenges.

First, the current competition regulatory mechanisms are

very slow. Taking five years or more to issue a decision

in a competition case, for instance, is almost an eternity

compared to the fast-changing digital industry.

68

Second, competition authorities have to gather a lot of

evidence to justify antitrust measures. A case in point is

preemptive mergers, where dominant firms may swallow

up their future rivals. As the latter often have not sold

anything or are operating in a very limited market niche,

no data can be brought to bear on a decision and so such

mergers cannot be challenged.

Third, most small and developing countries are unable

to drive competition policy in the digital realm mainly

due to a lack of capacity in the field of digital regulation.

But the absence of adequate competition policy could

endanger their economic and social stability, as many

local and traditional brick-and-mortar businesses might

be overtaken by global tech giants. Competition policy can

support gradual and well-managed economic transitions

and could facilitate the growth of digital small and

medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in small and developing

economies.

Taxation

Three major developments have put taxation at the focus

of digital policy.

First, governments worldwide are searching for new fiscal

streams to supplement countries’ budgets hit by public

deficits and austerity measures, particularly after the 2008

financial crisis.

Second, traditional industries, such as advertising and

retail, are increasingly digitalised and often operating

beyond national jurisdictions, leading to shrinking fiscal

revenues for governments.

What


Policy Topics

Third, the tech industry tends to shift profits offshore

to avoid paying taxes in the countries that host their

economic activities.

The traditional model of taxation is based on the

jurisdiction where tech companies are legally incorporated.

For example, in Europe, many tech companies are legally

incorporated in Ireland, which is, therefore, also the

country where they are taxed. However, this model is

not sustainable as many countries require taxation in

jurisdictions where value is generated, which is where the

users of tech services are located.

At the global level, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation

and Development (OECD) is the main policy

space for addressing international digital taxation issues.

The 1998 OECD Ottawa Principles, the main international

document on digital taxation, specifies that offline tax

regulations apply online. In October 2021, over 140

countries agreed to a new set of global tax rules jointly

developed by the OECD and the G20.

Trade and e-commerce

Global flows of goods, services, and money have historically

underpinned economic and social development. These

flows have been transported in many ways: in ships

across oceans, in chariots on ancient highways, in trucks

over paved roads, and by cargo planes. In the 21st century,

global flows are increasingly carried by datagrams –

packets of digital information flowing through fibre-optic

cables.

The most visible interfaces connecting individuals to

global flows are digital platforms. Amazon and Alibaba are

the world’s largest e-commerce companies, maintaining

enormous market shares. Platforms facilitate access

to market information and reduce transaction costs

for consumers. They can democratise e-commerce by

facilitating access to the global market for micro, small, and

medium enterprises (MSMEs) as well. Nevertheless, many

MSMEs face obstacles accessing these platforms. It may

also be difficult for MSMEs to compete with the products

offered by the platforms themselves.

In a post-pandemic scenario, the shift towards e-commerce

is considered an opportunity to boost economic recovery.

Nevertheless, the acceleration of e-commerce has

occurred mostly in developed economies and relatively

high-income developing economies.

Even though the pandemic has pushed more consumers

in developing countries to buy online, many e-commerce

businesses in these countries have seen a slump in sales

due to the sharp fall in disposable income.

SMEs and retail businesses were less able to scale up

their processes and respond to increased demand for

online shopping for goods and services. At the same time,

big internet companies – whose business models are

data-intensive – have seen their profits rise during the

pandemic. The disparity regarding internet usage growth

during the pandemic corroborates the magnitude of the

digital divide.

69

What


Policy Topics

The uneven digital leap forward taken by many industries

and countries risks widening the gap between the

technological ‘haves and have-nots’, threatening to further

damage social cohesion and global cooperation. In this

scenario, international and regulatory cooperation are of

key importance not only to facilitate seamless cross-border

trade but also to foster inclusion in the digital economy.

Trade agreements create an enabling environment

for e-commerce, but they also result in significant

redistribution and create winners and losers. The influence

of a few countries from the developed world on agendasetting

and norms-making, and the influence of private

sector groups on the formulation of trade policy, suggest

that concentration trends could be reinforced, both in

terms of economic and political power. Without proactive

policies to tackle the digital and data divides, social and

economic inequalities are likely to increase.

Consumer protection

rarely needed international protection; they were buying

locally and therefore needed local customer protection.

With e-commerce, an increasing number of transactions

take place across international borders.

Jurisdiction is a significant issue surrounding consumer

protection. It involves two main approaches. The first

favours the seller (mainly e-business) and is a countryof-origin/prescribed-by-seller

approach. In this scenario,

e-commerce companies have the advantage of relying

on a predictable and well-known legal environment. The

other approach, which favours the customer, is a countryof-destination

approach.

The main disadvantage for e-commerce companies is the

potential for exposure to a wide variety of legal jurisdictions.

One possible solution to this dilemma is a more intensive

harmonisation of consumer protection rules, making the

question of jurisdiction less relevant.

Future of work and labour issues

Consumer trust is one of the main preconditions for the

success of e-commerce. E-commerce is still relatively new,

and consumers are not as confident in it as they are in realworld

shopping. Consumer protection is an important legal

method for developing trust in e-commerce. E-commerce

regulation should protect customers in a number of areas,

such as online handling of payment card information,

misleading advertising, or delivery of defective products.

A new idiosyncrasy of e-commerce is the

internationalisation of consumer protection, which is not a

vital issue in traditional commerce. In the past, consumers

70

Another challenge that comes with the digital economy is

related to the future of work and the threat of potential job

loss with the rise of AI, robotics, and automation. One of

the characteristics of the emerging labour market will be

polarisation towards, on the one hand, highly specialised

top experts, and on the other, manual workers.

The machinery of the middle layers, especially in

administration and management, is likely to shrink in

size and importance. There is hope that this shift will

free some time for creative work instead of repetitive

What


Policy Topics

tasks. While it remains to be seen if this promise will be

realised, the immediate focus should be on assisting

transitory generations. Every industrial revolution, from

textile factories to today, has had a lost generation that got

caught in the middle of the transition.

In the fast-changing labour landscape, sharing economy

platforms (also known as platforms operating in the gig,

access, or collaborative economy) have given rise to new

types of jobs. Companies operating in the sharing economy

have three main features in common: the prevalence of

contractual and temporary employment, a digital platform

or app for (quasi) peer-to-peer transactions, and a rating

system for evaluating the quality of the service provided.

While these features have helped companies grow, the

sharing economy has also brought issues related to the

protection of workers’ social well-being and labour rights

into sharper focus.

Sociocultural

The sociocultural cluster includes policy issues triggered by

the broad impact of the internet and digital technologies

on the social and cultural life of modern society. Among

them are content policy, cultural diversity, and digital

identities.

Content policy and media

Content policies have come to the attention of the global

public, especially when such content affects or disrupts

elections and the political processes of a country.

COVID-19 has also triggered ‘infodemics’ that challenge

prevailing consensus around facts and scientific findings.

Tech platforms have been placed under intense scrutiny

– especially by governments – over their ability to identify

and remove such content as swiftly as possible. In some

countries, legislation is replacing self-regulation, which is

being deemed insufficient.

Content issues are addressed from various perspectives,

including government policies on content (motives

for filtering include national security, public order, the

protection of the democratic system, and politically

motivated censorship), human rights (the impact of

content policies on rights such as freedom of expression

and the right to communicate), and technological tools

(such as the use of AI for content filtering).

The advance of social media has accelerated the spread

of false information and online acts of hate speech.

Supported by new technologies such as AI, misinformation

is today spread at an unprecedented scale and pace,

inflicting harm on human dignity, health and well-being,

targeting certain communities and vulnerable groups, and

eroding trust in democratic institutions. Demystifying the

truth behind fake news and disinformation is one of the

main challenges in the digital age.

Content issues should be addressed in short, medium,

and long-term perspectives. In the short term, urgent

measures should be taken to end the use of social media

for inflaming conflict, with potential risks to human lives

and the security of society. Such measures should be

71

What


Policy Topics

exceptional, taken for a limited time in full compliance

with the law. In the medium term, countries should adopt

necessary laws and regulations to govern content policy.

Because content policy is so important for democracy

and freedom of expression, all content policy measures

must be governed by clear legal safeguards. In the long

term, content policy and the fight against fake news must

be addressed via media literacy and critical thinking

development through education.

Cultural diversity and multilingualism

The promotion of multilingualism in the digital space is

both a cultural issue and one related to the need for the

further development of the internet. If the internet is to be

used by wider parts of society, content must be accessible

in more languages.

Advancing multilingualism online requires technical

standards that facilitate the use of non-Latin alphabets,

as well as the implementation of these standards by

developers, vendors, and service providers.

Cultural diversity is a wide concept, and can include

diversity of language, national identities, traditions, and

religions. The relation between the internet (or, more

broadly, information and communications technologies)

and cultural diversity, in its various forms, is twofold. On

the one hand, the internet, through its ability to facilitate

both exchanges between individuals with different cultural

backgrounds and access to vast resources of information

and knowledge, can contribute to the promotion of

cultural diversity at a global level. The internet also offers

individuals new possibilities to express themselves in ways

that reflect their national and cultural identities; usergenerated

content therefore, becomes a new modality

through which the diversity of cultures is better reflected

and promoted worldwide. On the other hand, cultural

diversity is essential to the development of an inclusive

information society that is based on dialogue and respect

among cultures.

In the online environment, the preservation, enhancement,

and promotion of cultural diversity can be achieved through,

among other things, encouraging the development of local

content which is relevant to the culture and languages

of individuals. Additionally, the translation, adaptation

and online distribution of existing local content, and the

preservation of varied information reflecting indigenous

knowledge and traditions through digital means represent

other forms of promoting cultural diversity. Digital archives

can also contribute to strengthening local communities,

documenting and preserving local heritage. This is

particularly relevant for communities that are isolated

or nomadic, whose technological needs might require

approaches that are entirely localised. The production and

distribution of software in local languages also has the

potential to increase the rates of internet adoption.

Digital identities

Digital identities shape human rights and the overall

participation of individuals in digitally driven economic and

social life. Digital identity refers to identifying individuals

72

What


Policy Topics

directly via an ID or online credentials, or indirectly through

transactions we conduct (contacts, transfers of money)

or digital artefacts we use (mobile, driverless cars, home

appliances). Digital identity solutions are provided by tech

platforms and governments.

Tech platforms, such as Facebook and Google, filled the

gap in digital identity by providing credentials to access

many digital platforms and services.4 This role of an

‘identity broker’ gives tech companies significant power

over data and, in turn, a deep understanding of individuals’

economic, political, and social activities. Digital identities

and associated data are used as the basis for business

models by leading tech companies.

Governments, as traditional providers of the identity of

citizens, have been trying to govern digital identities as

well. One of the most developed systems is represented

by India’s Aadhaar and India Stack, which aim to provide a

digital identity to 1.3 billion citizens as part of public services

with the necessary mechanisms for the protection of their

identity, privacy, and security. Based on this publicly owned

infrastructure, businesses and other actors can provide

their services, such as e-commerce or inclusive finance.

Digital identity opens many policy issues. These include

the protection of privacy and anonymity of biometric data,

the protection of children, and potential risks of misuse of

digital identity in the case of conflict and crisis.

4

Many apps and online services can be accessed by existing Facebook or Google profiles or credentials. Users do not need to provide new usernames

and passwords.

73

Section 4

How

do legal and policy

instruments facilitate

digital governance in

Geneva?

75

How

Legal and Policy Instruments


Different kinds of instruments are used to implement

regulations, policies, and programmes. In the digital

realm, there is a mix of traditional instruments applied

to digital issues (conventions and standards) and new

approaches being developed specifically for digital

issues (e.g. online dispute resolution mechanisms).

This section summarises the main instruments used in

the work of the actors presented in the Digital Geneva

Atlas.

International law: Conventions and treaties

On the international level, most digital relations between

domestic entities and states are managed by the rules

of international private law (conflict law in the Anglo-

Saxon tradition), which deals with contracts, torts, and

commercial responsibilities. International public law,

which regulates relations between countries, is currently

in a transition phase when it comes to digitalisation.

So far, there are few treaties and conventions dealing

exclusively with digital issues. One of the first instruments

was the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime,

adopted in 2001.

In Geneva, ITU is the repository of a wide

set of conventions and treaties dealing with

telecommunications infrastructure, such as the

International Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs). In

the coming years, the main challenge will be to apply

environmental, human rights, trade, and humanitarian

issues to the digital realm. As the principle ‘offline rules

apply online’1 is accepted as a customary rule, the

main focus will be on the implementation process. In

some cases, the specificities of digital issues could be

addressed by adopting additional protocols to existing

treaties and conventions.

Soft law: Declarations, resolutions,

recommendations, guidelines, and compacts

Soft law instruments include declarations, resolutions,

recommendations, guidelines, and compacts that are

not legally binding, as are treaties and conventions.

Ultimately, soft law can evolve into customary law if

countries follow the practices outlined in soft law rules.

Some of the first soft law instruments in the digital realm

are the documents developed in the context of the WSIS,

including the Declaration of Principles, the Geneva Plan

of Action, and the Tunis Agenda for the Information

Society. In cybersecurity, soft law instruments are UN

General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions adapting the

reports developed by the UN Government Group of

Experts (UN GGE) and the Open-Ended Working Group

(UN OEWG). In 2024, a major development was the GDC,

adopted by UN member states as an annex to the Pact

for the Future, on 22 September 2024 during the Summit

of the Future.

1

For the application to online/offline human rights see A/HRC/32/L.20 https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/32/L.20

76

How


Soft law instruments have a few advantages compared to

treaties for dealing with digital topics. First, they are less

demanding from a legislative perspective because they

do not require formal ratification by national parliaments.

Second, they are flexible enough to facilitate the testing

of new approaches and adjust to rapid developments in

the digital field.

Third, soft law can facilitate easier involvement of civil

society, business, and academia in the development and

use of digital technologies.

Digital standards

Our digital reality is shaped and supported by the

standards guiding the manufacture and use of digital

devices and services, from our mobile phones to social

media platforms and video-conferencing services. Digital

standards foster interoperability, quality of service, and

safety. Thus, they have high importance for innovation,

economic growth, safety, and the sustainability of the

digital space. Increasingly, human rights and the public

interest are entering the focus of digital standards,

especially those dealing with data, AI, and biotechnology.

As policy implementation instruments, standards are

increasingly used to address topics where countries do

not agree on international conventions.

The global standardisation landscape is very complex,

consisting of a diverse set of organisations, working

methods, and procedures, with three main groups of

actors:

• Formal standards development organisations

(SDOs): ITU (for telecommunications standards),

the ISO (for business and security standards), and

the IEC (for electronic device standards)

• Quasi-formal organisations: the Internet

Engineering Task Force (IETF; for internet standards),

the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE), the Wi-Fi Alliance (for Wi-Fi standards), and

W3C (for web standards)

• Industry forums and consortia

Geneva hosts all three major SDOs, while other

standardisation organisations are located in other

countries and regions.

Self-regulation: Business policies and terms of

reference

Business policies and terms of reference shape the

digital realities of billions of users of Facebook, Twitter,

and other digital services. Business policies are probably

the most impactful digital policy instruments. We

accept them whenever we want to use some (now)

indispensable digital services. Self-regulation was

very useful in the internet’s infancy; however, with the

growing power of tech platforms, public authorities

have started questioning self-regulation instruments,

77

How


especially in areas of high public interest such as data

protection, content policy, and freedom of expression.

Sustainable development goals

There are no dedicated SDGs for digital technology in

the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development. The

way the 2030 Agenda addresses digital developments

is an example of a technology-neutral approach where

rules and policies are more related to values and society

than to specific technologies. This makes the 2030

Agenda applicable to any current and future digital

developments, from AI to biotechnology.

There are two forms of interplay between digitalisation

and the SDGs. The first and main one is the use of

digitalisation for the achievement of the SDGs. The

second is the use of the SDGs as an instrument for

the implementation of digital governance, providing

an interdisciplinary approach to digital policy and

establishing guardrails for AI developments.

The interdisciplinary approach to digital policy is a

serious challenge for synchronising digital policy to the

transversal impact of digital concepts on society. In the

current language, the SDGs can help break down policy

silos.

The SDGs can also serve as guardrails for the development

of AI. If AI developers follow the SDGs, their algorithms

will holistically support the core values of humanity.

In addition to ethics, which is currently a focus of AI

debates, their algorithms would also increase inclusion

in economic and social life, reduce inequalities, and

support marginalised communities. Since each aspect of

AI development is covered by 17 SDGs and 169 targets,

the global tech and governance community should

start using them as available, practical, and measurable

guidelines for the development and monitoring of AI

applications.

Impact assessments and due diligence

Impact assessments and due diligence are ex ante policy

instruments for dealing with the uncertainty of digital

developments that may pose significant risks for society.

Impact assessments are particularly important in

the field of AI, which has a profound impact on core

human values, including the preservation of human

life (autonomous weapons), human dignity (respect for

privacy), human well-being (mental health, reducing

poverty), human agency (labour rights, and the rights to

choice and decision-making), our natural habitat (climate

change, e-waste), and human diversity (protection of

vulnerable and marginalised groups). Impact assessment

mechanisms contribute to trust-building if they are

transparent, inclusive, and evidence-based. While all

actors, including companies and academia, can establish

impact assessment mechanisms, governments are

responsible for setting the framework for these activities

78

How


and leading impact assessment on digital technologies

that might pose major risks for the public order, health,

and overall well-being of human society.

There are new practices and initiatives for digital impact

assessments. The UNESCO Recommendation on the

ethics of AI, for instance, provides elaborate proposals

for impact assessment in AI development. Businesses

can develop impact assessments by following the UN

Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.

Due diligence is a well-established legal principle that

includes taking all necessary steps to prevent negative

outcomes, such as cybersecurity risks or misuse of

the system. It does not guarantee that prohibited

developments will not occur, but it provides immunity

from legal responsibility for companies if they have

proactively taken all due diligence measures.

Oversight

Once a digital technology is deployed, it requires oversight

of its impact. National regulators perform oversight in

many sectors. In addition to telecommunications and

data, regulators are increasingly covering the cross-cutting

impact of digitalisation on finance, market access, and

security.

AI governance initiatives emphasise the need for

human oversight as a primary requirement, with

special significance in the use of autonomous weapons

and juridical decisions. Oversight is also important for

minimising the bias of AI in automated systems.

79

One overlooked and underutilised system for digital

and AI oversight is the SDG system of goals, targets, and

indices, as discussed earlier in this section. It provides

quantifiable criteria for the oversight of the cross-cutting

impacts of digitalisation on society.

Whistle-blowers have historically been, and continue to

be, important contributors to oversight. In particular,

their insights on the workings of tech companies,

including business decisions and the development of AI,

are providing useful input for parliaments and the general

public for digital policy actions. Given their importance

for future digital developments, tech whistleblowers

should enjoy special legal protection.

Digital strategies

Digital strategies build awareness and put all actors from

national, regional, and global levels on, if not the same,

at least a closer policy page. As digital topics came into

focus, national and other strategies started appearing.

Ten years ago, cybersecurity strategies emerged to

address the challenges and vulnerabilities of cyberspace.

Five years ago, the main focus was on data strategies.

Today, countries worldwide are adopting AI strategies to

steer the development of AI and AI-based technologies.

Digital strategies are used by Geneva-based actors to

foster action on digitalisation with a special focus on

cybersecurity, e-commerce, data, and AI.

How


Dispute resolution and mediation

In addition to the courts, alternative dispute resolution

(ADR) and online dispute resolution (ODR) mechanisms

are used extensively for solving disputes and conflicts in

the digital realm. Compared to traditional courts, ADR

and ODR offer more flexible, less expensive, and faster

ways of settling disputes. It is also easier to enforce

arbitration decisions following the New York Convention

on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral

Awards, as national courts are now obliged to enforce

arbitration awards.

Typically, digital cases are addressed in traditional

arbitration using a well-developed system of rules and

institutions when dealing with commercial disputes.

There are new types of dispute resolution mechanisms,

such as the Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution

Policy (UDRP), developed by WIPO and the Internet

Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN),

as the primary dispute resolution procedure in issues

related to domain name registrations.

Many internet companies (e.g. Google, Meta, and Twitter)

have also developed their own mechanisms. Following

the CJEU ruling on the right to be forgotten, Google

established a special procedure allowing individuals to

request the removal of websites from search results.

The COVID-19 crisis has accelerated the use of ODR

instruments because traditional courts could not meet

in person. We will see the impacts of this change in ODR

resolutions in the future.

Geneva, in addition to hosting WIPO’s Arbitration and

Mediation Centre (which deals, among other issues, with

domain name disputes), has a vibrant arbitral scene.

Some practitioners and academics discuss and practice

innovative approaches to arbitration using online tools

as well as dealing with resolving online disputes.

80

Section 5

Who

are the main digital

actors in Geneva?

83

The Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development

ITU | Palais des Nations | 1211 Geneva 20 | Switzerland

ITU Liaison Office to the UN | 2 UN Plaza | Suite 2524 | New York, NY 10017, USA

UNESCO | Place de Fontenoy | 75352 Paris | France

www.broadbandcommission.org

About the Broadband Commission

The Broadband Commission is a high-level public-private

partnership fostering digital cooperation and developing

actionable recommendations for achieving universal

meaningful connectivity as a means of advancing

progress on the SDGs.

Established in 2010 by ITU, the United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), H.E.

President Paul Kagame of Rwanda, and Mr Carlos Slim

Helú of Mexico, its mission is to boost the importance

of broadband on the international policy agenda and

expand broadband access to every country. Today, the

Commission is composed of more than 50 Commissioners

representing a cross-cutting group of top CEOs and

industry leaders, senior policymakers and government

representatives, and experts from international

agencies, academia, and organisations concerned with

development.

The Commission is leveraging the strength of its

membership and collective expertise to advocate for

meaningful, safe, secure, and sustainable broadband

communications services that reflect human and

children’s rights.

86

The Broadband Commission puts universal broadband

connectivity at the forefront of global policy

discussions. With a membership of high-level

public and private sector leaders,

we develop practical and sustainable policy

recommendations to accelerate progress

towards achieving the 2030 Agenda

and our seven Advocacy Targets.

Leadership

Message by the Broadband Commission Leadership

H.E. President Paul Kagame, Co-Chair, President of Rwanda - ‘The transformational impact

of broadband on people’s lives and global economies is no longer questionable; the remaining

challenge is to extend these obvious benefits to the majority of global citizens and allow them

to unleash their creative potential to fully integrate into the information-driven global economy.

This will require new frameworks for global cooperation in the areas of investment, research,

and technology. The Broadband Commission for Digital Development will work to realise this

potential.’

87

Message by the Broadband Commission Leadership

‘Emerging technology trends such as artificial intelligence are anticipated to add trillions to the

global digital economy’, said Rwanda’s Minister of Information Communications Technology

and Innovation Paula Ingabire. ‘The ability to harness artificial intelligence to revolutionise

access to broadband and other services as well as boost productivity for different sectors will

require massive investments in the building blocks including power, connectivity and computing

resources, particularly in emerging economies.’

Mr Carlos Slim, Founder and President of Grupo Carso, Co-Chair of the Commission - ‘The

use of artificial intelligence is not new, but recent advancements in data, computing power, and

algorithms are driving innovative services. The rapid development of generative AI highlights its

potential for original content and new applications. We must redesign talent and retrain workers

in digital skills to maximise these benefits.’

Ms Doreen Bogdan-Martin, Co-Vice Chair of the Commission, Secretary-General of ITU -

‘Broadband is fundamental to ensure that everyone can benefit from digital technologies when

so many people are still offline around the world. AI and other emerging technologies can help

efforts to achieve universal meaningful connectivity, and it’s our job to make sure this happens

in a way that is responsible for people and the planet.’

Ms Audrey Azoulay, Co-Vice Chair of the Commission, Director General of UNESCO - ‘Having

two-thirds of the world’s population now online is a cause for celebration. But with only half as

many connected in least-developed countries, and even less among women, the new report

shows the urgent work still to be done. We must also address the risks faced by those online,

through better governance of digital platforms, ethical use of AI and massive upscaling in digital

skills, including media and information literacy.’

88

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The Commission develops policy recommendations and

thought leadership focused on the use of broadband

connectivity to accelerate progress towards achieving the

2030 Agenda and universal and meaningful connectivity.

To mobilise efforts to bring the life-changing benefits

of digital transformation to everyone, the Broadband

Commission puts broadband connectivity at the forefront

of global policy discussions.

The Commission’s efforts are detailed in our flagship

annual collaborative State of Broadband Report, and

throughout the year, take the form of thematic Working

Groups and their publications, regular meetings, and

advocacy activities on the margins of other key events

such as SDG Digital, GSMA MWC, HLPF, WSIS, and UNGA.

The Broadband Commission outlines its seven objectives

in its 2025 Broadband Advocacy Targets. These targets

reflect ambitious and aspirational goals and function

as a policy and programmatic guide for national

and international action in sustainable and inclusive

broadband development.

Each year, the Commission hosts Working Groups to dive

deeper into prominent issues affecting broadband access,

affordability, and use. Working Groups are proposed

and led by Commissioners, with the support of external

experts. The outcome of the discussion and research of

these groups is a consensus-based collaborative report

which provides policy recommendations for addressing

the issues examined, in alignment with the Commission’s

targets and elements of the UN 2030 Agenda.

89

Credit: broadbandcommission.org

DIGITAL POLICY ISSUES

Digital infrastructure

The Commission promotes the adoption of best

practices and policies that enable the deployment of

broadband networks at the national level, especially

among developing countries. The Commission engages

in advocacy activities aimed at demonstrating that

broadband networks are fundamental to modern

societies and the achievement of the SDGs. Each year, the

Broadband Commission publishes a State of Broadband

Report, providing a global overview of the current state

of broadband network access and affordability and use,

an update on the Commission’s 7 Advocacy Targets,

and insights/impact stories from Commissioners on

multistakeholder actions for accelerating the achievement

of universal meaningful connectivity.

The most recent report, ‘The State of Broadband 2024:

Leveraging AI for Universal Connectivity’, offers an initial

overview of how AI applications are already shaping

development in areas as diverse as e-government,

education, digital health, digital finance, and the

environment. The report highlights how AI can potentially

help connect the 2.6 billion people still not connected to

the internet, while also discussing challenges associated

with AI, risks and implications for the digital divide. The

report reviewed how AI solutions can accelerate progress

on broadband advocacy targets aimed at getting

everyone online and achieving the SDGs.

The Commission has launched a number of working

groups focused on connectivity infrastructure and

financing, including the World Bank-led Digital

Infrastructure Moonshot for Africa and the Working

Group on 21st Century Financing Models for Sustainable

Broadband Development. These initiatives aim to

provide governments and policymakers, as well as

the private sector and development partners, with a

set of holistic policy recommendations to accelerate

broadband connectivity, close digital gaps, and foster

innovative financing and investment strategies to achieve

the Commission’s targets for broadband and to provide

universal and affordable access to the internet. The

Working Group on School Connectivity has also identified

a set of core principles to help governments and other

interested stakeholders to develop more holistic school

connectivity plans.

The Commission has established specific Advocacy

Targets to assess progress in broadband access and

identify remaining connectivity gaps. The Commission

tracks progress on the Targets in its annual flagship

State of Broadband Reports. Advocacy Target 1 focuses

on making broadband policy universal by 2025, calling

for all countries to have a funded National Broadband

Plan or include broadband in their Universal Access

and Service Definition. As of 2022, 155 countries have

a national broadband plan or strategic document

emphasising broadband, which is a decrease from 165

in 2021. The Commission notes that implementation

90

and operationalisation of existing national plans are key

challenges, especially for boosting broadband access in

rural areas.

Access, skills, and use

When advocating for the rollout of broadband

infrastructure and bridging the digital divide, the

Commission underlines the increasing importance of

internet access and adoption as an enabler of inclusive

sustainable growth and development.

The Commission pays particular attention to aspects

related to infrastructure deployment in developing

countries, inclusive and relevant digital content creation

and education, connectivity for small businesses, and

access to broadband/internet-enabled devices.

Recent broadband reports covering these topics include

the Commission’s working groups on Connectivity for

MSMEs, Smartphone Access, and Data for Learning.

These working groups aim to advance progress on the

Commission’s 2025 Advocacy Targets on micro-, small-,

and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs), universal

connectivity, and digital skills development.

The Broadband Commission Working Group on

Connectivity for MSMEs, co-chaired by the GSMA and

the International Trade Centre (ITC), has released the

‘Making Digital Connectivity Work for MSMEs’ report,

identifying a five-part framework for addressing barriers

and challenges to MSME connectivity, including: Access

(secured connectivity, devices, and digital services);

Affordability (services and devices must be affordable);

Knowledge and Digital Skills (awareness of tools and

skills to use them); Relevance (awareness of benefits and

ecosystem of platforms); and Safety and Security (trust in

online services and addressing risks).

The Broadband Commission has also developed a

compilation of impact stories from its members on their

impressive work to narrow the gender digital divide. The

2024 International Impact Story Compilation is focused on

Advocacy Target 7, which emphasises that ‘gender equality

should be achieved across all targets’ by 2025. This entails

eliminating gender disparities in broadband policy,

affordability, online access, skills development, e-finance,

MSME connectivity, and more. By prioritising gender

equality within its advocacy efforts, the Commission

aims to foster an environment where everyone can fully

participate and benefit from the opportunities afforded

by broadband connectivity.


The Commission advocates for actions to be taken by all

relevant stakeholders with the aim of closing the digital

divide, a crucial step towards achieving the SDGs. The

Commission’s annual State of Broadband Report looks at

the progress made in implementing broadband networks

in various countries around the world, which it regards

as an essential element in addressing the digital divide.

In addition, the Working Group on Smartphone Access

91

DIGITAL TOOLS AND INITIATIVES

examines the smartphone access gap and provides

strategies for achieving universal smartphone ownership

so that all communities may benefit from access to digital

services.

In support of SDG Digital, an event hosted by ITU and

UNDP with the aim of bringing digital SDG solutions to

scale, Broadband Commissioners offered insights into

various use cases for digital technologies to accelerate

progress towards achieving the SDGs, highlighting the

crucial importance that everyone plays in harnessing the

power of digital for a brighter future.

Interdisciplinary approaches: Digital

cooperation

The Commission prepared a contribution to the GDC,

calling for the Compact to be anchored in the vision

of a connected, inclusive, and sustainable world and

expresses the need to ensure consistency between

existing multilateral and multistakeholder forums and

mechanisms, avoiding duplication and ensuring that

efforts complement, build on, and reinforce existing

frameworks and successful activities, which have proven

to be impactful.

Through its various Working Group initiatives and

the advocacy of our Commissioners, the Broadband

Commission is an exemplary initiative of SDG 17:

‘Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise

the global partnership for sustainable development’

in action. The Commission’s policy recommendations

92

advocate for global digital cooperation, providing

considerations for all sectors to enhance collaboration to

reach the goal of universal meaningful connectivity.

The Commission is also contributing to other UN

processes, actively participating in key UN initiatives

and conferences, working to elevate broadband to the

forefront of the international policy agenda, for example,

with annual inputs to the High-Level Political Forum on

Sustainable Development (HLPF) or WSIS.

Digital tools and initiatives

Resources

The Broadband Commission’s website, social media, and

various online channels feature landmark reports, which

are available for free:

• The State of Broadband Reports

• Working Group on ‘Data Governance in the Digital

Age’

• Making Connectivity Work for MSMEs

• The Transformative Potential of Data for Learning

• Strategies Towards Universal Smartphone Access

• Artificial Intelligence and Digital Transformation:

Competencies for Civil Servants

• Broadband Commission 2020 Universal

Connectivity

• Manifesto

• The Future of Virtual Health and Care

• 21st Century Financing Models for Bridging

Connectivity Gaps

• Connecting Learning Spaces: Possibilities for Hybrid

Learning

• Importance of ICT and Global Cooperation for

Future Epidemic Management

• Reimagining Global Health through Artificial

Intelligence: The Roadmap to AI Maturity

• Balancing Act: Countering Digital Disinformation

While Respecting Freedom of Expression

• The Digital Transformation of Education:

Connecting Schools, Empowering Learners

• Connecting Africa Through Broadband: A Strategy

for Doubling Connectivity by 2021 and Reaching

Universal Access by 2030

• Epidemic Preparedness: Preventing the Spread of

Epidemics Using ICTs

• Digital Health: A Call for Government Leadership

and Cooperation between ICT and Health

• The Promise of Digital Health: Addressing Noncommunicable

Diseases to Accelerate Universal

Health Coverage in LMICs

• Child Online Safety: Minimising the Risk of Violence,

Abuse and Exploitation Online

• Digital Gender Divide: Bridging the Gender Gap in

Internet and Broadband Access and Use

The Broadband Commission has also been instrumental

in launching the following global initiatives and is an active

participant in:

• EQUALS: The ITU/ITC/GSMA/UN Women Global

Partnership for Gender Equality in the Digital Age:

• GIGA: The ITU/UNICEF Global Initiative to Connect

• The Child Online Safety Universal Declaration

• Partner2Connect Digital Coalition

• SDG Digital

Social media channels

Facebook @broadbandcommission

Flickr @Broadband Commission

LinkedIn @broadband-commission

X @UNBBCom

YouTube @Broadband Commission

93

Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue

(HD)

114 rue de Lausanne | Geneva 1202 | Switzerland

www.hdcentre.org

About Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue

The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (HD) is a Swissbased

private diplomacy organisation founded on the

principles of humanity, impartiality, and independence.

Its mission is to help prevent, mitigate, and resolve

armed conflict through dialogue and mediation.

For this, HD uses the tools of private diplomacy to

expand the space for the nonviolent resolution of armed

conflict. They aim to open channels of communication

and mediate between parties in conflict, facilitate

dialogue, provide support to the broader mediation and

peacebuilding community, carry out capacity-building

work, and conduct research on mediation issues. HD

deploys its expertise to support local processes that

protect civilians and foster lasting and just peace. HD

links and collaborates with multiple organisations

within the mediation field. As it marks its 25th year, HD

is active in most of the world’s conflicts with mediation

projects in various parts of Africa, the Middle East,

Eurasia, and Asia.

96

The frontlines of conflict are now increasingly digital.

HD’s Digital Conflict team is the bridge between

these modern realities and traditional

mediation.

David Harland

Executive Director

Message by the HD Executive Director

HD’s cyber programme includes tracks of bilateral and regional dialogue that draw on and feed

into broader multilateral initiatives to create a global framework for cyber stability.

With backgrounds in government, academia, peacemaking, technology and mediation, HD

experts are committed to sharing resources to improve understanding of social media’s effects

on peace processes. They engage with various countries possessing advanced cyber capabilities

to develop a range of confidence-building measures.

97

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Humanitarian Dialogue recognises the profound changes

that digitalisation has brought to conflict and its potential

solutions and attempts to bridge the divide between

traditional mediation and the requirements of modern

realities. HD’s Social Media and Conflict Mediation

Programme identifies the threats that new media

platforms and sophisticated cyber and information

operations pose to geopolitical stability, and supports

projects in various regions to deliver innovative solutions.

HD’s Cyber Programme includes tracks of bilateral and

regional dialogue that draw on and feed into broader

multilateral initiatives to create a global framework

for cyber stability. HD engages with various countries

possessing advanced cyber capabilities to develop a

range of confidence-building measures.

These efforts are supported by process design, onthe-ground

analysis, and the capacity to connect the

different levels of conflicts and peacemaking, while

providing discreet advice and ideas to the international

peace community.

Activities mainly revolve around:

• Mediation and dialogue facilitation: HD brings

together conflict parties and stakeholders to find

mutually acceptable agreements.

• Mediation support: HD supports other mediators

and intermediaries in peace processes.

• Peace negotiation support: HD engages with

conflict parties and stakeholders to prepare them

for talks and advance negotiations.

• Informal diplomacy: HD supports diplomatic

efforts to increase peaceful cooperation between

states and prevent conflict or its escalation.

98

Credit: HD


Cyberconflict and warfare

The frontlines of conflict are now increasingly digital.

HD’s Digital Conflict team is the bridge between these

modern realities and traditional mediation.

HD’s Social Media and Conflict Mediation

Programme supports projects in various regions

and is delivering innovative solutions that include: A

landmark social media peace agreement among three

communities in Nigeria to limit inflammatory content

that has fuelled deadly ethno-religious conflict; Codes

of conduct for responsible online behaviour during

elections in Indonesia and Kosovo* 1 ; A citizens’ forum

in Bosnia and Herzegovina that developed standards

for social media conduct in the run-up to elections; A

dialogue with social media platforms on the importance

of protecting peace processes from social media harm.


LinkedIn @Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (HD)

X @hdcentre

YouTube @thecentreforhumanitariandi8980

Flickr @The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue


In partnership with Build Up, HD has developed

a toolkit to help mediators analyse social media

activities and better understand how these insights can

complement dialogue and mediation efforts. The clear

and practical guide features case studies from Sudan,

Ukraine, Yemen, and other conflict areas.

1

This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with

UNSCR 1244/99 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

99

European Organization for Nuclear Research

(CERN)

Esplanade des Particules 1 | 1217 Meyrin | Switzerland

www.cern.ch

About CERN

CERN is widely recognised as one of the world’s leading

laboratories for particle physics. At CERN, physicists

and engineers probe the fundamental structure of the

universe. To do this, they use the world’s largest and most

complex scientific instruments – particle accelerators and

detectors. Technologies developed at CERN go on to have

a significant impact through their applications in wider

society.

102

The spirit of openness is one of the European

Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)’s core

values; we actively promote the open sharing

of what we develop and produce.

Fabiola Gianotti

Director-General

Message by the CERN Director-General

CERN’s mission is to perform world-class fundamental research in particle physics. We also play

a vital role in developing cutting-edge technologies, bringing nations together, and training the

young generation. CERN is a driver of innovation for the benefit of science and society. The openscience

approach we embrace and promote is essential to achieving our objectives.

103

Message by the CERN Director-General

High-energy physics research is highly collaborative; open science is encoded in CERN’s DNA.

This spirit of openness is one of CERN’s core values and we actively promote the open sharing

of what we develop and produce. The World Wide Web (WWW) is one prominent example. In

1989, Sir Tim Berners-Lee gave a short paper to some of his colleagues at CERN. Behind the

rather basic title, ‘Information Management: A Proposal’, was a vision that would transform the

way we accessed information and connected at a global level. It was the vision that became the

World Wide Web, whose software was released in 1993 free of charge for everyone to use and

develop. CERN continues to pioneer open science, supporting open-source hardware (with the

CERN Open Hardware Licence), open access publications (with the Sponsoring Consortium for

Open Access Publishing in Particle Physics – SCOAP3), and open data (with the Open Data Portal

for the LHC experiments).

We value our partnerships with other international organisations, working together for the

collective good and drawing on our respective experience and expertise. Indico, our awardwinning

open-source service for online meetings ‘Indico’ has been adopted by the UN and other

organisations in Geneva and beyond to organise more than 900,000 events around the world.

By accelerating open science, CERN advances inclusiveness and collaboration to reduce divides

and inequality across national borders, disciplines, and sectors even through times of pandemics,

conflict, and uncertainty.

104

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

CERN has had an important role in the history of

computing and networks. The World Wide Web (WWW)

was invented at CERN by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. The web

was originally conceived and developed to meet the

demand for automated information-sharing between

scientists at universities and institutes around the

world.

Grid computing, the precursor of modern cloud

computing, was also developed at CERN with partners

across a worldwide community and with funding from

the European Commission. Today, the Organisation

carries out pioneering activities in the areas of

cybersecurity, big data processing, long-term data

preservation, deep learning (DL) and AI, and quantum

technologies.

105

Credit: home.cern


Artificial intelligence 1

Through CERN openlab, European Commission-funded

projects and collaborations with other international

organisations, CERN collaborates with leading

ICT companies and research institutes. The R&D

projects carried out through different public-private

partnerships address topics related to ultra-fast data

acquisition, accelerated computing platforms, data

storage architectures, computer provisioning and

management, networks and communication, deep

learning and data analytics, and quantum technologies.

CERN researchers use Machine Learning techniques as

part of their efforts to maximise the discovery potential

and optimise resource usage. ML and DL are used, for

instance, to improve the performance of the Large

Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments in areas such as

particle detection and managing computing resources.

Going one step further, at the intersection of AI and

quantum computing, the CERN Quantum Technology

Initiative is exploring the feasibility of using quantum

algorithms to track the particles produced by collisions

in the LHC, and is working on developing quantum

algorithms to help optimise how data is distributed for

storage in the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG).

The CERN Quantum Technology Initiative (QTI) activities,

launched in 2020 to shape CERN’s role in the next

quantum revolution. In 2024, CERN launched the Open

Quantum Institute, a three-year pilot programme that

will help unleash the full power of quantum computing

for the benefit of all.

• CERN openlab: a public-private partnership in

which CERN collaborates with ICT companies and

other research organisations to accelerate the

development of cutting-edge solutions for the

research community, including ML.

• CERN QTI: a comprehensive R&D, academic,

and knowledge-sharing initiative to exploit the

quantum advantage for high-energy physics

and beyond. Given CERN’s increasing ITC and

computing demands, as well as the significant

national and international interests in quantumtechnology

activities, it aims to provide dedicated

mechanisms for the exchange of both knowledge

and innovation.

• CERN OQI: Following a successful one-year

incubation period led by GESDA, the three-year

CERN-based pilot was launched in March 2024.

Proposed, designed, and incubated through

GESDA, in collaboration with some 180 experts

from all over the world, the OQI is a multilateral

science diplomacy initiative, uniting academia,

technology companies, the private sector, the

diplomatic community, philanthropy organisations,

and global citizens in a joint effort towards more

1

AI-related projects are developed and referred to as part of the CERN openlab activities.

106

open and inclusive quantum computing. By

facilitating equal access to cutting-edge nascent

technologies and serving as the societal arm of

QTI, the OQI seeks to accelerate the potential of

quantum computing for all society and to support

the development of concrete quantum solutions

aimed at achieving the UN SDGs.

• Next Generation Triggers: The Next Generation

Triggers project, or NextGen, started in January

2024 as a collaboration between CERN (the

Experimental Physics, Theoretical Physics and

Information Technology Departments) and the

ATLAS and CMS experiments. The key objective

of the five-year NextGen project is to get more

physics information out of the HL-LHC data. The

hope is to uncover as-yet-unseen phenomena

by more efficiently selecting interesting physics

events while rejecting background noise. Scientists

will make use of neural network optimisation,

quantum-inspired algorithms, high-performance

computing and field-programmable gate array

(FPGA) techniques to improve the theoretical

modelling and optimise their tools in the search

for ultra-rare events.

Cloud computing 2

The scale and complexity of data from the LHC, the

world’s largest particle accelerator, is unprecedented.

This data needs to be stored, easily retrieved, and

analysed by physicists worldwide. This requires

massive storage facilities, global networking, immense

computing power, and funding. CERN initially did not

have the computing or financial resources to crunch all

of the data on-site, so in 2002 it turned to grid computing

to share the burden with computer centres around the

world. The WLCG builds on the ideas of grid technology

initially proposed by Ian Foster and Carl Kesselman

in 1999. The WLCG relies on a distributed computing

infrastructure, as data from the collisions of protons or

heavy ions is distributed via the internet for processing

at data centres worldwide. The approach of using virtual

machines was a precursor to the same paradigm used

today in cloud computing. Today, CERN is developing

new grid and cloud technologies in particular for largescale

AI deployment. It is expected that CERN’s further

developments in the field of data processing will

continue to influence digital technologies.

CERN has two data centres - one in Meyrin and a second

one in Prévessin. The average amount of collision data

recorded on disk by the LHC experiments is currently

a little under 3 petabytes (PB) per day, which is almost

equal to what was recorded in one month during Run 1.

2

Within its work, CERN includes ‘cloud computing’ in the general category of ‘distributed computing’ with grid computing and other computing models.

107

All data produced at CERN still passes through the Meyrin

Data Centre, which is the only facility connected to all

experimental sites via ultra-fast optical fibre networks.

The Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG) consists of

around 170 centres distributed across 40 countries. IN

2025, the WLCG celebrates its first 20 years.

Telecommunications infrastructure 3

In the 1970s, CERN developed CERNET, a lab-wide

network to access mainframe computers in its data

centre. This pioneering network eventually led to CERN

becoming an early European adopter of Transmission

Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) for use in

connecting systems on site. In 1989, CERN opened its

first external TCP/IP connections and by 1990, CERN

had become the largest internet site in Europe and

was ready to host the first WWW server. Nowadays,

in addition to the WLCG and its distributed computing

infrastructure, CERN is also the host of the CERN Internet

eXchange Point (CIXP), which optimises CERN’s internet

connectivity and is also open to interested internet

service providers (ISPs).

• How the internet came to CERN

• CERN Internet eXchange Point (CIXP)

Through the CERN Quantum Technology Initiative, CERN

is actively working to deliver more precise frequency

signals from national metrology institutes to CERN

experiments and beyond, and to improve the reliability

of future quantum networks.

Digital standards 4

Ever since releasing the World Wide Web software under

an open-source model in 1994, CERN has been a pioneer

in the open-source field, supporting open-source

hardware (with the CERN Open Hardware Licence),

open access (with the Sponsoring Consortium for Open

Access Publishing in Particle Physics SCOAP3) and open

data (with the CERN Open Data Portal). Several CERN

technologies are being developed with open science in

mind, such as Indico, InvenioRDM, REANA, and Zenodo.

Open-source software, such as CERNBox, CERN Tape

Archive (CTA), EOS, File Transfer Service (FTS), GeantIV,

ROOT, RUCIO, and Service for Web-Based Analysis

(SWAN), has been developed to handle, distribute, and

analyse the huge volumes of data generated by the LHC

experiments and are also made available to the wider

society.

• IETF (in the context of the additional work done

by IETF on internet standards)

• Pushing the Boundaries of Open Science at

CERN: Submission to the UNESCO Open Science

Consultation

3

Within its work, CERN refers to ‘telecommunications infrastructure’ as ‘network infrastructure’.

4

Within its work, CERN addresses ‘web standards’ as ‘open science’.

108

DIGITAL TOOLS

Data governance 5

CERN manages vast amounts of data; not only scientific

data, but also data in more common formats such as

webpages, images and videos, documents, and more.

For instance, the CERN Data Centre processes on

average one petabyte (one million gigabytes) of data

per day. As such, the organisation notes that it faces the

challenge of preserving its digital memory. CERN also

points to the fact that many of the tools that are used to

preserve data generated by the LHC and other scientific

projects are also suitable for preserving other types of

data and are made available to wider society.

The CERN Open Data Policy for scientific experiments

at the LHC is essential to make scientific research more

reproducible, accessible, and collaborative. It reflects

the values enshrined in the CERN Convention for more

than 60 years and reaffirmed in the European Strategy

for Particle Physics (2020), aiming at empowering

the LHC experiments to adopt a consistent approach

towards openness and preservation of experimental

data (applying FAIR standards to better share and reuse

data).

EOSC Future is an EU-funded project contributing to

the establishment of the European Open Science Cloud

(EOSC) to provide a Web of FAIR Data and Services for

science in Europe. The implementation of EOSC is based

on the long-term process of alignment and coordination

pursued by the Commission since 2015.

CERN joined the recently formed EOSC Association in

2020. The EOSC Association is the legal entity established

to govern EOSC and has since grown to more than 250

members and observers.

• DPHEP (Data Preservation in High Energy Physics)

(CERN is a founding member)

• The CERN Open Data Policy

• EOSC (European Open Science Cloud) (CERN is a

mandated organisation and member of the EOSC

Association)

• Online learning opportunities – through CERN

academic training

• Online introductory lectures on quantum

computing – through CERN QTI


Facebook @cern

Instagram @cern

LinkedIn @cern

X @CERN

YouTube @CERN

5

Within its work, CERN refers to ‘data governance’ as ‘data preservation’.

109

The Commission on Science and Technology for Development

(CSTD)

Palais des Nations, Av. de la Paix 8-14 | 1211 Geneva | Switzerland

www.unctad.org/en/Pages/cstd.aspx

About the CSTD

The Commission on Science and Technology for

Development (CSTD) is a subsidiary of the UN Economic

and Social Council (ECOSOC). It was established to advise

the UNGA on science and technology issues through

analysis and appropriate policy recommendations. It is

the focal point of the UN for science, technology, and

innovation for development.

Under the mandate given by ECOSOC, the CSTD

leads the follow-up to the outcomes of the WSIS and

advises ECOSOC accordingly, including through the

elaboration of recommendations aimed at furthering

the implementation of the WSIS outcomes. UNCTAD is

responsible for servicing the CSTD.

112

Bridging the digital divide requires efforts to

continue improving connectivity, affordability,

availability of devices and services, digital

literacy and skills, relevant and inclusive

content and access to information and

knowledge. It also requires a combination

of policy and governance, infrastructure,

education, inclusive innovation and

empowerment of marginal groups.

It’s about opportunity, equity,

and inclusion in a digital world.

Amb. Prof. Muhammadou M. O. Kah

Chairman

Message by the CSTD Chairman

Cascading crises and systemic shocks have left developing countries with increasing debt,

stagnating growth, and limited resources to cope. Our goals for a sustainable future are in

jeopardy, with reversals in progress towards the SDGs in recent years. The economic, social, and

environmental challenges we face are daunting. Science, technology and innovation represent

a great hope for offering potential solutions to the critical challenges that face humanity today.

113

Message by the CSTD Chairman

As the focal point in the UN system for science, technology, and innovation (STI) for development,

the Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD)’s role is pivotal in promoting

the use of STI to advance the implementation of the 2030 Agenda. We see this as a critical element

in fostering the ability of countries to harness STI as essential tools for solving the national and

international economic, social, and environmental challenges that we must overcome to improve

welfare for all countries and people while taking care of the planet.

CSTD is an international platform that brings countries together to foster international

understanding, share experiences, and collaborate on STI for development. We address key

thematic issues related to sustainable development and the SDGs, with two thematic issues

discussed each year and an annual follow-up to progress made in the implementation of the

WSIS. This year, the CSTD will review 20 years of WSIS implementation. The outcome of the

CSTD review will be submitted to the General Assembly via ECOSOC. It promotes concrete

collaborations between member states to enable developing countries to benefit from and use

frontier technologies and more traditional technologies to address their development challenges.

We also provide a space for discussing national STI policies and strategies employed by member

countries in their pursuit of sustainable development and for sharing different national policy

experiences and perspectives.

We are proud to support multilateral collaboration on STI for the benefit of all humanity and to

help bring hope for realistic solutions to a world under great strain.

For more information, please visit:

https://unctad.org/topic/commission-on-science-and-technology-for-development

114

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The CSTD reviews progress made in the implementation

of and follow-up to the WSIS outcomes at regional and

international levels. It also discusses STI, including frontier

technologies, many of which are digital technologies and

are largely linked with digitalisation. Based on thematic

reviews and discussions, the CSTD prepares draft

resolutions for ECOSOC. These draft resolutions tackle

issues ranging from access to the internet and ICTs and

frontier technologies to the use of these technologies

in achieving sustainable development. Sustainable

development is particularly linked to the 2030 Agenda

for Sustainable Development and the 17 SDGs, including

topics in recent years related to climate action (SDG 13),

clean water and sanitation (SDG 6), affordable and clean

energy (SDG 7), sustainable cities and communities (SDG

11), Industry 4.0 (SDG 9), and partnerships (SDG 17). Digital

technologies play a role in all SDGs. At each of its annual

sessions and intersessional panels, the CSTD addresses

two priority themes regarding the use of STI, including

digital technologies, in different areas related to the

various SDGs.

115

Credit: Shutterstock


Artificial intelligence 1

As part of its work on assessing the impact of technological

change on inclusive and sustainable development, the CSTD

is also exploring the role of frontier technologies, including

AI. At its 23rd session in 2020, the CSTD focused its work

on digital frontier technologies, such as AI, big data, and

robotics, which offer opportunities to accelerate progress

in achieving the SDGs, while also posing new challenges

(e.g., disrupting labour markets, widening digital divides,

and raising ethical questions). For 2021, the CSTD chose

another digital technology – blockchain for sustainable

development – as a priority theme. In 2022, the CSTD

deliberated on industry 4.0 technologies (such as AI, big

data, IoT, and robotics) for inclusive development. For 2023,

the themes were the use of STI solutions, especially digital

technologies, to achieve SDG 6 on water and sanitation, as

well as technology and innovation for cleaner and more

productive and competitive production (including digital

Industry 4.0 technologies). In 2024, CSTD’s work focused

on data for development and global cooperation in STI

for development (which includes cooperation on digital

infrastructure and digital technologies). For the most

recent themes in 2025, Diversifying economies in a world

of accelerated digitalization, the CSTD examines the shift

from export-oriented industrialisation to technology-led

transformation.

• Diversifying economies in a world of accelerated

digitalization (2025)

• Data for development (2024)

• Ensuring safe water and sanitation for all: A solution

through science, technology and innovation (2023)

• Industry 4.0 for Inclusive Development (2022)

• Harnessing blockchain for sustainable

development: prospects and challenges (2021)

• Harnessing rapid technological change for inclusive

and sustainable development (2020)

• CSTD Dialogue, which brings together leaders

and experts to address the question: ‘What must

be done to ensure that the potential offered by

science, technology, and innovation (STI) towards

achieving the SDGs is ultimately realised?’ This

dialogue also aims to contribute to ‘rigorous

thinking on the opportunities and challenges of STI

in several crucial areas including gender equality,

food security and poverty reduction’.

• Articles on the webpage explore AI-related issues,

such as the role of AI in health, a principled

approach to AI (written by actors from different

stakeholder groups), and Investing in AI-driven

innovation for social good

1

Within the work of the CSTD, AI is placed under the term ‘frontier technologies’, which also includes big data analytics, biotech and genome editing, and

the internet of things (IoT).

116

• A hybrid of a physical and online side event on AI

strategies, organised during the 25th CSTD

• A side event on the multifaceted implications of AI,

organised during the 26th CSTD

• Technology and innovation for cleaner and more

productive and competitive production (2023)

Access 2

During its annual sessions and intersessional panels, as

well as in its draft resolutions for ECOSOC, the CSTD tackles

aspects related to the digital divide and outlines the need

for further progress in addressing the impediments that

developing countries face in accessing new technologies. It

often underlines the need for coordinated efforts among

all stakeholders to bridge the digital divide in its various

dimensions: access to infrastructure, affordability, quality

of access, digital skills, gender gap, and others. To this aim,

the CSTD recommends policies and actions to improve

connectivity and access to infrastructure, affordability,

multilingualism and cultural preservation, digital skills and

digital literacy, capacity development, and appropriate

financing mechanisms. There is an annual follow-up to

the progress made on WSIS implementation, which is a

critical international process for evaluating progress in

overcoming the digital divide in internet access within

and across countries. There is also a 20-year review of

WSIS, called WSIS+20, to be held in 2025 in the General

Assembly. The CSTD has been undertaking a series of

global and regional open consultations to gather inputs

from multistakeholders for its report on WSIS+20 to be

submitted, through ECOSOC, to the General Assembly in

2025.

• ECOSOC and General Assembly Resolutions related

to WSIS and ICT4D

• 2024 Report of the Secretary-General: Progress

made in the implementation of and follow-up to the

outcomes of the World Summit on the Information

Society at the regional and international levels

• 2023 Report of the Secretary-General: Progress

made in the implementation of and follow-up to the

outcomes of the World Summit on the Information

Society at the regional and international levels


As the UN focal point for STI for development, the CSTD

analyses the impact of digital technologies on sustainable

development (assessing opportunities, risks, and

challenges), including from the perspective of the principle

of ‘leaving no one behind’. The CSTD also works to identify

strategies, policies, and actions to foster the use of

technology to empower people and ensure inclusiveness

and equality. In addition, it acts as a forum for strategic

2

In the CSTD’s work, disparities related to access to the internet are referred to as the ‘digital divide’.

117

planning, sharing good practices, and providing foresight

about emerging and disruptive technologies.

• UNGA Resolution: Impact of rapid technological

change on the achievement of the sustainable

development goals

• ECOSOC resolutions related to science and

technology for development

• GA resolutions on science, technology and

innovation for development

The impact of rapid technological change on sustainable

development (2019). The paper was prepared by UNCTAD,

which services the CSTD, in response to the UNGA

resolution 72/242, requesting the CSTD to give due

consideration to the impacts of key rapid technological

changes on the achievement of the SDGs.


Capacity development is one of the recurring themes that

appear in draft resolutions prepared by the CSTD on the

implementation of and follow-up to the WSIS outcomes.

The CSTD often emphasises the need for countries and

other stakeholders to focus on capacity development

policies and actions to further enhance the role of the

internet as a catalyst for growth and development.

Strengthening the capacity of stakeholders to participate

in internet governance processes is another objective the

CSTD has been calling for, especially in regard to the IGF.

• Articles on the webpage explore issues related

to capacity development, such as enhancing the

participation of women and girls in STEM careers

(written by actors from different stakeholder

groups)

• Project on using digital technologies for

development: CropWatch Innovative Cooperation

Programme

• Project of Harnessing space technological

applications in sustainable urban development

Interdisciplinary approaches: Internet

governance

The CSTD was mandated to review the IGF process and

suggest improvements. To this aim, the Working Group on

Improvements to the IGF was established, and in 2012, a

report recommending a number of action items regarding

the IGF was delivered. The CSTD was also entrusted with

the mandate to initiate discussions about enhanced

cooperation in internet governance. It convened two

working groups on enhanced cooperation (2013–2014

and 2016–2018); although consensus seemed to have

been reached on some issues, a divergence of views

persisted on others and the Working Group could not

reach consensus on recommendations on how to further

implement enhanced cooperation as envisioned by the

Tunis Agenda.

118

DIGITAL TOOLS

• Report of the Chair of the Working Group on

Enhanced Cooperation (2018)

• CSTD working group to examine the mandate

of WSIS regarding enhanced cooperation as

contained in the Tunis Agenda (2014)

• Working Group on Enhanced Cooperation (2016–

2018)

• Working Group on Enhanced Cooperation (2013–

2014)

In addition, with the rich experience and expertise

accumulated through the nearly 20 years’ review of WSIS

engaging multistakeholders, the CSTD has been given

an important role in the GDC. For example, the GDC

requested the CSTD to establish a dedicated Working

Group on Data Governance and report on its progress

to the General Assembly, including on fundamental

principles of data governance at all levels as relevant for

development.

UNCTAD is in charge of servicing the CSTD. As such, digital

tools used by UNCTAD (e.g. platform for online meetings,

social media for communications purposes) are also

employed for CSTD-related purposes. For example,

the 23rd and 24th CSTD annual sessions, as well as the

intersessional panel of the 24th CSTD were purely virtual,

using the Interprefy platform. The intersessional panel

and the annual session of the 25th CSTD were hybrid,

combining online and in-person participation. The online

platforms used were Interprefy and Zoom, respectively.

CSTD meetings have returned to a more conventional inperson

format, but digital platforms remain widely in use

for the work of the CSTD.


Facebook @UNCTAD

Flickr @UNCTAD

Instagram @unctad

LinkedIn @UNCTAD

X @UNCTAD

YouTube @UNCTADOnline

119

The Consumer Unity & Trust Society

(CUTS International Geneva)

37-39 Rue de Vermont | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.cuts-geneva.org

About CUTS

Since its establishment in 1983–84, CUTS International

has been a leading southern voice in the space of trade,

economics, and development to ensure consumer

sovereignty. As digitalisation accelerated across sectors,

CUTS has undertaken many research, advocacy,

networking, and capacity building initiatives, within

the realm of the digital economy to enable consumers,

particularly the poor and marginalised social groups,

to achieve their right to basic needs, sustainable

development, and good governance through a strong

consumer movement. Being a global independent

nonprofit, non-governmental organisation (NGO) working

on public interest issues, CUTS addresses three main

thematic areas: Rules-based trade, Effective regulation,

and Good governance. Within these focus areas, CUTS has

undertaken multiple initiatives promoting competition,

investment, regulation, trade, and governance reforms

across sectors, through evidence-based research in least

developed and developing countries. This is being done

through a strongly rooted presence across India and at

the global level, including Lusaka, Nairobi, Accra, Hanoi,

Geneva, and Washington, DC.

Established in 2008, CUTS International Geneva is a

nonprofit NGO that catalyses the pro-trade, pro-equity

voices of the Global South in international trade and

development debates in Geneva. Through its work, it has

made a name for linking people and issues in the world of

multilateral trade with their counterparts in related policy

areas. These include regional integration, agriculture,

environment, competition, investment, and consumer

protection, among others. Its vision is to pursue social

justice and economic equity within and across borders

by persuading governments and empowering people.

Its mission is to establish and promote a pro-trade proequity

credible southern NGO voice, as well as the means

to achieve this in the policymaking circles working on trade

and development and other related issues in Geneva. Its

objectives are to:

• Improve inclusivity in relevant policymaking

processes and decisions through better

participation of developing countries’ stakeholders,

including at the grassroots level.

• Build the capacity of policymakers, negotiators, and

other important stakeholders through demanddriven

and needs-based research and analysis.

• Contribute to a deeper and broader understanding

of relevant issues through targeted and researchbased

outputs.

• Enhance policy coherence at all levels by analysing

and raising the profile of issue linkages.

• Facilitate mutual learning through information and

knowledge sharing across networks.

• Stimulate common interests among developed and

developing countries through advocacy, dialogues,

and networking.

122

CUTS adopts a bottom-up approach that promotes

the engagement of key stakeholders in designing and

implementing economic development policies, from the

national to the international level. Their successful work

methodology relies on research and analysis to inform

advocacy and training activities, involving networks of

beneficiaries at all stages. With offices in India, Kenya,

Zambia, Vietnam, Ghana, Switzerland (Geneva), and the

USA (Washington, DC), CUTS’s family of organisations has

made its footprint in the realm of economic governance

across the developing world and beyond. As a vibrant

advocate of South-South cooperation and economic

democracy, CUTS has been forming and maintaining

strategic alliances with like-minded organisations in

over 50 countries, particularly in the developing world.

At the international level, it has established formal

institutional relationships with several intergovernmental

organisations, whose work it seeks to influence. These

are, the WTO – accredited NGO, UNCTAD – observer

status, East African Community secretariat (EAC) – MOU,

Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA) –

MOU, and the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) – observer status.

123

124

We must advance sustainable development

in the world through various activities

covering research, advocacy, networking

and capacity building, with a focus

on the Global South so that people

everywhere are able to sustain

a decent life.

Pradeep S. Mehta

Secretary-General

Message by the CUTS Secretary-General

In an increasingly digitalised socioeconomic world, Consumer Unity & Trust Society (CUTS

International) is actively engaging with multiple aspects of the digital economy, including digital

financial services, telecommunication, e-commerce, urban mobility, data protection and privacy,

online problematic content, encryption, ethical 6G and multiparty privacy. Centred on the voice

of consumers, CUTS has adopted a bottom-up approach to various issues about competition

and economic regulation within the digital economy.

125

Message by the CUTS Secretary-General

On issues related to the digital economy, particularly encryption, privacy and data protection,

strategic affairs, consumer trust and safety, CUTS continues to provide evidence-based strategic

suggestions to relevant policymakers and regulators. This has been coupled with advocacy and

outreach efforts to relevant stakeholders, including civil society and media organisations, among

others. Thus, an outcome-driven approach is followed while promoting fair markets to enhance

consumer welfare and economic growth.

To ensure that regulations are sensitive towards all stakeholders, both businesses and

consumers, in the area of the digital economy CUTS has undertaken and/or is implementing

multiple projects such as Consumer Impact Assessment of Data Localisation, Ease of Doing

Digital Business, Identifying Elements of Ethical Framework for 6G and Creating Opportunities

for India and Australia, as well as the mapping of the digital landscape in the Philippines, Kenya,

Vietnam, Bangladesh, Ghana, and India, among others.

These projects contribute to the existing literature within the digital realm and to building capacity

among consumers in developing countries. Inherently, these activities are aimed at building the

capacity of southern civil society across Africa and Asia for achieving inclusive economic growth

and sustainable development.

CUTS is also a member of the UNCTAD E-Trade for All Initiative.

126

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

CUTS’s work and expertise span three functional areas:

• International trade and development

• Competition, investment, and economic regulation

• Consumer protection and good governance

CUTS International, Geneva, Switzerland, and its sister

CUTS organisations in India, Kenya, Zambia, Vietnam, the

USA, and Ghana have made their footprints in the realm of

economic governance across the developing world. Their

activities stretch from Asia to Africa, South America, and

beyond.

127



E-commerce

CUTS works towards sound digital policy, fair rules, and

e-commerce readiness, which can enable developing

countries to harness the potential of e-commerce for

their sustainable development, firms, and vulnerable

communities. CUTS supports developing countries

in effectively harnessing innovation and intellectual

property systems to spur industrialisation in the digital

era, while responding to climate change, food security,

and other sustainable development challenges.

Support facility on WTO E-Commerce Joint Statement

Initiative (JSI)

As WTO JSI talks on Electronic Commerce gained

momentum in 2021, CUTS’s ad-hoc support facility

on the subject established under its WTO Umbrella

Grant attracted trade negotiators’ interest beyond

its initially intended audience. Indeed, apart from

delegates from the 11 targeted beneficiary countries,

other developing country negotiators sought to benefit

from the support. Through over 70 interventions,

CUTS provided beneficiary delegates with clarifications

on negotiating texts, factual briefings on negotiated

topics, and occasional support in drafting submissions

and proposals. This informed their participation in

e-commerce talks, on topics such as e-signatures,

electronic contracts, open government data, online

consumer protection, spam, paperless trading,

cybersecurity, and others.

E-Commerce and African Regional Integration

From April 2019 to June 2020, CUTS International Geneva

undertook a project titled E-Commerce and African

Continental Integration, with funding support from the

German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ).

The project aimed to ensure that African stakeholders,

policymakers, and trade negotiators knew suitable policy

options through which African continental integration

could harness the sustainable development potential

of e-commerce, specifically in the context of the African

Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Through research

and dialogue, the project contributed to, inter alia: (1)

better-informed participation of African negotiators, with

lessons learned discussed in various dialogues; and (2)

supported structures and processes involved in promoting

e-commerce development in Africa, including regulatory

matters and AfCFTA discussions, etc.

Economic policy

CUTS strives for well-functioning markets that support

inclusive and progressive structural transformation and

help developing countries enact and implement effective

competition regimes that improve the level playing field

for their firms and the welfare of their consumers. CUTS

promotes sound investment regimes that foster increased

and sustainable foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows

and supportive structural transformation for people and

MSMEs in developing countries.

128

It empowers consumers to uphold their rights to fair,

safe, and informed access to basic necessities and advise

governments accordingly. It supports the effective design

and implementation of balanced, transparent regulations

to foster better access to key services for businesses

and consumers towards sustainable development, job

creation, and structural transformation.


Trading system

CUTS strives to preserve a strong and well-functioning

multilateral trading system, including through support for

better participation of smaller developing countries and

least developed countries (LDCs), and to promote balanced

and fair rules for all to support sustainable development

at the national, regional, and international levels. Its work

helps WTO members converge on creative solutions to

restore the WTO’s leadership in setting global trade rules

sensitive to small developing countries’ special needs.

CUTS also helps developing country groups to identify,

defend, and advance their interests in WTO discussions

and negotiations on a level playing field, backed by evidence

and private sector feedback. CUTS works to bring together

developed and developing country negotiators to share

information and perspectives with a view to building trust

and convergence among them and in the trading system

as a whole.

Between 2019 and 2022, for instance, CUTS’s WTO

Umbrella Grant project strengthened the capacity of

developing and LDC trade officials as they determined

their level of engagement, strategy, and approach to

the WTO JSIs - E-Commerce, Investment Facilitation for

Development (IFD), and MSMEs. Undertaken jointly with

the International Institute for Sustainable Development

(IISD) and with funding support from the UK’s Trade

and Investment Advocacy Fund (TAF2+), the project

achievements notably included: (1) clarified national

positions on the Electronic Commerce JSI in six countries;

(2) text proposals submitted by beneficiary countries

in JSIs, notably outlining options for capacity building;

(3) contributions to the establishment of the ‘Scope and

Definitions’ subgroup in investment facilitation talks; (4)

implementing the MSME Informal Working Group’s (MSME

IWG’s) vision for the Trade4MSMEs.org online platform.

Plurilateral and regional agreements have become a major

driving force of global trade integration, creating new

opportunities for people, provided that agreed regimes

are fair and sound. CUTS aims to ensure that preferential

trade agreements negotiated by and among developing

countries leverage trade integration in pursuit of inclusive

and sustainable development for people.

Trade Policy at Work may be a powerful force for

sustainable development, structural transformation, and

poverty reduction. It helps developing countries monitor

and wisely use standards and non-tariff measures (NTMs)

to support their sustainable development, as well as

129

to boost their participation in global trade and value

chains. CUTS assists developing countries in effectively

implementing agreed trade rules, while also leveraging

preferences and special and differential treatment (SDT)

granted by trading partners. CUTS helps them promote

predictable and efficient administrative procedures that

make the movement of goods across borders cheaper and

faster, hence boosting the competitiveness of MSMEs.

Environment and climate change

CUTS helps developing countries participate in climate

talks on a level playing field and to identify, defend, and

advance their interests in UNFCCC negotiations, backed by

evidence and private sector feedback. Through research

and advice, they help developing countries devise

adaptation strategies for more resilient economies and

support developing country negotiators and policymakers

in crafting mitigation solutions in areas of their interest, for

example, agriculture. CUTS strives for the implementation

of the Paris Agreement in a gender-sensitive, inclusive, and

sustainable way (i.e. supportive of economic and social

development).

CUTS also strives for climate-resilient, sustainable

economies and livelihoods by supporting environmentally

sound policies and the strategic use of global climate

talks. The economies of developing countries typically rely

on sectors that are highly dependent on environmental

resources, such as agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.

Developing countries have embraced environmental

issues in their policy agendas, although their

implementation capacity often remains limited. CUTS

sensitises governments about key linkages between the

environment and other areas, such as agriculture, the rise

of global value chains, and the ongoing digital revolution. It

promotes the sustainable management of life on land and

life below water, highlighting the potential roles of trade

therein.

Sustainable agriculture

CUTS promotes sustainable agricultural systems that

secure food for all by advising on the adoption of climateresilient

policy solutions, as well as holistic policies for

agro-processing. Most developing countries remain net

food importers, while their exports face a complex global

agricultural trade regime. CUTS’s work promotes properly

functioning agricultural trade rules and food commodity

markets, which should allow developing countries to

leverage trade to improve their food production, value

addition, and security. Commercial farming is rare in

developing countries, the potential of agriculture is

huge, and solutions exist. For instance, technology and

digitalisation can help transform agricultural systems,

making them more sustainable and attracting youth into

new jobs.

130

DIGITAL TOOLS


Since 2017, CUTS’s just-in-time Course on Digital

Commerce, jointly undertaken with DiploFoundation and

ITC, has been pursuing a very concrete goal: to assist trade

professionals to better understand what digitalisation and

the internet mean for trade negotiators, and help them

ensure their countries reap the benefits of the digital

economy. The training has equipped them with up-todate,

neutral, objective knowledge, in a user-friendly and

informative format. Over the years, the course has helped

trade negotiators and policymakers navigate an ever more

complex digital commerce agenda. It has provided them

with a common space to explore the connection between

trade and the digital economy and the development

implications of this interplay.

In 2021, the course was thoroughly reviewed and updated

to answer the pressing needs of digital commerce

practitioners by exploring in depth the issues covered

by the JSI on Electronic Commerce, such as cross-border

data flows and data localisation, network neutrality, online

consumer protection and privacy, spam, open government

data, customs duties on electronic transmissions,

cybersecurity, and access to the source code of computer

programs. Over the years, the course received over 300

applications from 98 countries and delivered training to

138 individuals from 72 countries. The most represented

regions among course participants were Africa, Asia, and

Europe. According to the results of a survey, 93% of the

course alumni would recommend this course to colleagues

working in their organisations. Additionally, 100% of the

alumni considered it important to continue offering the

course regularly in the years to come.


Facebook @cutsjaipur

LinkedIn @cuts-international

X @CUTS_Geneva

YouTube @cutsint

131

The CyberPeace Institute

Campus Biotech Innovation Park | 15 Avenue de Sécheron | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.cyberpeaceinstitute.org

About the CyberPeace Institute

The CyberPeace Institute is an independent and neutral

non-governmental organisation (NGO) that strives to

reduce the frequency, impact, and scale of cyberattacks,

to hold actors accountable for the harm they cause, and to

assist vulnerable communities.

The institute is a Geneva-based NGO, also working in close

collaboration with relevant partners to reduce the harm

from cyberattacks on people’s lives worldwide and provide

assistance. By analysing cyberattacks, we expose their

societal impact and how international laws and norms

are being violated, and advance responsible behaviour to

enforce cyberpeace.

At the heart of the Institute’s efforts is the recognition

that cyberspace is about people. We support providers

of essential services to the most vulnerable members

of society, ultimately benefiting us all, like NGOs and the

healthcare sector. Attacking them can have a devastating

impact on beneficiaries and patients, putting their rights

and even lives at risk.

To deliver on this mission, we rely on donations and the

generosity of individuals, foundations, companies, and

other supporters. This support enables us to assist and

support vulnerable communities, including NGOs, to

enhance their resilience to cyberattacks.

The Institute also provides evidence-based knowledge

and fosters awareness of the impact of cyberattacks on

people to give a voice to and empower victims to highlight

the harm and impact of cyberattacks. We remind state

and non-state actors of the international laws and norms

governing responsible behaviour in cyberspace, and

advance the rule of law to reduce harm and ensure the

respect of the rights of people.

134

The digital threat landscape is impacted by constant

disruptions, notably with the acceleration of AI,

impacting any agenda for cyber deterrence.

The Institute helps the most vulnerable to

navigate these disruptions, protecting them

from harm, providing actionable

hands-on knowledge, training, and

technological solutions to increase

digital resilience and enforce

accountability.

Stéphane Duguin

Chief Executive Officer

Message by the CyberPeace Institute Chief Executive Officer

Cyberattacks directly impact people, with hospitals and humanitarian NGOs often targeted by malicious

actors. These organisations are essential in supporting those most in need, yet they lack the resources to

defend themselves in the face of growing digital threats. As an NGO dedicated to supporting other NGOs and

critical sectors, we provide free cybersecurity assistance, threat detection, and analysis, while advocating

for safety and security in cyberspace. Our commitment to protecting vulnerable communities shapes the

core of our work.

We bring together partners, experts, and volunteers to help humanitarian and development NGOs prepare

for, defend against, and recover from cyberattacks. By collaborating with cybersecurity and technology

135

Message by the CyberPeace Institute Chief Executive Officer

partners, we gain a deeper understanding of the cybersecurity risks faced by these vulnerable

communities and offer advanced warnings to mitigate harm.

We actively participate in international coalitions and debates to influence the development of laws,

rights, and norms in cyberspace, ensuring responsible behaviour and accountability. Additionally,

we monitor and analyse the impact of emerging technologies like AI and quantum computing on the

security of these communities.

Nonprofits form the safety net of humanity, providing critical services to the most vulnerable. Despite

their vital role, they remain prime targets for cyberattacks. Our CyberPeace Builders programme

connects the nonprofit sector with the cybersecurity industry through scalable and innovative solutions,

enhancing nonprofit cybersecurity through threat intelligence sharing, training, tailored support, and

volunteer expertise.

We have also launched the Beyond 125 Action Plan in The Hague, in collaboration with leaders from

NGOs, donors, impact investors, and cybersecurity experts. The initiative sets milestones for the next

125 hours, 125 days, and 125 weeks to protect NGOs against cyberattacks and disinformation, ensuring

they have the tools, services, and platforms to leverage AI for good.

Furthermore, the Institute has developed a harms methodology to assess the societal impact of

cyberattacks. This methodology moves beyond evaluating direct damages, focusing on the broader

effects on society and individuals.

Building on the harms methodology and the work of the CyberPeace Builders, the CyberPeace Institute

has launched the CyberPeace Tracer. This data-driven platform leverages AI to track and analyse

cyberattacks targeting civil society, providing them with insights to stay ahead of risks and push for

accountability. The Tracer, together with the Cyber Incident Tracer #Health and the Cyber Attacks in

Times of Conflict #Ukraine platforms, highlights the real impact of cyberattacks on people and the

importance of data to drive accountability.

Recognising that no single entity can alone achieve cyberpeace or fulfil the SDGs, the Institute advocates

for multistakeholder cooperation. This collaboration is crucial for amplifying positive contributions and

building a peaceful and secure cyberspace for everyone.

136

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Founded in 2019, the CyberPeace Institute focuses on

assessing the impact of cyberattacks from a human

perspective, prioritising the rights and well-being of

individuals. Our analysis is grounded in evidence, examining

how cyberattacks affect people’s lives and linking these

impacts with the technical realities of cyberthreats.

We also evaluate these impacts in the context of legal

violations, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of

the harm caused.

The Institute advocates for a human-centric, evidencebased

approach to the analysis of cyberattacks,

recognising it as critical to achieving meaningful redress,

repair, and justice for victims. We approach our work

collaboratively, engaging in research, analysis, assistance,

mobilisation, and advocacy to drive change. By working

closely with vulnerable communities, we gain valuable

insights into their cybersecurity needs and deliver trusted,

free cybersecurity assistance to those who need it most.

A key element of the Institute’s digital activities is its

commitment to providing free cybersecurity support

to organisations that serve the most vulnerable. The

CyberPeace Builders programme connects the nonprofit

sector with the cybersecurity industry, enabling threat

intelligence sharing, volunteering, and funding. This

programme enhances the cybersecurity of NGOs by

offering tailored assessments, threat alerts, specialised

training, and expert volunteer support, all designed to

help these organisations defend against cyberattacks and

mitigate digital risks.

The CyberPeace Tracer platform plays a crucial role in

tracking and analysing cyberattacks targeting vulnerable

communities. By leveraging AI, the platform provides

invaluable insights into cyberattacks, helping organisations

identify potential threats and build digital resilience. This

data-driven tool enables civil society to monitor, detect,

and respond to cyber threats, ensuring their operations

remain secure and their missions uninterrupted.

In addition to providing direct support, the CyberPeace

Institute actively engages in global cybersecurity policy

discussions. The Institute participates in international

coalitions and debates, aiming to influence the development

of laws, rights, and norms in cyberspace. By advocating

for responsible behaviour and accountability, the Institute

helps protect the rights of vulnerable communities in the

digital world, fostering cooperation and promoting ethical

guidelines for cyberspace governance.

The Institute’s commitment to research and analysis is

reflected in its ongoing efforts to monitor the evolving

cybersecurity landscape. The Institute publishes reports

on a wide range of topics, including the impact of

cyberattacks on vulnerable communities, cybersecurity

risks for NGOs and critical sectors, emerging technologies

like AI and quantum computing, and the intersection

of cyberattacks and disinformation. The Institute also

explores legal frameworks, capacity building, cyber

resilience, and threat intelligence, offering actionable

insights and recommendations to enhance cybersecurity

and protect human rights in the digital age.

137


The CyberPeace Institute also runs the CyberPeace

Institute Academy, an educational initiative aimed at

building cybersecurity capacity within vulnerable sectors.

The Academy offers free training and resources designed

to improve the cybersecurity knowledge and skills of

individuals and organisations working in the nonprofit and

humanitarian sectors. Through its courses, workshops,

and certifications, the Academy helps strengthen the

digital resilience of organisations, empowering them to

respond to cyber threats effectively.

Critical infrastructure

Cyberattacks against critical infrastructure have been

on the rise, from attacks against hospitals and vaccine

supply chains to attacks on the energy sector. When such

disruptions occur, access to basic services is at risk. It is

vital that there is an increase in the capacity and ability to

improve resilience to cyberthreats in critical sectors, such

as healthcare. The CyberPeace Institute urges stakeholders

in diplomatic, policy, operational, and technical areas to

increase their capacity and resilience to cyberthreats.

The Institute advocates for capacity building aimed at

enabling states to identify and protect national critical

infrastructure and to cooperatively safeguard its

operation. This includes capacity building, implementation

of norms of responsible behaviour, and confidence

building measures. In strengthening efforts to protect

critical infrastructure, the Institute calls for the sharing of

lessons learned between countries to assist those with

less capacity and fewer capabilities.

138

NGOs in civilian-critical sectors, for example, water, food,

healthcare, energy, finance, and information, need support

and expertise to help them strengthen their cybersecurity

capabilities. While these NGOs provide critical services

to communities and bridge areas not covered by public

and private actors, they lack the resources to protect

themselves from cybersecurity threats.

Examples of the Institute’s work in this regard:

• Calls to governments to take immediate and

decisive action to stop all cyberattacks on hospitals

and healthcare and medical research facilities, as

well as on medical personnel and international

public health organisations.

• Capacity building is essential for achieving cyber

preparedness and resilience across sectors and

fields, and activities focus on providing assistance

and capacity building to NGOs that might lack

technical expertise and resources.

• Publication of the strategic analysis report Playing

with Lives: Cyberattacks on Healthcare are Attacks

on People, and the launch of the Cyber Incident

Tracer (CIT) #Health platform that bridges the

current information gap about cyberattacks on

healthcare and their impact on people. This is a

valuable source of information for evidence-led

operational, policy, and legal decision makers.

• Analysis and evaluation of cyberattacks and

operations targeting critical infrastructure and

civilian objects in the armed conflict between

Ukraine and the Russian Federation through the

publicly accessible Cyber Attacks in Times of Conflict

Platform #Ukraine and a two-part video series to

offer a visual representation of key findings further

developed in our quarterly analytical reports.

• A data-driven platform named The CyberPeace

Tracer that leverages AI to map and analyse

cyberattacks against civil society, providing them

with insights to mitigate risks and vulnerabilities

while building accountability.

• Participation in the INFINITY project to transform

the traditional idea of criminal investigation

and analysis. INFINITY has received funding

from the European Union’s Horizon 2020. Its

concept is based around four core research and

technical innovations that together will provide

a revolutionary approach and convert data into

actionable intelligence.

• Participation in the UnderServed project, an EUfunded

initiative to address the lack of adequate

cybersecurity measures for vulnerable sectors,

including humanitarian, development, and

peace non-governmental organisations. The

primary objective of the project is to establish

a comprehensive platform for reporting and

analysing cyber threats. This platform is tailormade

for NGOs vulnerable to cyberattacks, which

often lack the resources to effectively mitigate such

threats.

Network security

The nonprofit sector is the safety net of humanity.

Nonprofits around the world provide critical services to

the most vulnerable, but this does not stop threat actors

from attacking them.

Malicious actors are already targeting NGOs in an effort

to get ransoms and exfiltrate data. These NGOs often lack

the budget, know-how, or time to effectively secure their

infrastructures and develop a robust incident response to

manage and overcome sophisticated attacks.

With this in mind, the Institute launched its CyberPeace

Builders programme in 2021, a unique network of

corporate volunteers providing free pre- and post-incident

assistance to NGOs supporting vulnerable populations.

The CyberPeace Builders programme connects the

nonprofit sector to the cybersecurity industry in various

scalable and innovative ways to maximise social impact.

Through threat intelligence sharing, volunteering and

funding, experts, companies, and donors are meaningfully

helping nonprofits. This initiative brings support to NGOs in

critical sectors at a level that is unequalled in terms of staff,

tools, and capabilities. It assists NGOs with cybersecurity,

whether they work locally or globally and supports them

in crisis-affected areas across the globe.

The CyberPeace Builders programme has grown

significantly, now including over 1,300 cyber volunteers

who have assisted more than 450 nonprofits worldwide.

In 2024, the programme completed over 1,000 missions

and logged 2,442 volunteer hours and has since expanded

139


to The Hague (Netherlands) and launched the US Cyber

Resilience Corps.

Several major corporate partners have joined the

CyberPeace Builders initiative, including Adobe, CapGemini,

HPE, Inditex, Logitech, Marsh, Mastercard, Microsoft, Okta,

Rapid7, Splunk, WithSecure, and Zurich.

The Institute established new partnerships with ISC2 and

launched an upgraded matchmaking system in January

2025. The CyberPeace Tracer platform builds on the work

of the CyberPeace Builders to provide nonprofits with

tailored, real-time threat intelligence. The platform tracks

and analyses cyberattacks targeting nonprofits, providing

them with useful insights to strengthen their digital

resilience while building accountability.


The Institute believes that meaningful change can occur

when a diversity of perspectives, sectors, and industries

work together. To address the complex challenges related

to ensuring cyberpeace, it works with a wide range of

actors at the global level, including governments, the

private sector, civil society, academia, philanthropies,

policymaking institutions, and other organisations. The

Institute contributes by providing evidence-led knowledge,

emphasising the need to integrate a genuine humancentric

approach in both technical and policy-related

projects and processes, and by highlighting the civil society

perspective to support and amplify existing initiatives.

Training

The CyberPeace Institute is providing comprehensive

training for NGO boards and staff, foundations, and

volunteers designed to empower organisations with vital

tools for safeguarding their missions.

The Institute established a ‘CyberPeace Academy’, focused

on building digital resilience and in partnership with

Microsoft, launched the ‘Cyber School Initiative’, an 8-week

fully virtual cybersecurity training course that successfully

certified 99 participants in the 2024 cohort with a 95%

success rate. The programme attracted a diverse group

of participants (152 women, 48 men) and is specifically

designed to help refugees, students, returning job seekers,

and others interested in diversifying their professional

skills.

The Cyber School curriculum consists of eight thematic

modules covering: foundations, internet and ICT

fundamentals, information security basics, governance,

risk management, and AI integration with cybersecurity.

The curriculum was developed to align with in-demand

topics from recruiters in the cybersecurity sector, with

Zarc Okere as the Lead Trainer.

The Institute has developed the General Cybersecurity

Assessment (GCSA), a self-assessment tool to help civil

society organisations evaluate their cybersecurity maturity

level. The GCSA is rooted in the NIST Cybersecurity

Framework but is tailored for non-technical professionals.

The assessment consists of 9 categories with 30 questions

and takes less than 20 minutes to complete. Each question

140

is connected to at least one of 34 missions available within

the CyberPeace Builders programme.

After completing the assessment, organisations receive a

two-page report with a colour-coded matrix showing their

cybersecurity maturity, their score, comparison with other

organisations in the programme, and recommendations

for the top five missions with volunteers. The assessment

can be repeated to track progress over time, with

organisations able to reassess after six months into the

programme.

Interdisciplinary approaches

To contribute to closing the accountability gap in

cyberspace, the Institute seeks to advance the role of

international law and norms.

It reminds state and non-state actors of the international

law and norms governing responsible behaviour in

cyberspace and contributes to advancing the rule of law

to reduce harm and ensure the respect of the rights of

people.

Contribution to UN processes

• In 2021–2022, the Institute contributed to and

commented on various UN-led processes

(notably the UN Group of Governmental Experts

on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in

Cyberspace in the Context of International Security

(UN GGE) and the Working Group (WG) on the Use

of Mercenaries as a Means of Violating Human

Rights and Impeding the Exercise of the Rights of

141

Peoples to Self-Determination).

• Since its inception, the Institute has closely followed

the work of the UN Open-Ended Working Group

(UN OEWG) on Developments in the Field of

Information and Telecommunications in the Context

of International Security, advocating recognition

of the healthcare sector as a critical infrastructure

and raising concerns about the lack of commitment

towards an actionable and genuine human-centric

approach.

• In the Open-Ended Working Group on Security of

and in the Use of Information and Communications

Technologies 2021–2025 (OEWG II), the Institute

set out three key action areas and related

recommendations, and is contributing its expertise

in relation to the protection of humanitarian and

development organisations from cyberattacks.

• The Institute issued a Statement at the Ad

Hoc Committee to Elaborate a Comprehensive

International Convention on Countering the Use of

Information and Communications Technologies for

Criminal Purposes (Cybercrime Convention).

• Moreover, the Institute sought to advance the

Cyber Programme of Action (PoA) by offering

recommendations concerning the range,

organisation, and approaches for stakeholder

participation.

• The Institute also welcomed the call for civil

society organisations to contribute to the GDC and

provided a set of recommendations.

Participation in international initiatives: The Paris

Call working groups

The Paris Call for Trust and Security in Cyberspace is

a multistakeholder initiative launched by the French

government at the Paris Peace Forum in November 2018.

The Call itself sets out nine principles promoting and

ensuring the security of cyberspace and the safer use of

ICT.

To operationalise these principles, six working groups

were created in November 2020 to work on various

issues that relate to them. The Institute co-led WG5

with colleagues from Geopolitics in the Datasphere

[Géopolitique de la Datasphère] and The Hague Centre

for Strategic Studies (HCSS).

The work of this group led to the Final Report published

during the Paris Peace Forum 2021. It presents a

methodology to facilitate understanding of how the

implementation of normative, legal, operational, and

technical measures, or the lack thereof, contribute to

stability in cyberspace and ultimately to cyberpeace.

The Institute contributed to WG3: Advancing the UN

negotiations with a strong multistakeholder approach,

leading to the publication of the final report on

Multistakeholder Participation at the UN: The need for

greater inclusivity in the UN dialogues on cybersecurity.

The Institute chaired the session ‘Unpacking the Cyber

Mercenaries’ Phenomenon’ at the 6th edition of the Paris

Peace Forum.

142

At the World Economic Forum meeting in Davos, in

May 2022, the CyberPeace Institute joined Access

Now, the Office of the High Commissioner for

Human Rights (OHCHR), Human Rights Watch (HRW),

Amnesty International, the International Trade Union

Confederation (ITUC), and Consumers International

to call on decision makers to take action and initiate a

moratorium limiting the sale, transfer, and use of abusive

spyware until people’s rights are safeguarded under

international human rights law.

This is in addition to a call made in 2021, in which the

Institute joined more than 100 civil society organisations

calling for a global moratorium on the sale and transfer

of surveillance technology until rigorous human rights

safeguards are adopted to regulate such practices and

guarantee that governments and non-state actors do not

abuse these capabilities.

EU processes

At the Institute, we conduct an evaluation of best

practices in implementing EU regulations, focusing on

their evolution and development to ensure effective

execution. Simultaneously, we analyse EU mechanisms

like the EU Cyber Diplomacy Toolbox, aimed at countering

malicious cyber activities and bolstering resilience, while

providing targeted observations and recommendations.

• We contributed to the Joint Letter of Experts

on Cyber Resilience Act to shed light on the

vulnerability disclosure requirements, which are

believed to be counterproductive.

• We offered recommendations to the working

group of the ITRE Committee (EU Parliament).

• We led the workshop for the European

Parliament’s Subcommittee on Security and

Defence (SEDE) on The role of cyber in the

Russian war against Ukraine: Its impact and the

consequences for the future of armed conflict,

which was then published as a working paper.

• We provided positions and recommendations on

the EU AI Act (unpublished yet).

Digital technology plays an important role in conflict

mediation and global peacebuilding. It can extend

inclusion, allowing more women or people from

marginalised groups to take part in or follow the mediation

process. It can make mediation faster and more efficient

and can allow mediators to draw on resources from

around the world.

However, digital technology brings risks, too. It

can increase polarisation, for example, and allow

disinformation to spread to more people, more quickly.

It can increase vulnerability to malicious actors, spying,

and data breaches. These risks can undermine trust in

the process.

Mediators work in low-trust, volatile contexts and do not

always have the knowledge to assess the risks posed

by digital technology. The new online platform helps to

raise awareness of those risks, as well as offers training

on how to deal with them. The Digital Risk Management

E-Learning Platform for Mediators was created in 2021

by the CyberPeace Institute, CMI – Martti Ahtisaari Peace

Foundation, and the UN Department of Political and

Peacebuilding Affairs (UNDPPA) Mediation Support Unit.

As part of the integration and engagement with the

stakeholder ecosystem in Geneva, the Institute is a

member of the Geneva Chamber of Commerce, Industry

and Services (CCIG). Various academic collaborations are

ongoing through participation in conferences, workshops,

and lectures, namely with the École Polytechnique

Fédérale de Lausanne Centre for Digital Trust EPFL

(C4DT), the University of Geneva (UNIGE), and the Geneva

Graduate Institute (IHEID). In 2020, the Institute formed a

strategic partnership with the SwissTrust Valley for Digital

Transformation and Cybersecurity.

The Institute and its staff have received several awards

for innovative and continuous efforts promoting

cyberpeace, including the 2020 Geneva Centre for

Security Policy (GCSP), the second prize for Innovation in

Global Security, and the Prix de l’Economie in 2021 from

CCIG.

143


The Institute maintains a website providing alerts, blogs,

articles, and publications on key issues related to its

mission for cyberpeace, and shares video materials and

discussion recordings on its YouTube channel.

The latest news and developments are shared via:

Facebook Cyberpeace Institute

Instagram @cyberpeaceinst

LinkedIn CyberPeace Institute

X @CyberpeaceInst

Sign up for the monthly newsletter to receive updates

about what’s happening at the Institute, as well as news

about cyberpeace.

144

Data for Change: The PARIS21 Foundation

(D4C)

Domicile | MLL 65 rue du Rhône 1211 | 3 Genève | Switzerland

Hosted office | UNEP-GRID, Chem. des Anémones 11 | 1219 Vernier | Switzerland

www.dataforchange.net

About Data for Change: The PARIS21 Foundation

The Data for Change Foundation is a Geneva-based nonprofit

foundation with global ties to promote more, better,

and equal data to enable evidence-based decisions and

ensure no one is left behind. By fostering partnerships,

empowering stakeholders, and leveraging technology, we

aim to create a world where data enhances accountability

and drives impactful, inclusive change.

In close collaboration with PARIS21, we strengthen national

statistical systems (NSSs) to produce and use high-quality

data for policymaking and monitoring progress. Our joint

work helps countries build resilient, inclusive statistical

capacities that adapt to evolving global data needs while

ensuring all voices are represented.

148

Hannah Redders

Project Manager

Adam Landau

Senior Project Officer

Message by the D4C representative

The Data for Change Foundation is a Geneva-based non-profit foundation with global ties to

promote more, better, and equal data to enable evidence-based decisions and ensure no one is

left behind. By fostering partnerships, empowering stakeholders, and leveraging technology, we

aim to create a world where data enhances accountability and drives impactful, inclusive change.

In close collaboration with PARIS21 (Partnership in Statistics for Development in the 21st

Century), we strengthen national statistical systems (NSSs) to produce and use high-quality

149

Message by the D4C representative

data for policymaking and monitoring progress. Our joint work helps countries build resilient,

inclusive statistical capacities that adapt to evolving global data needs while ensuring all voices

are represented. The Foundation plays the role of an innovator and an idea-incubation hub in

Geneva.

One of our flagship initiatives, the SME Data Boost, empowers SMEs in Sub-Saharan Africa to

establish a robust data footprint. This project addresses the risk of SMEs being excluded from

global trade due to missing or inadequate data, ensuring they can meet reporting requirements,

stay competitive, and remain integral to value chains. We foster accountability and resilience

within regional economies.

The Foundation takes a holistic approach to building capacity, harmonising standards, and

fostering innovation within the data ecosystem. We aim at tailored tools and training to bridge

gaps in statistical systems, particularly in developing regions, addressing critical challenges in

accessibility and coordination.

Through initiatives like the SME Data Boost and our collaboration with PARIS21, Data for Change

is shaping a future where accountability and evidence-based decisions drive sustainable

development, ensuring that progress reaches every corner of the globe.

150

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

One of our flagship initiatives, the SME Data Boost,

supports SMEs in Sub-Saharan Africa to build a robust

data footprint. This project addresses the risk of SMEs

being excluded from global trade due to missing or

inadequate data, ensuring they can meet reporting

requirements, remain competitive, and retain their place

in global value chains. By equipping SMEs with essential

tools and capabilities, the initiative fosters accountability

and resilience within regional economies, helping them

thrive in an increasingly data-driven world.

The Gender Data Lab (GDL) in Rwanda, launched in

collaboration with the National Institute of Statistics of

Rwanda (NISR), PARIS21, and the Gender Monitoring

Office (GMO), is another example of our commitment to

digital transformation. The GDL seeks to revolutionise

the collection, analysis, and use of gender-disaggregated

data to bridge existing gaps and inform evidence-based

policymaking. By consolidating data sources and applying

advanced data science techniques, the GDL equips

policymakers with actionable insights to design genderresponsive

policies and programmes. This initiative

represents a critical step toward achieving accountability

and progress on gender equality targets, such as the SDGs

and Rwanda’s Vision 2050. It also emphasises Rwanda’s

leadership in ensuring accurate, accessible gender datainformed

decisions at all levels. Through its work, the GDL

fosters an environment where interventions are tailored

to address the unique challenges faced by women and

men, driving inclusive and sustainable development.

Both the SME Data Boost and the GDL exemplify how

our digital activities leverage technology and innovation

to enhance access to critical data. These initiatives not

only strengthen statistical capacities but also promote

equitable access to the tools and insights needed to

ensure that no one is left behind in the digital age.

151

Credit: The Data for Change Foundation



AI regulation & AI acts in LMICs

Addressing regulatory challenges and governance of

AI in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to

ensure ethical, transparent, and inclusive adoption of AI

technologies.

Advocating for context-specific AI policies that balance

innovation and accountability, ensuring that LMICs can

leverage AI for development while safeguarding against

risks such as bias, misinformation, and data privacy

concerns.

Supporting the integration of AI governance frameworks

that align with global AI acts and responsible AI

principles, ensuring that developing regions are not left

behind in digital policy discussions.


Closing SDG data gaps through digital innovation

• Promoting citizen-generated data (CGD) as a

complementary source to official statistics, enabling

more inclusive and granular data for monitoring

SDG progress.

• Advocating for the integration of digital and AIdriven

tools into NSSs to improve data collection,

processing, and utilisation in policymaking.

• Addressing issues of data ownership, privacy, and

trust in the use of digital tools for SDG monitoring,

particularly in LMICs.

152

Digital tools

Citizen-generated data platforms (in planning)

In collaboration with partners in Africa, we are

developing digital platforms that empower citizens to

contribute real-time, localised data to close critical SDG

data gaps.


LinkedIn @Dataforchange:theparis21foundation

YouTube @DataForChange

Contact info@dataforchange.net

SME Data Boost

A workstream designed to help SMEs in Sub-Saharan

Africa establish a strong data footprint, enabling them to

participate in global trade, meet reporting requirements,

and stay competitive in digital economies.

Gender Data Lab (GDL)

An initiative that leverages advanced data science

techniques to improve gender-disaggregated data

collection and analysis, supporting evidence-based gender

policies in Rwanda.

153

Datasphere Initiative

30A, Route de Chêne c/o L&S Trust Services SA | 1208 Geneva | Switzerland

www.thedatasphere.org

About the Datasphere Initiative

The Datasphere Initiative is a think-and-do tank that

catalyses meaningful dialogues and co-creates actionable

and innovative approaches to respond to specific data

challenges and opportunities across borders.

Our mission is to equip organisations to responsibly

unlock the value of data for all.

156

As part of the dynamic Geneva ecosystem,

the Datasphere Initiative works to bridge the gap

between emerging technologies and responsible

governance. We believe in working with others

to amplify new voices and co-create new

tools to build a more inclusive and

collaborative governance model for

our digital society.

Lorrayne Porciuncula

Executive Director

Message by the Datasphere Initiative Executive Director

Data is growing at an accelerated pace. It increasingly underpins, affects, and reflects most human

activities. Legitimate concerns, however, have emerged regarding security threats, economic

imbalances, and human rights abuses that can impact a society increasingly dependent on data.

We are also observing an unprecedented proliferation of activities, initiatives, and uncoordinated

actions related to how data should be governed. This is further compounded by tensions

157

Message by the Datasphere Initiative Foundation Executive Director

between ideas related to the free flow of data and data sovereignty, as well as a regulatory focus

on personal over non-personal data.

Various issues related to data governance are addressed in separate silos with the patchwork

of uncoordinated actions creating unintended consequences. This is why our network has

come together under the framing of the Datasphere to help catalyse the missing taxonomies,

frameworks, and tools to deal with data through a holistic and innovative perspective that

enables true interoperability.

The Datasphere can be defined as a complex dynamic system encompassing all types of data

and their dynamic interactions with human groups and norms. Approaching the ecosystem

in which all digital data exists as the Datasphere provides the fundamental perspective shift

necessary to govern data for the well-being of all.

International cooperation to find solutions to the most pressing global challenges will depend on

our ability to responsibly share data across borders. Today is the time to be bold and innovative in

enabling the opportunities and addressing the challenges of the technological revolution around

us and to build agile frameworks to responsibly unlock the value of data for all. We should not

shy away from creating experimental and agile spaces such as sandboxes, data community

charters, and processes that catalyse meaningful dialogues that will allow us to jointly investigate

innovative mechanisms that will serve our digital societies.

We hope that the growing global community of the Datasphere Initiative will be able to play its

role to connect silos, translate and help develop innovative tools, and catalyse the needed trust

for truly interoperable solutions that can be implemented now.

158

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

By connecting and amplifying voices from various

sectors, we aim to responsibly unlock the value of data

for all with various key programmes and projects that

foster multistakeholder collaboration.

Our latest work focuses primarily on digital access, data

governance, and capacity development at various levels:

global, regional, and youth.

159



Data governance

One of the key programmes of the Datasphere Initiative

is the Global Sandboxes Forum. The Global Sandboxes

Forum (GSF) is a collaborative platform that brings

together public authorities, private sector entities,

and civil society to explore and implement sandbox

approaches for addressing digital age challenges. It

focuses on sharing experiences, building capacity, and

developing evidence-based guidance to empower

stakeholders in creating agile, responsible data

governance solutions at the local, national, and regional

levels. Through its activities, the GSF aims to unlock the

value of data for societal and environmental benefit. The

latest publication, Sandboxes for AI: Tools for a new frontier,

explores the role of sandboxes in the development and

governance of AI.

Looking into specific regions, the initiative has

launched the Africa Sandboxes Forum, a pan-African

community aimed at enabling innovative cross-border

data governance solutions. This multistakeholder

process invites local, regional, and global experts to

explore how regulatory and operational sandboxes

can facilitate responsible data flows and exchanges,

addressing challenges in sectors such as health,

finance, sustainability, and AI across the continent. The

latest publication, Africa Sandboxes Outlook: Thinking

outside the box for responsible innovation in the age of

AI, explores the growing use of sandboxes as tools for

fostering innovation and enabling responsible regulatory

experimentation. The launch of the report will be followed

by a series of co-creation labs in various regions, with the

first one taking place in Kigali, which will be the first of the

Co-Creation Lab Series on Africa Sandboxes for AI.

Amplifying voices

The Youth4Data Lab Toolkit, published by the Datasphere

Initiative, is designed to empower youth to actively engage

in shaping a responsible digital future. It emphasises

adaptable, innovation-focused governance through

mechanisms such as regulatory sandboxes, policy

labs, and hackathons. By providing practical tools and

methodologies, the toolkit aims to foster youth-driven

innovation in data governance, ensuring that young

voices contribute meaningfully to the development of

inclusive and effective digital policies.

Capacity building

Additionally, the Sandbox Summer School is an

educational programme designed to equip participants

with practical knowledge and hands-on experience in

regulatory and operational sandboxes. This programme

aims to build expertise in data governance, fostering

innovation and cross-border collaboration among

policymakers, researchers, and industry leaders.

Through these programmes, as well as seminars,

roundtables, and consultations, the Datasphere Initiative

160

DIGITAL TOOLS

strives to foster the creation of agile frameworks that

responsibly unlock the value of data, ensuring that

data governance evolves in tandem with technological

advancements.


Instagram @thedatasphere

LinkedIn @datasphere-initiative

Medium @thedatasphere

TikTok @youth4data

X @thedatasphere

YouTube @The Datasphere

161

DCAF - Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance

Maison de la Paix | Chemin Eugène-Rigot 2D | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.dcaf.ch

About DCAF

DCAF – The Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance

is dedicated to improving the security of states and their

people within a framework of democratic governance,

the rule of law, respect for human rights, and gender

equality. Since its founding in 2000, DCAF has contributed

to making peace and development more sustainable

by assisting partner states, and international actors

supporting these states, to improve the governance of

their security sector through inclusive and participatory

reforms. It creates innovative knowledge products,

promotes norms and good practices, provides legal

and policy advice and supports capacity-building of

both state and non-state security sector stakeholders.

DCAF’s Foundation Council members represent over 50

countries and the Canton of Geneva. Active in over 60

countries, DCAF is internationally recognised as one of the

world’s leading centres of excellence for security sector

governance (SSG) and security sector reform (SSR). DCAF

is guided by the principles of neutrality, impartiality, local

ownership, inclusive participation, and gender equality.

164

Vulnerabilities and disparities based on sexual

orientation, gender identity, age, ethnicity,

or socioeconomic status, among other factors,

will be amplified by rapid technological

development, including the use and

abuse of AI. It underlines the importance

of good governance to tackle emerging

issues around surveillance technologies

and the spread of misinformation.

Nathalie Chuard

Director

Message by the DCAF - Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance Director

The geopolitical flux of the past years and challenges to the rules-based international order show

no sign of abating. Our world is facing significant uncertainties. The risks stemming from global

tensions are further compounded by disruptive technologies transforming the nature of warfare

or creating new vulnerabilities, while climate change acts as both a driver of increased insecurity

and a risk multiplier.

165

Message by the DCAF - Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance Director

Our consistent engagement will be necessary to bring our planet back on track, and our team is

ready to do its part.

At the Geneva Centre for Security Sector Governance (DCAF), we remain convinced that

democratic governance of the security sector is an essential component of just, peaceful, and

inclusive societies. With decades of experience supporting reforms in more than 60 countries,

we have learned that safeguarding and reinforcing good security sector governance is crucial

in helping people feel safer. This is especially true in our increasingly volatile and divided world.

Security without governance is not an option, and we want to bring governance of the security

sector to the heart of the conversation – at the local, national, regional, and global levels.

At a time when inequalities are soaring, we are committed to a stronger focus on an inclusive

and intersectional approach throughout all our work. We must engage young people in decisionmaking

and foster inclusive, safe, and sustainable solutions to security and justice delivery.

In this fragmented international order, building and repairing trust is fundamental to achieving

peace and setting the stage for development. Only when people feel safe in their societies

can they focus on developing education, healthcare, business, or other essential aspects of

prosperous communities. This requires confidence in their government’s ability to maintain

security and justice for all.

166

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

DCAF’s Cybersecurity Governance Programme promotes

effective and accountable cybersecurity governance and

cybersecurity policymaking, which involves the state,

the private sector, the technical community, civil society

representatives, and the general public. We work in

partnership with international organisations such as ITU,

FIRST, OSCE, GFCE, and the EU.

DCAF’s research project, ‘Digitalization and SSG/R:

Projections into the Future’ aims to assess the overarching

impact of digitalisation on the security sector. It also

explores the role of SSG/R in the digital space, as well

as the corresponding challenges and opportunities for

security sector actors.

AI is evolving rapidly and is contributing to a wide array

of economic and societal advancements. By improving

prediction, optimising operations and resource

allocation, and personalising digital solutions available

for individuals and organisations, the use of AI can

provide key competitive advantages. Alongside its

potential benefits, AI is increasingly seen as a doubleedged

sword, creating conditions that can perpetuate

social inequalities, erode human rights, undermine

democracy and good governance, and cause harm.

The provision of surveillance equipment and services

to government authorities and private clients has risen

dramatically in recent years. When law enforcement

and intelligence agencies are adequately regulated and

overseen, these capacities have the potential to assist

in law enforcement and border management, as well as

in counterterrorism operations. However, surveillance

services and technologies are also under intense scrutiny

for the danger they can represent for democracy, human

rights, and good security-sector governance.

167

Credit: dcaf.ch


Cybersecurity

The increasing access of people to cyberspace and its

resources affects our daily lives and has a considerable

impact on our societies. It has already profoundly

transformed the way we live, work, and interact.

Cyberspace offers countless opportunities for economic

development, social interaction, and political exchange.

On the flip side, it has provided tools to conduct illegal

surveillance, collect personal data, influence democratic

processes, commit crimes, and change the means and

methods of warfare.

These challenges require multiple responses, and

governments, the private sector, and civil society must

come together to address the challenges of cybersecurity

governance. Legal and policy frameworks will also have

to adapt to better respect and implement international

human rights norms while effectively combating

cybercrime, malicious cyber activities, and cyberattacks,

as well as the use of the internet for terrorist purposes

and the promotion of violent extremism. Only vigorous

action to address these issues will promote a secure,

stable, and open cyberspace.

DCAF’s Cybersecurity Governance Programme

implements projects that focus on improving

cybersecurity law and policies, increasing the capacities of

cybersecurity actors, and strengthening accountability in

cybersecurity. We work in partnership with international

organisations such as ITU, FIRST, OSCE, GFCE, and the EU.

Digitalisation, new technologies, and access

Digitalisation is reshaping many domains of social life.

Surveillance technologies are as much an ordinary

part of contemporary public life as smartphones and

social media have restructured human relations. Digital

technologies and AI have created a new arena for

security sector actors to carry out their duties. While AI’s

transformative potential has gained significant attention

from policymakers and scholars, it is increasingly

seen as a double-edged sword, creating conditions

that can perpetuate social inequalities, erode human

rights, undermine democracy and good governance,

and cause harm. Digitalisation redesigns existing

governance structures and security provision practices,

while promoting new patterns of coordination and

decision-making across national security institutions.

Against this backdrop, the security sector is becoming

increasingly more aware of the importance of adopting

and implementing robust digitalisation processes.

However, the growing dependency of the security sector

on new digital technologies is leading to a more complex

threat landscape, with an increasing number of critical

failure points. Thus, as an emerging security challenge,

digitalisation has the potential to both enhance and

disrupt existing frameworks of good governance

and security provision, due to the emergence of new

technologies and actors, all engaging in an uncharted

digital space. Like other spaces, such as land, sea, or

168

airspace, digital space is viewed as a new dimension that

extends beyond national borders (similar to outer space).

DCAF’s research project ‘Digitalization and SSG/R:

Projections into the Future’ aims to assess the

overarching impact of digitalisation on the security

sector. It also explores the role of SSG/R in the digital

space, as well as the corresponding challenges and

opportunities for security sector actors. This project

utilises the Delphi method, a well-known and validated

research forecasting framework based on the results of

three rounds of questionnaires, with the aim of collecting

data and perspectives to map out the current status quo

and to establish consensus on SSG/R entry points in the

digital space.

Private security surveillance

The provision of surveillance equipment and services to

government authorities and private clients has grown

dramatically in recent years. When law enforcement

and intelligence agencies are adequately regulated and

overseen, these capacities have the potential to assist

in law enforcement and border management, as well as

in counterterrorism operations. However, surveillance

services and technologies are also under intense scrutiny

for the danger they can represent for democracy, human

rights, and good security-sector governance.

The Pegasus revelations have highlighted, among other

things, how such technology could be used to target

human rights defenders, including journalists. In addition

to targeted spyware, a broad range of private security

companies are providing surveillance technologies and

services, including surveillance-for-hire services, which

are being marketed and sold to government agencies

and private clients around the world. This raises pressing

questions regarding the wider regulatory, monitoring

and accountability frameworks for these services.

DCAF has over a decade of experience supporting regional

and national processes to improve regulation, oversight,

and accountability of the private security industry. DCAF

also engages in research partnerships with academia

and civil society organisations, developing practical tools

to ensure effective, human rights-compliant legal and

policy frameworks for private security. In this context,

DCAF has undertaken research to determine the potential

for the existing regulatory framework of international

private military and security companies to support more

effective regulation of private surveillance services.

169

DIGITAL TOOLS

Good governance in cybersecurity

Guide to Good Governance in Cybersecurity was written

for policymakers, technical experts, civil society, and

all those interested in best practices of governing

cybersecurity. It draws on DCAF’s experience in

promoting good governance in the security sector. The

chapters explain how to apply the principles of good

governance to cybersecurity. They focus on the following

topics: good governance of the security sector and its

application to cyberspace; the link between cyberspace,

cybersecurity and the governance of the security

sector; international and regional legal frameworks

applicable to cyberspace; the application of international

and regional standards; national cybersecurity

strategies; promoting effective cooperation between the

public and private sectors in cyberspace.

Southeast Asia is undergoing an unprecedented digital

transformation, with new technologies rapidly setting

new social and economic norms, and new security

challenges. For example, digital literacy varies widely

across the region, as digital education is still a recent

phenomenon. Government priorities and capacities also

differ from country to country. The actors who influence

cybersecurity widely range from private companies

to hacktivists and from non-state criminal groups to

governments. What does all of this mean for SSG?

Cybersecurity Governance in Southeast Asia: Thematic

SSG Brief is ideal for anyone looking to familiarise

themselves with cybersecurity governance as a topic by

itself, but especially in the context of Southeast Asia. It

reviews developments at the regional and national levels,

examines emerging patterns and challenges, and offers

concrete recommendations for the way forward.

The book Online Actions, Offline Harms: Case Studies

on Gender and Cybersecurity in the Western Balkans

explores the intersection between gender and

cybersecurity across the Western Balkans. Six case

studies analyse how women, girls, and LGBTQ+ people

have been pushed out of cyberspaces by abuses that

violate their rights. Researchers from these economies

delve into the forms and effects of online violence on

women and girls, both in cyberspace and in the real

world, as well as how anti-LGBTQ+ narratives in online

spaces are impacting the legal realisation of their rights.

The book offers solutions aiming to consolidate a humancentric

approach to cybersecurity.

170

Digitalisation and SSG/R

The research Digitalization and SSG/R: Projections into

the Future sheds light on the complex intersection

of digitalisation and security sector governance.

It investigates the multifaceted challenges and

opportunities digitalisation presents and scrutinises

how security sector actors have adapted to the digital

transition, as well as to the emergence of new players

within the security ecosystem. It also provides a

comprehensive review of the relevant literature and

shares expert findings, recommendations, and some

avenues for future research.

This publication on the impact of digitalisation on the

work of the intelligence services is part of DCAF’s SSR

Backgrounders series. It underscores the importance

of democratic intelligence oversight in the context of

digitalisation and outlines how good security sector

governance can strengthen democratic oversight of

intelligence services under the new challenges posed by

digitalisation.

Understanding private surveillance providers

and technologies

The policy paper Understanding private surveillance

providers and technologies examines the potential for

the existing international private military and security

companies’ regulatory framework to support more

effective regulation of private surveillance services. To

achieve this, and given that this paper addresses an

issue that is at the intersection of the two domains, it

seeks to establish a common language and terminology

between security sector governance and surveillance

practitioners.


LinkedIn @DCAF

Facebook @DCAFgeneva

X @DCAF_Geneva

Spotify @dcaf

YouTube @DCAF Geneva Centre for Security Sector

Governance

171

European Broadcasting Union

(EBU)

L’Ancienne-Route 17A | Postal Box 45 | 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex | Switzerland

www.ebu.ch

About the EBU

The EBU is the world’s leading alliance of public

service media. It has 113 member organisations in 56

countries and an additional 31 associates in Asia, Africa,

Australasia, and the Americas. EBU members operate

nearly 2,000 television, radio, and online channels and

services, and offer a wealth of content across other

platforms.

Together, they reach an audience of more than one

billion people around the world, broadcasting in more

than 160 languages. The EBU operates the Eurovision

and Euroradio services.

174

To stay relevant in the age of AI, public service media

must lead digital transformation with purpose,

trust, and public value at the core.

Noel Curran

Director-General

Message by the EBU Director-General

Public service media (PSM) in Europe is entering a new phase of digital transformation. What

was once an evolution is now a fast-moving revolution – driven by AI, changing audience

habits, and growing platform dominance. To remain relevant and trusted, PSM must lead in

innovation while staying true to its values.

175

Message by the EBU Director-General

Our mission – to serve all audiences – depends on being visible and accessible wherever

people consume content. This means ensuring public service content can be easily found on all

platforms, not just on our own services. Distribution is now about prominence, discoverability,

and trust in an environment shaped by opaque algorithms and commercial interests.

AI is rapidly transforming how media is made, distributed, and consumed. It offers powerful

tools to boost creativity, streamline production, and personalise services. But it also raises

complex questions around editorial control, ethics, and public accountability. PSM must apply

AI in ways that reflect public values and support societal goals.

At the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), we are working closely with our members to

support this transformation in various ways:

• Policy and advocacy: We engage with European regulators to ensure media policy keeps

pace with technological change – safeguarding prominence, fair access to platforms,

and responsible AI use.

• Innovation and collaboration: We connect members to test emerging technologies,

develop shared tools, and shape industry standards that work for public service media.

• Skills and strategy: We help organisations build capacity around AI, data, and digital

leadership – sharing knowledge, case studies, and practical resources and training.

This is about more than just keeping up with change. It is about rethinking how public service

media can deliver value in a digital-first world, ensuring citizens continue to have access to

trusted news and information and a distinctive homegrown voice.

176



AI is a prime strategic priority for public service media

(PSM) and for the EBU, which acts as a centre of PSM

knowledge, collaboration, and best practice in AI.

European public broadcasters are leveraging AI to

enhance content delivery, distribution, and audience

engagement. Automated translation, synthetic voices,

and personal recommendations allow PSM to innovate

and continue to provide audiences with high-quality,

diverse content.

While generative AI is transforming media production

and user experience, it also presents big challenges.

Its development is dominated by a few tech giants

that control vast datasets and infrastructure, stoking

concerns about fair innovation, content exploitation,

misinformation, and the trustworthiness of media.

To ensure a reliable media ecosystem in the AI age, the EBU

is brokering collaboration between media organisations,

regulators, Big Tech and Big AI. The aim is to foster

technical innovation, secure sustainable investment

in journalism and media literacy, while safeguarding

democratic values and, above all, public trust.

The EBU has identified three areas of strategic concern:

Data use and fair relationships

Media organisations must retain control over whether

and how their content is used to train AI models. This

includes negotiating conditions, ensuring transparency

in AI providers’ use of media content, and receiving due

remuneration. Current AI training practices often lack

transparency, and the EBU wants media rights holders to

determine the use of their data.

Source attribution and display

Trustworthy media sources should be clearly credited

when their content informs AI-generated outputs.

Generative AI systems should link back to original media

content, enabling users to identify and select credible

sources. Guidelines for the presentation and attribution

of media sources need to be developed in collaboration

with media companies.

Prominence and verification

To counter the spread of disinformation, it is essential

to prioritise trustworthy, diverse media. Collaboration

among AI providers, media, and online platforms is

necessary to create reliable verification tools, such

as C2PA, ensure the visibility of credible content, and

remove illegal or misleading material.

Highlight initiatives

Among its numerous AI workstreams, the EBU has:

• Opened the School of AI to provide bespoke

learning and development on AI for EBU members

and other media professionals

• Published its News Report 2024, titled ‘Trusted

Journalism in the Age of Generative AI’, to

illustrate the opportunities and risks of generative

AI for journalism and media

177

• Launched the EBU AI Sandbox to facilitate the

development and evaluation of customised AI

solutions based on open-source models

• Published an online casebook of creative uses of

AI in media, which is still growing

The EBU stands ready to facilitate constructive dialogue

to shape responsible, transparent, and fair AI practices

for public service media.

Telecommunications infrastructure

EBU members use various types of network infrastructure

for the production and distribution of PSM content

and services to the entire population. In addition to

traditional broadcasting networks – terrestrial, cable, or

satellite – media service providers use fixed and wireless

IP networks. EBU’s activities aim to ensure that these

networks are capable of meeting the requirements of

PSM organisations and their audiences in a technically

and economically viable way. This includes technical

developments and standardisation in collaboration with

industry partners, as well as engagement with regulators

and policymakers to ensure a suitable regulatory

framework for PSM content and services.

The current focus is on a multi-layer distribution

infrastructure that is both cost-effective and resilient,

including in times of crisis. This includes distribution over

IP and internet platforms, the use of wireless mobile

technologies, as well as the integration of satellite and

terrestrial broadcast networks, also with a view to their

respective spectrum needs.

178

Following the start of the war in Ukraine and the 2021

flooding in Europe, the EBU issued a recommendation to

recall the crucial importance of PSM’s delivery to citizens

– for this, no single resilient network will suffice.

The governance of the EBU’s technical work is described

here: https://tech.ebu.ch/about. A summary of the

Technical Committee’s high-level goals is available here:

https://tech.ebu.ch/docs/workplan/EBU_TC_Strategic_

Priorities_2022-2025.pdf

Further information about the EBU’s technical work,

including the scope of different working groups, can be

found at https://tech.ebu.ch/home/.

Digital standards

Since its inception in 1950, the EBU has been mandated

by its members to contribute to standardisation work in

all technological fields related to media. This work ranges

from TV and radio production equipment to the new

broadcasting standards for transmission. This mandate

has been naturally extended over the years to the field

of mobile technologies, as well as online production and

distribution.

The EBU hosts the digital video broadcasting (DVB)

project, which has developed digital TV standards such

as DVB-T/T2 and DVB-S/S2 which are the backbone

of digital TV broadcasting around the world. DVB is

currently working on an IP-based distribution system

and DVB-I, a new open standard for content distribution

over the internet. This work is closely aligned with the 3rd

Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).

The EBU is an active member of a number of other

standards and industry organisations that are

developing specifications relevant to media content

production and distribution, including major standards

developing organisations (SDOs) (e.g. the European

Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), 3GPP,

ITU, IEEE, and the Society of Motion Picture and Television

Engineers (SMPTE), but also those with a more focused

scope (e.g. Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV), the

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), or the Streaming

Video Technology Alliance (SVTA) and many others. In

all these organisations, the EBU’s main objective is to

ensure that specifications are capable of meeting the

requirements of EBU members and their audiences.

In 2019, the EBU also launched the 5G Media Action Group

(5G-MAG), an independent nonprofit cross-industry

association that provides a framework for collaboration

between media and ICT stakeholders on a market-driven

implementation of 5G technologies in content creation,

production, distribution, and consumption.

Network neutrality

The EBU’s work in the field of net neutrality focuses on

assisting its members in coordinating their positions on

broadband network neutrality. To this end, it provides

expertise and facilitates initiatives and the drafting of

documents concerning net neutrality at the EU level. The

EBU also encourages its members to exchange experiences

from the national level. Net neutrality is addressed as

part of the EBU’s Legal and Policy Distribution Group.

Net neutrality is seen as a key principle for public service

broadcasters to support and advocate for, as it ensures

their services are equally accessible to all internet users.

Cybercrime and network security

The EBU runs a Strategic Programme on Media

Cyber Security, providing a platform for its members

to exchange information on security incidents and

emerging cyber threats to media, and to act collectively

where necessary to address them. A dedicated working

group is focused on defining information security best

practices for broadcast companies – it maintains a

recommendation providing guidance on cybersecurity

safeguards that media organisations and media vendors

should apply when planning, designing, or sourcing their

media technology products and services.

The EBU organises an annual Media Cybersecurity

Seminar, which brings together manufacturers, service

providers, and media companies to discuss security

issues in the media domain.

In 2025, EBU also launched the Security4Media association

to facilitate cybersecurity testing of equipment and drive

the implementation of technologies that address issues

of cybersecurity, as well as trust in media.

Convergence and OTT

In an environment increasingly characterised by digital

convergence, the EBU is working on identifying viable

179

DIGITAL TOOLS

investment solutions for over-the-top (OTT) services. The

organisation has a Digital Media Steering Committee,

focused on ‘defining the role of public service media in

the digital era, with a special focus on how to interact

with big digital companies’. It also develops concepts for

convergent distribution architectures that integrate the

complementary advantages of existing infrastructures,

including a project in partnership with the European

Space Agency.

In addition, there is an intersectoral group composed of

EBU members and staff that exchange best practices for

relations between internet platforms and broadcasters.

During the COVID-19 crisis, a coordinated effort by the

technical distribution experts of the EBU and its members

monitored the state of the global broadband network to

help avoid surcharges due to the increased consumption

of on-demand programmes. The EBU has a dedicated

expert group on Broadband Distribution services.

This work goes hand in hand with that developed by the

Legal and Policy Department – among others with the

Content, Platform, Distribution, and Intellectual Property

Expert Groups, all key in the establishment of EU rules

enabling the proper availability of PSM services to people

across the EU and beyond.


The EBU is dedicated to empowering its members to

navigate the complexities and opportunities of the digital

era. Through its Digital Transformation Services, the EBU

provides a range of tailored support designed to help public

service media organisations embrace change effectively.

A key offering is the Transformation Peer Review, a

comprehensive assessment that evaluates members’

current strategies and identifies opportunities for

growth, helping them develop actionable roadmaps

for digital transformation. Additionally, the EBU offers

agile consultancy programmes that provide targeted

interventions to address specific challenges, ensuring

members can make rapid and meaningful progress.

To further support strategic development, the EBU

also facilitates intensive strategy sprints; collaborative

sessions that enable organisations to co-create initiatives

that drive transformation. Members also have access

to the Digital Transformation Initiative Playbook, a

structured guide that outlines a clear methodology for

planning, executing, and scaling digital transformation

efforts.


Facebook @EBU.HQ

Instagram @ebu_hq

LinkedIn @ebu

Podcasts @ebu.ch/podcasts

YouTube @European Broadcasting Union

180

181

Ecma International

Rue du Rhône 114 | 1204 Geneva | Switzerland

www.ecma-international.org

About Ecma International

Ecma International is a global standards development

organisation dedicated to the standardisation of

information and communication systems. Established

in 1961, Ecma has been a pioneer in providing a

framework for the collaboration of standardisation and

open source. The work is driven by Ecma members

to address market requirements, providing a healthy

competitive environment where competition is based on

the differentiation of products and services and where

vendors and users can rely on the interoperability of

technical solutions.

Areas of work include the development and publication

of standards and technical reports for ICT and

consumer electronics (CE), with a broad scope of

standardisation topics including hardware, software,

communications, consumer electronics, the internet of

things (IoT), programming languages, media storage,

and environmental subjects. Ecma’s pragmatic, flexible,

member-driven model is effective in enabling technical

committees to form and iterate rapidly on internationally

recognised open standards.

184

Pioneering next-generation technical standards -

uniting industry, the open source community,

AI innovators, and global technology experts

through a contribution-driven,

consensus-based approach.

Samina Husain

Secretary-General

Message by the Ecma International Secretary-General

Innovation is a constant, and new developments continue to occur. Technology provides a

platform for innovation and creativity. It allows individuals and organisations to explore new

ideas, create novel solutions, and push boundaries. The advancement, development, and

deployment of technology play a significant role in shaping industries, evolving job markets,

and emerging new economic opportunities.

185

Message by the Ecma International Secretary-General

The interaction of technology and humanity is also dynamic and shapes the future of society.

It involves a balance between the benefits of technological progress and the challenges of

ethical considerations. Standards play a crucial role, contributing to the efficiency, safety,

interoperability, and overall progress of industry and society.

Ecma plays an important role in developing and providing standards in this dynamic landscape.

These standards provide a common set of rules and specifications, ensuring that products and

systems from different manufacturers can work together seamlessly. This interoperability is

vital for the integration of technologies and the development of complex systems.

Through its standards, Ecma actively fosters innovation by providing a shared framework

within which new technologies and products can flourish. These standards also promote fair

competition by establishing a level playing field, allowing businesses to compete based on the

quality and features of their products rather than on proprietary technologies.

Standards are the cornerstone of a future powered by innovation. In the rapidly shifting digital

era, they provide the structure needed for creativity to thrive and for industries to evolve.

186

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

For over 60 years, Ecma has actively contributed to

worldwide standardisation in information technology

and telecommunications. More than 420 Ecma standards

and 110 technical reports have been published, covering

areas such as data presentation and communication,

data interchange and archiving, access systems

and interconnection and multimedia, programming

languages, and software engineering and interfaces, twothirds

of which have also been adopted as international

standards and/or technical reports.

One of the first programming languages developed by

Ecma, FORTRAN, was approved in 1965. ECMAScript®

(JavaScript), with several billion implementations, is one

of the most used standards worldwide.

187

Credit: ecma-international.org


Digital standards

A large part of Ecma’s activity is dedicated to defining

standards and technical reports for ICTs (hardware,

software, communications, media storage, etc.). This

work is carried out through technical committees and

task groups focusing on issues such as information

storage, multimedia coding and communications,

programming languages, open XML formats, and

product-related environmental attributes. Our

members are committed to Ecma’s success and progress

and follow best practices and efficient processes for the

development and approval of standards, making Ecma

a respected and trusted industry association. Ecma has

close working relations - such as liaisons, cooperation

agreements, and memberships - with European and

international standardisation bodies as well as with

some forums and consortia. Our long-established

relationships with other standardisation organisations

are well maintained and enable us to publish our

specifications as international standards. A list of Ecma

standards is noted below.


• Standards related to corporate

telecommunications networks: ECMA-307;

ECMA-308; ECMA-309; ECMA-326; ECMA-332;

ECMA-355; ECMA-360; ECMA-361

188

• Standards related to access systems and

interconnection: ECMA-342; ECMA-412; ECMA-

417

• Standards related to wireless proximity systems.


ECMA-373; ECMA-385 ECMA-386; ECMA-390;





• Technical reports related to corporate

telecommunications networks: TR/91; TR/92;

TR/95; TR/96; TR/100; TR/101; TR/102; TR/103;

TR/75; TR/86; TR/112;

Network security

• ECMA-205; ECMA-206; ECMA-219; ECMA-235;

ECMA-271

Sustainable development/Digital and

environment



• Programming languages such as ECMAScript

(JavaScript) and C#



ECMA-414; ECMA-426

Software engineering and interfaces

• ECMA-424 A modern standard designed to

address the complexities of the software and

system supply chain.

Data-related standards

• Multiple Ecma standards covering issues such as

data interchange, data presentation, and data

communication

• Ecma technical reports covering data

communication and data interchange.

Technical committees (TCs) and task groups (TGs),

covering issues such as access systems and information

exchange between systems (TC51), information storage

(TC31),

product-related environmental attributes (TC38),

ECMAScript® language (TC39), office open XML formats

(TC45), and ECMAScript® modules for embedded

systems (TC53). Additional technical committees include

acoustics (TC26), software and system transparency

(TC54), web-interoperable server runtimes (TC55), and

communication with AI agents (TC56).

In addition, ECMA-425 was published in December

2024, specifying a statistical background correction

for information technology and telecommunications

equipment noise measurements.

Future of standards

The participation in Ecma of many leading global

companies ensures not only the acceptance of Ecma

standards in European and international standardisation

but also their worldwide implementation.

Ecma’s goal in the next decade is to continue to play

a key role in the extraordinary development of IT,

telecommunications, and consumer electronics by

disseminating new technologies and delivering firstclass

standards to our members, partners, and the

standard-user community. Ecma aims to continue to

bring in major contributions, move technology from

members to mature standards, and collaborate with the

world’s major standards development organisations

(SDOs).

In December 2024, Ecma established Technical

Committee TC55, tasked with defining, refining, and

standardising a ‘minimum common API’ surface,

along with a verifiable definition of compliance with

that API. This is intended to improve interoperability

across multiple ECMAScript environments, expanding

beyond web browsers, specifically web servers. In

addition, Ecma established TC56, a natural language

interaction protocol for communication with AI agents.

The scope is to specify a common protocol, framework

and interfaces for interactions between AI agents using

natural language while supporting multiple modalities.

189

DIGITAL TOOLS

Conferencing technologies

Ecma maintains a pragmatic approach to meeting

participation. Our General Assembly typically takes

place as a physical meeting to allow in-person

discussions and interaction among members. For

members who cannot participate in person, remote

attendance is possible with videoconferencing and

other digital tools.

Ecma’s technical committees hold either physical,

hybrid, or virtual meetings, depending on their specific

needs.

Ecma meetings are typically held outside of Ecma’s HQ.

As a general rule, members are encouraged to host

these meetings. Invitations are extended by a technical

committee member who hosts the meeting at a venue

of their choice.

For meetings, consensus building, and voting, Ecma

focuses on being efficient and effective. The meeting

place and mode are decided upon by the committee.


LinkedIn @ecma-international

X @EcmaIntl

190

European Free Trade Association

(EFTA)

Rue de Varembé 9 | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.efta.int

About EFTA

EFTA is an intergovernmental organisation composed

of four member states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway,

and Switzerland. Established in 1960 by the EFTA

Convention, EFTA promotes free trade and economic

integration between its members. Since its foundation,

relations with the EU have been at the heart of EFTA’s

activities. In 1992, three of the EFTA states (Iceland,

Liechtenstein, and Norway) and the EU signed the

European Economic Area Agreement (EEA Agreement),

extending the EU’s internal market to these three EEA

EFTA States. In addition, since the early 1990s, EFTA has

been actively engaged in trade relations with non-EU

countries both inside and outside of Europe.

194

EFTA champions the digital economy,

from e-commerce to governance frameworks.

Kurt Jäger

Secretary-General

Message by the EFTA Secretary-General

EFTA brings together the digitally highly advanced countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway,

and Switzerland.

At EFTA’s headquarters in Geneva, we assist our member states in shaping trade relations with

countries outside the EU. The EFTA states include dedicated e-commerce chapters in their free

trade agreements. These cover, among others, provisions on paperless trade administration,

personal data and online consumer protection, and cross-border data transfers. We are

also at the forefront of advancing new, focused cooperation formats, as illustrated by the

195

Message by the EFTA Secretary-General

envisaged Digital Economy Agreement with Singapore. For EFTA, Geneva is a vibrant scene

for digital policy, particularly digital trade.

Individually, the EFTA states have dedicated digital strategies and initiatives spanning

e-government, the labour market, research and development, and the sharing economy,

to name but a few. They further uphold the protection of personal data and privacy as a

fundamental right.

The three EFTA States that are part of the European Economic Area (EEA) engage in decision

shaping in Brussels on EU digital rules. As such, among other activities, they are advancing

with the incorporation of the Artificial Intelligence Act into the EEA Agreement and cooperating

closely with EU member states on shaping AI policy through the European AI Board.

196

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

EFTA’s activities on digital issues pertain to the negotiation

of e-commerce provisions in trade agreements and

regulatory matters linked to the EEA. The latter relate,

among others, to electronic communication such as the

exchange of information via telecommunications and the

internet, audiovisual services, and data protection.

197



E-commerce and trade

EFTA aims to include e-commerce provisions in its free

trade agreements with partners across the globe. It has

already successfully concluded such chapters with Chile,

Moldova, and Ukraine. These chapters include provisions

on paperless trade administration, open internet

access, online consumer trust, electronic payments and

invoicing, and cross-border data transfers, among others.

EFTA is also negotiating a Digital Economy Agreement

with Singapore, which will cover the mentioned core

provisions, as well as forward-looking topics such as AI,

financial technology, and cybersecurity.

In the EEA context, EFTA’s Working Group on Electronic

Communication, Audiovisual Services and Information

Society (WG ECASIS) deals with legal provisions pertaining

to the EU’s digital strategy: Shaping Europe’s digital future.

As participants in the EU internal market, the EEA EFTA

States must apply EU rules on electronic communication,

audiovisual services, and the information society. In the

domain of the information society, initiatives include

rules on e-commerce, cross-border data flows, the reuse

of public sector information, and cybersecurity, as well as

electronic identification and signatures.

The future of work

EFTA is also tackling the implications of digitalisation for

the future of work. In this context, the joint EFTA–EU body

representing the social partners, the EEA Consultative

198

Committee, has issued a resolution and report on

digitalisation and its impact on jobs and skills and on

the challenges and opportunities of greater use of AI in

working life.

These documents, among others, highlight the

importance of investing in ICT infrastructure and

new learning methods, including apprenticeships and

workplace training. They also stress that the increased

use of AI in work life has to be addressed in a systematic

and comprehensive manner in the EEA, while following

the principles of transparency and human monitoring.

Data governance and liability of intermediaries

In the EEA context, WG ECASIS works with the EU on

policies for creating a single market for data, as well

as the conditions for the use of and access to data for

businesses and governments within the EEA.

The working group also engages with the EU to develop

a common regulatory framework for AI, for instance,

through the European AI Board, in which the EEA EFTA

states participate.

In the area of online intermediaries, the EEA EFTA states

are in the process of extending the Digital Services

Act and the Digital Markets Act to the entire EEA and

implementing these regulations in their respective

markets. The EEA EFTA states are strong proponents of

additional safeguards to create a secure and trustworthy

online environment. In this context, they are actively

DIGITAL TOOLS

following the work of the EU on age verification by

online intermediaries and the EU toolbox for safe and

sustainable e-commerce.

In 2024, the EEA EFTA states implemented several key

EEA-relevant legal acts in the area of cybersecurity and

are currently working to implement the Cyber Solidarity

Act. Members of WG ECASIS participate actively in the

NIS Cooperation Group and in standardisation groups to

develop common European cybersecurity certification

schemes.

Privacy and data protection

The EEA EFTA states’ Expert Group on Data Protection

keeps track of EU initiatives in the domain of data

protection, contributes to the development of EU policies

and legislation, and coordinates with the European

Commission on new EU data adequacy decisions for

counterparties outside the EEA.

The group recently issued an EEA EFTA Comment on

the proposed revisions to the enforcement rules on the

General Data Protection Regulation, which is covered by

the EEA Agreement.

Resources

EFTA offers a host of interactive tools, covering trade

statistics, free trade agreements, the utilisation of tariff

preferences, and business-relevant information for small

and medium-sized enterprises. On the EEA side, EFTA has

created a web tool that visualises how EU law becomes

EEA law.


Facebook @eftasecretariat

Instagram @eftasecretariat

LinkedIn @efta

YouTube @EFTAvideo

199

Fondation Genevoise pour l’Innovation Technologique

(Fongit)

Route de la Galaise 34 | 1228 Plan-les-Ouates | Geneva | Switzerland

www.fongit.ch

About Fongit

For over three decades, FONGIT has been de-risking the

entrepreneurial journey and supporting entrepreneurs

with the expertise, resources, and financing they

need to transform innovative ideas into sustainable

companies.

FONGIT is a private, nonprofit foundation, benefiting

from the support of the State of Geneva.

202

Fondation Genevoise pour l’Innovation Technologique

(FONGIT) plays a crucial role in Geneva’s innovation

ecosystem by supporting tech startups from

their earliest stages, where funding is most

critical. Through strategic partnerships

and long-term commitment, we help

create lasting economic and social

value, both in Geneva and beyond.

Antonio Gambardella

Director

Message by the FONGIT Director

At FONGIT, we champion the growth of digital startups that drive technological progress and

economic impact. Recently recognised by the Financial Times as a leading European startup

hub, we provide entrepreneurs with the expertise, resources, and financing they need to

transform innovative ideas into sustainable companies.

From AI and blockchain to digital health and cybersecurity, our startups tackle global

challenges with cutting-edge innovations. We bridge the gap between research institutions

203

Message by the FONGIT Director

like CERN, local industries, and international markets, ensuring that digital advancements

born in Geneva reach the world stage.

The FONGIT Innovation Fund (FIF) plays a key role in securing early-stage financing, a crucial

step on a startup’s journey. We also facilitate connections with investors and corporate

partners, ensuring sustainable growth.

As Geneva embraces digital transformation, FONGIT remains at the heart of this evolution,

fostering an ecosystem where startups thrive and innovation flourishes.

Shaping the future of digital innovation, one startup at a time.

204

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Fongit’s mission is to transform technological innovation

into social and economic value. In doing so, the

Foundation assists innovative companies in the digital

economy, by providing them with access to offices and

labs; administrative, governance, and legal support; and

access to financing.

205

Credit: fongit.ch


Digital economy

Through its activities dedicated to supporting innovative

startups, FONGIT contributes to the growth of the digital

economy. For more than three decades, entrepreneurs

supported by the Foundation have developed companies

in areas such as ICT, advanced engineering, and life

sciences.

We offer two programmes optimised to support

innovations at different stages of maturity – Initiation

Innovation and Startup Support.

• Initiation Innovation is designed for early-stage

projects that need shaping and de-risking before

deciding to launch the startup.

• Our Startup Support programme is for more

advanced innovative projects where the company

is ready for foundation, or is already founded, and

has a full pitch deck and an engaged team.

In evaluating projects for our support programmes,

we take a comprehensive look at the novelty, potential,

and maturity of each venture. We are proud to support

innovative ideas and startups that have the potential to

make a positive impact on society, furthering the SDGs.

If projects are looking mainly for funding, the FIF provides

three different types of financing for Geneva-based

technological innovations that have a positive impact

on people and the planet. The FIF aims to accelerate

innovation processes within Universities, Hautes Écoles,

and other Geneva-based research institutions, within

startups, scale-ups, and SMEs experiencing rapid growth

in the technological environment. The Fund is supported

by the Republic and Canton of Geneva, the Fondation

Modus, the International Trade Centre (ITC), and UNEP.


All FONGIT-supported startups are required to ensure

that their work directly or indirectly contributes to the

achievement of the SDGs. FONGIT collaborates closely

with UNEP and ITC to assess and highlight the impact of

its startups on the SDGs.


As an innovation leader, FONGIT has recognised the

increasing integration of seemingly unrelated technologies,

prompting a move towards tech convergence. This trend

is notably advanced in the life sciences domain, where

addressing medical challenges involves multidisciplinary

interactions across technologies like ICT, hardware,

physics, and medical expertise. The acceleration in

Geneva’s innovation landscape began several years

ago when the State of Geneva made the decision to put

innovation at the centre of its development strategy. This

has led to enhanced collaboration among entrepreneurs,

facilitated by communal spaces, fostering the exchange

of ideas that benefit various sectors.

206

In the next few years, our goal is to promote the

development of the startup ecosystem in Geneva by

increasing both their quantity and quality to reach the

level of the most advanced Swiss hubs. A key element

of this development will be fostering the life sciences

ecosystem, centred around the Campus Biotech. Our

ambition is to actively participate in transforming Geneva

into a major hub of innovation in different domains.


Facebook @fongit.ch

Instagram @fongit.ch

LinkedIn @fongit

X @Fongit1

YouTube @Fongit

207

The Geneva centre for Security Policy

(GCSP)

Maison de la Paix | Chemin Eugène-Rigot 2D | 1202 Geneve | Switzerland

www.gcsp.ch

About the GCSP

The Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP) is an

international foundation governed by a 55-member

State Foundation Council serving a global community

of individuals and organisations. Our mission is to

advance peace, security, and international cooperation.

We provide the knowledge, skills and network for 360°

effective and inclusive decision-making.

The GCSP believes that effective and forward-thinking

leaders and organisations need to build a broad picture

of what is happening in an increasingly connected

world. We unravel the intricacies of geopolitics and help

leaders develop new skills and the agility to lead in times

of tumultuous change. The GCSP creates an inclusive

environment for their global community from 174 nations

and across sectors that come together to exchange ideas

and develop sustainable solutions for a more peaceful

future. Building Peace Together through Education,

Dialogue, Policy, Creativity, and Community since 1995.

210

The digital revolution is already beginning

to shape the way we live, work,

and govern ourselves.

Thomas Greminger

Executive Director

Message by the GCSP Executive Director

The Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP) believes that effective and forward-thinking

leaders and organisations need to build a broad picture of what is happening in our increasingly

interconnected world.

The digital revolution is everywhere, just as cyberspace is: some parts are tangible (e.g.

computers), and other parts we cannot see or touch (e.g. electromagnetic waves). Therefore,

understanding how the digital revolution is shaping the way we live, work, and govern ourselves

requires an interdisciplinary and multilateral approach. Here, at the GCSP, through our three

211

Message by the GCSP Executive Director

main activities – executive education, diplomatic dialogue, and provision of policy advice – and in

cooperation with distinguished experts, partners, and our over 9,000 international professional

alumni and the Global Fellowship Initiative, we have the capacity and capability to provide an

interdisciplinary and multilateral approach to understanding the digital revolution.

An excerpt from our digital work includes our flagship Executive Education (EE) course on Cyber

Security in the context of International Security (CSIS), Geopolitics and Global Futures Symposium,

and Global and Emerging Risks in the Nexus of Geopolitics and Technology, and Diplomacy.

The EE course on CSIS is based on cyberspace operations, deterrence, and intelligence

discourse. It provides participants with an understanding of current trends in threats, risks, and

vulnerabilities and how threat actors exploit vulnerabilities to conduct successful attacks.

The Geopolitics and Global Futures Symposium examines the multiple dimensions of

global security and identifies and analyses transformative technologies. Using insights from

neuroscience, it furthers our understanding of international affairs. Topics covered include,

but are not limited to, outer space security, transformative technologies (e.g. AI, autonomous

weapons), and their security ramifications and ethical challenges and how developments in

neuroscience can help us better comprehend individual and state behaviour.

Global and Emerging Risks monitors, analyses, and interprets how emerging technologies such

as AI, synthetic biology, neuroscience, quantum computing, and nanotechnologies will impact

international politics, geopolitics, warfare, and conflicts. Responses to deal with these global and

emerging risks are promoted.

Based on the principles of impartiality, independence, and inclusiveness, the GCSP also promotes

Track 1.5 and Track 2 dialogue processes. They bring together different stakeholders to discuss

and find common ground on such issues as outer space security or the catastrophic risks arising

from the interface between AI and weapons of mass destruction.

Finally, we also provide policy advice to decision makers around the globe on current security

issues, including digital transformation.

212

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The GCSP provides analysis that covers several digital

topics, including cybersecurity and transformative

technologies. Its executive education is offered online

and in blended formats. In response to COVID-19, the

GCSP launched a series of webinars titled Global Crisis,

GlobalRisk and Global Consequences.

213

Credit: gcsp.ch



As part of its Transformative Technologies cluster, the

GCSP looks at AI and several ‘disruptive technologies’;

the term refers to synthetic biology, neuro-morphic

chips, big data, quantum computing, 3D and 4D printing,

brain-computer interfaces, hypersonic technology, and

cognitive enhancement. In particular, the GCSP focuses

on the dual-use character of these technologies, their

potential use in warfare and the future of warfare, as

well as the existing legal provisions among warfare and

humanitarian rules in relation to such technologies.

Overall, activities as part of this cluster aim to alert

policymakers to both the challenges and opportunities

associated with these technologies. These aims are also

reflected in associated educational activities, such as the

course on Transformative Technologies and the Future of

Geopolitics.

As part of its Global risk and resilience cluster (GRRC),

the GCSP has positioned itself as a thought leader on

risks at the nexus of geopolitics and technology. To

that purpose, it particularly monitors, analyses, and

interprets the impact that emerging technologies such as

AI, synthetic biology, neuroscience, quantum computing,

and nanotechnologies will have on international

politics, geopolitics, warfare, and conflicts. In addition

to identifying emerging risks and future trends that will

impact international security and warfare, the GRRC also

promotes new responses that can be brought to deal

with these emerging risks, notably through the concept

of resilience.

214

The GCSP hosts ‘Geneva Security Debates’, which include

discussions on AI topics, including a specific debate

titled ‘How AI will transform the world: The need for a

new strategic compass’. Through these debates, the

GCSP engages with the global governance discourse

around AI regulation, addressing concepts of ‘safe AI’

and ‘responsible AI’ while examining AI not just as a

technological issue but as a strategic priority for nations

and an element of potential power competition.

The GCSP is involved in the ‘Normandy P5 Initiative on

nuclear risk reduction’, which they co-convene with the

Strategic Foresight Group. This initiative, inspired by the

Normandy Manifesto for World Peace issued in June

2019, engages with the five permanent members of the

UN Security Council on nuclear risk reduction. Since 2021,

the GCSP has held multiple experts’ roundtables in Caen,

Normandy and Geneva, Switzerland. In December 2023,

the GCSP held a roundtable in Geneva to discuss the

nexus between AI and nuclear command, control, and

communications (NC3). The GCSP has decided to focus its

work in 2024 on the AI/NC3 nexus, with support from the

Future of Life Institute and the Silicon Valley Community

Foundation.

The GCSP is publishing detailed research on AI in the

context of international humanitarian law (IHL) and

the law of targeting. This research examines how AI

technologies influence international law, particularly

focusing on the evolution of IHL based on technological

developments. The GCSP is analysing the intersection

of AI and military applications, specifically in targeting

processes, and producing content that examines the

‘mechanisation’ and ‘objectivisation’ of legal principles

through AI technology.

• The Impact of Autonomy and Artificial Intelligence

on Strategic Stability

• Perils of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems

Proliferation: Preventing Non-State Acquisition

• Geopolitical Leadership for Organisational Impact

• Looking at the Edge: Understanding the Frontiers

of Geopolitical Risk

Cybersecurity

The GCSP tackles cybersecurity issues through education

and training activities, as well as policy analysis and

events. It also provides a platform for dialogue and

exchanges on cyber challenges among cyber experts

from the public, private, and civil society sectors. The

training and education activities cover areas such as

cybersecurity strategy formulation, international law

relating to cyber issues, cyber diplomacy, and broader

capacity-building initiatives (e.g. workshops and student

challenges). Policy papers published by the GCSP focus

on the nature of cybersecurity, developing norms in the

digital era, international legal analyses, and developing

holistic solutions. The flagship course is Cyber Security

in the Context of International Security; other bespoke

courses cater to public and governmental staff and

private and non-governmental employees. The GCSP’s

flagship annual cybersecurity event is the Cyber 9/12

Strategy Challenge. In partnership with the Atlantic

Council, this strategy and policy competition pits over

200 students from around the world in a strategy and

policy competition. Teams are judged by experts, highlevel

policymakers, thought leaders from industry and

the public sector (including NATO and the EU), and

government representatives. The challenge normally

takes place at the GCSP headquarters in Geneva,

but in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2022

competition took place entirely online.

The GCSP has a specific ‘Global Cyber and Security Policy’

topic area with the tagline ‘Think Cyber, Act Global’. They

offer comprehensive expertise in advisory, training,

crisis management, and security policy related to cyber

issues. The GCSP Cyber specifically focuses on enhancing

awareness of threats, facilitating risk management, and

aiding in the development of a cyber strategy aligned

with organisational goals. They recognise cybersecurity

as vital for multiple sectors: governments, private and

public sectors, academia, NGOs, and civil society.

The GCSP offers comprehensive cyber-related services,

including cyber crisis management and strategic advisory.

Their cyber crisis management training focuses on

equipping boards, executives, and teams with practical

knowledge for risk mitigation, including components

on cyber situational awareness and business continuity

management. The GCSP conducts cyber simulation

215

exercises to give teams hands-on experience responding

to cyber incidents and offers strategic advisory services

that include vulnerability assessments and practical

security solutions.

The GCSP Cyber is described as a ‘dialogue hub’ that

convenes and participates in high-level discussions

with international organisations and partners. The

organisation conducts continuous monitoring of

the global cyber landscape and contributes to the

development of national and international cyber policies.

The GCSP researches offensive operations in cyberspace

for cybersecurity purposes, with the goal of informing

deterrence and defence strategies.

The GCSP is involved in a joint Sino-European Expert

Working Group on the Application of International Law

in Cyberspace (WG IL) alongside the China Institutes of

Contemporary International Relations (CICIR), the EU

Cyber Direct, and Xiamen University. This working group

provides a platform for exchange between European and

Chinese legal experts on international law in cyberspace.

The GCSP has published reports titled ‘Countermeasures

in Cyberspace’ and ‘Jurisdiction in Cyberspace’ as part

of this collaborative research and dialogue project. The

European side of these reports was sponsored by the

Swiss Department of Foreign Affairs.

• Podcast: The Battle for Cyberspace

• The World Health Organisation: The New Cyber

Target During a Global Health Crisis and What we

can Learn

• Technology in the Time of COVID-19

• A Snapshot Analysis of the Crypto AG Revelations

• Going Digital Testimonials

• Why Cybersecurity Matters More than Ever During

the Coronavirus Pandemic?

• The Increasing Importance of Hybrid Politics in

Europe: Cyber Power is Changing the Nature of

Politics

• Spying in a Transparent World: Ethics and

Intelligence in the 21st Century

• Why Should We Care about 3D-Printing and What

are Potential Security Implications?

• Cyber Jihad: Understanding and Countering Islamic

State Propaganda

• Cybersecurity Challenges in the Middle East

• Cyber Security in the Context of International

Security

• Cyber 9/12 Strategy Challenge 2022

216


Many of the GCSP’s activities fall into the category of

capacity development activities. The GCSP offers courses

and other educational and training programmes related

to the internet and digital policy, such as cybersecurity,

transformative technologies, and strategic foresight.

In addition to capacity building through its executive

education programmes, the GCSP leverages its

considerable intellectual and networking resources (i.e.

its fellows and alumni) to engage with communities

worldwide and foster trust between regions. The

GCSP’s cybersecurity dialogues aim to remove barriers

to communication and encourage the uptake of the

opportunities today’s digital landscape has to offer.

In partnership with the Swiss Federal Department

of Foreign Affairs (FDFA), the GCSP convenes the

Track 1.5 dialogue process to ensure there is as much

communication as possible between parties that are

often in conflict with one another. This process provides

a platform and a mechanism for the exchange of ideas

to build consensus on topics as diverse as international

norms, agreement on legal paradigms, and regional

socio-economic development.

Several other events organised by the GCSP also have a

capacity development focus; one example is the annual

Cyber 9/12 Strategy Challenge, a student competition

in international cybersecurity strategy and policy. The

challenge was held entirely online in 2022 in response

to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, the publications

produced by the organisation can help inform various

stakeholders about the challenges and concerns in the

area of cyber governance.

• Cyber Security in the Context of International

Security

• Cyber 9/12 Strategy Challenge 2022

• Global and Emerging Risks

• Geopolitics and Global Futures Symposium 2022

The GCSP offers online courses, webinars, and an online

dialogue series.


Facebook @thegcsp

Instagram @thegcsp

LinkedIn @thegcsp

Podcasts

X @TheGCSP

YouTube @Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP)

217

Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights

(Geneva Academy)

Rue de Lausanne 120B | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.geneva-academy.ch

About the Geneva Academy

The Geneva Academy is a joint centre of the University of

Geneva and the Geneva Graduate Institute. It provides

continuing education, carries out research and policy

studies, and organises training courses and expert

meetings. It concentrates on branches of international

law that relate to armed conflict, protracted violence, and

the protection of human rights. The Geneva Academy is

also home of the Geneva Human Rights Platform (GHRP)

- a neutral and dynamic forum of interaction in Geneva

for all stakeholders in the field of human rights – experts,

practitioners, diplomats and civil society – to debate

topical issues and challenges related to the functioning of

the global human rights system.

220

The rapid evolution of digital technologies and AI presents

both opportunities and profound challenges

for the protection of human rights and the laws

of war. At the Geneva Academy, we are

committed to examining how international

humanitarian and human rights law can

adapt to these changes and to developing

concrete solutions that strengthen legal

protections in the digital age. In parallel,

our Geneva Human Rights Platform is

exploring how to use digital tools and AI

ethically to enhance the protection and

implementation of human rights.

Paola Gaeta

Director

Message by the Geneva Academy Director

We address issues related to digitalisation and new technologies via our research and education

programmes as well as via the activities of our Geneva Human Rights Platform.

Our research explores whether these new developments are compatible with existing rules and

whether IHL and international human rights law (IHRL) continue to provide the level of protection

they are meant to ensure.

We also equip future practitioners, experts, and decision makers via our Advanced Master’s

programmes and training courses with the legal tools to take up these challenges.

221

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Are new means and methods of warfare compatible with

existing IHL rules? What challenges do big data and AI

pose to human rights? How can we ensure the right to

privacy and protection of the private sphere in times of

war and peace?

New technologies, digitalisation, and big data are

reshaping our societies and the way they are organised.

While technological advancements present tremendous

opportunities and promises, the rapid developments in

AI, automation, and robotics raise a series of questions

about their impact in times of peace and war. The Geneva

Academy’s research in this domain explores whether

these new developments are compatible with existing

rules and whether IHL and human rights law continue to

provide the level of protection they are meant to ensure.

Its three Advanced Master’s programmes and training

courses also train tomorrow’s leaders and decision

makers in the IHL and human rights legal frameworks

relevant to digital activities, including the law of weaponry

and new military technologies.

Its GHRP facilitates exchanges and discussions among

various stakeholders – experts, practitioners, diplomats,

and civil society – around digitalisation and human rights

to provide policy advice on how to harness potential and

mitigate danger in this rapidly changing field.

The Geneva Academy’s public events and expert

meetings provide a critical and scholarly forum for

experts, practitioners, and policymakers to discuss and

debate the impact of digitalisation on human rights and

contemporary armed conflicts.

222

Credit: geneva-academy.ch


Cyberconflict and warfare 1

New military technologies are transforming the nature of

modern warfare, raising a legitimate concern that existing

laws and regulations will be outpaced by technological

advancement, widening the scope for rights abuses

and impunity. Our work in this area aims to assess the

impact and related protection needs of new military

technologies that shape the future digital battlefield in

relation to cyberwarfare, cybersecurity, and emerging

military applications of AI.

Neurotechnology

The Geneva Academy’s research addresses the human

rights implications stemming from neurotechnology

development for commercial, non-therapeutic ends.

These implications include direct externalities (violation

of the rights to privacy, property, freedom from

discrimination, etc.) and indirect externalities (spillovers

for social cohesion, equality, and intergroup tolerance).

Neurotechnology can also be seen as a tool to bolster

human rights, including in the areas of education, health,

and equality. A further dimension of this work involves

corporate regulation and policy development, especially

around human rights due diligence.


Advancements in digital technologies have created both

opportunities and risks for the promotion, expansion,

and application of human rights. An issue of particular

concern is how AI, coupled with internet reliance, has

created scope for individuals, non-state groups, and

states to use web-based platforms to push malign

content for political or violence ends. As these challenges

begin to be discussed at the multilateral level, the Geneva

Academy’s research aims to empower key stakeholders

with a common understanding of the principal risks with

a view to strengthening the international human rights

framework and crafting effective regulation.

AI also plays a vital role in advancing human rights by

improving access to justice, healthcare, and education.

Implementing ethical AI practices can help prevent

discrimination, ensure transparency, and safeguard

privacy. Additionally, AI can be used to monitor human

rights abuses and promote accountability. Via the GHRP,

we are exploring the various ways in which AI can support

the implementation of human rights, developing various

working papers, workshops and events on this matter.

1

Geneva Academy refers to this topic as New military technologies

223

DIGITAL TOOLS

Data governance

The Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts (RULAC) is a unique

online portal that identifies and classifies all situations

of armed conflict under IHL. RULAC currently monitors

more than 100 conflicts involving at least 55 states and

more than 70 armed non-state actors. It includes new

developments and fundamental changes that may affect

their classification.

In and Around War(s) podcast

The Geneva Academy’s In and Around War(s) podcast

focuses on contemporary legal issues related to wars.

Each episode discusses related topical issues, including

data protection in war and warfare in cyberspace.

Directory of digital human rights tracking

tools and databases

The Academy’s GHRP has a dedicated space on their

website for digital tracking tools and databases, which

focuses on human rights. This initiative provides a

directory that consists of a comprehensive list and

description of such key tools and databases. Furthermore,

in 2024, the project published a briefing which explores

the current trends in digital tracking tools.

Online learning

The Geneva Academy’s online part-time Executive Master

– Master of Advanced Studies in International Law in

Armed Conflict, along with its online short courses and

GHRP training courses, enables practitioners to enhance

their legal expertise regardless of their location.

In particular, linked to ITU’s AI Skills Coalition, the GHRP

develops a practical training course for human rights

practitioners on the effective and ethical use of AI

and digital tracking tools. In-depth knowledge of the

functioning of the UN human rights mechanism is paired

with technical knowledge on AI solutions to enhance

the implementation and monitoring of human rights

obligations.

Facilitating exchanges and discussions

The GHRP, hosted by the Geneva Academy, provides

a neutral and dynamic forum of interaction for all

stakeholders in the field of human rights to debate

topical issues and challenges related to the functioning

of the Geneva-based human rights system.

In this context, the GHRP supports the ‘digital uplift’ of

the UN’s human rights system, piloting digital solutions to

facilitate the work of the UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies.

224


LinkedIn @Geneva Academy of International

Humanitarian Law and Human Rights

Instagram @geneva_academy

Bluesky: @genevaacademy.bsky.social

Facebook @GenevaAcademyIHLandHR

YouTube @Geneva_Academy

225

Geneva Environment Network

(GEN)

Chemin des Anémones 11-13 | 1219 Châtelaine-Geneva | Switzerland

www.genevaenvironmentnetwork.org

About GEN

GEN, established in 1999, is a cooperative partnership

of more than 100 environmental and sustainable development

organisations based at the International Environment

House in Geneva and other locations in the

surrounding region. The Secretariat is supported by the

Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and is

administered by the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP).

Geneva is a global hub for international environmental

governance with more than 100 organisations committed

to environmental priorities in the following key areas:

Chemicals and pollution, Climate, Digital cooperation,

Eco-humanitarian, Green economy, Human rights and

environment, Nature, and Science.

GEN organises and hosts meetings, roundtables, briefings,

and workshops in preparation for major environmental

negotiations and to promote the dissemination

of information and public awareness of environmental

issues. In addition, GEN actively promotes increased cooperation

and networking among its partners and publishes

a weekly newsletter highlighting the latest news,

resources, events, and jobs in the region.

228

Science-based governance and access to data

and technology, respectful of the environment,

are key to ensuring everyone’s right

to a healthy environment.

Geneva is a global hub to advance

these agendas.

Diana Rizzolio

Coordinator

Message by the GEN Coordinator

Geneva is one of the main global hubs where digital policies are debated, evaluated, and adopted.

As such, digital cooperation is one of the region’s key areas for international environmental

governance activities and for reinforcing synergies among stakeholders. Geneva Environment

Network (GEN) discussions are mainly held in preparation for major environmental negotiations

and as outreach on their outcomes. The discussions foster action on the triple planetary crisis of

biodiversity loss, climate change, and pollution that the world is facing, through science-based

governance, leveraging data and technology respectful of the environment, and ensuring its

access to all, to achieve everyone’s right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment. They

involve numerous stakeholders based in the region, specialised in these topics.

229


Data, digital technology, and the environment

Geneva is one of the main global hubs where digital

policies are debated, evaluated, and adopted. As such,

digital cooperation is one of the region’s key areas for

international environmental governance activities and

for reinforcing synergies among stakeholders.

Although advancing technology has always been

coupled with significant impacts on the environment,

recent advances in technology offer ground-breaking

opportunities to monitor and protect the environment,

as well as the overall planetary health. By harnessing

them appropriately, the digital revolution can be steered

to act on the triple planetary crisis of biodiversity loss,

climate change, and pollution, and to advance global

sustainability, environmental stewardship, and human

well-being, towards achieving the right to a healthy

environment for all.

GEN supports International Geneva activities and hosts

meetings, roundtables, briefings, and workshops to

• promote the production of and access to

transparent and high-quality data, which are

crucial to achieving the 2030 Agenda and the right

to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment.

• discuss digital technology as a carbon producer

and its widespread impact on global sustainability.

• discuss the contribution of digital technologies,

including Earth observation, data collection

and monitoring, sustainable consumption

and production patterns, as well as sound

environmental management.

• emphasise the importance of good governance

in the digital arena and the need for cooperation

among governments, institutions, and other data

producers and users for better sustainability

outcomes.

The organisations in the region that contribute to the

environmental dimension of digital cooperation listed

and partnering with GEN, include the GIP, Group on

Earth Observations (GEO), IPCC, ITU, IGF, Global Resource

Information Database (UNEP/GRID-Geneva), and WMO.


Most GEN activities under this basket discuss the

following:

• How technology advancements are associated

with major environmental consequences.

• How recent technological breakthroughs provide

opportunities to monitor and protect the

environment and the global health of the planet.

• How the digital revolution can be used to tackle

the triple planetary crisis of biodiversity loss,

climate change, and pollution, while advancing

global sustainability, environmental stewardship,

and human well-being.

230

DIGITAL TOOLS

More specifically, GEN recognises how digital technologies

can transform environmental governance:

• The combination of innovations enables the

mapping of population, social development,

and economic actors to understand and predict

natural resource use and demand.

• The potential for real-time decision-making on

natural resources that could transform global

environmental governance frameworks.

• The possibility for decisions to be made,

monitored, and enforced using real-time spatial

and statistical data.

GEN is connected to initiatives promoting transparent

and collaborative data collection for SDGs, including

resources like the Roadmap for Digital Cooperation. The

network is engaged in the UN World Data Forum 2021

and its outcomes, including the Bern Data Compact for

the Decade of Action on the SDGs. GEN is also involved in

the Green Digital Action track at COP28, which focuses on

leveraging digital solutions for climate action.

These discussions are held in preparation for major

environmental negotiations and as outreach on their

outcomes. They act on the triple planetary crisis of

biodiversity loss, climate change, and pollution that

the world is facing, through science-based governance,

leveraging data and technology respectful of the

environment, and ensuring its access to all, to achieve

everyone’s right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable

environment.

231

The website is an important tool for GEN. Updated daily,

it includes information on all partners, their events, and

other resources. All summaries, videos, and related

resources on the events organised by GEN are accessible

through the website. All events are now hybrid to allow

better participation, with tools developed to encourage

active participation.


Facebook @GenevaEnvironmentNetwork

Instagram @genevaenvironmentnetwork

LinkedIn @GenevaEnvironmentNetwork

X @GENetwork

Bluesky @genevaenvironmentnetwork.org

YouTube @Geneva Environment Network

The Group on Earth Observations

(GEO)

Av. de la Paix 7 bis | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.earthobservations.org

About GEO

GEO provides Earth Intelligence to support evidencebased

decision-making. GEO draws upon a global

network of 116 governments and 162 organisations,

including leading space agencies, research institutes, the

technology sector, civil society, and UN agencies, to drive

international consensus and systems change.

GEO co-designs open, reproducible, and scalable

information products with public agencies, academia,

and the private sector, driving innovation and creating

value. GEO’s services are tailored to stakeholder needs,

delivering Earth Intelligence that drives positive change

and measurable impact.

234

Earth Intelligence is more than just data – it is

the foundation for better decisions and a more

sustainable future. Group on Earth

Observations’ (GEO) work ensures that

everyone, everywhere, has the insights

to take action with confidence

and resolve.

Yana Gevorgyan

Director of Secretariat

Message by the GEO Director of Secretariat

In a world increasingly shaped by digital transformation, GEO is forging a path toward inclusive,

open Earth Intelligence that empowers informed decision-making, from local communities to

global leaders. Our digital efforts are grounded in a simple yet powerful belief: when knowledge

is open, accessible, and actionable, everyone can be part of the solution.

At GEO, openness is not just a principle—it is a practice. Through platforms like the GEO

Knowledge Hub, we create a shared space where communities can access ready-to-use data,

tools, and applications and participate in knowledge sharing.

235

Message by the GEO Director of Secretariat

Digital innovation is central to our work. AI and machine learning are embedded across the GEO

Work Programme, enhancing everything from early warning systems to automated monitoring

tools. These technologies amplify human capacity, making it possible to anticipate change and

act faster, together.

Yet we know digital transformation must be equitable. GEO works to close the digital divide

by ensuring communities, especially those historically excluded from global data systems, can

access and shape the tools they need. We value indigenous knowledge and are committed to

weaving it together with cutting-edge science in ways that honour both.

Collaboration is our catalyst. GEO’s partnerships with UN agencies, research institutions, and the

private sector help scale solutions that are reproducible, responsive, and grounded in real-world

needs. Whether through AI, digital twins, or cloud-based platforms, we co-design with those on

the front lines of climate action, disaster resilience, and sustainable development.

As we look beyond 2025, GEO remains steadfast in its mission: to build digital ecosystems that

serve society, support the planet, and uplift nature. Because when data becomes decision-ready,

and when those decisions are inclusive and informed, we move from insight to impact—together.

236

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

GEO empowers everyone, everywhere to use and

contribute to Earth Intelligence, enabling better decisions

for people, the planet, and nature.

Harnessing the power of interdisciplinary

collaboration

GEO draws upon the expertise of an extensive global

network of Earth system experts, comprising 116

governments, 162 international, private sector, and civil

society organisations. This diverse network includes

the world’s leading space agencies, renowned research

institutes and UN agencies. By convening relevant

stakeholders across sectors, GEO has the unique ability

to forge international consensus and drive evidencebased

decisions to promote system change.

Strategic approach

GEO builds strategic partnerships among public agencies,

academia, and the private sector to co-design information

products that are open, reproducible, and scalable. This

approach ensures that the expertise and technology of

different stakeholders are leveraged to drive innovation

and create tangible value for them. By organising and

translating Earth observation (EO) data into trusted open

tools and services, GEO helps bridge the digital divide

and close knowledge gaps between stakeholders and the

Earth observation data they need.

Providing demand-driven services

GEO offers a portfolio of demand-driven services that

drive positive change and deliver measurable impact. By

tailoring its solutions to meet the specific needs of diverse

stakeholders, GEO ensures that its Earth Intelligence

products are both relevant and actionable.

237



Data governance

GEO recognises that the societal benefits arising from

Earth Intelligence can only be fully achieved through the

sharing of data, information, knowledge, products, and

services. Ever since its inception, GEO has been a strong

advocate for broad and open data-sharing policies and

practices (Open Earth Observation Data). The Data

Sharing Principles (2005-2015) inspired a few members

and participating organisations to evolve from restricted

data policies to open data approaches. Data sharing was

also recognised as one of the greatest successes of the

first GEO decade. Embracing the international trend of

open data, GEO principals endorsed a new set of Data

Management Principles. These principles promote ‘open

data by default’ and address the need for discovery,

accessibility, usability, preservation, and curation of data.

GEO has established the Data and Knowledge Working

Group to support the implementation of its data

principles.

To enable indigenous peoples to equitably participate

in and benefit from data creation, application, and

stewardship within contemporary data environments,

the GEO Indigenous Alliance advocates for the

implementation of CARE (collective benefit, authority

to control, responsibility, ethics) with FAIR (findable,

accessible, interoperable, reusable) principles. The CARE

Principles for Indigenous Data Governance are peopleand

purpose-oriented, reflecting the crucial role of data in

advancing indigenous innovation and self-determination.

These principles complement the existing FAIR principles,

encouraging open and other data movements to consider

both people and purpose in their advocacy and pursuits.


GEO leads global initiatives that explore our planet’s

ecological health, climate challenges, disaster readiness,

resource optimisation, urban sustainability, and public

health priorities. By integrating Earth Intelligence with

global frameworks like the 2030 Agenda, the Paris

Agreement, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster

Risk Reduction, GEO demonstrates our commitment to

fostering a healthy, sustainable, and resilient world.

GEO addresses eight specific thematic areas: Agriculture

and food security; land and water sustainability;

ecosystems, biodiversity, and carbon management;

weather, hazard and disaster resilience; climate, energy,

and urbanisation; One Health; equity and inclusion; and

open data, open knowledge and infrastructure.

Driven by the GEO Post-2025 Strategy, Earth Intelligence

for All, GEO is committed to co-producing actionable

insights with and for our diverse user base.

The GEO Work Programme is the primary instrument

to encourage collaboration among our members,

participating organisations, associates, and other

partners. It aims to fulfil GEO’s mission and vision by

238


addressing information needs in various fields where

EOs play a crucial role.

GEO is increasingly incorporating AI into its Earth

Intelligence initiatives, with approximately half of the

GEO Work Programme activities identifying as advanced

or medium-level AI users. AI applications within GEO

primarily focus on image classification, change detection,

and predictive modelling for Earth observation data.

GEO contributes to the global ‘AI for Good’ vision

and participates in global AI discussions, including

representation at UNFCCC’s High-Level Event on AI at

COP28 and the 2024 AI for Good Summit.


The current flagship programmes in the GEO Work

Programme are GEO Land Degradation Neutrality, GEO

Biodiversity Observation Network, GEO Global Agricultural

Monitoring, the Global Forest Observation Initiative, and

the Global Observation System for Mercury. To facilitate

access to Earth Intelligence applications, we have the

GEO Knowledge Hub, a digital library. Ministers and

ministerial representatives adopted the Group on Earth

Observations 2023 Cape Town Ministerial Declaration

on 10 November 2023. The Declaration endorses the

GEO Post-2025 Strategy Earth Intelligence for All, which

charges GEO with developing an implementation plan

to guide the execution of the strategy, and reaffirms the

integral role of young people as catalysts for sustainable

development, among other statements.

239

GEO assists countries in its region in addressing

sustainable development challenges. The vision of the

GEO Indigenous Alliance is to protect and conserve

indigenous cultural heritage by using science, data and

technology to create a knowledge base that sustains the

Earth we live on.

GEO has developed a series of tools and initiatives to

promote the use of Earth Intelligence as evidence for

decision-making.

• GEO Knowledge Hub

• Global Ecosystems Atlas

• Global Heat Resilience Service

• Earth Observations Risk Toolkit

• Biodiversity Observation Network (GEO-BON)

• The Global Forest Observation Initiative (GFOI)

• The Global Observation System for Mercury

• Global Agricultural Monitoring Initiative

• AfriGEO: The African Group on Earth Observations

• AmeriGEO: A Framework for Advancing Data Driven

Decision-Making

• AOGEO (Asia-Oceania Group on Earth Observations)

• EuroGEO

Additional tools and initiatives:

• Global Water Sustainability Initiative (GEOGLOWS)

• GEO-Microsoft Planetary Computer Programme

• Harnessing AI for Earth observations for All

An important convention that, although not directly

covering digital issues, is still relevant.

• Canberra Declaration (2019)


Facebook @Group On Earth Observations

Flickr @grouponearthobservations

Instagram @grouponearthobservations

LinkedIn @group-on-earth-observations

X @GEOSEC2025

YouTube @Group on Earth Observations

240

Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator

(GESDA)

Chemin des Mines 9 | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.gesda.global

About GESDA

A Swiss foundation with global reach and private-public

partnership working from Geneva, GESDA was launched

in September 2019 to develop and promote anticipatory

science and diplomacy for greater impact and multilateral

effectiveness.

GESDA was established to explore how future science

breakthroughs can most efficiently be translated and used

as tools for the benefit of humanity. GESDA interlinks the

digital revolution with other disruptive fields of science

and technology, as well as with the diplomatic world.

GESDA was created as a global independent foundation

and public partnership in 2019, for an initial start-up

phase of three years. In March 2022, the founders – the

Swiss Federal Council and the Canton of Geneva, with the

City of Geneva – decided to prolong the Foundation for

10 years.

The ultimate objective remains to strengthen the

contribution of Switzerland to multilateralism as the host

country of the UN in Geneva.

GESDA’s work is guided by three fundamental questions:

• Who are we, as humans? What does it mean to

be human in the era of robots, gene editing, and

augmented reality?

• How are we all going to live together? How can

technologies reduce inequality and foster inclusive

development?

• How can we ensure the well-being of humankind

and the sustainable future of our planet? How

can we supply the world’s population with the

necessary food and energy and regenerate our

planet?

GESDA’s headquarters are located at the Campus Biotech

in Geneva.

244

We are on the right track.

Stéphane Decoutère

Secretary-General

Message by the GESDA Secretary-General

Use the future to build the present

During the first three years of our pilot phase, the Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator

(GESDA) achieved widespread recognition as a significant new addition to International

Geneva’s wellspring of multilateralism.

Our success, however, was not assured when we set out on this path in 2019. We had the

confidence and support of the Swiss and Geneva governments, but it was by no means a

blank cheque. We had to demonstrate we could fill a gap in the multilateral system within

three years.

245

Message by the GESDA Secretary-General

In 2021, the hard work and preparation paid off.

We released our first Science Breakthrough Radar and held our first Geneva Science and

Diplomacy Anticipation Summit. Both were a huge success, highlighting the strong global

interest in our mission and activities.

Then, in the spring of 2022, the Swiss and Geneva governments renewed their support for

GESDA beyond the pilot phase. We have been granted authorisation to launch operations for

ten years: from September 2022 to September 2032.

With this important institutional support, we can now look to the future with confidence and

focus on our core mission and activities. First, we will work to identify the most promising

scientific innovations in 5, 10, and 25 years from now through our Science Breakthrough

Radar, which involves, at last count, 2,100 scientists worldwide. Second, we will discuss the

potential impacts of those breakthroughs at our annual summit gathering of leading figures in

politics, diplomacy, the private sector, and academia. Third, we will work as a catalyst towards

finding solutions that can accelerate the implementation of the UN’s multilateral agenda, in

particular, the achievement of its 17 SDGs for 2030. In all of these activities, GESDA plays the

role of an honest broker.

Our work is creating an important pipeline — a plethora of potentially viable ideas — thanks to

our dedicated multistakeholder task forces in charge of our feasibility studies. Among those,

the most advanced to date is in the fascinating digital domain. It is undoubtedly the rise and

promise of quantum computing.

In fact, this is no longer just an idea. On 5 March 2024, GESDA launched the pilot phase of the

Open Quantum Institute, now part of CERN and has the support of UBS. It is a global platform

for the application of solutions generated by quantum computers, one of the main objectives

of which is to accelerate the achievement of the UN SDGs.

This is at the heart of the GESDA method: fostering collaboration between international

organisations with the support of diplomacy and the private sector.

246

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Advanced computational tools, such as AI and highperformance

computing, are reshaping all fields of

science.

GESDA’s specificity is that it focuses on ‘science

anticipation’. Its ambition is to comprehend future digital

disruptions and their implications for other fields of

science, geopolitics, and mankind.

In 2025, the GESDA Foundation has given priority to two

new areas:

1. The systematic promotion of International Geneva

worldwide through the extension of activities linked to its

current initiatives, in particular the Geneva Public Portal

to Anticipation, which welcomed visitors to the Swiss

Pavilion for the duration of the 2025 World Expo in Osaka.

In all, GESDA organised major activities in 16 countries,

including two in the Americas, three in Africa, eight in

Asia and the Middle East, as well as three in Europe.

2. The preparation of new initiatives similar to the Open

Quantum Institute with a view to their gradual launch

from July 2026 in some of the other emerging fields

covered by the GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar,

for instance, neuro-augmentation, eco-augmentation,

space, synthetic biology, or the future of peace and war.

247

Credit: GESDA



GESDA brings together an outstanding community of

academic, diplomatic, and impact leaders to reflect

and act on how to use the future to build the present.

Its work is structured around the following flagship

instruments:

1. GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar®

The GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar® is a new tool

for multilateralism, informed discussions, and concerted

action. It is a single point of entry to catch up with the

unprecedented pace of science and technology. Providing

a factual basis for eye-opening reflections on the impacts

of future scientific discoveries on people, society, and the

planet(s), this interactive, evolving instrument is updated

once every year.

The GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar® provides

a single-entry point for all communities of practice

interested in becoming early adopters of scientific

advances, whether they are scientists, political authorities,

diplomats working in embassies or international

organisations, economic actors, non-governmental

organisations (NGOs), or citizens from anywhere in the

world.

The GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar® provides an

overview of the emerging trends in five major fields of

science and technology:

248

1. Advanced AI & Quantum Revolution

2. Human Augmentation

3. Eco-Regeneration and Geoengineering

4. Science & Diplomacy

5. Knowledge Foundations

This digital platform – updated continuously and released

in paper copy on an annual basis – maps impactful emerging

topics currently researched in science laboratories across

the world and anticipated breakthroughs at 5, 10, and 25

years. It provides descriptions of over 300 breakthrough

predictions relevant to the global community. The GESDA

Science Breakthrough Radar® is a collective effort of

2,100 scientists around the world who are building the

Radar community within the GESDA Academic Forum,

chaired by Professor Michael Hengartner, the President

of the ETH Board and a member of the GESDA Board of

Directors.

The 2024 GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar presents

a dynamic landscape of scientific possibilities and

challenges. It introduces several significant developments

in the work of GESDA. Alongside engaging with the

scientific community to capture the latest advancements,

the Radar now includes new scientific topics such as

robotics, embodied intelligence, behavioural science,

digital security, and archaeology. The methodology

behind science anticipation has also been refined, focusing

on exploring uncertain future scientific trajectories and

their transformative effects on both science and society,

as well as promoting multilateral action.

Highlights of the 2024 Radar edition

1. Eco-augmentation: A new platform in the Radar,

examining deliberate and strategic interactions

with nature to enhance ecosystems. Advances in

synthetic biology, stem cell biology, ecosystem

sensing, and AI are enabling eco-augmentation—

manipulating ecosystems to restore or enhance their

functions and increase their resilience. However,

our understanding of ecosystems is still limited, and

interventions must be carefully designed to avoid

unintended consequences.

2. Philosophical lens on eco-augmentation: A panel

of philosophers convened by GESDA reflects on how

eco-augmentation may change our understanding of

humanity›s responsibility toward nature in an era of

exponential technological growth.

3. Geopolitical lens: With the collaboration of

the GCSP and Columbia University›s School of

International and Public Affairs (SIPA), the geopolitical

impact of AI on peace, war, and security is examined.

Emerging technologies will shape military and

security capabilities, necessitating discussions

around their peaceful deployment.

4. Science lens: Examines how scientific

breakthroughs may transform the practice of

research itself. For instance, AI›s impact on research

methodologies, the breakdown of scientific

disciplines, and the advent of automated laboratories

may drastically change how science is conducted.

249

Top 8 anticipated scientific trends

1. Revolution in computing: Advances in AI

and unconventional computing approaches are

reshaping expectations of what computers can do.

Neuromorphic machines, quantum computing, and

photonic computing could bring about revolutionary

changes in computational power, with applications in

scientific discovery and industry within the next few

years.

2. Expanding consciousness, healthspan, and

lifespan: Technologies that modulate consciousness

and cognition, like pharmaceutical interventions

and electrical stimulation, are advancing. These

innovations may allow us to probe mental states,

improve brain function, and restore lost neural

functions. Moreover, developments in genetic

modification, including epigenome editing and

metagenomics, are enabling the extension of

healthspan and lifespan through precise biological

modifications.

3. Eco-augmentation — reshaping the

environment: The concept of eco-augmentation

involves intentional interventions in ecosystems

to improve their sustainability and resilience.

Technologies such as synthetic biology and AI

are helping shape ecosystems, but interventions

must be carefully controlled due to the complexity

of natural systems and the risks of unintended

consequences. Advances in ocean science and space-

based technologies also require careful attention for

peaceful management.

4. Datafication of society: The role of digital

technology in shaping societies, particularly through

AI and quantum computing, is becoming more

prominent. As digital technologies like biometrics

and AI-powered bots redefine interactions and

privacy, new challenges arise in securing data,

ensuring trust, and managing digital identities.

Moreover, behavioural science uses granular data

to understand and address issues like conflict and

extremism.

5. Synthetic biology and transformative

technologies: Synthetic biology offers transformative

potential by allowing for precise genetic modifications

and the creation of entirely new organisms. While

applications in medicine are already emerging,

synthetic biology could also provide sustainable

materials, foods, and energy sources. However,

ethical concerns and the regulation of these powerful

technologies are crucial. These advances extend

to archaeology, with molecular-level analysis of

archaeological remains offering new insights into our

ancestors, the environment, and ancient societies.

6. AI and its role in society: The development of

AI and its ability to revolutionise diverse sectors

continues to accelerate. AI›s potential to transform

industries and influence geopolitics is immense.

However, as AI systems evolve, so do the ethical

and social implications that need to be carefully

considered to ensure that they benefit society.

7. Quantum computing: Although still in its

nascent stages, quantum computing promises to

revolutionise the way information is processed using

quantum mechanics. Quantum systems could solve

complex problems that are currently impossible for

traditional computers, with applications ranging

from materials science to cryptography.

Future of research: The role of AI in scientific research

is growing, changing how data is analysed, and enabling

new avenues of discovery. Future research will involve

larger interdisciplinary collaborations and greater

reliance on intelligent data mining and automated

laboratories.

For three days every year in October, the GESDA

Foundation gathers representatives of communities of

practice interested in discussing and using the emerging

scientific trends depicted in the Radar. This Geneva

Science and Diplomacy Anticipation Summit is where the

new annual edition of the Radar is officially presented

and released. The Geneva Science and Diplomacy

Anticipation Summit accelerates the science diplomacy

nexus. Bringing science to the table of multilateralism,

it engages diplomacy leaders to examine the impact

of future breakthroughs on people, society, and the

planet, as well as their implications for future global

governance and geopolitics.

250

DIGITAL TOOLS

2. GESDA Solution Accelerator

GESDA’s instrument to co-construct science diplomacy

solutions with relevant transdisciplinary and crosscommunity

task forces.

GESDA structures its anticipation, acceleration, and

translation work across five thematic platforms

addressing potential future science and technology

advances, as well as their related challenges:

• Quantum revolution and advanced AI, with, for

instance, the challenge of privacy.

• Human augmentation, with, for instance,

the challenge of advanced gene editing or

neuroenhancement.

• Eco-regeneration and geo-engineering, with,

for instance, the challenges of synthetic biology,

decarbonisation, and regenerative agriculture.

• Science and diplomacy, with, for instance, the

challenge of future world geopolitics, including

multilateral conflict modelling, forecasting, and

prevention.

• Knowledge foundations with, for instance, the

challenge of the future of work and labour,

including rising inequalities and inclusive growth.

GESDA Villars Anticipation Workshops

In the spring of 2024, GESDA hosted the second Villars

Anticipation Workshop focused on eco-augmentation.

This workshop followed the inaugural one on neuroaugmentation

in 2023. Planetarised Humanity was

251

the title of the third Villars Anticipation Workshop held

in March 2025. As the world becomes increasingly

interconnected, emerging technologies such as AI, digital

platforms, and virtual reality are reshaping human

identity, social relations, and governance structures.

This transformation was at the heart of the third Villars

Anticipation Workshop, organised by GESDA.

These workshops have cemented themselves as vital

platforms for transdisciplinary, multinational science

anticipation.

Digital tools

Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipation Summit

(annual event in October) – all sessions accessible online.

Science and Diplomacy Week (annual event in May) –

most sessions accessible online.

GESDA Science Breakthrough Radar (provides a

platform for online contributions).

GESDA regularly contributes to relevant global meetings

across the world.


LinkedIn @gesda-global

X @GESDA

Flickr GESDA - Geneva Science and

Diplomacy Anticipator

GIGA

Chemin des Mines 9 | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.giga.global/about-us

About GIGA

A product of timing, opportunity, and need, Giga is a joint

ITU/UNICEF initiative that was founded in 2019 to support

governments in making the quest to connect every school

and every young person to the internet achievable, a

sound investment and a fruitful undertaking. Giga is a

model of UN system cooperation, combining the knowhow

and expertise of UNICEF and ITU.

Giga supports governments to make data-evidenced

decision-making, access financing and undertake

procurement to connect every school to the internet by

2030.

As of early 2025, 34 countries and territories have been

engaged with Giga.

Giga also collaborates with other UN agencies on digital

education, such as UNHCR and UNESCO, in the Digital

Transformation Collaborative and the Gateway to public

digital learning platform.

Giga has been recognised in the GDC as a key steppingstone

to the commitment to connect all schools and

hospitals to the internet by 2030.

Giga is supported by the governments of Switzerland and

Spain, the Regional Government of Catalonia, and the City

of Barcelona. Other major supporters include Ericsson,

Dell, and IHS Towers.

254

Alex Wong

Senior Advisor, Executive Office, ITU

Thomas Davin

Global Director, UNICEF Office of Innovation

Message by the GIGA representatives

School connectivity is the starting point in the journey towards the digital transformation of

education. Not only does the internet broaden access to information and learning opportunities

for students and teachers, but it also facilitates better public administration of the education

sector. Connected schools can act as anchors for internet access to surrounding communities,

providing economic stimulus.

255

Message by the GIGA representatives

Yet, too many schools around the world remain offline, especially in marginalised and lowincome

communities.

Leveraging the skills and expertise of ITU and UNICEF, Giga is a once-in-a-generation initiative to

reduce the digital divide in the education space, accelerating progress on the SDGs on education

and others.

Our new Giga Connectivity Centre at Campus Biotech marks another key milestone. Leveraging

the International Geneva ecosystem, the Centre will foster collaboration and knowledge sharing

for the capacity development of governments to connect schools. The Centre will also be the

focal point for Giga’s provision of support to countries in procurement and mobilisation of

finances to get schools online.

Alex Wong, Senior Advisor, Executive Office, ITU

Today, 1.3 billion children remain disconnected, not by choice but by circumstance. Connecting

schools to the internet will open a world of opportunities. Giga - the UNICEF and ITU initiative —

has set off on the mission to close the digital divide in education and make sure no child is left

behind. This is a critical first step to upending the global learning crisis and equipping learners

with the information and opportunity to shape their future.

Thomas Davin, Global Director, UNICEF Office of Innovation

256

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

With 2.6 billion people still offline and an estimated half of

the world’s schools are still not connected to the internet.

Without internet access, children miss out on various

learning and opportunities to participate in an increasingly

digital world.

This is why the work of the ITU/UNICEF Giga initiative to

achieve universal school connectivity has never been

more critical.

Giga draws on the strengths of its two partnering

organisations: ITU, in policy and regulation and capacity

development, and UNICEF, in improving children’s lives

across the world, with operations in 190 countries and

expertise in procurement.

Giga’s work is carried out under four key pillars: mapping

schools, modelling the requisite infrastructure, mobilising

finance, and contracting for connectivity. All of this work

is underpinned by capacity development across all the

areas relating to school connectivity.

Giga is headquartered in Geneva at the Giga Connectivity

Centre, at Campus Biotech, in the heart of International

Geneva. Aside from being a collaboration hub for the

joint ITU-UNICEF team, the Centre is also the base

for activities to facilitate digital innovation, capacity

building, information sharing, and showcasing solutions

across the entire value chain of school connectivity to

help stakeholders advance their digital transformation

agendas in education. The Centre is also home to Giga’s

work on supporting governments in mobilising capital

for connectivity and to streamline public procurement

processes for contracting school connectivity services.

The Barcelona Technology Centre is the base for Giga’s

technical work, where its data scientists and engineers

develop scalable and sustainable open-source solutions

for school connectivity using different technologies.

257

Credit: Giga


Sustainable development1

By providing data-driven insights, strategic policy and

regulatory guidance, and innovative financing models,

Giga supports governments in developing achievable,

scalable, and sustainable connectivity plans.

Strategic policy guidance

Giga leverages ITU expertise to help governments develop

policies and regulatory environments that foster the

effective realisation of school connectivity, including

influencing market behaviour, use of universal service

funds, investment incentives for school connectivity,

and efficient procurement practices that promote fair

competition. It also offers tailored guidance to governments

on adopting technical solutions for last-mile infrastructure

to regulatory frameworks.

Innovative finance

The absence of essential digital infrastructure presents a

significant obstacle, especially in low and lower-middleincome

countries, restricting access to learning and

economic opportunities. A key part of its work under

the finance pillar, Giga is actively involved in major

multistakeholder efforts to galvanise investment in digital

infrastructure.

One such effort is the Digital Infrastructure Investment

Initiative (DIII). Launched in 2024 by ITU, it is co-led by six

development finance institutions (DFIs) in coordination

with the G20 presidencies of Brazil (2024) and South Africa

(2025). The DIII is working to identify ways to maximise

the impact of traditional investments and develop new

financing mechanisms and instruments to boost digital

investment. Representatives from the Giga community

have provided useful insights to the DIII Working Group.

For its part, Giga is also exploring innovative financing

approaches to support school connectivity.

Digital public infrastructure

Giga is also involved in strengthening the springboarding

of education transformation through the harnessing

of Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI). Giga’s focus is on

interoperability of platforms – usable practically anywhere

– that support a learner-centric approach.

A new Giga report, Building the case for a digital public

infrastructure for education, published in early 2025 in

collaboration with ITU, presents case studies in DPI to

achieve scalable, impactful digital solutions for schools.

1

While GIGA does not use this terminology to describe its work, we have adopted it in line with our internal taxonomy. Its use in this publication is for consistency

and clarity within that framework.

258

DIGITAL TOOLS

Giga designs, develops and deploys digital products and

services to help governments accelerate their school

connectivity goals. These offerings are adaptable to the

circumstances of each country rather than one-size-fitsall

solutions. Examples include tools to geolocate schools

through a combination of government and open source

data, complemented with tools such as machine learning

algorithms that use satellite imagery. This and other tools

are designed to facilitate the planning and implementation

of interventions to foster digital inclusion even for remote

or underserved regions. Our open-source tech solutions

align with Giga’s principles of openness and scalability.


Instagram @giga_global

LinkedIn @Giga

X @GigaGlobal

YouTube @GigaGlobal

Monthly newsletter @Giga

Contact info@giga.global

259

Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies

(Geneva Graduate Institute)

Chem. Eugène-Rigot 2 | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.graduateinstitute.ch

About the Geneva Graduate Institute

The Geneva Graduate Institute of International and

Development Studies (Geneva Graduate Institute) is

an institution of research and higher education at the

postgraduate level dedicated to the study of world

affairs, with a particular emphasis on the cross-cutting

fields of international relations and development issues.

Through its core activities, the Institute promotes

international cooperation and contributes to the progress

of developing societies. More broadly, it endeavours to

develop creative thinking on the major challenges of our

time, foster global responsibility, and advance respect for

diversity.

By intensely engaging with international organisations,

NGOs, governments, and multinational companies, the

Institute participates in global discussions and prepares

future policymakers to lead tomorrow’s world.

In 2022, the Institute launched a new Competence Hub

on digital technologies. The Tech Hub brings together a

diversity of internal and external expertise to explore

technologies from a human-centred and human-biotypecentred

perspective. The focus will be the exploration

of current and future technological innovations from a

social science perspective, with an interest in the sociopolitical,

governance, and geopolitical consequences of

the current technological revolution. It will progressively

structure different kinds of activities as well as welcome

and foster research projects.

This transdisciplinary and horizontal initiative enables

the Institute to forge and express its own unique voice

on the digital turn and its consequences. It has indeed

a particular role to play in the exploration of all those

questions that need a transdisciplinary social science and

humanities perspective and are by nature profoundly

inter-transnational. The reality is that the Institute is

already producing research and knowledge on those

questions and diffusing them through teaching and

events.

262

The digital turn is creating unprecedented transformations

in our societies, polities, economies and even

in our individual and collective identities. It is

essential that responsible digital technologies

be developed by design and incorporate

principles of human rights, sustainability,

and peacebuilding.

Marie Laure Salles

Director

Message by the Geneva Graduate Institute Director

We have been exploring the question of technology since our early beginnings because of the prominent

role technologies have played throughout the history of international relations, and the strong link in

particular between technological innovation, security, and power.

Digital technology brings many opportunities but also generates new threats. To explore this two-sided

impact and some of its more paradoxical consequences, social sciences are indispensable. The work we

do at the Institute connects technological developments with their sociological, political, human, and

governance context and consequences.

263

Message by the Geneva Graduate Institute Director

Examples include the impact of lethal autonomous weapons on humanitarian law, the role of AI

in peace negotiation processes, and the impact of the digital turn on the reinvention of work and

associated economic and social dynamics.

The Institute has a unique role to play as a bridge connecting International Geneva, the city of

Geneva, Swiss foreign affairs institutions, and the world academic community. With students

coming from 120 different countries and a very diverse faculty, the Institute is a melting pot

of skills and cultures. Our aim and very identity are to question and explore contemporary

transitions, ecological and digital in particular.

With the considerable challenges that lie ahead, we must not only create opportunities for

collective exploration and understanding but also for the deployment of new visions, constructive

solutions, and propositions for a desirable, sustainable, inclusive, and plural future. Our expertise

and research in the social sciences allow us to nourish these visions and proposals for the future,

which in turn must guide the development of current and future technologies.

264

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

As part of its main strategy, the Institute seeks to

develop digitally driven innovation in teaching and

research, as well as IT services. At the same time, as a

research institution focusing on global challenges and

their impacts, the digital turn has become one of its

fundamental and policy-oriented research areas.

In terms of research, a growing number of researchers

and PhD candidates analyse the impact of digitalisation

on international relations and development issues. A

few examples of research topics are cybersecurity,

hybrid threats and warfare, surveillance technologies,

internet governance, digital diplomacy, digital health,

digital rights, digital trust, digital economy, the future

of work, blockchain and cryptocurrencies, AI and

humanitarian law, and AI and peace negotiations,

among others. The Institute has also developed

expertise in using digital technologies as new research

methods, including computational social scientific

methods and big data analytics.

In terms of teaching, its Master’s, PhD, and executive

education courses are increasingly focused on the

effects of digitalisation on society and the economy, and

more generally, the global system. Some examples of

courses are Digital Approaches to Conflict Prevention,

Digital Innovation in Nature Conservation, Internet,

Technology and International Law, Introduction to

Digital Social Science Research, Technology, Society

and Decision-making, The Politics of Digital Design,

AI and Politics, Internet Governance and Economics,

Technology and Development, and Digital Diplomacy

and Power Relations on Cyberspace. Digital skills

workshops are also organised for students to provide

them with basic digital competence for their future

professional or academic life, including big data

analysis, introduction to programming with R and

Python, and data analysis in various contexts.

Over the years, the Institute has developed a

performing IT infrastructure with secured data

storage space and digital platforms (e.g. Campus,

Moodle, TurntIn, Zoom, MyHR, Salesforces, Converis)

to provide seamless services as well as dematerialised/

paperless processes (e.g. student applications, course

registration) for students, staff, and professors.

The Institute has developed digital tools (e.g. app for

students, responsive website) and used digital services

(e.g. social media, Facebook, Google ads) for many

years in its student recruitment and communication

campaigns.

Digital tools are also part of the pedagogical methods

to improve learning. Flipped classrooms, MOOCs,

SPOCs, and podcasts, to name a few, are used by

265

professors in Master’s and PhD programmes, as well

as in executive education. The Institute also supports

professors in developing pedagogical skills and in

using digital tools. Workshops are offered to all faculty

members at the end of the summer to prepare them

for hybrid teaching and the use of new technological

tools in the classroom.

The Institute also organises workshops, seminars,

film screenings, and other events on the digital turn,

ranging from the digital divide and the governance

and regulatory aspects of data to cybersecurity.

266

Credit: graduateinstitute.ch


Some of the Institute’s prominent research initiatives are

listed under the respective digital policy issues sections.


The faculty carries out a number of digital policy-related

research projects, some of which focus on AI in particular.

For example, the project titled Lethal Autonomous

Weapon Systems (LAWS) and War Crimes: Who is to Bear

Responsibility? aims to clarify whether and to what extent

the requirements for ascribing criminal responsibility

for the commission of an act – and in particular, the key

concepts of culpability theories – can be applied to the use

of LAWS in combat operations. This analysis will serve to

identify lacunae and inconsistencies in the current legal

framework in the face of the advent of military robotics.

This project explores how the increasing digitalisation

of peace processes affects international peacebuilding

efforts that take place in a global environment

characterised by friction between liberal and authoritarian

approaches. To make sense of these dynamics, the

project draws on the concept of apomediation to suggest

that solutions to conflict are no longer simply supplied by

human agents but through a complex entanglement of

human-machine networks.

The Intrepid Project aims to develop a general

understanding of how policy announcements by state

agencies are interpreted by journalists in ways that

send signals, indicate intent, and otherwise provoke

economic and political reactions. Machine learning (ML)

techniques and the semantic and syntactic properties of

announcement texts are then used to develop models of

the announcement interpretation process.

The Institute has published policy briefs on AI

and democracy (AHCD Issue Brief n.02/24) and

organised, together with the Kofi Annan Foundation,

roundtable discussions with experts from international

organisations, civil society, academia, and the private

sector, examining the intersection of AI, democracy, and

global governance.

Global Health

A number of projects carried out by the Institute’s

members address the relationship between digital

technologies and health. For instance, the Modelling

Early Risk Indicators to Anticipate Malnutrition (MERIAM)

project uses computer models to test and scale up costeffective

means to improve the prediction and monitoring

of undernutrition in difficult contexts.

The Institute hosted the new Digital Health and AI

Research Collaborative (I-DAIR) (new HealthAI), directed

by former Ambassador of India and Visiting Lecturer

at the Institute, Amandeep Gill. I-DAIR aims to create

a platform to promote responsible and inclusive AI

research and digital technology development for health.

This platform is supported by GESDA.

The project, Governing Health Futures 2030: Growing

up in a Digital World, hosted at the Global Health Centre

(GHC), explores how to ensure that digital development

267

helps improve the health and well-being of all, and

especially among children and young people. It focuses

on examining integrative policies for digital health, AI,

and universal health coverage to support the attainment

of SDG 3.

Interdisciplinary approaches1

Questions about the potential impact of the internet

are now routinely raised in relation to political events

and elections in most places. The project on the

Digital Infrastructuring of Democracy asks how the

digital infrastructuring of democracy unfolds through

regulatory and political processes, with a heuristic focus

on both its transnational dimension and its specific

reverberations in democracies of the Global South. The

project concentrates on one thematic controversy related

to each aspect of infrastructure: the accountability of

algorithms for code, data protection for content, and

encryption for circulation.

Taking stock of the centrality of AI in society and in the

citizen-government relation, this project hosted at the

Albert Hirschman Centre on Democracy seeks to engage

with youth in Switzerland to explore the future role

of AI in democracy through storytelling and narrative

foresight. It will give a voice to the citizens of tomorrow

and collaborate with art schools to design participatory

AI art.

The Albert Hirschman Centre on Democracy at the

Geneva Graduate Institute is running the ‘Stories of

the Future’ project, an Agora project supported by the

Swiss National Science Foundation that aims to foster

knowledge and literacy about AI in Switzerland. The

project has conducted nearly 150 workshops in schools

across Switzerland, where approximately 80 students

wrote stories set in 2050 about a world permeated by AI.

The project also organised a fictitious trial of AI in Zurich

and during Democracy Week in Geneva, exploring AI’s

impact on democratic processes.

The Centre is also collaborating with the Kofi Annan

Foundation on a project titled ‘Understanding the Links

Between Multilateralism and Democracy to Tackle

Global Challenges More Effectively,’ which included a

roundtable mentioned above, focused on AI.

Future of work

Focusing on the Global South, the project African Futures:

Digital Labor and Blockchain Technology strengthened

empirical knowledge on changing trends in employment

in the region by way of a two-pronged approach to the

increasingly interconnected global division of labour: (1)

App-based work mediated by online service platforms

and (2) the use of blockchain technology in mining sites

for ethical sourcing, traceability, and proof of origin.

1

While the Institute does not use this terminology to describe its work, we have adopted it in line with our internal taxonomy. Its use in this publication

is for consistency and clarity within that framework.

268

DIGITAL TOOLS

The emergence of AI and digitally mediated work

represents a fundamental challenge for most developing

economies. Coupled with jobless economic growth,

rising human productivity, and the exponential increase

of the available labour pool, few jobs can be said to be

safe from automated labour. This project examines the

impact of digital work and automation in the Global

South, from blockchain technology to ride-sharing apps,

to inform debates on automation, computerisation and

non-standard forms of work.

Inclusive finance

Projects carried out by the Institute’s members also

address the role of digital technologies in enhancing

financial inclusion. The project Effects of Digital Economy

on Banking and Finance studies digital innovations

and how fintech extends financial services to firms and

households, and improves credit allocation using loanaccount

level data, comparing fintech and traditional

banking.

Digital tools

• Digital collections that allow free access to

historical documents, texts, and photographs on

international relations from the sixteenth to the

twentieth century.

• Two free online courses (MOOCs) on globalisation

and global governance.

• Podcasts showcasing professors’ and guests’

expertise (What matters today, In conversation

with, Parlons en).

• Podcasts are also integrated into the curricula of

several international history and interdisciplinary

Master’s courses to encourage students to use

social network platforms to popularise their

findings.

The Institute has a facility called ‘The Fab’, which hosts

events such as book launches on AI and technology

topics.

The Centre for Digital Humanities and Multilateralism

(CDHM) is involved in digitisation projects, including work

on the archives of the International Committee of the Red

Cross (ICRC) and research on digital archival practices.


Facebook @graduateinstitute

Instagram @graduateinstitute

LinkedIn @geneva graduate institute

X @GVAGrad

YouTube @Geneva Graduate Institute

269

Geneva Science-Policy Interface

(GSPI)

16 Boulevard de Saint-Georges | 1205 Geneva | Switzerland

www.gspi.ch

About the GSPI

The Geneva Science-Policy Interface (GSPI) is an

independent platform based at the University of Geneva,

dedicated to fostering engagement between the research

community and policy professionals from Geneva-based

international organisations. Its mission is to promote

science-informed solutions to complex global challenges

addressed in multilateral spaces.

The GSPI seeks to increase the capacity of Genevabased

international institutions to tackle complex,

multidimensional policy issues through increased access

to scientific expertise. It also works to advance the

professionalisation and recognition of the science-policy

field of practice in Geneva and beyond.

Its activities focus on brokering collaborations, creating

learning opportunities and generating new insights into

science-policy practices.

Key programmes include the Impact Collaboration

Programme (ICP), an annual call providing new

opportunities for science-policy initiatives through small

grants, network mobilisation, and expert guidance.

The GSPI also develops resources and training

programmes for scientists, Geneva-based policy

professionals, and knowledge brokers seeking to engage

more effectively in science-informed policymaking.

Hosted at the University of Geneva, the GSPI is also

supported by the FDFA and backed by a network of

leading research institutions in Switzerland and Europe.

272

As digital landscapes and data play an increasingly

central role in addressing societal challenges,

a strong partnership between scientists,

multilateral policy institutions, and society

will be critical to harness technology’s

benefits while mitigating its risks.

Nicolas Seidler

Executive Director

Message by the GSPI Executive Director

Data is the cornerstone of science-policy interactions—whether for informing future policy

agendas, assessing the efficiency of policy interventions, or converting raw data into decisionrelevant

insights.

By transforming digital data into actionable knowledge, scientists are uniquely positioned to

help decision makers navigate the complexities of global governance.

273

Message by the GSPI Executive Director

Many of our supported projects involving researchers, NGOs, think tanks and policy

professionals from UN organisations in Geneva have focused on strengthening the ability to

leverage data effectively to address multilateral challenges, in areas such as climate change,

global health, migration, and humanitarian action.

These include domains such as:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

The mobilisation of foresight methodologies to shape environmental policy in the

pan-European region (UNECE)

The operationalisation of a WHO checklist for the institutionalisation of the use of

evidence in health policy at the national level (WHO)

A digital toolkit for policymakers to harness key migration-related data, as a companion

to the World Migration Report (IOM)

An online visualisation tool to inform data-driven decision-making on marine

biodiversity conservation, based on machine learning scenarios (IUCN)

The development of authoritative guidance and resources for implementing the United

Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs) on disruptive

technologies (OHCHR)

Updating the UNSanctionsApp, an interactive analytical tool providing information

about all UN sanctions imposed since 1991, with input from humanitarian actors (NRC)

Training legal professionals on how best to use satellite imagery as evidence in the

investigation of international crimes (ITU)

Developing a practical framework for government officials to assess and develop

effective national ‘housing data ecologies’ (UNECE)

274

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

As a bridge between science, policy, and implementation

actors, the GSPI addresses a wide range of digital

challenges. With data at the core of evidence-based

policymaking, many of its activities explore digitalisation

and the use of digital tools across key domains such as

health, migration, development, and the environment.

275

Credit: gspi.ch



The MapMaker project, a collaboration between the

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich

(ETH Zurich), has enabled the development of an

online visualisation tool to inform data-driven decisionmaking

on marine biodiversity conservation at the

international level.

Digital standards

Together with the Geneva Health Forum (GHF), the

GSPI has established a working group including key

humanitarian actors to harness knowledge and best

practices around the digitisation of clinical guidelines

for the management of childhood illness in primary care

in low and middle-income countries. In line with the

efforts of WHO, and the principles of donor alignment

for digital health, the working group has developed

recommendations on how digitalisation can improve

the management of childhood illness. In September

2021, the results of this work were shared with experts

and the public, providing a platform for discussions on

the lessons learned and future trends in the field.

Emerging technologies

In 2018, the GSPI organised policy discussions on the

use of drones as part of humanitarian action. The

conversation centred on the practical use of drones

to deliver humanitarian aid and what can be done by

stakeholders such as policymakers, the private sector,

and NGOs to maximise the opportunities and reduce

the risks of such technologies.

At the 2019 Digital Day, together with the University

of Geneva, the GSPI organised a discussion exploring

what experience and know-how Geneva-based

organisations could share to empower and protect

users in the context of the digital revolution.

With a number of other partners, the GSPI co-organised

a discussion at the 2019 WSIS Forum on aerial data

produced by drones and satellites in the context

of aid and development. The session explored the

interplay between international organisations, NGOs,

and scientists and how they can work together to help

monitor refugee settlements, provide emergency

response in case of natural disasters, and scale

agriculture programmes.

276

DIGITAL TOOLS

Data governance

The REDEHOPE project of the UNIGE and UNECE has

led to the development of an online diagnostic tool

to help countries identify and visualise issues in their

housing data ecology, and access appropriate datasets

to formulate more robust, evidence-based housing

policies at the country level.


In 2020–2021, the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm

Convention (BRS) secretariat benefited from the

support of ETH Zurich to develop an online platform

to identify and signal the need for evidence and

information to the scientific community in the field of

chemical and waste management.

Another project addressed the hurdles facing

policy actors in accessing and making sense of data

in migration research. The project partners (the

International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the

Graduate Institute) developed an interactive digital

toolkit for policy officials to support them in leveraging

migration research for evidence-based policymaking.

The toolkit, based on IOM’s flagship publication, the

World Migration Report, was launched in June 2022.

ICP 2021 brought support to the development of

interactive analytical tools providing information

about all UN sanctions to inform both humanitarian

practitioners and sanction policy actors on practical

ways to safeguard principled humanitarian action

in areas under a sanction regime. This project is a

collaboration between the Graduate Institute and the

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC).

In 2022, the collaboration between ETH Zurich and

IOM sought to bring more effective policy expertise

in migration management to address migrants’ needs

and increase social cohesion between migrant and

local communities. The collaboration developed a

toolbox to be used by IOM and its partners to facilitate

the use of the Immigration Policy Lab (IPL) Integration

Index, a survey tool for governments, nonprofits, and

researchers to measure the integration of immigrants

around the world.

In 2024-2025, the GSPI is supporting a new project titled

‘Shaping environmental policy in the pan-European

region applying foresight methodologies’, which aims

to increase the anticipatory capacity of UNECE and

its member states to build coherence among future

policies and help set priorities for the environmental

policies in the pan-European region.

Human rights principles

The GSPI has supported the collaboration between

the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian

Law and Human Rights and OHCHR’s B-Tech project.

Some of the new fast-evolving technologies, such as

277

cloud computing, AI, facial recognition technologies,

and the IoT, can have profoundly disruptive effects

on sociopolitical systems and pose significant human

rights challenges. This initiative provided authoritative

guidance and resources for implementing the UNGPs

in the technology space and placing IHRL at the

centre of regulatory and policy frameworks. Aimed

at policymakers, the technology sector, and all those

working on AI regulation, the policy research carried

out in this project (see the resulting Working Paper,

2021) brought fresh insights into how current initiatives

on the regulation of AI technologies could incorporate

the protection and respect for human rights. The

paper also called on states to adopt a ‘smart mix’ of

mandatory and voluntary measures to support their

implementation, and how this applies to the AI sector.


LinkedIn @genevaspi

Twitter @GenevaSPI

278

279

The Global Agency for Responsible AI in Health

(Health AI)

Rue Varembé 7 | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.healthai.agency

About HealthAI

HealthAI - The Global Agency for Responsible AI in Health,

is a Geneva-based, independent nonprofit organisation

with the mission of advancing the development and

adoption of responsible AI solutions in health through the

collaborative implementation of regulatory mechanisms

and global standards.

HealthAI envisions a world where AI produces equitable

and inclusive improvements in health and well-being for

all individuals and communities.

As the premier implementing partner to ensure global

standards for responsible AI in health are actively

applied, HealthAI works through our Global Regulatory

Network and the Community of Practice with countries,

normative agencies, the private sector, civil society,

and other stakeholders to build national and regional

regulatory capacity so that countries can actively validate

AI technologies, reducing both the risks and long-term

costs of AI-enabled health.

HealthAI’s work is rooted in three core principles, namely

cultivating trust, catalysing innovation, and centring

equity.

282

HealthAI is a neutral, nonprofit implementing

partner, focused on expanding countries’

AI Governance capacity for health,

leveraging globally defined guidelines,

policies, standards and tools.

Dr Ricardo Baptista Leite

CEO

Message by HealthAI CEO

Ai can contribute to the equitable improvement of citizens’ health and well-being. However, a

lack of governance mechanisms contributes to the slow adoption of AI solutions within health

systems. Governments are hesitant to approve technologies without evidence of safety and

efficacy, technology developers do not have clear pathways to regulatory approval, and private

sector companies are left to develop ethical frameworks without a governmental mandate to

protect the public good.

283

Message by HealthAI CEO

Responding to this new reality and the expressed needs of governments worldwide, HealthAI

aims to be a neutral, nonprofit implementing partner, focused on expanding countries’ capacity

to regulate AI in health, leveraging globally defined standards. Our three core principles inspire

the way we approach our work and partnerships.

The first is to cultivate trust. Concerns over safety, privacy, accuracy, and effectiveness must

be addressed for these solutions to gain trust and be widely used. The second core principle is

to catalyse innovation. When regulations are responsive and provide clear guidance on equity,

ethics, and safety topics, we can spur new advancements in the design and implementation

of these technologies. The third core principle is to centre equity, ensuring that all countries, in

particular low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), have local regulatory capacities to validate

AI solutions in health, which will provide a major push in counteracting digital colonisation and

narrowing the digital divide between countries.

Our commitment at HealthAI is to facilitate the local adoption of normative standards and

guidelines set by international agencies so that the benefits of responsible technology reach

the broadest possible audience. We will collaborate with trusted international organisations and

countries to push for the global harmonisation of regulatory standards for AI in health. Working

with recognised standards and guidance, we work to strengthen AI governance capacity at

regional and country levels, training local teams of people who are capable of validating AI

tools for health, similar to what is done today for medicines and medical devices. At the same

time, it is important to connect these teams via a global regulatory network, so as to use that

collective intelligence to streamline approval processes and develop an early warning system for

adverse events. Having this network further allows us to create a global directory where all the

AI solutions for health validated by the network are posted and made known to the public.

Together with our partners, we strive to ensure that responsible and trusted AI solutions,

based on regulatory mechanisms that safeguard against potential harms and are subsequently

adopted by a wide range of countries and health systems.

284

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

HealthAI strategy

AI and other emerging technologies have immense

potential to improve health and well-being, but they

also bring a unique set of risks and challenges that

must be addressed to safeguard individuals and

communities from potential harms. Globally, the lack

of effective governance increases the risk and hinders

the adoption of responsible AI solutions towards

better health outcomes. Strong, responsive regulatory

mechanisms are required to establish AI systems’

safety and effectiveness and build trust for the longterm

acceptability and success of AI-enabled progress

in the health sector.

Some countries, mainly those with the highest gross

domestic product (GDP) and the most advanced

technology sectors, have begun integrating AI

regulation into governance structures and national

regulations. Most countries have only just begun

considering the regulation of AI in general terms and

even less so within the context of health. This risks

deepening inequity in both access and outcome

between early adopter countries and countries that do

not have the resources or flexibility to match the pace

of technological innovation.

Global efforts addressing the need for AI regulation

through the harmonisation of existing standards are

critical but require collaborative partners who can

support the implementation of the resulting standards

and recommendations at a local level. With the new

strategy for 2024-2026, HealthAI positions itself as a

premier implementing partner for countries, normative

agencies, the private sector, and other stakeholders to

ensure global standards of responsible AI in health are

actively applied in the push towards improved health

and well-being outcomes for all in alignment with the

SDGs.

As a foundational building block to its mission, HealthAI

has established the HealthAI Community of Practice. It

is a collaborative platform for multidisciplinary actors

to exchange knowledge, share good practices, generate

evidence, and strengthen implementation support

for regulatory processes and tools for responsible AI

solutions in health. We currently have 200+ institutional

members, including governments, regulatory agencies,

international organisations, healthcare institutions,

academia, civil society, and the private sector from 50+

countries.

285



HealthAI’s core outputs

To achieve our mission, HealthAI’s work spans five key

areas (Figure 1):

1. Strengthening national and regional validation

mechanisms on responsible AI in health:

• Establish in-country, government-led regulatory

mechanisms by implementing global standards

and guidance set by WHO and others at the country

level.

• Support the implementation of existing auditing

tools, and provide guidance on the use of data for

AI solutions validation.

2. Establishing a global regulatory network through a

member qualification process for knowledge sharing and

early warning of adverse events:

Facilitate knowledge sharing to streamline the certification

of the same technology and identify AI solutions that

require refinement or re-evaluation.

3. Establishing a global early warning system

• Rapid notification of adverse events arising from

an AI-driven health solution.

4. Creating a global public directory of validated AI

solutions for health:

• Allow countries to evaluate solution options against

local health needs.

• Surface unmet health needs as insights and

inspiration for technology developers.

5. Delivering advisory support on policies and regulations:

• Provide technical guidance and insights into global

trends and best practices to help public and private

stakeholders develop effective and contextually

relevant strategies, policies, and regulations.

• Democratise AI for health policy-making through

diverse stakeholder and citizen engagement to

cultivate trust and improve inclusiveness.

Figure 1 - Responsible AI solution for health

286

The outputs will lead to the following outcomes. Stronger

policies, regulations, and institutions will enable the

effective governance and validation of AI and other

emerging technologies, reducing both the risks and

long-term costs of AI-enabled health. In the long term,

countries will be able to identify validated AI solutions

with greater certainty in their efficacy to meet local

health needs, while private sector partners will have

clarity about regulatory requirements and a better

understanding of AI use in health systems and services.

HealthAI’s impact

HealthAI contributes to enhanced health and well-being

outcomes for all in alignment with the SDGs. HealthAI

aims to achieve this by facilitating increased access to

safe, high-quality, effective, and equitable AI solutions.

This involves ensuring that AI solutions are not only safe

to use but also comply with rigorous quality standards,

delivering the intended health outcomes or system

improvements.

HealthAI commits to providing information on market

access authorisation and reimbursement processes while

supporting an early warning mechanism to alert countries

of adverse events. Through streamlined information

sharing between countries and the establishment of a

global directory of validated AI solutions, the organisation

seeks to propagate the availability of proven responsible

AI solutions. Furthermore, HealthAI envisions a positive

impact on government revenue from regulatory activities,

generating new sources of income for regulatory agencies

and government budgets. This financial support is crucial

for the sustained funding of regulatory mechanisms and

additional investment capacity, ultimately accelerating

approval processes across countries and leading to cost

savings and bureaucratic streamlining.

Finally, by fostering an ecosystem that ensures compliance

with internationally defined responsible AI standards,

protects national data sovereignty, and supports local

validation processes that enable feedback from civil

society, HealthAI’s work will increase trust, investment,

and innovation in responsible AI solutions for health.

Definition of responsible AI

Responsible AI is characterised by AI technologies that

align with established standards and ethical principles,

prioritising human-centric attributes. In the context of

HealthAI, responsible AI is defined as AI solutions that

exhibit ethical, inclusive, rights-respecting, and sustainable

qualities. These attributes encompass a commitment to

protecting and respecting human autonomy, promoting

well-being and safety, ensuring technical robustness,

safeguarding privacy and data, adhering to laws and ethics,

prioritising transparency and explainability, maintaining

responsibility and accountability, fostering inclusivity

and equity, upholding diversity and non-discrimination,

and considering societal and environmental well-being.

HealthAI applies these principles across all facets of AI

technologies, from technical development and data

287

use to technology implementation and its ultimate

impact. This comprehensive definition is drawn from

reputable sources, including the WHO, the International

Development Research Centre’s AI for Global Health

Initiative, the European Commission’s High-Level Expert

Group on AI, and pertinent journal publications on the

ethics and governance of AI in health.


LinkedIn @healthaiagency

X @healthai_agency

YouTube @HealthAI.Agency

BlueSky: @healthai-agency.bsky.social

Instagram: healthai_global

288

289

International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC)

19 Avenue de la Paix | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.icrc.org

About the ICRC

Established in 1863, the ICRC is an independent

international humanitarian organisation headquartered

in Geneva. It defends and promotes the respect of IHL

and is dedicated to upholding the rights and dignity of

victims of war and to providing assistance. Along these

lines, it cooperates with governments, the private sector,

and other entities affected by international and internal

armed conflict and violence.

Together with the International Federation of Red Cross

and Red Crescent Societies and 192 individual national

societies, the ICRC makes up the so-called International

Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

292

It is all about balance: harnessing technology’s

potential to help while at the same time

preventing the harm that these same

technologies may create.

Mirjana Spoljaric Egger

President

Message by the ICRC President

The impact of digital technologies on people, humanitarian organisations, and armed conflict

is growing and evolving. It takes the form of cyberoperations, harmful information, military

decision-making supported by AI, data breaches, or the use of autonomous weapon systems

(AWS). In addition, new needs emerge from populations such as info-as-aid, cash transfer,

digital vaults, and strong data protection frameworks. New tools have been used and deployed

by organisations, such as AI or biometrics.

293

Message by the ICRC President

These evolutions push the ICRC to invest in understanding the opportunities that digital

technologies bring for the protection of people affected by armed conflict, but also the risks

they create for populations and humanitarian organisations. We put on a protective lens and

look at them through the prism of the Red Cross Red Crescent Fundamental Principles, such

as neutrality, impartiality, independence, and humanity. This means that as a humanitarian

organisation, the ICRC engages with governments and non-state actors to safeguard civilian

populations against digital threats and to strengthen respect for international humanitarian

law (IHL). We also discuss with academic institutions, think tanks, and the tech sector to

influence laws, policies, standards, norms, and research and development. We also host

expert and intergovernmental discussions to improve awareness and understanding of IHL

and relevant standards in a digital world. And we have launched a delegation for cyberspace.

Ultimately, we work to ensure the responsible use and deployment of technologies so as

not to add additional harm to people affected by armed conflicts.

294

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Digitalisation is increasingly present in the context

of armed conflict and violence. On the one hand,

affected populations use or demand digital tools,

which humanitarian organisations need to provide in a

responsible manner. On the other hand, states and other

parties to conflicts use cyber and information operations

as part of warfare, with growing consequences for

people. Humanitarian organisations also use digital

tools and systems to improve their operations.

The ICRC addresses the implications of technology, which

are multifold and range from the limits that IHL imposes

on the use of digital technologies of warfare, to data

protection in humanitarian. To this end, the ICRC engages

with states and parties to armed conflicts to strengthen

the protection of people against digital risks and ensure

that international humanitarian law and other norms

are implemented and respected in digitalising conflicts.

We also engage in targeted research and partnerships

to push the state of the art of key technologies to

make them more responsive to the needs of a conflict

environments, host expert and intergovernmental

discussions with relevant interlocutors, including

ministries, cybersecurity agencies, data protection

authorities, academia, and the private and civil sectors,

and have developed a number of (digital) tools to help

improve awareness and understanding of IHL and

relevant standards, as well as to improve the range of

services offered to people affected by conflicts and

other situations of violence. The ICRC cooperates with

other organisations on digital issues.

295

Credit: icrc.org



The ICRC has explored the impact of AI tools in armed

conflict, in particular their use by armed actors. In a

document titled ICRC Submission to United Nations

Secretary General on Artificial Intelligence in the Military

Domain (2025), we argue: ‘Any new technology of

warfare must be used, and must be capable of being

used, in compliance with existing rules of international

humanitarian law.’ The document touches on the use

of AI and machine learning (ML) technologies capable

of controlling physical military hardware. It argues that

from a humanitarian perspective, AWS are of particular

concern given that humans may not be able to control

such weapons or the resulting use of force, and AIcontrolled

AWS would exacerbate these risks. The ICRC

has urged states to adopt new international rules on AWS.

The position paper also emphasises the potential for AI to

exacerbate the risks to civilians and civilian infrastructure

posed by cyber and information operations, as well as to

change the nature of military decision-making in armed

conflict. The ICRC calls for a human-centred approach

to the application of AI in armed conflict that preserves

human judgement, and jointly with the United Nations

Secretary-General, the ICRC’s president is calling for

establishing new prohibitions and restrictions on AWS.

The question has been further explored in other reports,

such as Autonomy, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics:

Technical Aspects of Human Control (2019).

The ICRC has published several new reports in 2024

and 2025, including ‘Artificial Intelligence and Related

Technologies in Military Decision-Making on the Use

of Force in Armed Conflicts: Current Developments

and Potential Implications’, together with the Geneva

Academy, and ‘Decisions, Decisions, Decisions:

Computation and Artificial Intelligence in Military

Decision-Making’.

The ICRC has expanded its position on AI in military

contexts, specifically noting that AI is not suited to all

tasks in armed conflict, performs better with clear, welldefined

goals and quality data, and that the contextual

assessments required by IHL are difficult to reduce

to mathematical formulas. The ICRC emphasises that

humans must determine the lawfulness of attacks

when using AWS, and that IHL obligations regarding

the conduct of hostilities must be fulfilled by human

commanders and combatants.

Together with the UN Secretary-General, the ICRC

has called on states to conclude negotiations on rules

regarding autonomous weapons systems by 2026. In

2024, the ICRC submitted recommendations to the UN

Secretary-General on how prohibitions and restrictions

on AWS could be drafted in a legally binding instrument,

including prohibiting unpredictable autonomous

weapons and those designed or used to target humans

directly.

The ICRC acknowledges that AI-based systems may have

positive applications in warfare, potentially facilitating

296

quicker and more comprehensive information analysis

that could enhance IHL compliance and minimise risks

for civilians. However, the ICRC warns about specific

concerns with AI in military decision-making, including

increased risk of unforeseen errors, potential to

perpetuate biases, challenges with complex forms of AI

like machine learning, risk of compounding errors when

multiple decision support systems are used together,

and ‘automation bias’ where humans tend to trust

machine outputs over other information.

Responsible use of AI

In late 2024, the ICRC released publicly its AI policy, which

provides guidance on the ICRC’s practice and decisionmaking

in relation to the exploration, deployment, use,

and management of AI and technologies, solutions, and

tools related to ML that support the ICRC’s work and

activities. It sets out a value-based approach and provides

a set of principles to guide our work in relation to AI. It

serves as an organisational framework to promote and

support the human-centred, responsible, and ethical

use of AI in humanitarian action. The guidance provided

in this policy is aspirational and meant to support the

ICRC’s continuous efforts to use digital technologies

responsibly and in line with our humanitarian mission,

principles, values, and working procedures.

Cyberconflict and warfare 1

The use of cyber operations during armed conflict is

a reality today and is likely to increase in the future.

Through bilateral confidential dialogue, expert

discussions, participation in intergovernmental

processes, and constant monitoring and analysis, the

ICRC is raising awareness of the potential human cost

of cyber operations and the application of IHL to cyber

operations during armed conflict. Our efforts on this

matter date back over two decades. Ever since, the

ICRC has held the view that IHL limits cyber operations

during armed conflict just as it limits the use of any

other weapon, means, and methods of warfare in

armed conflict, whether new or old. To support states in

understanding and implementing ICT, the ICRC has also

published a series of short papers on key legal concepts

and protections.

In 2024, the ICRC tabled a resolution at the 34th

International Conference of the Red Cross and Red

Crescent to address, with all states and members of the

International Red Cross and Red Crescent movement,

a resolution on protecting people against the potential

human cost of ICT activities. Adopted by consensus,

this resolution is ‘the first humanitarian ICT resolution’.

It also launched a global initiative to galvanise political

commitment to IHL, jointly with Brazil, China, France,

1

ICRC refers to this topic as Cyber operations during armed conflict

297

Jordan, Kazakhstan, and South Africa. This initiative

includes a workstream aimed at developing concrete

recommendations on how to improve the protection of

civilian infrastructure in armed conflicts.

Over the years, the ICRC has been actively involved

in global policy discussions on cyber-related issues,

including those held within the UN (various Groups of

Governmental Experts (GGEs) and the Open-Ended

Working Groups (OEWGs)). In addition, we convene

regional consultations among government experts on

how IHL applies to cyber operations, and global expert

meetings, such as the potential human cost of cyber

operations and avoiding civilian harm from military cyber

operations during armed conflicts. In 2021 and 2022, the

ICRC also convened a Global Advisory Board on Digital

Threats, composed of military, political, tech, civil society

leaders, which published a set of recommendations to

states, belligerents, tech companies, and humanitarian

organisations. The ICRC explores innovative solutions,

such as a digital emblem, to protect medical and

humanitarian missions against cyber operations.

In light of the realities of today’s armed conflicts, the ICRC

is also engaging confidentially with non-state actors such

as civilian hackers and technological companies. Three

publications present the ICRC’s key concerns in this field.

The first addresses the growing trend of civilians getting

involved in digital operations and the related risks. The

second focuses on when digital tech companies might

become a target in war. The third highlights 8 Rules

for ‘Civilian Hackers’ During War, and 4 Obligations for

States to Restrain Them, which was picked up widely in

the media and discussed by hacker groups.

The ICRC has also clarified that IHL contains specific rules

that impose limits on information-sharing during armed

conflicts. For example, parties to conflict – including both

civilian and military leadership - must not encourage IHL

violations through digital platforms. The ICRC notes that

smartphone cameras and online photo publishing have

created new challenges, including new vectors of harm

during armed conflict; detaining authorities have the

obligation, for example, to protect prisoners of war and

civilian internees from public curiosity, including through

digital and social media platforms.

Outer space

Space systems have been employed for military

purposes since the dawn of the space era. As the role

of these systems in military operations during armed

conflicts increases, so does the likelihood of them being

targeted, with a significant risk of harm to civilians and

civilian objects on Earth and in space. This is because

technology enabled by space systems permeates most

aspects of civilian life, making the potential consequences

of attacks on space systems a matter of humanitarian

concern. Find out more in this blog called War, Law and

Outer Space: Pathways to Reduce the Human Cost of

Military Space Operations.

298


The ICRC deals with privacy and data protection within

its mandate and the context of IHL.

Without undermining the positive impact that technology

can bring in conflict, including enhancing access to lifesaving

information and potentially minimising collateral

damage, protection work must consider the risks of

the digital age. In other words, it must encompass

the protection of the rights of people when their lives

intersect with the digital sphere. This issue remains

under-regarded, and a blog post tries to shed light on

this grey area.

The ICRC has adopted an independent data protection

framework to safeguard privacy and data protection

in the context of humanitarian action. It has a data

protection framework consistent with international data

protection standards that aims to protect individuals

from a humanitarian standpoint and regularly revises it

to ensure it stays up to date with relevant developments

in this space. The framework consists of ICRC rules on

personal data protection, revised in 2020 and currently

under a second round of revisions, as well as supervisory

and control mechanisms overseen by an independent

data protection commission and the Data Protection

Office.

Building on its commitment to privacy and data

protection, the ICRC has played a pivotal role in

shaping international humanitarian standards through

various resolutions and initiatives. In 2019, the ICRC

spearheaded the adoption of a resolution on Restoring

Family Links While Respecting Privacy, Including as it

Relates to Personal Data Protection at the International

Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (2019

Resolution). Alongside this, the ICRC contributed to the

drafting and adoption of the Restoring Family Links Code

of Conduct, which was updated in 2025 to strengthen

the safeguarding of individuals’ fundamental rights,

particularly their privacy and personal data protection

when using restoring family link (RFL) services.

Additionally, in 2022, we pushed for the adoption of a

resolution on Safeguarding Humanitarian Data at the

Council of Delegates of the International Red Cross and

Red Crescent Movement.

Despite the wide range of data sources employed and

dealt with by the ICRC, specific attention is dedicated

to biometric data, often used in forensics and the

restoration of family links. To manage this highly sensitive

information and to ensure the responsible deployment of

new technologies (including new biometric identification

techniques), the ICRC has adopted a biometric policy,

which sets out the roles and responsibilities of the ICRC

and defines the legitimate bases and specified purposes

for the processing of biometric data. Furthermore, it has

engaged in a multi-year programme with key research

centres and implementing partners to better study and

develop privacy-preserving biometric systems.

299

Data protection and its applications are also explored

in detail in the ICRC Handbook on Data Protection

in Humanitarian Action. The Handbook provides

suggestions as to how current data protection

principles apply to humanitarian organisations and

builds on existing regulations, working procedures,

and practices. The third edition specifically provides

guidance on designing new technologies for data

protection in humanitarian action and government

access to humanitarian data, especially in public cloud

environments. In addition, through dedicated chapters,

it addresses the potential and risks of digital technology

such as blockchain, AI, digital identity, and connectivity

for data protection in humanitarian action.

The ICRC is committed to strengthening its independent

data protection framework through various training

initiatives and active participation in international

forums. Notably, the Data Protection Office played a

key role in organising and contributing to the second

and third editions of the Symposium on Cybersecurity

and Data Protection in Humanitarian Action and

participated in the 46th Global Privacy Assembly.

Capacity-building initiatives, such as the Data Protection

Officer in Humanitarian Action (DPOHA) programme

in collaboration with Maastricht University, along with

research and development partnerships with institutions

like EPFL and Cambridge, further demonstrate the ICRC’s

ongoing efforts to promote strong data protection

awareness, foster collaboration, and gain international

recognition.

Content policy and disinformation

The ICRC puts a special emphasis on the impact of harmful

information, as it can increase people’s exposure to risk

and vulnerabilities. For example, if displaced people in

need of humanitarian assistance are intentionally given

misleading information about life-saving services and

resources, they can be misdirected away from help and

towards harm.

Hate speech, meanwhile, contributes directly or

indirectly to endangering civilian populations’ safety

or dignity. For example, when online hate speech calls

for violence against a minority group, it can contribute

to psychological and social harm through harassment,

defamation, and intimidation.

These issues are tackled in a document we published in

2021 called Harmful Information.

Harmful information can also impact humanitarian

organisations’ ability to operate in certain areas,

potentially leaving the needs of people affected by

armed conflict or other violence unmet. When false

and manipulated information spreads, it can erode

trust within communities and damage the reputation of

humanitarian operations.

For the ICRC, whose work is founded on trust, the

spread of disinformation, especially where tensions

are high, could quickly lead to humanitarian personnel

being unable to leave their offices, distribute life-saving

300

DIGITAL TOOLS

assistance, visit detainees, or bring news to people who

have lost contact with a family member.

Ultimately, it is also important to note that information

operations have limits under IHL!

Research and development

In 2022, the ICRC opened the Delegation for Cyberspace

in Luxembourg, which serves as a safe and secure

space to do due diligence research and develop and

test solutions and ideas to prepare the ground for

the support, protection, and deployment of digital

services to affected people on a global scale. It will

also further explore what it means to be a digital

stakeholder in a manner compatible with its mandate,

operational modalities, and the principles of neutrality,

independence, and impartiality.

Resources

The ICRC’s Law and Policy blog provides a large number

of short pieces on cyber operations, featuring tech legal,

expert, and policy perspectives.

Online learning is also used by the ICRC to promote

the implementation of IHL. In 2019, we launched an

e-learning course entitled Introduction to International

Humanitarian Law aimed at non-legal practitioners,

policymakers, and other professionals interested in the

basics of IHL. Other online courses are available through

the ICRC Training Centre.

It has also produced an online experience called Digital

Dilemmas to make the issue of the impact of digital

technologies more tangible, as well as an online course

(MOOC) together with the EPFL, the Swiss Federal

Institute of Technology, and Doctors without Borders

(MSF).

The ICRC maintains an online training centre and an app

with all ICRC publications in English and French.


Facebook @ICRC

Instagram @ICRC

LinkedIn @ICRC

TikTok @ICRC

X @ICRC

YouTube @ICRC

Bluesky @ICRC

301

ICT for Peace Foundation

(ICT4Peace)

Route de Ferney 198e | 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex | Geneva | Switzerland

www.ict4peace.org

About ICT4Peace

ICT4Peace has operated as an independent think

tank based in Geneva since 2003. It fosters political

discussion and common action to support international

and human security in cyberspace. All its activities

are focused on the use of ICT to fulfil its key goals:

saving lives, protecting human dignity, and promoting

peace and security in cyberspace. ICT4Peace acts as

an early mover in identifying important challenges,

bringing visibility and high-level attention to critical

new issues. It carries out policy research examining

how to use technologies to support state and human

security, and develops capacity building through the

ICT4Peace Academy to support the full participation of

all stakeholders in ICT discussions, negotiations, and

solutions. A description of the concrete areas of its

work can be found in this document.

The areas presently covered are deepening the

understanding of the ICT-related activities and services

provided by private (cyber) security companies and

their impacts on human rights, international law, and

international security law, norms of responsible state

behaviour in cyberspace, including neutrality during

cyberwarfare, mis- and disinformation and hate

speech, gender and ICT, and AI, peace, and ethics.

304

Anne-Marie Buzatu

Executive Director

Message by the ICT4Peace Executive Director

The digital age presents us with an unprecedented mix of opportunities and profound challenges.

As we navigate this complex landscape, the imperative to foster a peaceful, secure, and rightsrespecting

cyberspace has never been more urgent. At ICT4Peace, we believe that technology,

when guided by human-centric principles and robust ethical frameworks, can be a powerful force

for good, saving lives, upholding human dignity, and strengthening global peace and security.

305

Message by the ICT4Peace Executive Director

This conviction drives our work as we strive to translate high-level principles into practical action.

ICT4Peace remains at the forefront of identifying emerging threats – from the sophisticated

spread of disinformation to the complex ethical questions posed by Artificial Intelligence – while

championing responsible state behaviour and the protection of democratic processes. We firmly

believe that the path to a secure and equitable digital world demands collective effort, innovative

partnerships, and the active engagement of all stakeholders. Recognising that our combined

expertise creates a synergy far greater than individual efforts, ICT4Peace is dedicated to fostering

the global dialogue necessary to harness technology for a more peaceful and just future for all.

306


Network security, cyberconflict, and warfare

An open, secure, stable, accessible, and peaceful ICT

environment is essential for all and requires effective

cooperation among states, civil society, and the private

sector to reduce risks to international peace and security

and ensure economic and social development. There

are, however, very disturbing trends in the global ICT

environment, including a dramatic increase in incidents

involving the malicious use of ICTs by state and nonstate

actors, such as criminals and terrorists. These

trends create enormous risks to peace and security in

cyberspace for states, but equally to human security and

dignity.

In 2011, ICT4Peace called for a code of conduct and norms

of responsible state behaviour and confidence-building

measures for open, secure, and peaceful cyberspace, and

encouraged all stakeholders to work together to identify

new cyber threats and develop solutions and agreements

at national and global levels. In particular, it advocated

against the increasing militarisation of cyberspace.

ICT4Peace supported international negotiations at

the UN Governmental Group of Experts (UN GGE) and

the Open-Ended Working Groups (OEWG I and II) in

New York, as well as at the Organization for Security

and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Organization of

American States (OAS), and the African Union (AU) with

policy recommendations and multiple publications and

workshops. In 2014, ICT4Peace launched its capacitybuilding

programmes and in 2020 created the ICT4Peace

Academy, in particular for policymakers and diplomats

from developing and emerging economies to enable them

to develop and implement their national cybersecurity

strategies, build computer emergency response teams

(CERTS) and meaningfully engage in the UN GGE and the

OEWG I 2019–2021 and OEWG II 2021– 2025, but also in

bilateral and regional negotiations.

In 2019, at OEWG I in New York, ICT4Peace issued a

call to governments to publicly commit not to attack

civilian critical infrastructure and proposed a state cyber

peer review mechanism for state-conducted foreign

cyber operations. See also all ICT4Peace inputs to and

comments on OEWG I and the ICT4Peace Submission to

OEWG II 2021–2025.

ICT4Peace has highlighted emerging concerns and

suggested governance solutions in the fields of AI, lethal

autonomous weapons systems (LAWS), and peacetime

threats.

Since 2019, ICT4Peace has been advocating for a peerreview

mechanism on accountability for more than five

years, inspired by the Human Rights Council’s Universal

Periodic Review process. The organisation is currently

engaged in discussions about establishing a permanent

mechanism for addressing global cybersecurity

challenges.

307

In 2024, ICT4Peace launched a groundbreaking toolkit

titled ‘From Boots on the Ground to Bytes in Cyberspace’,

providing comprehensive guidance on the use of

technologies by Private Security Companies (PSCs). The

toolkit addresses human rights challenges posed by

emerging technologies in the private security sector,

covering topics including responsible data practices,

surveillance ethics, algorithmic bias, and emerging

technologies.

ICT4Peace has also expanded its work to address quantum

computing as an emerging threat to cybersecurity. In

2024, it published ‘Navigating the Quantum Wave: A

Policy Maker’s Guide for the Responsible Governance

of Quantum Technologies’, advocating for quantumresistant

cryptography and global ICT infrastructure

upgrades.


The ICT4Peace Academy offers custom-tailored courses

to meet organisations’ needs in learning more about

today’s ICT challenges, including cyber diplomacy, cyber

peacebuilding, and cyber (human) security. Drawing

from an extensive network of practitioners, including

diplomats, technologists, and civil society experts,

each customised course offers the latest up-to-date

information tailored to an organisation’s particular

context and presented in a live and interactive format.

ICT4Peace offers advisory services to governments,

multilateral initiatives, and the international community

to support a peaceful cyberspace and provides a global

hub and policy space bringing together actors from the

technology community, governments, and civil society.

Regretfully, institution and capacity building in the ICT

area for peaceful purposes and peace and security in

cyberspace has not been sufficiently recognised as a

development issue and/or treated as a development

priority by the development community, development

partners, or the MDGs or SDGs.

It is hoped that by bringing the discussion around the

need for increased cybersecurity institution and capacity

building (as expressed inter alia by the UN GGE and

OSCE) also into the policy orbit of the OECD Development

Assistance Committee (DAC), cybersecurity capacity

building will be recognised as a development priority by

policymakers and more official development assistance

(ODA) will flow into this sector in a consistent and

coherent fashion. In cooperation with the Estonian and

Swiss governments, ICT4Peace has held discussions with

the DAC about making cybersecurity capacity building

ODA-eligible.

ICT4Peace has also published a thought piece on

Digitisation: Curse or Blessing for the Bottom Billion,

which makes the case for more cybersecurity capacity

building in the context of development cooperation.

The ICT4Peace Academy has expanded its offerings to

include specialised courses on understanding the threats

308

DIGITAL TOOLS

of mis-, disinformation and hate speech (MDH) and

emerging governance frameworks. The Academy provides

workshops on national cyber security strategy building,

developing and implementing national legislation,

establishing CERTs and CERT-CERT cooperation, as well

as specialised workshops for parliamentarians, judiciary,

and regulatory authorities.

Content policy

In the area of online content policy, ICT4Peace is

engaged in activities related to the use of the internet for

misinformation, disinformation, defamation, and hate

speech. In today’s information society, the dissemination

of false information can have devastating consequences,

ranging from violent terrorist attacks to interference in

elections to major health crises, as was the case with

the COVID-19 pandemic. ICT4Peace’s research and

publications on misinformation and hate speech look at

the role of social media and other online platforms/apps

in spreading mis/disinformation online.

Regarding the prevention of the use of ICTs for terrorist

purposes, ICT4Peace co-launched the Tech against

Terrorism Platform with the United Nations Counter-

Terrorism Executive Directorate (UNCTED). ICT4Peace

organised workshops and produced a number of

publications in the aftermath of the Christchurch attack

and the Sri Lanka bombing with the main aim of raising

awareness and supporting the Christchurch Call Summit

Process. At the emergence of COVID-19, ICT4Peace

launched a review of the risks and opportunities of ICTs

and social media during a pandemic.

In 2024, ICT4Peace launched a podcast series called

‘Digital Distortions’ that examines disinformation and

truth decay in contemporary democracies. The podcast

is available on SoundCloud, Spotify, and other major

podcast platforms.


ICT4Peace has been active in the area of ICTs and human

rights, publishing papers, delivering workshops, and

supporting other actors in addressing the human rights

implications of digital technologies. It coined the term

‘digital human security’.

Many innovations are designed with the embedded

gender and other biases of their creators, and even

the most helpful technologies remain inaccessible to

those who would benefit the most from them, including

women, girls, and socioeconomically marginalised

populations. ICT4Peace is working with gender-focused

NGOs to address gender biases in ICTs.

AI promises to change the very nature of our society,

transforming our conflict zones and ushering in a new

socio-economic era. While the potential benefits are

309

tremendous, so are the potential risks. This requires

careful analysis to inform policy decisions at the

international and national levels. Since 2017, ICT4Peace

has carried out research, published policy papers, and

contributed to international discussions on AI, ethical, and

political perspectives on emerging digital technologies.


Facebook @ICT4Peace

LinkedIn @ICT4peace

X @ict4peace

YouTube @ICT4Peace Foundation

310

International Electrotechnical Commission

(IEC)

3 rue de Varembé | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.iec.ch

About the IEC

The IEC is the world leader in preparing international

standards for all electrical, electronic, and related

technologies. A global, not-for-profit membership

organisation, the IEC provides a neutral and independent

institutional framework to around 170 countries,

coordinating the work of some 30,000 experts. We

administer four IEC Conformity Assessment Systems,

representing the largest working multilateral agreement

based on the one-time testing of products globally. The

members of each system certify that devices, systems,

installations, services, and people perform as required.

IEC international standards represent a global

consensus of state-of-the-art know-how and expertise.

Together with conformity assessment, they are

foundational for international trade.

IEC standards incorporate the needs of many

stakeholders in every participating country and form

the basis for testing and certification. Experts come

from both developed and developing countries. Each

member country and all its stakeholders represented

through the IEC National Committees have one vote and

a say in what goes into an IEC international standard.

Our work is used to verify the safety, performance, and

interoperability of electric and electronic devices and

systems such as mobile phones, refrigerators, office

and medical equipment, or electricity generation.

It also helps accelerate digital transformation, AI,

or virtual reality applications, protects information

technology (IT) and critical infrastructure systems from

cyberattacks and increases the safety of people and

the environment.

314

In an increasingly technology-driven world, the role

of International Electrotechnical Commission

(IEC) standards and conformity assessment

has never been more important. They help

to build a safer, more sustainable and

inclusive society, where everyone can

reap the benefits of AI, quantum and

other emerging technologies.

Philippe Metzger

Secretary-General and CEO

Message by the IEC Secretary-General and CEO

IEC standards enable the dissemination of the most efficient technologies on a global

scale, helping countries and industries adopt or build sustainable technologies and

apply international best practices. Our standards make citizens safer, promote economic

development, and facilitate access to investment. The IEC Conformity Assessment Systems

add value to international standards by ensuring that manufacturers keep their promises.

315

Message by the IEC Secretary-General and CEO

IEC standards and conformity assessment together play a fundamental economic role and

support global trade and commerce.

They form the basis for innovation, as well as for quality and risk management.

We help developing countries build quality infrastructures to ensure that products entering

their markets fulfil the required safety and performance criteria. In this way, IEC’s work

enables economic actors to compete globally.

Because our standards embody global consensus on methodologies, processes, and

requirements, they are accepted in most of the world. They are essential for industry, utilities

and critical infrastructure. They provide technical frameworks, metrics and specifications that

regulators can reference in legislation. Standards also provide governments with technical

references in public tenders, lending confidence that products meet globally agreed rules

that have been developed and accepted by industry and regulators.

Although the IEC deals primarily with technology, our standards also help address the social,

economic, and environmental challenges of the 21st century. The digital future we are working

to achieve is encapsulated in the IEC vision of an all-electric and connected society. Getting

there means leveraging new and emerging technologies to provide universal access to clean

and affordable electricity, generated from renewable and sustainable sources.

We believe passionately in the power of consensus-based, international standards to

help society find answers to the many challenges and ethical dilemmas raised by digital

transformation and disruptive technologies, such as AI and quantum. International standards

are already providing solutions for many of these challenges, including, among others, privacy,

security and trust for the widest possible benefit.

Globally, the work of the IEC fits squarely with the UN SDGs. Indeed, IEC standards and

conformity assessment contribute, directly or indirectly, to one or more indicators for all 17

SDGs. In short, the IEC provides the know-how and guidance for building a greener, cleaner,

more equitable world.

316

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The IEC works to ensure that its activities have a global

reach to meet all the challenges of digital transformation

worldwide. The organisation covers an array of digital

policy issues. IEC international standards and conformity

assessment play a crucial role in shaping global AI and

digital policies by providing a structured, collaborative,

and consensus-driven framework that addresses

technical, ethical, and governance challenges.

317

Credit: iec.ch



AI applications are driving digital transformation across

diverse industries, including energy, healthcare, smart

manufacturing, transport, and other strategic sectors

that rely on IEC Standards and Conformity Assessment

Systems. AI technologies allow insights and analytics

that go far beyond the capabilities of legacy analytic

systems.

For example, the digital transformation of the grid

enables increased automation, making it more efficient

and able to seamlessly integrate fluctuating renewable

energy sources. IEC standards pave the way for the use

of a variety of digital technologies relating to intelligent

energy. They deal with issues such as the integration

of renewable energies within the electrical network but

also increased automatisation.

A joint IEC and ISO technical committee on AI, JTC1/

SC 42, brings together technology experts, as well

as ethicists, lawyers, social scientists, and others to

develop generic and foundational standards (horizontal

standards). IEC experts focus on sector-specific needs

(vertical standards) and conformity assessment.

JTC 1/SC 42 addresses concerns about the use and

application of AI technologies. For example, data

quality standards for ML and analytics are crucial for

helping to ensure that applied technologies produce

useful insights and eliminate faulty features.

Governance standards in AI and the big data analytics

business process framework address how the

technologies can be governed and overseen from a

management perspective. International standards

in the areas of trustworthiness, ethics, and societal

concerns will ensure responsible deployment.

Quantum

The joint IEC and ISO technical committee for quantum

technologies, IEC/ISO JTC 3, is working on standards for

all aspects of quantum, including computing, metrology,

sources, detectors, communications and fundamental

quantum technologies.

Infrastructure

The IEC develops standards for many of the technologies

that support digital transformation. Fibre optic cables,

sensors, semiconductors, cloud and edge computing

are examples.

Cloud computing

The joint ISO/IEC technical committee prepares

standards for cloud computing, including distributed

platforms and edge devices. The standards cover key

requirements relating to data storage and recovery.

318

DIGITAL TOOLS

Network security and critical infrastructure

The IEC develops cybersecurity standards and

conformity assessment for IT and operational

technology (OT). Cybersecurity is often understood only

in terms of IT, which leaves critical infrastructure, such

as power utilities, transport systems, manufacturing

plants and hospitals, vulnerable to attacks.

Digital tools

The IEC has developed a number of online tools and

services designed to help everyone with their daily

activities.

Find out more

IEC website

IEC news and blog

IEC e-tech


LinkedIn @IECStandards

Facebook @InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission

YouTube @IECstandards

319

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

(IFRC)

Chemin des Crêts 17 | 1209 Geneva | Switzerland

www.ifrc.org

About the IFRC

The IFRC is the world’s largest volunteer-based

humanitarian network, reaching 150–250 million people

each year through its 191 member National Red Cross

and Red Crescent Societies.

The IFRC exists to support the work of its member

National Societies, ensuring that they have the capacities

and systems to be strong, independent, trusted, and

accountable local actors. It connects National Societies

into one international network, ensuring principled and

localised action with global reach and impact.

Our community-based work is guided by the IFRC

Strategy 2030, which identifies five global challenges:

climate and environment; evolving disasters and crises;

health and well-being; migration and displacement; and

values, power, and inclusion.

At the same time, the IFRC prioritises National Society

development, strategic and operational coordination,

and influential humanitarian diplomacy, and upholds a

culture of accountability and agility across the network. In

this way, the IFRC network saves lives, builds community

resilience, strengthens localisation, and promotes

human dignity around the world. All IFRC network

activities are inspired by the Fundamental Principles of

the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement:

humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence,

voluntary service, unity, and universality.

322

We’re transforming how we extend and measure

our global impact through digital innovation.

Jagan Chapagain

Secretary-General

Message by the IFRC Secretary-General

Data, digital tools, and AI help us deliver effective, efficient services to people living in the

world’s most vulnerable settings. They enable life-saving communication through impact-based

forecasting and early warning systems, support community feedback for better accountability

and enhance knowledge sharing.

323

Message by the IFRC Secretary-General

We are transforming how we measure and extend our global impact through digital innovation.

Common data standards and AI-powered analytics help us optimise data collection and analysis,

demonstrating the reach and effectiveness of humanitarian services delivered by member Red

Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

AI enables us to continuously learn, improving the speed and quality of our services. It

also enhances knowledge management and supports volunteer recruitment, training, and

engagement. Digital tools, combined with AI, are expanding the way we connect with those in

need through, for example, self-enrolment apps to offer vital information, cash assistance, and

referrals - all through mobile phones.

In 2021, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) adopted

a Digital Transformation Strategy to accelerate the use of data, digital tools, and AI across our

network. This is a key focus of the IFRC Strategy 2030 and our Agenda for Renewal, supported by

efforts to build data literacy, peer collaboration, and strategic partnerships.

Then, in 2024, we launched our first AI guidelines, grounded in the seven Red Cross and Red

Crescent principles. We are committed to training staff and volunteers to use new technologies

ethically, safely, and transparently.

We welcome collaboration with other organisations to advance digital transformation in the

humanitarian sector. Our upcoming Digital Transformation Impact Platform will support

collaboration.

Contact us to learn more.

324

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Data, digital tools, and AI help us deliver effective, efficient

services to people living in the world’s most vulnerable

settings. They enable life-saving communication through

impact-based forecasting and early warning systems,

support community feedback for better accountability

and enhance knowledge sharing.

We are transforming how we measure and extend our

global impact through digital innovation. Common data

standards and AI-powered analytics help us optimise

data collection and analysis, demonstrating the reach

and effectiveness of humanitarian services delivered by

member Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

AI enables us to continuously learn, improving the speed

and quality of our services. It also enhances knowledge

management and supports volunteer recruitment,

training, and engagement. Digital tools, combined

with AI, expand how we connect with those in need

through, for example, self-enrolment apps to offer vital

information, cash assistance, and referrals - all through

mobile phones.

In 2021, the IFRC adopted a Digital Transformation

Strategy to accelerate the use of data, digital tools, and

AI across our network. This is a key focus of the IFRC

Strategy 2030 and our Agenda for Renewal, supported

by efforts to build data literacy, peer collaboration, and

strategic partnerships.

Then, in 2024, we launched our first AI guidelines,

grounded in the seven Red Cross and Red Crescent

principles. We are committed to training staff and

volunteers to use new technologies ethically, safely, and

transparently.

We welcome collaboration with other organisations

to advance digital transformation in the humanitarian

sector. Our upcoming Digital Transformation Impact

Platform will support collaboration.

325

Credit: ifrc.org

DIGITAL POLICY ISSUES AND TOOLS

Digital policy issues and tools

• The IFRC is a data-driven organisation dedicated

to making evidence-based decision-making. The

Federation-wide databank and reporting system

(FDRS) is the IFRC platform dedicated to providing

insights into the Red Cross and Red Crescent (RCRC)

National Societies. The data is gathered through a

yearly data collection from 191 National Societies.

• The self-assessment part of the Organisation

Capacity Assessment and Certification (OCAC)

process is intended to capture the strengths and

weaknesses of National Societies as a whole in

relation to a wide range of organisational capacities.

• The Branch Organizational Capacity Assessment

(BOCA) process is intended to capture the strengths

and weaknesses of National Societies branches as

a whole in relation to a wide range of organisational

capacities.


The IFRC network supports a diverse range of data and

digital tools that facilitate local capacity development.

The Preparedness for Effective Response (PER) approach

serves as a foundational platform to guide National

Societies in assessing and enhancing their organisational

and personnel capacities for humanitarian response. In

addition to the main assessment platform, the PER tools

also link to dedicated eLearning courses on the IFRC

Learning Platform and include a databank of lessons

from past response operations matched to specific PER

criteria.

As part of the IFRC Digital Transformation Strategy 510

(an initiative of the Netherlands Red Cross), the IFRC has

developed a Digital Transformation Assessment to guide

National Societies in assessing their digital capabilities

in terms of people, processes, and technology. The

Assessment also provides guidance on the next steps

National Societies can take to address capability gaps

and advance further in the digital transformation of their

humanitarian work.

The IFRC is also well served by the following:

• The Solferino Academy, an innovation ‘do tank’ that

promotes learning between National Societies,

leadership development, and innovation projects,

such as a recent action research project on

collective intelligence conducted in Cameroon and

Nepal together with Nesta in the UK.

• A dedicated theme for Digital Transformation and

Systems Development under the IFRC Capacity

Building Fund (CBF) that supports National

Societies to make essential investments in capacity

development. Already, 39 National Societies have

accessed the CBF to support digital transformation

initiatives between August 2021 and August 2022,

and 58 National Societies benefited from a special

programme under the CBF to ensure that all

326

National Societies have the capability to digitally

connect and collaborate virtually.

• Solutions like New Zealand Red Cross’s Knowledge

Pacific Programme, which includes IT-in-a-Box

infrastructure aimed at supporting National

Societies with low capacities to establish a

dependable, secure, modular IT infrastructure for

digital connectivity and services.

In addition, the IFRC network relies on a set of 12

reference centres and other centres of excellence within

the RCRC network to help lead in key thematic areas and

to encourage and advance peer-to-peer learning within

the network. The Global Disaster Preparedness Center

(GDPC), hosted by the American RC, and 510, hosted

by the Netherlands RC, have prominent programmes

to support digital innovation and services within the

network. In addition, a range of other National Societies

are contributing to specific topics, including the British Red

Cross on surge support for information management;

the Spanish Red Cross on volunteer data management;

the Norwegian Red Cross, the Danish Red Cross, and

the Kenyan Red Cross on the use of digital ID and digitalbased

inclusive currencies.

The Kenya Red Cross Society has an International Center

for Humanitarian Affairs (ICHA) focused on innovation.

The Kenya Red Cross Society implemented a digital ID

healthcare pilot in Kakuma and Kalobeyei refugee camps,

using QR codes linked to digital wallets containing patient

information and basic health records. The digital wallet

system in Kenya was developed by Gravity12, based on a

methodology previously used for cash assistance.

The IFRC is part of the DIGID consortium, which includes

collaboration with the American Red Cross, Norwegian

Red Cross, Norwegian Refugee Council, Norwegian

Church Aid, Save the Children and Innovation Norway.

The consortium has conducted digital ID pilots with

displaced communities in Kenya and Uganda, finding that

digital ID can support dignity and access to services for

people without identification documents. The Uganda

Red Cross Society implemented a Cash and Voucher

Assistance (CVA) pilot using digital ID with internally

displaced persons (IDPs) in Uganda.

The Kenya Red Cross Society and the Uganda Red Cross

Society conducted a cross-border simulation exercise

to test how digital credentials issued by one National

Society could be used when vulnerable people move

to a new location and seek assistance from another

National Society. In 2023, the IFRC and the Kenya Red

Cross published a document titled ‘Dignified Identities in

humanitarian action: Journey and reflection’.

The IFRC has published case studies documenting these

experiences, including ‘Dignified identities in healthcare

and migration: Lessons from Kenya’ and ‘Dignified

credentials to access humanitarian cash assistance in

migration: lessons learnt from Uganda’. In 2021, the IFRC

also published a report titled ‘Digital Identity: An analysis

for the humanitarian sector’.

327


In line with its service-oriented, demand-driven

approach to building community resilience, the GDPC

has developed the Business Preparedness Initiative

(BPI) Toolkit to save lives, protect livelihoods, and

shorten recovery times following disasters by providing

small and medium enterprises (SMEs) with adaptable

preparedness tools. Atlas: Ready For Business is a free

mobile app currently available in multiple languages (with

more to come) on iOS and Android to help organisations

build adaptability and create basic business continuity

plans. Workshop In A Box is a downloadable toolkit that

provides all of the support information and customisable

materials a facilitator needs to promote, organise, and

run workshops to help SMEs take basic steps towards

being crisis-ready and to continue their preparedness

journey using the Atlas.

The GDPC, Google, and the IFRC have also developed the

WhatNow Service, a global platform to assist National

Societies and their local partners to localise key messages

on how individuals, households, and communities can

prepare for, respond to, and recover from hazards. Any

media partner can access the messages and broadcast

them across their networks, all with the National Society’s

name and logo, providing a mechanism to increase

the scale in the dissemination of harmonised, trusted,

actionable guidance, currently covering 20 hazards in 78

languages. These messages are across six urgency levels

and follow a five-step, circular process:

1. National Societies adapt key, actionable messaging

to their context.

2. National Societies engage with media partners to

implement the service.

3. Media partners access National Societies’

WhatNow messages through an open Application

Programming Interface (API) and broadcast across

their networks.

4. Communities at risk receive WhatNow messages.

5. National Societies engage with communities

for feedback on the process and further adapt

accordingly.

Cash assistance has become an increasingly important

and default tool for humanitarian assistance in the IFRC

network. The Turkish Red Crescent – in collaboration with

the Turkish government, the World Food Programme

(WFP), the European Civil Protection and Humanitarian

Aid Operations (ECHO), and the IFRC in the most recent

phase – has developed the Emergency Social Safety Net

(ESSN) programme using the Kizilaykart payment system,

which has provided monthly cash assistance to Syrian

refugees, reaching more than 2.3 million individuals

(410,000 households) in the latest ESSN III phase. The IFRC

has been exploring the use of the Kizilaykart approach

and a similar collaboration with RedRose in the Ukraine

crisis response, where an innovative mechanism for selfregistration

has been introduced.

328

The 121 Digital Cash Aid Platform was developed by the

Netherlands Red Cross in collaboration with humanitarian,

technical, and academic partners. The 121 platform

includes a portal for managing CVA programmes and an

app for aid workers to validate recipients. The platform is

optimised for low-bandwidth areas and integrates with

Kobo for offline registration. The 121 platform was first

designed and piloted in Kenya by the Kenya Red Cross,

supported by the Netherlands Red Cross, the British Red

Cross, and the GSMA. The 121 platform has been used to

support displaced and migrant communities in Ethiopia,

Lebanon, Ukraine, and the Netherlands.

The AccessRC app, developed in collaboration with

RedRose, has provided a game-changing way to reach,

engage, and assist people on the move due to the Ukraine

crisis. The self-enrolment and integrated assistance

model enabled by the AccessRC app – and planned as part

of a broader assistance platform vision and ecosystem

– has enabled the National Red Cross and Red Crescent

Societies to rapidly extend their humanitarian assistance

to remote locations and connect people in need to a

diverse range of services.

The AccessRC app processed over 10,000 CVA (Cash

and Voucher Assistance) applications from displaced

Ukrainians in the first 20 days after launch, demonstrating

its effectiveness at scale. The app allows affected

communities to register and access assistance at times

and places convenient for them, eliminating the need to

queue at physical service locations.

Data and digital tools for Community Engagement and

Accountability (CEA) have also become an essential

way for the IFRC to extend and deepen its engagement

with vulnerable communities. A range of tools had

been developed for rumour tracking that were used

extensively in the COVID-19 response and are still

used in the Ukraine crisis response. In addition, 510 (an

initiative of the Netherlands Red Cross), in collaboration

with the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), the private

sector company Twilio, and the IFRC, has been leading

the development of a digital community engagement

hub. The hub will enable National Societies to create

cloud messaging services to provide cheap (or even

free) interactive messaging via diverse text messaging

services, including WhatsApp, Telegram, Viber, and SMS.

The hub builds on an extensive set of scripting templates

developed by the NRC and represents a rare example

of the creative repurposing of digital tools between

humanitarian organisations.

The IFRC also hosts the Mobile Data Collection Working

Group and operates its own KoBo and ODK servers

to facilitate access to mobile data collection tools by

National Societies and provide additional back services

to store and manage data. See the IFRC Kobo Toolbox for

more details.

510 (an initiative of the Netherlands Red Cross) has also

created an impact-based forecasting (IBF) system and

portal to help National Societies establish their own data

and analysis platforms to support the development of

329


forecast-based financing (FbF) initiatives that can use

crisis forecasts as the basis for automatically triggering

funding support and other early action protocols that

can enable National Societies and communities to start

acting as soon as forecasts are issued instead of having

to wait for support until days and weeks after crises

events have happened.

Digital data tools are also providing important

opportunities to advance traditional humanitarian

services. Many National Societies provide ambulance

services in their countries and are increasingly using

data and digital tools to pre-position ambulances in highneed

areas, dispatch at speed, improve routing, and

enable enhanced communication and continuity of care

with hospitals during transit. The IFRC has conducted a

business value case analysis for digitally transforming

ambulance services that compares the experience and

insights in nine National Societies.

The Universal App Program (UAP) provides cutting-edge

mobile app technology free of charge to National Societies

to raise first aid awareness by offering high-quality

apps to the public in their countries. The programme

combines two tools – the First Aid app and the Hazard

app – that provide efficient and cost-effective access

to mobile applications to reach a growing number of

people with important life-saving information. The First

Aid app contains easy-to-understand information about

how to identify and respond to a range of common first

aid scenarios – such as bleeding, heart attacks, choking,

and burns – and supports localisation in local languages,

interactive quizzes, and step-by-step instructions for

users to follow in case of an emergency. The Hazards

app provides preparedness information for more than

12 types of hazards. National Societies can customise

the app according to their common hazards in the

region and based on their local languages. The app also

incorporates emergency alerts from official agencies to

notify users of potential threats affecting their location.

Additionally, the built-in features of these apps will enable

national societies to connect with their public, solicit

donations, and foster partnerships to support their own

preparedness programmes.

IFRC GO is the IFRC emergency operations platform for

capturing, analysing, and sharing real-time data during a

crisis. IFRC GO builds up a collective and comprehensive

picture of a crisis by connecting data from volunteers and

responders on the ground who provide information in

real time, i.e. data from their humanitarian partners and

reference material from across our network. It displays

the information in a simple and easy-to-understand

way. Users can then turn this information into reports,

maps, graphs, dashboards, and more. It helps their

network better meet the needs of affected communities.

The GO platform is also linked to a Surge Information

Management Support (SIMS) group that actively links

National Societies and the IFRC Secretariat staff to pool

resources and provide remote support for information

management in emergencies.

A new IFRC initiative is the Volunteer Data Management

System (VDMS). It is a global initiative spearheaded by

330

the IFRC, alongside the Spanish, French, and Kenyan

Red Cross Societies, to revolutionise how volunteer

data is handled across National Societies. This system

is designed to streamline and boost the efficiency

of volunteer operations, encompassing key aspects

such as onboarding, engagement, accreditation, and

communication via integrated tools for event registration,

mass messaging, and comprehensive reporting.

The Road Map to Community Resilience (R2R) is a

guide with a new approach and a participatory process

developed by the IFRC to enable communities to become

more resilient by assessing and analysing the risks they

face, and implementing actions to reduce these risks.

The approach also encourages use of the Community

Resilience Measurement Dashboard, which provides

step-by-step templates for data collection and enables

programme managers and community volunteers to

share the results of their assessments.

With schools closed around the world during the

COVID-19 pandemic, children were at home looking for

engaging activities while parents were busy working.

They also had questions about the Coronavirus and

needed to learn how to stay safe during this time. The

IFRC introduced a COVID-19 Kids Activity Kit in the form

of activity cards with easy step-by-step instructions and

child-friendly characters. This format, and its availability

in multiple languages, made it easier for National Society

communicators, partners, and the public to use the

resources. The IFRC also maintains a digital library and

an app with all IFRC publications in English and French.


Facebook @IFRC

Instagram @ifrc

LinkedIn @ifrc

TikTok @ifrc

X @ifrc

YouTube @ifrc

331

Internet Governance Forum

(IGF)

Villa Le Bocage | Palais des Nations | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.intgovforum.org/en

About the IGF

The IGF provides the most comprehensive coverage of

digital policy issues at the global level. The IGF Secretariat

in Geneva coordinates both the planning of IGF annual

meetings (working together with the Multistakeholder

Advisory Group (MAG) and the wider IGF community)

and a series of intersessional activities (run all year long).

These activities could be summarised in three ‘multi’

initiatives:

• Multistakeholder participation: It involves

governments, businesses, civil society, the

technical community, academia, and other actors

who affect or are affected by digital policy. This

diversity is reflected in the IGF processes, events,

and consultations.

• Multidisciplinary coverage: It relates to addressing

policy issues from technological, legal, security,

human rights, economic, development, and

sociocultural perspectives. For example, data,

as a governance issue, is addressed from

standardisation, e-commerce, privacy, and security

perspectives.

• Multilevel approach: It spans IGF deliberations from

the local level to the global level, through a network

of over 176 national, subregional, and regional

IGFs (as of March 2025). They provide context

for discussions on digital policy, like the real-life

impact of digitalisation on policy, economic, social,

and cultural fabric of local communities. The IGF

Secretariat supports such initiatives (which are

independent) and coordinates the participation of

the overall network.

The IGF ecosystem converges around the annual IGF,

which is attended by thousands of participants. Recent

IGFs include Paris (2018), Berlin (2019), online edition due

to the pandemic (2020), Katowice (2021), Addis Ababa

(2022), Kyoto (2023), and Riyadh (2024), which have

engaged over 11,000 participants, and more than 1,000

speakers in over 300 sessions.

The intersessional work includes best practice forums

(on issues such as cybersecurity, local content, data and

new technologies, and gender and access); dynamic

coalitions (on issues such as community connectivity,

network neutrality, accessibility and disability, and child

safety online, etc.); policy networks (on AI, environment,

meaningful access, and internet fragmentation); and

other projects such as Policy Options for Connecting

and Enabling the Next Billion(s) (which ran between 2015

and 2018) as well as a number of capacity development

activities.

IGF mandate

The IGF mandate was outlined in the Tunis Agenda for

the Information Society of the WSIS, in November 2005.

It was renewed for another 10 years by the UNGA on 16

December 2015, (70/125).

334

The main functions of the IGF are specified in Article 72 of

the Tunis Agenda. The mandate of the Forum is to:

• Discuss public policy issues related to key elements

of internet governance in order to foster the

sustainability, robustness, security, stability, and

development of the internet.

• Facilitate discourse between bodies dealing with

different cross-cutting international public policies

regarding the internet and discuss issues that do

not fall within the scope of any existing body.

• Interface with appropriate inter-governmental

organisations and other institutions on matters

under their purview.

• Facilitate the exchange of information and best

practices, and in this regard, make full use of the

expertise of the academic, scientific, and technical

communities.

• Advise all stakeholders in proposing ways and

means to accelerate the availability and affordability

of the internet in the developing world.

• Strengthen and enhance the engagement of

stakeholders in existing and/or future internet

governance mechanisms, particularly those from

developing countries.

• Identify emerging issues, bring them to the attention

of the relevant bodies and the general public, and

where appropriate, make recommendations.

• Contribute to capacity building for internet

governance in developing countries, drawing on

local sources of knowledge and expertise.

• Promote and assess, on an ongoing basis, the

embodiment of WSIS principles in internet

governance processes.

• Discuss, inter alia, issues relating to critical internet

resources.

• Help find solutions to the issues arising from the use

and misuse of the internet, of particular concern to

everyday users.

• Publish its proceedings.

In fulfilling its mandate, the Forum is institutionally

supported by the UN Secretariat for the Internet

Governance Forum, placed with the Department of

Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA). Its working

modalities also include the MAG and, most recently, the

Leadership Panel, both appointed by the UN Secretary-

General.

335

336

Digital technologies are a proven accelerator of

sustainable development, and it is on us to

orient them in a direction to bring better

well-being to all. This requires good

digital policies that can be achieved only

through an inclusive multistakeholder

model for internet governance. The

Internet Governance Forum (IGF)

and International Geneva create

conditions for this.

Chengetai Masango

Head of Office

Message by the IGF Secretariat

To achieve its mandate and set objectives, the IGF has created several concrete work streams in

which everyone can participate.

Intersessional work and capacity development

I Dynamic Coalitions

Dynamic coalitions (DCs) are open, multistakeholder and community-driven initiatives dedicated

to exploring a certain internet governance issue or group of issues. In 2025, 32 active DCs focused

on topics such as internet rights and principles, gaming, innovative approaches to connecting the

unconnected, accessibility and disability, child online safety, etc.

337

Message by the IGF Secretariat

II Best Practice Forums

Best Practice Forums (BPFs) provide a platform for stakeholders to exchange experiences in

addressing digital policy issues, and discuss and identify existing and emerging best practices.

BPFs are open, bottom‐up, collective processes, and their outputs are community-driven. In

2025, the most recent BPFs focused on cybersecurity.

III Policy Networks

Policy Networks (PNs) are facilitated by multistakeholder working groups of experts, based

on broad bottom-up community consultations. All PNs are facilitated through an open,

inclusive, bottom-up, consultative process. Interested stakeholders are invited to subscribe

to dedicated mailing lists or contact the IGF Secretariat for more information. The most recent

PNs focused on internet fragmentation, meaningful access, and AI.

National, regional, and youth IGF initiatives (NRIs)

As of March 2025, there are over 176 autonomous national, regional, and youth IGF initiatives

(NRIs) recognised by the IGF Secretariat, open to all to participate.

Developing capacity in internet governance at local and global levels

The IGF Secretariat supports community-centred processes in developing internet

governance capacity. A number of activities focus on developing countries. To date, the

capacity development framework has supported schools on internet governance, NRIs, and

stakeholder participation in the IGF annual meetings, including the participation of youth,

parliamentarians, and other critical groups such as IGF newcomers, women, and girls.

IGF annual meetings

Each year, the IGF annual meeting brings together stakeholders from around the world to

discuss some of the most pressing issues in digital policy. A list of the host countries so far is

available on the IGF website.

The 20th annual IGF meeting is hosted by the Government of Norway in Lillestrøm from 23 to

27 June 2025. The meeting is hosted under an overarching theme: Building Digital Governance

Together.

338


Until 2019, IGF annual meetings used to host sessions

tackling a wide range of digital policy issues (for instance,

IGF 2018 had eight themes: cybersecurity, trust, and

privacy; development, innovation, and economic issues;

digital inclusion and accessibility; human rights, gender,

and youth; emerging technologies; evolution of internet

governance; media and content; and technical and

operational issues). In 2019, in an effort to bring more

focus within the IGF, the MAG decided (considering

community input) to structure the IGF programme

around a limited number of tracks: security, safety,

stability, and resilience; data governance; and digital

inclusion. This approach was kept for IGF 2020, which saw

four thematic tracks: data, environment, inclusion, and

trust. The thematic approach did not mean that the IGF

saw some digital policy issues as being less relevant than

others, but rather that it encouraged discussions at the

intersection of multiple issues. The Forum continues to

structure its bottom-up-developed programme around

distinct themes. The GIP Digital Watch Observatory hybrid

reporting (IGF 2024) illustrates this trend, showing that

the IGF discussed a wide range of policy issues (across all

seven internet governance baskets of issues) within the

limited number of thematic tracks.

Leadership Panel

In line with the IGF mandate and as recommended in the

Secretary-General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation,

the UN Secretary-General established the IGF Leadership

Panel as a strategic, empowered, multistakeholder

body, to address urgent, strategic issues, and highlight

the Forum discussions and possible follow-up actions

to promote greater impact and dissemination of IGF

discussions.

More specifically, the Panel provides strategic inputs

and advice on the IGF; promotes the IGF and its outputs;

supports both high-level and at-large stakeholder

engagement in the IGF and IGF fundraising efforts;

exchanges IGF outputs with other stakeholders and

relevant forums; and feeds input from these decision

makers and forums to the IGF agenda-setting process,

leveraging relevant MAG expertise.

The 15-member Panel with ex-officio members meet at

least two times a year in person, in addition to regular

online meetings.

339

DIGITAL TOOLS


Since its first meeting in Athens (2006), the IGF has

pioneered online deliberation and hybrid meetings. In

addition to individual online participation, the IGF has

encouraged the development of a network of remote

hubs where participants meet locally while following

online deliberations from the global IGF. In this way, the

IGF has created a unique interplay between local and

global deliberations through the use of technology. For

hybrid meetings delivered in situ and online, the IGF

developed the function of a remote moderator, who

ensures that there is smooth interplay between online

and in situ discussions.

The 20th annual IGF meeting will be hosted by the

Government of Norway in Lillestrøm on 23-27 June 2025.

The 2026 host is yet to be announced.


Facebook @IGF - Internet Governance Forum

Flickr @IGF

Instagram @intgovforum

LinkedIn @intgovforum

X @intgovforum

YouTube @Internet Governance Forum (IGF)

Bluesky @intgovforum.bsky.social

340

International Labour Organization

(ILO)

4 route des Morillons | 1211 Geneva 22 | Switzerland

www.ilo.org

About the ILO

The ILO is the UN agency for the world of work. It was

founded on the conviction that universal and lasting

peace can be established only if it is based on social

justice.

The ILO brings together governments, employers,

and workers from its 187 member states in a humancentred

approach to the future of work based on decent

employment creation, rights at work, social protection,

and social dialogue.

The ILO’s tripartite membership drafts, adopts, and

monitors the implementation of international labour

standards on key world of work issues – ILO Conventions

and Recommendations.

The ILO undertakes research and data collection across

the range of world of work topics. It publishes flagship

reports and a wide range of publications and working

papers. Its globally renowned set of statistical databases

is maintained and updated with nationally sourced

labour market data.

The ILO manages a wide range of development

cooperation projects in all regions of the world. Realised

in partnership with donor countries and organisations,

these projects aim to create the conditions for the

delivery of the ILO’s decent work agenda.

Three initiatives are central to the ILO’s current work:

the establishment of a global coalition to promote

social justice, advancing the 2030 Agenda through the

Global Accelerator on Jobs and Social Protection for Just

Transitions, and its four priority action programmes. The

latter focuses on the transition from the informal to the

formal economy, just transitions towards environmentally

sustainable economies and societies, decent work in

supply chains, and decent work in crises and post-crisis

situations.

344

The rapid evolution of AI brings opportunities but

also significant challenges. We must ensure

that AI serves humanity, not the other way

around. We must act now by investing in

lifelong learning, strengthening social

protections, and fostering global

cooperation to create a future where

technological progress translates into

social progress.

Gilbert Houngbo

Director-General

Message by the ILO Director-General

Global job growth is weakening due to environmental impact costs, debt, and inequality. While

unemployment holds at 5%, 402 million people lack decent work, with youth unemployment

stuck at 12.6% and gender gaps lingering. The green and digital sectors show promise - creating

16.2 million renewable jobs - but opportunities remain uneven. We call for rapid action: better

skills training, stronger social protections, and fairer financing to prevent a deeper crisis.

345

Message by the ILO Director-General

As we move through the world of AI, the way we work is undergoing a profound shift. This era of

technological advancement offers incredible possibilities, but also presents serious challenges.

The global job market is more complicated than ever, with deepening inequalities and new

vulnerabilities emerging. AI is transforming industries, opening doors to new opportunities while

displacing traditional roles. Managing this transition thoughtfully is essential.

At the International Labour Organization (ILO), we stand firm in our belief that technology should

empower humanity, not control it. Our dedication to social justice is to ensure that the benefits of

AI reach everyone. This requires creating systems that safeguard workers’ rights, foster decent

work, and channel innovation toward sustainable progress.

The ILO Observatory on AI and the World of Work play a pivotal role in this mission. By

tracking trends, assessing impacts, and offering evidence-based policy recommendations, the

Observatory supports governments, employers, and workers in navigating the digital shift. It

also acts as a vital hub for collaboration and knowledge exchange among stakeholders.

Our Global Call for a Human-Centred Approach to AI reflects our determination to align

technological progress with social advancement. This initiative unites diverse perspectives to

establish governance principles that uphold human dignity, accountability, and transparency.

Looking ahead, we must concentrate on three key priorities:

First, providing fair access to digital skills and lifelong learning, especially for those most at risk of

being left behind by technological change.

Second, developing AI systems that enhance human potential rather than replace it, fostering

better jobs and boosting productivity.

Third, strengthening social dialogue and inclusive governance to ensure workers have a real say

in how AI is integrated.

AI represents more than just a technological leap. It is a societal evolution. The journey ahead

calls for unprecedented collaboration among governments, social partners, tech companies,

and civil society. Together, we can build an AI-driven future of work that champions social justice

and ensures technology serves people and the planet.

346

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

As the ILO covers the full scope of the world of work,

digital issues are present across the organisation’s work.

The ILO addresses digitalisation through a wide range

of topics including digital labour platforms, digital skills

knowledge, employability, AI, automation, algorithmic

management and data governance – and more broadly,

the future of work. The ILO Observatory on AI and Work

in the Digital Economy showcases the Office’s work in

these areas.

The ILO also tracks the effects of digitalisation on

specific work sectors, for instance, the postal and

telecommunication services sector.

347

Credit: ilo.org


Access to data

The ILO has long been a leading resource for

policymakers, researchers, and other users of data on

the labour markets and all aspects of the world of work.

ILOSTAT (a portal to its comprehensive labour statistics)

and the ILO Knowledge Portal (offering access to country

information and data on labour laws, standards, policies,

and statistics) make real-time data available to users

around the world. The World Employment and Social

Outlook Data Finder provides customised datasets on

request for measures such as the global labour force,

unemployment, and employment by sector. The ILO also

has the Development Cooperation Dashboard with data

on labour-related policy areas and the organisation’s

field projects, funding, and expenditures. All materials

published by the ILO are collected and freely available in

Labordoc, the organisation’s digital repository. The ILO’s

new Research Repository allows users to easily access

our knowledge products by topic and author.

The ILO maintains the World Social Protection Database,

the leading global source of in-depth country-level

statistics on social protection systems. This database

includes key indicators used by policymakers, officials

of international organisations, and researchers, and is

used for the UN SDG monitoring. The ILO collects data

through the Social Security Inquiry, an administrative

survey submitted to governments that dates back to

the 1940s. In 2020, the ILO launched the Social Security

Inquiry online platform to improve the data compilation

process globally.

The ILO also maintains the Employment Policy Gateway,

which serves as a comprehensive repository of national

employment policy documentation from around the

world. As of mid-2024, the Gateway contained 75 national

employment policy documents, with 24 undergoing

revision at the time of data extraction. The Gateway

includes pre-processed variables to facilitate crosscountry

comparisons of employment policies.

Future of work

The future of work has been a key unifying digital issue

in the ILO’s activities for many years. In 2015, the ILO

Director-General presented a report to the International

Labour Conference proposing a special initiative on the

future of work. Since that time, much of the research

undertaken by the ILO and many of the published

reports have fallen under this rubric. In 2019, the ILO

established the ILO Global Commission on the Future

of Work as part of our Future of Work Initiative. The

Commission was composed of representatives from

government, civil society, academia, and business and

worker representatives.

The Commission published a landmark report, Work

for a brighter future, that called for a human-centred

agenda for the future of work and explored the impacts

of technological progress in the fields of AI and robotics

348

and on issues such as the gender labour gap and the

automation of work. That same year, the ILO issued

the ILO Centenary Declaration, which advocated ‘full

and productive employment and decent work’ in the

context of the digital transformation of work, including

platform work. Examining the future of work in its myriad

implications remains a primary focus for the organisation

to this day.

The ILO has established the ’Global Coalition for Social

Justice’ initiative that brings together international bodies

and stakeholders to promote coordinated responses at

national, regional and global levels. The Coalition aims to

implement a human-centred approach to ensure social

justice is recognised as key to sustainable global recovery.

In 2024, the ILO co-authored a report with the UN titled

‘Mind the AI Divide: Shaping a Global Perspective on the

Future of Work’, which addresses the uneven adoption

of AI globally and its implications for equity, fairness,

and social justice. The report highlights how disparities

in digital infrastructure, technology access, education,

and training are deepening existing inequalities. The

ILO is concerned about an emerging ‘AI divide’ between

high-income nations and low/medium-income countries,

particularly in Africa, and advocates for concerted action

to foster international cooperation to support developing

countries in AI adoption.

The ILO has established the ‘Observatory on Artificial

Intelligence and Work in the Digital Economy’, which

serves as the leading international knowledge hub on

world-of-work dimensions of AI and the digital economy.

Launched on 25 September 2024, the Observatory

aims to support governments and social partners in

understanding and managing the digital transformation

of work. The Observatory focuses on four key areas:

AI, algorithmic management, digital labour platforms,

workers’ personal data and digital skills and AI.

The ILO-led AI for Good webinars on AI and work (with ITU)

have involved some of the leading thinkers and experts

in this area, including the most recent Nobel Prize winner,

Prof. Daron Acemoglu.

Automation and AI

The ILO is paying close attention to how automation and

AI are changing the labour markets and the ways we

work. We have examined the impacts of automation in

many publications, for instance, Robotics and Reshoring,

Automation and its Employment Effects: A Literature

Review of Automotive and Garment Sectors, and the

research brief, Who Moves and Who Stays? A number

of recent studies have focused on the labour impacts of

generative AI and the growing use of AI in specific sectors.

Examples include the working papers, Generative AI

and Jobs: A Global Analysis of Potential Effects on Job

Quantity and Quality and Artificial Intelligence in Human

Resource Management: A Challenge for the Humancentred

Agenda? AI has been the topic of recent editions

of the ILO’s Future of Work Podcast series.

349

Digital labour platforms and algorithmic

management

A key focus of the ILO research is the effects of

digitalisation on labour market evolution and new forms

of work. The organisation has been closely tracking the

implications of digital labour platforms and algorithmic

management for decent work.

The ILO has published some essential references on

these new subjects, including the World Employment and

Social Outlook report on digital labour platforms. Most

other ILO studies also reflect digital issues. For example,

recent Global Employment Trends for Youth reports

cover inequalities in youth labour markets arising from

digital transformation, as well as investment in young

people’s skills.

The ILO is working on instruments related to digital

platform workers, including developing definitions for

terms like ‘digital labour platform’, ‘digital platform

worker’, and ‘remuneration’ in the context of digital

platforms. The ILO is preparing for a discussion on

‘Realizing decent work in the platform economy’ as the

fifth item on the agenda for the 113th Session of the

International Labour Conference in 2025.

The ILO is conducting research on the ‘human-in-theloop’

model in AI systems and AI supply chains, examining

how invisible workers power automated systems that are

often presented as fully automated. ILO researchers have

studied how AI-enabled business models rely on workers

with decent work deficits, particularly crowdworkers

350

on digital labour platforms that support AI systems. A

survey of these workers revealed that many are highly

educated with bachelor’s or postgraduate degrees, often

in STEM fields, yet are primarily employed in routine data

work that does not use their specialised knowledge, with

median earnings in developing countries of about USD 2

per hour.


The ILO is playing a pivotal role in advancing the

2030 Agenda, most specifically SDG 8 (decent work

and economic growth). The ILO is one of the main

actors supporting the Global Accelerator on Jobs

and Social Protection for Just Transitions initiative,

the UN system’s collective response for addressing

the multiple challenges that threaten to erase

development progress. The Global Accelerator aims to

direct investments to help create at least 400 million

decent jobs, primarily in the green, digital, and care

economies, and to extend social protection coverage

to the over 4 billion people currently excluded. The

ILO has also created the Decent Work for Sustainable

Development (DW4SD) Resource Platform, which maps

the interplay between sustainable development and

decent work. The platform provides guidance and

working resources to ILO staff, development partners,

UN country teams, and other stakeholders. A recent

ILO report, Transformative Change and SDG 8, outlines

an integrated policy approach that countries can follow

to achieve SDG 8.


Capacity development is another digital-related issue

at the core of the ILO’s activities. As part of our skills,

knowledge, and employability initiatives, the ILO helps

governments develop education and training systems to

take advantage of new educational technologies and give

greater attention to digital skills. We support enterprises

and employers in making investments to expand

education and training programmes, and workers in

proactively upgrading their skills or acquiring new ones.

Examples of the many resources the ILO has produced are

Digital Employment Diagnostic Guidelines, Digitalization

of National TVET and Skills Systems and Digitalise Your

Business: Digital Strategies for Micro, Small and Medium-

Sized Enterprises. These and many more resources

are available from the ILO’s Skills and Lifelong Learning

knowledge-sharing platform.

The International Training Centre of the ILO (ITCILO)

offers a range of training programmes, master classes

and specialised courses that focus on AI implications

and applications in the workplace, public policy, and

development cooperation. Key training activities include

a new master’s degree on technology and public policy

with the Politecnico di Torino and an AI Forum. ITCILO

also partners with the UN Innovation Network to share

practices and approaches to capacity building in these

areas.

Together with the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

the ILO has developed the SKILL-UP Programme, which

assists developing countries in building capacity and

improving their digital skills systems, as well as the Skills

Innovation Facility. The Facility focuses on identifying and

testing innovative ideas and solutions to address current

and future skills challenges. In addition, the ILO’s Skills

Innovation Network provides a platform for innovators

to collaborate and share experiences on developing

innovations for skills development.

The ILO also has a Helpdesk for Business on International

Labour Standards that provides assistance to businesses

on how to align their business operations with labour

standards.


In regard to privacy and data protection, the ILO has

published a set of principles on the protection of workers’

personal data, which explores trends, principles, and

good practices related to the protection of personal data.

The International Training Centre, established by the ILO,

provides online courses on a variety of labour issues. The

ILO also organises webinars and uses a number of social

media accounts.

351

DIGITAL TOOLS

Digital tools

The following digital tools are available:

• ILOSTAT (portal to labour statistics)

• ILO Knowledge Portal

• Observatory on AI and Work in the Digital Economy

• ILO Development Cooperation Dashboard

• World Employment and Social Outlook Data Finder

• Labordoc

• Research Repository


Facebook @ILO

Flickr @ilopictures

Instagram @iloinfo

LinkedIn @/international-labour-organization-ilo

TikTok @ilo

X @ilo

YouTube @ilotv

352

Inter-Parliamentary Union

(IPU)

Chemin du Pommier 5 | 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex | Switzerland

www.ipu.org

About the IPU

The IPU is the global organisation of national

parliaments. It was founded more than 130 years ago

as the world’s first multilateral political organisation,

encouraging cooperation and dialogue between all

nations. Today, the IPU comprises 181 national Member

Parliaments and 15 regional parliamentary bodies. It

promotes democracy and helps parliaments develop

into stronger, younger, greener, more gender-balanced,

and more innovative institutions. It also defends the

human rights of parliamentarians through a dedicated

committee made up of MPs from around the world.

356

At 136 years old, the Inter-Parliamentary Union

(IPU), the global organisation of parliaments,

continues to demonstrate agility, staying

ahead of the curve when it comes to

parliamentary innovation. Recently,

the IPU has begun exploring the

transformative potential of AI

and how it can offer parliaments

unprecedented opportunities to better

serve their constituents. However,

we should sound a note of caution

- parliaments also need to be at the

forefront of global efforts to minimise

the risks created by the misuse of this

rapidly evolving technology.

Martin Chungong

Secretary-General

Message by the IPU Secretary-General

The ideals and practices of democracy have been under great strain these past few years

because of economic crises and the climate emergency, compounded by the COVID-19

pandemic. But time after time, parliaments have demonstrated their extraordinary resilience

in the ways they have adapted, notably by accelerating their digital transformation. In sharing

the digital experiences of parliaments, including rapid developments in AI, the IPU has become

a hub of digital good parliamentary practice for, about, and between parliaments. Ultimately,

this equips them for the future to better serve the people they represent.

357

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The IPU’s digital activities mainly focus on the promotion

of the use of ICTs in parliaments, including AI. To this end,

it has established a Centre for Innovation in Parliament,

which undertakes research on the impact of digital

technologies on parliaments, publishes the landmark

World e-Parliament Report, hosts the biannual World

e-Parliament Conference and coordinates a network of

parliamentary hubs on innovation in parliaments.

The IPU has also recently developed new tools and

resources on AI to help parliaments become stronger

and more effective, as well as to share good practice

from around the world when it comes to AI policy.

358

Credit: ipu.org



In line with its objective of building strong and

democratic parliaments, the IPU assists parliaments

in building their capacity to use ICTs effectively, both

in parliamentary proceedings and in communication

with citizens. The IPU has also been mandated by its

member parliaments to carry on capacity development

programmes for parliamentary bodies tasked to

oversee the observance of the right to privacy and

individual freedoms in the digital environment.

The IPU also encourages parliaments to make use of

ICTs as essential tools in their legislative activities. To

this aim, the IPU launched the Centre for Innovation

in Parliament (CIP) in 2018 to provide a platform for

parliaments to develop and share good practices in

digital transformation strategies, as well as practical

methods for capacity building. The IPU holds the

World e-Parliament Conference, a biannual forum

that addresses, from both the policy and technical

perspectives, how ICTs can help improve representation,

law-making, and oversight. It also publishes the annual

World E-Parliament Report.

As of August 2023, eight regional and thematic

parliamentary hubs are operating under the Centre

for Innovation in Parliament, covering IT governance,

open data and transparency, Hispanophone countries,

Eastern Africa, Southern Africa, the Caribbean, and the

Pacific. Each hub is coordinated by a national parliament

and brings together parliaments to work on subjects

of common interest, such as remote working methods

during COVID-19.

In 2023, the IPU published a Guide to digital

transformation in parliaments, in partnership with the

Association of Secretaries General of Parliament.

The CIP has seen significant growth in participation,

increasing from 27% of parliaments in 2020 to 45% in

2024. An additional 32% of parliaments have expressed

interest in future participation. The CIP is working in

partnership with the Association of Secretaries General

of Parliaments and collaborating with the EU and the

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral

Assistance (International IDEA) as part of ‘INTER PARES–

Parliaments in Partnership, the EU’s Global Project to

Strengthen the Capacity of Parliaments’.

The IPU has established the Parliamentary Data

Science Hub within the CIP, which is working on

creating guidelines for AI governance in parliaments.

The Hub has published a collection called ‘Use cases

for AI in parliaments’ to help parliaments plan, develop,

and measure AI implementation. These resources

are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.

The IPU published the World e-Parliament Report

2024, which surveyed 115 parliaments or chambers in

86 countries and supranational parliaments. The 2024

report introduced the new IPU Digital Maturity Index

as a benchmarking tool that ranks parliaments across

six key areas. The report identifies a persistent digital

divide among parliaments, with a country’s income level

359

DIGITAL TOOLS

being the most significant predictor of digital maturity.

According to the report, 68% of parliaments now have

multi-year digital strategies (up from previous years),

and public engagement remains a weak spot in digital

maturity for many parliaments.


The IPU works to raise awareness of the SDGs among

parliaments, and provides them with a platform to assist

them in taking action and sharing experiences and good

practices in achieving the SDGs.


Parliament’s role in governing AI

The IPU’s October 2024 Resolution on AI and Democracy

emphasises the critical relationship between democratic

institutions and emerging AI technologies. Drawing

on diverse parliamentary perspectives, the resolution

acknowledges the need for responsive regulation that

balances innovation with fundamental democratic values

and human rights considerations.

The Resolution guides IPU’s work on strengthening

parliaments’ capacity in AI governance. Through targeted

initiatives, the IPU equips legislative bodies with essential

tools and knowledge to effectively shape AI policy

frameworks. Emphasising parliament’s crucial oversight

role, the IPU helps legislative bodies to effectively balance

innovation with ethical considerations, data protection,

and human rights safeguards.

360

Freedom of expression

The IPU Committee on Democracy and Human Rights

works, among others, on promoting the protection of

freedom of expression in the digital era and the use of

social media as an effective tool to promote democracy.

In 2015, the IPU adopted a resolution on ‘Democracy in

the digital era and the threat to privacy and individual

freedoms’, which encourages parliaments to remove all

legal limitations on freedom of expression and the flow

of information, and urges them to enable the protection

of information in cyberspace, so as to safeguard the

privacy and individual freedom of citizens.

In 2023, the Committee decided to prepare a resolution

titled ‘The impact of artificial intelligence on democracy,

human rights and the rule of law’, for adoption in October

2024. Preparation of the resolution is accompanied by

capacity development activities for parliamentarians

on AI.

It offers virtual training sessions for parliamentarians.

Its IPU Parline database is an open data platform on

national parliaments, which includes data on the age

of people in parliament, as well as a monthly ranking of

women in national parliaments.


The IPU has recently published two new resources to

help parliaments unlock the benefits of AI to enhance

their efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity while

mitigating the risks of this rapidly evolving technology.

The Guidelines for AI in parliaments offer a

comprehensive framework for parliaments to

understand and implement AI responsibly and

effectively.

They provide practical guidance on the importance

of a strategic approach, strong governance, ethical

considerations, and risk management. The Guidelines

underscore the importance of using AI to augment

and enhance human capability rather than replace

it, especially in democratic deliberation and decisionmaking.

The Guidelines cover several key areas, including the

potential role of AI in parliaments, the related risks

and challenges, suggested governance structures and

AI strategy, ethical principles and risk management,

training and capacity development, and how to manage

a portfolio of AI projects across parliament.

Key recommendations include:

• Start with small pilot projects to build experience

• Focus on use cases with clear benefits and

manageable risks

• Ensure robust human oversight of AI systems

• Prioritise transparency and accountability

• Invest in data and AI literacy across the

organisation

• Engage with diverse stakeholders throughout the

process

The Guidelines are complemented by a series of Use

cases for AI in parliaments, which offer potential

roadmaps for parliamentary AI adoption.

A ‘use case’ describes how a system should work. It is

used to plan, develop and measure implementation.

Use cases translate the abstract potential of AI into

practical applications for parliamentary operations.

The IPU is also tracking parliamentary actions on AI

policy by documenting a range of initiatives on AI taking

place in national parliaments, including legislative

reviews, reports, resolutions, inquiries, working groups,

and policy discussions.

Parliamentary actions have so far been observed in

26 countries. Information is sourced from parliaments

and updated every month.

For more information about IPU’s work on AI, visit www.

ipu.org/AI or contact innovation@ipu.org.


Facebook @InterParliamentaryUnion

Instagram @ipu.parliament_official

LinkedIn @ Inter-Parliamentary Union

X @IPUparliament

YouTube @Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)

Threads @ipu.parliament_official

Bluesky @ipuparliament.bsky.social

361

International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)

Chemin de Blandonnet 8 | CP 401 | 1214 Vernier | Geneva | Switzerland

www.iso.org

About ISO

ISO is the International Organization for Standardization,

the world’s largest developer of international standards.

It consists of a global network of 173 national standards

bodies – our members. Each member represents ISO in its

country. The organisation brings together global experts

to share knowledge and develop voluntary, consensusbased,

market-relevant international standards. It is best

known for its catalogue of around 25,000 standards,

spanning a wide range of sectors, including technology,

food, and healthcare.

364

At the International ISO, we believe that standards

are not just technical documents – they are

enablers of sustainable progress.

Sergio Mujica

Secretary-General

Message by the ISO Secretary-General

In today’s digital world, the need for sustainable development that benefits everyone has

never been more pressing. Innovation and technology are powerful tools in this effort, helping

to drive scientific breakthroughs, improve global resilience, and tackle society’s most pressing

challenges. International standards play a vital role in ensuring these advancements are safe,

responsible, and accessible to all, thereby shaping a digital future that is both inclusive and

sustainable.

365

Message by the ISO Secretary-General

Consider, for example, ISO/IEC 42001, the world’s first AI management system standard, which

provides a framework for organisations to develop and scale AI responsibly. This landmark

achievement, built through the collaboration of experts from over 60 countries, reflects the

power of global cooperation in setting clear, practical guidelines for emerging technologies.

The rapid evolution of the digital landscape also calls for robust frameworks in areas such as

bio-digital convergence, the metaverse, and quantum computing – a field with transformative

potential across industries. To lay the basis for a secure, interoperable, and globally accessible

quantum future, ISO and IEC have launched a new Joint Technical Committee (JTC 3) on

quantum technologies. This initiative will help unify diverse quantum efforts, ensuring

innovation is built on a foundation of trust, security, and international collaboration.

It is vital that any technological advances promote sustainable solutions. With just five years

left to achieve the UN SDGs, ISO and the UNDP have unveiled the world’s first international

guidelines for organisations to accelerate their SDG contributions. They are designed to help

businesses and institutions integrate the SDGs into their core operations, providing a practical

roadmap to amplify global impact.

At ISO, we believe that standards are not just technical documents – they are enablers of

progress. By working together to establish trusted frameworks, we can harness the full

potential of technology to build a digital world that is safer, more sustainable, and benefits

everyone.

366

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

A large number of international standards and related

documents developed by ISO are related to ICTs, such

as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), which

was created in 1983 to establish a universal reference

model for communications protocols. The organisation

is also active in the field of emerging technologies,

including blockchain, IoT, and AI. The standards are

developed by various technical committees dedicated

to specific areas, including information security,

cybersecurity, privacy protection, AI, and intelligent

transport systems.

367

Credit: iso.org



The joint technical committee of ISO and the

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on AI is

known as ISO/IEC JTC1/SC 42 Artificial intelligence and

is responsible for the development of standards in this

area. To date, it has published 34 standards specifically

pertaining to AI, with 41 others in development. ISO/IEC

42001 is the flagship AI management system standard,

which provides requirements for establishing,

implementing, maintaining, and continually improving

an AI management system within the context of an

organisation. ISO/IEC TR 24028 provides an overview of

trustworthiness in AI systems, detailing the associated

threats and risks and addressing approaches on

availability, resiliency, reliability, accuracy, safety,

security, and privacy. Other recently published

standards include those that cover concepts and

terminology for AI (ISO/IEC 22989); bias in AI systems

and AI-aided decision-making (ISO/IEC TR 24027); AI

risk management (ISO/IEC 23894); a framework for AI

systems using machine learning (ISO/IEC 23053); and

the assessment of machine learning classification

performance (ISO/IEC TS 4213). Other standards under

development to support ISO/IEC 42001 include ISO/

IEC 42005 on AI system impact assessments and ISO/

IEC 42006, which contains requirements for bodies

providing audit and certification of AI management

systems. Up-to-date information on the technical

committee (e.g. scope, programme of work, contact

details) can be found on the committee page.

368

ISO has joined forces with its World Standards

Cooperation (WSC) partners IEC and ITU to create the

International AI Standards Summit, to be held on 2 and

3 December in Seoul and hosted by the Korean Agency

for Technology and Standards (KATS). The initiative was

announced at the World Economic Forum in Davos and

responds to the UN’s call to enhance AI governance

through international standards following the adoption

of the GDC by world leaders in September 2024.

In July, the WSC will join leading experts at the

International AI Standards Day during the AI for Good

Global Summit to help shape AI governance.

ISO is also working alongside IEC and ITU in the AI

and Multimedia Authenticity Standards Collaboration,

launched in 2024 to develop global standards for AI

watermarking, multimedia authenticity, and deepfake

detection technologies.

Cloud computing

ISO and IEC also have a joint committee for standards

related to cloud computing that currently has 29

published standards and a further 14 in development.

Of those published, two standards of note include ISO/

IEC 19086-1, which provides an overview, foundational

concepts, and definitions for a cloud computing service

level agreement framework, and ISO/IEC 22123-

3, which specifies the cloud computing reference

architecture. Other standards recently published

include those on health informatics (ISO/TR 21332); the

audit of cloud services (ISO/IEC 22123-2); and data flow,

categories, and use (ISO/IEC 19944 series). Standards

under development include the ISO/IEC 10822 series

on multi-cloud management. Up-to-date information

on the technical committee (e.g. scope, programme of

work, contact details) can be found on the committee

page.

Internet of things

Recognising the ongoing developments in the field

of IoT, ISO currently has 50 published standards on

the subject, including those for intelligent transport

systems (ISO 19079), future networks for IoT (ISO/IEC

TR 29181 series), unique identification for IoT (ISO/IEC

29161), internet of media things (ISO/IEC 23093-3), the

trustworthiness of IoT (ISO/IEC 30149), and industrial

IoT systems (ISO/IEC 30162). IoT security is addressed

in standards such as ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 27002,

which provide a common language for governance,

risk, and compliance issues related to information

security. In addition, there are standards that provide a

methodology for the trustworthiness of an IoT system

or service (ISO/IEC 30147); a trustworthiness framework

(ISO/IEC 30149); requirements for an IoT data exchange

platform for various IoT services (ISO/IEC 30161); and a

real-time IoT framework (ISO/IEC 30165). A further 20

standards are in development. Up-to-date information

on the ISO and IEC joint technical committee on IoT

(e.g. scope, programme of work, contact details) can be

found on the committee page.

369


ISO’s standardisation work in collaboration with IEC in

the field of telecommunications infrastructure covers

areas such as planning and installation of networks

(e.g. ISO/IEC 14763-2), corporate telecommunication

networks (e.g. ISO/IEC 17343), local and metropolitan

area networks (e.g. ISO/IEC/IEEE 8802-A), private

integrated telecommunications networks (e.g. ISO/IEC

TR 14475), and wireless networks. Next-generation

networks – packet-based public networks able to

provide telecommunications services and use multiple

quality-of-service-enabled transport technologies – are

equally covered (e.g. ISO/IEC TR 26905). ISO also has

standards for the so-called future networks, which are

intended to provide futuristic capabilities and services

beyond the limitations of current networks, including

the internet. Up-to-date information on the technical

committee (e.g. scope, programme of work, contact

details) can be found on the committee page.

Blockchain

ISO has published 12 standards on blockchain and

distributed ledger technologies. Of these, ISO/TR 23455

gives an overview of smart contracts in blockchain

and distributed ledger technologies; ISO/TR 23244

tackles privacy and personally identifiable information

protection; ISO 22739 covers fundamental blockchain

terminology; ISO/TR 23576 deals with security

management of digital asset custodians; ISO/TS 23258

DIGITAL TOOLS

specifies a taxonomy and ontology; and ISO/TS 23635

provides guidelines for governance. A further 12

standards are in development, including ISO/TS 18126,

which specifies a taxonomy and classification for smart

contracts, and ISO 20435, which provides a framework

for representing physical assets using tokens. Upto-date

information on the technical committee (e.g.

scope, programme of work, contact details) can be

found on the committee page.


ISO develops standards that address many different

emerging technologies. These include more than 40

standards either published or in development on

robotics, covering issues such as collaborative robots

(e.g. ISO/TS 15066), safety requirements for industrial

robots (e.g. ISO 10218 series), and personal care robots

(e.g. ISO 13482).

The ISO technical committee on intelligent transport

systems (ITS) has over 350 published standards,

including those on forward vehicle collision warning

systems (ISO 15623) and management of electronic

traffic regulations (ISO/TS 24315-1). Standards are also

being developed to address the use of virtual reality in

learning, education, and training (e.g. ISO/IEC 23843).

A further three issues are currently being explored

in collaboration with IEC, with further developments

anticipated in the next couple of years: bio-digital

convergence, the metaverse, and brain–computer

interfaces (ISO/IEC JTC1/SC43).

Quantum technologies

In January 2024, ISO and IEC launched a new joint

technical committee, ISO/IEC JTC 3, on quantum

technologies. The committee will develop standards on

quantum computing, quantum simulation, quantum

sources, quantum metrology, quantum detectors,

quantum communications, and fundamental quantum

technologies. One standard, on the quantum computing

vocabulary (ISO/IEC 4879), has already been published,

and an introduction to quantum computing (ISO/IEC TR

18157) is in development.

Network security

ISO and IEC jointly develop standards that address

information security and network security. The ISO/

IEC 27000 family of standards covers information

security management systems (ISMSs) and can be used

by organisations to secure information assets such

as financial data, intellectual property, and employee

information. For example, ISO/IEC 27031 and ISO/IEC

27035 are specifically designed to help organisations

respond to, diffuse, and recover effectively from

cyberattacks. ISO/IEC 27701, an extension of ISO/IEC

27001 and ISO/IEC 27002, details requirements and

370

guidance for establishing, implementing, maintaining,

and continually improving a privacy information

management system (PIMS). We have also developed

a handbook to assist small and medium-sized

enterprises (SMEs) in establishing and maintaining an

ISMS according to ISO/IEC 27001, the premier standard

for information security. Network security is also

addressed by standards on technologies such as IoT,

smart community infrastructures, medical devices,

localisation and tracking systems, and future networks.

Up-to-date information on the joint ISO and IEC

technical committee (e.g. scope, programme of work,

contact details) can be found on the committee page.

Encryption

As more and more information (including sensitive

personal data) is stored, transmitted, and processed

online, the security, integrity, and confidentiality of such

information become increasingly important. To this

end, ISO has a number of standards for the encryption

of data. For example, ISO/IEC 18033-1 addresses the

nature of encryption and describes certain general

aspects of its use and properties. Other standards

include ISO/IEC 19772, which covers authenticated

encryption, ISO/IEC 18033-3, which specifies encryption

systems (ciphers) for data confidentiality purposes, and

ISO 19092, which allows for encryption of biometric

data used for authentication of individuals in financial

services for confidentiality or other reasons.

ISO also has standards that focus on identity-based

ciphers, symmetric and asymmetric encryption, public

key infrastructure, and other related areas.

Data governance

Big data represents another significant area of

standardisation for ISO, with around 80% of related

standards being developed by ISO/IEC JTC1/SC42. The

terminology for standards related to big data is defined

in ISO/IEC 20546, while ISO/IEC 20547-3 covers big data

reference architecture. ISO/IEC TR 20547-2 provides

examples of big data use cases with application

domains and technical considerations, and ISO/IEC

TR 20547-5 details a roadmap of existing and future

standards in this area. Up-to-date information on the

technical committee (e.g. scope, programme of work,

contact details) can be found on the committee page.

Digital identities

Digital signatures that validate digital identities help

ensure the integrity of data and the authenticity of

particulars in online transactions, thereby contributing

to the security of online applications and services.

Standards to support this technology cover elements

such as anonymous digital signatures (e.g. ISO/

IEC 20008 series); digital signatures for healthcare

documents (e.g. ISO 17090-4 and ISO 17090-5); and

blind digital signatures, in which the content of the

371

DIGITAL TOOLS

message to be signed is concealed, used in contexts

where, for example, anonymity is required. Examples

of such standards include ISO 18370-1 and ISO/IEC

18370-2.


Privacy and data protection in the context of ICTs

is another area addressed by ISO standards. One

prominent example, ISO/IEC 29101, describes a privacy

architecture framework. Others include standards

for privacy-enhancing protocols and services for

identification cards (ISO/IEC 19286); privacy protection

requirements pertaining to learning, education, and

training systems employing information technologies

(ISO/IEC 29187-1); privacy aspects in the context

of intelligent transport systems (ISO/TR 12859);

and security and privacy requirements for health

informatics (ISO/TS 14441).

Digital tools

ISO’s online browsing platform provides up-to-date

information on ISO standards, graphical symbols,

publications, and terms and definitions.


Facebook @isostandards

Instagram @isostandards

LinkedIn @isostandards

X @isostandards

YouTube @iso

ISO in numbers

ISO is proud to count 173 members.

Our experts work across 823 technical committees

and subcommittees.

In 2024, we published 1,533 new standards and related

documents.

The ISO store contains more than 25,703*

international standards and related documents.

* Total as of end December 2024.

372

International Trade Centre

(ITC)

54-56 rue de Montbrillant | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.intracen.org

About ITC

ITC supports developing countries to achieve tradeled

growth, fosters inclusive and sustainable economic

development, and contributes to achieving sustainable

development goals (SDGs).

ITC offers small businesses, policymakers, and business

support organisations in developing countries an array

of trade-related practical training and advisory services,

and a wealth of business intelligence data. It helps micro,

small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) become

more competitive and helps create better regulatory

environments for trade. ITC works to empower women,

youth, and refugees through its programmes, projects,

services, and data and helps drive digital connectivity

and a global transition to green, sustainable trade.

Established in 1964, ITC is a multilateral agency with a

joint mandate with the World Trade Organization (WTO)

and the United Nations (UN) through the UN Conference

on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

376

Digital connectivity is a game-changer in the world of

trade. MSMEs not only have the most to benefit

from it, once they are connected, they give

back by driving sustainable economic

growth of their countries. What they

need is the right set of skills, affordable

financing and an enabling policy

environment to get there.

Pamela Coke Hamilton

Executive Director

Message by the ITC Executive Director

If a business is not online, does it exist? As more and more businesses move online, we at the

International Trade Centre (ITC) work to ensure micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises

(MSMEs) of developing countries are equipped to fully participate in and benefit from the

digitalisation of trade. That means looking at emerging business opportunities and solving the

constraints they face in selling goods and services online. We work at all levels: the enterprise,

business ecosystem and policy levels.

377

Message by the ITC Executive Director

Our ecomConnect initiative aims to build the world’s largest community of e-commerce

entrepreneurs, including women and youth, supporting them to sell online through

personalised learning programmes, technical assistance, digital tools and networking

opportunities.

Beyond direct support to entrepreneurs, we support the development of a conducive policy

and a regulatory environment for e-commerce at the national, regional, and multilateral

levels. We do this by facilitating domestic policy reforms, informing policymakers of the

needs of MSMEs in relation to e-commerce and digitalisation, and building their capacity for

e-commerce-related trade negotiations. We also partner with private sector players who

provide access to technologies and services.

We work to improve business ecosystems by collaborating with market partners and equipping

business support organisations, including at the national level, to provide tailored services to

small businesses so they can take part in the digital economy.

We at ITC will continue to work with partners in the public and private sectors to help MSMEs

around the world benefit from e-commerce and digital trade.

378

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

ITC activities in e-commerce and digital trade:

• Focus on the digitalisation of trade and solving

the constraints faced by MSMEs regarding

the e-commerce of goods and services, at the

enterprise, business ecosystem, and policy levels.

• Develop small business digital capabilities and

improve e-commerce accessibility in developing

countries for sustainable and inclusive growth

through its ecomConnect programme.

• Support the development of a conducive policy

and regulatory environment for e-commerce

at the national, regional, and multilateral levels,

including facilitating domestic policy reforms,

informing policymakers on the needs of MSMEs

in relation to e-commerce and digitalisation, and

building capacity for e-commerce-related trade

negotiations.

• Support digital connectivity by improving

telecommunications regulations and working with

partners who provide access to technologies and

services.

• Improve business ecosystems by collaborating with

market partners and equipping business services

organisations (BSOs) with the capacity to support

MSMEs in the digital economy.

ITC is one of the co-facilitators of the World Summit on

the Information Society (WSIS) action lines in the area

of e-business, as well as a partner agency in UNCTAD’s

e-trade for all initiative.

379

Credit: intracen.org



ITC provides capacity building for policymakers on

current issues in the e-commerce policy debate through

training, workshops, and publications, contributing

to a conducive policy environment for e-commerce

and digital trade. ITC projects also support developing

countries in reviewing and updating e-commercerelated

regulations and building capacity for effective

implementation of policy reforms.

ITC assists enterprises, in particular MSMEs, in

acquiring the necessary skills and capabilities to trade

on e-commerce channels. Through the ecomConnect

programme, it is engaged in the sustainable development

of small businesses online by facilitating shared learning,

innovative solutions, collaboration, and partnerships.

ITC’s e-commerce tools help MSMEs assess the

readiness of their business to engage in international

e-commerce, understand the options and costs of

selling on e-commerce platforms, find available payment

solutions, and track sales and site traffic across different

e-commerce platforms in a single dashboard.

ITC’s digital entrepreneurship projects also support

developing countries and MSMEs to build competitiveness

in the rapidly growing global information technology and

business process outsourcing markets.


The SME Trade Academy is ITC’s flagship e-learning

platform, offering a wide range of online courses and

380

educational resources on trade and related topics.

Designed for SMEs, policymakers, business support

organisations, and trade professionals, the Academy

supports skills development for inclusive and sustainable

trade.

With over 600,000 enrolments and 150,000+

certificates issued, the Academy hosts more than 100

courses tailored to entrepreneurs, government agencies,

and support institutions.

The Academy is integrating AI-powered learning,

including:

• AI Tutors that provide instant, tailored feedback.

• AI Graders that ensure an in-depth understanding

before learners can advance.

• A mastery-based structure that includes an AI

Moderator, requiring learners to complete each

module before moving forward.

For learners on the go, the Academy also offers a

Microlearning platform with five-minute lessons—

no registration required.

Additional ITC e-learning platforms include:

• Global Textile Academy

• How to trade within Africa

• SheTrades Academy

• Enterprise Competitiveness Benchmarking

• Supply Chain Management Diploma

ITC also offers training for policymakers on building a

conducive environment for e-commerce and engaging in

negotiations on e-commerce and digital trade.

DIGITAL TOOLS

Resources

• SME Competitiveness in Francophone Africa 2022:

Fostering digital transformation

• BRICS Digital Economy Report 2022

• Making digital connectivity work for MSMEs

• Bringing SMEs onto the e-Commerce Highway

• New Pathways to E-commerce: A Global MSME

Competitiveness Survey

• Women Exporters in the Digital Economy (WEIDE)

Fund | ITC

• Read more here [https://intracen.org/

publications?page=6]

Digital tools

ITC addresses the challenge of the lack of reliable trade

information on markets by offering market analysis

tools and related market data sources. The Global

Trade Helpdesk provides a one-stop shop for detailed

information about imports, market dynamics, tariffs,

regulatory requirements, potential buyers and more.

ITC’s suite of trade and market intelligence tools enables

businesses to identify export and import opportunities,

compare market access requirements, monitor national

trade performance, and make well-informed trade

decisions. They cover data from more than 220 countries

and territories and consist of the following: Trade Map,

Market Access Map, Investment Map, Procurement Map,

Export Potential Map, and Sustainability Map.

Beyond these market analysis tools, ITC offers a wide

range of online tools that make global trade more

transparent and facilitate access to markets: ITC’s tools

provide data to small businesses to remain competitive

The ecomConnect community platform, managed by

ITC’s ecomConnect programme, links entrepreneurs,

industry experts and members of business support

organisations so they can make connections,

acquire digital expertise through free online courses,

e-commerce tools and live webinars, and discuss

the latest e-commerce news. The community brings

together more than 7,500 active users from sub-

Saharan Africa, the Middle East, North Africa, Europe,

Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean.

In addition, the ITC library serves as a specialised

information resource on international trade, through

its online catalogue, which is available to all users.


Facebook @InternationalTradeCentre

Instagram @internationaltradecentre

LinkedIn @international-trade-centre

X @ITCnews

YouTube @International Trade Centre

381

International Telecommunication Union

(ITU, UIT)

2 rue de Varembé | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.itu.int

About ITU

ITU is the UN specialised agency for digital

technologies, driving innovation in ICTs together with

194 member states and a unique membership in the

UN system of over 1,000 companies, universities,

research institutes, and international organisations.

Established 160 years ago in 1865, ITU is the

intergovernmental body responsible for coordinating

the shared global use of the radio spectrum, promoting

international cooperation in assigning satellite orbits,

improving communications infrastructure in the

developing world, and establishing the worldwide

standards that foster seamless interconnection

of a vast range of communications systems. From

broadband networks to cutting-edge wireless

technologies, aeronautical and maritime navigation,

intelligent transport systems, radio astronomy,

oceanographic and satellite-based Earth monitoring,

as well as the convergence of fixed/mobile phone,

the internet, cable television, and broadcasting

technologies, ITU is committed to connecting the

world. For more information, visit www.itu.int.

384

From Geneva, the home of global cooperation

and a competitive digital hub, International

Telecommunications Union (ITU) is not just

dreaming of a meaningfully connected world

— we’re building it, together.

Doreen Bogdan-Martin

Secretary-General

Message by the ITU Secretary-General

For 160 years, the International Telecommunication Union has been at the forefront of technological

change.

Our founding in 1865 marked the beginning of modern efforts to coordinate and standardise

telecommunications.

When the UN emerged in the late 1940s, ITU found its ‘forever home’ at the heart of Geneva, overlooking

the Place des Nations.

Much has changed in the sixteen decades since ITU’s establishment.

Wired telegraphs and telephones have given way to mobile and satellite connectivity, fibre optics, data

centres, and AI.

385

Message by the ITU Secretary-General

Communications drive global economic progress more than ever before, and more than 70% of

the UN SDGs rely on technology in some form.

And yet, one-third of humanity — 2.6 billion people — remain offline and shut out from the

opportunities of the digital world.

For that reason ITU, the UN agency for digital technologies, remains committed to connecting the

world.

We do this in three main ways:

First, by coordinating radio spectrum resources and satellite orbits that enable global

communications.

Second, by facilitating the technical standards that underpin interoperability and economies of

scale in an increasingly digital world.

Third, by driving digital development through economic policy innovation and capacity building.

Geneva is the ideal place from which to bridge the global digital divide.

It is where the international community works together to advance issues that concern all of

humanity, from global health to human rights, trade, labour, innovation, and intellectual property

— as well as a growing digital diplomacy portfolio.

Following last year’s Summit of the Future, 2025 is the year to deepen global digital cooperation

even further.

This is why, as part of our engagements with the diplomacy community, ITU regularly holds

briefings on the latest in emerging technologies.

As co-leads of the UN Secretary-General’s Working Group on Digital Technologies, ITU also helps

implement the GDC and the Pact for the Future together with other Geneva-based UN agencies,

including through an informal network called ‘Geneva Digital Kitchen’.

2025 is also the year of the WSIS+20 Review, where the world will take stock of the achievements

over the last two decades and strengthen digital cooperation going forward.

Looking ahead to the next 160 years, ITU’s 194 member states and over 1,000 member organisations

from industry, academia, and the technical community have our work cut out for us.

From Geneva, an increasingly competitive digital hub, ITU is not just dreaming of a meaningfully

connected world — we are building it, together.

386

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Some of ITU’s key areas of action include

radiocommunication services (such as satellite

services, and fixed/mobile and broadcasting services),

developing telecommunications networks (including

future networks), standardising various areas and

media related to telecommunications, and ensuring

access to bridge the digital divide and addressing

challenges in ICT accessibility. ITU’s work supports

emerging technologies in fields such as 5G, AI,

intelligent transport systems, disaster management,

agriculture, metaverse, quantum technologies, smart

sustainable cities, and IoT; access and digital inclusion;

accessibility of ICTs to persons with disabilities; digital

health; ICTs and climate change; cybersecurity;

gender equality; and child online protection. These

and many more ICT topics are covered within the

framework of radiocommunication, standardisation,

and development work, through various projects,

initiatives, and studies carried out by the organisation.

387

Credit: ITU



Information and communication infrastructure

development is one of ITU’s priority areas. The

organisation seeks to assist member states,

sector members, associates, and academia in the

implementation and development of broadband

networks, wired (e.g. cable) and wireless technologies,

international mobile telecommunications (IMT), satellite

communications, IoT, and smart grids, including nextgeneration

networks, as well as in the provision of

telecommunications networks in rural areas.

The ITU International Telecommunication Regulations

(ITRs) have as an overall aim the facilitation of

global interconnection and interoperability of

telecommunications facilities. Through the ITU

Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R), ITU is involved in

the global management of the radio frequency spectrum

and satellite orbits, used for telecommunications

services, in line with the Radio Regulations.

International standards developed by the ITU

Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)

enable the interconnection and interoperability of

ICT networks, devices, and services worldwide. It has

10 technical standardisation committees called study

groups (SGs), with mandates covering a wide range of

digital technologies:

• SG2 – Operational Aspects

• SG3 – Economic and Policy Issues

• SG5 – Environment, EMF, Climate Action and

Circular Economy

• SG11 – Protocols, Testing and Combating

Counterfeiting

• SG12 – Performance, QoS and QoE

• SG13 - Future Networks and Emerging Network

Technologies

• SG15 – Transport, Access and Home

• SG17 – Security

• SG20 – IoT, Digital Twins and Smart Cities

• SG21 – Multimedia Technologies for Multimedia,

Content Delivery and Cable TV

The work on standards is complemented by shortterm

exploration/incubation ITU-T Focus Groups (FGs)

whose deliverables guide the ITU-T SGs in new areas of

standardisation work. Some current and recent groups

include:

• ITU-T Focus Group on Costing Models for

Affordable Data Services (FG-CD)

• I T U -T F ocus G roup on A r t i ficial Intelligence

Native for Telecommunication Networks (FG

AINN)

• ITU Focus Group on Metaverse (FG-MV)

388

• ITU-T Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence (AI)

and Internet of Things (IoT) for Digital Agriculture

(FG-AI4A)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for

Health(FG-AI4H)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Environmental Efficiency

forArtificial Intelligence and other Emerging

Technologies(FG-AI4EE)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Vehicular Multimedia (FG-

VM)

• ITU-T Focus Group on AI for Autonomous and

Assisted Driving (FG-AI4AD)

• ITU-T Focus Group on AI for Natural Disaster

Management (FG-AI4NDM)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Autonomous Networks

(FG-AN)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Testbeds Federations for

IMT-2020 and Beyond (FG-TBFxG)

Collaboration among various standards bodies is a

high priority for ITU-T. Many platforms have been

established to support coordination and collaboration

on a range of topics, for example:

• Collaboration on Intelligent Transport Systems

Communication Standards (CITS)

• Global Standards Collaboration (GSC)

• World Standards Cooperation (WSC)

• Digital Currency Global Initiative

• Financial Inclusion Global Initiative (FIGI)

389

Symposium

• United for Smart Sustainable Cities (U4SSC)

initiative

• Global Initiative on AI for Health (GI-AI4H)

• Global Initiative on Resilience to Natural Hazards

through AI Solutions

• Global Initiative on Virtual Worlds and AI

The Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D)

establishes an enabling environment and provides

evidence-based policy-making through ICT indicators

and regulatory and economic metrics, which facilitates

benchmarking and the identification of trends in ICT

legal and regulatory frameworks. As part of global

activities, the Telecommunication Development

Bureau (BDT) has published a series of collaborative

digital regulation country reviews. All country reviews

follow a standard methodology and put forward a set

of actionable recommendations on developing a better

understanding of the role and impact of collaboration

and collaborative governance, as well as the use of new

tools for regulating ICT and digital markets.

The Digital Regulation Platform aims to improve

the human and institutional capacity of the ITU

membership. In 2024, articles were published on data

governance, transformative technologies (AI) challenges

and principles of regulation, and one is being finalised

focusing on a guide for incorporating environmental,

social, and governance (ESG) into policymaking and

regulation for compliance. Two modules are being

reviewed and articles updated: spectrum management

and access for all, under the ITU-EU project in

Central Africa, supported by the EU Delegation in the

Democratic Republic of the Congo.

In 2023, ITU-D launched the Digital Regulation Network

(DRN), a peer-to-peer knowledge-sharing platform for

regulators. The aim of the Network is to accelerate

sustainable digital transformation through common

approaches to collaborative digital policy, regulation

and governance across economic sectors and across

borders.

ITU-D sends regulatory and tariff surveys to

membership, with data being received and analysed for

integration into the ICT Regulatory Tracker and ITU Data

Hub and publication in early 2025. Visualisation tools

on the G5 Accelerator platform allow for a customised

analysis and deep dive into the data on 54 indicators by

region or country.

The above activities result in increased awareness

and access to regulatory and economic data and

analysis to support evidence-based decisionmaking.

ITU is committed to enhancing both human and

institutional capacity within its membership, prioritising

the delivery of high-quality training programmes. In this

context, training courses were conducted through the

ITU Academy and the ITU Academy Training Centres

(ATCs), with the aim of making a meaningful impact

on ITU membership. From May 2024 to December

2024, the ITU Academy registered 9,500 additional

users, bringing the total number of learners to over

58,400, from all member states, with more than 70%

coming from developing countries. During this period,

over 79 courses were delivered via the platform to over

13,000 registered course participants, of which more

than 5,400 had completed their courses by December

2024. Over 1,000 participants also completed course

evaluation surveys, and 95% reported that they were

satisfied or very satisfied with their experience.

During the second year of implementation, in the

same period (May-December 2024) ATCs delivered 67

courses, attracting over 2,600 registrations, with

more than 1,100 course completions by December

2024. In 2024, BDT organised several training sessions

on how to conduct engaging online training, aimed at

the instructors of the 14 ATCs. The goal of the initiative

was to impact the quality of the training courses

by improving facilitation, virtual delivery skills, and

allowing for exchanges of best practices among the

participating institutions.

The Global Symposium for Regulators 2024 (GSR-

24) is a knowledge exchange platform that features

topical thematic sessions bringing together regulators,

policymakers and digital stakeholders from around the

world and providing a global platform for knowledge

exchange. GSR also features the Regional Regulatory

Associations (RA) and Digital Regulation Network (DRN)

390

meetings, Heads of Regulators’ Executive Roundtable,

the Industry Advisory Group on Development Issues

(IAGDI-CRO), and the Network of Women (NoW) in the

ITU Telecommunication Development Sector.

As part of the WSIS+20 Forum High-Level Event 2024,

ITU-D leads the interactive session of Action Line C6

(Enabling environment).

Such knowledge exchange platforms result in

strengthened partnerships, engagement, and

collaboration of regulators, regulatory associations, the

private sector, and policymakers from across different

sectors, enriching conversations and showcasing

collaboration across sectors to accelerate digital

transformation.

The impact statement of the Telecommunication

Development Bureau’s (BDT) thematic priority

on network and digital infrastructure is ‘Reliable

connectivity to everyone’.

ITU-D SG1 also focuses on various aspects related

to telecommunications infrastructure, in particular,

Question 1/1 on ‘Strategies and policies for the

deployment of broadband in developing countries’;

Question 2/1 on ‘Strategies, policies, regulations,

and methods of migration and adoption of digital

broadcasting and implementation of new services’;

Question 4/1 on ‘Economic aspects of national

telecommunications/ICTs’; Question 5/1 on

‘Telecommunications/ICTs for rural and remote areas’;

Question 6/1 on ‘Consumer information, protection

and rights’; and Question 5/2 on ‘Adoption of

telecommunications/ICTs and improving digital skills’.

IMT-2020

ITU plays a key role in managing the radio spectrum and

developing international standards for 5G networks,

devices, and services, within the framework of the

so-called IMT-2020 activities. ITU-R SGs together with

the mobile broadband industry and a wide range of

stakeholders, established the 5G standards.

The activities include the organisation of

intergovernmental and multistakeholder dialogues,

and the development and implementation of standards

and regulations to ensure that 5G networks are secure,

interoperable, and operate without interference.

ITU-T is playing a similar convening role for the

technologies and architectures of non-radio elements

of 5G systems. For example, ITU standards address

5G transport, with the passive optical network (PON),

Carrier Ethernet, and the optical transport network

(OTN), among the technologies standardised by ITU-T

expected to support 5G systems. ITU standards for

5G networking address topics including network

virtualisation, network orchestration and management,

and fixed-mobile and satellite convergence. ITU

391

standards also address machine learning ML for 5G

and future networks, the environmental requirements

of 5G, security and trust in 5G, and the assessment of

5G quality of service (QoS) and quality of experience

(QoE).

Satellite

ITU-R manages the coordination, notification, and

recording of frequency assignments for space systems,

including their associated earth stations. Its main role

is to process and publish data and examine frequency

assignment notices submitted by administrations of the

ITU member states towards their eventual recording in

the Master International Frequency Register (MIFR).

ITU-R also develops and manages space-related

assignment or allotment plans and provides

mechanisms for the development of new satellite

services by determining how to optimise the use of

available and suitable orbital resources.

Currently, the rapid pace of satellite innovation is driving

an increase in the deployment of non-geostationary

satellite systems (non-GSO). With the availability of

launch vehicles capable of supporting multiple satellite

launches, mega-constellations consisting of hundreds

to thousands of spacecraft are becoming a popular

solution for global telecommunications.

To this end, during the 2019 World Radiocommunication

Conference (WRC-19), ITU established regulatory

procedures for the deployment of non-GSO systems,

including mega-constellations in low Earth orbit. At

the 2023 World Radiocommunication Conference, ITU

agreed on orbital tolerances for the operations of such

non-GSO systems.

Additionally, ITU held its first Space Sustainability

Forum in Geneva in September 2024. Recognising

the rapid growth of commercial space ventures, ITU

gathered governments, space agencies, and private

stakeholders to address the economic, environmental,

and operational dimensions of space sustainability.

In 2025, ITU launched the ‘Space Connect’ series,

examining low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellite constellations,

focusing on the rapid growth in satellite deployments

(rising from roughly 1,000 active satellites in 2014 to

nearly 10,000 by 2024) and the market shift toward

broadband applications. The episodes investigate

different constellation architectures, evolving market

dynamics, new players, and the overall impact on radio

spectrum usage.

Regarding climate change, satellite data today is an

indispensable input for weather prediction models

and forecast systems used to produce safety warnings

and other information in support of public and private

decision-making.

392

Emergency telecommunications

Emergency telecommunications are an integral part of

the ITU mandate. To mitigate the impact of disasters,

the timely dissemination of authoritative information

before, during, and after disasters is critical.

Emergency telecommunications play a critical role

in disaster risk reduction and management. ICTs are

essential for monitoring the underlying hazards and

delivering vital information to all stakeholders, including

those most vulnerable, as well as in the immediate

aftermath of disasters to ensure the timely flow of vital

information needed to coordinate response efforts

and save lives. ITU supports its member states in the

four phases of disaster management:

• Design and Implementation of National

Emergency Telecommunications Plans (NETPs).

• Development of tabletop simulation exercises.

• Design and Implementation of Multi-hazard

Early Warning Systems (MHEWS), Including the

Common Alerting Protocol (CAP),

• Development of Guidelines and Other Reports

on the Use of ICTs for Disaster Management.

ITU activities in the field of radiocommunications make

an invaluable contribution to disaster management.

They facilitate prediction, detection, and alerting

through the coordinated and effective use of the

radio-frequency spectrum and the establishment of

radio standards and guidelines concerning the usage

of radiocommunication systems in disaster mitigation

and relief operations.

ITU-T SG2 plays a role as the lead study group on

telecommunications for disaster relief/early warning,

network resilience, and recovery. Other study groups

are working on emergency telecommunications within

their mandates. Examples are shown in the following

paragraphs.

ITU standards offer common formats for the exchange

of all-hazard information over public networks.

They ensure that networks prioritise emergency

communications. They have a long history of

protecting ICT infrastructure from lightning and other

environmental factors. In response to the increasing

severity of extreme weather events, recent years

have seen ITU standardisation experts turning their

attention to ‘disaster relief, network resilience, and

recovery’. This work goes well beyond traditional

protection against environmental factors, focusing on

technical mechanisms to prepare for disasters and

respond effectively when disaster strikes.

ITU standards now offer guidance on network

architectures able to contend with sudden losses

of substantial volumes of network resources. They

describe the network functionality required to make

optimal use of the network resources, still operational

after a disaster. They offer techniques for the rapid

repair of damaged ICT infrastructure, such as means

393

to connect the surviving fibres of severed fibre-optic

cables. They provide for ‘movable and deployable ICT

resource units’ in various sizes, such as emergency

containers, vehicles, or hand-held kits housing network

resources and a power source – to provide temporary

replacements for destroyed ICT infrastructure.

ITU is also supporting an ambitious project to equip

submarine communications cables with climate- and

hazard-monitoring sensors to create a global realtime

ocean observation network. This network would

be capable of providing earthquake and tsunami

warnings, as well as data on ocean climate change

and circulation. This project to equip cable repeaters

with climate and hazard-monitoring sensors – creating

Science Monitoring And Reliable Telecommunications

(SMART) cables – is led by the ITU/WMO/UNESCO-

IOC Joint Task Force (JTF) on SMART Cable Systems, a

multidisciplinary body established in 2012. Currently,

several projects are ongoing to realise SMART cables.

ITU-T G.9730.2 Recommendation was approved by

ITU-T SG15 in August 2024, as the first ITU-T standard

on SMART cables. In addition, the work on ‘Impact

assessment framework for evaluating how ICTbased

subsea infrastructure could support climate,

environmental and biodiversity monitoring in the

oceans’ (L.SMART) is ongoing within ITU-T SG5.

In ITU-D, a lot of effort is directed at mainstreaming

disaster management in telecommunications/ICT

projects and activities as part of disaster preparedness.

This includes infrastructure development and

the establishment of enabling policy, legal, and

regulatory frameworks. ITU also deploys temporary

telecommunications/ICT solutions to assist countries

affected by disasters. After providing assistance

for disaster relief and response, ITU undertakes

assessment missions to affected countries aimed at

determining the magnitude of damage to the network

through the use of geographical information systems.

On the basis of its findings, ITU and the host country

embark on resuscitating the infrastructure while

ensuring that disaster-resilient features are integrated

to reduce network vulnerability in the event of disasters

striking in the future.

ITU is also part of the Emergency Telecommunications

Cluster (ETC), a global network of organisations that

work together to provide shared communications

services in humanitarian emergencies.

ITU-D SQ Question 3/1 ‘Utilising telecommunications/

ICTs for disaster risk reduction and management’ was

agreed at the World Telecommunication Development

Conference 2022 (WTDC-22) and will operate for the

2022–2025 study period. This Question continues the

work of Question 5/2 of the 2018–2021 period.

The ITU/WMO/UNEP Focus Group on Artificial

Intelligence for Natural Disaster Management (FG-

AI4NDM), established by ITU-T SG2 worked between

March 2021 and March 2024 to develop best practices

for leveraging AI in data collection and handling,

394

improving modelling across spatiotemporal scales, and

providing effective communication. Building on the

activities of the FG-AI4NDM, the Global Initiative on

Resilience to Natural Hazards through AI Solutions was

created. This Global Initiative is a collaborative effort

between ITU, WMO, UNEP, Universal Postal Union

(UPU) and UNFCCC.

Work includes the following:

• Disruptive Technologies and Their Use in

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management, a

2019 report

• The Global Forum on Emergency

Telecommunications(GET-19), which took place

6–8 March 2019, Balaclava, Mauritius

• National Emergency Telecommunication Plans

• Emergency Telecommunication Simulation

Exercises

• ITU-DSG Question 5/2: Utilizing

Telecommunications/ICTs for Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management(2018 – 2021) with

video and annual deliverables

• The Guide to Develop a Telecommunications/ ICT

Contingency Plan for a Pandemic Response 2020,

Focused on Telecommunications/ICT Service

Delivery and Business Continuity in the Context

of a Pandemic

• ITU published Women, ICT and Emergency

Telecommunications – Opportunities and

Constraints in 2020. It explores the digital

gender divide blocking women from becoming

equal stakeholders in society, putting entire

communities at greater risk during emergencies

• With the ETC, ITU developed the Disaster

Connectivity Map (DCM), with information critical

for first responders on network outages and

connectivity gaps following disasters

• ITU joined the Crisis Connectivity Charter(CCC)

in 2019, joining the satellite industry and the

humanitarian community in making satellite

communication more available

• ITU established an ITU Emergency

Telecommunications Roster. ITU staff are trained

on deployment of ITU telecommunications

equipment and on supporting the ETC on the

ground

• ITU, with the International Federation of Red

Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO),

launched a Call to Action on Emergency Alerting

in 2021, inviting all partners to support countries

in implementing CAP. The organisations

are supporting the WMO to establish a CAP

HelpDesk

• Strengthening the Multi-Hazard Early Warning

Systems, ITU partnered with the United Nations

Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR),

WMO, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic

395

Commission of UNESCO (IOC-UNESCO), and the

World Broadcasting Unions in 2020 to develop

Media Saves Lives to reinforce broadcasters’ role

in the early warning chain


ITU works on the development and use of AI to ensure a

sustainable future for everyone. To that end, it convenes

intergovernmental and multistakeholder dialogues,

develops international standards and frameworks, and

helps in capacity building for the use of AI.

AI and ML are gaining a larger share of the ITU

standardisation work programme in fields such as

network orchestration and management, multimedia

coding, service quality assessment, operational aspects

of service provision and telecom management, cable

networks, digital health, environmental efficiency, and

autonomous driving.

AI for Good is the UN leading platform on AI for

sustainable development. Focused on identifying

trustworthy AI applications, building skills and

standards, and advancing AI governance for sustainable

development, the platform is organised by ITU in

partnership with over 40 UN sister agencies and coconvened

with the Government of Switzerland.

This AI governance dialogue will facilitate exchanges

between key stakeholders on effective approaches to AI

governance. The high-level plenary session will explore

396

the changing landscape of AI governance, with a focus

on innovative policy implementation across regions.

Discussions will address risk management strategies

and the emerging role of AI agents, particularly their

implications for the future of work, investment, and

cross-sector collaboration.

The AI Skills Coalition, spearheaded by AI for Good

under the AI for Good Impact Initiative, will serve as the

UN-led global, open, trusted, and inclusive platform for

AI education and capacity building.

Various ITU-T SGs address aspects of AI and ML within

their mandates. The work has so far resulted in ITU-T

Recommendations and Supplements, for example, in

the L-, M-, P-, and Y- series of ITU-T Recommendations.

The adoption of Resolution 101 (New Delhi, 2024) at

the 2024 World Standardization Telecommunication

Assembly (WTSA-24) further emphasises the recognised

role of ITU in establishing trusted AI standards

The first International AI Standards Summit, coorganised

with ISO and IEC, brought together global

experts to advance standards for responsible and

inclusive AI. The next summit will take place in 2025

in South Korea. Prior to the Summit, the International

AI Standards Dialogue will be held as part of the AI for

Good Global Summit 2025.

The ITU-T AI/ML in 5G Challenge, introduced in 2020,

rallies like-minded students and professionals from

around the globe to study the practical application of AI

and ML in emerging and future digital communications

networks and sustainable development. The second

Challenge (in 2021) attracted over 1,600 students and

professionals from 82 countries, competing for prizes

and global recognition. The 2022 Challenge covered

a wide range of topics, including AI/ML in 5G, GeoAI,

and tinyML. By mapping emerging AI and ML solutions,

the Challenge fostered a community to support the

iterative evolution of ITU standards. To learn more, see

the Challenge GitHub.

ITU is also actively working on the environmental

impact of AI. The AI and the Environment report

highlights existing and emerging standards that

support the AI’s environmental efficiency. ITU, France,

and UNEP co-initiated the Coalition for Sustainable AI

and contributed to the report on Standardization for AI

Environmental Sustainability – Towards a Coordinated

Global Approach launched at the AI Action Summit.

Several ITU-T FG are considering the use of AI and ML,

including:

• ITU-T Focus Group on Costing Models for

Affordable Data Services (FG-CD)

• ITU Focus Group on Metaverse (FG-MV)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence (AI)

and Internet of Things (IoT) for Digital Agriculture

(FG-AI4A)

• ITU-T Focus Group on AI for Natural Disaster

Management (FG-AI4NDM)

• ITU-T Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for

Health (FG-AI4H)

397

• ITU-T FG-AINN: Focus Group on Artificial

Intelligence Native for Telecommunication

Networks (FG AINN)

Main activities related to ITU-R SGs and reports include:

• ITU-R SG1 covers spectrum management and

monitoring. In relation to AI, Question ITU-R

241/1 ‘Methodologies for assessing or predicting

spectrum availability’ was approved in 2019 and

is under study.

• ITU-R SG6 covers all aspects of the broadcasting

service. SG6 deliverables and work items related

to AI and ML, including Question ITU-R 144/6

‘Use of artificial intelligence (AI) for broadcasting’;

and Report ITU-R BT.2447 ‘Artificial intelligence

systems for programme production and

exchange’.

During the 40th High-Level Committee on Programmes

(HLCP) session in October 2020, the Inter-Agency

Working Group on AI (IAWG-AI) was established to focus

on policy and programmatic coherence of AI activities

within the UN. IAWG-AI, co-led by UNESCO and ITU,

aims to combine the ethical and technological parts of

the UN to provide a solid foundation for current and

future system-wide efforts on AI, ensuring respect for

human rights and accelerating progress towards the

SDGs.

ITU also coordinates an annual UN Activities on AI

report, a joint effort with almost 50 UN agencies and

entities, all partners of AI for Good or members of the

IAWG-AI. The report usually presents over 400 cases

and projects run by the UN system, in areas covering

all 17 SDGs, ranging from smart agriculture and food

systems to transportation, financial services, and

healthcare. The report contains an Executive Summary

that presents an analysis of all the projects submitted

to the report, providing a snapshot of the key tracks,

trends, and gaps in AI activities within the UN system.

The UN-led initiative, United 4 Smart Sustainable

Cities (U4SSC), coordinated by ITU, UNECE, UNEP,

and UN-HABITAT, and supported by 19 UN agencies

and programmes, has been examining how AI can be

employed in the smart city domain and through its

thematic group on Artificial Intelligence in Cities for

implementing AI-based solutions in line with the SDGs.

ITU, through its Telecommunication Development

Bureau (BDT), organises the Global Symposium for

Regulators (GSR), ITU’s flagship annual event, bringing

together regulators to address emerging challenges

such as data governance, 5G licensing, and crossborder

data flows. Key outcomes from GSR24 included

the GSR Best Practice Guidelines on a roadmap for

regulators to harness transformative technologies

(e.g., AI, 5G) by promoting agile, risk-aware policies,

and stakeholder collaboration..

As part of its ‘Green Digital Action’ initiative, ITU

emphasises green AI to reduce data-centre emissions.

Critical internet resources 1

Over the years, ITU has adopted several resolutions

that deal with internet technical resources, such as

Internet Protocol-based networks (Resolution 101 (Rev.

Bucharest, 2022)), IPv4 to IPv6 transition (Resolution

180 (Rev. Bucharest, 2022)), and internationalised

domain names (Resolution 133 (Rev. Bucharest, 2022)).

ITU has also adopted a resolution on its role regarding

international public policy issues pertaining to the

internet and the management of internet resources,

including domain names and addresses (Resolution

102 (Rev. Bucharest, 2022)). In addition, the ITU Council

has set up a Working Group on International Internet

(CWG-Internet) - related Public Policy Issues, tasked with

identifying, studying, and developing matters related to

international internet-related public policy issues. This

Working Group also holds regular online open public

consultations on specific topics to give all stakeholders

from all nations an opportunity to express their views

with regard to the topic(s) under discussion.

ITU is also the facilitator of the WSIS Action Line С2 –

Information and communication infrastructure.

WTSA-24 recognised the importance of the common

understanding on the technical requirements and

standardisation aspects of digital public infrastructure

by adopting the new WTSA Resolution 103

1

In the work of ITU the issues related to critical internet resources are dealt with as ‘internet public-policy related work’.

398

‘Enhancing standardization activities on digital public

infrastructure’.

Digital standards 2

Presently, 95% of international traffic runs over

optical infrastructure built in conformance with ITU

standards. Video now accounts for over 80% of all

internet traffic; this traffic relies on ITU’s Primetime

Emmy-winning video-compression standards.

ICTs are enabling innovation in every industry

and public-sector body. The digital transformation

underway across our economies receives key support

from ITU standards for smart cities, energy, transport,

healthcare, financial services, agriculture, and AI and

ML.

ICT networks, devices, and services interconnect and

interoperate thanks to the efforts of thousands of

experts who come together on the neutral ITU platform

to develop international standards known as ITU-T

Recommendations.

Standards create efficiencies enjoyed by all market

players, efficiencies, and economies of scale that

ultimately result in lower costs to producers and

lower prices to consumers. Companies developing

standards-based products and services gain access to

global markets. By supporting backward compatibility,

ITU standards enable next-generation technologies to

interwork with previous technology generations. This

protects past investments while creating the confidence

to continue investing in our digital future.

The ITU standardisation process is contribution-led

and consensus-based. Standardisation work is driven

by contributions from ITU members and consequent

decisions are made by consensus. The process aims to

ensure that all voices are heard and that the resulting

standards have the consensus-derived support of the

diverse and globally representative ITU membership.

ITU members develop standards year-round in

ITU-T SGs. Over 6,000 ITU-T Recommendations are

currently in force, and over 300 new or revised ITU-T

Recommendations and Supplements are approved

each year.

For more information on the responsibilities of ITU

SGs, covering ITU-T SG as well as those of the ITU

radiocommunication and development sectors (ITU-R

and ITU-D), see the ITU backgrounder on study groups.

The ITU World Telecommunication Standardization

Assembly (WTSA) is the governing body of ITU’s

standardisation arm (ITU-T). It meets every four years

to review the overall direction and structure of ITU-T.

2

In the work of ITU the issue of digital standards is addressed as ‘international standards’. International standards provide the technical foundations

of the global ICT ecosystem.

399

This conference also approves the mandates of the

Telecommunication Standardization Sector Study

Group (ITU-T SSGs) (WTSA Resolution 2) and appoints

the leadership teams of these groups.

ITU develops international standards supporting

the coordinated development and application of

IoT technologies, including standards leveraging IoT

technologies to address urban development challenges.

WR to TL recognition procedure

Based on an MoU signed by ITU-T, the International

Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC), and the

International Accreditation Forum (IAF), ITU recognises

testing laboratories (TLs). These are accredited by

an accreditation body (AB) that is a signatory to the

ILAC Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) for

testing. The scope of accreditation contains ITU-T

Recommendation(s). All TLs which meet the criteria

are listed in the ITU TL Database. More details are also

available in the ITU C&I Portal.

Human rights and human-centric

technologies

In recent years, ITU has strengthened its commitment

to embedding human rights in the development and

deployment of digital technologies, particularly in the

context of technical standards. This work is grounded

in the recognition that standards have far-reaching

implications for privacy, data protection, freedom of

expression, accessibility, and non-discrimination. In

response to calls from the UN Human Rights Council

and the GDC, ITU has deepened its collaboration with

OHCHR, engaging in joint dialogues, multistakeholder

consultations, and awareness-raising activities

to ensure that standards development reflects

fundamental rights principles.

At the World Telecommunication Standardization

Assembly (WTSA-24), a landmark side event coorganised

with OHCHR, the European Union, France,

and the Czech Republic emphasised the need to embed

human rights from the earliest stages of standardisation.

The event was accompanied by a powerful statement

from the Freedom Online Coalition, supported by 42

countries, calling for international standards that are

not only technically sound but also aligned with the

SDGs and human rights. For the first time, resolutions

adopted at WTSA explicitly referenced human rights,

including those related to emerging technologies such

as AI and the metaverse.

Through its standardisation work, ITU has addressed

the human dimensions of technologies across several

ITU-T study groups. These include the development

of standards for e-waste management (SG5), smart

sustainable cities and digital inclusion (SG20), and

accessible telehealth services (SG21). ITU has also

advanced work on AI watermarking and deepfake

detection—crucial for safeguarding the authenticity of

400

information and the right to freedom of expression in

an era of generative content. The AI for Good platform,

convened with over 40 UN agencies, provides a trusted

space to promote the development of AI that is inclusive

and rights-respecting.

In this effort, ITU promotes inclusive participation by

reducing barriers for civil society and experts from the

Global South to engage in standardisation, offering

fellowships, online participation options, and targeted

training. Initiatives such as the Network of Women and

Youth Advisory Board aim to diversify the voices shaping

the digital future. By anchoring its digital governance

and technical standards in human rights, ITU affirms

its vision for a digital world that empowers individuals,

protects the most vulnerable, and promotes equality

and inclusion at its core.

Internet of things 3

ITU develops international standards supporting

the coordinated development and application of

IoT technologies, including standards leveraging IoT

technologies to address urban-development challenges.

These standards not only enable the broad range of

IoT applications—from smart manufacturing to smart

cities and global monitoring systems—but also ensure

interoperability and efficient integration of both wired

and wireless technologies across networks.

Alongside ITU-T studies on IoT, digital twins, and smart

sustainable cities and communities, ITU-R conducts

studies on the technical and operational aspects of

radiocommunication networks and systems for IoT. The

spectrum requirements and standards for IoT wireless

access technologies are being addressed in ITU-R, as

follows:

• Harmonisation of frequency ranges and

technical and operating parameters used for the

operation of short-range devices.

• Standards for wide area sensor and actuator

network systems.

• Spectrum to support the implementation of

narrowband and broadband machine-type

communication infrastructures.

• Support for massive machine-type

communications within the framework of the

standards and spectrum for IMT-Advanced (4G),

IMT-2020 (5G), and IMT-2030 (6G).

• Use of fixed-satellite and mobile-satellite

communications for IoT.

ITU-D SG2 Question 1/2 ‘Creating smart cities and

society: Employing information and communication

technologies for sustainable social and economic

3

Within the work of ITU, the work related to IoT also includes ‘smart cities’.

401

development’ includes case studies on IoT application

and identifies the trends and best practices implemented

by member states, as well as the challenges faced, to

support sustainable development and foster smart

societies in developing countries.

ITU-T SG20 is at the forefront of this effort, driving

the development of innovative standards (ITU-T

Recommendations), guidelines, methodologies, and

best practices for IoT, digital twins, and smart sustainable

cities and communities (SSC&C). Its work focuses

on accelerating digital transformation in urban and

rural areas by addressing IoT-enabled digital services,

systems, and applications. This includes developing

architectural frameworks, ensuring interoperability,

and promoting human-centric approaches in digital

health, accessibility, and inclusion.

Between 2022 and 2024, ITU and the Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet

of Things (IoT) for Digital Agriculture (FG- AI4A),

established by ITU-T SG20, explored (1) how emerging

technologies including AI and IoT can be leveraged

for data acquisition and handling, (2) facilitating

modelling from a growing volume of agricultural and

geospatial data, and (3) providing communication for

the optimisation of agricultural production processes.

United for Smart Sustainable Cities (U4SSC)

Initiative

ITU facilitates international discussions on the public

policy dimensions of people-centred smart cities,

principally through the U4SSC initiative, an initiative

supported by 19 UN bodies with the aim of achieving

SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities). U4SSC

drives global collaboration through its thematic groups,

which focus on key areas such as digital transformation,

digital wellbeing, digital public infrastructure, city

platforms, and artificial intelligence for sustainable

cities.

ITU standards have provided a basis for the development

of Key Performance Indicators for Smart Sustainable

Cities. More than 200 cities worldwide have adopted

the indicators as part of the collaboration driven by ITU

within the framework of the U4SSC initiative.

To promote the work of U4SSC, a series of U4SSC

Country Hubs has been set up globally including in

Vienna, Austria, hosted by the Austrian Economic

Centre (AEC), and in Kyebi, Ghana. U4SSC Hubs provide

a unique platform at the national and local level to

accelerate cooperation between the public and private

sectors and help facilitate the digital transformation in

cities and communities while enabling technology and

knowledge transfer.

402

Blockchain

New ITU standards for blockchain and distributed

ledger technology (DLT) address the requirements of

blockchain in next-generation network evolution and

the security requirements of blockchain, both in terms

of blockchain’s security capabilities and security threats

to blockchain.

ITU reports provide potential blockchain adopters with

a clear view of the technology and how it could best

be applied. Developed by the FG DLT, these reports

provide an ‘assessment framework’ to support efforts

to understand the strengths and weaknesses of DLT

platforms in different use cases. The Group has also

produced a high-level DLT architecture – a reference

framework – detailing the key elements of a DLT

platform. The FG studied high-potential DLT use cases

and DLT platforms said to meet the requirements

of such use cases. These studies guided the Group’s

abstraction of common requirements necessary to

describe a DLT architecture and associated assessment

criteria. The resulting reports also offer insight into

the potential of DLT to support the achievement of the

SDGs.

Blockchain and DLT are also key to the work of the Digital

Currency Global Initiative, a partnership between ITU

and Stanford University to continue the work of the ITU

Focus Group on Digital Currency, including Digital Fiat

Currency (FG DFC). The Digital Currency Global Initiative

provides an open, neutral platform for dialogue,

knowledge sharing, and research on applications of the

central bank digital currency (CBDC) and other digital

currency implementations. The initiative will share case

studies of digital currency applications, benchmark

best practices, and develop specifications to inform ITU

standards.

ITU-T SG3 is studying economic and policy aspects

when using distributed ledger technologies such as for

the improved management of the Universal Service

Fund or to handle accounting.

ITU-T SG5 is studying the environmental efficiency of

digital technologies, including blockchain. For example,

ITU-T SG5 has developed Recommendation ITU-T L.1317

on guidelines for energy-efficient blockchain systems.

ITU-T SG21 Question 12/16 on multimedia aspects of

DLT and e-services and ITU-T SG17 Question 14/17 on

DLT security continue the work of the now closed ITU-T

Focus Group on Distributed Ledger Technology. Several

recommendations and technical papers have been

produced, and more are being prepared.

Topics of interest for digital financial services (DFS)

being studied by Q22/16 and Q7/17 include digital

evidence services, digital invoices, and smart contracts.

ITU-T SG20 Question 4/20 on data analytics, sharing,

processing, and management, including big data

aspects, IoT, and smart sustainable cities and

communities (SSC&C), is developing a set of standards

403

on emerging technologies such as blockchain to support

data processing and management (DPM).

Cloud computing

ITU standards provide the requirements and functional

architectures of the cloud ecosystem, covering interand

intra-cloud computing and technologies supporting

anything as a service (XaaS). These standards enable

consistent end-to-end, multi-cloud management and

the monitoring of services across different service

providers’ domains and technologies. They were

developed in view of the convergence of telecoms and

computing technologies that characterise the cloud

ecosystem.

Cloud services provide on-demand access to advanced

ICT resources, enabling innovators to gain new

capabilities without investing in new hardware or

software. Cloud concepts are also fundamental to the

evolution of ICT networking, helping networks meet

the requirements of an increasingly diverse range of

ICT applications.

As innovation accelerates in fields such as IMT-2020/5G

and IoT, and digital transformation takes hold in every

industry sector, the cloud ecosystem will continue to

grow in importance for companies large and small, in

developing as well as developed countries.

ITU-D SG1 Question 3/1 of the 2018–2021 period

focused on the analysis of factors influencing effective

access to support cloud computing, as well as

strategies, policies, and infrastructure investments to

foster the emergence of cloud-computing ecosystems

in developing countries, among others. For 2022–2025,

this topic will be studied under Question 2/2 ‘Enabling

technologies for e-services and applications, including

e-health and e-education’.


ITU’s range of work on emerging technologies in fields

such as AI, metaverse, virtual worlds 5G, IoT, SSC&C,

ITS, quantum information technologies, and others

have been covered in various other sections.

ITU-T SG5 on Environment, Electromagnetic Fields

(EMF), and the Circular Economy is responsible for

ICTs related to the environment, energy efficiency,

clean energy, and sustainable digitalisation for climate

actions. It carries out work to study the environmental

efficiency of emerging technologies.

ITU-T SG20 Question 5/20 on the study of terminology

and definitions, study and research of emerging digital

technologies , serves as a facilitator with the research

and innovation community to identify emerging

technologies requiring standardisation for the global

market and industry.

U4SSC, through its various thematic groups, explores

how leveraging emerging technologies such as IoT, AI,

blockchain, and digital twin, can help create a sustainable

404

ecosystem and improve the delivery of urban services

to improve the quality of life for inhabitants. In this

context, U4SSC has published the following reports:

• Policy Benchmarks for Digital Transformation of

People-centred Cities

• Data and API Requirements for Centralized

Smart City Platforms

• Guiding Principles for Artificial Intelligence in

Cities and its Case Studies

• Reference Framework for Integrated

Management of an SSC

• Procurement Guidelines for Smart Sustainable

Cities

In June 2024, ITU, together with United Nations

International Computing Centre (UNICC) and Digital

Dubai, launched the Global Initiative on Virtual Worlds

and AI – Discovering the Citiverse. The Initiative serves

as a global platform that aims at fostering open,

interoperable, and innovative AI-powered virtual

worlds that can be used safely and with confidence by

people, businesses, and public services.

The UN Virtual Worlds Day is an annual event organised

by ITU and other 17 UN entities exploring AI-powered

virtual worlds, including the metaverse, to advance

the SDGs and the Pact for the Future. The inaugural

event held on 14 June 2024, in Geneva, showcased how

immersive digital platforms can drive global progress.

The second edition will be held on 11-12 June 2025, in

Turin, Italy, featuring high-level dialogues, interactive

showcases, and collaborative sessions to discuss how

virtual technologies can foster sustainability, inclusivity,

and digital public infrastructure.

Quantum information technology

Quantum information technology (QIT) improves

information processing capability by harnessing the

principles of quantum mechanics. Recent development

in QIT has promoted the second quantum revolution

and will profoundly impact ICT networks and digital

security.

ITU’s standardisation work of QIT helps promote its

global development. After the ITU-T Focus Group

on Quantum Information Technology for Networks

(FG-QIT4N), which provided a collaborative platform

for pre-standardisation aspects of QIT for networks

and produced nine technical reports, several ITU-T

SGs, including SGs 11, 13, and 17 are developing ITU-T

Recommendations and Supplements in the Q-, X-, and

Y- series of ITU-T Recommendations.

The 2021 webinar series explores innovative QIT

applications and their implications on security, classical

computing, and ICT networks and the discussion of

corresponding roadmaps for quantum networks.

Following the World Telecommunication

Standardization Assembly (WTSA-24), ITU-T

405

study groups (SGs) reviewed and updated their

mandates, enhancing the scope of quantum-related

standardisation work across multiple groups:

• ITU-T Study Group 11: To continue studies on

network signalling and control architectures for

Quantum Key Distribution Networks (QKDN).

• ITU-T Study Group 13: To continue studies on

quantum networks, covering both networking

aspects of QKDN and broader quantum network

technologies.

• ITU-T Study Group 15: Introduced studies

addressing the management and use of QIT

in transport networks, as well as network

synchronisation, timing, and deployment

requirements for QKDN.

• ITU-T Study Group 17: To continue leading

security-related standardisation for quantum

technologies, including QKD and post-quantum

cryptography (PQC). WTSA-24 adopted an action

recognising the need to promote migration to

and utilisation of PQC in telecommunications

and ICT networks, reinforcing the role of SG17

in developing necessary recommendations,

technical reports, and best practices.

The World Telecommunication Standardization

Assembly (WTSA-24) in New Delhi mandated further

exploration of post-quantum cryptography and

recognised that robust fiber infrastructure (including

fibre-to-the-home networks) could be foundational for

quantum communication rollouts.

406

ITU-T currently hosts a suite of 40 quantum technology

standards, primarily focused on QKD, covering its

network, security, and signalling aspects. An additional

30+ standards are under development.

The Joint Coordination Activity on Quantum Key

Distribution Network (JCA-QKDN), which oversees

ITU-T’s quantum standardisation efforts and facilitates

collaboration with external standards bodies, held a

collaborative meeting in Singapore in May 2024, aligning

efforts with GSMA and ETSI events. It also advanced

the development of a quantum standards database,

providing a structured overview of global quantum

information technology standards.

In recognition of the 100th anniversary of quantum

mechanics, the UNGA declared 2025 as the

International Year of Quantum Science and Technology

(IYQ) by Resolution 78/287, adopted on 7 June 2024.

ITU plays a key role in the IYQ Steering Committee,

guiding its implementation, planning global events, and

overseeing related expenditures.

One initiative supporting ITU’s contributions to the

International Year of Quantum is Quantum for Good,

which explores how quantum technologies can drive

global impact. It launched with a high-level side event,

‘Quantum for Good: Frontier Technology for the

SDGs’, on 20 September 2024 in New York during the

Summit of the Future Action Days, co-organised with

UNICC, WEF, and Quantum Delta NL. The follow-up

event ‘Quantum for Good: Setting the Stage for the

International Year of Quantum’ in The Hague on 20-21

November 2024, deepened discussions on the role of

quantum technologies in addressing global challenges,

forming thematic sub-working groups (ITU leads the

cybersecurity track). The Quantum for Good initiative

will continue as a dedicated track during the AI for Good

Global Summit (8-11 July 2025), further integrating

quantum technologies into discussions on emerging

technologies and sustainable development.

A series of other activities will be launched throughout

2025 as part of ITU’s contribution to raising awareness

and fostering international collaboration on quantum

technologies.

As part of an expanding global push, ITU is coordinating

knowledge transfer so that quantum’s early adopters

and advanced research hubs can share breakthroughs

widely, avoiding a deep ‘quantum divide’. Moreover,

initiatives like ‘Quantum for Good’ aim to link quantum

technology with AI for beneficial applications—ranging

from drug discovery to machine-learning optimisation—

while ensuring that quantum advancement remains

inclusive.

Network security4

ITU and the WSIS Action Line C5 – Building confidence

and security in the use of ICTs, bringing different

stakeholders together to forge meaningful partnerships

to help countries address the risks associated with

ICTs. This includes adopting national cybersecurity

strategies, facilitating the establishment of national

incident response capabilities, developing international

security standards, protecting children online, and

building capacity.

ITU develops international standards to build

confidence and security in the use of ICTs, especially

for digital transformation, in the context of an evergrowing

attack surface and confronted with an

unbalanced threat landscape caused by new and

emerging technology development. Topics of growing

significance to this work include digital identity

infrastructure, cybersecurity management, security

aspects of digital financial services, intelligent transport

systems, blockchain and distributed ledger technology,

and quantum information technologies.

ITU-T SG17 (Security) is the lead SG on developing

international standards to enhance confidence,

security, and trust in the use of ICTs; facilitating more

secure devices, edge, cloud, network infrastructure,

services, and applications; and coordinating securityrelated

work across ITU-T SGs. Providing security by

ICTs and ensuring security for ICTs are both major

study areas for SG17. Other ITU-T SGs, such as ITU-T

SG9 (Broadband Cable and TV) and ITU-T SG13 (Future

Networks, with Focus on IMT-2020, Cloud Computing

and Trusted Network Infrastructures) have contributed

to fulfilling the ITU mandate on cybersecurity.

4

In the work of ITU the issue of network security is addressed as ‘ICT security’.

407

ITU-TSG5 (Environment, EMF, and the Circular

Economy) studies the security of ICT systems

concerning electromagnetic phenomena (Highaltitude

electromagnetic pulse (HEMP), High power

electromagnetic (HPEM), information leakage).

ITU-T SG11 (Protocols, testing and combating

counterfeiting) continues its studies on the

implementation of security measures, in particular on

the use of digital public-key certificates in the signalling

level in order to cope with different types of attacks

on existing ICT infrastructure and services (e.g., OTP

intercept, calls intercept, spoofing numbers, robocalls,

etc.). ITU-T Recommendations (e.g. ITU-T Q.3057,

Q.3062, Q.3063) define the signalling architecture and

requirements for interconnection between trustable

network entities in support of existing and emerging

networks. More details are available at https://itu.int/

go/SIG-SECURITY.

WR to combating counterfeiting and stolen ICT devices:

The issue of counterfeit and stolen ICT devices affects

all stakeholders and is becoming a big challenge for the

entire ICT industry. ITU, as a specialised agency of the

UN on ICTs, is facilitating industry to cope with such

issues. Since 2013, SG11 has approved 13 standards

and non-normative documents and organised 11

Workshops and related events, whose main aim has

been to promote ITU-T SG11’s current activities and

find a way forward. More details about ITU-T SG11

activities on combating counterfeiting are available on

a dedicated webpage https://itu.int/go/CS-ICT.

ITU-T SG20 Question 6/20 on Security, privacy,

trustworthiness, and identification of IoT and smart

sustainable cities and communities (SSC&C), is

working on developing recommendations, reports,

and guidelines to enhance the security, privacy,

trustworthiness, and identification of IoT and smart

sustainable cities and communities (SSC&C).

In 2008, ITU launched a five-pillared framework

called the Global Cybersecurity Agenda (GCA) to

encourage cooperation with and among various

partners in enhancing cybersecurity globally. The

cybersecurity programme offers its membership,

particularly developing countries, the tools to increase

cybersecurity capabilities at the national level in order

to enhance security and build confidence and trust in

the use of ICTs. The 2022 session of the ITU Council

approved guidelines for better utilisation of the GCA

framework by ITU.

ITU serves as a neutral and global platform for dialogue

around policy actions in the interests of cybersecurity.

ITU issues the Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) to shed

light on the commitment of ITU member states to

cybersecurity at the global level. The index is a trusted

reference developed as a multistakeholder effort

managed by ITU. In the last iteration of the GCI, 150

member states participated.

Alongside the ITU-T’s development of technical

standards to support security and ITU-R’s

establishment of security principles for 3G and 4G

408

networks, ITU also assists in building cybersecurity

capacity.

This capacity building work helps countries define

cybersecurity strategies, assists the establishment of

computer incident response teams (CIRTs), supports

the protection of children online, and assists countries

in building human capacity relevant to security.

Strategies

ITU assists member states in developing and improving

effective national cybersecurity frameworks or

strategies. At the national level, cybersecurity is a shared

responsibility, which requires coordinated action for

prevention, preparation, and response on the part of

government agencies, authorities, the private sector,

and civil society. To ensure a safe, secure, and resilient

digital sphere, a comprehensive national framework or

strategy is necessary.

CIRTs

Effective mechanisms and institutional structures are

necessary at the national level to deal with cyberthreats

and incidents reliably. ITU assists member states in

establishing and enhancing national CIRTs. In response

to the fast-evolving technologies and manifestation of

related threats, incident response must be updated

and improved continuously.

Building human capacity

• ITU conducts regional and national cyber

drills, assisting member states in improving

cybersecurity readiness, protection, and incident

response capabilities at the regional and

national levels, and strengthening international

cooperation among ITU member states against

cyberthreats and cyberattacks. To date, ITU

has conducted cyber drills involving over 100

countries.

• ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau

organises regional cybersecurity forums across

ITU regions, helping build capacity for the

Telecommunication Development Bureau (BDT)

programmes and facilitating cooperation at the

regional and international levels.

• Through the ITU Academy, ITU offers a number

of training courses for professionals in the field

of cybersecurity.

• BitSight provided access to ITU member states

for its cybersecurity scoring platform – helping

address cybersecurity challenges during the

COVID-19 pandemic and to support member

states’ health infrastructure with timely

information on cyber threats.

• The Women in Cyber Mentorship Programme

builds skills of junior women professionals

entering the field of cybersecurity.

409

International cooperation

In its efforts on cybersecurity, ITU works closely with

partners from international organisations, the private

sector, and academia, strengthened by a memorandum

of understanding (MoU) with a range of organisations

such as UNODC, World Bank, Interpol, World Economic

Forum (WEF), and several others.

Child safety online 5

As part of its Global Cybersecurity Agenda (GCA), ITU

launched the Child Online Protection (COP) Initiative in

2008, aimed at creating an international collaborative

network and promoting the protection of children

globally from all kinds of risks and harms related to the

online environment, all while empowering children to

fully benefit from the opportunities that the internet

offers. The initiative focuses on the development

of child online protection strategies covering five

key areas: legal measures, technical and procedural

measures, organisational structures, capacity building,

and international cooperation.

Approaching child online safety with a holistic childrights-based

approach, the initiative has recently

added to its key objectives the participation of children

in policymaking processes related to child online

protection as well as the digital skills development for

children and their families.

In collaboration with other organisations, ITU has

produced four sets of the 2020 Child Online Protection

(COP) Guidelines, aimed at children, parents, guardians,

and educators, as well as industry and policymakers.

The first set of COP Guidelines was produced in 2009.

The ITU Council Working Group on Child Protection

Online (WG- CP) guides the organisation’s activities in

the area of child safety online.

ITU has launched or supported a range of COP

responses specific to COVID-19, including:

• Global Education Coalition for COVID-19

response – a collaboration between UNESCO,

UNICEF, ITU, WHO, GSMA, and Microsoft.

• Agenda for Action to reduce the negative impact

of COVID-19 on children.

• COVID-19 and Its Implications for Protecting

Children Online (2020) – in collaboration with

UNICEF, the Global Partnership to End Violence

Against Children (GPEVAC), UNESCO, UNODC,

WePROTECT GlobalAlliance, WHO, and World

Childhood Foundation USA (Childhood USA).

• ITU signed an agreement with the SCORT

Foundationon COP to empower and protect

children online and offline, both in and through

sport. It contributed to discussions such as

5

Within the work of ITU, child safety online is addressed as ‘child online protection’.

410

Safer Internet Day 2021 and the 15th European

Football for Development Conference.

• Creating a Safe and Empowering Cyber

Environment for Children (a 2020 agreement

between ITU and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)

kicked-off in August 2021 to further strengthen

global efforts to implement the ITU COP

Guidelines. The programme implements child

online safety policies among governments,

industry, and civil society and focuses on

fostering a culture of child online safety.

• ITU has also contributed to the adoption of

General Comment 25 on children’s rights in the

digital environment by the UN Committee on the

Rights of the Child (CRC).

• ITU is working to disseminate Sango’s messages

(COP mascot launched in 2020) to develop

relevant content and raise awareness of COP.

Access

The need for sustained efforts to expand internet

access at a global level and bring more people online

has been outlined in several resolutions adopted by ITU

bodies. The organisation is actively contributing to such

efforts, mainly through projects targeted at developing

countries and focused on aspects such as human

and institutional capacity building, education, and

digital literacy; the deployment of telecommunications

networks and the establishment of Internet Exchange

Points (IXPs); the creation of broadband public access

points to the internet; and the development and

implementation of enabling policies in areas such as

universal access. The organisation is also studying

access-related issues within its various study groups,

and it publishes relevant papers and studies. ITU also

monitors the progress made by countries in addressing

the digital divide, through its periodically updated

statistics and studies such as the ICT Facts and Figures

and the series of Measuring Digital Development

reports, including its analysis of ICT prices. The ITU

DataHub brings together a broad range of indicators

and statistics for easy consultation and download.

The Connect 2030 Agenda envisions specific targets

related to internet access; for instance by 2023, 65%

of households worldwide were supposed to have

access to the internet; by 2023, 70% of individuals

worldwide were supposed to be using the internet;

and by 2023, internet access was supposed to be 25%

more affordable. In 2024, ITU produced a new ‘Facts

and Figures: Focus on Small Island Developing States’

report, showing that although 67% of SIDS populations

are online—close to the global average—rural 4G

coverage lags significantly. An estimated 43% of rural

populations in SIDS still have no 4G signal. Under the

Partner2Connect Digital Coalition, ITU has mobilised

USD 25 billion of pledges targeting connectivity gaps in

SIDS.

411

To close a USD 1.6 trillion digital infrastructure

gap, ITU collaborates with major development

finance institutions. The Digital Infrastructure

Investment Initiative (DIII) explores innovative

financing of broadband networks, data centres,

satellite constellations, submarine cables, and 5G/6G

expansions—particularly in developing countries.

The initiative focuses on: quantifying the financing

gap and identifying immediate priorities; addressing

structural barriers that deter investors—like fragile

regulatory frameworks or limited local markets; and

coordinating public-private partnerships and new

financing models so that underserved regions can

leapfrog into robust connectivity. The DIII ties into the

broader Partner2Connect Digital Coalition—an ITU-led

movement now boasting billions in pledges to extend

connectivity and digital services worldwide.

Access is treated in most meaningful connectivityrelated

Questions of ITU-D SG1, including:

• Question 1/1 on strategies and policies for

the deployment of broadband in developing

countries.

• Question 2/1 on strategies, policies, regulations,

and methods of migration to and adoption

of digital technologies for broadcasting,

including providing new services for various

environments.

• Question 4/1 on the economic aspects of

national telecommunications/ICTs.

• Question 5/1 on telecommunications/ICTs for

rural and remote areas.

• Question 6/1 on consumer information,

protection, and rights.

ITU is the facilitator of WSIS Action Line С2 – Information

and communication infrastructure.

Giga: UNICEF-ITU global initiative

Giga is a UNICEF-ITU global initiative to connect

every school to the internet and every young person

to information, opportunity, and choice. Access to

broadband internet and digital learning is critical to

global efforts to transform education to make it more

inclusive, equitable, and effective. Yet right now, the

ability to leverage digital resources is far from equitably

distributed: 1.3 billion children have no access to the

internet at home and only around half of the world’s

schools are online.

This digital exclusion particularly affects the poorest

children, girls, and those with disabilities. These

learners miss out on online resources, the option to

learn remotely, and the opportunity to develop digital

skills. In 2019, the UNICEF and ITU joined forces to

address this new form of inequality by creating Giga,

a unique global partnership with the bold ambition to

connect every school in the world to the internet by

2030.

412

What Giga does

• Giga maps schools and their internet access.

No one knows how many schools there are in

the world (approximately 6-7 million). Giga’s

Project Connect map provides a real-time

display of access and gaps to guide funders and

governments and to enable accountability. Giga

has mapped over 2.1 million schools across 140

countries.

• It creates models for innovative financing. It

could cost over USD 400 billion to connect every

unconnected school. Giga is working with a

diverse array of partners to develop solutions for

affordable, sustainable connectivity and aims to

mobilise USD 5 billion to catalyse investment in

vital connectivity infrastructure.

• Giga supports governments contracting for

connectivity. It helps governments design the

regulatory frameworks, technology solutions,

and competitive procurement processes needed

to get schools online. Giga and its partners have

connected over 2.4 million students in over

5,800 schools.

Learn more at giga.global. Please refer to the chapter on

Giga.


ITU is heavily involved in capacity development

activities, mainly aimed at assisting countries in

developing their policy and regulatory frameworks

in various digital policy areas, ranging from the

deployment or expansion of broadband networks

to fighting cybercrime and enhancing cybersecurity.

The ITU Academy provides a wide range of general

and specialised courses on various aspects related to

ICTs. Such courses are delivered online, face-to-face,

or in a blended manner, and span a wide variety of

topics, from technologies and services to policies and

regulations. ITU also develops digital skills at a basic

and intermediate level for citizens through its Digital

Transformation Centres (DTC) Initiative.

The Digital Regulation Platform is the result of ongoing

collaboration between ITU and the World Bank, which

started in 2000. Structured by thematic areas, the

Digital Regulation Platform aims to provide practical

guidance and best practice for policymakers and

regulators across the globe concerned with harnessing

the benefits of the digital economy and society for

their citizens and firms. The content provides an

update on the basics of ICT regulation in light of the

digital transformation sweeping across sectors, and

also includes new regulatory aspects and tools for

ICT regulators to consider when making regulatory

decisions.

413

The inclusivity of the ITU standardisation platform is

supported by ITU’s Bridging the Standardization (BSG)

Programme, as well as regional groups within ITU-T

SGs. The BSG hands-on SG effectiveness training builds

awareness and understanding of standardisation

activities and working methods in highly interactive

workshops and webinars, and Guidelines for National

Standardization Secretariats (NSS) assist developing

countries in developing the practical skills and national

procedures required to maximise the effectiveness of

their participation. In addition, ongoing enhancements

to ITU-T electronic working methods and language

support, coupled with fellowship opportunities for

experts from developing countries, foster inclusivity in

major standards-making meetings. Specific projects,

sponsored by voluntary contributions from members,

focus on emerging technology issues such as ethics,

risks, governance, regulatory and legal aspects of AI/

standardisation issues.

Digital services and applications

The Digital Services and Applications programme

offers member states the tools to leverage digital

technology and ICT applications to address their most

pressing needs and bring real impact to people, with

an emphasis on increasing availability and extending

services in areas such as digital health, digital agriculture,

digital government, and digital learning, as well as

cross-sectoral initiatives to accelerate sustainable

development such as smart villages.

To effectively harness digital services and applications

for socio-economic development, the programme

facilitates:

• development of a national sectoral digital

strategy (including toolkits, guidelines, capacity

building, action plans, and evaluations);

• deployment of innovative digital services and

applications to improve the delivery of valueadded

services, leveraging strategic partnerships

as catalysts;

• knowledge and best practice sharing through

studies, research, and awareness raising,

connecting stakeholders in converging

ecosystems;

• addressing emerging technology trends – such

as big data and AI – by collecting and sharing

best practices.

Digital ecosystems

ITU works on helping member states create and

mature their digital innovation ecosystems. The Digital

Ecosystem Thematic Priority has created a framework

to help countries develop appropriate ICT-centric

innovation policies, strategies, and programmes;

share evidence-based best practices; and implement

414

bankable projects to close the digital innovation gap.

Countries are empowered to develop an environment

that is conducive to innovation and entrepreneurship,

where advances in new technologies become a key

driver for the implementation of the WSIS Action Lines,

2030 Agenda, and the Connect 2030 Agenda.

ITU assists member states through its events, courses,

publications, toolkits, and provision of technical advice.

Its Ecosystem Development Projects initiative, for

example, provides holistic advisory services including

ecosystem diagnosis, risk assessment, good practice

transfer, and capacity building. Events include its

national and regional innovation forums, which bring

ecosystem stakeholders together to equip them with

the skills to build their national innovation ecosystems;

the ITU Innovation Challenges, which identify the best

ICT innovators from around the world and equip them

with skills to scale their ideas to truly impact their

communities; courses on developing and maturing

ecosystems (available at the ITU Academy); and Digital

Innovation Profiles, which provide a snapshot of a

country’s ecosystem status, allowing them to identify

and fill the gaps using ITU tools and expertise.


ITU, as the UN specialised agency for ICTs, continues

to support its membership and contribute to the

worldwide efforts to advance the UN 2030 Agenda and

achieve its SDGs.

415

The 17 SDGs and their 169 related targets offer a holistic

vision for the UN system. The role and contribution of

ICTs as essential catalysts to fast-forward achievement

of the SDGs is clearly highlighted and has come into focus

since the COVID-19 pandemic started. Infrastructure,

connectivity, and ICTs have demonstrated their great

contribution and potential to accelerate human

progress, bridge the digital divides, and develop digital

societies.

ITU has a key role to play in realising its main goals

of universal connectivity and sustainable digital

transformation, in contributing to achieving the SDGs.

ITU contributes to the achievement of the SDGs with

four levels of involvement:

• ICTs as an enabler: ITU can be seen as a

contributor to all SDGs through the benefits that

ICTs bring to societies and economies.

• Focus: SDGs with no specific reference to ICTs

but where ITU has demonstrated a clear impact

through the benefits ICTs bring to specific

sectors and activities (e.g. e-health, digital

inclusion, smart cities, e-waste, climate change).

These are SDGs 1, 3, 10, 11, 12, and 13.

• Key focus: SDGs where ITU has a particularly

strong impact due to its initiatives, and is the

custodian of some indicators. These are SDG

4 (Quality Education), with its Target 4b to ‘…

expand globally the number of scholarships,

for enrolment in higher education, including

vocational training and ICTs, technical,

engineering and scientific programmes…’; and

SDG 5 (Gender Equality), Target 5.b on ‘…the

use of enabling technology, in particular ICTs, to

promote the empowerment of women’. Indicator

5b.1 on the ownership of mobile phones, by sex.

• Main key focus: SDGs where ITU maximises its

contribution, such as SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation

and Infrastructure) and SDG 17 (Partnership

for the Goals). Here, ITU is also the custodian of

related Target 9.c on ‘…. ICTs to provide universal

and affordable access to the internet…’; and its

Indicator 9c.1 on coverage by a mobile network

and by technology, as well as Target 17.8 to

‘….enhance the use of enabling technology, in

particular information and communications

technology’; and its Indicator 17.8.1 about

individuals using the internet.

The ITU Connect 2030 Agenda is specifically dedicated

to leveraging telecommunications/ICTs, including

broadband, for sustainable development. The agenda

is built around five goals: growth, inclusiveness,

sustainability, innovation, and partnership. In addition,

ITU-D works on fostering international cooperation on

telecommunications and ICT development issues, and

enhancing environmental protection, climate change

adaptation, emergency telecommunications, and

disaster mitigation and management efforts through

telecommunications and ICTs. These and other

related issues are explored in reports, guidelines, and

recommendations produced by ITU-D SGs.

Additionally, ITU-T SGs such as ITU-T SG5 on

Environment, EMF, and the Circular Economy is the lead

SG and develops standards on circular economy and

e-waste management, ICTs related to the environment,

energy efficiency, clean energy, and sustainable

digitalisation for climate actions, which help achieve

the SDGs.

A list of ITU-R publications in response to Resolution

ITU-R 61-3 on ‘ITU-R’s contribution in implementing the

outcomes of WSIS and 2030 Agenda is available online.

The ITU strategic plan is aligned with the WSIS Action

Lines and SDGs. Since 2015, the WSIS process has been

aligned with the 2030 Agenda to ensure that ICTs play

the enabling role in advancing the SDGs.

Inclusive finance 6

ITU has built a substantial programme of work in support

of digital financial inclusion. ITU standards for digital

finance address the security of telecommunications

infrastructure (Signalling System No. 7 (SS7))

vulnerabilities, SIM vulnerabilities and SIM fraud and

the security of mobile payments applications, process

for managing risks, threats, and vulnerabilities for

6

Within the work of ITU, the issues related to inclusive finance are addressed as ‘Digital Financial Services (DFS)’.

416

digital finance service providers, assessing the quality

of service of mobile networks to improve reliability

and user experience for digital financial services

and methodology for auditing the security of mobile

payment applications in order to assess their level of

security assurance through the DFS Security Lab. They

provide for a high quality service and user experience,

and safeguard security to build trust in digital finance.

Pursuant to WTSA Resolution 89, ITU has implemented

several activities aimed at enhancing the use of ICTs

in bridging the financial inclusion gap through the

following:

A. The Financial Inclusion Global Initiative (FIGI)

B. ITU-T study groups and focus groups work

on standardisation activities related to digital

financial services

C. The Digital Financial Services Security Lab

D. Insights on Digital Financial Services during

COVID-19 Webinars

The ITU Focus Group on Digital Financial Services

(2014–2016), the ITU Focus Group on Digital Currency

including Digital Fiat Currency (2017–2019), and the

Financial Inclusion Global Initiative (2017–2021), a fouryear

programme to advance research in digital finance

and accelerate digital financial inclusion in developing

countries co-led by ITU, the World Bank Group, and the

Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures,

with financial support from the Gates Foundation,

have been at the heart of the resulting standardisation

activities for digital financial inclusion.

Standardisation activities in the ITU-T study groups

related to digital financial services include the following:

A. ITU-T SG3 approved, Recommendation ITU-T

D.263, ‘Costs, charges and competition for

mobile financial services (MFSs)’ in May 2019.

Additionally, the following reports of the Focus

Group on Digital Financial Services (FG-DFS)

were published as ITU-T SG3 technical reports:

a. DSTR-DFSECO: Digital financial services –

The Digital Financial Services Ecosystem

b. DSTR-DFSREG: Digital financial services –

Regulation in the Digital Financial Services

Ecosystem

c. DSTR-DFSSNDL: Digital financial services

– Impact of Social Networks on Digital

Liquidity

d. DSTR-DFSCA: Digital financial services –

Competition Aspects of DFS

e. DSTR-DFSRP: The Regulator’s Perspective

on the Right Timing for Inducing

Interoperability

f. DSTR-DFSPI: Digital financial services –

Access to Payment Infrastructures

g. DSTR-DFSUAAFR: Digital financial services

– Review of DFS User Agreements in Africa:

A Consumer Protection Perspective

417

h. DSTR-DFSCP: Digital Financial Services –

Commonly Identified Consumer Protection

Themes for Digital Financial Services

i. DSTR-DFSMR: Digital Financial Services –

Main Recommendations

B. ITU-T SG 12 has developed the following

recommendations for quality of service and

quality of experience for digital financial

services:

a. Recommendation ITU-T G.1033 highlights

important aspects related to quality of

service (QoS) and quality of experience

(QoE) that require consideration in the

context of digital financial services.

b. Recommendation ITU-T P.1502 introduces

a methodology for testing the quality

of experience (QoE) of digital financial

services.

c. Recommendation ITU-T P.1503 Extended

methodology for cross-country and interoperator

digital financial services QoE

testing

The recommendations are based on the results of

the ITU-T Focus Group on Digital Financial Services

and the FIGI Security, Infrastructure and Trust

Working Group.

A. ITU-T SG 17 has developed the following ITU-T

recommendations related to the security of

digital financial services based on the reports

from the FIGI Security, Infrastructure, and Trust

Working Group.

a. Recommendation ITU-T X.1150 - Security

assurance framework for digital financial

services (March 2024)

b. New recommendations determined at the

SG 17 meeting in September 2024:

i. New Recommendation ITU-T X.1456

(X.sgdfs-us): Security guidelines

for digital financial service (DFS)

applications based on unstructured

supplementary service data (USSD)

and subscriber identification module

tool kit (STK)

ii. New Recommendation ITU-T X.1284

(X.afotak): Authentication framework

based on one-time authentication key

using distributed ledger technology

B. ITU-T SG11 agreed on the technical reports:

a. ITU-T QSTR-SS7-DFS (2019): SS7

vulnerabilities and mitigation measures

for digital financial services transactions

based on the report approved by the FIGI

Security, Infrastructure and Trust Working

Group

b. ITU-T QSTR-USSD (2021) : Low resource

requirement, quantum resistant,

418

encryption of USSD messages for use in

financial services

ITU-T SG 11 published recommendations and new work

items, which are ongoing on digital financial services,

include:

A. ITU-T Q.3062 (2022): Signalling procedures and

protocols for enabling interconnection between

trustable network entities in support of existing

and emerging networks

B. ITU-T Q.3063 (2022) : Signalling procedures of

calling line identification authentication

C. Draft Q.TSCA (SG11): Requirements for issuing

End-Entity and Certification Authority certificates

for enabling trustable signalling interconnection

between network entities

D. Draft E.RAA4Q.TSCA (SG2): Registration authority

assignment criteria to issue digital public

certificates for use by Q.TSCA

The ITU Digital Financial Services (DFS) Security Lab

was set up in 2021 as an outcome of FIGI, with the main

objective to collaborate with DFS regulators in emerging

economies to adopt the DFS security recommendations

(also developed under FIGI) and to provide technical

support to DFS regulators in conducting security audits

of mobile payment applications used in their country.

The DFS Security Lab has organised some 35 DFS

Security Clinics attended by over 1,500 participants

from emerging economies. The security clinics are

aimed at providing an overview of the ITU DFS security

recommendations to the regulators from the telecom

and financial services regulators, mobile network

operators, and DFS providers.

In addition, the knowledge transfer programme of

the DFS Security Lab provides technical assistance

to regulators in emerging economies to set up the

DFS Security Lab in their country, implement the DFS

security recommendations including ITU-T X.1150

Recommendation and assist the staff of the regulators

to be able to conduct the security audits of mobile

payment apps based on the standard methodology of

the DFS Security Lab.

The following telecom regulators have so far benefited

from technical assistance for knowledge transfer for

the DFS Security Lab: Peru, Zimbabwe, The Gambia,

Ethiopia, Ghana, Antigua and Barbuda, and St Lucia.

The knowledge transfer programme for these countries

is ongoing in 2025. In addition, new requests were

received from South Sudan, Lesotho, Eswatini, Gabon,

and Burkina Faso in 2025. In 2023, the DFS Security

Lab developed a cyber resilience self-assessment

framework for critical infrastructure for DFS aimed at

regulators to conduct evaluation of the level of cyber

resilience of critical infrastructure for digital finance.

In 2020, ITU organised the Insights on Digital

Financial Services Webinar Series with the objective

of providing insights on the innovative applications of

telecommunications services, digital payments, and

fintech in addressing COVID-triggered social distancing

419

and lockdown, and sharing lessons learned from

governments and DFS stakeholders on the measures

they are implementing. Twelve webinars were held

between May and December 2020, attracting over 1,000

unique participants from 105 countries. The webinars

focused on topics such as digital identity, strong

authentication technologies, security of digital financial

transactions, handling fraud and scams, tracking digital

financial crimes and fraud, digital credit technologies,

mitigating telecom infrastructure vulnerabilities for

digital finance, and central bank digital currency.

In 2020, ITU and Stanford University launched the

Digital Currency Global Initiative (DCGI) to continue

the work of the ITU Focus Group on Digital Currency

including Digital Fiat Currency. DCGI provides an open

and neutral platform for dialogue, knowledge sharing,

and research on the applications of Central Bank

Digital Currency (CBDC) and other digital currency

implementations.

E-waste

ITU works to develop policies, standards, frameworks,

and guidelines for the efficient disposal of e-waste

in order to achieve a circular economy. ITU has the

mandate to promote awareness of the environmental

issues associated with telecommunications/ICT

equipment design and encourage energy efficiency

and the use of materials in the design and fabrication

of telecommunications/ICT equipment that contributes

420

to a clean and safe environment throughout its lifecycle

(Res.182 (Rev. Busan, 2014)).

ITU plays a key role in the UN E-waste Coalition, is a

founding partner of the Global E-waste Statistics

Partnership (GESP), and collaborates with the Circular

Electronics Partnership.

ITU-D has been mandated to assist developing

countries in undertaking a proper assessment of the

size of e-waste and in initiating pilot projects to achieve

environmentally sound management of e-waste

through e-waste collection, dismantling, refurbishing,

and recycling. To this end, the organisation supports

countries in developing national policies on e-waste,

and works together with industry partners from the

public and private sectors to stimulate coordinated

actions towards a circular economy model. ITU-D and

ITU-T SGs also explore issues related to ICTs and the

environment.

ITU-T has been mandated to pursue and strengthen

the development of ITU activities in regard to handling

and controlling e-waste from telecommunications

and information technology equipment and methods

of treating it; and to develop recommendations,

methodologies, and other publications relating to

sustainable management of e-waste resulting from

telecommunications/ICT equipment and products, as

well as appropriate guidelines on the implementation

of these recommendations. As part of this effort, ITU-T

promotes circular economy principles to extend the life

cycle of ICT products, encourage resource efficiency, and

minimise waste generation. ITU-T SG5 on Environment,

EMF, and the Circular Economy is the lead ITU-T SG on

the circular economy and e-waste management.

ITU-T SG5 has a dedicated Question (Q7/5) on ‘E-waste,

circular economy, and sustainable supply chain

management’. This Question seeks to address the

e-waste challenge by identifying the environmental

requirements of digital technologies including IoT,

end-user equipment, and ICT infrastructures or

installations, based on the circular economy principles

and improving the supply chain management in line

with SDG 12, target 12.5 to substantially reduce waste

generation through prevention, reduction, recycling,

and reuse by 2030.

As part of this work, Q7/5 is developing the Digital Product

Passport (DPP), a tool designed to enhance transparency

and traceability of ICT products by providing key

environmental and material data throughout their life

cycle, facilitating sustainable resource management

and circularity. Additionally, ITU-T contributes to global

efforts through its engagement in the Digitalization for

Circular Economy (D4CE) initiative, led by the OnePlanet

Network, which explores how digital technologies can

optimise resource use, improve material flows, and

support sustainable business models to accelerate the

transition to a circular economy.

Rights of persons with disabilities 7

ITU works both to promote globally ICT accessibility

for persons with disabilities and to make ITU a more

accessible organisation for persons with disabilities –

Resolution 175 (Rev. Bucharest, 2022).

Globally, ITU has continued conducting technical

work in ITU-R, ITU-T, and ITU-D SGs, advancing the

use of telecommunications and ICTs for persons with

disabilities; and developing resources to support

member states in establishing environments that

ensure accessible telecommunications/ICTs – work

conducted with the participation of persons with

disabilities and aligned with the Connect 2030 Agenda.

ITU-D advanced regional initiatives linked to ICT

accessibility, with projects, training, and events, and

provided support to ITU administrations in almost

every region, including organising Accessible Americas

and Accessible events. More information is available

here.

Within the second area of focus, ITU has made progress

in implementing its ITU Accessibility Policy for persons

with disabilities, with an updated version endorsed by

the ITU Council 2021.

ITU-D Study Question 7/1 continues to focus on

telecommunications/ICT accessibility to enable

7

Within the work of ITU the rights of persons with disabilities are addressed as ‘ICT /digital accessibility for all including persons with disabilities’.

421


inclusive communication, especially for persons with

disabilities for 2022–2025, as agreed at WTDC–22.

The year 2021 released SG Question 7/1 report

(available free of charge in all UN official languages)

with its accompanying video and the focused

workshop and webinar confirm the careful attention

given to this topic.

ITU-R continues its work in response to Resolution

ITU-R 67-2 on ‘Telecommunications/ICT accessibility

for persons with disabilities and persons with specific

needs’. Further information on the work carried out by

the Intersector Rapporteur Group Audiovisual Media

Accessibility (IRG-AVA), can be found here.

ITU’s work on accessibility includes regional events,

ICT accessibility assessment, and the publication of

new resources and handbooks. ITU has developed

capacity-building materials to promote the adoption

of accessible solutions, including 15 video tutorials on

the development and remediation of accessible digital

content.

A range of activities is detailed below.

• ITU Regional Knowledge Development

Platforms/Forums

• ITU has organised regional events that allow

ITU members and stakeholders to share good

practices and challenges, and to help develop

digitally inclusive societies in these regions.

Further regional events are set out below.

• Accessible Asia-Pacific (ASP): Regional Dialogue

on Digital Transformation: Gearing Up for

Inclusive and Sustainable Development, virtual

event, 2021.

• Accessible Arab Region: ICT for ALL, Egypt,

2021, in partnership with the United Nations

Economic and Social Commission for West Asia

(ESCWA). Participants identified ways forward to

implement and mainstream digital accessibility,

showing how technology can ensure

inclusiveness and empowerment of all.

• Accessible Americas: ICT for ALL, Cuba 2021,

featured discussions with policymakers and

stakeholders on ICT/digital accessibility in the

context of COVID-19.

• Accessible Africa, virtual, 2021. Five online,

interactive workshops sought to strengthen the

capacity of 175 regional focal points from 42

African countries on ICT/digital accessibility.

• Accessible Europe: ICT for ALL 2021, virtual,

2021. Over 240 participants from more than

40 countries discussed how to remove barriers

to enable the social inclusion of persons with

disabilities, through cooperation, programmes,

and training.

• Accessible Commonwealth of Independent

States (CIS): In 2021, the CIS Region has

422

shown increased interest in ICT accessibility

implementation to ensure equal digital

empowerment through ICT.

Assessing and monitoring the implementation of

ICT accessibility

• ITU Self-Assessment and Toolkit for ICT

AccessibilityImplementation: Towards building

Inclusive Digital Communities. This resource

supports all ITU members, policymakers,

and stakeholders in building inclusive digital

communities. It also enables countries and

organisations to assess themselves, obtaining

an immediate overview of the level of their ICT

accessibility implementation.

• ICT Accessibility Assessment for the Europe

Region provides ICT accessibility assessment for

the Europe region. See also the ITU Assessment

of Digital Accessibility Policies in Serbia.

WSIS Forum 2021: ICTs and Accessibility for Persons

with Disabilities and Specific Needs

• WSIS Forum 2021 featured ICTs and Accessibility

for Persons with Disabilities and Specific

Needs, with virtual workshops on innovative

technologies, bringing together experts and

stakeholders to discuss how to leverage ICTs

to help people with blindness and vision

impairment and how to provide inclusive

education for all – showcasing emerging assistive

technologies.

Self-paced online training courses

• In 2021, two self-paced online training courses

in ICT accessibility were developed, available in

Arabic, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

Both ICT Accessibility: The Key to Inclusive

Communication and Web Accessibility – The

Cornerstone of an Inclusive Digital Society

are delivered through ITU Academy in three

modules.

Other accessibility resources

• Additional ICT accessibility training and

resources are available here. The update of

the Handbook on Digital Terrestrial Television

(DTT) Broadcasting networks and systems

implementation, outlining Accessibility to

Broadcasting Services for Persons with

Disabilities, is also part of ITU’s accessibility

work.

Events and opportunities to support the global

implementation of ICT accessibility

• ITU contributed to the development of the

Disability Inclusion Practice Note on ICT & Digital

Accessibility and its Additional Resources. ITU

participated in the Digital Inclusion Summit

– Leaving No One Behind, organised by the

International Training Centre in collaboration

with ILO (July 2021). In 2019, the UN Disability

Inclusion Strategy (UN DIS) was adopted,

including significant inputs from ITU. In

423

2020, ITU prepared its report on the strategy

implementation and reviewed its Accessibility

Policy accordingly.

• ITU contributed to the first-ever celebration of

Universal Design Day in 2021.

• ITU shared its expertise on ICT accessibility and

disability inclusion with 131 UN Country Team

representatives during two webinars on ICT and

Digital Accessibility, held virtually in 2021.

Making ITU a more accessible organisation for

persons with disabilities

• ITU continues to ensure accessibility to persons

with disabilities, including staff, delegates, and

the general public.

• To ensure the structure and content of ITU

websites, videos, publications, digital documents,

and digital information are all digitally accessible,

training events were under preparation (held in

February 2022).

• To provide fully accessible ITU events, an

invitation to bid for the provision of real-time

captioning was completed in November 2021.

Proposals for captioning in French, Spanish, and

Chinese have been submitted.

• In 2019, ITU provided captioning across ITU

events and major conferences, sign language

interpretation at selected ITU-T accessibility

meetings and in making ITU websites accessible.

ITU has also modified its internal production to

generate accessible publications in the six official

languages.

COVID-19: Ensuring digital information is accessible

to all

• In March 2020, ITU issued COVID Guidelines on

How to Develop Inclusive Digital Information

Products and Services through different digital

platforms, in all six official UN languages.

The guidelines contain messages and

concrete actions to support policymakers and

communicators in ensuring that COVID-related

messages and vital digital information are

accessible to all people, including persons with

disabilities. These ITU guidelines were globally

disseminated and translated into 22 other

languages within the framework of the UN joint

COVID-19 response and recovery emergency

working group on the health workstream.

• To ensure that deaf and hard of hearing

persons were not excluded, ITU produced the

Guideline on Web-based Remote Sign Language

Interpretation or Video Remote Interpretation.

424

Gender rights online 8

ITU is involved in activities aimed at promoting gender

equality and the empowerment of women and girls

through ICTs.

ITU is the custodian of three gender-related SDG

indicators: the proportion of individuals who (1) own

a mobile phone; (2) use the internet; and (3) have ICT

skills. ITU’s Measuring Digital Development: Facts and

Figures 2021 shows that, in all regions, the gender

internet divide has been narrowing in recent years, and

calls for more action on cultural, financial, and skillsrelated

barriers that impede internet uptake among

women. ITU has launched several targeted efforts

to bridge the gender digital divide and advance the

Connect 2030 Agenda. Below are some highlights of

ITU’s work on gender.

Together with the United Nations Entity for Gender

Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women),

the United Nations University (UNU), the GSMA, and

ITC, ITU has launched the EQUALS Global Partnership

for Gender Equality in the Digital Age with over 100

partners working together to ensure that women are

given access, are equipped with skills, and develop the

leadership potential to work in the ICT industry. Under

this initiative, ITU contributes with the annual flagship

event, the EQUALS in Tech Awards. The awards are

presented every year to organisations and individuals

working to help girls and women gain equal internet

access, learn digital skills, and find opportunities in the

tech industry. The initiative is dedicated to encouraging

girls and young women to consider studies and careers

in ICTs.

The African Girls Can Code Initiative (AGCCI) was

launched in Africa in collaboration with UN Women

and the African Union Commission (AUC) with the aim

to train and empower girls and young women aged 17

to 20 across Africa to become computer programmers,

creators, and designers. The initiative has also been

launched in the Americas region with a focus on

equipping girls with coding skills and generating

interest in the pursuit of ICT careers.

Other activities, such as the Women in Technology

Challenge and the EQUALS Women in Tech Network,

led by ITU, are targeted at advancing women’s

engagement with ICTs for social and economic

development.

Through a new global initiative on Women in Digital

Business, ITU partners with the ILO and Microsoft

Philanthropies to equip women entrepreneurs across

Africa, Asia, and Latin America with digital and

entrepreneurial skills. The ‘train-the-trainer’ model

has reached over 25,000 women, supporting inclusive

online business growth.

8

Within the work of ITU, gender rights online is addressed as ‘gender digital divide‘.

425

ITU WRC-19 also adopted a declaration that promotes

gender equality, equity, and parity in the work of the

ITU Radiocommunication Sector.

The Radiocommunication Assembly 2023 (RA-23)

adopted Resolution ITU-R 72 on ‘Promoting gender

equality and equity and bridging the contribution and

participation gap between women and men in ITU-R

activities’.

ITU is also a facilitator of WSIS Action Line C4 – Capacity

building.

Network of Women (NoW): Encouraging

gender balance

Encouraging and tracking gender-balanced

representation and nominations of women for key roles

strengthens women’s participation in ITU meetings. The

aim is to build a community where female delegates

can network, share their experience, and promote

the participation of women – increasing their visibility,

empowering them, and encouraging experienced

female delegates to mentor ICT professionals in the

digital space.

ITU promotes the active participation of women

in ITU events and through the Network of Women

(NoW) initiatives in each of its three sectors: ITU-R

(radiocommunications), ITU-T (standardisation),

and ITU-D (development). These efforts aim

to increase women’s participation in technical

meetings and leadership roles, with activities such

as dedicated global campaigns like NOW4WRC27,

NOW4WTSA24 , and initiatives such as NOW4WRC27

Mentoring Programme, the Empowering Women

Leaders Mentorship Programme for WTDC-25

in the run-up to key ITU governing conferences.

ITU monitors women’s participation in events and

activities through the gender dashboard.

ITU Secretary General Doreen Bogdan-Martin is a

member of the Global Board of the International

Gender Champions (IGC), a high-level network driving

systemic change through concrete actions.

Capacity building that empowers indigenous

communities through technology

Capacity-building training for indigenous communities

has empowered indigenous people and communities

through technology. The training is tailored to needs and

interests and has taken into account self-sustainability

aspects and cultural legacy.

The programme has reached 70 indigenous participants

throughout the Americas, 21 of whom have completed

the full programme – from Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador,

Honduras, Mexico, and Peru. Thirty per cent of

participants are indigenous women.

The course Technical Promoters in Telecommunications

and Broadcasting in Indigenous Communities requires

one year of study and trains indigenous professionals in

426

maintaining indigenous networks from infrastructure

to communication delivery. The module boosts the

professional development of professionals and their

ability to contribute to their communities’ socioeconomic

development and self-sustainability.

A course in 2021, on Innovative Communication Tools

on How to Develop, Manage and Operate an Indigenous

Radio Network, was offered to 141 indigenous

participants over two editions. Countries represented

included Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa

Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay,

Peru, and Venezuela. Thirty per cent of participants

completed all five units of the course, 40.5% of whom

were indigenous women.

ITU and UNESCO were developing activities for rollout

at the WSIS Forum 2022 as contributions to the

International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022–

2032).

Working for digital inclusion for older people -

raising awareness and building resources

For the first time, ITU has addressed digital inclusion

for older people by raising awareness on the

topic, leveraging the capacity of ITU members and

stakeholders, providing policy and strategy guidelines,

and developing resources to support global efforts to

overcome this socio-economic challenge.

Resources supporting older persons in the digital world.

• A video tutorial covering ageing in a digital world,

with captions in all UN languages.

• Ageing in a Digital World – From Vulnerable to

Valuable.

• Self-paced online training: ICTs for Better Ageing

and Livelihood in the Digital Handscape. This ITU

Academy training is available in English, French,

and Spanish and addresses local digital inclusion

policies, strategies and good practices.

The World Telecommunication and Information Society

Day 2022 (WTISD 2022) was dedicated to the theme:

Digital technologies for older persons and healthy

ageing.

ITU contributing to UN work

• Social Isolation and Loneliness Among Older

People: Advocacy Brief – highlights the growing

public health and policy concern about these

issues, made more salient by the COVID-19

pandemic. ITU contributed to the development

of this WHO/UN Women brief.

• ITU contributed to the celebration of the UN

International Day of Older Persons (UNIDOP) in

2021 in the Digital Inclusion For All Ages event,

jointly organised with UN DESA, the Office of the

Secretary’s-General Envoy on Technology, and

the NGO Committee on Ageing.

427

Working for increased youth engagement

The ITU Youth Strategy ensures the participation of

youth in ITU in implementing the 2030 Agenda. The

strategy is built on three pillars: creating a community

of young leaders, bringing young people together

to engage with ITU and members, and fostering

participation in ITU activities. More than 40 Youth Task

Force members across ITU are coordinating efforts to

implement the ITU Youth Strategy.

The initiatives detailed below have been implemented

as part of the ITU Youth Strategy and as part of its

continued commitment to engaging and empowering

young people in the digital development agenda.

The Robotics for Good Youth Challenge is a global

educational robotics championship that invites

students aged 10 to 18 to develop AI and robotics-based

solutions for global challenges. In the 2024-2025 edition,

participants simulate a disaster response scenario

using robotics and compete in a global challenge

organised by ITU, with the grand finale taking place at

the AI for Good Global Summit 2025. This programme

offers a unique entry point into STEM disciplines while

fostering the problem-solving and teamwork skills that

are critical for the next generation of digital leaders.

Over 7,000 participants from twenty countries are

taking part in the first edition of the global competition,

35% of whom are from least developed countries.

The AI for Good Youth Zone at the AI for Good Global

Summit 2024 hosted practical workshops and handson

sessions focused on AI and robotics. Bringing

together educators, students, and professionals, nine

workshops were facilitated by 11 partners over two

days, attracting 300 participants, including children

and professionals. The Youth Zone provided interactive

and collaborative learning experiences, covering

topics from AI EdTech robots to disaster robotics and

autonomous vehicles. Workshops by EPFL provided

hands-on experience with AI, computer vision, and

machine learning, demonstrating how smart cars

detect and analyse their environment. Overall, the AI

for Good Youth Zone provided a dynamic and engaging

platform for participants to learn, collaborate, and

explore the exciting world of AI and robotics.

The ITU AI/ML Challenge is a flagship collaborative

platform that enables students, researchers, and

developers to design and test AI models in various

real-world use cases, including communication

networks, Geospatial AI, and other domains. Through

real-world problem statements and open datasets,

participants are guided to explore the frontier of

machine learning in ICT infrastructure, strengthening

their technical capacities while contributing to ITU’s

standards development work. In 2024, there were a

total of 13 challenge problem statements, and a total

of 4,196 participants joined these problem statements,

contributing more than 30,000 submissions.

The Young AI Leaders Community is a platform

launched during WTSA-24 to foster youth participation

and leadership in driving the AI revolution, bringing

428

together young people aged 18-30 who leverage AI to

drive positive change in their communities. It provides

a platform for sharing knowledge, developing skills,

and collaborating. With 89 hubs across 46 countries

and over 300 members operating on a voluntary basis,

this network fosters engagement in joint AI for Good

activities and projects that extend beyond individual

hubs. It also promotes regional and cross-regional

collaborations, aligning local actions and initiatives with

the broader goals of AI for Good.

The AI for Good Innovation Factory’s special edition

Meet Young Innovators Revolutionizing Agrifood Systems in

the Global South, was convened in partnership with the

World Food Forum (WFF) to spotlight entrepreneurial

youth using digital innovation to tackle challenges in

agriculture and food systems. This pitch competition

provided a stage for youth-led startups to pitch their

AI-based solutions to a global audience of investors,

policymakers, and partners, reinforcing the role of

innovation in solving the world’s pressing issues and

empowering young people to be active drivers of

transformation.

The Metaverse Think-a-Thon 2024, organised by ITU in

collaboration with UNICC, FAO, and International Atomic

Energy Agency (IAEA), challenged students and recent

graduates to design innovative, technology-driven

solutions for smart, sustainable cities and communities.

Participants developed virtual simulations addressing

global challenges in education, disaster preparedness,

conflict resolution, and urban sustainability, advancing

the UN SDGs.

The 1st UN Citiverse Challenge, launched on 13

February 2025 and co-organised by ITU alongside

16 global partners, invites students and startups to

reimagine the future through the citiverse and digital

public infrastructure. Focusing on access to public

services, sustainability and resilience, and tourism and

digital culture, participants are challenged to design

bold, innovative solutions that will shape the cities of

tomorrow and drive inclusive, technology-driven urban

transformation.

Generation Connect Initiative

Generation Connect, launched in 2020, prepared

the way for the journey to World Telecommunication

Development Conference 2022 and the Generation

Connect Global Youth Summit in 2022.

Generation Connect Visionaries Board

The Generation Connect Visionaries Board offers

guidance to ITU on its youth-related work. The Board,

composed of ITU representatives, eight young leaders,

and eight high-level appointees, advises on the Youth

Summit and the Youth Strategy.

429

Road to Addis Series – Digital Inclusion and Youth

Events

The ITU Road to Addis series of events has a strong

youth component. The event on International Youth

Day 2021 saw the participation of youth as equal

partners alongside the leaders of today’s digital change,

while the Partner2Connect Meeting 2021 launched the

Partner2Connect Coalition.

Capacity Building on Meaningful Youth Engagement

Training on Meaningful Youth Engagement for UN staff

was delivered to ITU staff in 2020; 174 ITU staff attended,

including top management, members of the ITU Youth

Task Force, and professional and administrative staff.

This training was followed by two Pitch for Youth

workshops in 2020, where teams proposed ideas to an

ITU jury on youth engagement initiatives.

Implementation of the I-CoDI Youth Challenge

In 2020, ITU organised the International Centre of Digital

Innovation (I-CoDI) Youth Challenge on connecting the

unconnected. Winning pitches focused on technology

and network development, cybersecurity, digital

inclusion, climate change and environment, and

capacity building.

Generation Connect Virtual Communities

In 2021, ITU launched the new Generation Connect

Virtual communities on Facebook, LinkedIn, and

Instagram, inviting youth from the regions to join.

ITU: Current co-chair of the United Nations Inter-

Agency Network on Youth Development

In March 2021, ITU was the co-chair of the United Nations

Inter-Agency Network on Youth Development (IANYD)

with a one-year mandate. The Network increases the

effectiveness of UN work in youth development by

strengthening collaboration and exchange across UN

entities.

430

Collaboration with the Office of the Secretary-

General’s Envoy on Youth

ITU works with the Office of the Envoy on Youth to align

the ITU Youth Strategy with the UN Youth Strategy:

Youth 2030. ITU has engaged with the UN Youth Envoy

in various ways, including the co-creation of the Digital

Technology session of the #YouthLead Innovation

Festival and collaboration on how online efforts are

helping improve children’s online safety.

Additional initiatives

ITU’s work on empowering youth through ICTs includes

the Digital Skills for Jobs Campaign and the ITU Digital

Skills Toolkit.

• In 2020, ITU mounted a Youth Engagement

Survey to consult on how ITU can best engage.

The results of this survey informed the ITU Youth

Strategy.


WSIS Process

The WSIS process was initiated by ITU in 1998, and it

led the organisation of the 2003 and 2005 summits

in coordination with the UN system. In line with its

mandate and the WSIS outcome documents, ITU

continues to play a key lead coordination role in WSIS

implementation and follow-up.

The WSIS Forum represents the world’s largest annual

gathering of the ICT for development community. Coorganised

by ITU, UNESCO, UNDP, and UNCTAD, in close

collaboration with all WSIS Action Line Facilitators/

Co-Facilitator, the forum has proven to be an efficient

mechanism for coordinating multistakeholder

implementation activities, exchanging information,

creating knowledge, and sharing best practices.

It continues to provide assistance in developing

multistakeholder and public/private partnerships

to advance development goals. The forum provides

structured opportunities to network, learn, and

participate in multistakeholder discussions and

consultations on WSIS implementation.

The ITU Contribution to the Implementation of the

WSIS Outcomes is an annual comprehensive report

on ITU activities in the WSIS context from all three

sectors of the organisation (radiocommunications,

standardisation, and development sectors) and the

General Secretariat on the activities implemented

during the respective year. The report provides updates

on the tasks carried out by ITU at the operational and

policy levels, covering all assigned mandates with

reference to the WSIS process.

ITU plays a leading facilitating role in the WSIS

implementation process, in collaboration with more

than 30 UN agencies in creating an environment for

just and equal information and knowledge societies.

As per Resolution 1332 (modified 2019), the ITU

membership resolved to use the WSIS framework as

the foundation through which it helps the world to

leverage ICTs in achieving the 2030 Agenda, within

its mandate and within the allocated resources in the

financial plan and biennial budget, noting the WSIS-

SDG Matrix developed by UN agencies. This close

interlink between the WSIS Action Lines and the SDGs

and targets can serve as an important basis for work on

relevant areas outlined in relevant ongoing processes,

for example, UN SGs Our Common Agenda, etc.

ITU’s role in the WSIS process, highlighting the varying

role along the WSIS Action Lines:

• ITU is the sole facilitator for three different

WSIS Action Lines: C2 (Information and

communication infrastructure), C5 (Building

confidence and security in the use of ICTs), and

C6 (Enabling environment).

• ITU has also taken the lead role in facilitating

WSIS Action Line C4 (Capacity building).

431

• ITU contributes to all the remaining WSIS Action

Lines facilitated by other WSIS stakeholders.

The WSIS-SDG Matrix developed by UN WSIS Action

Line Facilitators serves as the mechanism to map,

analyse, and coordinate the implementation of WSIS

Action Lines, and more specifically, ICTs as enablers

and accelerators of the SDGs. This mapping exercise

draws direct links between the WSIS Action Lines and

the proposed SDGs to continue strengthening the

impact of ICTs for sustainable development. Building

on the Matrix, the Agenda and outcomes of the WSIS

Forum are clearly linked to WSIS Action lines and the

SDGs, highlighting the impact and importance of ICTs

for sustainable development.

The WSIS Stocktaking Process provides a register of

activities – including projects, programmes, training

initiatives, conferences, websites, guidelines, and

toolkits – carried out by governments, international

organisations, the private sector, civil society, and

other entities. To that end, in accordance with

paragraph 120 of the Tunis Agenda for the Information

Society adopted by WSIS, ITU has been maintaining

the WSIS Stocktaking Database since 2004 as a

publicly accessible system providing information on

ICT-related initiatives and projects with reference

to the 11 WSIS action lines (Geneva Plan of Action).

The principal role of the WSIS Stocktaking exercise

is to leverage the activities of stakeholders working

on the implementation of WSIS outcomes and share

knowledge and experience of projects by replicating

successful models designed to achieve the SDGs of

the 2030 Agenda.

The WSIS Prizes contest was developed in response

to requests from WSIS stakeholders to create an

effective mechanism for evaluating projects and

activities that leverage the power of ICTs to advance

sustainable development. Since its inception, WSIS

Prizes has attracted more than 350,000 stakeholders.

Following the outcomes of the UN General Assembly

Overall Review on WSIS (Res. A/70/125) that called for

a close alignment between the WSIS process and the

2030 Agenda (Res. A/70/1), WSIS Prizes continues to

serve as the unique global platform to identify and

showcase success stories in the implementation of

the WSIS Action Lines and the SDGs.

UNGIS is the UN system’s inter-agency mechanism

for advancing policy coherence and programme

coordination on matters related to ICTs in support of

internationally agreed development goals. Established

in 2006 after WSIS, its mandate includes promoting

collaboration and partnerships among members of

the Chief Executives Board (CEB) to contribute to the

achievement of the WSIS goals, providing guidance on

issues related to inclusive information and knowledge

societies, helping maintain issues related to science

and technology at the top of the UN Agenda, and

mainstreaming ICT for Development in the mandate

of CEB members.

432

UNGIS remains committed and has contributed to the

alignment of the WSIS Action Lines and the SDGs.

The Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development is

an international, multistakeholder initiative to improve

the availability and quality of ICT data and indicators.

ITU also works in close collaboration with the UN Office

for Digital and Emerging Technologies (ODET) and in

2022 announced a first-ever set of targets for universal

and meaningful digital connectivity to be achieved by

2030.

The universal meaningful connectivity targets

were developed as part of the implementation of

the UN Secretary-General’s Roadmap for Digital

Cooperation and aim to provide concrete benchmarks

for sustainable, inclusive global progress in specified

action areas, such as (1) Universality, (2) Technology,

and (3) Affordability. These 15 aspirational targets are

meant to help countries and stakeholders prioritise

interventions, monitor progress, evaluate policy

effectiveness, and galvanise efforts around achieving

universal and meaningful connectivity by 2030. They

are also meant as a contribution towards the GDC, as

proposed in the UN Secretary-General’s report on Our

Common Agenda. A first assessment of how the world

currently stands in relation to the targets is available on

ITU’s website here.

Kaleidoscope academic conferences

Kaleidoscope is the ITU flagship event for academia,

which brings together a wide range of views from

universities, industry, and research institutions

across different fields to identify emerging trends

in technologies for a digital and sustainable

transformation that can benefit humanity. Selected

papers are presented at the conference and published

in the Conference Proceedings and IEEE Xplore

Digital Library. By viewing technologies through a

kaleidoscope, these forward-looking events also seek

to identify new topics for ITU’s work. Kaleidoscope

2024 on Innovation and digital transformation for a

sustainable world was held in parallel with the World

Telecommunication Standardization Assembly 2024

(WTSA-24), on 21-23 October, in New Delhi, India. This

15th Kaleidoscope edition also highlighted the role

of youth in global standards development and the

urgency of connecting the last one-third of the world’s

population that is not yet online.

The next edition will be held in Geneva in conjunction

with the AI for Good Summit in 2026.

ITU Journal

The scholarly ITU Journal on Future and Evolving

Technologies (ITU J-FET) provides complete coverage

of all communications and networking paradigms. ITU

433

J-FETl considers yet-to-be-published papers addressing

fundamental and applied research. It shares new

techniques and concepts, analyses, and tutorials, as

well as learning from experiments and physical and

simulated testbeds. It also discusses the implications

of the latest research results for policy and regulation,

legal frameworks, the economy, and society. This

publication builds bridges between disciplines, connects

theory with application, and stimulates international

dialogue. Its interdisciplinary approach reflects ITU’s

comprehensive field of interest and explores the

convergence of ICT with other disciplines.

ITU J-FET is a quarterly publication, free of charge for

both readers and authors, which offers a platform

to share research on topics of strategic relevance

to ITU, such as Internet of Everything, Terahertz

Communications, Wireless Communication Systems

in Beyond 5G Era, Internet of Bio-Nano Things for

Health Applications, Towards Vehicular Networks

in the 6G Era, Emerging Trends and Applications in

Future Communication Networks, Integrated and

Autonomous Network Management and Control for

6G Time-critical Applications, Digital Continuum and

Next Generation Networks, Future of Networking

Beyond 2030, Innovative Network Solutions for Future

Services, Intelligent Surfaces and their Applications

towards Wide-scale Deployment, AI-driven Security

in 5G and beyond, Network Virtualization, Slicing,

Orchestration, Fog and Edge Platforms for 5G and

6G Wireless Systems, AI for Accessibility, Metaverse:

Communications, Networking and Computing,

Intelligent Technologies for Future Networking

and Distributed Systems, Next Generation

Computer Communications and Networks, Satellite

Constellations and Connectivity from Space, and AI

and Machine Learning Solutions in 5G and Future

Networks, and Geospatial AI to Advance the United

Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Under the umbrella of the ITU Journal, a series of

webinars has been launched to feature highly cited

academics, CTOs, and industry leaders, sharing their

pioneering studies and visions, as well as their impactful

life lessons learned over the years that might be useful

for students and young researchers starting their

career in the ICT field. This special series is designed

to expand synergies between academia and industry

R&D, placing emphasis on 5G and 6G and increasing

network intelligence.The recordings are available at

the ITU Journal Webinars Series playlist on YouTube.

ITU-Tsinghua University Joint Journal

The Intelligent and Converged Networks(ICN) Journal

focuses on the latest developments in communication

technology. ICN is co-published by Tsinghua University

Press (TUP) and ITU. The journal draws its name from

the accelerating convergence of different fields of

communication technology and the growing influence

of AI and machine learning. An open-access quarterly

434

DIGITAL TOOLS

publication, ICN was launched in 2020. All issues can be

downloaded for free at the journal’s online library and

on IEEE Xplore. The Journal is indexed in the following

databases: Ei Compendex, Scopus, DOAJ, and Inspec.


• Various platforms used for online meetings:

Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and ITU’s MyMeetings

platform.

• The value of ITU-T’s advanced electronic working

environment was highlighted in 2020. Virtual

meetings and electronic working methods

have come to form the principal platform for

ITU standardisation work as part of the global

response to COVID-19. ITU members engaged

in standard development are making optimal

use of ITU’s personalised MyWorkspace

platform and associated services and tools (e.g.

MyMeetings).


Facebook @ITU

Flickr @ITU pictures

Instagram @ituofficial

LinkedIn @International Telecommunication Union

Podcast @ITUPodcasts

TikTok @itu

X @ITU

YouTube @itutelecommunication

435

Joint Inspection Unit

(JIU)

Avenue de la Paix 8-14 | 1211 Geneva | Switzerland

www.unjiu.org

About the JIU

The JIU is the only independent external oversight

body of the UN system mandated to conduct reviews,

evaluations, and inspections at a system-wide level.

Its mandate is to look at cross-cutting issues and to act as

an agent for change across the UN system. The JIU works

to enhance efficiency in management and administration

and to promote greater coordination among agencies.

It is dedicated to assisting the 28 organisations that

have signed the JIU Statute in meeting their governance

responsibilities. In its reports and notes, the JIU identifies

best practices, facilitates knowledge-sharing, and makes

recommendations to executive heads and governing

bodies, individually or as a group.

438

The Joint Inspection Unit (JIU) will continue to use

its role as an agent of change to seize the

opportunities of the digital era to improve

efficiency, effectiveness and coherence

across the UN system.

Carolina Fernandez Opazo

Chair

439

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Over the years, the JIU has contributed to several areas of

work aimed at enhancing management and administrative

efficiency and promoting greater coordination among

UN organisations. Relevant to the topic of information

and communications technology governance and digital

policy, the JIU has issued the following reports in recent

years:

1. Cybersecurity in the United Nations System

Organisations (2021)

2. Blockchain Applications in the UN System:

Towards a State of Readiness (2020)

3. Policies and Platforms in Support of Learning:

Towards more Coherence, Coordination and

Convergence (2020)

4. Managing Cloud Computing Services in the UN

System (2019)

5. Knowledge Management in the United Nations

System (2016)

In today’s rapidly evolving digital age, the JIU reaffirms

its commitment to leveraging digital transformation

to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of its

mandate. By adopting efficient digital platforms, the JIU

has enhanced the accessibility and transparency of its

reports, recommendations, and findings for member

states and other stakeholders. Digitalisation has also

enabled greater agility in conducting inspections and

evaluations, allowing for virtual consultations and remote

data collection in a cost-effective and environmentally

sustainable manner.

To further advance digital work, the JIU is committed

to strengthening its internal digital capacity, fostering a

culture of innovation, and prioritising knowledge sharing

across the UN system. These efforts include promoting

the use of data analytics and AI in its reviews to generate

deeper insights and evidence-based recommendations.

For that matter, the JIU has included the review of data

governance in UN system organisations in its 2025

programme of work.

The JIU continues to work collaboratively with other

entities in the UN system to harness the transformative

potential of digital technology in achieving the UN

objectives. The JIU invites all stakeholders to engage with

its digital initiatives and contribute to a shared vision of a

more modern, connected, and digitally empowered UN

system. Together, we can navigate the challenges and

seize the opportunities of the digital era to build a more

effective and inclusive multilateral system.

440


Cloud computing

The report entitled Managing Cloud Computing

Services in the UN System argues for a more balanced

approach in unlocking the potential benefits of the

cloud and in considering specific risks, in addition

to the potential synergies from a UN system-wide

perspective. The JIU proposed a number of safeguards

and actions to expand UN common knowledge on

cloud computing, increase the level of inter-agency

cooperation, and strengthen the negotiating capacity

of UN organisations.

Blockchain

A lucid and balanced analysis of blockchain was

the result of a landmark report on Blockchain

Applications in the UN System: Towards a State of

Readiness. The report starts from the assumption

that the UN cannot stand aside and passively watch

developments in the industry, but it is far from

promoting the use of blockchain. It offers a critical

assessment of the theoretical benefits of blockchain

and proposes a cautious, yet proactive approach to

potential applications. The recommendations made

by the JIU signify a bold move from a traditional

compliance perspective to a more prospective focus,

from a prescriptive standpoint to a more flexible

and anticipative set of actions. The main asset of

the report is an original decision-making matrix–

developed in full consideration of the UN context –

for the rigorous determination of use cases for which

the blockchain could be a better option compared to

other alternatives. The report specifically references

the World Food Programme’s Building Blocks project

and examines blockchain applications in humanitarian

contexts, including UNHCR’s cash-based interventions

using blockchain technology.

Cybersecurity

A comprehensive review of individual and inter-agency

mechanisms dealing with cybersecurity is offered in

the report entitled Cybersecurity in the United Nations

System Organisations. The report assesses how UN

organisations are addressing cybersecurity threats,

and the challenges and risks they face, including risk

mitigation measures. Particular attention is paid to the

vulnerabilities specific to the UN. The review focuses

on the opportunities for strengthening collaboration

and coordination among organisations and for a closer

alignment of physical security and cybersecurity,

and for improving linkages between system-wide

strategic direction and operational capacity. Some

recommendations aim to strengthen the key role of

UNICC as a cybersecurity service provider.

441

DIGITAL TOOLS


The issue of e-learning platforms was extensively

addressed for the first time at the UN system-wide

level in a report entitled Policies and Platforms in

Support of Learning: Towards more Coherence,

Coordination and Convergence. The report analyses

the potential of new digital technologies as a driving

factor that facilitates and stimulates system-wide

synergies and convergence. According to the report,

current technology-enabled trends and capabilities,

such as the increase in remote interactions, mobility,

portability, and use of a personal cloud storage

system, require the adjustment of policies, curricula,

and institutional arrangements. For the UN system,

growing digital infrastructure amplifies the ability

of UN organisations and their staff to access and

use nearly unlimited knowledge resources. The

same technologies offer unprecedented networking

options, which should be unconditionally used for

more coherence, coordination, and convergence

among UN agencies.


Facebook @unitednations

Flickr @United Nations Photo

Instagram @unitednations

X @UN

YouTube @United Nations

442

443

Kofi Annan Foundation

Rue de Varembé 09/11 | 1202 Geneva | Switzerland

www.kofiannanfoundation.org

About the Kofi Annan Foundation

The Kofi Annan Foundation is an independent not-forprofit

organisation, established in Switzerland in 2007

by the late former UN Secretary-General and Nobel

Peace Prize laureate, Kofi Annan. Its board is composed

of prominent personalities from the public and private

sectors, and it has a small team based in Geneva,

Switzerland.

The Kofi Annan Foundation wants a fairer and more

peaceful world, where no one is left behind, where

democratic principles and the rule of law are upheld, and

divides are bridged through dialogue and international

cooperation.

The Foundation works closely with partners from

international and regional organisations, foundations,

universities, and civil society. It channels expertise,

convenes all stakeholders around the table, and forges

coalitions of trusted influence that can make change

happen.

The Kofi Annan Foundation has three strategic

objectives:

• Strengthening democracy and elections,

because popular legitimacy provides the basis

for democratic governance, accountability, and

respect for human rights and the rule of law.

• Empowering youth to build a peaceful,

sustainable future because they are active

agents of change and must be given the

opportunity to shape the world they will inherit.

• Advocating for a more effective, inclusive,

and equitable multilateral system, and

promoting Kofi Annan’s core belief that

structured international cooperation is key to

solving challenges in today’s interconnected

world.

446

Kofi Annan once noted that technology does not

free us of the need for leadership; it makes

leadership all the more important. So let us

not forget that technology by itself cannot

absolve us of our political responsibility

to ensure that we use it wisely and

efficiently for the good of society

everywhere.

Corinne Momal-Vanian

Executive Director

Message by the Kofi Annan Foundation Executive Director

The Kofi Annan Foundation consists of a small team in Geneva that collaborates with partners

across the world. We rely on digital tools and ICTs to drive our collaborative efforts and

deliver programme goals. Harnessing the power of digital platforms is not only central to our

methodology but also critical to addressing many of the challenges facing our partners and the

communities in which we work.

447

Message by the Kofi Annan Foundation Executive Director

As Kofi Annan argued, technology does not stand still, neither should democracy. This sentiment

informs much of our recent work in support of elections and democracy, which seeks to harness

the potential of digital tools and social media to engage, empower, and educate voters, while

mitigating the negative impact of disinformation, hate speech, fake news, and digital polarisation.

Our objective is to improve and secure the digital space in which elections and political campaigns

increasingly take place, and to protect the fundamental right of voters to have a say in how they

are governed, and by whom.

We remain convinced by, and optimistic about, the potential of digital platforms to provide

unparalleled opportunities for young activists around the world to collaborate in addressing the

challenges facing their generation.

It is largely due to digital innovation that this generation of young people is more connected,

more educated, and more aware of what is happening outside their own borders than any

previous generation. The opportunities to share lessons, experience, strategies, and tools are

greater than ever before.

For our youth leadership programmes, including Champions for Peace, Environment of Peace,

Extremely Together, WYDE Accountability Hubs, Kofi Annan NextGen Democracy Prize, and Kofi

Annan Changemakers, digital and communications tools allow us to mobilise our network to

support these young people, build bridges across countries and create platforms where they can

collaborate to effect positive change in their local communities. Without digital platforms, our

ability to impart the lessons, wisdom, and advice of Kofi Annan would be much reduced.

Kofi Annan often reminded us that our individual responsibility was not to tackle the world’s

greatest problems, but that if each of us did a little bit to make positive change in our own

communities, together we could overcome any challenge.

One of the benefits of our new digital era is that the little bit of which we are all capable is now

limitless; we will continue to see digital tools as central to delivering a fairer and more secure

world.

448

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The Kofi Annan Foundation addresses digitalisation

within the scope of youth, and peace, as well as elections

and democracy in the follow-up to the Kofi Annan

Commission on Elections and Democracy in the Digital

Age (KACEDDA).

The Commission has proposed a series of actions to

mitigate the negative impact of social media on elections

and democracy, several of which the Foundation is

directly implementing. These include new models to

counter political disinformation, pre-electoral pledges

regarding digital behaviour and activities, and the gauging

of digital vulnerabilities of elections. The Foundation is

also mobilising digital tools and platforms to increase

the representativeness and inclusivity of elections and

democratic decision-making, particularly for young

people.

The Kofi Annan Foundation leverages digital platforms

and technology to advance its mission of promoting

peace, sustainable development, and human rights.

Through our online presence, the Foundation

disseminates information, engages with global audiences,

and implements initiatives that harness digital tools for

greater impact.

Some of our digital activities include:

Extremely Together: This global youth-led initiative

empowers young people to prevent violent extremism.

Utilising digital storytelling, social media campaigns,

and online resources, Extremely Together engages

youth in promoting peace and countering radicalisation

narratives.

449

Kofi Annan Changemakers: Facilitating

intergenerational dialogue, this programme connects

young leaders with experienced mentors through

virtual platforms. The digital format allows for

widespread participation, fostering a global exchange

of ideas and strategies for positive change.

Kofi Annan Commission on Elections and

Democracy in the Digital Age (KACEDDA): The

Commission has proposed a series of actions to

mitigate the negative impact of social media on

elections and democracy, several of which the

Foundation is directly implementing. These include

new models to counter political disinformation, preelectoral

pledges regarding digital behaviour and

activities, and the gauging of digital vulnerabilities of

elections. The Foundation is also mobilising digital

tools and platforms to increase the representativeness

and inclusivity of elections and democratic decisionmaking,

particularly for young people.

Electoral Vulnerability Index: The Kofi Annan

Foundation has developed the Electoral Vulnerability

Index (EVI), a predictive tool designed to assess

the risk of election-related violence. This initiative

aims to identify elections that may be particularly

susceptible to violence, thereby enabling international

and domestic actors to prioritise resources and

interventions effectively.


Capacity development 1

Fostering youth leadership

Sharing the leadership values, wisdom, and lessons of

Kofi Annan with the next generation is an important

element of the legacy work of the Foundation. Digital

tools allow us to reach young people in every corner of

the globe who would otherwise not be able to benefit

from his advice and that of the people who worked closely

with him. Two cohorts of Kofi Annan Changemakers –

young leaders from different fields and backgrounds –

have now harnessed digital communications tools and

platforms to improve their leadership skills and build

critical capacities.

The Foundation has expanded its youth and peace

projects to regions including Colombia, Pakistan, and

Southeast Asia. New initiatives include:

• Bridges to Peace - Preventing and countering

violent extremism and terrorism in Uganda

• Environment of Peace - Youth-led research on

climate, environment, and peace

• Voices of Reconciliation - Using music to strengthen

youth’s resilience to violence in Colombia

• Champions for Peace - Empowering young people

in Southeast Asia

The Foundation has launched the Leadership Excellence

in Politics (LEiP) initiative focused on rebuilding trust in

political leadership for the 21st century. Additionally,

the Kofi Annan NextGen Democracy Prize has been

established to recognise exceptional leadership in

defending, renewing, and promoting democracy.

Ethical and democratic leadership

The WYDE Civic Engagement - Accountability Hubs

brings together a group of exceptional young leaders

from sub-Saharan Africa in a comprehensive digital

and in-person training and networking programme to

enhance their skills in ethical and democratic leadership,

project management, advocacy, and communications

and develop pilot actions to put their project ideas into

practice with dedicated seed grants.

Digital tools and AI

The Foundation works with civil society, electoral

management bodies, and the private sector to

develop capacity and tools to counter electoral-related

disinformation. It has developed a tool, the Electoral

Vulnerability Index, to identify elections at risk from

digital threats and predict election-related violence.

The Foundation has published a report titled ‘GenAI at

the Ballot Box: A Review of Generative AI Use in the 2024

European Parliament Elections’ and convened discussions

1

While the Foundation does not use this terminology to describe its work, we have adopted it in line with our internal taxonomy. Its use in this publication


450

with policymakers and civil society in Brussels to identify

strategies to protect future elections from the malicious

use of AI.

Human rights issues

Digital rights and youth participation

The Digitalise Youth Project, part of the Digital Democracy

Initiative, aims to address the shrinking civic space and

rampant disinformation in the Sahel and neighbouring

regions by empowering local youth activists and civil

society organisations. Launched in January 2025, it

focuses on enhancing digital skills, promoting civic tech

solutions, and raising awareness about online political

engagement. By connecting human rights defenders and

the tech community, the project equips young activists

and media organisations with the knowledge and tools to

navigate the digital ecosystem, protect themselves from

surveillance, and fight against disinformation. In addition

to its capacity-building work, Digitalise Youth’s advocacy

efforts seek to promote digital rights at local, regional,

and international levels.

Ensuring the protection of human rights in the digital

era

The Foundation works with electoral stakeholders to

mitigate the impact of online disinformation and hate

speech and to ensure that threats from the digital space

do not undermine citizens’ rights to political participation

and that digital tools increase voters’ ability to make

informed and educated electoral decisions.

The Foundation has also established a gender, equality,

and inclusion initiative to ensure these principles are

integrated across all its work.

Violent extremism

The Extremely Together programme consists of young

people from around the world working to counter the

impact of extremism in their communities. The initial

cohort of ten impressive leaders has grown to include

national hubs throughout South and Southeast Asia,

East Africa, and the Sahel. Digital tools allow these young

people to draw on the network and support of the Kofi

Annan Foundation and share experiences to improve the

impact of their work.

Interdisciplinary approaches 2

Supporting elections with integrity

Regarding its activities on elections and democracy,

the Foundation’s digital work is based on KACEDDA’s

findings. The Commission was first established in 2018

2

While the Foundation does not use this terminology to describe its work, we have adopted it in line with our internal taxonomy. Its use in this publication


451

and was composed of members from civil society and

government, the technology sector, academia, and the

media. The objectives of the Commission were to identify

and frame the challenges to electoral integrity arising

from the global spread of digital technologies and social

media platforms, develop policy measures to tackle

these challenges and highlight the opportunities that

technological change offers for strengthening electoral

integrity and political participation, and define and

articulate an advocacy programme to ensure that the key

messages emerging from the Commission were widely

diffused and debated around the world.

The Kofi Foundation has joined the Global Network for

Securing Electoral Integrity (GNSEI), which convenes

election stakeholders to advance electoral integrity in the

face of critical threats to democracy.

The Foundation’s Elections and Democracy projects are

active in countries including Ghana, Kenya, the DRC,

Malaysia, Nigeria, and more broadly in Sub-Saharan

Africa. In 2022, the Foundation urged Kenyan electoral

candidates to pledge to appropriate and peaceful online

behaviour, including avoiding all forms of gender-based

violence, as part of its project ‘Securing the Digital

Environment for the 2022 Election in Kenya’, funded by

UNDEF.

In addition to articles addressing issues such as the

interplay between democracy and the internet, the impact

of digital on elections and democracy in West Africa, and

digital dangers to democracy, the Commission published

an extensive report titled Protecting Electoral Integrity in

452

the Digital Age. It addresses, among other things, hate

speech, disinformation, online political advertising, and

foreign interference in elections. The report proposes

a set of 13 recommendations that address capacity

building, norm building, and actions to be taken by public

authorities and social media platforms. The Foundation

is now working to implement certain recommendations,

in cooperation with key stakeholders from civil society,

academia, the private sector, and government.

The Foundation has published additional reports,

including ‘Eliminating Violence Against Women in

Politics’, and has hosted workshops addressing online

gender-based political violence, such as a two-day

multistakeholder workshop with the Centre for Multiparty

Democracy (CMD-Kenya) in Nairobi in November 2021.

In 2022, the Foundation joined the European Partnership

for Democracy (EPD) network to reinforce European

actions promoting democracy worldwide. It regularly

convenes discussions in Brussels to strengthen and

inform EU mechanisms that play a role in protecting

digital rights, such as the Media Freedom Act and the

Artificial Intelligence Act.

Advancing multilateralism

The Foundation has expanded its focus to include a

dedicated area of multilateralism that advocates for a

fairer, more inclusive multilateral system. Key initiatives

include:

DIGITAL TOOLS

• Multilateralism and Democracy - Understanding

how democratic leadership is essential to solving

global challenges

• Kofi Annan Commission on Food Security -

Calling for urgent action to reform global food

governance

The Foundation is collaborating with the Albert

Hirschman Centre on Democracy on a project titled

‘Understanding the Links Between Multilateralism and

Democracy to Tackle Global Challenges More Effectively’,

which includes thematic roundtables on topics such as

‘Artificial Intelligence and Democracy’.

Digital tools

Raising awareness of Kofi Annan’s legacy

The Kofi Annan Foundation uses digital tools to raise

awareness of Kofi Annan’s legacy, by providing electronic

access to selected speeches and quotations, as well as to

a collection of his papers compiled by the City University

of New York on our website and to some of his recorded

statements and discussions via our official YouTube

channel.

Through our podcast, Kofi Time, we promote Kofi Annan’s

values and their relevance today to a global audience.

In Kofi Time, Ahmad Fawzi, one of Kofi Annan’s former

spokespersons and communications advisors, examines

how Kofi Annan tackled a specific crisis and its relevance

to today’s world and challenges. Kofi Annan’s call to bring

453

all stakeholders to the table – including the private sector,

local authorities, civil society organisations, academia,

and scientists – resonates now more than ever with

many who understand that governments alone cannot

shape our future.

In the first 10-part series, Fawzi interviews some of Kofi

Annan’s closest advisors and colleagues, including Dr

Peter Piot, Christiane Amanpour, Mark Malloch-Brown,

Michael Møller, and others. Kofi Time is available to stream

via the Kofi Annan Foundation website, SoundCloud,

Spotify, and Apple Podcasts.


Facebook @KofiAnnanFoundation

Instagram @KofiAnnanFoundation

LinkedIn @Kofi Annan Foundation

YouTube @Kofi Annan Foundation

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

(OHCHR) 1

Palais Wilson 52 | Rue des Pâquis | 1201 Geneva | Switzerland

www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage

1

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and other related UN human rights entities,

namely the United Nations Human Rights Council, the Special Procedures, and the Treaty Bodies are considered

together under this section.

About the OHCHR

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner

for Human Rights and other related UN human rights

entities, namely the United Nations Human Rights

Council, the Special Procedures, and the Treaty Bodies,

are considered together under this section.

The UN Human Rights Office is headed by the High

Commissioner for Human Rights and is the principal

UN entity on human rights. Also known as UN Human

Rights, it is part of the UN Secretariat. UN Human

Rights has been mandated by the UNGA to promote

and protect all human rights. As such, it plays a crucial

role in supporting the three fundamental pillars

of the UN: peace and security, human rights, and

development. UN Human Rights provides technical

expertise and capacity development in regard to the

implementation of human rights, and in this capacity

assists governments in fulfilling their obligations.

UN Human Rights is associated with a number of

other UN human rights entities. To illustrate, it serves

as the secretariat for the UN Human Rights Council

(UNHRC) and the Treaty Bodies. The UNHRC is a body

of the UN that aims to promote the respect of human

rights worldwide. It discusses thematic issues, and

in addition to its ordinary session, it has the ability

to hold special sessions on serious human rights

violations and emergencies. The ten Treaty Bodies

are committees of independent experts that monitor

the implementation of the core international human

rights treaties.

The UNHRC established the Special Procedures,

which are made up of UN Special Rapporteurs (i.e.

independent experts or working groups) working on

a variety of human rights thematic issues and country

situations to assist the efforts of the UNHRC through

regular reporting and advice. The Universal Periodic

Review (UPR), under the auspices of the UNHRC, is a

unique process that involves a review of the human

rights records of all UN member states, providing the

opportunity for each state to declare what actions

they have taken to improve the human rights situation

in their countries. UN Human Rights also serves as the

secretariat to the UPR process.

Certain NGOs and national human rights institutions

participate as observers in UNHRC sessions after

receiving the necessary accreditation.

456

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Digital issues are increasingly gaining prominence in the

work of the UN Human Rights, the UNHRC, the Special

Procedures, the UPR, and the Treaty Bodies. The GDC,

adopted in September 2024, recognised the central role

of human rights in all digitalisation efforts, identifying

respect, protection and promotion of human rights as

one of its main objectives, and designating UN Human

Rights as one of the main implementing UN entities..

A landmark document that provides a blueprint for

digital human rights is the UNHRC resolution (A/

HRC/20/8) on the promotion, protection, and enjoyment

of human rights on the internet, first adopted in 2012,

starting a string of regular resolutions with the same

name addressing a growing number of issues. All

resolutions affirm that the same rights that people have

offline must also be protected online. Numerous other

resolutions and reports from UN human rights entities

and experts considered in this overview tackle an evergrowing

range of other digital issues including the right

to privacy in the digital age; freedom of expression and

opinion; freedom of association and peaceful assembly;

the rights of older persons; racial discrimination; the

rights of women and girls; human rights in the context

of violent extremism online; economic, social, and

cultural rights; human rights and technical standard

setting; business and human rights; and the safety of

journalists. In 2024, UN Human Rights published an

overview report (A/HRC/56/45) mapping the work and

recommendations of the UNHRC, UN Human Rights,

Human Rights Treaty Bodies, and Special Procedures

in the domain of human rights and new and emerging

digital technologies, including AI.

457

Credit: ohchr.org



UN Human Rights works extensively in the AI field. For

example, a 2021 report to the UNHRC (A/HRC/48/31)

analysed how AI impacts the enjoyment of the right to

privacy and other human rights in areas such as policing,

delivery of public services, employment and online

information management. It clarified measures that

states and businesses should take to ensure that AI is

developed and used in ways that benefit human rights

and prevent and mitigate harm.

The UN Human Rights B-Tech Project is running a

Generative AI project that demonstrates how the UN

Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights should

guide more effective understanding, mitigation, and

governance of the risks associated with generative AI. The

B-Tech Project also contributes to the implementation of

the GDC, in particular with regard to the implementation

of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human

Rights regarding AI products and services.

UN Human Rights also weighs in on specific policy and

regulatory debates, such as an open letter concerning

the negotiations of the EU AI Act. A brief titled Key

Asks for State Regulation of AI, released in 2025, offers

recommendations on AI regulation for states.

In 2018, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion

and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and

expression presented a report to the UNGA on Artificial

Intelligence (AI) Technologies and Implications for the

Information Environment. Among other things, the

458

document addresses the role of AI in the enjoyment of

freedom of opinion and expression, including ‘access

to the rules of the game when it comes to AI-driven

platforms and websites’ and therefore calls for a human

rights-based approach to AI.

For her 2020 thematic report to the Human Rights

Council, the UN Special Rapporteur on contemporary

forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia,

and related intolerance analysed different forms of

racial discrimination in the design and use of emerging

technologies, including the structural and institutional

dimensions of this discrimination. She followed up with

reports examining how digital technologies, including

AI-driven predictive models, deployed in the context

of border enforcement and administration, reproduce,

reinforce, and compound racial discrimination. In 2024,

the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism,

racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance

published a new thematic report, highlighting how the

belief that technology is neutral allows AI to perpetuate

racial discrimination. Through examples, she examines

issues like data problems, algorithm design, intentional

misuse, and accountability, analysing efforts and

providing recommendations for regulation to prevent

racial discrimination. In 2023, the Special Rapporteur on

the right to privacy published a report on the principles

of transparency and explainability in the processing of

personal data in AI (A/78/310), stressing the importance

of taking measures to ensure that AI is ethical, responsible,

and human rights-compliant.

Several other special procedures mandate holders

have discussed AI and human rights, including in

reports on the implications of AI for the right to

freedom of thought 1 , the right to education 2 , the

right to health 3 , the rights of older persons 4 , and the

rights of persons with disabilities 5 . Important insights

concerning AI have also been presented in areas such

as counter-terrorism6, and extreme poverty 7 .

In its 2021 report on new and emerging digital

technologies, the Human Rights Council Advisory

Committee discussed issues associated with AI 8 .

In 2020, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial

Discrimination published its General Recommendation

No. 36 on preventing and combating racial profiling

by law enforcement officials (CERD/C/GC/36), which

focuses on algorithmic decision-making and AI in

relation to racial profiling by law enforcement officials.

Child safety online 9

The issue of child safety online has garnered the

attention of UN human rights entities for some time.

The 2016 resolution on Rights of the Child: Information

and Communications Technologies and Child Sexual

Exploitation adopted by the UNHRC calls on states

to ensure ‘full, equal, inclusive, and safe access [...] to

information and communications technologies by all

children and safeguard the protection of children online

and offline’, as well as the legal protection of children

from sexual abuse and exploitation online. The Special

Rapporteur on the sale and sexual exploitation of

children, including child prostitution, child pornography,

and other child sexual abuse material, mandated by the

UNHRC to analyse the root causes of the sale and sexual

exploitation and promote measures to prevent it, also

looks at issues related to child abuse, such as the sexual

exploitation of children online, as addressed in a report

(A/HRC/43/40) published in 2020, but also in earlier

reports.

1

A/76/380

2

A/HRC/50/32

3

A/HRC/53/65

4

A/HRC/36/48 and A/HRC/45/14

5

A/HRC/49/52

6

See A/HRC/52/39; and https://law.umn.edu/human-rights-center/research/use-biometric-data-identify-terrorists

7

See A/74/493, A/HRC/38/33/Add.1, A/HRC/41/39/Add.1 and A/HRC/50/38

8

A/HRC/47/52

9

Within the work of the UN Human Rights, ‘child safety online’ is referred to as ‘rights of the child’ and dealt with as a human rights issue.

459

The Committee on the Rights of the Child published its

General Comment No. 25 on Children’s Rights in Relation

to the Digital Environment (CRC/C/GC/25), which lays out

how states parties should implement the convention

in relation to the digital environment and provides

guidance on relevant legislative, policy, and other

measures to ensure full compliance with their obligations

under the convention and the optional protocols in the

light of opportunities, risks, and challenges in promoting,

respecting, protecting, and fulfilling all children’s rights in

the digital environment.

In 2024, the resolution A/HRC/RES/56/6 on the Safety of

the Child in the Digital Environment was adopted by the

UNHRC. This resolution requests the Office of the United

Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to hold five

regional workshops to assess child safety in the digital

environment, involving various stakeholders. UN Human

Rights is also asked to prepare a report summarising

these consultations with recommendations for a global

framework on child safety, to be presented at the Human

Rights Council’s sixty-second session, in June 2026.

Human Rights Council resolution 56/6 requested UN

Human Rights to convene a series of consultations to

assess the risks to the safety of the child in the digital

environment and related best practices and to publish a

report on these consultations in June 2026.

Data governance

UN Human Rights maintains an online platform consisting

of a number of databases on anti-discrimination and

jurisprudence, as well as the Universal Human Rights

Index (UHRI), which provides access to recommendations

issued to countries by Treaty Bodies, Special Procedures,

and the UPR of the UNHCR.

UN Human Rights’ report A Human Rights-Based

Approach to Data – Leaving no one Behind in the 2030

Agenda for Sustainable Development specifically focuses

on issues of data collection and disaggregation in the

context of sustainable development.

UN Human Rights has worked closely with partners

across the UN system in contributing to the Secretary-

General’s 2020 Data Strategy. It was co-led with the Office

of Legal Affairs and UN Global Pulse in drafting the Data

protection and privacy policy for the Secretariat of the

United Nations (ST/SGB/2024/3).

UN Human Rights is an observer in the Working Group

on Data Governance at all levels under the auspices

of the Commission on Science and Technology for

Development, established by the GDC.

460


UN Human Rights launched the Guiding Principles

in Technology Project (B-Tech Project) to provide

guidance and resources to companies operating in the

technology space with regard to the implementation

of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human

Rights (UNGPs on BHR). It also provides advice to states

with regard to their duty to protect human rights from

adverse impacts stemming from business activities, and

the mix of measures of regulatory and policy options for

doing so. Following the publication of a B-Tech scoping

paper in 2019, several foundational papers have delved

into a broad range of business-related human rights

issues, from business-model-related human rights risks

to access to remedies. At the heart of the B-Tech Project

lies multistakeholder engagement, informing all of its

outputs. The B-Tech Project is enhancing its engagement

in Africa and Asia, working with technology company

operators, governments, investors, and other key digital

economy stakeholders, including civil society, across

Africa in a set of African economies and their tech hubs

to create awareness of implementing the UNGPs on BHR.

Another thematic priority is B-Tech’s work on women’s

and girls’ rights.

Following a multistakeholder consultation held on 7–8

March 2022, the High Commissioner presented a report

on UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human

Rights and Technology Companies (A/HRC/50/56), which

demonstrated the value and practical application of the

UNGPs in preventing and addressing adverse human

rights impacts of technology companies.

Extreme poverty 10

The Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human

rights has, in recent years, increased his analysis of

human rights issues arising in the context of increased

digitisation and automation. His 2017 report to the

General Assembly tackled the socio-economic challenges

in an emerging world where automation and AI threaten

traditional sources of income and analysed the promises

and possible pitfalls of introducing a universal basic

income. His General Assembly report in 2019 addressed

worrying trends in connection with the digitisation of the

welfare state. Moreover, in his 2022 report to the UNHRC

on non-take-up of rights in the context of social protection,

the Special Rapporteur highlighted, among other things,

the benefits and considerable risks associated with the

automation of social protection processes.

Content policy

Geneva-based human rights organisations and

mechanisms have consistently addressed content policy

questions, in particular in the documents referred to

10

Within the work of the UN Human Rights, ‘extreme poverty’ is dealt with as a human rights issue.

461

under the freedom of expression and the freedom of

peaceful assembly and of association. Other contexts

where content policy plays an important role include

rights of the child, gender rights online, and rights of

persons with disabilities. Moreover, the use of digital

technologies in the context of terrorism and violent

extremism is closely associated with content policy

considerations.

In 2016, UN Human Rights, at the request of the UNHRC,

prepared a compilation report exploring, among other

issues, aspects related to the prevention and countering

of violent extremism online, and underscores that

responses to violent extremism that are robustly built on

human rights are more effective and sustainable.

Additional efforts were made in 2019 when the Special

Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human

rights and fundamental freedoms while countering

terrorism published a report examining the multifaceted

impacts of counter-terrorism measures on civic space

and the rights of civil society actors and human rights

defenders, including measures taken to address vaguely

defined terrorist and violent extremist content. In July

2020, she published a report discussing the human

rights implications of the use of biometric data to identify

terrorists and recommended safeguards that should be

taken.

In August 2022, responding to a request from the General

Assembly in resolution A/RES/76/227, the Secretary-

General released his Countering Disinformation for

the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms (A/77/287) report, outlining

the challenges of disinformation, the international legal

framework and the information and best practices

shared by states, UN entities, and others on countering

disinformation. A public webpage has been published to

highlight the disinformation topic.

In 2023, the Secretary-General published the Report

on Terrorism and Human Rights (A/78/269), further

analysing the impact of counter-terrorism measures on

civic space with a special consideration on the use of new

technologies in counter-terrorism efforts.


Collaboration within the UN system

UN Human Rights has led a UN system-wide process to

develop a human rights due diligence (HRDD) guidance

for digital technology, as requested by the Secretary-

General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation and his Call

to Action for Human Rights. The HRDD guidance pertains

to the application of human rights due diligence and

human rights impact assessment related to the UN’s

design, development, procurement, and use of digital

technologies, and was completed in 2022. The guidance

was adopted by the Executive Committee in 2024 and

is being rolled out. The HRDD Guidance has sparked

interest from other organisations and states.

462

As part of the implementation of the Secretary-General’s

Call to Action for Human Rights, UN Human Rights

launched the UN Hub for Human rights and Digital

Technology, which provides a central repository of

authoritative guidance from various UN human rights

mechanisms on the application of human rights norms

to the use and governance of digital technologies.

In addition, UN Human Rights is a member of the

Legal Identity Agenda Task Force, which promotes

solutions for the implementation of SDG target 16.9

(i.e. by 2030, provide legal identity for all, including free

birth registration). It leads its work on exclusion and

discrimination in the context of digitised identity systems.

The Secretary-General addressed, in his report on

human rights in the administration of justice (A/79/296)

published in 2024, human rights challenges and good

practices of the application of digital technologies and

artificial intelligence in the administration of justice. The

report provides a summary of UN activities to support

states and civil society in their efforts to develop and

implement digital and AI systems in the administration

of justice, with a focus on human rights.

Technical standard settings and human rights

In June 2023, UN Human Rights presented the first

UN report systematically analysing the intersection

of technical standards-setting and human rights. It

sheds light on how technical standards shape how

human rights can be enjoyed in a digital environment.

It identifies multiple challenges and provides extensive

463

recommendations for the effective integration of

human rights considerations into standards-setting

processes. UN Human Rights has rolled out a project

for the coming years to support the implementation of

those recommendations. As part of this project, it works

closely with standard-setting organisations, such as the

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and many

stakeholders, including states, civil society, the technical

community, academic institutions, and businesses.

United Nations Convention against Cybercrime

UN Human Rights participated in the process of the

negotiation of the new United Nations Convention

against Cybercrime, adopted by the General Assembly

in December 2024. The Office supported member

states with in-depth analysis and recommendations for

aligning the treaty with human rights law, standards and

principles, and will continue providing advice in this area.

Neurotechnology

Rapid advancements in neurotechnology and

neuroscience, while holding promises of medical benefits

and scientific breakthroughs, pose a number of human

rights and ethical challenges. Against this backdrop, UN

Human Rights has been contributing significantly to an

inter-agency process led by the Executive Office of the

Secretary-General to develop a global roadmap for the

effective and inclusive governance of neurotechnology.

In 2024, at the request of the UNHRC in its resolution

51/3, the Advisory Committee published a study

report on the impact, opportunities, and challenges

of neurotechnology with regard to the promotion

and protection of all human rights (A/HRC/57/61). This

report, available in an easy-to-read format, highlights

the specific human rights at risk, identifies vulnerable

groups, examines settings where individuals are exposed

to coercive uses of neurotechnologies, and explores

aspects of human augmentation. It also provides insights

into solutions to maximise opportunities and outlines a

protective framework to mitigate risks.

Two resolutions on neurotechnology and human

rights (A/HRC/RES/51/3 and A/HRC/RES/58/6) were

published in 2022 and 2025, respectively, emphasising

the importance of promoting and protecting human

rights in the context of neurotechnology and digital

advancements. The resolutions highlight the need for

ethical, legal, and societal considerations to ensure human

dignity, autonomy, and non-discrimination. The most

recent resolution also asked the Advisory Committee

to draft a set of recommended guidelines for applying

the existing human rights framework to the conception,

design, development, testing, use, and deployment of

neurotechnologies.

In 2025, the Special Rapporteur on the right to privacy

published a report titled Foundations and Principles for

the Regulation of Neurotechnologies and the Processing

of Neurodata from the Perspective of the Right to Privacy

(A/HRC/58/58).

Global Digital Compact

Objective 3 of the GDC highlights the importance of

fostering an inclusive, open, safe and secure digital space

that respects, protects, and promotes human rights.

UN Human Rights co-leads the implementation of this

objective with UNESCO and safeguards the integration

of human rights aspects throughout the text. In the

framework of this objective, the GDC acknowledged its

human rights advisory service for digital technologies,

which aims to bridge the gap in expertise at the

intersection of digital technologies and human rights by

offering tailored advice, building capacity, and informing

states and stakeholders.

Smart cities

‘Making Cities Right for Young People’ is a participatory

research project, supported by Foundation Botnar, which

examines the impact of the digitalisation of cities on the

enjoyment of human rights. It also examines strategies

to ensure that ‘smartness’ is measured not solely by

technological advancements but by the realisation and

promotion of inhabitants’ human rights and well-being,

and explores ways to promote digital technologies for

civic engagement, participation, and the public good, with

a focus on meaningful youth participation in decisionmaking

processes. Launched in 2023, this project surveys

the current landscape and details key human rights issues

in urban digitalisation. Based on participatory research

carried out in three geographically, socially, culturally, and

politically diverse cities, it produced a report with initial

464

findings and developed a roadmap for future humanrights-based

work on smart cities. Building on this first

phase of the project, it will expand its geographical

scope and support future youth engagement in urban

digitalisation processes.

Migration

In 2020, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms

of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related

intolerance published a report titled Racial Discrimination

and Emerging Digital Technologies: A Human Rights

Analysis (A/HRC/44/57), outlining the human rights

obligations of states and corporations to address it.

In 2021, the Special Rapporteur published a

complementary report (A/HRC/48/76), addressing the

issue of the development and use of emerging digital

technologies in ways that are uniquely experimental,

dangerous, and discriminatory in the border and

immigration enforcement context. The report highlights

that technologies are being used to promote xenophobic

and racially discriminatory ideologies, often due to

perceptions of refugees and migrants as security threats,

and the pursuit of efficiency without human rights

safeguards, with significant economic profits from border

securitisation and digitisation exacerbating the issue.

In September 2023, UN Human Rights published a study,

conducted with the University of Essex, that analyses the

far-reaching human rights implications of specific border

technologies. It provides recommendations to states

and stakeholders on how to take a human-rights-based

approach in ensuring the use of digital technologies at

borders aligns with international human rights law and

standards. The study draws from a collective body of

expertise, research, and evidence, as well as extensive

interviews and collaborative meetings with experts.


Challenges to the right to privacy in the digital age, such

as surveillance, communications interception, and the

increased use of data-intensive technologies, are among

the issues covered by the activities of the UN Human

Rights. At the request of the UNGA and the UNHRC, the

High Commissioner prepared four reports on the right

to privacy in the digital age. The first report, presented

in 2014, addressed the threat to human rights caused

by surveillance by governments, in particular mass

surveillance. The ensuing report, published in September

2018, identified key principles, standards, and best

practices regarding the promotion and protection of the

right to privacy. It outlined minimum standards for data

privacy legal frameworks. In September 2021, the High

Commissioner presented a ground-breaking report on

AI and the right to privacy (A/HRC/48/31), in which she

called for a ban on AI applications that are incompatible

with international human rights law, and stressed the

urgent need for a moratorium on the sale and use of

AI systems that pose serious human rights risks until

adequate safeguards are put in place. In September 2022,

the High Commissioner presented a report focusing

465

on the abuse of spyware by public authorities, the key

role of encryption in ensuring the enjoyment of human

rights in the digital age, and the widespread monitoring

of public spaces. The new report, based on resolution

54/21, is expected to be published in September 2025. In

2023 and 2024, UN Human Rights published two briefs

titled What is Encryption? and Hacking & Spyware. While

the first document explains the encryption process, its

restrictions, and its relationship with privacy, the second

document emphasises the impact of spyware and human

rights and key measures to end abuses.

The UNHRC also tackles online privacy and data

protection. Resolutions on the promotion and

protection of human rights on the internet have

underlined the need to address security concerns on

the internet in accordance with international human

rights obligations to ensure the protection of all human

rights online, including the right to privacy. The UNHRC

has also adopted specific resolutions on the right to

privacy in the digital age, addressing issues such as

mass surveillance, AI, the responsibility of business

enterprises, and the key role of the right to privacy as

an enabler of other human rights. Resolutions on the

safety of journalists have emphasised the importance

of encryption and anonymity tools for journalists to

freely exercise their work. Two resolutions on new and

emerging technologies (2019 and 2021) have further

broadened the lens, for example, by asking for a report

on the human rights implications of technical standardsetting

processes.

The UNHRC has also mandated the Special Rapporteur

on the right to privacy to address the issue of online

privacy in its 2015 Resolution on the Right to Privacy

in the Digital Age (A/HRC/RES/28/16). To illustrate,

the Special Rapporteur has addressed the question of

privacy from the stance of surveillance in the digital age

(A/HRC/34/60), which becomes particularly challenging

in the context of cross-border data flows. More recently,

specific attention has been given to the privacy of health

data that is increasingly being produced in the day and

age of digitalisation, and that requires the highest legal

and ethical standards (A/HRC/40/63). In this vein, in

2020, the Special Rapporteur examined data protection

and surveillance in relation to COVID-19 and contact

tracing in his preliminary report (A/75/147), in which he

provided a more definitive analysis of how pandemics

can be managed with respect to the right to privacy

(A/76/220). In another 2020 report (A/HRC/43/52), the

Special Rapporteur provides a set of recommendations

on privacy in the online space calling for, among other

things, ‘comprehensive protection for secure digital

communications, including by promoting strong

encryption and anonymity- enhancing tools, products,

and services, and resisting requests for “backdoors”

to digital communications’ and recommending that

‘government digital identity programmes are not

used to monitor and enforce societal gender norms,

or for purposes that are not lawful, necessary, and

proportionate in a democratic society.’

466

The Special Rapporteur also addressed the challenges of

AI and privacy, as well as children’s privacy, particularly

the role of privacy in supporting autonomy and positive

participation of children in society, in his 2021 report

(A/HRC/46/37).

In 2022, the Special Rapporteur examined developments

in privacy and data protection in Ibero-America in her

report titled Privacy and Personal Data Protection

in Ibero-America: A Step Towards Globalization? (A/

HRC/49/55), and published the principles underpinning

privacy and the protection of personal data (A/77/196).

More recently, in 2023, at the request of the UNHRC,

the Special Rapporteur addressed the issue of

the implementation of the principles of purpose

limitation, deletion of data and demonstrated or

proactive accountability in the processing of personal

data collected by public entities in the context of the

COVID-19 pandemic (A/HRC/52/37).

In her 2024 report titled Legal Safeguards for Personal

Data Protection and Privacy in the Digital Age (A/

HRC/55/46), the Special Rapporteur provided a

comparative study of personal data protection and

privacy laws across five continents. The report examines

mechanisms for data subjects to control their personal

data and legal avenues for protecting their rights

and addressing misuse. During the same year, the

Special Rapporteur proposed the updating of General

Assembly resolution 45/95 Guidelines for the regulation

of computerized personal data files (A/79/173), to bring

it into line with the socio-technological reality of the

twenty-first century.

Freedom of expression

The High Commissioner and his office advocate for the

promotion and protection of freedom of expression,

including in the online space. Key topics in this advocacy

are the protection of the civic space and the safety of

journalists online; various forms of information control,

including internet shutdowns and censorship; addressing

incitement to violence, discrimination, or hostility;

disinformation; and the role of social media platforms in

the space of online expression.

Freedom of expression in the digital space also features

highly on the agenda of the UNHRC. It has often been

underlined that states have a responsibility to ensure

adequate protection of freedom of expression online,

including adopting and implementing measures aimed

at dealing with issues such as cybersecurity, incitement

to violence, and the promotion and distribution of

extremist content online. The UNHRC has also been

firm in condemning measures to intentionally prevent

or disrupt access to or the dissemination of information

online and has called on states to refrain from and cease

such measures.

In 2021, at the request of the UNHRC resolution

47/16, the High Commissioner prepared a report on

internet shutdowns (A/HRC/50/55), which looks at

467

trends in internet shutdowns, analysing their causes,

legal implications, and impact on a range of human

rights, including economic, social, and cultural rights.

She called on states to refrain from the full range of

internet shutdowns and for companies to uphold their

responsibilities to respect human rights. She stressed

the need for development agencies and regional and

international organisations to bridge their digital

connectivity efforts with efforts related to internet

shutdowns. The UNHRC resolution 57/29 mandated UN

Human Rights

to prepare a report on a human rights approach to

meaningful connectivity and overcoming digital divides,

including addressing threats to individuals’ access to the

internet. The report will be presented in June 2026.

UN Human Rights also weighs in on a range of law-making

processes that are relevant to the exercise of the right

to freedom of expression. For example, it has engaged

with the development of the EU Digital Services Act and

commented extensively on global trends in regulating

social media.

Special Rapporteurs on the promotion and protection

of the right to freedom of opinion and expression

have been analysing issues relating to free expression

in the digital space for more than a decade. Reports

in the first half of the 2010s already addressed the

importance of universal access to the internet for

the enjoyment of human rights, free expression in

the context of elections, and the adverse impacts of

government surveillance on free expression. In 2018,

the Special Rapporteur published a report on online

content regulation. It tackles governments’ regulation

of user-generated online content, analyses the role

of companies, and recommends that states should

ensure an enabling environment for online freedom of

expression and that businesses should rely on human

rights law when designing their products and services.

UN Human Rights published a brief on the thematic

report titled A Human Rights Approach to Online

Content Regulation. The same year, he also presented

to the UNGA a report addressing freedom of expression

issues linked to the use of AI by companies and states.

A year later, the Special Rapporteur presented a report

to the UNGA on online hate speech that discusses the

regulation of hate speech in international human rights

law and how it provides a basis for government actors

considering regulatory options and for companies

determining how to respect human rights online.

In 2020, the Special Rapporteur issued Disease Pandemics

and the Freedom of Opinion and Expression, a report that

specifically tackles issues such as access to the internet,

which is highlighted to be ‘a critical element of healthcare

policy and practice, public information, and even the right

to life’. Other reports addressed the vital importance of

encryption and anonymity for the exercise of freedom

of opinion and the threats to freedom of expression

emanating from widespread digital surveillance.

The Special Rapporteur, while acknowledging the

complexities and challenges posed by disinformation

468

in the digital age, noted that responses by states

and companies to counter disinformation were

inadequate and detrimental to human rights. In her

2021 report Disinformation and Freedom of Opinion

and Expression (A/HRC/47/25), she examined the

threats posed by disinformation to human rights,

democratic institutions, and development processes,

and called for multidimensional and multistakeholder

responses to disinformation that are well grounded in

the international human rights framework and urged

companies to review their business models and states

to recalibrate their responses to disinformation.

More recently, in 2022, the Special Rapporteur

issued Reinforcing Media Freedom and the Safety of

Journalists in the Digital Age (A/HRC/50/29), a report

in which she calls on states and the international

community to strengthen multistakeholder

cooperation to protect and promote media freedom

and the safety of journalists in the digital age, and

ensure independence, pluralism, and viability of the

media. She also calls on digital services companies

and social media platforms to respect the UNGPs on

BHR.

Online hate speech and discrimination have also been

addressed by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of

religion and belief. For instance, a report published

in 2019 underscored the online manifestation of

antisemitism (including antisemitic hate speech)

and shared best practices from the Netherlands

and Poland. The report highlights that governments

have an affirmative responsibility to address online

antisemitism, as the digital sphere is now the primary

public forum and marketplace for ideas’. In another

document published that same year, the Special

Rapporteur assesses the impact of online platforms

on discrimination and on the perpetuation of hostile

and violent acts in the name of religion, as well as how

restrictive measures such as blocking and filtering of

websites negatively impact the freedom of expression.

The issue of online blasphemy and undue limitations

on expressing critical views of religions and beliefs

imposed by governments has also been addressed on

a number of occasions, including in a 2018 report.

In 2024, the High Commissioner for Human Rights, at

the request of the UNHRC, prepared a thematic report

identifying challenges and best practices in assessing

civic space trends, along with recommendations to

enhance information-gathering. Based on inputs from

states and civil society, the report highlights the roles

of various actors, common elements of civic space,

gaps, and challenges, and calls for increased data

access, safe working conditions for contributors, and

improved assessment of online civic space trends. UN

Human Rights published a brief titled Tracking civic

space trends, related to this report.

In 2023 and 2025, UN Human Rights published two briefs

on internet shutdowns and social media platforms

469

in the Middle East, North and East Africa. While the

first document explains the importance of shutdowns,

their human rights violations, and how to prevent and

respond to them, the second document addresses

issues faced by human rights defenders, including online

attacks, platform policies, and access, and highlights key

recommendations.

During its 58th session, the UNHRC adopted a resolution

titled Human Rights Defenders and New and Emerging

Technologies: Protecting Human Rights Defenders,

Including Women Human Rights Defenders, in the

Digital Age (A/HRC/58/23), which asked UN Human

Rights to convene regional workshops and prepare a

report about risks created by digital technologies to

human rights defenders and best practices to respond

to these concerns.

Gender rights online

On several occasions, UN Human Rights and the UNHRC

have reiterated the need for countries to bridge the

gender digital divide and enhance the use of ICTs,

including the internet, to promote the empowerment

of all women and girls. It has also condemned genderbased

violence committed on the internet. Implementing

a 2016 UNHRC resolution on the Promotion, Protection,

and Enjoyment of Human Rights on the Internet, in

2017, the High Commissioner on Human Rights prepared

a report on ways to bridge the gender digital divide

from a human rights perspective.

470

Rights of persons with disabilities

The promotion and protection of the rights of persons

with disabilities in the online space have been repeatedly

addressed by the UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of

persons with disabilities. A 2016 report underscored that

ICTs, including the internet, can increase the participation

of persons with disabilities in public decision-making

processes and that states should work towards reducing

the access gap between those who can use ICTs and

those who cannot.

Nevertheless, a 2019 report stressed that the shift to

e-governance and service delivery in a digital manner

can hamper access for older persons with disabilities

who may lack the necessary skills or equipment.

The Special Rapporteur also examined the opportunities

and risks posed by AI, including discriminatory impacts

in relation to AI in decision-making systems. In his

2021 report (A/HRC/49/52), the Special Rapporteur

emphasises the importance of disability-inclusive AI and

the inclusion of persons with disabilities in conversations

about AI.

More recently, in 2024, at the request of the UNHCR

resolution 51/10, the High Commissioner prepared a

report on cyberbullying against persons with disabilities.

The report examines the experiences of persons with

disabilities facing cyberbullying, the relevant human

rights frameworks, prevailing trends and challenges,

promising counter-cyberbullying practices, and provides

recommendations for rights-respecting responses and

inclusion in the digital environment.

Rights of older persons

The mandate of the Independent Expert on the

enjoyment of all human rights by older persons has

repeatedly addressed complex issues relating to digital

technologies, for example, in the report Robots and

Rights: The Impact of Automation on the Human

Rights of Older Persons (A/HRC/36/48) and on data

gaps concerning older persons (A/HRC/45/14). In 2026,

UN Human Rights will publish a report on countering

cyberbullying against older persons, as requested by

the UNHRC (resolution 57/6).

Freedom of peaceful assembly and association

The exercise of the rights to freedom of peaceful

assembly and association in the digital environment

has attracted increased attention in recent years. For

example, the High Commissioner presented a report

on new technologies such as ICTs and their impact on

the promotion and protection of human rights in the

context of assemblies, including peaceful protests, to

the 44th session of the UNHRC. The report highlighted

many of the opportunities for the exercise of human

rights that digital technologies offer, analysed key issues

linked to online content takedowns, and called on states

471

to stop the practice of network disruptions in the context

of protests. It also developed guidance concerning the

use of surveillance tools, in particular facial recognition

technology.

In July 2020, the Human Rights Committee published

its General Comment No. 37 on Article 21 of the

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

(ICCPR) (the right of peaceful assembly), which addresses

manifold aspects arising in the digital context.

In 2019, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to

freedom of peaceful assembly and of association

published a report for the UNHRC focusing on the

opportunities and challenges facing the rights to

freedom of peaceful assembly and association in

the digital age. In the report, he condemned the

widespread practice of internet shutdowns and raised

concerns about technologically mediated restrictions

on free association and assembly in the context of

crises.

Economic, social, and cultural rights

In March 2020, the UN Secretary-General presented

a report on the role of new technologies for the

realisation of economic, social, and cultural rights

to the UNHRC. He identified the opportunities

and challenges held by new technologies for the

realisation of economic, social, and cultural rights

and other related human rights, and for the human-

DIGITAL TOOLS

rights-based implementation of the 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development. The report concludes with

recommendations for related action by member states,

private companies, and other stakeholders.

More recently, in 2022, the Special Rapporteur on the

right to education presented a report on the impact of

digitalisation of education on the right to education (A/

HRC/50/32) to the UNHRC, calling for the integration of

human rights legal framework in digital education plans

in the context of the increasing digitalisation of education.

The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has

published reports on technology-related topics, including

the right to science (A/HRC/55/44 and A/HRC/55/44/

Corr.1) and the relationship between human rights and

intellectual property rights (A/70/279 and A/70/279/

Corr.1 and A/HRC/28/57). The Independent Expert on

the effects of foreign debt and other related international

financial obligations of states on the full enjoyment of all

human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural

rights, has presented a report on international financial

obligations, digital systems, and human rights (A/

HRC/52/34).

UN Human Rights works extensively on the human

rights dimensions of development finance, including

technology-related aspects, in, for example, a

benchmarking study on development finance institutions’

safeguard policies, a study on remedy in development

finance and submissions to development finance

institutions addressing technology-related policies and

practices.

472


Facebook @UnitedNationsHumanRights

Instagram @unitednationshumanrights

X @UNHumanRights

YouTube @UNOHCHR

LinkedIn @UnitedNationsHumanRights

Simon Institute for Longterm Governance

(SI)

Chem. Eugène-Rigot 2 | 1202 Genève | Switzerland

www.simoninstitute.ch

About the Simon Institute for Longterm Governance (SI)

The Simon Institute for Longterm Governance (SI) is a

nonprofit based in Geneva, Switzerland, dedicated to

enhancing global governance to mitigate catastrophic

risks and safely steer technological progress for the

benefit of all. In practice, their work extends across

three areas.

• Research: SI translates complex scientific,

technological, and policy concepts into

accessible language to ensure that decision

makers understand and act on policy-relevant

developments effectively.

• Capacity building: SI cultivates collaboration,

exchange, and knowledge growth by facilitating

workshops, training courses, and events to bridge

the gap between technological innovation and

policymaking.

• Policy recommendation: SI informs multilateral

policy processes, especially via the UN, through

public engagements and specialised advice to

policy actors. It focuses on processes related

to technology governance, especially AI, risk

governance, and the rights of future generations.

SI was founded in early 2021, just as advances in

AI and biotechnology were ushering in a series of

drastic technological breakthroughs. While emerging

technologies hold the potential to bring about

immense good, they also pose great risks – risks that

the multilateral system is not currently equipped to

govern. Short-term incentives continue to make it

difficult for policymakers to think on longer time scales,

consider the needs of future generations, and address

emerging risks.

SI’s early work set out to address these issues by training

policymakers on decision-making under uncertainty,

advocating for the representation of future generations

in dominant political narratives, and pushing for the

inclusion of emerging technological risks into key

multilateral agendas. As the political discourse quickly

began to acknowledge risks from rapid technological

change, SI pivoted to supplying subject matter expertise

on risk governance, AI, and biotechnology.

To date, SI has contributed to key intergovernmental

processes for reducing global risks, developed a futureproofing

framework to inform the High-Level Advisory

Board on Effective Multilateralism, delivered the first

and most extensive UN report on existential risk and

rapid technological change, and co-authored the first

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

(UNDRR) report on the subject of Hazards with

Escalation Potential.

In 2023 and 2024, SI pivoted to focus more specifically

on AI governance, supporting actors working on the

Global Digital Compact, the Independent International

Scientific Panel, and the Global Dialogue on AI, and

hosting capacity-building workshops on various AIrelated

subjects across New York and Geneva for actors

shaping multilateral AI frameworks.

476

Maxime Stauffer

Co-CEO

In this time of accelerating AI advancement

and growing geopolitical tensions, multilateral

cooperation is increasingly important. We’re at a

critical moment where governments and citizens must

adapt to address current concerns while preparing for

the uncertain impacts of rapid technological change.

Processes like the UN International Scientific Panel and

Konrad Seifert

Co-CEO

the Global Dialogue on AI can provide policymakers

worldwide with opportunities to understand the state

of the art, identify policy priorities, and share best

practices, helping ensure AI benefits humanity across

borders and for generations to come.

Maxime Stauffer, Co-CEO

Message by the SI Co-CEO

Since 2023, the Simon Institute for Longterm Governance has sharpened its focus specifically

on AI governance, viewing it as one of the most critical challenges of our time. Previously

working broadly on risk reduction and technology governance, SI now bridges technical

expertise with diplomatic processes, supporting the multilateral system through capacity

building, policy recommendations, and negotiation support to ensure AI’s benefits and risks

are properly addressed through international cooperation.

477

Message by the SI Co-CEO

Following the adoption of the GDC at the 2024 Summit of the Future, the UN is now

developing two key institutions: the International Scientific Panel and the Global Dialogue on

AI governance. These institutions have the potential to serve as authoritative international

resources on AI capabilities, risks, and opportunities, and facilitate coordinated responses to

emerging challenges, making them essential pillars for effective global AI governance.

478

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Emerging technologies and artificial

intelligence

SI believes in the potential of human ingenuity and

technology to create a future where life can thrive.

They are optimistic about the ability of emerging

technologies like AI to accelerate progress towards

the SDGs, address the climate crisis, and boost global

development. At the same time, SI is concerned about

the risks posed by these technologies, with AI, for

instance, already posing challenges like misinformation

and bias, and already raising future concerns, including

rogue AI systems and a potential loss of human control.

SI aims to help policymakers keep up with the rapid pace

of technological change by translating and summarising

the latest science on emerging technological risks and

opportunities into concrete policy advice. In tandem,

SI works with policymakers to influence the creation

and evolution of governance structures, improve

risk management, and foster input from essential

stakeholders, to enhance global technology governance

to be more responsive, agile, and inclusive.

479

Credit: https://www.simoninstitute.ch/



Through their work, SI aims to draw attention to the

various opportunities and risks associated with AI,

particularly frontier AI systems. SI translates complex

technical AI issues into legible language, conducts

capacity-building sessions with diplomats, fosters

exchange between multilateral actors, the private

sector, and civil society, and actively participates in

multilateral policy processes concerning AI governance.

Capacity building

SI has conducted numerous capacity-building

sessions on AI, including a three-part AI Governance

Briefing Series for Permanent Missions to the UN in

Geneva, training courses on AI governance for UN

Missions in New York in both English and French,

live demonstrations of AI capabilities, briefings on

specific topics like compute governance and benefitsharing,

institutional negotiation support workshops

for the International Scientific Panel and the Global

Dialogue on AI, and much more. The organisation also

provides tailored talks, training courses, and briefings

to interested diplomats and multilateral governance

actors on an ad hoc basis.

Policy recommendation

SI actively engages in multilateral policy processes

relevant to AI governance. For instance, during the 2022-

2023 review period of the Sendai Framework, SI raised

awareness about the risks presented by advanced AI

systems, speaking at events like the Global Platform

on Disaster Risk Reduction and the high-level meeting

during the Midterm Review of the Sendai Framework,

as well as delivering a thematic study on risks posed by

emerging technologies, including AI. Throughout 2024,

SI closely followed the GDC negotiations—responding

to various iterations of the text—and throughout

2025 so far, has been providing recommendations for

the design of the Independent International Scientific

Panel and the Global Dialogue on AI. Privately, SI also

provides individual support to policy actors, tailored

to the specific context and subject area in which they

operate.

Research

With strong ties across academia, private labs, and

technical research communities, the SI team has a firm

grasp of the latest developments in frontier AI. SI’s focus

lies in effectively translating these developments into

language and advice suitable for policy actors. To date,

SI has delivered the first UN report on Existential Risk

480

and Rapid Technological Change, explaining key risks

associated with AI systems and potential governance

mechanisms, and developed a report on Hazards with

Escalation Potential, outlining how AI may soon become

a primary driving force behind various hazards. More

recently, SI has been conducting in-depth research

on institutional design for AI, including a report

outlining structural considerations for the Independent

International Scientific Panel and the Global Dialogue

on AI.


In today’s interconnected world, the majority of

emerging technologies have significant digital elements

(e.g. AI, biotechnology, quantum computing). They

are also characterised by uncertain development

trajectories and unrealised real-world applications.

Much of SI’s work is based on the premise that

governing such technologies requires long-term

thinking, adaptability, and foresight. SI advocates for

the effective governance of emerging technologies

by translating the latest technical developments into

concrete policy advice, providing recommendations on

policy design, and offering frameworks to support the

adaptable governance of emerging technologies (e.g.

SI’s Future-Proofing Framework).

Additionally, SI hosts workshops at the intersection of

foresight, technology governance, and multilateralism.

In September 2023, SI collaborated with the UN Futures

Lab Network to organise a Foresight Workshop on

Frontier Technologies, encouraging actors to reflect

on the potential development trajectories of various

technologies. In January 2023, SI convened a workshop

titled Future-proofing the Multilateral System, inviting

actors from academia, civil society, and the multilateral

system to discuss ways to integrate forecasting

techniques into the SDG process, manage risks

associated with technologies like biotechnology and

AI, and find ways to use technical standardisation to

harmonise global technology governance efforts.


LinkedIn @simon-institute

X @longtermgov

Monthly newsletter @simoninstitute.ch/contact/#stayup-to-date

Contact @info@simoninstitute.ch

481

South Centre

International Environment House 2 | Chemin de Balexert 7-9 | 1219 Vernier | Switzerland

www.southcentre.int

taxinitiative.southcentre.int

ipaccessmeds.southcentre.int

About the South Centre

Established in 1995, the South Centre is an

intergovernmental policy research think tank composed

of and accountable to developing country member

states. It researches key policy development issues and

supports developing countries to effectively participate in

international negotiating processes relevant to achieving

the SDGs. The South Centre promotes the unity of the

Global South in such processes while recognising the

diversity of national interests and priorities.

The South Centre works on a wide range of issues

relevant to countries in the Global South and the global

community in general, such as sustainable development,

climate change, South-South cooperation (SSC), financing

for development, innovation and intellectual property,

traditional knowledge, access to medicines, health,

biodiversity, trade, investment agreements, international

tax cooperation, human rights, gender, and the fourth

industrial revolution.

Within the limits of its capacity and mandate, the South

Centre also responds to requests for policy advice and

technical and other support from its members and other


The South Centre has observer status in several

international organisations.

484

The legal characterisation and design of a legal

regime for data poses one of the most

important contemporary challenges for

policymakers. This is, of course, not the

first time – nor will it be the last – that

technological changes have demanded

new policies and legal approaches. But

rarely have the stakes been so high for

future socio-economic development.

Carlos M. Correa

Executive Director

Message by the South Centre Executive Director

The South Centre is an intergovernmental organisation composed of and accountable to

developing country member states, delivering policy-oriented research on issues relevant to

the achievement of the SDGs. Our priorities include supporting developing countries to harness

digital technologies, advance digital equity and inclusion, and participate effectively in regulating

the global digital economy and shaping the digital governance architecture to achieve the SDGs.

485

Message by the South Centre Executive Director

We provide a platform for developing countries to advance common digital agendas, in

partnership with stakeholders such as other intergovernmental organisations, academic

institutions, and civil society organisations.

We also assist countries to respond to the changes brought about by the fourth industrial

revolution as part of upgrading industrial policies and catch-up strategies, such as the impact

on investment and trade; the need to increase access to internet connectivity, ICTs, and new

technologies; the future of labour; and building adequate skills. We provide expert input to

discussions on digital transformation issues, including equity in access to digital tools, digital

rights, data flows, data sovereignty, digital education, and taxation of the digital economy.

Digital cooperation in the form of capacity building, access, and technology transfer is a key

development priority for the global digital agenda.

The South Centre supports our members and the Group of (G77) and China in negotiations in

various UN forums including the GDC, as well as negotiations on e-commerce in the World Trade

Organization (WTO) and in free trade agreements, discussions on digital health in the context of

the World Health Organization (WHO), and discussions on AI and intellectual property (IP) at the

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

486

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Innovation and development are some of the issue areas

the South Centre works on. As part of its efforts within

this domain, it focuses on information technologies.

Moreover, digital issues are also tackled in the domain

of, inter alia, taxation and the digital economy, data

governance, e-commerce, and the fourth industrial

revolution.

The South Centre has produced deliverables/research

outputs in the following areas: digital and financial

inclusion, digital economy, digital taxation, digital

industrialisation, and digital trade, among others.

The South Centre continued to monitor discussions

and new regulatory developments at the country level,

undertake research and participate in multiple forums

on digital governance including the negotiations of the

UN GDC adopted by the UNGA in September 2024, the

discussions in the CSTD, on digital health in the G20 Health

Working Group, WIPO Conversations on Intellectual

Property and Frontier Technologies, AI resolutions in the

UNGA, the UNESCO AI Ethics Work, digital regulation and

governance issues in ITU, and the AI for Good Summit

held in Geneva in May 2024. On the sidelines of these

meetings, the Centre discussed areas for cooperation

with the ministries of member countries.

487

Credit: southcentre.int


Intellectual property rights and health

In June 2019, the South Centre published a policy brief

on Intellectual Property and Electronic Commerce:

Proposals in the WTO and Policy Implications for

Developing Countries, which provided an overview

of discussions within the WTO on IP and its potential

implications for the digital economy.

In September 2020, the Centre published a research

paper on Data in Legal Limbo: Ownership, Sovereignty,

or a Digital Public Goods Regime? and in 2022, a research

paper titled The Liability of Internet Service Providers

for Copyright Infringement in Sri Lanka: A Comparative

Analysis.

The South Centre continued to collaborate with a network

of academic research institutions from the North and

South, led by American University, Washington School

of Law, and participated in the annual meeting of the

global network of experts on the right to research and

copyright in June 2024 in Washington DC that dealt,

inter alia, with the intersection of AI, copyright and

information law.

The South Centre also provided inputs to the First Open

Consultations Process Meeting held on 18 November

2024, within the WSIS+20 High-Level Event 2025.

In light of the global health pandemic, the South Centre,

as part of its publication series SouthViews, shared

the perspectives of developing countries on digital

health, challenges and recommendations to overcome

488

these, and the use of digital technology for education

in developing countries. A SouthViews on Access to

Medical Equipment in a Pandemic Situation: Importance

of Localized Supply Chains and 3D Printing was also

published.


The digital economy is another issue researched by

the South Centre in the context of development. For

instance, in 2017, it published an analytical note, The

WTO’s Discussions on Electronic Commerce, which

explores the stance of developing countries (i.e.

readiness in terms of infrastructure, upskilling, etc.)

to engage in cross-border e-commerce. Among other

things, it highlights challenges such as low IT adoption

and the lack of electricity supply, which limit the uptake

of e-commerce activities in Africa, for instance. Another

analytical note published that same year tackles the

impact of the digital economy on micro, small and

medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs), and looks into

the type of e-commerce rules that could best serve

the interests of MSMEs. In 2019, it addressed issues

on the regulation of the digital economy in developing

countries, namely, the future of work, market dynamics,

and data and privacy protection.

The South Centre also provides analyses and organises

many meetings to discuss issues such as the WTO

E-Commerce Moratorium and the Joint Statement

Initiative (JSI) plurilateral discussions on e-commerce.

The South Centre has published a research paper on

the WTO Moratorium on Customs Duties on Electronic

Transmissions. This paper highlights the adverse

impacts of the continuing moratorium on developing

and least developed countries. The moratorium is

causing almost all developing and least developed

countries to lose tariff revenues at a time when they

are most needed. With no clarity on the definition of

electronic transmissions and thereby on the scope of

the moratorium, its continuation can lead to substantive

tariff revenue losses for developing and least developed

countries in the future.

The South Centre has issued a statement on the landmark

shift of the United States Trade Representative’s decision

to rein in the Big Tech digital trade agenda under the

E-Commerce JSI negotiations.

In 2024, the South Centre actively engaged in

discussions on the WTO e-commerce moratorium on

customs duties for electronic transmissions, a critical

issue for developing countries facing revenue losses

and diminished policy space in the digital economy.

The Centre prepared a detailed commentary on the

WTO’s mapping of quantitative studies related to the

moratorium, highlighting the fiscal implications and

addressing gaps in existing analyses, particularly the

unequal impact on developing economies. This work

aimed to equip member states with insights to advocate

for evidence-based decisions that preserve their ability

to implement national policies in the digital era.

During the WTO Information Session on the moratorium,

the Centre also responded to member inquiries,

clarifying technical issues and offering strategies to

mitigate long-term trade and policy challenges. The

Centre emphasised the importance of balancing global

trade objectives with the need to safeguard the fiscal

stability and policy autonomy of developing countries.

These contributions underscore the South Centre’s

dedication to ensuring that the evolving digital trade

framework is equitable and inclusive for the Global

South.

The South Centre provided technical support by

preparing draft negotiating texts on the Work

Programme on E-commerce and the moratorium

on electronic transmissions at the WTO Thirteenth

Ministerial Conference (MC13). Our comprehensive

commentary on the MC13 Decision (Policy Brief No.

130 ‘Unpacking the WTO MC13 Decision on the Work

Programme on Electronic Commerce’) further assisted

developing countries in understanding the implications

of the decisions and refining their negotiation strategies.

The South Centre also monitors developments and

participates in discussions on the ground and across

international organisations in Geneva, including the

UNCTAD eTrade for All initiative.

In 2022, the South Centre organised/co-organised

two sessions during UNCTAD eCommerce week: Data

Regulation: Implications for the Digitization of the

Economy and Development and Exploring a Global

489

Framework for Data Governance. The South Centre

Executive Director also participated in the eTrade for

All Leadership Dialogue. See the Centre’s contribution

here.

The South Centre has launched a policy brief analysing

the EU-ESA Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)

Digital Trade Chapter, assessing its alignment with

development priorities. This research aims to provide

actionable recommendations to member states,

ensuring that regional trade agreements reflect

the interests of developing countries and promote

sustainable growth. Through these efforts, the Centre

continues to drive inclusive digital development and

foster equitable participation in the global digital

economy.

The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) marks

a historic achievement in Africa’s quest for economic

integration, with the ambitious goal of establishing the

world’s largest free trade area by uniting 54 African

countries. As digital trade emerges as a critical engine

of economic growth, the formulation of the AfCFTA

Digital Trade Protocol has become a cornerstone of

this broader framework. The Digital Trade Protocol

aims to harmonise regulations across member states,

streamline cross-border digital transactions, and

position African countries to compete effectively in the

global digital economy. However, the diversity in digital

infrastructure and regulatory environments across the

continent presents significant challenges, making the

negotiations both intricate and sensitive. Ensuring that

the protocol fosters inclusive growth while respecting

national digital sovereignty is paramount. The South

Centre has had an active role in this process by

providing technical expertise and drafting negotiating

texts to support African delegates to advocate for their

countries’ interests. The analyses and contributions to

the development of the Digital Trade Protocol, along

with comments on its annexes, have contributed to

shaping a framework that balances regional cooperation

with national priorities. Additionally, the South Centre

has convened strategic meetings with some African

delegates, facilitating collaboration and building

consensus on key issues.

Taxation

The taxation of the digital economy is the single biggest

issue in international taxation today. Countries around

the world are trying to find solutions for taxing Big Tech

companies that operate with very different business

models, owing to which they can escape taxation under

outdated international tax rules meant for a brick-andmortar

economy. The key solution being negotiated is

known as Amount A of Pillar One of the OECD’s Two Pillar

Solution. The South Centre has been actively involved in

Amount A negotiations, briefing its member states and

submitting comments on every single set of Model Rules

that have been put out for public comment, articulating

the concerns and issues of developing countries. In

490

DIGITAL TOOLS

2022, we published the world’s first set of countrylevel

revenue estimates on Amount A, contrasted with

the UN solution of Article 12B of the UN Model Tax

Convention. Revenue estimates were published for the

member states of the South Centre and the African

Union, with whom the study was jointly conducted. In

October 2023, we published another policy brief titled

Beyond the Two Pillar Proposals: A Simplified Approach

for Taxing Multinationals, which offers an alternative

policy solution different from those of the UN and the

OECD. We also published a policy brief in June 2023 titled

Taxation of Digital Services: What hope for the African

States? which argues that African countries need to

improve digital connectivity to be able to collect more

taxes under the OECD digital tax solution of Amount A.

This is because the revenue sourcing rules of Amount A

allocate profits using digital indicators such as viewing

of advertisements, IP addresses, etc.

At the UN Tax Committee, we participated in the 26th

Session in New York, where we mobilised developing

country members through peer exchanges and briefings

and also participated in the negotiations to promote the

interests of our member states and other developing

countries, inter alia, on the taxation of the digital

economy. Ahead of the UN Tax Committee session, we

published a study on the taxation of computer software.

The study on computer software showed that 34 of the

South Centre’s member states could have collected $1

billion in taxes in 2020 from computer software sales

had there been the corresponding standards by the UN.

The study helped mobilise support from developing

491

countries and brought to a close a 20-year negotiation

on the taxation of computer software.

We also published a policy brief titled Conceptualizing

Remote Worker Permanent Establishment, which

provided an innovative solution for taxing the emerging

phenomenon of work from home/work from anywhere.

The UNCTAD Intergovernmental Group of Experts on

the Digital Economy invited the South Centre to present

the policy options for taxing the digital economy to UN

member states. Our presentation was so appreciated

that the governments of Palestine and Cambodia

immediately requested capacity building on the subject.

Given our expertise in the taxation of the digital economy,

in June 2023, we co-organised a G20-South Centre event

on international taxation. This was on capacity building

for Indian tax officials on the Two Pillar Solution and

the international tax standards being negotiated in the

UN. This was also our first G20 event, and was widely

praised and appreciated by Indian participants. We

mobilised international tax experts from across Asia,

Africa, and Latin America to share their perspectives on

these topics with Indian officials.

In May 2023, we partnered with the UNDP to co-organise

a Capacity Building Workshop on the taxation of the

digital economy in May 2023. The two organisations

shared the policy options available to Sri Lanka to tax

the digital economy, which included a digital services

tax. The workshop was so impactful that within a few

days, the government introduced a digital services tax

and, in the record time of two months, got it passed

by Parliament. We remained engaged and provided

technical briefs to the Sri Lankan Parliament, particularly

the Finance Committee.

We were also invited to participate in the Addis Tax

Initiative (ATI) General Assembly in Zambia, where we

provided capacity building on ATI member states on the

taxation of the digital economy. After the workshop, the

Finance Ministry of Zambia reached out to the South

Centre Tax Initiative (SCTI) for detailed policy advice.

The SCTI recognised that it was of prime importance

that South Centre member states and other developing

countries make an informed decision on whether or

not to sign the Amount A Multilateral Convention (MLC),

and also to contrast it with feasible alternatives. Hence,

in collaboration with the African Tax Administration

Forum (ATAF) and West African Tax Administration

Forum (WATAF), in June 2024, the South Centre released

Research Paper No. 199 titled A Toss Up? Comparing

Tax Revenues from the Amount A and Digital Service Tax

Regimes for Developing Countries, which provided key

information to decision makers and was reported in

the international media. In October and November

2024, partnership with WATAF and ATAF, teh South

Centre held technical briefings for their members on

their aforementioned joint publication, showcasing the

country level revenue estimates for all South Centre and

African Union members under Amount A and Digital

Service Taxes (DSTs) and available policy options for the

taxation of the digital economy. The study indicates that

Amount A is unlikely to result in tangible revenue gains

for developing countries due to high thresholds and

restrictive provisions of the rules, among others. On the

other hand, DSTs can provide, on average, three times

higher revenues from Amount A for South Centre and

African Union member states.

The SCTI participated as a panellist in a meeting

organised by the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP)

Group in October 2024 to discuss the status of taxing

e-commerce in the context of the WTO Moratorium,

where they presented SCTI’s research on revenue

estimates from the OECD vs UN solutions for taxing the

digital economy. The SCTI also served as a panellist on

the GDC during the 32nd International Association for

Feminist Economics (IAFFE) Conference and as a speaker

at a conference on Taxation Without Borders organised

by the University of Gothenburg in October 2024, where

they discussed the OECD solution for taxing the digital

economy and other alternatives like DSTs and revenue

implications.

In August 2024, the Centre, together with UNDP,

organised a workshop for Angola on the taxation of the

digitalised economy.

During the 57th Session of the Human Rights Council in

September 2024, the South Centre made a statement

on ‘Realizing the right to development: The case for a

United Nations Framework Convention On International

Tax Cooperation’, highlighting the possible content of

protocols to the United Nations Tax Convention for

taxing illicit financial flows and digital services.

492

DIGITAL TOOLS

The SCTI published reports on how the two early protocols

for the UN Framework Convention on International

Tax Cooperation (FCITC) could be structured and the

potential areas of priority. In December 2024, the South

Centre published a policy brief titled ‘Towards a UN

Protocol for Taxing Cross-Border Services in a Digitalized

Economy’, which was first published in November 2024

as a Think20 (T20) Brasil Road map.

Multiple news channels and agencies regularly solicit

the South Centre’s views on the concerns of the

developing countries in international tax negotiations

on the taxation of the digital economy.


The South Centre has delved into the interplay between

digital technologies and development on several

occasions through its research outputs. In 2006, it

published an analytical note titled Internet Governance

for Development, arguing that affordable access to

the internet allows for better education opportunities,

greater access to information, improved private and

public services, and stronger cultural diversity. More

specifically, the document provided recommendations

on issues such as openness (e.g. leaving policy

space open for developing countries), diversity (e.g.

multilingualism), and security (e.g. funding of computer

security incident response teams (CSIRTs)) to maximise

the outcomes of discussions for developing countries at

the Internet Governance Forum (IGF).

493

A year later, the South Centre published the research

paper Towards a Digital Agenda for Developing Countries,

which looks into the conditions, rights, and freedoms

necessary for developing countries to benefit from digital

and internet resources. By bringing together several

different strands of ongoing discussions and analyses

at the national and international levels, it provides a

direction for further research and policy analysis by

laying the groundwork and creating awareness of the

relevance and scope of digital and internet content for

policymakers in developing countries.

In 2020, the South Centre continued to research

the impact of digital technologies in the context of

development. Its research paper, The Fourth Industrial

Revolution in Developing Nations: Challenges and

Roadmap, tackles trends in emerging technologies such

as big data, robotics, and the IoT, and identifies challenges,

namely, the lack of infrastructure, a trained and skilled

workforce, scalability, and funding faced by developing

countries. It goes on to propose a strategic framework

for responding to the fourth industrial revolution, which

focuses on capacity building, technology incubations,

scientific development, and policymaking.

Discussions towards the adoption of the GDC had been

included as one of the proposals made by the United

Nations Secretary-General in his report Our Common

Agenda (A/75/982). The main objective of this proposal

was ‘to protect the online space and strengthen its

governance’ based on ‘shared principles for an open,

free and secure digital future for all’. The issue of

digital governance is quite complex and includes the

need to reaffirm the fundamental commitment to

connecting the unconnected, avoiding fragmentation of

the internet, providing people with options as to how

their data is used, applying human rights online, and

promoting the regulation of AI.

The need to guarantee the implementation of human

rights online required discussions leading towards the

GDC to be conducted with utmost transparency, public

disclosure, and accountability. Likewise, the private IT

sector must respect human rights, apply human rights

due diligence and increased accountability, and allow

broader oversight from the state and civil society. In

some instances, public-private partnerships (PPPs)

can be a useful tool to support an inclusive digital

transformation, but public participation and oversight

of PPPs, guided by strong principles of transparency

and the protection and respect for human rights, are

necessary to support the transfer of technology, skills,

and knowledge needed to promote inclusive digital

transformation. The South Centre was actively engaged

with other partners to strengthen multilateralism in

this process and to limit the detrimental impacts of

multistakeholderism in global governance.

The South Centre combines expertise in global matters

of governance in the discussion of the GDC to strengthen

multilateralism through an intergovernmental process

that protects the voices of developing and least

developed countries. We prepared a submission to the

GDC on applying human rights online.

In 2020 and 2021, SouthViews on Technology and

Inequality: Can We Decolonise the Digital World?, on

Digital Transformation: Prioritizing Data Localization,

and An Introduction to the UN Technology Bank for the

Least Developed Countries were also published.

For developing countries, the priority continues to be

the bridging of the digital divide and strengthening

capacities to harness new technologies and connectivity

by upgrading infrastructure, skills, and education.

Policies and regulatory frameworks must be context

specific, such as on data privacy and data flows, and

adaptable in light of the rapid pace of technological

change, including generative AI and its effects. At the

UNGA, there is continued discussion on the future of

AI governance, with one resolution on AI safety being

adopted in May 2024, led by the United States, and

another resolution on international cooperation on AI

being under negotiation, led by China (later adopted in

July). The South Centre provided analysis on the first

resolution of the UNGA on Artificial Intelligence, as

well as, the second resolution of the UNGA on Artificial

Intelligence, focused on enhancing international

cooperation for capacity-building on AI.

The discussions leading up to the GDC highlighted the

digital divide and the need for an inclusive and equitable

digital future. Developing countries’ access to digital

technologies for education, health, agriculture, and

other activities is crucial for their development. Robust

national policy space is needed to regulate the digital

economy.

494

DIGITAL TOOLS

As part of the preparations for the adoption of the

GDC and the Summit of the Future, the South Centre

underscored the importance of addressing the

digital divide and ensuring that the benefits of digital

transformation are shared equitably. The Centre

has strongly warned about the implications of a

multistakeholder approach to digital governance, as

it may not sufficiently recognise developing countries’

diverse needs and interests. It continues to favour

developing countries’ access to digital technologies

and data, as well as robust policy space to regulate the

digital economy.

TheSouth Centre gave inputs on the third revised draft

of the GDC. The Centre also published an article that

considered some of the shortcomings of the Zero

Draft of the GDC, particularly in attaining equitable

international data governance and democratic

participation in a digital multistakeholder scenario

to avoid data monopolies and ensure inclusive

policymaking processes, while recentring the objectives

of internet governance for inclusive and developmentoriented

information societies. The Centre also

published a research paper on the Pact for the Future

and organised a dialogue with the G77 and China on

the Summit of the Future, to analyse and share ideas

on the risks and opportunities for developing countries.

The Centre engaged in collaborations to further its

digital development agenda. At the IT for Change

side event during the CSTD Working Group on Data

Governance and AI, the Centre contributed insights

into how governance structures can address the digital

divide, supporting inclusive and equitable development

across the Global South.

The South Centre has general and specific email lists

and is moving to become a paperless organisation. To

subscribe to our email lists, please visit our main website

or contact us.

Future of meetings

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the South Centre has

continued to hold occasional virtual meetings and

webinars. To learn more about these events, please

visit: https://www.southcentre.int/category/events/thesouth-centre-events;

https://taxinitiative.southcentre.

int/event/;https://ipaccessmeds.southcentre.int/event/.


Bluesky @SouthCentre

Facebook @SouthCentre

Instagram @southcentre_gva

LinkedIn @South Centre, Geneva

X @South_Centre

YouTube @SouthCentre GVA

495

Stop Killer Robots

(SKR)

Place Cornavin 2 | 1201 Geneva | Switzerland

www.stopkillerrobots.org

About the SKR

The Stop Killer Robots campaign, which was established

in 2012, is a growing international coalition of over 270

NGOs working in more than 70 countries around the

world.

SKR is a movement working to build a society in which

technology is developed and used to promote peace,

justice, human rights, equality, and respect for law – not

automate killing.

We urge all states to negotiate and adopt an international

legal treaty that ensures meaningful human control over

the use of force and rejects the automation of killing

through:

• Prohibitions: banning autonomous weapon

systems that do not allow for meaningful human

control, and banning all systems that use sensors

to target humans.

• Regulations: additional rules on the design,

development, and use of other autonomous

weapons systems to ensure they will be used with

meaningful human control in practice.

498

No machine, computer, or algorithm is capable of

recognising a human as a human being, nor

can it respect humans as inherent bearers

of rights and dignity, much less what it

means to have, or to end, a human life.

We have a responsibility to safeguard

humanity.

Nicole van Rooijen

Executive Director

Message by the SKR Executive Director

As our dependence on technology and AI deepens, our lives are becoming increasingly

automated. Facial recognition and many other forms of AI have been ‘quietly’ introduced and

are gradually becoming integrated into our everyday lives with both positive and negative

implications for people around the world. Today, automated systems can be found in both

civilian and military use.

499

Message by the SKR Executive Director

Autonomous weapons systems (AWS), or ‘killer robots’, are systems that can select, identify,

and apply force to targets without meaningful human control. They dehumanise people,

they reduce us to data points to be processed. They pose serious legal, ethical, security, and

humanitarian risks with potential for their use in conflicts, policing, and border control.

At Stop Killer Robots (SKR), we believe that giving machines the power to take human life

crosses a fundamental moral line. With escalating conflicts around the world and rapid

technological developments, the need to establish an international legal framework on

autonomy in weapons systems has become increasingly urgent.

SKR thus advocates for the adoption of an international treaty to prohibit and restrict

autonomous weapons systems. Central to our mission is the imperative to retain meaningful

human control over the use of force and to ensure that such weapons are never used to

identify or target humans. These measures aim to safeguard our humanity, uphold the

dignity of human life, and ensure compliance with international humanitarian and human

rights laws.

In 2023, the President of the ICRC and the UN Secretary-General called for the urgent

negotiation of new, legally binding rules on autonomous weapons systems by 2026.

In 2024, SKR became a registered not-for-profit association in Geneva. The city of Geneva is at

the heart of international humanitarian action. It was the birthplace of the ICRC and remains

the home of the ‘guardians of international humanitarian law’.

Geneva is also recognised as the centre for peace, security, and disarmament, including the

UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW), where discussions are ongoing on

the issue of autonomous weapons systems. There, SKR works in partnership with government

representatives from across the world, along with other key stakeholders, to move towards a

legally binding instrument on autonomous weapons.

500

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

SKR uses a variety of digital activities and social media

campaigns to support its advocacy and campaigning

work. As an international coalition, social media is

integral in spotlighting the breadth of the campaign and

its coalition members’ work. SKR has also undertaken the

production of a wide variety of content that presents the

killer robots issue from different angles according to what

will speak most effectively to different target audiences.

Immoral Code, a documentary that contemplates the

impact of killer robots in an increasingly automated

world. The film examines whether there are situations

where it’s morally and socially acceptable to take life,

and importantly, would a computer know the difference?

Immoral Code has been incredibly successful as a

campaigning tool with over 150,000 views on YouTube,

screenings hosted by our campaigners in over 20

countries, with subtitles requested and available in 11

languages so far!

Digital dehumanisation is a process where humans are

reduced to data, which is then used to make decisions

and/or take actions that negatively affect their lives. The

Digital Dehumanisation campaign has produced factual

and creative content to explore global examples of digital

dehumanisation – from data and privacy concerns to

facial recognition and robotics. This work brings other

expert stakeholders into our campaign and platforms

their expertise while making the connection between the

lack of regulation in other areas with the development of

killer robots.

Automated by Design is an interactive, multimedia

exhibition that explores digital dehumanisation and

autonomous weapons systems. This travelling exhibition

was created for use by the international campaign and by

campaigners in their national contexts as an opportunity

to explore the killer robots issue with media, political

decision makers, and members of the public. The physical

exhibition is complemented by a digital experience via

the exhibition microsite.

Automated Decision Research (ADR) is the monitoring

and research team of SKR. They track state support for

a legally binding instrument on autonomous weapons

systems and conduct research and analysis on responses

to autonomy and automated decision-making in warfare

and wider society.

They also monitor weapons systems, either already

existing or announced as in development, and produce

reports, briefings, and fact sheets and send out regular

newsletters on news and developments in autonomy in

weapons systems and other related areas.

501


Artificial Intelligence and digital

dehumanisation

The global coalition Stop Killer Robots is dedicated to

the prohibition and regulation of autonomous weapons

systems, often referred to as ‘killer robots’, that can select

and attack targets without prior human intervention or

oversight. The organisation acknowledges that through

increased functionality in AI and the processing of data

through algorithms, machines are beginning to replace

humans in the application of force. Pushing for a legally

binding instrument on this issue, the group works to raise

awareness about the ethical, legal and humanitarian

concerns associated with the creation and use of such

autonomous weaponry. Their main activities include

working with governments, policy-makers, military

officials, academics, technologists and other national,

regional, and international organisations to prevent

the weaponisation of AI. Lobbying and campaigns, as

well as the raising of public awareness and educational

efforts, are aimed at drawing attention to the dangers

of autonomous weapons and informing the public,

decision-makers in charge, and other stakeholders about

the necessity of maintaining human control in lethal

decision-making. Preventing digital dehumanisation and

automated harm is at the core of SKR’s collaborations with

a wide range of international human rights groups, arms

control organisations and experts in AI and robotics.

Joining efforts helps to amplify the coalition’s call for strict

ethical guidelines and accountability in the development

of AI and automated technologies. Crucial to achieving

these goals is also its active participation in international

forums, such as the UN CCW, the UNGA’s First Committee,

as well as academic and policy conferences on AI and

Arms Control.

The organisation frequently publishes reports, papers

and policy briefs exploring the dimensions of automated

harm and the urgent need for regulation in AI-powered

warfare to prevent further digital dehumanisation. Part

of this research includes regular in-depth assessments of

adopted national AI strategies of various states, as well as

policy positions on the EU-level and other international

guidelines to draw out core themes regarding the use of

AI and automated decision-making technologies in the

civil and military spheres.

In addition to this, SKR has developed several toolkits

aimed at supporting its member organisations and

individual policy-makers in advocating for the negotiation

of an international treaty on the ban and regulation of

the automated use of force.

These objectives also intersect with current developments

in the fields of cyber conflict and warfare, especially when

it comes to discussions revolving around ethical and legal

considerations of autonomous technologies. Advocating

for maintaining human control in decisions over life and

death, SKR also advances the debates about the role of

AI, automation and the use of data in warfare, policing,

and border control.

502


Parliamentary Pledge

SKR believes that parliamentarians play a vital role in

enabling progress and increasing public concern on

this issue. The SKR Parliamentary Pledge provides an

opportunity for parliamentarians around the world

to show their support for new international law that

rejects the automation of killing and ensures meaningful

human control over the use of force. The pledge is open

to any current member of a national, state/regional, or

international parliament or congress, in any part of the

world. The pledge has signatures from politicians across

six continents and continues to grow.

Petition

national and regional groups. The broader Campaigner’s

Kit provides guidance on key advocacy topics, including

legal arguments, military engagement, media outreach,

and social media campaigning.


LinkedIn @Stop Killer Robots

X @bankillerrobots

Facebook @stopkillerrobots

Instagram @stopkillerrobots

YouTube @StopKillerRobots

BlueSky @stopkillerrobots.bsky.social

The SKR international petition, created in collaboration

with Amnesty International, calls on government

leaders from around the world to launch negotiations

for international law on autonomy in weapons systems.

The petition currently has signatories from over 102

countries.

Campaigner’s Toolkit:

The Campaigner’s Toolkit: Parliamentary Engagement by

Stop Killer Robots helps campaigners effectively engage

with parliamentarians to advocate against autonomous

weapons. It highlights the importance of parliamentary

outreach, public awareness, and collaboration within

503

United Nations Trade and Development

(UNCTAD)

Palais des Nations | Av. de la Paix 8-14 | 1211 Geneva 10 | Switzerland

www.unctad.org

About UNCTAD

UNCTAD is a UN body dedicated to supporting

developing countries in accessing the benefits of a

globalised economy more fairly and effectively. It

provides analysis, facilitates consensus-building, and

offers technical assistance, thus helping countries use

trade, investment, finance, and technology to support

inclusive and sustainable development.

UNCTAD also works to facilitate and measure progress

towards achieving the SDGs, through a wide range of

activities in areas such as technology and innovation,

trade, investment, environment, transport and logistics,

and the digital economy. It places special emphasis on

supporting the most vulnerable developing countries,

including least developed countries (LDCs), landlocked

developing countries (LLDCs), small island developing

states (SIDS), and African countries to build resilience

to economic shocks and to achieve structural economic

transformation.

UNCTAD’s work often results in analyses, statistics,

and recommendations that inform national and

international policymaking processes, and contribute

to promoting economic policies aimed at ending global

economic inequalities and generating human-centric

sustainable development.

506

Digitalisation is a welcome and necessary driver

of inclusive and sustainable development.

We need the digital economy to catalyse

growth and generate opportunities for

all. But we must harness the power

of digitalisation while mitigating its

negative environmental impacts.

Our common future and the future

of our children depend on it.

Rebeca Grynspan

Secretary-General

Message by the UNCTAD Secretary-General

UNCTAD supports developing countries to access the benefits of a globalised economy more fairly

and effectively.

We provide analysis, facilitate consensus-building, and offer technical assistance, thus helping countries

use trade, investment, finance, and technology to support inclusive and sustainable development.

UNCTAD conducts wide-ranging activities in the digital area, from research and analysis to providing

assistance to member states in developing adequate legislative frameworks and facilitating

international dialogue on the development opportunities and challenges associated with the digital

economy.

507

Message by the UNCTAD Secretary-General

The widening digital divide and the uneven speed of digital transformation are major global

challenges for the world we aspire to. Today, countries’ ability to participate and benefit from

economic opportunities greatly depends on their digital capacities. And even more so in the

future, as the world goes ever more digital.

The problem is that the digital economy of today is highly unequal. One-third of the world’s

population remains offline. Almost three-quarters of people living in LDCs have never been

online. The traditional digital divide is compounded by a data-related divide between countries

due to very high levels of market power concentration along the value chain and unequal access

to skills and resources needed to harness data for development.

This is why we have strengthened our work in assisting developing countries to enhance their

readiness to engage and integrate into the digital economy. We are also promoting more

multilateral dialogue on digital trade and cooperation to enhance the development potential of

the digital economy. United Nations Trade and Development (UNCTAD) will, in this context, play

an active role in supporting the implementation of the GDC’s objective 2, to expand inclusion in

and benefits from the digital economy for all.

UNCTAD is championing better data governance, as well. The way we govern the process of

digital transformation greatly determines the outcome. Governance involves setting the rules

of the game for all actors involved in digitalisation. It affects who will benefit and lose from

digital disruption, how the value created in the digital economy will be distributed, who will be

responsible for addressing possible negative externalities from the use of digital solutions, and

to what extent digital markets will be competitive and open. These challenges are at the heart

of the GDC’s objective to advance responsible, equitable and interoperable data governance

approaches. UNCTAD is engaged in the implementation of the GDC’s objective four on data

governance.

UNCTAD brings together all stakeholders to forge policies and approaches that foster inclusive

and sustainable outcomes. We are committed to providing member states with analysis, data,

and evidence for informed decision-making, policy options, and practices aimed at ensuring

everyone benefits from the digital economy.

508

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

UNCTAD is particularly active in the field of e-commerce,

digital trade, and the digital economy, carrying out a

wide range of activities from research and analysis to

providing assistance to member states in developing

adequate legislative and regulatory frameworks and

facilitating international dialogue on the development

opportunities and challenges associated with the digital

economy.

UNCTAD also works to facilitate and measure progress

towards achieving the SDGs, particularly through

(but not limited to) its activities in the field of STI for

development. Consumer protection online, gender

equality, digital business and trade facilitation, and

privacy and data protection are other relevant policy

areas where UNCTAD is active.

509

Credit: unctad.org


Data governance

As data has become a key resource in the digital

economy, data governance is a fundamental part of

the work of UNCTAD. This is illustrated, for example, in

the research and analysis work of the Digital Economy

Report 2019, which focused on the role of data as

the source of value in the digital economy and how

it is created and captured and the Digital Economy

Report 2021, which analysed cross-border data flows

and development. Moreover, some of UNCTAD’s work

on e-commerce and digital trade touches specifically

on privacy and data protection issues. For instance,

the eCommerce and Law Reform work dedicated to

supporting developing countries in their efforts to

establish adequate legal frameworks for e-commerce

also covers data protection and privacy among the

key issues addressed. The Global Cyberlaw Tracker

offers information on data protection laws in UNCTAD

member States.

Also relevant for data governance discussions is

UNCTAD’s work on statistics, as the organisation

collects and analyses a wide range of data and statistics

on issues such as economic trends, international

trade, investment, development, and the digital

economy. UNCTAD’s statistical capacity development

activities help countries enhance their statistical and

data infrastructures and often address issues of data

governance, such as statistical confidentiality, access to

data, and privacy protection. UNCTAD also contributes

actively to global work to enhance data governance

in statistics and beyond and to develop universal

principles to guide the collection, dissemination, use,

and storage of data.

UNCTAD makes its data and statistics available

as open-source in the UNCTAD Data Hub and the

UNCTADstat data centre. Statistics underpin UNCTAD’s

analytical work and are featured in many publications.

The UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics disseminates

key messages from UNCTAD’s statistics, including

infographics, and UNCTAD’s SDG Pulse offers statistical

information on developments related to the 2030

Agenda for Sustainable Development. To provide

timely information on the global economy and trade,

UNCTAD Statistics publishes a weekly Trade and

Economy Nowcast.

UNCTAD is also running several projects focused on

improving the efficiency of data management, (for

example, by supporting customs operations with

the Automated System for Customs Data). UNCTAD’s

own statistical activities are governed by the UNCTAD

Statistics Quality Assurance Framework, which

is aligned with principles governing international

statistical activities.

• Data for Development

• Digital Economy Report 2021

• Digital Economy Report 2019

• Data Protection Regulations and International

510

Data Flows: Implications for Trade and

Development (2016)

• UNCTAD Statistics Quality Assurance Framework

• UNCTADstat Data Centre

• UNCTAD’s SDG Pulse

• UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics

• Trade and Economy Nowcast

At the 2024 annual session of the UN Commission

on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD),

countries agreed to create a dedicated working group

within the CSTD to engage in comprehensive and

inclusive multistakeholder dialogue on fundamental

principles of data governance at all levels, as relevant

for development under the auspices of the UN. See

also the dedicated section on the CSTD in this Atlas.

E-commerce and digital trade

UNCTAD’s work programme on e-commerce and the

digital economy (ECDE Programme) encompasses

several research and analysis, consensus-building, and

technical assistance activities, as follows:

Research and analysis

UNCTAD conducts research and analysis on

e-commerce and the digital economy and their

implications for trade and development. These are

mainly presented in its flagship publication, the Digital

Economy Report (formerly known as the Information

511

Economy Report), and in its Technical Notes on ICT for

Development. The Technology and Innovation Report,

another flagship publication, highlights the need to

build science, technology, and innovation capabilities as

prerequisites to enable developing countries and LDCs

to adopt and adapt frontier technologies, including

digital technologies.

UNCTAD has published the Digital Economy Report

2024 titled ‘Shaping an environmentally sustainable

and inclusive digital future’ that focuses on the

environmental sustainability aspects of digitalisation.

The report highlights that digital technology and

infrastructure depend heavily on raw materials, with

production and disposal of devices and growing water

and energy needs taking an increasing toll on the

planet. It notes that the production and use of digital

devices, data centres and ICT networks account for an

estimated 6% to 12% of global electricity use. The report

also highlights the negative environmental impacts of

bitcoin mining.

The report identifies that developing countries bear the

brunt of the environmental costs of digitalisation while

reaping fewer benefits – exporting low value-added

raw materials and importing high value-added devices,

along with increasing digital waste. UNCTAD is now

advocating for a global shift towards a circular digital

economy, focusing on circularity by design through

durable products, responsible consumption, reuse and

recycling, and sustainable business models.

UNCTAD has published data showing business

e-commerce sales grew nearly 60% from 2016 to 2022,

reaching $27 trillion (based on data from 43 countries).

UNCTAD is highlighting concerns about digital waste,

noting that waste from screens and small IT equipment

rose 30% between 2010 and 2022.

UNCTAD has published the Technology and Innovation

Report 2023, which analyses the market size of 17

green and frontier technologies, such as AI, the IoT and

electric vehicles, and their potential to spur economic

growth in developing countries. The Technology and

Innovation Report 2025: Inclusive Artificial Intelligence

for Development explores ways for countries to

strategically position themselves to take advantage of

the opportunities offered by AI.

UNCTAD has published research on distributed

ledger technologies (DLTs), examining their potential

to revolutionise economic and data transactions,

including applications beyond cryptocurrency in areas

such as trade facilitation.

Consensus building on e-commerce and digital

economy policies

UNCTAD’s Intergovernmental Group of Experts on

E-commerce and the Digital Economy meets regularly to

discuss ways to strengthen the development dimension

of e-commerce and the digital economy. The group’s

meetings are usually held in conjunction with UNCTAD

eWeek - a biennial event, fostering multistakeholder

dialogue on the development opportunities and

challenges associated with the digital economy.

UNCTAD serves as a knowledge partner to the

deliberations of the G20 Digital Economy Working

Group, as well as to the BRICS Digital Economy Working

Group.

Under the auspices of the CSTD, UNCTAD provides

substantive work on the follow-up to WSIS – a unique

UN summit that was initiated to create an evolving

multistakeholder platform to address the issues raised

by information and communications technologies

(ICTs) through a structured and inclusive approach at

the national, regional, and international levels. See also

the dedicated section on the CSTD in this Atlas.

UNCTAD hosted the eWeek 2023 with the theme

‘Shaping the future of the digital economy’. UNCTAD

supports the GDC process through its e-commerce and

digital economy programme.

eTrade Readiness Assessments and strategy

formulation

About 40 eTrade Readiness Assessments (eT Readies)

have been conducted to assist LDCs and other developing

countries in understanding their e-commerce readiness

in key policy areas to better engage in and benefit from

e-commerce. The assessments provide specific policy

recommendations to overcome identified barriers and

bottlenecks to growth and enjoy the benefits of digital

trade.

512

UNCTAD’s work on E-commerce Strategies Development

helps countries to elaborate e-commerce strategies on

the basis of comprehensive assessments, most often an

eTrade Readiness Assessment. Policy advice is offered

to partner countries as well as regional bodies that are

requesting assistance in building and maintaining a

dynamic and inclusive e-commerce ecosystem that can

support sustainable development gains.

Legal frameworks for e-commerce

UNCTAD’s e-commerce and law reform work helps

to develop an understanding of the legal issues

underpinning e-commerce through a series of capacitybuilding

workshops for policymakers at the national

and regional levels. Concrete actions include assistance

in establishing domestic and regional legal regimes to

enhance trust in online transactions, regional studies

on cyber laws harmonisation, and the global mapping

of e-commerce legislation through its Global Cyberlaw

Tracker.

Measuring the e-commerce and digital economy

UNCTAD’s work on measuring e-commerce and digital

economy includes statistical data collection and

the development of methodology, as well as linking

statistics and policy through the Working Group on

Measuring E-commerce and the Digital Economy,

established by the Intergovernmental Group of Experts

on E-Commerce and the Digital Economy. Figures are

published in the biennial Digital Economy Report and

the UNCTADstat Data Centre. Technical cooperation

here aims to strengthen the capacity of national

statistical systems to produce better, more reliable, and

internationally comparable statistics on the following

issues: ICT use by enterprises, size and composition of

the ICT sector, and e-commerce and international trade

in ICT-enabled services. To support statistical compilers

in their efforts to measure digital trade, the IMF-OECD-

UNCTAD-WTO Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade was

published. A Task Group on Measuring E-commerce

Value (TG-eCOM) under the Working Group on

measuring e-commerce and the digital economy,

works on developing internationally agreed guidelines

on measuring the value of e-commerce transactions.

Smart partnerships through eTrade for all

The eTrade for all initiative is a global collaborative effort

of 35 partners to scale up cooperation, transparency,

and aid efficiency towards more inclusive e-commerce.

Its main tool is an online platform (etradeforall.org), a

knowledge-sharing and information hub that facilitates

access to a wide range of information and resources on

e-commerce and the digital economy. It offers a gateway

for matching the suppliers of technical assistance with

those in need. Beneficiaries can connect with potential

partners and learn about trends, best practices, upto-date

e-commerce indicators, and upcoming events,

all in one place. The initiative also acts as a catalyst

for partnership among its members for increased

synergies. This collaboration has concretely translated

513

into the participation of several partners as key

contributors to the various UNCTAD eWeek organised

by UNCTAD and in the conduct and peer review of

eTrade Readiness Assessments.

Empowering women digital entrepreneurs: eTrade

for Women

The eTrade for Women initiative works at the junction of

gender, technology and entrepreneurship to promote

gender equality and women’s empowerment in an

increasingly digital economy and society. It combines

the opportunities offered by digitalisation with the

transformative power of female entrepreneurship

to advance decent work and economic growth and

promote social cohesion in developing countries. The

strategy of eTrade for Women relies on a ‘domino

effect’ and leverages women-led digital SMEs to inspire

and empower a larger group of successful female

entrepreneurs and shape more gender-inclusive digital

economies. In collaboration with the eTrade for Women

Advocates, a small group of influential women leaders

in the digital sector, the initiative raises the profiles

of successful women digital entrepreneurs, helps to

change stereotypes and brings their perspectives to

the forefront of policy making on e-commerce and the

digital economy for development.

• eTrade Readiness Assessments

• E-commerce Strategies

• Implementation Support Mechanism

• eCommerce and Law Reform

• Global Cyberlaw Tracker

• eTrade for all initiative

• eTrade for Women initiative

• Measuring e-commerce and the digital economy

• Intergovernmental Group of Experts on

E-commerce and the Digital Economy

• UNCTAD eWeek

ECDE Programme interventions are funded by a dozen

funding partners, with about two-thirds of the extrabudgetary

resources provided by five core donors –

namely Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden,

and Switzerland.

Consumer protection 1

Through its Competition and Consumer Policies

Programme, UNCTAD works to assist countries in

improving their competition and consumer protection

policies. It provides a forum for intergovernmental

deliberations on these issues; undertakes research,

policy analysis and data collection; and provides

technical assistance to developing countries. The

Intergovernmental Group of Experts on Consumer

Protection Law and Policy monitors the implementation

of the UN Guidelines for Consumer Protection, and

1

Consumer protection and competition are jointly addressed in the work of UNCTAD.

514

carries out research and provides technical assistance

on consumer protection issues (including in the context

of e-commerce and the digital economy). UNCTAD’s

work programme on consumer protection is guided,

among others, by the UN Conference of Competition

and Consumer Protection (held every five years).

Given the significant imbalances in market power in

the digital economy, competition policy is becoming

increasingly relevant for developing countries. UNCTAD

addresses this issue in the Intergovernmental Group of

Experts on Competition Law and Policy.

UNCTAD also runs the Research Partnership Platform

on Competition and Consumer Protection, aimed at

contributing to the development of best practices in

the formulation and implementation of competition

and consumer protection laws and policies.

UNCTAD serves as co-lead of the One Planet Network

‒ Consumer Information for Sustainable Consumption

and Production Programme, along with the German

government and Consumers International, which

implements and supports projects, undertakes

research, identifies and encourages policies, and

provides collaboration opportunities for anyone

looking to engage and assist consumers in sustainable

consumption.

Creative economy

The UNCTAD Creative Economy Programme recognises

the importance of cultural and creative industries and

their contribution to the global economy. UNCTAD is

mandated to conduct research and policy analysis,

consensus-building, and technical cooperation.

The increased digitalisation of creative goods and

services heavily influences this vibrant sector. The

Creative Industry 4.0 report looks at the implications

for the creative economy of the rapid changes

in automated technology and advanced internet

communication that came to be known as Industry 4.0.

Using a sustainable development lens, the report looks

at economic and social development opportunities

driven by digitalisation and advanced technologies for


UNCTAD supports countries in measuring the economic

contribution of their creative economy and developing

appropriate policies for an increasingly digitalised

environment.


UNCTAD works to facilitate and measure progress

towards achieving the SDGs. It is a custodian agency

and partner for nine SDG indicators related to trade,

tariffs, development finance, debt, investment, illicit

finance, and enterprise sustainability. This entails a

global responsibility for UNCTAD to develop concepts

and methods to track progress with these indicators,

and to support member States in strengthening their

capacity to measure and analyse progress to effectively

515

target policy efforts towards meeting the SDGs.

UNCTAD releases data-driven analyses on progress

towards the SDGs in the areas of trade, development,

investment, finance, and technology, including ICTs and

digital trade in its annual SDG Pulse online publication.

UNCTAD’s work to facilitate and measure progress

towards the SDGs includes (but is not limited to)

activities in the field of STI for development. The

organisation supports countries in their efforts to

integrate STI in national development strategies,

through initiatives such as Science, Technology and

Innovation Policy Reviews and capacity-building

programmes (such as the Innovation Policy Learning

Programme). UNCTAD’s Investment Policy Framework

for Sustainable Development provides guidance for

policymakers in formulating national investment

policies and in negotiating investment agreements. The

organisation is also part of the Toolbox for Financing

for SDGs – a platform launched in 2018 at the initiative

of the President of the UNGA to assist countries and

financial actors in exploring solutions to the challenges

of financing the SDGs.

UNCTAD’s Productive Capacities Index (PCI) is a dynamic

and practical tool to support developing countries in

understanding the status of their productive capacity

and how this can be improved. It builds on UNCTAD’s

long-standing work on productive capacities essential

for generating inclusive and sustained economic growth

and achieving sustainable development. The PCI covers

194 economies for the period 2000‒2022. The set of

productive capacities and their specific combinations

are mapped across 42 indicators. This makes our PCI

multidimensional in its analytical abilities.

The index can help diagnose areas where countries

may be leading or falling behind, spotlighting where

policies are working and where corrective efforts are

needed. It suggests a roadmap for future policy actions

and interventions under each of its eight components:

human capital, natural capital, energy, ICTs, structural

change, transport, institutions, and the private sector.

It was developed in response to the ECOSOC resolution

(E/RES/2017/29) encouraging UNCTAD ‘to pursue its

methodological work to measure progress in and

identify obstacles to the development of productive

capacities in developing countries’.

The PCI has been peer-reviewed and validated at

national and regional levels by leading technical

experts across the UN system, as well as by academics

and government stakeholders. Stakeholders in select

countries have been trained in how to use the index

in their development policymaking processes. UNCTAD

stands ready to conduct more training sessions at the

request of countries.

Other UNCTAD activities designed to contribute to

sustainable development cover issues such as climate

change, the circular economy, and intellectual property,

with a focus on the most vulnerable developing

516

countries, including SIDS, LDCs, LLDCs, and African

countries.

• UNCTAD’s SDG Pulse

• Technical Notes on ICT for Development

• Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable

Development

• UNCTAD Productive Capacities Index:

Methodological Approach and Results

• PCI database

• Science, Technology and Innovation Policy

Reviews

• Innovation Policy Learning Programme

• Investment Policy Hub

• Toolbox for Financing for SDGs

• Voluntary Sustainability Standards and BioTrade:

Is there a connection?

• Voluntary Sustainability Standards Sustainability

Agenda and Developing Countries: Opportunities

and Challenges


Many activities undertaken by UNCTAD have a capacity

development dimension. For instance, its work on

e-commerce and trade includes supporting developing

countries in establishing adequate legal frameworks in

these areas (e.g. its eCommerce and Law Reform work)

and in producing statistics that can guide effective

policymaking (e.g. Measuring e-commerce and the

Digital Economy activities, the Productive Capacities

Index and e-commerce Strategies). UNCTAD’s e-Learning

on Trade platform provides courses and training on

issues such as trade, gender, and development and

non-tariff measures in trade.

The TRAINFORTRADE programme has launched a

project on blended learning strategy to boost the

digital economy in SIDS. The project is structured to

encompass the legal aspects of e-commerce, digital

economy statistics, and digital identity for trade and

development.

UNCTAD also works to build capacity in STI policymaking

in developing countries, through initiatives such as the

Innovation Policy Learning Programme and STI training

provided in the context of the P166 programme.

Additionally, UNCTAD’s Virtual Institute – run in

cooperation with universities worldwide – is dedicated

to building knowledge for trade and development.

Another area where UNCTAD provides capacity

building for developing countries is that of statistics:

The organisation and its partners assist national

statistics organisations in the collection, compilation,

and dissemination of their statistics in domains such as

trade, sustainable development, and investments.

• eTrade Readiness Assessments

• E-commerce Strategies

517

• Implementation Support Mechanism

• eCommerce and Law Reform

• Measuring e-commerce and the Digital Economy

• Innovation Policy Learning Programme

• UNCTAD Virtual Institute

• E-Learning on Trade Platform

Gender rights

UNCTAD runs a Trade, Gender, and Development

programme dedicated to assisting countries in

developing and implementing gender-sensitive trade

policies, conducting gender impact analyses of trade

policies and agreements, and strengthening the links

between trade and gender. One notable initiative is the

eTrade for Women initiative, dedicated to advancing

the empowerment of women through ICTs.

UNCTAD works to strengthen countries’ capacity to

develop and use gender-relevant statistics to inform

trade policy. In 2018, UNCTAD developed a conceptual

framework to measure gender and trade to support

policymakers and national statistics offices in assessing

gender equality in international trade and reviewing

existing data in this field. Guided by this framework,

UNCTAD is working on a project with the economic

commissions for Africa (ECA) and Europe (ECE) to

strengthen the capacity of interested countries in Africa,

Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia to

develop and use statistics for more gender-responsive

trade policy and to inform the analysis of the gendered

impacts of COVID-19 through trade. A pilot in Georgia

provided new gender-in-trade indicators for trade

policy by reusing existing data; work in four additional

countries is ongoing in Africa. This work has given the

basis for preparing compilation guidelines on gender

and trade statistics to help scale up this work globally.

UNCTAD also leads a work stream to include gender

equality and inclusiveness considerations in the update

of the United Nations Trade Statistics manuals used by

all countries globally.

Other initiatives undertaken in this area include

capacity building on trade and gender, the Women in

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

(STEM): Changing the Narrative Dialogues, and the

project Data and Statistics for More Gender Responsive

Trade Policies in Africa, the Caucasus and Central Asia.

• eTrade for Women Initiative

• Trade, Gender and Development Programme

• Capacity Building on Trade and Gender

Within its analytical work on trade and gender, in

a policy review, UNCTAD analysed the implications

of e-commerce for women small entrepreneurs in

developing countries. The study is addressed to a variety

of stakeholders, but especially policymakers, to provide

guidance on how to design policies and measures

that enhance women’s beneficial participation in the

economy by leveraging e-commerce.

518

DIGITAL TOOLS

Through its online courses on trade and gender,

UNCTAD bridges knowledge gaps in the links between

trade policy and gender equality and women’s

economic empowerment. With around 2,000 alumni

from 180 countries, this online capacity-building

initiative remains a particularly effective and inclusive

tool to enhance knowledge in a still relatively new field

of trade policy.

eGovernment portals

UNCTAD’s easy-to-use digital government platforms

enable civil servants to quickly build online publicfacing

services so their governments can deliver on

and mobilise funding for climate, jobs, environment,

health, food, and other SDGs. Service delivery can

include registering carbon emitters and removers as

part of the Paris Agreement; delivering certificates

of incorporation and business permits in hours, not

weeks; tracking extended producer responsibility;

simplifying the delivery of production permits for

vaccines and pharmaceuticals; helping farmers access

key government services; and much more.

Civil servants use the intuitive drag-and-drop system to

create online public services. They don’t require any prior

IT knowledge or equipment. It works for any service in

any ministry and is compatible with existing digital IDs

and government websites to ensure a seamless user

experience.

The system is quickly scalable. Civil servants have access

to the Digital Government Academy and can train

colleagues to develop digital services across ministries

and governments while avoiding the costs, timelines,

consultants, and complexities traditionally associated

with digital government projects.

Detailed data generated by these systems show

important increases in access to public services by

demographics such as young people, women, and rural

populations. Governments use this data to fine-tune

delivery.

519

Additional digital tools and online platforms:

• UNCTAD Global Cyberlaw Tracker

• eTrade for all platform

• UNCTADstat Data Centre

• UNCTAD Trains Portal and NTBonline

• UNCTAD Virtual Institute

• E-Learning on Trade platform

• UNCTAD’s Productive Capacities Index

• Database on the African Continental Free

TradeArea (AfCFTA)

• Database on the Generalized System of

Preferences (GSP)

• UNCTAD’s Illicit Financial Flows tools

• TRAINFORTRADE

• UNCTAD World Consumer Protection Map

Many of UNCTAD’s publications are released as digital

publications only.


Facebook @UNCTAD

Flickr @UNCTAD

Instagram @unctad

LinkedIn @UNCTAD

Twitter @UNCTAD

YouTube @UNCTADOnline

520

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

(UNECE)

Palais des Nations | 1211 Geneva 10 | Switzerland

www.unece.org/info/ece-homepage.html

About UNECE

UNECE is one of five regional commissions of the UN.

Its major aim is to promote pan-European economic

integration. To do so, it brings together 56 countries in

Europe, North America, and Central Asia, which discuss

and cooperate on economic and sectoral issues.

UNECE works to promote sustainable development and

economic growth through policy dialogue, negotiation

of international legal instruments, development of

regulations and norms, exchange and application of

best practices, economic and technical expertise, and

technical cooperation for countries with economies

in transition. It also sets out norms, standards, and

conventions to facilitate international cooperation.

524

At UNECE, we fully recognise the potential of digital

technologies to accelerate the implementation of

the 2030 Agenda. We have already digitised

many of our normative, policy advisory

and capacity-building instruments to

enable countries to deal with the most

pressing economic, environmental,

and social challenges in a data-driven

and forward-looking manner.

Tatiana Molcean

Executive Secretary

Message by UNECE

Digital technologies are unleashing changes that are reshaping economic sectors and business

models. They offer new opportunities for individual advancement and social engagement.

As governments and other stakeholders embrace digital solutions, UNECE is upgrading its

existing toolbox of instruments for digital transformation and embracing it across three

dimensions: normative, policy advisory, and capacity building.

525

Message by UNECE

In its multiple areas of work, UNECE is not only responding to the changes driven by

digitalisation. We are also actively shaping and taking advantage of the opportunities that

digital technologies open to advance sustainable development and increase prosperity in our

region.

Examples include developing the regulatory framework for autonomous driving, providing

impetus to the greening of the economy, harnessing infrastructure financing, ensuring

compliance of products with embedded AI, using big data and machine learning to modernise

the production of official statistics, advancing decarbonisation, increasing resource efficiency

and improving the management of natural resources, as well as the collection of environmental

information and the capacity to better track the use of resources to enforce environmental

regulations.

The digital transformation has already led to the migration and adaptation of existing UNECE

normative outputs to digital formats, as illustrated by the examples of the eTIR system and

electronic consignment note (eCMR), electronic business and ESG traceability standards, the

PIERS online platform, and the UNECE Dashboard for SDG Indicators. All these UNECE digital

tools aim to help policymakers to unlock further efficiency, facilitate cross-border exchanges,

and enable them to better track and rate their SDG progress.

Finally, the digital transformation is defining new content for UNECE technical cooperation

and capacity-building activities across our member states and beyond, to help them meet the

changing needs across different areas. Data-driven innovation holds great promise in tackling

environmental challenges and advancing climate change mitigation and the shift to a circular

economy, especially when it comes to analysing possible future impacts of climate change on

infrastructure and assisting countries in planning ahead and taking necessary action early.

Advances in digital technologies can also ensure that sufficient information is made available

to the public in a manner that enables consumers to make informed environmental choices.

With the focus of the 71st session of the Economic Commission for Europe on climate action

and resilient infrastructure for a sustainable future, UNECE intends to step up its work in

this area and cooperate with governments and partners to shape a sustainable and resilient

future for all.

526

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

UNECE’s work touches on several digital policy issues,

ranging from digital standards (in particular, in relation

to electronic data interchange for administration,

commerce, and transport) to the internet of things

(IoT) (e.g. intelligent transport systems). Its activities

on connected vehicles and automated driving systems

are essential to seize the benefits of technical progress

and disruptions in that field and to operationalise new

mobility concepts such as Mobility as a Service (MaaS).

Within the Trade sub-programme, guidance has

been developed on the Compliance of products with

embedded artificial intelligence, as well as ensuring

gender mainstreaming of relevant standards. Its UN/

CEFACT develops trade facilitation recommendations

and electronic business standards, covering both

commercial and government business processes.

UNECE also carries out activities focused on promoting

sustainable development, in areas such as sustainable

and smart cities for all ages, sustainable mobility and

smart connectivity, and measuring and monitoring

progress towards the SDGs.

UNECE’s work in the field of statistics is also relevant for

digital policy issues. For example, the 2019 Guidance

on Modernizing Statistical Legislation – which guides

countries through the process of reviewing and revising

statistical legislation – covers issues such as open

data, national and international data exchanges, and

government data management.

UNECE also pioneers digitalisation efforts towards

sustainable transformation of the energy system, by

enabling a constructive dialogue to help bridge the gap

between academic research, industrial innovations, and

policy needs.

UNECE carries out extensive work in the area of sustainable

transport, leading on several UN Conventions. Accession

to the conventions continues to increase as more and

more member states realise the benefits in the time

taken and associated costs in the movement of goods.

Numerous digitised systems have been developed, and

are maintained, hosted, and administered under the

auspices of UNECE. For a number of other tools and

mechanisms, work is underway.

527


Digital standards

UNECE’s intergovernmental body UN/CEFACT continues

making great strides in the area of digital standards. In

a recent collaboration with the International Federation

of Freight-Forwarders Associations (FIATA), it developed

the electronic FIATA Multimodal Bill of Lading (eFBL) data

standard. The basis of the mapping of the Negotiable

FIATA Multimodal Transport Bill of Lading (FBL) with the

UN/CEFACT Multimodal Transport (MMT) reference data

model, allows the exchange of BL data in a standardised

way, facilitating interoperability between all modes of

transport and industry stakeholders. Similar to other data

standards developed by UN/CEFACT, the data standard

is offered as open-source for all software providers

and industry stakeholders to implement. UNECE’s

standardisation work builds on a family of reference

data models in alignment with its strategy to become

the next generation of global standards for trade and

transport information exchange. Other digital standards

in the areas of supply chain management, agriculture,

and travel and tourism (e.g. Buy Ship Pay Reference

Data Model, Textile and Leather Data Model (Part 1 and

Part 2), and Travel and Tourism Experience Programme

Data Model) are a great step toward paperless trade and

benefit all actors of the supply chain by reducing costs,

increasing security, and gaining efficiency.

• UN/EDIFACT

• UN/CEFACT eCert

• UN/CEFACT FLUX

• UN/CCL

• XML Schemas

• Various other standards cover areas such as

supply chain management, transport and logistics,

agriculture, accounting and audit, travel and

tourism, and the environment.

• UN Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic

Business (UN/CEFACT)

• UN/CEFACT Github Repository

• UN/CEFACT Collaborative Environment (CUE)

• UNECE Trade Facilitation Implementation Guide

• UN/CEFACT Streamline Presentation of Standards

• UN/CEFACT Guidance Material

Internet of things and artificial intelligence

The UNECE has published a guidance and declaration

on Compliance of products with embedded AI. One of

the key challenges of such products is the possibility

that it changes over time with distant updates which

could potentially be coming from outside the market of

consumption; market surveillance agencies will need to

ensure that these products remain compliant with safety

and security regulations throughout their lifecycle.

As the UN centre for inland transport, UNECE hosts

international regulatory platforms in the field of

automated driving and intelligent transport systems.

528

It hosts multilateral agreements and conventions ruling

the requirements and the use of these technologies

(such as the UN agreements on vehicle regulations and

the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic). Its activities (e.g.

facilitating policy dialogue and developing regulations

and norms) contribute to enabling automated driving

functionalities and ensuring that the benefits of these

technologies can be captured without compromising

safety and progress achieved in areas such as border

crossing and interoperability. It also collaborates with

other interested stakeholders, including the automotive

and information and communications technology (ICT)

industries, consumer organisations, governments, and

international organisations.

Another area of work for UNECE is related to harnessing

smart technologies and innovation for sustainable and

smart cities. In this regard, it promotes the use of ICTs in

city planning and service provision, and it has developed

(together with ITU) a set of key performance indicators for

smart sustainable cities. UNECE also works to facilitate

connectivity through sustainable infrastructure. For

instance, it assists countries in developing smart grids

for more efficient energy distribution, and it administers

international e-roads, e-rail, and e-waterway networks.

UNECE launched the Advisory Group on Advanced

Technology in Trade and Logistics (AGAT) in 2020 on

topics, such as distributed ledger technologies (DLT)

including blockchain, IoT, and AI.

The UNECE High-Level Group on Modernisation of

Official Statistics (HLG-MOS) has been at the forefront of

modernisation initiatives in the field of official statistics.

These initiatives include innovative areas such as big data,

synthetic data, and machine learning (ML) and AI. A UNECE

guide, Machine Learning for Official Statistics (2021), can

help national and international statistical organisations

to harness the power of ML to modernise the production

of official statistics. Responding to the growing interest in

LLM, HLG-MOS published a white paper, LLM for Official

Statistics (2023), to establish a common understanding

of LLM’s potential within the statistical community by

exploring implications and opportunities for official

statistics. Building on its ongoing efforts to provide

a platform for experts to exchange experiences and

lessons learned in implementing AI solutions, HLG-MOS

has launched a project on generative AI (2024-2025) and

is organising the ‘Generative AI and Official Statistics’ in

May (2025).

In trade, the newly released UN/CEFACT JSON-LD Web

Vocabulary complements and enhances the capabilities

of AI systems for trade-related exchanges. It aims

to support the interoperability of trade by allowing

supply chain actors to more easily integrate a common

vocabulary in their business tools (e.g. software

applications, AI algorithms) to ensure that data shared

between different entities (e.g. suppliers, manufacturers,

distributors, transporters, financiers, and regulators) is

consistent and easily interpretable, reducing errors and

misunderstandings.

529

Artificial intelligence for energy

AI and other technologies are inspiring energy suppliers,

transmission and distribution companies, and demand

sectors (buildings, industry, transport) to establish new

business models to generate, deliver, and consume

energy in a more sustainable way.

UNECE established a task force on digitalisation in energy

to offer a platform for cross-industry experts from the

energy sector and digital innovation to develop a unified

voice on digitalisation in energy.

With systemic efficiency in view, the Task Force

addresses a broad range of technical topics and policy

issues beyond AI, from smart infrastructure and digital

demand-side optimisation solutions for buildings also

addressing behavioral barriers, to cyber resilience and

overall governance of digitalisation in energy, extending

activities across all sectors and aligning with the broader

mission of UNECE.

Documentation and publications 2020-2025 include:

• Digitalisation: enabling the new phase of energy

efficiency

• Improving Efficiency of Buildings through

Digitalisation

• Digitalisation: Accelerating the Electricity System

Transformation

• Addressing Behavioural Barriers to Energy

Digitalisation

530

• Challenges of big data and analytics-driven

demand-side management

• Key considerations and solutions to ensure cyber

resiliency in smart integrated energy systems

• Improving efficiency and reliability of energy

systems by means of Big Data analytics

• Case Study on ‘Grid Edge Management Reference

Architecture and Policy Recommendations for

Interoperability and Resilience’

• Case study on ‘Cyber Resilience of Critical Energy

Infrastructure’

• Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the digital and

data transformation in the electricity sector

• The twin transition in non-electricity sector

• Case study on ‘Governance policy of digitalisation

in energy’

• Case study on ‘Balancing the electricity supply and

demand with Artificial Intelligence’

• Case study on ‘Behavioural barriers in adoption of

smart meters’

• Compendium of Case Studies on Digitalization in

Energy in UNECE Region

• Study ‘Integrating twin transition with legacy

energy systems: regional overview of the selected

countries in Central Asia, the Caucasus, Eastern

and South-Eastern Europe’

In 2025, the Task Force advances research on the

issues of interoperability and open source, explores

the intersection between large-scale digitalisation

and environmental sustainability focusing on data

centres, launches its regional survey on Digitalisation

in Energy, and continues studies and initiatives on

the twin transition.

The group found that AI and digitalisation have the

potential to reduce residential and commercial

buildings’ energy use by as much as 10% globally

by 2040 if applied throughout a building’s value

chain and life cycle. In particular, applications of AI

may help optimise a building’s orientation for solar

heat gain and predict power and heat needs, thus

increasing overall energy security and maximising

the integration of renewable energy sources.

The group also found that AI and digitalisation could

help achieve energy savings of at least 10%–20% in

the industrial sector (which consumes around 38% of

global final energy and produces 24% of greenhouse

gasses).

UNECE has partnered with the University of Zürich to

develop a beta-mode AI-powered tool (chatenergy.ia)

that would offer a real-time interactive compendium

of information and data resources on the resilience

of energy systems. The platform showed how

policymakers could benefit from a cutting-edge tool

that could inform their policy decisions by facilitating

knowledge management and dissemination

capabilities. It could also help identify technology

and policy breakthroughs and mobilise financial

flows for resilience. The European Investment Bank,

531

the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the

International Energy Agency, ITU, the Organization

for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE),

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the

World Bank, and other organisations contributed

their knowledge base to support and shape this

beta-mode tool.

Automated driving

• Revised Framework Document on Automated/

Autonomous Vehicle (2022)

• Guidelines and Recommendations Concerning

Safety Requirements for Automated Driving

Systems (document endorsed in June 2022)

• Guideline for Validating Automated Driving System

(document endorsed in June 2022)

• Paper on Artificial Intelligence and Vehicle

Regulations (2018) and update (2022)

• UN Regulation No. 157 on the Type Approval of

Automated Lane Keeping Systems (ALKS) (2020),

amended in June 2022

• Resolution on the Deployment of Highly and Fully

Automated Vehicles in Road Traffic

• Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968)

• All You Need To Know About Automated Vehicles

(2022)

• UN Regulation on Uniform Provisions Concerning

the Approval of Vehicles with regard to Cyber

Security and of their Cybersecurity Management

Systems

• UN Regulation No. 156 – Software Update and

Software Update Management System

• Key Performance Indicators for Smart Sustainable

Cities (2015)

• Resolution on the Deployment of Highly and Fully

Automated Vehicles in Road Traffic

• Artificial Intelligence and Vehicle Regulations I.

Introduction II. Some Terms And applications

• World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle

Regulations (WP.29)

• Working Party on Automated/Autonomous and

Connected Vehicles

• Global Forum for Road Traffic Safety (WP.1)

• UNECE Committee on Urban Development,

Housing and Land Management

• Advisory Group on Advanced Technologies (AGAT)

| UNECE

• ITU and UNECE co-organise the annual Future

Networked Car symposium

• ITU and UNECE have developed key performance

indicators for smart sustainable cities

• United for Smart Sustainable Cities – UNECE is one

of the coordinators

• Artificial Intelligence Demystified - Background,

Principles and the Main Applications of Artificial

Intelligence and Related Concepts

Blockchain

UNECE’s subsidiary body UN/CEFACT has been exploring

the use of blockchain for trade facilitation. For instance,

work carried out within the Blockchain White Paper

Project has resulted in two white papers: one looking at

the impact of blockchain on the technical standards work

of UN/CEFACT and another looking at how blockchain

could facilitate trade and related business processes.

The ongoing Chain Project is focused on developing

a framework/mechanism for the development and

implementation of blockchain services infrastructure, and

creating a whitepaper on a strategy for the development

and implementation of interoperable global blockchain

technology infrastructure. Another blockchain-related

project looks into the development of a standard on the

creation of a cross-border inter-customs ledger using

blockchain technology.

• White Paper: Technical Applications of Blockchain

to UN/CEFACT Deliverables (2019)

• White Paper: Blockchain in Trade Facilitation (2019)

• Briefing Note on Blockchain for the United Nations

SDGs (2018)

• UN/CEFACT Chain Project

• UN/CEFACT Project: Cross Border Inter-ledger

Exchange for Preferential COO Using Blockchain

Critical infrastructure

UNECE achieved a transformative milestone with regard

to cybersecurity in the broad automotive sector with the

532

adoption of UN Regulation No. 155 (Cyber Security and

CSMS) and UN Regulation No. 156 (Software Updates).

Before that, cyber risks related to connected vehicles

were apparent but not systematically addressed.

Security researchers alerted the public to them by

revealing various vulnerabilities. There were only narrow

standards and guidelines for securing vehicles, such as

standards for secure communication among Electronic

Control Units (ECUs) and for hardware encryption.

UNECE’s World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle

Regulations (Working Party on Automated/Autonomous

and Connected Vehicles (GRVA) WP.29) adopted two

important new regulations on cybersecurity and

over-the-air software updates and led to the situation

where cybersecurity became non-negotiable for

securing market access via type approval for those

countries applying this regime. GRVA also developed

recommendations on uniform provisions concerning

cybersecurity and software updates for countries

applying the self-certification regime.

• Proposal for Recommendations on Uniform

Provisions Concerning Cyber Security and

Software Updates (Global recommendation)

Under the 1958 Agreement (binding to 54 countries)

• UN Regulation No. 155 on Cyber Security and

Cyber Security Management

• UN Regulation No. 156 on Software Updates and

Software Updates Management Systems

• World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle

Regulations (WP.29)

• Working Party on Automated/Autonomous and

Connected Vehicles

• Access to the text of UN Regulations No. 155 and

No. 156 and their amendments

Data governance

UNECE carries out multiple activities of

relevance for the area of data governance.

First, its work on trade facilitation also covers data

management issues. For example, it has issued a white

paper on data pipeline concept for improving data quality

in the supply chain and a set of Reference Data Model

Guidelines. Several projects carried out in the framework

of UNECE’s subsidiary UN/CEFACT also cover data-related

issues. Examples include the Buy-Ship-Pay Reference

Data Model (BSP-RDM), the Supply Chain Reference Data

Model (SCRDM), the Multi-Modal Transport Reference

Data Model (MMT-RDM), the Cross-border Management

Reference Data Model Project (to provide a regulatory

reference data model within the UN/CEFACT semantic

library in order to assist authorities to link this information

to the standards of other organisations), the Sustainable

Development and Circular Economy Reference Data

Model Project, and the Accounting and Audit Reference

Data Model Project.

533

Second, UNECE has a statistical division, which

coordinates international statistical activities between

UNECE countries and helps to strengthen, modernise,

and harmonise statistical systems under the guidance

of the Conference of European Statisticians. Its activities

in this area are guided by the Fundamental Principles of

Official Statistics, adopted in 1992 and later endorsed

by the ECOSOC and the UNGA. Areas of work include

economic statistics, statistics on population, gender and

society, statistics related to sustainable development and

the environment, and modernisation of official statistics.

In 2019, UNECE published a Guidance on Modernizing

Statistical Legislation to guide countries through the

process of reviewing and revising statistical legislation.

The guidance covers issues such as open data, national

and international data exchanges, and government data

management.

Third, UNECE keeps abreast of external developments

(e.g. in Europe or an OECD country) related to challenges

related to AI, privacy, and human rights. This is the

case, for example, with the activities on transport and

automated vehicles. The GRVA is reflecting on the impact

of general AI policies in its activities and developed

possible ways to add layers in its multi-pillar approach

to validate the performance of the Automated Driving

System, and therefore to integrate considerations on

data management in the context of AI agent training,

support features, and functions of automated driving,

and collaborate with the automotive sector on this

matter.

• White Paper: Data Pipeline (2018)

• Reference Data Model Guidelines (2016)

• Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics (1992)

• Guidance on Modernizing Statistical Legislation

(2019)

• Impact of AI on ADS Assessment (2022)

• Conference of European Statisticians

• High-Level Group for the Modernisation of Official

Statistics (HLG-MOS)

• UN/CEFACT Reference Data Model

• UN/CEFACT Project: Cross-border Management

Reference Data Model

• UN/CEFACT Project: Accounting and

AuditReference Data Model Project

• UN/CEFACT Project: Sustainable Development and

Circular Economy Reference Data Model


UNECE’s subsidiary, UN/CEFACT, serves as a focal point

(within ECOSOC) for trade facilitation recommendations

and electronic business standards, covering both

commercial and government business processes. In

collaboration with the Organization for the Advancement

of Structured Information Standards (OASIS), UNECE

developed the Electronic business using eXtensible

Mark-up Language (ebXML). Another output of

UNECE is represented by the UN rules for Electronic

534

Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and

Transport (UN/ EDIFACT), which include internationally

agreed upon standards, directories, and guidelines

for the electronic interchange of structured data

between computerised information systems. UNECE

has also issued recommendations on issues such as

Single Window, electronic commerce agreements, and

e-commerce self-regulatory instruments. In addition,

UN/CEFACT works on supporting international, regional,

and national e-government efforts to improve trade

facilitation and e-commerce systems.

• UN rules for Electronic Data Interchange for

Administration, Commerce, and Transport (UN/

EDIFACT)

• Recommendation 25 – Use of the UN Electronic

Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce

and Transport Standard (UN/EDIFACT)

• Recommendation 26 – The Commercial Use of

Interchange Agreements for Electronic Data

Interchange

• Recommendation 31 – Electronic Commerce

Agreement

• Recommendation 32 – E-Commerce Self-

Regulatory Instruments (Codes of Conduct)

Recommendation 33 – Single Window Recommendation

• Electronic business using eXtensible Markup

Language (ebXML)

• White Paper: PaperlessTrade (2018)

• UN Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic

Business (UN/CEFACT) Trade facilitation

recommendations | UNECE

• Trade facilitation recommendations | UNECE

In addition, UN/CEFACT is reviewing its mandates and

developing white papers analysing how AI can be used

to facilitate trade processes. This includes examining

how AI technology could be used to facilitate trade

and related processes in the international supply chain

including the study of areas such as data privacy, AIbased

trade policies, the use of AI in e-Commerce and

payments; how existing UN/CEFACT deliverables could

be used in AI applications; and possible changes to

existing UN/CEFACT deliverables, or new deliverables,

that could be considered to support AI trade facilitation

applications.

The UNECE Working Party on Regulatory Cooperation

and Standardization Policies (WP.6) is currently

reviewing the challenges that online marketplaces

pose to regulatory agencies at entry into the market.

The increase of small parcels each containing a small

number of products poses significant challenges to

market surveillance agencies in order to ensure that

goods entering the market are safe for consumers;

WP.6 is currently working on guidance based on best

practices in the United Kingdom and other economies

to address this issue.

535

Digital and environment

UNECE’s work in the area of environmental policy

covers a broad range of issues, such as air pollution,

transboundary water cooperation, industrial safety,

environmental democracy, the green economy,

environmental monitoring and impact assessment, and

education for sustainable development. Much of this

work is carried out by the Committee on Environmental

Policy, which, among other tasks, supports countries

in their efforts to strengthen their environmental

governance and assesses their efforts to reduce their

pollution burden, manage natural resources, and

integrate environmental and socio-economic policies.

UNECE has put in place an Environmental Monitoring

and Assessment Programme to assist member states in

working with environmental data and information and

enable informed decision-making processes. As part

of this programme, it promotes the use of electronic

tools for accessing information and knowledge on

environmental matters and supports the continued

development of a Shared Environmental Information

System across the UNECE region. The system is

intended to enable countries to connect databases and

make environmental data more accessible.

The INForest database offers the most up-to-date

source of information about the size of the forest area

in the UNECE region, how it has changed over decades,

the structure of forests, the goods and services forests

provide, as well as their contribution to the economy,

society, and the environment.

UNECE has developed policy guidance to support the

digital inclusion of older people. In the Rome Ministerial

Declaration on Ageing, adopted in June 2022, Ministers

pledged to ‘promote age-friendly digitalisation,

products and services, and support innovation for the

silver economy’.

Recognising the importance of environmental,

social, and governance (ESG) traceability in achieving

SDG 12 and considering the rich body of expertise

and standards already available through UNECE, it

broadened the focus of the Team of Specialists (ToS) on

sustainable fisheries to ESG traceability of sustainable

value chains in the circular economy.

UNECE Environmental Conventions and Protocols (not

necessarily covering digital issues directly, but relevant):

• Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air

Pollution

• Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment

in a Transboundary Context

• Convention on the Protection and Use of

Transboundary Watercourses and International

Lakes

• Convention on the Transboundary Effects of

Industrial Accidents

• Convention on Access to Information, Public

536

Participation in Decision-making and Access

to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus

Convention)

• Updated recommendations on the more effective

use of electronic information tools aim to assist

parties, signatories and other interested states in

promoting development, maintaining, enhancing,

and using electronic information tools and

applying modern digital technologies (blockchain,

AI, digital twins, augmented reality, etc.) to support

the implementation of the Aarhus Convention

(2021)

• Consultation on the Recommendations on

Electronic Information Tools

• Aarhus Convention Task Force on Access to

Information

• Protocol on Pollutant Release and

TransferRegisters to the Aarhus Convention

• Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment

Other valuable resources on the environment include:

• Final Review Report on the Establishment of the

Shared Environmental Information System (report,

March 2021)

• Pan-European Strategic Framework for Greening

the Economy

• Batumi Initiative on Green Economy (BIG-E)

• InForest – your data and knowledge platform for

forests in the UNECE region

• Policy Brief on Ageing in the Digital Era (2021)

• Ministerial Declaration: A Sustainable World for

All Ages: Joining Forces for Solidarity and Equal

Opportunities Throughout Life (2022)

• Working Group on Environmental Monitoring and

Assessment

• Joint Task Force on Environmental Statistics and

Indicators

• Task Force on Waste Statistics

• UNECE/FAO Forestry and Timber Section

• ToS on ESG Traceability of Sustainable Value

Chains in the Circular Economy


UNECE assists countries in its region to address sustainable

development challenges (in areas such as environment,

connectivity, and urbanisation) through offering policy

advice, leveraging its norms, standards, and conventions,

and building capacities. It focuses on driving progress

towards the following SDGs: good health and well-being

(SDG 3), clean water and sanitation (SDG 6), affordable

and clean energy (SDG 7), decent work and economic

growth (SDG 8), industry, innovation and infrastructure

(SDG 9), sustainable cities and communities (SDG

11), responsible consumption and production (SDG

12), climate action (SDG 13), and life on land (SDG 15).

Gender equality (SDG 5) and partnerships (SDG 17) are

overarching for all UNECE activities. Activities undertaken

537

by UNECE concerning these SDGs converge under four

high-impact areas: sustainable use of natural resources;

sustainable and smart cities for all ages; sustainable

mobility and smart connectivity; and measuring and

monitoring progress towards the SDGs.

UNECE has developed a series of tools and standards to

support countries in measuring and monitoring progress

towards the SDGs. It has also put in place an Innovation

Policy Outlook, which assesses the scope, quality, and

performance of policies, institutions, and instruments

promoting innovation for sustainable development.

• Halfway to 2030: How Many Targets will be

Achieved in the UNECE region? Snapshot and

Insights in 2022 (report, 2022)

• Measuring and Monitoring Progress towards the

Sustainable Development Goals (report, April

2021)


The World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle

Regulations has included guidelines on cybersecurity

and data protection in its consolidated resolution on

the construction of vehicles, including principles of

lawful, fair, and transparent processing of personal

data: (1) respecting the identity and privacy of the data

subject; (2) not discriminating against data subjects

based on their personal data; (3) paying attention to the

reasonable expectations of the data subjects with regard

to the transparency and context of the data processing;

(4) maintaining the integrity and trustworthiness of

information technology systems and in particular not

secretly manipulating data processing; (5) taking into

account the benefit of data processing depending on

the free flow of data, communication and innovation,

as far as data subjects have to respect the processing

of personal data with regard to the overriding general

public interest; and (6) ensuring the preservation of

individual mobility data according to necessity and

purpose.

These guidelines were referred to in the Resolution on

Data Protection in Automated and Connected Vehicles

adopted during the 39th International Conference of

Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners, Hong Kong,

25–29 September 2017.

AI in sustainable Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)

and infrastructure finance

The UNECE launched a new 2-year workstream on

the use of AI in Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) for

the SDGs. This work will consider the transformative

potential of AI in PPP and infrastructure projects by

exploring the opportunities and challenges of leveraging

AI to advance the SDGs. The UNECE will release a series

of forward-looking policy briefs and organise webinars

that will discuss key focus areas. In 2025, the following

topics will be addressed:

• Harnessing the power of data in PPPs:

opportunities and challenges.

538

DIGITAL TOOLS

• Enhancing PPP project identification and planning

through AI.

• Improving PPP stakeholder engagement and

fostering transparency in public consultation using

AI.

• Transforming PPP financial modelling and

investment decision making with AI.

• Leveraging AI to optimise the longevity and safety

of infrastructure assets.

This workstream was approved by the Working Party

on Public-Private Partnerships at its eighth session on

25–26 November 2024.

Digital tools

UNECE hosts several portals, applications, and digitalised

conventions.

eTIR International System Application

The Customs Convention on the International Transport

of Goods under Cover of TIR (Transports Internationaux

Routiers) Carnets (TIR Convention, 1975) is one of the

most successful international transport conventions. It is

the only universal customs transit system in existence.

The TIR system, used by over 34,000 transport and

logistics companies in its 77 contracting parties, has

already reduced cross-border transport time by up to

80%, and costs by up to 38%. The eTIR international

system aims to ensure the secure exchange of data

between national customs systems related to the

international transit of goods, vehicles, or containers

according to the provisions of the TIR Convention and

to allow customs to manage the data on guarantees,

issued by guarantee chains to holders authorised to

use the TIR system.

ITDB: International TIR Data Bank

The ITDB is an international online repository of

information for all those authorised by contracting

parties to use the TIR procedure. It is an integral part of

the eTIR International system since only users approved

in the ITDB can use the eTIR system. The main goal of the

ITDB is to foster the exchange of information between

competent authorities of contracting parties and national

associations.

eCPD

The Carnet de Passages en Douane (CPD) system (i.e. a

passport card for your vehicle) facilitates the temporary

importation of private and commercial vehicles. The

CPD system is based on two international conventions:

the 1954 Customs Convention on the Temporary

Importation of Private Road Vehicles and the 1956

Customs Convention on the Temporary Importation

of Commercial Road Vehicles. Hosted by UNECE, the

conventions combined have 96 contracting parties. Work

has started to prepare the appropriate amendments

to the 1954 and 1956 conventions describing the eCPD;

539

prepare the high-level architecture, including the concepts

and functional and technical specifications of the future

eCPD application; and develop the eCPD system based

on these specifications.

eCMR

The eCMR is based on the provisions of the Convention on

the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by

Road (CMR) (1956) and especially on the provisions of the

Additional Protocol to CMR Concerning the Electronic

Consignment Note (2008). UNECE, which administers the

CMR Convention, has been mandated by governments to

administer the eCMR protocol and to establish a formal

group of experts on the operationalisation of the eCMR

procedure.

PIERS online platform

The PIERS online platform is a publicly available digital

tool accessible to governments and other stakeholders,

enabling them to assess the sustainability of their Public-

Private Partnerships and infrastructure projects, using

the UNECE PPP and Infrastructure Evaluation and Rating

System (PIERS). The PIERS methodology establishes a set

of core sustainable indicators deriving from the SDGs,

ensuring that PPP and infrastructure projects create

‘value for people’ and ‘value for the planet’, with a focus

on the world’s most vulnerable.

Digital visualisation

International Transport Infrastructure Observatory

(ITIO)

The observatory will be developed on a geographic

information systems (GIS) platform with three main

pillars of services: it offers an electronic repository of

UNECE inland transport conventions, an innovative tool

to finance transport infrastructure, and a way to promote

sustainable regional and interregional connectivity.

ITIO GIS Platform

Climate Change Adaptation and Transport Infrastructure

Tool – The ITIO GIS platform assists in the analysis of

possible future impacts of climate change on transport

networks. The tool enables experts to identify sections

of transport networks potentially exposed to the effects

of climate change.

Digital enabler

SITCIN: Sustainable Inland Transport Connectivity

Indicators tool

The SITCIN tool allows countries to measure their

degree of transport connectivity, both domestically and

bilaterally/sub-regionally, as well as in terms of soft and

hard infrastructure.

540

UNECE Dashboard of SDG Indicators

UNECE digital tools facilitating access to statistical

information:

• UNECE Statistical Database

• UNECE Statistics Wikis

• UNECE Active Ageing Index Wiki

UNECE online platforms and observatories gather

updates and policy resources to help member states

respond to the COVID-19 crisis:

• Platform for National Statistical offices

• Food Outlook

• Observatory on Border Crossings Status

• Data Sources on Coronavirus Impact on Transport

• COVID-19: The Role of the Water Convention and

the Protocol on Water and Health


Facebook @UNECE

Flickr @UNECE

Instagram @un_ece

LinkedIn @ United Nations Economic Commission for

Europe

X @UNECE

YouTube @UNECE

Sign up for the monthly newsletter on digital issues to

receive updates.

541

United Nations Environment Programme –

Global Resource Information Database

(UNEP/GRID-Geneva)

11 Chemin des Anémones | 1219 Châtelaine | Switzerland

www.unepgrid.ch/en

About UNEP/GRID-Geneva

The Global Resource Information Database – Geneva

(GRID-Geneva) is a partnership between UNEP, FOEN,

and UNIGE. With a team of 20 environment data

scientists, GRID-Geneva’s main role is to transform

data into information and knowledge to support the

decision-making process related to environmental

issues.

The GRID-Geneva partnership brings a powerful

science policy interface: with UNIGE for solid science,

large computation facilities, and the Swiss government

to advise and support policies, providing strong support

to the UN Environment Programme. UNEP/GRID-

Geneva is incorporated in the Big Data Branch, within

the Early Warning and Assessment Division of UNEP. It is

also part of the One Global Partnership, which includes

more than 15 centres worldwide, working together to

keep the environment under review and support UNEP

with data processing.

544

Dr Pascal Peduzzi

GRID-Geneva director

We care for the planet!

Our work is to ensure that decisions are based on scientific evidence

(satellite images, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), statistics or

in-situ data). We are facilitating access to information.

Message by the GRID-Geneva director

The Global Resource Information Database - Geneva (GRID-Geneva) is nested within the

International Geneva, home of many UN Headquarters and the world’s highest concentration

of environmental data organisations. GRID-Geneva was created in 1985 to facilitate data access.

In four decades, it has sharpened its know-how, including the latest tools and technologies

to automatically transform data (from satellite, GIS models, statistics or in-situ stations) into

meaningful information and knowledge. GRID-Geneva also provides recommendations,

based on science, to governments and other decision-makers to accelerate the movement

toward sustainable development.

The global environmental change is rapid, and the window of opportunity to address

climate change, biodiversity loss, or pollution is narrow. Trying to find this narrow pathway

to sustainable development without data is like trying to find your way in the dark. We are

shedding light on trends, locations, and help to prioritise actions.

545

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

GRID-Geneva generates various types of resources such

as data, data platforms, publications, visuals (maps,

graphs, posters), storymaps or multimedia content.

GRID-Geneva’s scientists can process satellite imagery

using remote sensing software, create models from

geospatial data using GIS, and generate interactive

maps and graphs for automatic updates. GRID-Geneva

also specialises in the design and maintenance of data

platforms for supporting UNEP (e.g. with the World

Environment Situation Room), Ramsar, and many other

organisations and environmental conventions. It manages

numerous high-quality geospatial data sets at various

scales (global, continental, national, and subnational) on

a variety of environment-related themes. GRID-Geneva

also promotes the use of other relevant data platforms,

and its scientists are also providing conferences, capacity

building, and teaching about environmental issues/

solutions, or data science.

546

Credit: unepgrid.ch


Environment and sustainable development

GRID-Geneva is a key centre of geospatial know-how,

with strengths in GIS, remote sensing, and statistical

analyses, integrated through modern spatial data

infrastructures and web applications. Working at the

interface between scientific information and policy/

decision-making, GRID-Geneva also helps to develop

capacities in these fields of expertise among target

audiences, countries, and other groups.

Database

Maintain, update and improve databases related

to environmental issues, including metadata. For

supporting the creation of data and indicators,

monitoring trends, and supporting UNEP and other

parties in their assessment and reporting processes.

Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)

Continue to keep up with the latest technologies and

standards, such as those from the Open Geospatial

Consortium (OGC) for data dissemination via web

services and contributing to the improvement of data

dissemination, linked data, and data dissemination

for the provision of near-real-time data and automatic

updates.

Interactive Mapping Platforms

GRID-Geneva has developed strong expertise in

creating interactive mapping platforms for displaying,

analysing, and sharing geospatial data. These platforms

are designed to be user-friendly and accessible to a wide

audience, including citizens, businesses, policymakers,

and the scientific community.

Serving as a global entry point, it connects users to highquality,

real-world projects with tangible geospatial

data and measurable impact on people and countries.

Remote sensing

GRID-Geneva is using the latest technologies for

processing satellite imagery (e.g. data cube, image

object analysis) as well as usual remote sensing

techniques. It will continue to maintain such skills and

will contribute to supporting the three Parties and

other partners with remote sensing analysis. This can

be used for monitoring trends in environmental status.

Automation of remote sensing analysis, conversion of

raster data to graphs, and capacity building on these

techniques are part of the key know-how from GRID-

Geneva.

Live Graphs and Maps

With the introduction of UNEP Live, it is essential for

UNEP to be able to feature near-real-time data and have

it automatically updated. GRID-Geneva, in collaboration

547


with data providers, can automate the data update to

maintain data with the latest information available.


With the rapid change in technologies, GRID-Geneva

has an important role in helping governments and

ensuring that nobody is left behind. GRID-Geneva has

developed several training packages on GIS, remote

sensing, and SDI, and will keep providing support to

various partners and governments to improve their

skills in these domains. Capacity building is not only

provided on technologies but also on themes. Online

training can also be developed (e.g. through Massive

Online Open Course (MOOC)).

The Global Infrastructure Risk Model and Resilience

Index (GIRI) estimate the risk of infrastructure assets

related to most major geological and climate-related

hazards.

Opportunity mapping uses global data on ecosystems

and hazards to identify areas where restoration or

protection can best safeguard people.

The Climate change data platform contains up-to-date,

relevant information about climate change indicators.


LinkedIn @GRID Geneva

YouTube @GRIDGeneva


Data platforms

Data Analytics and Early Warning for Environment

provides the latest data on numerous indicators

and gives access to specific thematic platforms: live

Earth, disaster risk, ecosystems for risk reduction,

environmental hotspots, planetary boundaries, loss

and damage, and climate change.

Interactive Country Fiches analyse environmental

situations and performances of countries around the

world.

548

UN International Computing Centre

(UNICC)

Octagon Building | Chemin du Pavillon 2 Grand-Saconnex | 1218 Geneva | Switzerland

www.unicc.org

About UNICC

The United Nations International Computing Centre

(UNICC) is the largest strategic partner for common,

trusted, and cyber secure digital foundations across

the entire UN system. Through state-of-the-art ICT

infrastructure, digital tools, cybersecurity, cloud, data

and AI solutions, UNICC promotes progress toward a

more connected, secure, and sustainable UN.

With over 50 years of experience, UNICC supports the

digital transformation and future of the UN family and

other international organisations, delivering scalable

and innovative solutions through a cost-effective and

shared services model. This approach empowers our

partners and clients to accelerate the adoption of

required technologies to better serve global needs.

552

The UN system is on an exciting journey towards

a technology-enabled future that leaves

no one behind. At UNICC, we are committed

to providing the digital foundations

that support this transformation.

Sameer Chauhan

Director

Message by the UNICC Director

Today, UNICC represents an agile, nimble, and growing organisation that supports the UN

system’s digital transformation and future by offering common, trusted and cyber secure

digital foundations. We champion SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals, partnering with all the

UN system organisations to create value by providing responsive and agile digital foundations,

secure digital environments, and robust governance structures.

553

Message by the UNICC Director

In times of a revolution in global digital cooperation, marked by the recent adoption of the Pact

for the Future and the GDC, the UN family’s path toward digitalisation is becoming increasingly

crucial in enhancing our impact and efficiency in serving the world. Through state-of-the-art

ICT infrastructure, digital tools, cybersecurity, cloud, data and AI solutions, UNICC promotes

progress toward a more connected, secure, and sustainable UN.

AI has also increasingly taken centre stage in global discussions, holding great promise for

addressing the most complex challenges. In this context, UNICC’s new 2024–2030 Strategic

Framework renews our organisation’s vision and mission, ensuring we remain dynamic and

well-equipped to connect the UN family with emerging technologies, including AI, to fulfil

their mandates effectively. Our new AI hub offers expertise, resources, and a collaborative

environment to advance AI initiatives across the UN system and other international

organisations, adhering to ethical principles and standards for responsible AI use.

554

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

UNICC provides the digital foundations that support the

digital transformation and future of the UN system and

other international organisations.

These digital foundations consist of a comprehensive,

modular, and integrated set of secure, scalable, and

adaptable technology, infrastructure, tools, platforms, and

services that underpin and support digital transformation

and digital-native initiatives. They provide a robust yet

flexible blueprint for implementing digitalisation across

the UN and international organisations.

UNICC is committed to accelerating the UN’s digital

transformation in alignment with UN 2.0 and promoting

digital-native processes and solutions. Impactful

solutions must be built on strong and secure digital

foundations, designed and governed by principles and

structures unique to the UN ecosystem.

555

Credit: unicc.org

DIGITAL POLICY ISSUES AND TOOLS

UNICC has over 50 years of experience in ICT, digital, and

cybersecurity services. As the largest digital strategic

partner for the UN system, UNICC designs and deploys

transformational digital tools and programmes to

support over 100 UN and international organisations

in fulfilling their mandates. Its model maximises the

shared services approach and generates economies of

scale to benefit its partners. UNICC has been the go-to

strategic partner for digital business solutions for UN

programmes, funds and entities since its inception.

UNICC offers a full range of services and solutions built

upon industry best practices, international standards,

and documented business processes subject to a

Continuous Process Improvement cycle. The unique

business environment of UNICC requires a workforce

that is versatile and skilled in deploying and supporting

diverse technologies. It demands knowledgeable staff

who are familiar with UN goals, ethics, regulations,

business, and technology environments.


A dynamic hub of resources for efficient and

responsible AI deployment

AI presents a significant opportunity to modernise

and streamline the United Nations system, enhancing

its capacity to address critical global challenges. By

leveraging AI, the UN family can strengthen and improve

its support to Member States, ultimately driving greater

efficiency, better results, and accelerated progress

toward the SDGs. The UNICC AI Hub offers expertise,

resources, and a collaborative environment to

advance AI initiatives across the UN system and other

international organisations. It operates in alignment

with UN standards, principles, and ethical frameworks

to ensure the responsible use of AI.

The AI Hub will connect the UN system with cuttingedge

AI technologies and key leaders in the AI sector.

UNICC is cultivating strategic partnerships with a diverse

range of stakeholders – including leading technology

providers, academia, governments, and technologyfocused

foundations—to enhance support for its

partners and clients in AI deployment. In that regard,

SandboxAQ, Microsoft, and Amazon Web Services have

joined the UNICC AI Hub as technical partners.

UNICC and Humane Intelligence have also joined forces

to develop AI governance tools and infrastructure for

the efficient and responsible deployment of AI within

the UN system. This partnership aims to create a

structured approach for assessing the societal impact

of AI models, establish a foundational AI governance

framework, and promote sustainable AI solutions

globally.

UnifyHR: GenAI transforming HR operations across

the UN family

In a significant leap forward for HR operations

within the United Nations, various UN agencies have

556

collaborated to develop and deploy UNifyHR, an

advanced Generative AI tool to streamline human

resources (HR) operations and policy management.

Initially conceptualised by the United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), this tool benefits

from the technical support and development expertise

of the UNICC and the participation of 13 UN agencies:

IAEA, ICAO, IOM, ITU, UNAIDS, UNDP, UNESCO, UNHCR,

UNICEF, UNOPS, UNRWA, UN Women, and WFP.

The UNifyHR Chatbot is powered by advanced

Generative AI technology and offers HR operations

teams rapid, multilingual access to critical HR policy

information from across the participating UN

organisations. This innovative tool leverages cuttingedge

AI capabilities to simplify the retrieval of complex

policy data, enabling HR professionals to respond

more quickly and accurately to inquiries. The result

is enhanced productivity and better data-driven

decision-making, aligning with the UN’s broader goals

of improving institutional effectiveness and digital

transformation efforts.

UNDP’s AIDA portal

Artificial Intelligence powers UNDP’s Evaluation

Office solutions

Independent evaluation offices play a major role in

gleaning and sharing years of evaluation knowledge

and experience for UN agency programme delivery.

This is never an easy task. Finding valuable information

is time-consuming, methodical, and often manual, with

multiple sources and document types to process.

In partnership with UNICC and Amazon Web Services,

the United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) launched AIDA 2.0 (Artificial Intelligence for

Development Analytics), with new analytical capabilities

in 2023. This cutting-edge solution streamlines the

scanning of more than 6,000 evaluation reports to

understand keywords, context, and intent using AI

capabilities, returning meaningful answers to complex

questions. New features include sentiment analysis,

pattern detection, topic modelling and summarisation,

and data visualisation.

With UNICC’s support, UNDP’s AIDA portal is accessible

to Evaluation Office staff who want to learn from

past evaluations to improve programme design and

delivery, offering an innovative solution to search, find,

and share lessons learned and build on successes from

country programmes worldwide.

Digital identity

UN Digital ID to provide the UN workforce with a

universal, easy-to-use, system-wide identity

UN Digital ID is a unique identity for each UN staff

member, from onboarding to retirement. Having

a unique identification across the UN system not

only reduces data fragmentation and duplication

557


but also simplifies and streamlines processes and

transactions across all business functions between

staff and organisations, and among UN organisations

themselves. As a data exchange platform, UN Digital ID

will allow staff from participating organisations to share

any of their HR and related information with complete

visibility, consent, and security.

UN Digital ID is part of UN 2.0, the UN Secretary-

General’s push to achieve an efficient and data-driven

transformation.

Cloud computing

UNIQCloud - A secure private cloud environment

for the UN system

UNIQCloud is a private cloud solution specifically

designed for the UN system and other international

organisations. UNIQCloud is built on open-source

technology using the OpenStack platform, ensuring

end-to-end transparency, flexibility and accountability.

UNIQCloud features include multi tenancy for efficient

resource utilisation, on-demand access, and continuous

improvement, as well as agility, resilience, scalability,

and security. It was developed using energy-efficient

practices and carbon offsets in line with the Greening

the Blue initiative.

UNIQCloud is designed to enhance and complement

diverse cloud models adopted by UN entities and

provide support for business continuity strategies. It

offers pricing stability and predictable terms governed

by UNICC’s Management Committee.

Cybersecurity

A cyber secure digital environment for the UN

family

UNICC’s cybersecurity services cover oversight,

governance, and threat intelligence sharing, as well

as advisory services and a spectrum of programmatic

and operational components. UNICC Cybersecurity

has grown its global programme to serve over 50

UN partners and international organisations since its

inception in 2017.

Services range from the Common Secure Threat

Intelligence Network of over 40 UN organisations to

maturity assessments, ISO certification support, SOC

and SIEM support, as well as security incident response

and forensics, business continuity management, and

industry-standard operational processes.

UNICC is certified with ISO 27001 and was awarded

a 2020 and 2017 CSO 50 Award for its Common

Secure Information Security services, demonstrating

outstanding business value and thought leadership.

558

The Cybersecurity Fund for the UN System

Bolstering cyber-resilience across the UN family

UNICC’s Cybersecurity Fund (CSF) is a direct action to

address the recommendations made by the UN Joint

Inspection Unit (JIU) and is designed to complement

UNICC’s capacity as the UN system’s ‘Cyber Hub’,

developing and offering shared services and solutions

to enhance the UN cybersecurity posture. Over the

next several years, the CSF will be supported by

voluntary contributions from Member States to provide

a dedicated stream of funding for critical cybersecurity

functions, achieving a baseline standard of security and

capabilities, aligned with UN system-wide priorities and

best practices.

International Criminal Investigations

Innovative technology and partnerships for

international criminal investigations

The United Nations Investigative Team to Promote

Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da’esh/ISIL

(UNITAD) partnered with UNICC and Microsoft to

support advanced data management for accountability

in UNITAD criminal investigations, with UNICC offering

Microsoft Azure hosting services, development, data

and analytics, and cognitive services.

UNICC Data and Analytics, Application Development,

and Cloud Infrastructure teams supported the

collection, preservation, and storage of evidence in the

form of images, audio, video, and digital text files that

have been recovered from sources in the field. This

solution streamlines evidence in independent criminal

proceedings to hold members of ISIL accountable for

the crimes they may have committed.

The partnership helps UNITAD fulfil its mandate in a

more efficient and cost-effective manner by creating

new business opportunities for UNICC clients and

partner organisations to leverage for similar challenges

with this innovative technology.


LinkedIn @UNICC

Twitter @unicc_ict

YouTube @UN International Computing Centre

559

United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research

(UNIDIR)


www.unidir.org

About UNIDIR

Founded in 1980, UNIDIR is a voluntarily funded,

autonomous institute within the United Nations.

One of the few policy institutes worldwide focusing

on disarmament, UNIDIR generates knowledge and

promotes dialogue and action on disarmament and

security. Based in Geneva, UNIDIR assists the international

community to develop the practical, innovative ideas

needed to find solutions to critical security problems.

562

We are committed to empowering the global

community with the knowledge and tools

needed to navigate the security challenges

posed by rapid technological advancements.

Robin Geiss

Director

Message by the UNIDIR Director

UNIDIR’s Security and Technology Programme strengthens international peace and security

by analysing the impact of technological innovation on global security. Through cuttingedge

research, capacity building, inclusive dialogue and practical tools, like the UNIDIR Cyber

Policy Portal and UNIDIR AI Policy Portal, UNIDIR supports effective policy action and fosters

cooperation across diverse communities. Through these efforts, the programme advances

trust, transparency and informed decision-making for a safer digital future.

563

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

UNIDIR’s Security and Technology Programme

develops innovative tools and ideas to prevent and

reduce threats to international peace and security

arising from digital transformation. Its work focuses

on three core areas: (i) cybersecurity, (ii) artificial

intelligence and autonomy, and (iii) science, technology,

and innovation.

The work on cybersecurity considers the evolution of

the cyber threat landscape and how various governance

tools – from international law to industry standards –

can be leveraged to mitigate such risks. UNIDIR’s work

supports multilateral cyber discussions and helps

member States in the implementation of agreed rules,

norms and principles of responsible State behaviour.

UNIDIR has become a leader in shaping inclusive

governance of AI and empowering States to manage the

opportunities, risks and ethical challenges associated

with the use of AI. Our work supports deliberations

related to autonomous weapons systems, as well as

broader discussions concerning wider applications of

AI in the military and security domains.

In light of rapid technological advances, UNIDIR’s work

seeks to build understanding on the peace and security

implications of STI and provide innovative options to

mitigate risks. Key areas of focus include quantum

and cloud computing, as well as advancements

in key enabling technologies like microchips and

nanotechnology.

564

Credit: unidir.org


Cybersecurity

UNIDIR’s Security and Technology Programme builds

knowledge and raises awareness of the security

implications of new and emerging technologies. One

key area of focus for UNIDIR is cyber stability, with

activities that support the implementation of norms

and recommendations previously agreed upon by UN

member States. The Programme also explores options

to strengthen cyber stability and crisis management

mechanisms. This includes understanding how digital

technologies are evolving, what threats they pose

to international peace and security and how various

governance tools, from international law to industry

standards, can be leveraged to mitigate such risks. Each

year, the Cyber Stability Conference convenes a range of

stakeholders to advance a secure and stable cyberspace.

For many years, UNIDIR has played a key role in

supporting and contributing to multilateral discussions

on international cybersecurity, including the Group of

Governmental Experts (GGE) and Open-Ended Working

Group (OEWG). Our current work in support of the OEWG

on security of and in the use of ICTs (2021–2025) assists

member States in implementing the agreed framework

for responsible State behaviour in the use of ICTs.

In partnership with the United Nations Office for

Disarmament Affairs (UNODA), UNIDIR launched the

second edition of the Cyber Diplomacy Course. Available

to the public via the Disarmament Education Dashboard,

the updated course reflects the latest developments

in multilateral discussions on ICTs. It covers key topics

in cyber diplomacy, including: emerging threats to

international security; the application of international

law in cyberspace; rules and norms for responsible

State behaviour; confidence-building measures; and

international cooperation for capacity-building.

Launched in 2019, the Cyber Policy Portal is an interactive

map of the global cyber policy landscape. It provides

profiles of the cyber policies of all 193 UN member

States, in addition to various intergovernmental

organisations and multistakeholder instruments and

other initiatives. This confidence-building tool supports

informed participation by relevant stakeholders in all

policy processes and promotes trust, transparency, and

cooperation in cyberspace.

Accessible from the portal, the National Survey of

Implementation of United Nations Recommendations

of Responsible Use of ICTs by States in the Context of

International Security collates national implementation

of the agreed framework of responsible State behaviour

in the use of ICTs. The National Survey also seeks to

identify challenges to implementation as well as any

specific gaps in capacity needed for implementation, to

overcome such obstacles to consequently increase overall

implementation of the framework. The survey allows UN

member States to conduct regular self-assessments of

national implementation of the framework.

565

The National Survey supports transparency, information

sharing, and confidence-building by giving UN member

States the option of making their responses to the survey

publicly available on UNIDIR’s Cyber Policy Portal.

The Cyber Policy Portal Database provides direct access

to documents and references through the profiles of all

193 UN member states on the Cyber Policy Portal. The

database allows searching across several categories,

including State, type of document, topic, issuing body,

and more.

Publications

• Unlocking the UNIDIR Cyber Policy Portal: A

Comprehensive User Guide

• Accelerating ICT Security Capacity-Building:

Takeaways from the Global Roundtable on ICT

Security Capacity-Building

• Internet Fragmentation and Cybersecurity: A

Primer

• Drawing Parallels: A Multi-Stakeholder Perspective

on the Cyber PoA Scope, Structure and Content

• Use of ICTs by States: Rights and Responsibilities

Under the UN Charter

• Unpacking Cyber Capacity-Building Needs: Part I.

Mapping the Foundational Cyber Capabilities

• Unpacking Cyber Capacity-Building Needs: Part II.

Introducing a Threat-Based Approach

• Operationalising a Directory of Points of Contact

for Cyber Confidence-Building Measures

566

• Towards a More Stable and Secure ICT

Environment: Unpacking Inter-State Cooperation

(Conference Summary Report)

• Wading Murky Waters: Subsea Communications

Cables and Responsible State Behaviour

Events

• 2024 Cyber Stability Conference: Unpacking Cyber

Threats to International Peace and Security

• 2024 Cyber Dialogues: Part I

• 2024 Cyber Dialogues: Part II

• 2024 Cyber Dialogues: Part III

• 2024 Cyber Dialogues: Cyber Roundup

• AI and Cybersecurity Workshop: The Challenges of

New and Updated Threats

• Evolving Cyberthreat Landscape and its

Implications for the Maintenance of International

Peace and Security

• Explorer les cybermenaces

• Unpacking Gender-Based Vulnerabilities in

International Cybersecurity

• Good Practices on Developing a National Position

on the Interpretation of International Law and

State use of ICTs

• Safeguarding critical infrastructure beyond

borders: Uniting diplomatic and technical efforts

for a cyber resilient digital future

• Digital Tools for Disarmament: An Overview of

UNIDIR Portals and Databases

• Multi-Stakeholder Dialogue on Internet

Fragmentation

• Unpacking Cyber Capacity-Building Needs: From

Research to Action

• Technology Breakfast: Quantum and

Cybersecurity

• Protecting Global Internet Infrastructure: A Multi-

Stakeholder Dialogue

• Multi-Stakeholder Dialogue: Subsea

Communications Cables and Responsible State

Behaviour

• 2023 Cyber Stability Conference – Use of ICTs by

States: Rights and Responsibilities Under the UN

Charter


UNIDIR has become a leader in shaping inclusive

governance of AI and empowering States to manage the

opportunities, risks, and ethical challenges associated

with the use of AI. Our work aims to raise awareness,

facilitate engagement and build capacities of various

stakeholders, including member states, technical

communities, academia, and the private sector across

regions. In recognition of the breakneck speed at

which AI innovation proceeds and its multidimensional

implications on international peace and security, the

UNIDIR’s work on AI spans across the many facets of its

governance at the multilateral, international, regional,

and national levels.

UNIDIR has been supporting the work of the Convention

on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) Group of

Governmental Experts (GGE) on emerging technologies in

the area of lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS).

In order to tailor our evidence-based research to the

needs of States, UNIDIR convenes regional consultations

to take stock of national and regional approaches to

the interpretation and application of international

humanitarian law to LAWS. These consultations provide

a unique and critical platform for regional dialogue and

fostering common understandings by unearthing underrepresented

perspectives in Western Europe and North

America, Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa and

Asia-Pacific.

Through the Responsible AI in the Military Domain

(REAIM) initiative, UNIDIR supports States in identifying

and platforming national and regional perspectives for

the responsible development, deployment and use of AI

in the military domain. UNIDIR’s work directly influenced

the ‘Blueprint for Action’ endorsed by over 50 States

around the globe, which serves as the basis for ongoing

regional engagement on the responsible use of AI in the

military domain.

Recognising the need for an UN-based platform to foster

multistakeholder and cross-regional dialogue for the

governance of AI more broadly, UNIDIR and Microsoft

567

launched the Roundtable for AI, Security and Ethics

(RAISE) in 2024. RAISE will provide an ongoing platform

for international and regional multistakeholder dialogue,

enabling the development of shared understandings,

norms and regulations that transcend national borders

and geopolitical competition – a critical need in the

light of today’s security landscape. From 2025, UNIDIR’s

Global Conference on AI, Security and Ethics will

provide an annual forum to convene members of the

multistakeholder community to discuss the governance

of AI in defence and security within the UN.

UNIDIR’s work on AI also focuses on advancing the

meaningful engagement of women in multilateral fora

on AI. Launched in 2024, UNIDIR hosts an annual Women

in AI Fellowship in Geneva to provide women diplomats

from all over the world with the skills, knowledge,

and networks to facilitate their active participation in

governance negotiations regarding AI. In particular, the

Fellowship program builds their knowledge of the policy,

legal and technical aspects of AI, including its gendered

implications.

Launched in 2023, UNIDIR’s Artificial Intelligence Policy

Portal gathers available information at the national,

regional, and international levels on policies, processes,

and structures that are relevant to the development and

use of AI for military or security purposes. The Portal has

been developed to support transparency, information

sharing, and confidence building in the field of AI.

Publications

• Governance of Artificial Intelligence in the Military

Domain: A Multi-Stakeholder Perspective on

Priority Areas

• The Global Kaleidoscope of Military AI

Governance: Decoding the 2024 Regional

Consultations on Responsible AI in the Military

Domain

• Draft Guidelines for the Development of a

National Strategy on AI in Security and Defence

• Does Military AI Have Gender? Understanding

Bias and Promoting Ethical Approaches in Military

Applications of AI

• Confidence-Building Measures for Artificial

Intelligence: A Multilateral Perspective

• Large Language Models and International Security

• Gender and Lethal Autonomous Weapons

Systems

• AI and International Security: Understanding the

Risks and Paving the Path for Confidence-Building

Measures

• Artificial Intelligence Beyond Weapons: Application

and Impact of AI in the Military Domain

• Proposals Related to Emerging Technologies in the

Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems: A

Resource Paper (updated)

568

Events

• Security and technology briefings: AI in the

military domain

• Guidelines for the development of national

strategies on AI in security and defence

• The roundtable for AI, security and ethics: Forging

global alignment through multistakeholder

dialogue

• The Second Roundtable for AI, Security and Ethics

(RAISE)

• Digital Tools for Disarmament: An Overview of

UNIDIR Portals and Databases

• Risks of AI (Report Launch)

• The Application and Impact of Artificial Intelligence

Beyond Weapons (Publication Launch)

• 2023 Innovations Dialogue: The Impact of Artificial

Intelligence on Future Battlefields

• Empowering AI Policy: Introducing the UNIDIR

Artificial Intelligence Policy Portal

• Technological Advances of Uncrewed Systems in

the Air, Land and Maritime Domains

• Human–AI Teaming


New technologies create new opportunities, but they

can also make the global security environment more

uncertain and complex. However, the ability of policy

responses to keep up with the pace of technological

innovation has never been more challenged than

today. This is particularly true when speaking about

advancements in key enabling technologies, such as

computing power or sensing technologies, which often

fall through the cracks as not officially subject of any

specific international disarmament instrument.

In synergy with the Secretary-General’s Agenda for

Disarmament and recent UNGA resolutions on the role

of science and technology in the context of international

security, UNIDIR proactively identifies and examines

emerging and over-the-horizon innovations. Our

work in this area is threefold: (i) we ensure that these

technologies are well understood, (ii) we ensure they

remain on the agendas of diplomats and policymakers,

and (iii) we actively investigate both the impact they

might have on peace and security and the available

policy options to mitigate potential risks.

Publications

• Governance Implications of Synthetic Data in the

Context of International Security

• Exploring Synthetic Data for Artificial Intelligence

and Autonomous Systems: A Primer

• Enabling Technologies and International Security:

A Compendium (2024 edition)

• 2024 Innovations Dialogue: Quantum Technologies

and Their Implications for International Peace and

Security

569

• Quantum Technology, Peace and Security: A

Primer

• Armed and dangerous? A brief overview of

uncrewed aerial systems – risks, impacts, and

avenues for action

• Enabling Technologies and International Security:

A Compendium (2023 Edition)

• Uncrewed Aerial, Ground, and Maritime Systems:

A Compendium

Events

• Technology and security seminar on 6G: Preparing

for the next generation of connectivity

• 2024 Innovations Dialogue: Quantum technologies

and their implications for international peace and

security

• Technology Breakfast: Nanotechnology and

International Security

• Subsea Communications Cables as Critical

Infrastructure: What’s in a Designation?

• Quantum Technologies and Their Implications for

International Peace and Security

• Exploring Directed Energy Weapons and the

Implications of Their Use Under International Law

• Preparing for the Future of International Peace

and Security

• Brain-Computer Interfaces Webinar Series, Part 3:

Legal and Ethical Challenges

• Brain-Computer Interfaces Webinar Series, Part

2: BCIs in the Context of International Security:

Military Uses, Applications and Risks

• Brain-Computer Interfaces Webinar Series, Part 1:

Existing and Near-Term Uses of BCIs

Digital tools

• Cyber Policy Portal – An interactive map of the

global cyber policy landscape. It provides profiles

of the cyber policies of all 193 UN Member

States, in addition to various intergovernmental

organisations and multilateral frameworks.

This confidence building tool seeks to support

informed participation by relevant stakeholders

in all policy processes and promote trust,

transparency, and cooperation in cyberspace.

• National survey of implementation of United

Nations recommendations on responsible use

of ICTs by states in the context of international

security

• Cyber Policy Portal Database – UNIDIR’s Cyber

Policy Portal Database is a valuable addition to

the suite of digital tools developed by UNIDIR to

promote transparency, information sharing, and

confidence- and capacity-building in the digital

age. With over 1500 documents, the database

provides a wealth of information for policymakers

and practitioners in the field of cybersecurity.

570

DIGITAL TOOLS

• Artificial Intelligence Policy Portal – The UNIDIR

Artificial Intelligence Policy Portal serves as

an interactive global map of the AI policy

landscape. It includes profiles of AI policies

for all 193 UN Member States, along with

various intergovernmental organisations and

multistakeholder initiatives. This tool is designed

to encourage informed participation in all policy

processes, fostering transparency, information

sharing, confidence, and capacity building in

the emerging field of AI. UNIDIR encourages

governments to continually share updates

regarding their national profiles using the AI Policy

Portal Submission Survey.

• Biological Weapons Convention National

Implementation Measures Database: Over the last

two decades, many initiatives designed to reduce

biological risks have emerged at the international,

regional, local, and institutional levels, including

risk assessment mechanisms, codes of conduct,

dual-use education, and voluntary peer review

initiatives. It is unclear what happened to many

of these measures or, indeed, whether they

worked. To take stock of these earlier riskreduction

measures and build an evidence base

to inform the development of future measures,

UNIDIR developed a virtual repository of these

risk mitigation measures, complete with insights

around lessons learned from these instruments.

• Space Security Portal: Space policies and doctrines

are evolving rapidly as more states articulate their

perspectives and approaches to addressing space

security. Building on the success of the Institute’s

Cyber Policy Portal, UNIDIR developed the Space

Security Portal to serve as a one-stop online hub

for materials on the space security policies of

key stakeholders, including states and regional

organisations.

• Middle East WMD Free Zone Compass: An online

tool for mapping and tracking statements made

by states of the region and the Treaty on the

Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Nuclear

Weapons States on the Middle East WMD-Free

Zone.

• Middle East WMD Free Zone Timeline: This

interactive tool follows the evolution of the Zone

through key events in over 60 years of diplomatic

efforts. It is a living document, with new

milestones and their corresponding documents

added as the process evolves.

• Middle East WMD-Free Zone Documents

Repository: The Depository collects and organises

the main documents related to the evolution

of the Zone. It includes annual resolutions

and national statements on the Zone process

originating from states that will make up the ME

WMDFZ, the depository states/co-conveners, and

international organisations or forums named in

any relevant resolutions.

571


UNIDIR has organised virtual events, meetings, and

workshops through video conferencing platforms such

as Zoom and Webex.

In addition, UNIDIR’s flagship events have been hosted

on a browser-based streaming platform, StreamYard,

and broadcast across various social media channels.


Facebook @unidirgeneva

Instagram @un_disarmresearch

LinkedIn @UNIDIR

X @UNIDIR

YouTube @UNIDIR-the UN Institute for Disarmament

Research

572

University of Geneva

(UNIGE)

Rue du Général-Dufour 24 | 1211 Geneva | Switzerland

www.unige.ch/en

About UNIGE

With almost 18,000 students of 150+ nationalities, the

University of Geneva is one of the largest universities

in Switzerland. It offers 194 study programmes (103

Bachelor and Master programmes; 91 doctoral

programmes) and 372 continuing education

programmes covering an extremely wide variety of

fields: exact sciences, medicine, humanities, social

sciences, law, etc.

576

By integrating AI into research and education, the

University of Geneva advances science while

fostering critical and ethical reflection. As

part of Geneva’s international ecosystem,

UNIGE actively contributes to shaping

responsible and inclusive AI for the

benefit of all.

Audrey Leuba

Rector

Message by the UNIGE Rector

Digital technology permeates and impacts almost every aspect of our society and our lives.

The University of Geneva (UNIGE) has both undergone and contributed to these technological

changes over the past decades. Digital tools have transformed teaching and learning, enabling

remote and hybrid education and driving pedagogical innovation. In research, increasing

computing power and new methods of data analysis have opened new avenues for scientific

discovery and knowledge dissemination.

577

Message by the UNIGE Rector

Today, digital technology is no longer external to the university`s missions, but a core

element of them, shaping how the University operates. It is structuring research, teaching,

and administrative processes, while continuously evolving with the emergence of new

technologies. The rapid rise of AI is a striking example.

However, digital technology also faces opposing forces: the expansion of cloud computing

versus the need for stronger data protection, or the increasing reliance on digital services

versus the need to reduce energy consumption. In this context, where digital technology is

an everyday reality driving transformation, but also the subject of contradictory tensions, the

University of Geneva has a responsibility to navigate these technological developments with

a critical perspective, recognising both their potential and their challenges.

As one of the top 100 higher education institutions in the world, UNIGE is committed to preparing

younger generations to live and work in a digital society. We are also dedicated to sharing

our academic expertise with civil society, local stakeholders, and international organisations.

This commitment translates into new academic programs related to digital technologies,

innovative services for educators and researchers, and optimised IT infrastructures.

578

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The University of Geneva (UNIGE) places great emphasis

on digital research and education, recognising the

impact of digital technologies and AI across all disciplines

and in preparing students for their professional life.

The Computer Science Department and the Centre

Universitaire d’Informatique (CUI) conduct cutting-edge

research in key areas such as digital imaging, multimedia,

high-performance computing, distributed systems, AI,

bioinformatics, software engineering, and theoretical

computing. They also conduct Interdisciplinary research,

with collaborations in fields like biology, psychology,

linguistics, physics, medicine, economics, and finance.

These research activities are reflected in teaching

at all levels, as researchers bring their expertise,

methodologies, and results into basic and advanced

academic programmes as well as continuing education.

UNIGE is one of the few universities to have a Vice-

Rector dedicated to digital transformation and artificial

intelligence, reflecting the strategic importance of these

fields. In addition, the University is strongly engaged in

maintaining and developing digital infrastructures, tools,

and services. At the same time, it actively supports its

community in adopting and effectively using digital

tools, and offers specialised training programmes

and workshops to equip students, academic staff and

administrative personnel with essential and advanced

digital skills. Finally, UNIGE is committed to promoting

responsible digital practices and ensuring the security of

its digital infrastructures.

In the field of artificial intelligence, the University

leverages AI to enhance teaching methods and support

research. At the same time, UNIGE acknowledges

the ethical challenges posed by AI. It addresses these

concerns through a thoughtful, critical approach to

the development and use of AI, ensuring that these

technologies are implemented responsibly and ethically.

Credit: unige.ch

579


Artificial Intelligence

The University has published an official statement on

the use of AI, based on principles of legality, academic

integrity, transparency, economy, and ecology.

According to a recent survey by the Observatory of

Student Life, 56% of UNIGE student respondents have

already used generative AI text tools in their studies,

primarily to better understand subjects (81%), rephrase

content (45%), and for translation (31%).

To support AI adoption, UNIGE has developed several

resources, including a dedicated web portal for AI,

a practical guide on AI use, ‘Pedagogical Lunches’

focused on AI and continuing education courses on AI.

The University library has also issued a practical guide

for referencing AI in academic work.

UNIGE is participating in the ‘Young AI Leaders’

programme launched by the ITU’s ’AI for Good’ initiative.

A Geneva Hub for this programme has been created,

led by a doctoral student in sociology at UNIGE. The

programme encourages young people (18-30 years old)

to develop AI skills while contributing to the SDGs.

The University of Geneva is part of the Swiss AI Research

Overview Platform (SAIROP), a joint initiative launched

by ten Swiss partner organisations and coordinated

by the Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences. The

platform provides a detailed overview of the AI research

landscape in Switzerland and aims to encourage the

exchange of knowledge between disciplines and fields,

while helping to initiate future innovation projects.

580

As a research-intensive university, UNIGE integrates

AI across various disciplines. AI enhances research by

enabling advanced analysis and modelling, accelerating

discoveries, and opening new perspectives in most

academic domains, such as drug development,

physics research, environmental science, medicine,

neuroscience and linguistics, to name just a few.


As part of its core educational mission, UNIGE offers

several Bachelor’s, Master’s, and PhD programs focused

on or related to digital technologies. In particular,

the Computer Science Department of the Science

Faculty provides several Bachelor’s, Master’s, and PhD

programmes. Other faculties or institutes have also

recently developed academic programmes integrating

digital science. For instance, the Faculty of Humanities

offers a Bachelor’s and a Master’s programme in

Computer Science for the Humanities, while the Global

Studies Institute (GSI) has launched a Bachelor’s degree

in Computational Sciences and International Relations,

a unique interdisciplinary programme in Switzerland.

Beyond its academic programmes focused on or related

to digital technologies, UNIGE seeks to enhance digital

literacy across its entire community by implementing a

series of measures to meet the needs of its students,

researchers, administrative staff, and other community

members. For example, the University offers an

optional transversal course called ‘Comprendre le

numérique’ (‘Understanding digital technologies’) which

covers the technical, social, ethical, cultural, economic,

and legal aspects of digital technologies. Additionally,

the University provides a self-assessment tool for its

community, allowing students and teachers to test

their digital skills, view their digital profile and receive

personalised training suggestions. Another example

of capacity development is the UNIGE ‘Take Over’

initiative, a week of digital training sessions provided

by and for students. Student trainers are compensated

and receive certificates, while participants receive

attestations for the new skills they have acquired.

The University also offers continuing education courses

on digital technologies, including topics such as data

science, machine learning, AI and ethics, legal issues

of generative AI, digital innovation in humanitarian

action, digital health, data privacy, etc. It also offers

a range of MOOCs (massive open online courses)

open to everyone, covering subjects such as human

rights, global health, water resources management,

human rights, political citizenship, internationalisation

of education, language and diversity, international

organisations for interpreters, water cooperation and

diplomacy, migration, etc.

Together with ETH Zurich, UNIGE recently created

a Lab for Science in Diplomacy (SiDLab). As part

of this initiative, it created two professorships in

Computational Diplomacy, developed jointly by the

Global Studies Institute (GSI) and the Department of

Computer Science of the Faculty of Science.

581

When students are positioned as partners in university

communities, they become active participants with

valuable expertise to contribute to shaping the process

of digital transformation. The Partnership Projects

Program (P3) and Hackademia hackathons are two

initiatives that allow students, alongside academic

and professional staff, to bring forward their ideas to

improve the digital tools and services at the University.

Students and staff collaborate on projects they

designed, working together towards the shared goal of

learning from their partners and developing solutions

that meet the University’s needs.

The students of the University also serve as partners

for local businesses and organisations. Through the

‘Adopt a Skill’ programme, an initiative of the Centre

Universitaire d’informatique (CUI), students are

connected with regional companies to collaborate

based on shared interests, in exchange for a monthly

payment.


The University participates in several initiatives that

promote the responsible use of digital technologies.

For instance, UNIGE takes part in the ‘D-Tox numérique’

(Digital Detox) Day, which is part of the international

‘Digital Cleanup Day’ initiative aimed at reducing

digital data and extending the lifespan of computing

devices. This event is organised with 17 public and

private partners, including the Canton and City of

DIGITAL TOOLS

Geneva. UNIGE also hosts once a year the ‘Journée

du numérique responsable’ (Responsible Digital Day)

with the Canton of Geneva, HES-SO Genève, and the

Graduate Institute. This event aims to raise awareness

and engagement among the UNIGE community on

issues of digital sustainability, sovereignty, accessibility

and inclusion.

UNIGE maintains an IT Service Catalogue where

students and staff members can access all digital tools

the university provides, such as the UNIGE Mobile App,

Moodle, UNIGE’s data storage system, Mediaserver,

and many others.

Digital tools for teaching and learning

Digital tools are an integral part of learning and

teaching. These include tools for designing courses,

supervising students, teaching remotely, assessing

students, conducting exams, fostering interactivity, as

well as storing and sharing educational content.

Research tools and infrastructures

computing, designed to support increasingly complex

computational needs.


UNIGE events are places where experts can meet and

exchange ideas, where knowledge and information can

be passed on to the university community and society

at large. They are living pillars of UNIGE’s research,

teaching and public service missions. Many UNIGE

events are now being organised in a virtual or hybrid

format. A dedicated website helps UNIGE community

members willing to organise virtual or hybrid events.


Facebook @unigeneve

Instagram @unigeneve

LinkedIn @universite-de-geneve

X @UNIGE_en

YouTube @Université de Genève

Thanks to funding from the Canton of Geneva, the

university was able to establish new infrastructures

and services to address the growing needs of research.

This includes the creation of a Data Repository for the

preservation and archiving of research data (Yareta)

and the provision of facilities for high-performance

582

United Nations Institute for Training and Research

(UNITAR)

Av. de la Paix 7bis | 1202 Geneva 2 | Switzerland

www.unitar.org

About UNITAR

UNITAR was created in 1963 to train and equip diplomats

from newly independent UN member states with the

knowledge and skills needed to navigate the diplomatic

environment.

Over the years, UNITAR has acquired unique expertise

and experience in designing and delivering a variety of

training activities. It has become a leading institute in

the provision of customised, creative learning solutions

to institutions and individuals from both the public and

private sectors.

UNITAR provides training and capacity development

activities to assist mainly developing countries, with

special attention to least developed countries (LDCs),

small island developing states (SIDS), and other groups

and communities who are most vulnerable, including

those in conflict situations.

In 2020, UNITAR provided learning, training, and

knowledge-sharing services to 322,410 individuals,

representing a 142% increase from 2019 figures. This

increase is attributed largely to the continued delivery

of the introductory e-Learning course on climate change

administered in partnership with agencies of the One UN

Climate Change Learning Partnership, and due to many

programmes turning to online offers during the COVID-19

pandemic. Of the learning-related beneficiaries, 78%

came from developing countries, of which 15% are LDCs

and SIDS.

586

We need to reach people in the millions rather than the

tens of thousands for Agenda 2030 and the

sustainable development goals to take root.

Technology, especially enhanced connectivity,

is making possible an exponential growth

in the number of learners and

beneficiaries that UNITAR is reaching.

Nikhil Seth

Executive Director

Message by the UNITAR Executive Director

UNITAR helps member states and other UN stakeholders implement the 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development by providing modern and innovative learning services that meet

internationally recognised quality standards. Our activities, and the results they produce, vary

tremendously in scale and impact. Ranging from short, intensive, executive-type training to

mid- and large-sized capacity development projects spanning months and indeed years, the

587

Message by the UNITAR Executive Director

outcomes of our work are both immediate, by contributing to the development of knowledge

and skill sets of individual beneficiaries, as well as mid to long term, by contributing broader

organisational and institutional changes.

The COVID-19 pandemic severely disrupted the world, bringing about economic and social

upheavals, without mentioning the suffering and losses that so many people around the

world have had to endure. Like most organisations, COVID-19 affected UNITAR’s work since

much of our programming is usually delivered in the field. By leveraging our virtual learning

environment, mobile learning, and other available IT tools, we were able to continue our

learning services despite COVID-related restrictions. In fact, in 2020, approximately 80% of

our events were delivered online, as compared to 38% in 2019. Despite COVID-19’s many

negative impacts, the world of learning became more interconnected during the pandemic,

and we significantly increased our outreach and impact through the use of digital platforms

and tools.

588

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Of UNITAR’s activities, in 2020, due to the COVID-19

pandemic-related travel and physical meeting

restrictions, approximately 80% of events were

delivered online, as compared to 38% in 2019. Most

of UNITAR’s face-to-face activities take place in field

locations, and the remainder are conducted from

UNITAR’s headquarters in Geneva and through its outposted

offices in New York City and Hiroshima.

589

Credit: UN Photo/Loey Felipe



UNITAR’s work is driven by its programmatic divisions,

of which some have made extensive use of artificial

intelligence (AI). UNITAR’s Satellite Center (UNOSAT)

and its Rapid Mapping Service first introduced AI-based

methods (UNOSAT FloodAI) during the rainy season in

the Asia-Pacific region with a targeted focus on countries

affected by the southwest monsoon season from June

to September 2020. It was in that context, in July 2020,

that an AI algorithm became operational for the first

time following a request by the United Nations Office

for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA)

after heavy monsoon rains around the Brahmaputra

River and in the Sylher district in Bangladesh. Going

forward, UNOSAT intends to further develop AI

applications for rapid mapping by focusing on the user

experience and scaling up how it monitors flood-prone

areas. This entails further training for the machines and

automatic communication between the AI algorithm

outputs (disaster maps) and the visualisation dashboard

developed by UNOSAT.

UNITAR’s Division for Prosperity looks at AI and

several emerging technologies such as blockchain

and augmented reality, and considers their impact on

individuals, societies, and inclusive and sustainable

economic growth. One example is its Frontier

Technologies for Sustainable Development: Unlocking

Women's Entrepreneurship through Artificial

Intelligence (AI) in Afghanistan and Iraq course.

Cybersecurity

UNITAR tackles cybersecurity issues through education

and training activities, as well as events. Its training and

education activities cover areas such as cybersecurity,

cyberwarfare, cyber operations and human rights,

digital diplomacy, and broader capacity building

initiatives (e.g. e-workshops and the ‘in-focus series’).

Particular courses and workshops include Digital

Diplomacy and Cybersecurity, Diplomacy 4.0, the

In-Focus Series on International Humanitarian Law

and Cyberwarfare, as well as the Cybersecurity and

Information Technology Series.

Intellectual property law and data governance

UNITAR also covers copyright, patent, and trademark

issues in courses such as the Introduction to International

Intellectual Property Law, which considers the role of

intellectual property in the modern economy, while

examining the fundamentals of copyright protection

and patent law in the international community.

Furthermore, UNITAR tackles issues related more

broadly to data governance (e.g. official statistics, data

governance, communities and partnerships, and the

data value chain) through massive online open courses

(MOOCs) such as the Introduction to Data Governance

for Monitoring the SDGs, which analyses effective

data governance systems for monitoring progress in

590

achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs)

and explores how to manage data-related partnerships,

capabilities, and resources in the context of the SDGs.


Being one of the UN’s main training organisations, most

of UNITAR’s activities fall in the category of capacity

development.

UNITAR offers online, face-to-face, and blended-format

courses for both institutions and individuals. Since the

launch of its 2018–21 strategic framework and extended

through its current 2022–25 strategic framework, its

work is guided by strategic objectives organised around

four thematic pillars of the 2030 Agenda, namely Peace,

People, Planet, and Prosperity, in addition to the crosscutting

divisions on Multilateral Diplomacy and Satellite

Analysis and Applied Research (UNOSAT) as well as the

health-focused Defeat-NCD Partnership. Some of the

division’s capacity building and training programmes

cover internet- and digital-policy-related areas, such

as privacy and data protection, cybersecurity, and

cybercrime, new emerging technologies (blockchain, AI,

and augmented reality), and digital diplomacy.

UNITAR also offers a wide range of Master’s programmes

and graduate certificates related to diplomacy,

peace and security, human rights, and humanitarian

interventions.

591

Furthermore, UNITAR organises special events such

as the Geneva Lecture Series, which consists of open

lectures that are held on a regular basis at the Palais des

Nations in Geneva to raise awareness of specific global

challenges and deepen and broaden the participation

of citizens and civil society.


Privacy and data protection are two interrelated

internet governance issues. Data protection is a legal

mechanism that ensures privacy, while privacy is a

fundamental human right. UNITAR deals with legal

mechanisms ensuring data protection and privacy in

numerous courses and events. One example is the

course on Introduction to Privacy and Data Protection

Law (2020), where different legal mechanisms that

protect privacy worldwide are analysed in depth.

UNITAR offers its training and courses through its

e-learning platform as well as a number of different

online platforms that provide users with tools and

resources in specific thematic areas.

• UN SDG: Learn – SDG Learners Today, SDG

Leaders Tomorrow!

• UN CC: E-learning Platform

• E-tutorial and Global Framework for Climate

Services

• Global Anti-Corruption Training Platform

• Chemicals and Waste Platform

• Mercury Platform

DIGITAL TOOLS

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, UNITAR

published a number of resources on online learning

and online event management addressing how to make

online events more inclusive, or to turn face-to-face

into online events, designing learning events and online

facilitation cards.


Facebook @UNITARHQ

Flickr @UNITAR

Instagram @unitarhq

LinkedIn @UNITARHQ

X @UNITAR

YouTube @UNITAR

592

United Nations Office at Geneva

(UNOG)

Palais des Nations | 1211 Geneva | Switzerland

www.ungeneva.org/en/organizations/united-nations-office-geneva

About the UNOG

Housed at the Palais des Nations, UN Geneva

(UNOG) serves as the representative office of the

UN Secretary-General at Geneva. A focal point for

multilateral diplomacy, UN Geneva serviced more than

8,500 meetings in 2024, making it one of the busiest

conference centres in the world. With more than 1,600

staff, UN Geneva is the most prominent duty station

of the UN Secretariat outside the UN headquarters in

New York.

596

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

UN Geneva hosts many meetings and processes related

to disarmament, human rights, e-commerce, health,

labour, development, and other areas. In addition

to these meetings, UN Geneva also hosts several

thematic cultural activities and organises the Ciné ONU

project, which uses films to shine a light on the UN’s

work on gender equality, human rights, humanitarian

aid, health, peace and reconciliation, and many other

issues.

597

Credits: ungeneva.org



Led by UN Geneva, the BeyondLab is a multistakeholder

innovation space for the sustainable development

goals (SDGs), that inspires and promotes system

change through new lenses to long-term sustainability.

An example of a concrete initiative is the Geneva SDG

Data Forum, launched in 2022 in partnership with the

Geneva Graduate Institute and Deloitte Switzerland.

The Geneva SDG Data Forum acts as an informal

platform for individuals and organisations to share SDG

data knowledge through a series of hands-on ateliers

on data, monitoring, and accountability.

The Beyond Lab also played a key role in the inception

of the GESDA Open Quantum Institute (OQI) through

its function as an OQI advisory board member, offering

guidance and insights into potential case studies and

applications of quantum technologies for the SDGs and

long-term sustainability.

Other examples of initiatives launched or supported

by UN Geneva in the area of sustainable development

include SDG Acceleration Actions, an initiative dedicated

to mobilising Geneva-based actors, working to make

SDGs a reality, and Building Bridges Week, dedicated

to creating an international movement for sustainable

finance.

In addition, the International Geneva Perception

Change project – managed by a team of the Office of UN

Geneva’s Director-General – has among its four areas

of work the promotion of the SDGs. SDG Mapping,

for instance, showcases who does what in Geneva

towards the global goals. The other three areas are

related to making information accessible, changing the

narratives, and promoting the work of Geneva-based

organisations.


The UN Library & Archives Geneva serves as a space

for knowledge and learning. It facilitates knowledge

exchanges, encourages innovation and collaboration,

and acts as a centre for research on multilateralism.

The library provides access to a diverse set of resources

(books, articles, UN documents, etc.) on digital-related

topics such as economy, trade, human rights, and peace

and security. It also facilitates access to numerous

databases (maintained by various UN entities) such as

the UN Digital Library.

The library coordinates the UN Knowledge and Learning

Commons, together with the Centre for Learning and

Multilingualism. The Commons hosts activities and

learning experiences on various subjects, including

some with a digital dimension, such as technology

and innovation, information literacy, hybrid meetings,

digital accessibility, and multilingualism.

598


Several online reference services are available for users

of the UN Library & Archives Geneva, for example, ask a

librarian, databases and e-journals, and catalogues and

online requests.

The Conference Primers platform gives rapid access to

all conference summaries and to key decisions taken at

meetings held at UN Geneva. It continues to grow, with

advice from experts, contributions from partners, and

research led by the UN Library & Archives Geneva.

In 2022, the Library & Archives also completed a major

five-year project to provide online access to the entire

original archives of the League of Nations between

1919 and 1946: The Total Digital Access to the League of

Nations Archives Project (LONTAD). As a result, nearly

15 million pages of materials are now available online,

free of charge. Thanks to this project, every person

connected to the internet now has an opportunity to

consult various documents of the League of Nations

online.

The UN Geneva’s podcasts reinforce the organisation’s

outreach efforts, spotlighting issues, and bringing the

key messages of the UN to another platform. Scripted,

recorded, and edited at the Palais des Nations, the

English-language podcast UN Catch-up Dateline Geneva

and the French-language podcast ONU Info Genève

offer up the week’s biggest stories from International

Geneva, including from UN agencies and their partners.

The podcasts are available weekly via social media

platforms and UN News.

Geneva has been traditionally strong on peace

initiatives. It is often regarded as a city of choice for

mediators and special envoys because it provides a

neutral, discreet, secure space for dialogue. Many peace

talks, and conflict prevention and mediation efforts are

hosted at the Palais des Nations.

Digital Mediation Toolkit 1.0, developed by the UN

and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue in 2019,

assesses opportunities and risks associated with the

use of digital technologies in the mediation context

and provides concrete examples and advice from

experts and practitioners. The digital technologies

and tools currently used by mediators include social

media, geographic information systems (GIS), and data

analytics.

Cyber Hygiene and Digital Risk Management

E-Learning Platform for Mediators is a tool developed

to raise awareness of the digital risks that mediation

practitioners encounter and build the capacity needed

to mitigate and manage them.

Mandate Review and Management System (MRMS),

a tool used by UN Secretariat entities to support the

decision-making of the member states. Each year, over

100 complex oral statements of programme budget

implications can emanate from draft resolutions

and decisions of the Human Rights Council, the

intergovernmental body of the UN system which is

headquartered in Geneva. The MRMS greatly promotes

efficiency and transparency and enhances real-time

599

collaboration in the creation of oral statements,

archiving of data, and the overall workflow of this

process.

UNTERM is a multilingual terminology database

maintained jointly by the UN Secretariat and certain

specialised agencies of the UN system, including the

International Maritime Organization (IMO), UNESCO,

WHO, and WMO. UNTERM provides terminology

and nomenclature in subjects relevant to the work

of the UN system. Information is provided in the six

UN official languages, and there are also entries in

German and Portuguese. This database is a linguistic

tool created primarily to facilitate the work of the staff

of the UN system and other people around the world

who participate or are interested in the organisation’s

activities.


UN Geneva provides a key international dialogue

and diplomacy platform. The Division of Conference

Management (DCM) facilitates these discussions

and conferences by providing high-quality services

(logistically and substantively) for UN agencies,

international organisations, and highly sensitive

political negotiations. You can find all the information

about meetings and events on UN Geneva’s meeting

and events calendar.

UN Geneva’s Fully Automated Speech-to-Text (FAST)

project generates conference transcripts with the help

of AI. Since the launch of the English version in 2019,

FAST has scaled up to process thousands of hours of

recordings per year, covering meetings for 40 UN entities.

In 2022, UN Geneva rolled out French and Spanish

transcription, with support from the International

Organization of la Francophonie. The FAST project

team has been collaborating with the machine learning

researchers at WIPO to improve the latter’s proprietary

speech recognition models on thousands of hours

worth of UN Geneva’s training data in six languages.

Thanks to the common pool of data shared by ILO,

ITU, WIPO, WTO, and other international organisations,

the retrained speech-to-text instances have become

more relevant to, and accurate for, the conferencing

environment and multilingual international speakers.

The resulting raw transcripts are an essential building

block for deploying further text analysis services

underpinned by extractive or generative AI.

The Digital Recordings Portal is the online repository

for all meetings recorded at the Palais des Nations and

Palais Wilson. It is available in English and French, and

the interface is compatible with standard accessibility

tools and controllable via keyboard navigation. Since

its update in 2022, meeting transcripts are generated

in English, French, and Spanish and uploaded to the

portal completely automatically. This allows those with

hearing impairments to readily access the content of

meetings held at UN Geneva. The portal also serves

600

as a crucial tool for reporting on meeting outcomes.

In 2022, more than 2,800 meetings were recorded

and published on the portal, most of them in multiple

languages.

With approximately 700,000 users across the globe,

Indico.UN is the UN’s standard solution for participant

management. The software establishes a web-based

workflow, covering the creation of the event page

and set-up of the registration form, participants

registration, registration vetting, as well as badging

and check-in activities. The system also has a series of

elements related to the dissemination of information

and documents, event statistics, timeline management,

and accreditation of users in need of long-term badges.

Indico.UN is a modular system, very easy to customise

by the users of the UN system organisations.

The Extra-budgetary Cost Calculator is a financial

planning tool that enables extra-budgetary conferencing

clients to generate unofficial cost estimates on a selfservice

basis. Users can run multiple scenarios to match

their available budgets by selecting which services to

include or exclude, altering the duration of meetings/

conferences and/or the requirements for meeting

services and seeing the associated cost impact. The

calculator includes costs for services provided by DCM

(e.g. interpretation, documentation, and accessibility

services), the Division of Administration (e.g. sound and

audio-recording operators, technicians, mechanics, IT

support), UN Library & Archives Geneva (e.g. cultural

events), and the UN International School (UNIS) (e.g.

webcasting).


Facebook @UN Geneva

Flickr @UN Geneva

Instagram @ungeneva

Linkedin @ungeneva

X @UNGeneva

YouTube @UN Geneva

601

World Economic Forum

(WEF)

Route de la Capite 91-93 | 1223 Cologny/Geneva | Switzerland

www.weforum.org

About the WEF

The Forum is a not-for-profit foundation whose

membership is composed of large corporations from

around the world. We engage political, business,

academic, and other leaders of society in collaborative

efforts to shape global, regional, and industry agendas.

Together with other stakeholders, we work to define

challenges, solutions, and actions in the spirit of global

citizenship. The Forum also serves and builds sustained

communities through an integrated concept of high-level

meetings, research networks, task forces, and digital

collaboration.

604

“We are committed to driving responsible

innovation and global collaboration, ensuring

transformative and emerging technologies

are harnessed for responsible growth,

equitable prosperity, and meaningful

societal impact. Together, we are

shaping a future where technological

advancements enhance human wellbeing

and global equity.”

Børge Brende

President and CEO

Message by the WEF President and CEO

The World Economic Forum (WEF)’s digital initiatives harness the power of transformative and

emerging technologies to advance responsible innovation, equitable growth, and societal wellbeing

across industries and regions. Central to this effort is the AI Governance Alliance (AIGA),

a global platform that fosters collaboration across sectors to drive innovation, strengthen

governance, and ensure AI’s positive societal and economic impact.

605

Message by the WEF President and CEO

Beyond AI, the Forum’s digital priorities extend across telecommunications, data governance,

cybersecurity, quantum computing, autonomous systems, and the bioeconomy. The Centre

for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR) leads this work globally, advancing key themes

including Driving Breakthrough Innovation, Accelerating Industry Transformation, Preparing

Nations for the Intelligent Age, and Harnessing Technology for People and Planet.

Highlights include the EDISON Alliance, which surpassed its goal of improving digital access

for 1 billion people, delivering essential services across healthcare, education, and finance.

Initiatives like the GovTech Network equip governments with tools and strategies for

digital transformation, while the Quantum Economy Network fosters responsible quantum

ecosystems, AI for Agricultural Innovation (AI4AI) empowers farmers to adopt sustainable

agritech solutions, and the Bioeconomy Initiative unlocks the potential of biological innovation

to transform industries. Additionally, the Autonomous Systems workstream shapes the

responsible adoption of advanced mobility technologies across sectors.

Through these initiatives, communities, and thought leadership, the Forum builds bridges

across regions, industries, and disciplines – ensuring that digital technologies drive responsible

growth, enhance human well-being, and promote global equity.

606

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The Fourth Industrial Revolution is one of the Forum’s

key areas of work. Under this focus, we carry out a

wide range of activities covering digital policy issues,

from telecom infrastructure and cybersecurity to the

digital economy and the future of work. We have set

up multiple platforms and global forums focused on

bringing together various stakeholders and initiatives to

advance debates and foster cooperation on the issues

explored. We also publish reports, studies, and white

papers on our focus areas, and feature discussions on

the policy implications of digital technologies in the

framework of the Forum’s annual meeting in Davos

and other events organised around the world.

The Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution is one

of the Forum’s key centres of thematic work, with

digital technologies as a core priority. Building on this

focus area, we lead a diverse set of initiatives spanning

digital governance, AI, digital safety, and the broader

implications of technological advancements on society

and the economy. We convene global stakeholders

through dedicated platforms and partnerships to shape

discussions, build consensus, and drive responsible

innovation. Our work includes publishing reports,

insights, and policy frameworks on key technology

topics, as well as curating discussions on their societal

and economic impact at the Forum’s Annual Meeting in

Davos and other global events.

607

Credit: weforum.org



The Forum’s work in the area of telecom/digital

infrastructure is broadly dedicated to shedding light

on the need to advance connectivity and evolve

towards new network technologies as a way to support

the transition to the fourth industrial revolution

and support the growth of digital economies. For

instance, the Global Future Council of New Network

Technologies, active between 2018 and 2020, explored,

among others, incentives for network development and

the role of new network systems in driving value and

innovation. The Forum also promotes the role of digital

public infrastructures in enabling digital inclusion and

advancing sustainable development.

A specific focus area for the Forum is 5G. We have

identified 5G as an issue of global importance and work

on analysing the impacts of 5G on industry and society.

In our report titled The impact of 5G: Creating new value

across industries and society, we note that 5G will be

critical because it will enable unprecedented levels of

connectivity, allowing for superfast broadband, ultrareliable

low latency communication, massive machinetype

communications, and high reliability/availability

and efficient energy usage, all of which will transform

many sectors, such as manufacturing, transportation,

public services, and health. In another example,

the 5G Outlook Series: Enabling inclusive long-term

opportunities looks at what can be done to ensure that

5G is a technology that benefits people, businesses, and

society. The role of satellites in delivering connectivity

and the challenges associated with growing competition

in Earth orbit are other areas explored by the Forum.

The Global Future Council on the Future of Space

explores ways in which international cooperation and

public-private partnerships can drive sustainable and

inclusive use of space resources.


WEF is shaping the future of AI through initiatives

focused on responsible governance, collaborative

development, and cross-sector engagement. At the

core of these efforts is the AI Governance Alliance

(AIGA), a flagship initiative of the Forum. With over

600 members from more than 460 organisations

worldwide, AIGA fosters a trustworthy, equitable, and

responsible AI ecosystem, bringing together leaders

from industry, government, academia, and civil society.

The Alliance provides a global platform to develop

policy frameworks, enhance AI safety measures, and

promote innovative approaches to ensure AI’s positive

societal and economic impact aligns with evolving

regulatory environments.

To achieve its mission, AIGA focuses on several key

areas:

• Resilient Governance and Regulation –

Supports policymakers in shaping AI regulatory

frameworks and fostering global regulatory

608

alignment. This includes engagement with key

regulatory frameworks such as the European

Union’s AI Act and evolving AI strategies in

the US, Canada, Brazil, the African Union,

Japan, and China. The initiative is focused on

creating actionable solutions to bridge the gap

between AI governance ideals and their practical

implementation. This includes developing best

practices for AI policy adoption and fostering

international cooperation on AI governance.

• Safe Systems and Technologies – Brings

together Chief Science Officers and AI producers

to advance technical governance solutions,

particularly in areas such as AI agents, safety

mechanisms, and standardised best practices.

This initiative fosters a consensus on AI

development safety, ensuring that AI systems

align with ethical and operational best practices.

• AI Transformation of Industries – In

collaboration with multiple Forum centers, this

initiative explores AI’s impact across sectors

including healthcare, financial services, energy,

and manufacturing. In 2025, AIGA will focus on

empowering global and regional AI leadership

by providing a platform for country and regional

leaders to develop AI capabilities, share insights,

and adopt global best practices. This initiative

aims to strengthen AI strategies, ecosystems, and

coordination to ensure equitable AI access. AIGA

will also support cross-industry collaborations

that leverage AI to drive innovation, efficiency,

and sustainability across sectors.

• AI Competitiveness through Regional

Collaboration – Focuses on strengthening AI

capabilities at the regional level by addressing

infrastructure disparities, fostering AI talent

development, and ensuring responsible AI

adoption in different economic contexts. This

work is supported by regional AI activation

networks that provide tailored strategies for AI

implementation in emerging economies.

In addition to convening stakeholders, the Forum

produces influential thought leadership on AI

governance, ethics, and applications. Recent

publications include the AI Governance Alliance’s

Briefing Paper Series, which establishes foundational

focus areas for steering AI’s development, adoption, and

governance. Additionally, the ‘Governance in the Age

of Generative AI: A 360° Approach for Resilient Policy

and Regulation’ white paper equips policymakers and

regulators with implementable strategies for resilient

generative AI governance within a comprehensive

framework. Navigating the AI Frontier: A Primer on

the Evolution and Impact of AI Agents examines AI

agents – autonomous systems powered by advances

in large language and multimodal models – and their

transformative impact across industries.

609

At the Annual Meeting 2025, the Forum released

‘Blueprint for Intelligent Economies’, a white paper

outlining AI’s role in sustainable growth and inclusive

prosperity. Additionally, the ‘Industries in the Intelligent

Age White Paper Series’ explored AI’s transformative

impact across multiple industries, providing a roadmap

for responsible and innovative AI integration.

In 2025, MINDS (Meaningful, Intelligent, Novel,

Deployable Solutions) program was launched to

identify and scale high-impact AI solutions that address

global challenges. This initiative fosters collaboration,

drives innovation, and shares success stories, guiding

the adoption of transformative AI applications.

The first cohort of MINDS will be announced at the

World Economic Forum Annual Meeting of the New

Champions 2025, with a focus on AI-driven solutions for

equitable healthcare access, climate change mitigation,

sustainable energy transitions, resilient supply chains,

and workforce transformation. By scaling replicable,

high-impact AI use cases, the MINDS program

exemplifies the Forum’s commitment to harnessing

AI’s transformative potential for societal and economic

progress.

As AI continues to evolve, the AI Governance Alliance

remains committed to ensuring its responsible and

transformative development. By uniting industry,

government, academia, and civil society, AIGA drives

innovation, strengthens governance, and maximises

AI’s benefits while mitigating risks.

Blockchain and cryptocurrencies

The Forum works on governance issues related to the

equity, interoperability, security, transparency, and trust

of blockchain and distributed ledger technology (DLT).

We also analyse the relationship between blockchain

and cybersecurity and international security, as well

as the future of computing. We publish papers on

issues such as blockchain data storage, the challenges

blockchain faces and its role in security, as well as

guides such as the Blockchain Development Toolkit

to guide organisations through the development and

deployment of blockchain solutions.

Internet of things

The Forum’s Centre for Urban Transformation explores

various issues related to the implications of connected

devices and smart technologies. For example,

the Council on the Connected World focuses on

strengthening innovation and the global governance

of connected technologies to maximise the positive

benefits and minimise harm for all. One specific area

of work for the Council is the security of IoT devices; in

2022, the Forum facilitated a joint Statement of Support

on consumer IoT device security outlining key security

requirements for consumer-facing devices. In 2023, the

Council published the State of the Connected World

report, which tracks governance gaps related to IoT.

610

The Global New Mobility Coalition explores issues

related to sustainable mobility, including when it comes

to the governance of shared, electric, and automated

mobility.

Other IoT-related issues that the Forum has been

exploring through various publications and initiatives

include the industrial internet, the safety of smart

home products, and challenges associated with the

concept of the internet of bodies. In cooperation with

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),

we published a report on Realizing the Internet of

Things – a Framework for Collective Action, outlining

five pillars for the development of IoT: architecture

and standards, security and privacy, shared value

creation, organisational development, and ecosystem

governance.

We also lead the G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance on

Technology Governance, dedicated to promoting the

responsible and ethical use of smart city technologies.


Virtual/augmented reality

The Forum’s Global Future Council on Virtual and

Augmented Reality focuses on raising awareness of

the positive and negative aspects of the widespread

adoption of VR/AR technologies. We carry out policy

research and analysis related to the impact of VR/AR

611

on society and its security implications in publications

on issues such as immersive media technologies, AR

innovation in manufacturing, and privacy in the context

of VR use.

The Forum also pays attention to developments related

to the metaverse and issues various publications on this

topic. For instance, Exploring the Industrial Metaverse:

A Roadmap to the Future provides a framework for

discussing steps towards a valuable ecosystem for

the industrial metaverse, while the reports on Social

Implications of the Metaverse and Privacy and Safety

in the Metaverse explore the implications of metaverse

adoptions for individuals and society at large. These

and similar publications are issued in the context of

the Defining and Building the Metaverse Initiative,

whose focus is on ‘guiding the development of a safe,

interoperable, and economically viable metaverse’.

Quantum computing

Within the Centre of the Fourth Industrial Revolution,

the Quantum Economy Network is an initiative and

global platform that brings together governments,

businesses, and academia to explore the potential

of quantum technologies, shape their development,

and prepare for their integration into the quantum

economy. It focuses on identifying, deploying, and

advancing near-term quantum applications for business

and sustainability while developing tools to ensure a

secure transition. The Network operates through two

key workstreams: the Quantum Economy Blueprint,

which democratizes access to quantum resources and

guides policymakers in building a responsible quantum

ecosystem, and the Quantum Application Hub, an

experiential platform showcasing societal and industry

applications of quantum technologies.

The Forum publishes regularly on matters related to

quantum computing and quantum technologies. A

few examples include the Quantum Technologies: Key

Strategies and Opportunities for ICT Leaders, Embracing

the Quantum Economy: A Pathway for Business Leaders,

and Quantum Computing Governance Principles.

Cybercrime

Under its Centre for Cybersecurity, the Forum runs the

Partnership against Cybercrime project, focused on

advancing public-private partnerships (e.g. between

law enforcement agencies, international organisations,

cybersecurity companies, and other actors) to combat

cybercrime. Outputs of the partnership include, for

instance, the Recommendations for Public-Private

Partnership against Cybercrime and the Cybercrime

Prevention Principles for Internet Service Providers.

We host a Cybercrime Atlas Initiative dedicated to

strengthening coordination between the private sector

and law enforcement in fighting cybercrime.

Cybercrime also constitutes the focus of various studies

and articles we have published, which delve into issues

such as emerging threats and ways to tackle them.

Network security, critical infrastructure, and

cybersecurity

The Forum has launched a Centre for Cybersecurity

dedicated to ‘fostering international dialogues and

collaboration between the global cybersecurity

community both in the public and private sectors’.

Multiple projects are run under this platform, such as

the Cybersecurity Learning Hub and the Digital Trust

initiative. The cyber resilience of critical sectors, such

as electricity and the oil and gas industry, is also a focus

area for us.

The Centre also issues reports and other publications

covering various cybersecurity topics. Examples include

the Global Cybersecurity Outlook; the insight report

on Cybersecurity, Emerging Technology, and Systemic

Risks; and the Principles for Board Governance of Cyber

Risk.

The Forum hosts a Global Future Council on the

Future of Cybersecurity, which explores modalities

for strengthening cyber risk management across

economies and societies. Quantum security and digital

trust are among the Council’s focus areas.

Every year, we bring together actors from the public

and private sectors to foster collaboration on making

cyberspace safer and more resilient, in the framework

of the Annual Meeting on Cybersecurity.

612

Data governance

The Forum has established a Data Policy Platform

under our Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution,

dedicated to developing innovative approaches

to enable the responsible use of data. Within this

platform, the Data for Common Purpose Initiative aims

to support the creation of flexible data governance

models, oriented around common purposes. Examples

of white papers published by the initiative include Data

for Common Purpose: Leveraging Consent to Build Trust

and Towards a Data Economy: An Enabling Framework.

The Cross-Border Data Flows project under the Forum’s

Digital Trade Initiative looks at how policymakers can

advance data transfer governance arrangements while

ensuring policy interoperability for data flows.

The Forum regularly publishes reports and papers on

data governance issues such as restoring trust in data,

cross-border data flows, data protection and security,

among others.

E-commerce and trade and digital business

models

Several activities and projects run by the Forum focus

on e-commerce and broader digital economy-related

issues. Under our Digital Trade initiative (part of the

Centre for Regions, Trade and Geopolitics), we have

been exploring opportunities and challenges associated

613

with digital trade, while also engaging in the shaping of

global, regional, and industry agendas on digital trade.

Projects run within the initiative include, among others,

the Digital Economy Agreement Leadership Group

– which aims to contribute to the growth of inclusive

and sustainable digital economies, and the TradeTech

project – which facilitates dialogue on public policy

and regulatory practices related to digital trade. The

Digital Payments for Trade and Commerce Advisory

Committee – also part of the Digital Trade initiative – is

dedicated to fostering interoperability, inclusivity, and

coherent regulatory reforms for digital payments.

E-commerce is also tackled in studies, white papers,

and events we produce, which address issues such

as e-commerce in emerging markets, the impact of

e-commerce on prices, and digital currencies.

Under the Centre for the New Economy and Society,

we bring together various stakeholders to promote

new approaches to competitiveness in the digital

economy, with a focus on issues such as education and

skills, equality and inclusion, and improved economic

opportunities for people.

Future of work

The future of work is a topic that spans multiple Forum

activities. For instance, under the Centre for the New

Economy and Society, several projects focus on issues

such as education, skills, upskilling and reskilling, and

DIGITAL TOOLS

equality and inclusion in the world of work. We have

also launched a Reskilling Revolution Initiative, aimed

at contributing to providing better jobs, education,

and skills to one billion people by 2030. Projects

under this platform include, among others, Education

4.0 (focused on mapping needed reforms to primary

and secondary education systems), Education and

Skills Country Accelerators (dedicated to advancing

gender parity, promoting upskilling and reskilling, and

improving education systems), and Skills-first (focused

on transforming adult education and workforce skills).

Also part of the Reskilling Revolution is the Future

Skills Alliance, whose main objective is to facilitate the

adoption of skills-first management practices and give

workers a fair and equal opportunity to excel in the

labour market.

The Forum publishes regular reports on the Future

of Jobs, exploring the evolution of jobs and skills and

how technology and socioeconomic trends shape the

workplace of the future. Other notable publications

and tools developed by the Forum include the white

paper on Putting Skills First: A Framework for Action

and the Global Skills Taxonomy.

Digital Inclusion

The EDISON Alliance, launched in response to the

COVID-19 pandemic, drives a holistic, ecosystemled

approach to digital inclusion. Part of the Forum’s

Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the Alliance

614

launched the 1 Billion Lives Challenge, an ambitious

goal to enhance the lives of 1 billion people by 2025

through affordable and accessible digital solutions

in education, financial services, and healthcare. Since

its launch in 2021, the Alliance has mobilised over 350

initiatives across 130 countries, successfully impacting 1

billion lives. However, as global focus shifts to emerging

technologies like AI, there is a growing risk of declining

investment in digital inclusion, potentially widening the

digital divide. Tools developed by the Alliance include

principles for digital health inclusion, a guidebook for

digital inclusion bond financing, and a Digital Inclusion

Navigator that provides access to case studies and best

practices related to bridging digital divides.

Cryptocurrencies

The Forum is also active on issues related to digital

currencies and their policy implications. For instance,

its Digital Currency Governance Consortium focuses

on exploring the macroeconomic impacts of digital

currencies and informing approaches to regulating

digital currencies. The Central Bank Digital Currency

(CBDC) Policy-Makers Toolkit, published in 2020, is

intended to serve as a possible framework to ensure

that the deployment of CBDCs takes into account

potential costs and benefits. Various publications

have been issued that explore topics such as the

macroeconomic impact of cryptocurrency and

stablecoins, cryptocurrency regulation, and the links

between stablecoins and financial inclusion.

DIGITAL TOOLS

Digital platforms

Strategic Intelligence: The Forum’s platform provides

access to transformation maps – mappings of ‘hundreds

of global issues and their interdependencies’.


Facebook @worldeconomicforum

Flipboard @WEF

Instagram @worldeconomicforum

LinkedIn @ World Economic Forum

TikTok @worldeconomicforum

X @wef

YouTube @World Economic Forum

615

World Health Organization

(WHO)

Av. Appia 20 | 1211 Geneva 27 | Switzerland

www.who.int

About WHO

WHO is a specialised agency of the UN whose role is to

direct and coordinate international health.

Founded in 1948, WHO works with countries and

partners to promote health, keep the world safe, and

serve the vulnerable – so that everyone, everywhere

can attain the highest level of health.

WHO assists countries in coordinating multi-sectoral

efforts of governments and partners to attain their

health objectives and support their national health

policies and strategies.

618

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

WHO is harnessing the power of digital technologies

and health innovation to accelerate global attainment

of health and well-being. It uses digital technology

intensively in its development of activities, ranging

from building public health infrastructure in

developing countries and immunisation to dealing

with disease outbreaks.

WHO has strengthened its approach to data by

ensuring this strategic asset has two divisions: (1) the

Division of Data, Analytics, and Delivery for Impact.

This has helped strengthen data governance by

promoting sound data principles and accountability

mechanisms, as well as ensuring that the necessary

policies and tools are in place that can be used by all

three levels of the organisation and can be adopted

by member states. Digital health and innovation are

high on WHO’s agenda; it is recognised for its role in

strengthening health systems through the application

of digital health technologies for consumers/ people

and healthcare providers as part of achieving its vision

of health for all. (2) WHO also established the new

Department of Digital Health and Innovation in 2019

within its Science Division. Particular attention is paid

to promoting global collaboration and advancing the

transfer of knowledge on digital health; advancing the

implementation of national digital health strategies;

strengthening the governance for digital health at the

global, regional, and national levels; and advocating

for people-centred health systems enabled by digital

health.

The Division of Data Analytics and Delivery for Impact

and the Department of Digital Health and Innovation

619

work closely together to strengthen links between data

and digital issues, as well as data governance efforts.

Digital health technologies, standards, and protocols

enable health systems to integrate the exchange

of health data within the health system. Coupled

with data governance, ethics, and public health data

standards, digital health and innovation enable the

generation of new evidence and knowledge through

research and innovation and inform health policy

through public health analysis.

Since 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated

WHO’s digital response, collaboration, and innovation

in emergencies. Some examples include collaborating

to use AI and data science in analysing and delivering

information in response to the COVID-19 ‘infodemic’

(i.e. overflow of information, including misinformation,

in an acute health event, which prevents people from

accessing reliable information about how to protect

themselves); promoting cybersecurity in the health

system, including hospitals and health facilities;

learning from using AI, data science, digital health,

and innovation in social science research, disease

modelling, and simulations, as well as supporting

the epidemiological response to the pandemic; and

producing vaccines and preparing for the equitable

allocation and distribution of vaccines.

To further its digital transformation, WHO established

the WHO Academy, offering professional training

modules (including AI ethics and cybersecurity),

and the WHO Foundation, an independent grantmaking

organisation that supports innovative health

initiatives worldwide.


WHO is a leader among Geneva-based international

organisations in the use of social media, through its

awareness-raising of health-related issues. It has more

than 74 million followers on its social media platforms

and has received recognition by the Geneva Engage

Awards in 2023 and 2024.

The WHO/ITU Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence

for Health (WHO/ITU FG-AI4H) works to establish a

standardised assessment framework for the evaluation

of AI-based methods for health, diagnosis, triage, or

treatment decisions.

Data and artificial intelligence

The response to COVID-19 reinforced the centrality of

data and AI for the health sector and WHO’s activities.

Data and AI policies are covered by the following

instruments:

• Data policy: Guideline on data integrity

• Data standardisation: Resolution WHA66.24:

eHealth Standardization and Interoperability

(May 2013)

• Data sharing during health emergencies: Policy

Statement on Data Sharing by WHO in the

Context of Public Health Emergencies (as of

13 April 2013) (May 2016) | Best Practices for

Sharing Information through Data Platforms:

Establishing the Principles (April 2016)

620

• Data and member states: Text for Inclusion in

Data Collection Forms in all Data Collection Tools

(Paper-based, Electronic, or Other) used by WHO

to Collect data from Member States

• Data sharing: FAQs on WHO Data Sharing Policy

in Non-Emergency Contexts | Policy on the Use

and Sharing of Data Collected in Member States

by WHO Outside the Context of Public Health

Emergencies (August 2017) | WHO Statement on

Public Disclosure of Clinical Trial Results (April

2015).

• AI ethics: AI Ethics and Guidance on Large Multi-

Modal Models (2024)

WHO has established the Global Digital Health

Certification Network (GDHCN), which allows countries

to verify the authenticity of health information using

the International Patient Summary (IPS) ISO standard.

The GDHCN uses public key infrastructure (PKI)

encryption to keep health credentials verifiable and

secure across borders. This initiative enables people to

carry internationally recognised health credentials for

improved travel and healthcare access.

In 2024, WHO partnered with Saudi Arabia to implement

a digital health card for Hajj pilgrims, built on the

WHO Global Digital Health Certification Network’s

infrastructure. Over 250,000 pilgrims from Indonesia,

Malaysia, and Oman received Hajj health cards as part

of a pilot program. The network now includes over 80

member states that can verify the authenticity of health

information between countries.

WHO hosts the Global Initiative on Digital Health,

a new global platform for international dialogue

on digital health, and the Global Initiative on AI for

Health, a tripartite platform with ITU and WIPO.

These initiatives convene member states, industry,

academia, and civil society to shape policies, share

best practices, and foster responsible AI and digital

tech adoption in healthcare.

Digital standards

• Integration of Health Information Exchange

(HIE): WHO collaborates with health

information exchange standardisation bodies

and organisations, such as HIE and Health

Level Seven International (HL7®), to promote

sustainable investment in interoperable digital

health technologies and systems. Digital health

technologies, standards, and protocols enable

health systems to integrate the exchange of

health data within the health system. Coupled

with data governance, ethics, and public health

data standards, digital health and innovation

enable the generation of new evidence and

knowledge through research and innovation

and inform health policy through public health

analysis. Promoting Better Integration of

Health Information Systems: Best Practices and

Challenges (2015).

• SMART Guidelines – Digital Adaptation Kits:

Implementation Research and Technical

Support: Digital adaptation kits (DAKs) are

software-neutral, operational, and structured

documentation based on WHO clinical, health

system, and data use recommendations to

systematically inform the design of digital

systems. DAKs include the package of business

process workflows, core data needs, decision

support algorithms, linkages to indicators, and

functional requirements for a health domain

area, which can then be incorporated more

easily in a digital system. In creating these

operational tools derived from WHO guidelines,

DAKs provide a unique way to reinforce

recommendations and ensure adherence to

clinical guidelines and standards within digital

systems for improved service delivery.

• WHO Guideline: Recommendations on

Digital Interventions for Health System

Strengthening: Recommendations based

on a critical evaluation of the evidence on

emerging digital health interventions that are

contributing to health system improvements,

based on an assessment of the benefits, harms,

acceptability, feasibility, resource use, and

equity considerations.

• Classification of Digital Health Interventions

v2.0 – A Shared Language to Describe the

621

Uses of Digital Technology for Health: The

classification of digital health interventions

categorises the different ways in which digital

and mobile technologies are being used to

support health system needs. A shared and

standardised vocabulary was recognised as

necessary to identify gaps and duplication,

evaluate effectiveness, and facilitate alignment

across different digital health implementations.

• Electromagnetic Field and Health Protection:

As the digital reality moves from ‘cable’ to

wireless traffic (Wi-Fi and mobile), a growing

number of concerns are emerging on the

impact of electromagnetic fields on human

health. This technology has become part of

the wider public debate and has given rise

to conspiracy theories such as those that

claim 5G spreads COVID-19. These concerns

increase the importance of WHO’s research

and policymaking within a broader evidencebased

discussion on the impact of Wi-Fi and

mobile devices on health. Model Legislation

for Electromagnetic Field Protection (2006);

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’

(IEEE) Standard for Safety Levels with Respect

to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency

Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz.

• Joint WHO-ITU Publication: WHO, in

collaboration with ITU, released the

Implementation toolkit for accessible telehealth

services. Building on the 2022 WHO-ITU Global

standard for accessibility of telehealth services,

the toolkit offers governments, policymakers,

health service providers, and civil society

practical steps to ensure telehealth is accessible

for everyone, including the 1.3 billion people

worldwide (1 in 6) who live with significant

disabilities.

Online gaming

Since 2018, gaming disorder has been included in

WHO’s International Classification of Diseases (ICD).

While the negative impacts of online gaming on health

are being increasingly addressed by national health

policies, it has been recognised by some authorities,

such as the US Food and Drug Administration

(FDA), that some game-based devices could have a

therapeutic effect. Given the fast growth of online

gaming and its benefits and disadvantages, the

implications on health are expected to become more

relevant.

The health top-level domain name

Health-related generic top-level domain (gTLD)

names, in all languages, including ‘.health’, ‘.doctor’,

622

and ‘.surgery’, should be operated in a way that

protects public health and includes the prevention of

further development of illicit markets of medicines,

medical devices, and unauthorised health products

and services. Resolution WHA66.24: eHealth

Standardization and Interoperability (2013).

Net neutrality

The issue of net neutrality (the equal treatment

of internet traffic) could affect bandwidth and the

stability of digital connections, especially for high-risk

activities such as online surgical interventions. Thus,

health organisations may be granted exceptional

provisions, as the EU has already done, where health

and specialised services enjoy exceptions regarding

the principle of net neutrality. Resolution WHA66.24:

eHealth Standardization and Interoperability (2013).

WHO has dedicated cybersecurity focal points, who

work with legal and licensing colleagues to provide

frameworks for the organisation to not only protect

WHO data from various cyber risks, but also provide

technical advice to WHO and member states on the

secure collection, storage, and dissemination of data.

Health facilities and health data have always been

the target of cybercriminals; however, the COVID-19

crisis has brought into sharp focus the cybersecurity

aspects of digital health.

Ransomware attacks threaten the proper functioning

of hospitals and other healthcare providers. The

global Wannacry ransomware attack in May 2017

was the first major attack on hospitals and disrupted

a significant part of the UK’s National Health System

(NHS). Ransomware attacks on hospitals and health

research facilities accelerated during the COVID-19

crisis.

In December 2023, WHO convened experts in Geneva

to develop strategies for addressing cybersecurity

threats in resource-constrained settings. In January

2024, WHO published two reports in collaboration

with INTERPOL, UNODC, and other partners

on strengthening cybersecurity and countering

disinformation. WHO is developing guidance on

implementing and investing in cybersecurity and

privacy protection for digital health interventions.

Considering that data is often the main target of

cyberattacks, it should come as no surprise that most

cybersecurity concerns regarding healthcare are

centred on the protection of data. Encryption is thus

crucial for the safety of health data: It both protects

data from prying eyes and helps assuage the fears

patients and consumers may have about sharing or

storing sensitive information through the internet.

623

Data governance

The 2021 Health Data Governance Summit brought

together experts to review best practices in data

governance, sharing, and use. The result was a call

to action to tackle the legal and ethical challenges

of sharing data, ensure data is shared during both

emergency and non-emergency situations, and

encourage data and research stewardship that

promotes tangible impact. Key WHO resources include

WHO’s Data Sharing Policies, the UN Joint Statement

on Data Protection and Privacy in the COVID-19

Response, and GATHER (Guidelines for Accurate and

Transparent Health Estimates Reporting).

WHO’s SCORE technical package (Survey, Count,

Optimize, Review, and Enable) identifies data gaps

and provides countries with tools to precisely address

them. SCORE has been developed in partnership

with the Bloomberg Data for Health Initiative. As

part of SCORE, WHO completed the first-ever global

assessment of health information systems capacity in

133 countries, covering 87% of the world’s population.

The project Strengthening National Nutrition

Information Systems operated in five countries in

Africa and Asia – Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Laos, Uganda,

and Zambia – for a period of four years (2020–2024).

Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple

Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) and national

nutrition surveys are the major sources of nutrition

data for many countries, but they are complex and

expensive undertakings that cannot be implemented

with the required frequency. It is, therefore, critical

to strengthen or establish integrated nutrition

information systems (NIS) of countries to enhance the

availability and use of routine nutrition data to better

support policy development, programme design and

monitoring.

• Data and digital health in the WHO European

Region in 2022: a year in review

• How can digital technologies be used to

enhance health financing? Claims management

in Estonia

• Digital Health in the European Region:

the ongoing journey to commitment and

transformation

Data-driven delivery approach

A data-driven delivery approach sharpens WHO’s

focus to address gaps, close inequalities, and

accelerate progress towards national and regional

priorities from WHO regions. The WHO Regional

Office for the Americas is working to create open

data platforms for evidence-based decisions and

624

policymaking. The Core Indicators Portal provides

a dataset of around 200 health indicators for 49

countries across the region from 1995 to 2021. The

WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean

is conducting harmonised health facility assessments

and tracking 75 indicators through the Regional

Health Observatory (RHO). The WHO Regional

Office for Africa has prioritised investments in civil

registration and vital statistics (CRVS) and digital

health. Its integrated African Health Observatory

(iAHO) offers high-quality national and regional

health data on a single platform and District Health

Information Software (DHIS2) is now implemented

in all but four African countries. The WHO Regional

Office for South-East Asia is focused on promoting

health equity through workshops that introduce

member states to WHO’s Health Equity Assessment

Toolkit (HEAT). High-quality data on health indicators

is available on the Health Information Platform (HIP).

The WHO Regional Office for Europe is prioritising

support for countries’ national health information

systems (HIS) through more robust data governance

frameworks. Member states also have access to the

European Health Information Gateway, a one-stop

shop for health information and data visualisation.

The WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific has

released a progress report on each member state’s

journey to achieving universal health coverage (UHC).

Additionally, the Western Pacific Health Data Platform

provides a single destination where countries can

easily monitor and compare their progress towards

national and global health objectives.


E-waste

WHO recognises e-waste as a growing global health

threat, especially for children and pregnant women

exposed to toxic substances in informal recycling. In

2021, WHO released its first global report on e-waste

and child health, identifying serious risks from lead,

mercury, and other pollutants. WHO’s ongoing

E-waste and Child Health Initiative – active in Latin

America and Africa – develops frameworks for safer

recycling, regulatory compliance, and advocacy to

protect vulnerable populations.

Strengthening health information systems for

refugee- and migrant-sensitive healthcare

Health information and research findings can provide

a platform for understanding and responding to

the health needs of refugees and migrants and for

aligning the efforts of other sectors and sources of

international assistance. However, the systematic

national data and evidence comparable across

625

countries and over time available for policy- and

decision-making on health of refugees and migrants

from around the world are inadequate. The WHO

Health and Migration Programme (PHM) supports the

strengthening of member-state information systems,

providing specialised technical assistance, response,

and capacity building.


Improving access to assistive technology

Assistive technology enables and promotes

inclusion and participation, especially of persons

with disability, ageing populations, and people with

non-communicable diseases. The primary purpose

of assistive products is to maintain or improve an

individual’s functioning and independence, thereby

promoting their well-being. Despite a growing

number of people in need of assistive products in

every country, only 5%–15%, or one in 10 people has

access to assistive products. WHO coordinates the

Global Cooperation on Assistive Technology (GATE) as

a step towards realising the SDGs and the Convention

on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD),

and implementing resolution WHA71.8 on assistive

technology. The GATE initiative has the goal to support

countries in addressing challenges and improving

access to assistive products within their context.

To achieve this, the GATE initiative is focusing on

five interlinked areas (5Ps): people, policy, products,

provision, and personnel.

Content policy

Infodemics

An infodemic is an overflow of information, including

misinformation, that prevents people from accessing

reliable information and hampers the ability of people

to know how to protect themselves in the context of

health. Infodemics cannot be eliminated, but can be

managed by producing engaging, reliable content

and using digital, traditional media, and offline tools

to disseminate it; engaging key stakeholder groups

in cooperative content creation and dissemination;

empowering communities to protect themselves;

and promoting community and individual resilience

against misinformation. Digital health technologies

and data science can support these activities by

analysing the information landscape and social

dynamics in digital and analogue environments;

delivering messages; supporting fact-checking and

countering misinformation; promoting digital health,

media, and health literacy; and optimising the

effectiveness of messages and their delivery through

626


real time monitoring and evaluation (M&E), among

others.

At the Munich Security Conference 2020, WHO

Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus

stated: ‘We’re not just fighting an epidemic; we’re

fighting an infodemic.’ This translated into many

WHO initiatives to counter the infodemic, such as

working with the public and the scientific community

to develop a framework for managing infodemics;

bringing the scientific community together for the

1st WHO Infodemiology Conference; developing of

a draft research agenda on managing infodemics,

cooperating with UN agencies and the AI community;

promoting reliable WHO information through a

coordinated approach with Google, Facebook, Twitter,

and other major tech platforms and services; and

campaigning to counter misinformation.

WHO-trained infodemic managers, over 1,300 of

them from 142 countries, are already making great

strides in member states and together around the

globe as a global community of practice. In Serbia,

the Laboratory for Infodemiology and Infodemic

Management has been established at the Faculty of

Medicine, University of Belgrade. With the support

of the WHO Country Office in Serbia, two infodemic

managers working at the Institute of Social Medicine

have gathered a multidisciplinary team that will

be conducting research and supporting infodemic

management in the country and the region.

Digital tools

Interdisciplinary

Public health challenges are complex and cannot be

effectively addressed by one sector alone. A holistic,

multisectoral, multidisciplinary approach is needed

for addressing gaps and advancing coordination for

health emergency preparedness and health security

and is essential for the implementation of the

International Health Regulations (IHR) 2005.

• WHO Classifications and Terminologies:

operates a one-stop shop for WHO

classifications and terminologies and

delivers and scales use of terminologies and

classifications. WHO maintains a portfolio

of digital tools and methods for emergency

preparedness and response, for example:

• Go.Data is an outbreak investigation tool

for field data collection during public health

emergencies. The tool includes functionality

for case investigation, contact follow-up, and

visualisation of chains of transmission including

secure data exchange and is designed for

flexibility in the field, to adapt to the wide range

of outbreak scenarios. The tool is targeted at

any outbreak responder.

• Epidemic Intelligence from Open Sources

(EIOS) is a unique collaboration between

627

various public health stakeholders around

the globe. It brings together new and existing

initiatives, networks, and systems to create

a unified all-hazards, One Health approach

to early detection, verification, assessment,

and communication of public health threats

using publicly available information. Creating

a community of practice for public health

intelligence (PHI) that includes member states,

international organisations, research institutes,

and other partners and collaborators is at the

heart of the initiative; saving lives through

early detection of threats and subsequent

intervention is its ultimate goal. Since January

2022, the lead of the EIOS initiative is hosted

within the new WHO Hub for Pandemic and

Epidemic Intelligence. As one of the Hub’s

flagship initiatives, EIOS is one of the main

vehicles for building a strong PHI community of

practice, as well as a multidisciplinary network

supporting it.

• Digital proximity tracking technologies have

been identified as a potential tool to support

contact tracing in outbreaks and epidemics.

However, these technologies raise ethical

and privacy concerns. The document Ethical

Considerations to Guide the Use of Digital

Proximity Tracking Technologies for COVID-19

Contact Tracing – provides policymakers and

other stakeholders with guidance as to the

ethical and appropriate use of digital proximity

tracking technologies for COVID-19.

• WHO Digital and Innovation for Health Online

Community to Fight COVID-19 is a platform

for discussion and sharing experiences and

innovative responses related to the COVID-19

pandemic.

• The new Survey Count Optimize Review Enable

(SCORE) for Health Data Technical Package was

published during one of the most data-strained

public health crisis responses ever – that of the

COVID-19 pandemic. SCORE can guide countries

to take action by providing a one-stop shop

for best technical practices that strengthen

health information systems, using universally

accepted standards and tools.

• WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic

Intelligence supports countries, and regional

and global actors in addressing future

pandemic and epidemic risks with better access

to data, better analytical capacities, and better

tools and insights for decision-making.

• Digitalised health workforce education: an

elicitation of research gaps and selection of

case studies. The report outlines research gaps

in utilising digital technology for healthcare

628

worker education, employing a conceptual

framework. It presents 63 research questions

across six domains for guiding future studies

and identifies evidence gaps in the literature for

further research.

Health data

• WHO Health Data Hub (WHDH) is a single

repository of health data in WHO and

establishes a data governance mechanism for

member states.

• Civil Registration and Vital Statistics (CRVS)

registers all births and deaths, issues birth

and death certificates, and compiles and

disseminates vital statistics, including cause of

death information. It may also record marriages

and divorces.

• The open-access WHO Snakebite Envenoming

Information and Data Platform is already

working to shorten the time between a

snakebite and receiving antivenom. It does

this by mapping the distribution of venomous

snakes, known antivenoms, and the proximity

to health facilities that stock them.

Public health strategy, planning and

monitoring

• Global Benchmarking Tool is designed to

benchmark the regulatory programmes of a

variety of product types, including medicines,

vaccines, blood products (including whole

blood, blood component and plasma-derived

products) and medical devices (including

in vitro diagnostics). It is supported by a

computerised platform to facilitate the

benchmarking, including the calculation of

maturity levels. The computerised GBT (cGBT)

is available, upon request, to member states

and organisations working with WHO under the

Coalition of Interested Partners (CIP).

• The organisation also integrates digital health

interventions in its strategies for certain

diseases. WHO’s Global Observatory for

e-Health (GOe) aims to assist member states

with information and guidance on practices and

standards in the field of e-health.

• The newly established Geographic Information

Systems (GIS) Centre for Health enables spatial

representation of data to support better public

health planning and decision making.

629

• The Health Equity Monitor is a platform for

health inequality monitoring, which includes

databases of disaggregated data, a handbook

on health inequality monitoring, and step-bystep

manuals for national health inequality

monitoring (generally and specifically for

immunisation inequality monitoring).

• The Health Assessment Toolkit is a software

application that facilitates the assessment

of health inequalities in countries. Inequality

data can be visualised through a variety of

interactive graphs, maps, and tables. Results

can be exported and used for priority-setting

and policymaking.

Health facilities data

• Harmonized Health Facility Assessment (HHFA)

is a comprehensive, external review tool for

assessing whether health facilities have the

appropriate systems in place to deliver services

at required standards of quality.

• District Health Information Software and

Toolkit for Analysis and Use of Routine Health

Facility Data are open-source, web-based

health management information system (HMIS)

platforms. The toolkit provides standards

and guidance for the analysis of Routine

Health Information Surveys (RHIS) data for

individual health programmes, as well as

integrated analysis for general health service

management.

• RHIS provides frequent, up-to-date information

on service performance at all levels of the

health system, enabling regular analysis of

progress and timely identification of problems.

Digital health solutions

• The Digital Health Atlas is a global registry

of implemented digital health solutions. It

is open and available to anyone to register

and contribute information about digital

implementations. The registry provides a

consistent way to document digital solutions,

and offers functionalities in a web platform

to assist technologists, implementers,

governments, and donors for inventory,

planning, coordinating, and using digital

systems for health. The Digital Health Atlas

includes a special focus on listing digital

technologies related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The repository of information is open to all

users to register projects, download project

information, and connect with digital health

practitioners globally.

630

• Be He@lthy, Be Mobile (BHBM) is helping

millions of people quit tobacco, and control

diabetes and cervical cancer. It helps people

at risk of asthma and chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease (COPD), and those who care

for older people.

• WHO has launched a women’s health chatbot

with messaging on breast cancer. The new

chatbot uses the Viber platform to deliver

health information directly to subscribers’

mobile phones. People subscribing to the new

chatbot will find information on how to reduce

the risk of breast cancer, symptoms, and

treatment options.

• WHO’s prototype of a digital health promoter,

S.A.R.A.H., started off as a chatbot to fight

misinformation around COVID-19 and offered

information on living healthily during the

pandemic. The platform has since been

expanded to provide messages for individuals

at risk of hypertension and diabetes, offering

accessible health information in multiple

languages via messaging apps like WhatsApp.

Health-related research

• The WHO BioHub System offers a reliable, safe,

and transparent mechanism for WHO member

states to voluntarily share novel biological

631

materials, without replacing or competing with

existing systems. Sharing of biological materials

with epidemic or pandemic potential will be

done through one (or more) of the laboratories

designated as a WHO BioHub Facility. This will

allow WHO member states and partners to

work in a better and faster way, to advance

research, and to be more prepared for health

emergencies as well as ensure fairness in

access to benefits arising from this sharing.

Resources

Resolutions and deliberations on eHealth

• The Global Strategy on Digital Health (2020-

2025) aims to support potential, national

or regional digital health initiatives with a

robust strategy that integrates financial,

organisational, human, and technological

resources.

• Resolution WHA58.28 eHealth

• Resolution WHA71.7 (2018): The resolution

urges member states to prioritise the

development and greater use of digital

technologies in health as a means of promoting

Universal Health Coverage and advancing the

SDGs.

• Report EB 142/20 (2018): The Executive Board

in January 2018 considered the updated

report ‘mHealth: Use of appropriate digital

technologies for public health’. This updated

version of the report also includes the use of

other digital technologies for public health.

• Report EB139/8 (2016): The Executive Board

considered ‘mHealth: Use of mobile wireless

technologies for public health’, reflecting the

increasing importance of this resource for

health services delivery and public health,

given their ease of use, broad reach and wide

acceptance.

• Resolution WHA66.24 (2013): The World Health

Assembly recognised the need for health data

standardisation to be part of eHealth systems

and services, and the importance of proper

governance and operation of health-related

global top-level Internet domain names,

including ‘.health’.

• Resolution WHA58.28 (2005): The World Health

Assembly in 2005 recognised the potential

of eHealth to strengthen health systems and

improve quality, safety, and access to care, and

encouraged member states to take action to

incorporate eHealth into health systems and

services.

• Resolution EB101.R3 (1998): WHO recognised

the increasing importance of the internet and

its potential to impact health through the

advertising and promotion of medical products,

in its resolution on ‘Cross-border Advertising,

Promotion, and Sale of Medical Products

through the Internet’.

Relevant policy documents on data and

digital health in the WHO European Region

Digital health

• Regional digital health action plan for the WHO

European Region 2023–2030

• Resolution: leveraging digital transformation for

better health in Europe

Data

• Measurement framework for the European

Programme of Work, 2020–2025: approach,

targets, indicators, and milestones

• Development of the measurement framework

for the European Programme of Work,

2020–2025

• Resolution: the measurement framework for

the European Programme of Work, 2020–2025

632


Facebook @WHO

Instagram @who

LinkedIn @world-health-organization

Snapchat @who

TikTok @who

X @WHO

YouTube @WHO

633

World Intellectual Property Organization

(WIPO)

Chemin des Colombettes 34 | 1211 Geneva 20 | Switzerland

www.wipo.int

About WIPO

WIPO is a UN agency functioning as the global forum

for IP-related services (patents, copyright, trademarks,

and designs), policy, information, and cooperation.

The organisation was established in 1967. It currently

has 193 member states and over 200 observers

representing non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

and intergovernmental organisations.

WIPO leads the development of a balanced and

effective global IP ecosystem to promote innovation

and creativity for a better and more sustainable future.

636

Our digital communications objective is to inform and

inspire businesses, communities, and individuals

so that they can use IP to translate their ideas

into assets that generate income and create

economic and social value.

Daren Tang

Director-General

Message by the WIPO Director-General

WIPO is the UN agency for innovation, creativity, and IP.

Our mission is to help our members use IP as a powerful catalyst to create jobs, attract

investments, grow businesses, and develop economies and societies. In today’s world, this

means harnessing digital tools, workflows, and communications for impact and delivery.

637

Message by the WIPO Director-General

We are the only UN agency to provide services directly to enterprises and entrepreneurs,

allowing them a fast, efficient, cost-effective route for moving technology, brands, and designs

across borders.

Take the example of Revalcon in Armenia. Three entrepreneurs, Seryozha Barkhudaryan,

Artyom Tonoyan, and Grigori Kartashyan, believed that providing farmers with access to

technology and data would help them better manage their irrigation and waste less water.

‘The idea is to empower farmers to grow higher yields with fewer resources’, explains Gevorg

Baghdasaryan, their CEO. They are benefitting from copyrights, trademarks, and patents to

transform farming through their smart irrigation systems.

Our digital communications objective is to inform and inspire businesses, communities, and

individuals so that they can use IP to translate their ideas into assets that generate income

and create economic and social value. This in turn will improve the lives of people everywhere.

Take the case of the Madd de Casamance, a fruit from Senegal that is protected as a Geographical

Indication, similar to protection afforded to heritage food products like Gruyère. Young people

are typically responsible for gathering the fruit. They use their earnings to finance their studies.

And women play a key role in processing and selling the juice, syrup, and preserves derived

from the fruit. Through the power of our digital registration systems, their community is

able to bring these products to the world, and through our digital communications the world

learns of their story.

As the agency that supports entrepreneurship, innovation, and digitalisation, as well as

providing services and support, we have to use digital to engage, inform, inspire, and deliver,

so that our presence is not just in a corner of Geneva but truly global.

638

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

WIPO runs several online registration systems for patents

and trademarks.

There are also numerous databases available for use by

stakeholders on the same subjects.

639

Credit: wipo.int


Frontier technologies including artificial

intelligence

WIPO pays particular attention to the interplay between

frontier technologies including artificial intelligence (AI)

and IP.

The WIPO Conversation on IP and Frontier Technologies

provides an open, inclusive forum to engage with and

facilitate discussion and knowledge-building among

the widest possible set of stakeholders. It leads the

global discourse on the impact of frontier technologies

on IP, in this fast-moving, complex space. Each year,

WIPO usually holds two sessions of the Conversation

covering both the uses and applications of frontier

technologies to assist IP Offices and IP owners as well

as more conceptual policy-based discussions to ensure

that the IP systems continue to foster innovation. The

five sessions of the WIPO Conversation to date have

focused on AI, data, and frontier technologies in IP

administration.

WIPO has prepared a paper exploring the (potential)

impact of AI on IP policies in areas such as copyright

and related rights, patents, trademarks, designs, and

overall IP administration. It also maintains an AI and

IP strategy clearing house, which collates government

instruments (strategies, regulations, etc.) that are

relevant to AI, data, and IP.

WIPO is also developing and deploying AI solutions

in the context of various activities; relevant examples

are WIPO Translate and the WIPO Brand Image Search,

which use AI for automated translation and image

recognition. The WIPO Index of AI Initiatives in IP Offices

seeks to foster information sharing and collaboration

between national IP Offices working on similar projects.

• Revised Issue Paper on Intellectual Property

Policy and Artificial Intelligence (2020)

• IP and Frontier Technologies

• The WIPO Conversation on IP and Frontier

Technologies

• IP and AI

• IP and Data

• AI and IP Clearing House

• Index of AI Initiatives

• Frontier Technologies in IP Administration

• UN Secretary-General’s High-level Panel

on Digital Cooperation follow-up process |

Contributing to the roundtables on AI and digital

platforms.

• Taking part in the Road to Bern via Geneva

dialogues on digital and data cooperation.

• Cooperating with the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the AI for

Good initiative.

• Supporting UNESCO’s work on developing the

first global normative instrument on the ethics

of AI.

640

• Participating in the work of the Geneva Science

and Diplomacy Anticipator (GESDA), and

an independent foundation to leverage the

anticipative power of science with diplomacy

organisations and citizens working in Geneva

and around the world.

Alternative dispute resolution and critical internet

resources

WIPO’s activities regarding the Domain Name System

(DNS) revolve around the protection of trademarks

and related rights in the context of domain names.

It developed the Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-

Resolution Policy (UDRP) with the Internet Corporation

for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Under

this policy, WIPO’s Arbitration and Mediation Center

provides dispute resolution services for second-level

domain name registrations under generic top-level

domains (gTLDs) to which the UDPR applies. The Center

also administers disputes under specific policies

adopted by some gTLD registries (e.g. .aero, .asia,

.travel). In addition, it offers domain name dispute

resolution services for over 70 country code toplevel

domains (ccTLDs). WIPO has developed a ccTLD

Program to provide advice to many ccTLD registries on

the establishment of dispute resolution procedures.

It also contributes to the work carried out within the

framework of ICANN in regard to the strengthening of

existing trademark rights protection mechanisms or

the development of new such mechanisms.

• WIPO Guide to the Uniform Domain Name

Dispute Resolution Policy

• Guide to WIPO’s services for country code toplevel

domain registries

• WIPO’s Arbitration and Mediation Center

• WIPO Online Case Administration Tools,

including WIPO eADR (allowing parties in a

dispute, mediators, arbitrators, and experts in a

WIPO case to securely submit communications

electronically into an online docket) and online

facilities for meetings and hearings as part of

WIPO cases.


Trademarks

WIPO has long been involved in issues related to the

protection of trademarks in the context of the DNS.

The first phase of the WIPO Internet Domain Name

Process, carried out in 1991, explored trademark abuse

in second-level domain names, and led to the adoption,

by ICANN, of the UDRP. WIPO has also contributed

to the development of several trademark rights

protection mechanisms applicable to gTLDs (such as

legal rights objections, the Trademark Clearinghouse,

and the uniform rapid suspension system). The

WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center administers

trademark-related dispute resolution cases for several

gTLDs and ccTLDs.

641

Copyright

WIPO is actively contributing to international

discussions on the opportunities offered by copyright

in the digital environment, especially to developing

economies, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and

women entrepreneurs. The organisation administers

the Internet Treaties and the Beijing Treaty, which clarify

that existing copyright and related rights apply on the

internet, and introduce new online rights, while also

establishing international norms aimed at preventing

unauthorised access to and use of creative works

on the internet or other digital networks. The WIPO

Accessible Books Consortium furthers the practical

implementation of the Marrakesh Treaty to increase

the number of books available worldwide in accessible

digital formats. WIPO member states are considering

topics related to copyright in the digital environment

at the multilateral level. WIPO also carries out research

and organises seminars and other meetings on aspects

concerning challenges and possible solutions for taking

advantage of the opportunities offered by copyright

and related rights in the digital era.

• WIPO Copyright Treaty

• WIPO Performances and Phonogram Treaty

• Standing Committee on Copyright and Related

Rights

• Standing Committee on the Law of Trademarks,

Industrials Designs and Geographical Indications

• WIPO’s Arbitration and Mediation Center

Liability of intermediaries

Given WIPO’s concerns regarding the protection

of copyright and related rights on the internet, the

organisation is exploring issues related to the roles

and responsibilities of internet intermediaries when

it comes to online copyright infringements. The

organisation carries out or commissions research

and publishes studies on the relationship between

copyright and internet intermediaries (such as

comparative analyses of national approaches to the

liability of Internet intermediaries), and organises

events (seminars, workshops, sessions at the World

Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Forum and

Internet Governance Forum (IGF) meetings, etc.) aimed

at facilitating multistakeholder discussions on the

potential liability of internet intermediaries concerning

copyright infringements.

• Comparative analysis of national approaches of

the liability of the internet intermediaries (I and

II).


WIPO is of the view that IP is a critical incentive for

innovation and creativity, and, as such, a key to the

success of the sustainable development goals (SDGs).

The organisation works to enable member states to use

the IP system to drive the innovation, competitiveness,

and creativity needed to achieve the SDGs. It does so,

642

DIGITAL TOOLS

for instance, through supporting countries in their

efforts to build an innovative IP ecosystem, providing

legislative advice on updating national IP laws, and

supporting judiciary systems in keeping up with

technological innovation. WIPO’s contribution to the

implementation of the Agenda 2030 is guided by its

Development Agenda.

• WIPO and the Sustainable Development Goals –

Innovation Driving Human Progress (brochure)

• The Impact of Innovation – WIPO and the

Sustainable Development Goals

• WIPO GREEN – online marketplace for

sustainable technologies

• COVID-19 Technical Assistance Platform – a one

stop digital platform for technical assistance

provided by WIPO, WHO, and WTO on IP, public

health, and trade matters related to COVID-19.

• Study on the current status in the

implementation of SDGs by National IP Offices.

Climate change

WIPO’s Global Challenges programme brings

together various stakeholders to explore issues

related to green technologies and the environment.

It hosts WIPO GREEN, a multistakeholder platform

aimed to promote innovation and diffusion of green

technologies, and it provides analysis of relevant IP

issues to facilitate international policy dialogue. The

WIPO GREEN platform includes a digital database of

130,000 green technologies in sectors such as energy,

water and transportation. In 2023, WIPO launched the

Green Technology Book, a major digital publication to

showcase concrete solutions related to climate change

mitigation. The report is fully integrated with the WIPO

GREEN database, allowing for continuous additions by

technology providers.

• WIPO GREEN – online marketplace for sustainable/

green technologies

Digital tools

Some examples of the digital tools WIPO uses in relation

to its services:

• WIPO Online Case Administration Tools,

including WIPO eADR (allowing parties in a

dispute, mediators, arbitrators, and experts in a

WIPO case to securely submit communications

electronically into an online docket) and online

facilities for meetings and hearings as part of

WIPO cases.

• WIPO GREEN – online marketplace for

sustainable technologies.

• WIPO Match – platform that matches seekers

of specific IP-related development needs with

potential providers offering resources.

643

• WIPO Alert – platform to upload information on

entities that infringed copyright at national level.

• Madrid e-services – online tools and resources.

• Electronic Forum – enables the electronic

distribution and submission by email of

comments concerning preliminary draft working

documents and draft reports.

• WIPO Academy – also includes an eLearning

Centre.

• WIPO Connect – enables collective management

of copyright and related rights at local and

central levels.

• ABC Global Book Service – on-line catalogue

that allows participating libraries for the blind

and organisations serving people who are print

disabled to obtain accessible content.

• WIPO Knowledge Centre – hosts virtual

exhibitions. Recent subjects have included

geographical indications, and AI.


Facebook @WIPO

Flickr @WIPO

Instagram @wipo

LinkedIn @WIPO

Podcast @https://www.wipo.int/podcasts/en/

X @WIPO

YouTube @WIPO

644

645

World Meteorological Organization

(WMO)

Av. de la Paix 7 bis | 1211 Geneva 2 | Switzerland

www.wmo.int/en

About WMO

WMO marks its 75th anniversary in 2025 as a specialised

agency of the UN dedicated to international cooperation

and coordination on the state and behaviour of the Earth’s

atmosphere, its interaction with the land and oceans,

the weather and climate it produces, and the resulting

distribution of water resources. It boasts a membership

of 193 member states and territories. Weather, climate,

and water respect no national boundaries, and so

cooperation is key.

National Meteorological and Hydrological Services

(NMHSs) work around the clock to provide early and

reliable warnings of severe weather. WMO also measures

and forecasts air quality and monitors and projects

climate change. The overriding priority is to save life

and property, protect resources and the environment,

and support socioeconomic growth. With this work,

WMO supports NMHSs and meets their international

commitments in disaster risk reduction, climate change

mitigation and adaptation, and sustainable development.

648

The World Meteorological Organization is often

referred to as the UN Weather Agency. But we

are more than weather forecasters. Much,

much more. WMO makes the world safer,

more secure, and prosperous.

Celeste Saulo

Secretary-General

Message by the WMO Secretary-General

Weather, climate and water respect no geopolitical borders.

The free exchange of data and observations has therefore been the backbone of the international

meteorological community throughout the 75 years of WMO’s existence as a specialised UN agency.

The World Meteorological Organization facilitates the exchange of weather, climate and hydrological

data as a global public good. Data diplomacy underpins our efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate

change, increase our resilience and promote sustainable development.

649

Message by the WMO Secretary-General

WMO information is a lifeline for weather and climate sensitive sectors, including agriculture, transport,

energy, water management and health. Indeed it guides every single decision on a daily basis.

The WMO community adds billions of dollars of value to the global economy and saves billions more in

averted losses. Over the years, we have saved hundreds of thousands of lives, and we will continue to

do so. It is our top, overriding priority.

Advances in technology, such as satellites and AI, offer exciting new possibilities to advance Earth system

science, inform disaster management and climate adaptation, and to make that science more accessible

to decision-makers and the public.

AI is already improving forecasts. It has the potential to revolutionise warnings, including of very local

and high-impact weather events. It will enhance – but not replace – the existing global observing

system which comprises tens of thousands of surface weather stations, national radar networks, ocean

monitoring, and a large constellation of satellites.

But there are big gaps in the global observing network, especially in Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

and Small Island Developing states (SIDS), and these affect the quality of global forecasts. WMO is

seeking to close those gaps.

WMO is also working to accelerate progress towards Early Warnings for All – a global initiative to ensure

that everyone on the planet is covered by lifesaving early warning systems by the end of 2027.

As we mark our 75th anniversary in 2025, our work is more necessary than ever before.

2024 was the warmest year on record – and the first calendar year temporarily to hit 1.5°C above the preindustrial

era. Record concentrations of greenhouse gases are trapping heat for many years to come.

Sea levels are rising, the ocean is becoming warmer and more acidic, ice and glaciers are retreating and

our weather is more extreme.

In these challenging times, international collaboration is essential. We need to leverage the power of

data diplomacy to protect our planet for future generations.

650

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Data is in WMO’s DNA. Data is gathered from one of

the most diverse data-gathering systems worldwide,

consisting of more than 10,000 manned and automatic

surface weather stations, national radar networks,

ocean observing stations, and weather satellite

constellations. Data exchange underpins all WMO

core functions from weather forecasting to climate,

hydrological, and ocean monitoring. Supercomputers

and global telecommunications systems power the

ever-growing appetite for data.

WMO also explores the role of new technologies and

their relevance for public weather services, including

the use of AI approaches. AI complements complex

numerical weather prediction algorithms that process

vast amounts of data and calculate the behaviour

of weather patterns, providing short-term weather

forecasts and long-term climate predictions.

Caption: The first image from EUMETSAT’s newest satellite, Meteosat Third Generation – Imager 1 (MTG-I1) reveals conditions over Europe, Africa, and the Atlantic with an extraordinary level of

detail. The image was captured by the satellite’s Flexible Combined Imager instrument at 11:50 UTC on 18 March 2023.

651



Impressive technological advances have taken place in

relatively short time frames: satellites, big data, IT, and, of

course, AI. WMO has evolved accordingly. To better serve

society.

WMO recognises the potential power of AI to revolutionise

weather forecasts and early warnings. WMO Members

traditionally made weather-related predictions via an

observation system such as the Numerical Weather

Prediction (NWP). That is changing rapidly, and a number

of leading forecasting centres and national meteorological

and hydrological services are now using AI forecasting

systems to run side by side with their traditional physicsbased

forecasts. The European Centre for Medium Range

Weather Forecasting says that its model outperforms

physics-based models for many measures, including

tropical cyclone tracks, with gains of up to 20% and with

a reduction of about 1,000 times in energy use in making

a forecast.

WMO wants to ensure that, as more Members embrace

AI, there is a level playing field and nobody is left behind.

WMO is co-sponsoring the AI Weather Quest, a global

competition organised by ECMWF to advance subseasonal

weather forecasting using AI and machine

learning (ML). The AI Weather Quest has been approved

as a WIPPS (WMO Integrated Processing and Prediction

System) Pilot Project. This initiative aligns with WMO’s

mission to foster innovation and collaboration in

numerical weather prediction for the benefit of National

Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) and

end users worldwide.

WMO recognises that, even with AI and ML advancements,

human expertise remains central to effective Early

Warning systems.

Digital standards

WMO maintains one of the most comprehensive

standardisation systems with a detailed explanation of

each step in the data cycle. WMO guidelines range from

issues such as the position or the type of surface (e.g.

grass) over which weather observation stations should

be placed to uniform and structured standards on data

sharing.

WMO has updated its Guidelines on Good Practices for

Data Rescue (WMO-No. 1182), replacing the 2016 technical

document. The updated guidelines incorporate the data

rescue guidelines of the European Union Copernicus

Climate Change Service (C3S) and now include WMO

Guidelines for Hydrological Data Rescue (WMO-No.

1146). The guidelines cover rescue of meteorological,

hydrological, marine and other environmental data,

providing practical assistance on archiving original

media, imaging, digitisation, and archiving digital images

and digital data.

652

Data rescue provides additional benefits, including:

• Making agrometeorological, disease vectorisation,

and hydrological/climatological numerical models

more credible

• Enabling better projections of future climate

• Allowing current weather and climate to be better

placed within historical context

• Providing basis to assess historical sensitivities of

natural and man-made systems to environmental

variability

WMO collaborates with organisations such as the

International Environmental Data Rescue Organization

(IEDRO) and Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions

over the Earth (ACRE) on data rescue initiatives.

Data governance

WMO Unified Data Policy

The 2021 Extraordinary World Meteorological Congress

approved the WMO Unified Data Policy to dramatically

strengthen the world’s weather and climate services

through a systematic increase in much-needed

observational data and data products across the globe.

The Unified Data Policy was painstakingly developed

through extensive consultation with thousands of experts

and other global stakeholders to meet the explosive

growth in demand for weather, climate, and water data

products and services from all sectors of society.

653

Approval of the Unified Data Policy provides a

comprehensive update of the policies guiding the

international exchange of weather, climate, and related

Earth system data between the 193 WMO member states

and territories. The new policy reaffirms the commitment

to the free and unrestricted exchange of data, which has

been the bedrock of WMO since it was established more

than 70 years ago.

Why has WMO updated its data policy?

Recent decades have seen explosive growth in the

demand for weather, climate, and water monitoring and

prediction data to support essential services needed by

all sectors of society, as they face issues such as climate

change, increasing frequency and impact of extreme

weather, and implications for food security.

The free and unrestricted exchange of observational

data from all parts of the world and of other data

products among all WMO members must be updated

and strengthened to accommodate this growing

demand. As the responsibilities of NMHSs continue to

expand, a growing list of application areas beyond the

traditional weather, climate, and water activities needs

to be supported by WMO observing and data exchange

and modelling systems. WMO data policy must evolve

to accommodate atmospheric composition, oceans, the

cryosphere, and space weather.

What are the benefits of updating the WMO data

policy?

The new WMO Unified Data Policy will help the WMO

community to strengthen and better sustain monitoring

and predicting all Earth-system components, resulting

in massive socioeconomic benefits. It will lead to an

additional exchange of all types of environmental data,

enabling all WMO members to deliver better, more

accurate, and timely weather and climate-related services

to their constituencies.

In addition to data sharing, the overall importance of data

has been further highlighted by the WMO’s Guidelines on

Climate Data Rescue, published in 2004. The document

tackles why data rescue (i.e. preservation of vast amounts

of collected climate data and digitalisation of current and

past datasets for easy access) is crucial. It explains that

practitioners of data rescue might encounter obstacles

such as the high cost of data rescue operations and the

lack of digital skills and competencies to use the necessary

tools in data preservation. The Guidelines were updated

in 2016 to reflect the changes in digital technologies since

they were first published. They now outline some of

the necessary steps in the data rescue process, such as

creating digital inventories and digitising data values.

Over the years, WMO has also engaged in the following

data governance developments:

• Cooperation on data in scientific circles through

cooperation between the International Science

Council (ISC) and the WMO World Data Centres

and discussion on data at the World Conference on

Science.

• Cooperation with the International Oceanographic

Commission (IOC), whose Resolution 6 specifies

that ‘member states shall provide timely, free, and

unrestricted access to all data, associated metadata,

and products generated under the auspices of IOC

programmes’.

• Discussion with the WTO on WMO datasets and

competition provisions in the General Agreement

on Trade in Services (GATS).

• Cooperation with GEO, which was established in

2003 to derive data policies for the Global Earth

Observation System of Systems based on the WMO

data exchange system.

• Close work with ITU on the need to protect radio

frequencies vital for weather forecasting and data

exchange.

WMO’s Unified Data Policy can be leveraged for the

integration of climate and health information systems.

The WMO Information System (WIS.20) is an established

platform that can support improved data collection,

sharing, and accessibility in climate and health contexts.


Climate change is an increasingly recognised global threat.

But what risks does it pose exactly? And how will climate

change and its impacts affect sustainable development?

654


The complexity of the global climate system often

contributes to significant gaps between scientific and

policy-oriented understandings of how climate-changerelated

risks cascade through environmental, social, and

economic systems.

WMO has addressed these gaps by connecting changes

in the global climate system, as measured by the state of

the climate indicators, to the SDGs based on extensive

data collection. The aim is to improve risk-informed

decision-making by aiding policymakers, the scientific

community, and the public to grasp the interconnected

and complex nature of climate change threats to

sustainable development, thereby encouraging more

comprehensive and immediate climate action.

Digital technologies have also played an essential role

in the advancement of the World Weather Watch,

a flagship WMO programme that allows for the

development and improvement of global systems for

observing and exchanging meteorological observations.

The programme has evolved thanks to developments

in remote sensing, private internet-type networks,

supercomputing systems for data analysis, and weather,

climate, and water (environmental) prediction models.

World Weather Watch consists of the following main

building blocks:

• National Meteorological Services collect data

on land, water, and air worldwide. The WMO

Information System (WIS) coordinates the data

collection and transmission through its national,

regional, and global centres.

655

• Regional organisations that act as global hubs

include, for example, the European Centre for

Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and

the European Organisation for the Exploitation of

Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT).

To produce a successful weather forecast, it is essential to

ensure the timely delivery of observational data from as

many stations worldwide as possible in the shortest time.

What follows is an example of the Global Basic Observing

Network (GBON) showing a map of observation stations

worldwide.


The Global Telecommunication System (GTS), as part

of the WIS, carries data from observation stations to

national, regional, and global actors. Most of the data

is exchanged via the GTS in real time. Given the critical

relevance of this data in dealing with crises, the GTS must

be highly reliable and secure.

Smart data for evidence-based decision-making

In recent years, WMO has digitised its performance

monitoring through the development of strategic and

thematic dashboards as well as through the increased

use of infographics and story maps, all tools conducive

to evidence-based decision-making. In addition to a Key

Performance Indicators Dashboard, WMO has launched

a Hydro Dashboard, which provides valuable information

on operational hydrological services worldwide. It is

developing similar thematic dashboards on climate

services and global data processing, and forecasting.

Internally, WMO has created a centralised data repository

that brings together data from various systems, surveys,

and sources, providing easy access to reliable data and

related data analytics. The data repository is essential to

facilitating the flow of objective, evidence-based, timely

performance information.

The global website, https://worldweather.wmo.int/en/

home.html, serves as a platform presenting official

weather observations, forecasts, and climatological

information for selected cities worldwide. These data are

provided by National Meteorological and Hydrological

Services (NMHSs) globally. The website includes links to

official weather service websites and tourism boards

whenever possible. The information covers 3,458

cities, with forecasts available for 3,307 cities from 139

members, and climatological information for 2,216 cities

from 171 members as of September 2023.

The International Cloud Atlas is the official classification

system for clouds and meteorological phenomena

adopted by all WMO members. This Atlas extends

beyond clouds to include hydrometeors, lithometeors,

photometeors, and electrometeors. It serves as

a universal language for communicating cloud

observations, ensuring global consistency in reporting.

The Atlas is a valuable training tool for meteorologists,

aeronautical and maritime professionals, and is popular

among weather enthusiasts and cloud spotters, fostering

a shared enthusiasm for observing atmospheric

phenomena.

656

Digital WMO community

WMO established the WMO Community Platform, which

consists of several digital tools that allow for crossanalysis

and visualisation of information from all WMO

member states regarding weather, climate, and water to

provide better insights into the work and needs of the

community and to contribute to greater participation in

good governance. The WMO e-Library is another tool that

gathers and maintains different publications, including

reports and WMO standards.

Green WMO

WMO has both virtual and in-person events. WMO

experts are also working to reduce the impact of

global observing systems and other operations on the

environment. WMO is among the first UN organisations

to do completely paperless sessions (all governance

meeting documentation has been digital for many years).

We experimented at the latest Executive Council meeting

(EC-75) with translating the INF documents (information

documents) using AI tools. It may also be relevant to

mention that the draft Strategic Plan 2024–2027 has a

new strategic objective (SO) targeted at environmental

sustainability, including green IT and green meetings.

Useful documents where you can find many links:

• WMO Unified Data Policy Resolution (Res.1)

• Digital Dialogues Focus on Big Data and the Global

Goals

• Observations – Data-Modelling


Facebook @World Meteorological Organization

Flickr @World Meteorological Organization

Instagram @wmo_omm

LinkedIn @world-meteorological-organization

X @WMO

YouTube @worldmetorg

657

World Trade Organization

(WTO)

Centre William Rappard | Rue de Lausanne 154 | 1211 Geneva 21 | Switzerland

www.wto.org

About WTO

WTO is an intergovernmental organisation that deals

with the rules of trade among its members. Its main

functions include administering WTO trade agreements,

providing a forum for trade negotiations, settling trade

disputes, monitoring national trade policies, providing

technical assistance and training for developing countries,

and ensuring cooperation with other international

organisations.

WTO members have negotiated and agreed upon rules

regulating international trade, fostering transparency

and predictability in the international trading system.

The main WTO agreements relevant to trade-related

digital issues are the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing

the WTO, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT), the General Agreement on Trade in Services

(GATS), the Information Technology Agreement (ITA and

ITA II), the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT

Agreement), and the Agreement on Trade-related Aspects

of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement).

660

Building trust in digital trade and harnessing to

make trade more inclusive are crucial for

ensuring a prosperous global economy that

works for all in the coming decades.

The WTO is uniquely positioned to

contribute to these goals.

Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala

Director-General

Message by the WTO Director-General

Digital trade and AI are changing the way we live, work and trade, reshaping economies and

comparative advantages worldwide. The future of trade is digital, and we must act to ensure

that it is inclusive.

According to WTO estimates, global exports of digitally delivered services quadrupled in value

to USD 4.25 trillion between 2005 and 2023, growing at 8.2% on average per year, outpacing

goods exports (4.8%) and other services exports (4.6%).

661

Message by the WTO Director-General

The rise of AI is expected to further accelerate this trend. AI holds immense promise for

developing economies to foster faster, more inclusive, and more equitable development,

including by democratising access to essential public services while upgrading their quality.

AI is already redefining international trade by reducing costs in logistics, supply chain

management, and regulatory compliance, and increasing demand for AI-related products.

WTO simulations suggest that global trade growth could increase by nearly 14 percentage

points through 2040 under a scenario of universal AI adoption and high productivity growth.

However, these gains are halved in a scenario where the adoption of AI is patchy, with lower

productivity increases. Realising the full potential of AI requires bridging the digital divide.

While global internet penetration rates have risen from 54.9% in 2019 to 68% in 2024, 2.6 billion

people – mostly in developing countries – remain offline, limiting their ability to participate

in digital trade. The rise of digital trade and AI also raise important policy considerations,

from ensuring effective data governance to adjusting intellectual property frameworks for AI

models and AI-generated innovations and striking the right regulatory balance while allowing

trade to flow smoothly. These challenges underscore the need for greater international

cooperation.

The WTO has a unique role to play in enabling everyone, everywhere, to fully reap the

benefits associated with digital trade and AI. One of the outcomes from our Thirteenth

Ministerial Conference (MC13) in 2024 was an agreement to reinvigorate the Work Programme

on Electronic Commerce, particularly in line with its development dimension. At MC13,

members also agreed to continue the practice of not imposing customs duties on electronic

transmissions until MC14 and to intensify discussions on the scope, definition, and impact

of this moratorium. In parallel, about 90 members have conducted plurilateral negotiations

on rules for digital trade. In July 2024, 71 members agreed on prospective rules on enabling

electronic transactions, supporting digital trade facilitation, ensuring an open environment

for digital trade, and promoting trust in e-commerce. Discussions on AI-related trade issues

are also emerging across WTO bodies.

In moving forward, it is important that the WTO continues to provide a forum for inclusive

and constructive engagement, so that everyone has the tools and skills to participate in and

benefit from digital trade and frontier technologies like AI.

662

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Several internet governance and digital trade, and

AI policy-related issues are discussed in the WTO.

E-commerce discussions are ongoing under the Work

Programme on Electronic Commerce and among

a group of WTO members that have negotiated an

Agreement on Electronic Commerce under the Joint

Statement Initiative (JSI) on E-commerce. Discussions

have focused on several digital issues, including

consumer protection, personal data protection,

capacity building, and customs duties on electronic

transmissions. Discussions on AI and other critical

emerging technologies (e.g. advanced semiconductors,

biotech, etc.) are increasingly raised and discussed in

various WTO settings, including in particular the TBT

Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade, the TRIPS

Council, and the Work Programme on E-commerce.

Digital trade and AI also feature prominently in WTO

research.

As part of its outreach activities, WTO organises

numerous events such as the Aid for Trade Global

Review and an annual Public Forum, which brings

together governments, NGOs, academics, businesses,

and other stakeholders for discussions on a broad

range of issues, including many relating to the digital

economy and AI.

663




In 1997, WTO members successfully concluded

negotiations on market access for basic

telecommunications services. The negotiations,

which were an extension of the Uruguay Round of

WTO negotiations that led to the creation of the

GATS, resulted in specific commitments in the sector

for a significant part of WTO membership. These

negotiations also resulted in the Reference Paper, a set

of regulatory principles for basic telecommunication

services that various members have inscribed in their

schedules of commitments. Since 1997, the number

of members that have undertaken market access

commitments on telecommunications and subscribed

to the Reference Paper has continued to increase as

a result of new economies joining the WTO through

the process of accession. Under the plurilateral draft

Agreement on Electronic Commerce, participants have

developed disciplines that add to the provisions of the

Reference Paper.

Digital standards 1

International standards are important to the global

digital economy as they can enable interconnectivity

and interoperability for telecommunications and

internet infrastructures. The WTO Technical Barriers

to Trade Agreement (TBT Agreement) aims to ensure

that technical regulations, standards, and conformity

assessment procedures affecting trade in goods

(including ICT products and AI-embedded products,

for instance) are non-discriminatory and do not create

unnecessary obstacles to trade. The TBT Agreement

strongly encourages that such regulatory measures

be based on relevant international standards. The TBT

Committee serves as a forum where governments

discuss and address concerns with specific regulations,

including those affecting digital trade. Examples of

relevant TBT measures notified to or discussed at the

TBT Committee include (1) measures addressing the

internet of things (IoT) and related devices in terms

of their safety, interoperability, national security/

cybersecurity, performance, and quality; (2) measures

regulating 5G cellular network technology for reasons

related to, among others, national security and

interoperability; (3) measures regulating 3D printing

(additive manufacturing) devices; (4) measures

regulating drones (small unmanned aircraft systems)

due to risks for humans/consumers, interoperability

problems, and national security risks; (5) measures

dealing with autonomous vehicles, mostly concerned

with their safety and performance, and more recently

(6) measures regulating AI.

Given the increasing relevance of international

standards for the regulatory governance of digital

1

The issue of digital standards is addressed as ‘standards and regulations’ within the work of WTO.

664

tech products, renewed attention has been paid

to ‘Principles for the Development of International

Standards, Guides and Recommendations’ adopted

by the WTO TBT Committee in 2000, which include six

specific principles:

1. Transparency

2. Openness

3. Impartiality and consensus

4. Effectiveness and relevance

5. Coherence

6. Development dimension

These principles aim to avoid conflicting standards

and provide guidance for WTO members when

developing international standards. They have become

widely accepted by WTO members both multilaterally

and regionally, with a growing number of Regional

Trade Agreements (RTAs) not only incorporating

these principles but making them mandatory. Some

international standardising bodies like ISO and IEC have

embraced these principles.

In 2024, the WTO TBT Committee adopted new

’Guidelines on Conformity Assessment Procedures’

(CAP Guidelines) that recognise the importance of digital

technologies in product certification and emphasise

the need for flexibility in rapidly changing technological

environments.

The TBT Agreement also explicitly recognises ’the

contribution which international standardisation can

make to the transfer of technology from developed to

developing countries’.

The TBT Committee has recently started receiving

notifications specifically related to AI. In particular,

in the last five years, the TBT Committee has been

receiving notifications of, and debating concerns raised

with respect to, a significant number of regulations by

members addressing cybersecurity, a cross-cutting

issue essential for the deployment of, and trust in,

emerging technologies such as AI.

The TBT Committee has held several ‘thematic sessions’

where members shared regulatory experiences with

respect to various digital tech-related issues, including:

‘digital solutions for conformity assessment procedures’

(2022); ‘conformity assessment and e-commerce’ (2023),

‘cybersecurity’ (2023), ‘intangible digital products’

(2023); and ‘use of digital technologies and tools in

good regulatory practices’ (2023). Topics of upcoming

relevant sessions include: ‘international standards

for AI and machine learning’ and ‘interoperable data

standards’ (2025 or 2026).

Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity issues have been addressed in several

WTO bodies. For example, the TBT Committee has

discussed national cybersecurity regulations applicable

665

to ICT products and their potential impact on trade. In

the TBT Committee, WTO members have raised specific

trade concerns related to cybersecurity regulations.

Some of the specific issues discussed include how

cybersecurity regulations discriminating against

foreign companies and technologies can negatively

impact international trade in ICT products.

In 2023, the WTO’s TBT Committee organised its firstever

specific thematic session focused on cybersecurity.

38% of all cybersecurity-related Specific Trade Concerns

(STCs) raised in the TBT Committee since 1995 were

raised just in the last three and a half years, showing

increasing focus on this issue.

During the 2023 thematic session, participants

emphasised that unilateral government interventions

in cybersecurity could undermine global cybersecurity

efforts. The session highlighted the need for better

coordination between governments and the private

sector to address regulatory fragmentation in

cybersecurity.

The Agreement on Electronic Commerce negotiated

under the Joint Initiative on E-commerce contains

provisions on cybersecurity, which facilitate cooperation

and encourage the development of national capabilities

and risk-based approaches to cybersecurity with a view

to reducing potential trade barriers.

More than 90 cybersecurity-related TBT measures

have been notified to the TBT Committee, with

approximately 65% of these notifications occurring in

just the last three and a half years.

666

Data governance

The growth of the global digital economy is fuelled by

data. Issues related to data flows have also been raised

by members in various contexts at the WTO, such as

under the JSI on e-commerce and in the Council for Trade

in Services, for instance, when national cybersecurity

measures adopted have been considered by some

members as trade barriers.

According to a joint OECD and WTO (2025) report, the

economic costs of fragmentation of data flow regimes

along geo-economic blocks would amount to a loss of

more than 1% of real GDP. If all economies fully restricted

their data flows, it could result in a 4.5% reduction in

global GDP and a 8.5% decrease in exports.


The TRIPS Agreement is a key international instrument

for the protection and enforcement of IP and is of

relevance to e-commerce. The technologies that

underpin the internet and enable digital commerce,

such as software, routers, networks, switches,

and user interfaces, are protected by IP. Balanced

measures to enforce IPRs are important tools to ensure

legitimate trade in digitally ordered goods. In addition,

e-commerce transactions can involve digital products

with IP-protected content, such as e-books, software, or

blueprints for 3D printing. As IP licences often regulate

the usage rights for such intangible digital products, the

TRIPS Agreement and the international IP Conventions

that are incorporated into it provide much of the legal

infrastructure for digital trade.

The role of IP in promoting innovation and trade in the

digital age has been highlighted in recent WTO World

Trade Reports.

• WTR 2018 – The Future of World Trade – How

Digital Technologies are Transforming Global

Commerce

• WTR 2020 – Government Policies to Promote

Innovation in the Digital Age

IP-related issues have also been discussed in the

framework of the JSI, for example with regard to the

access or transfer of source code. The source code or

the data analysis used in the operation of programmes

or services is often legally protected by IP law through

copyright, patent, or trade secret provisions. Future

discussions may further address this and other IPrelated

matters under Article 35 of the JSI stabilised text,

which foresees further negotiations on outstanding

issues.

Electronic commerce

WTO agreements cover a broad spectrum of trade

topics, including some related to e-commerce, which

has been on the WTO agenda since 1998 when the

ministers adopted the Declaration on Global Electronic

Commerce. The Declaration instructed the General

667

Council to establish a Work Programme on electronic

commerce. In that Declaration, members also agreed

to continue the practice of not imposing customs

duties on electronic transmissions (the ’moratorium’).

The Work Programme provides a broad definition of

e-commerce and instructs four WTO bodies (Council

for Trade in Goods, Council for Trade in Services,

TRIPS Council, and the Committee on Trade and

Development) to explore the relationship between WTO

Agreements and e-commerce. The Work Programme

and the moratorium on customs duties on electronic

transmissions have been periodically reviewed and

renewed. At its 13th Ministerial Conference (MC13) in

March 2024, WTO members agreed to reinvigorate

the Work Programme, with a particular focus on

its development dimension. They agreed to hold

further discussions and examine additional empirical

evidence on the scope, definition, and the impact

that a moratorium on customs duties on electronic

transmissions might have on development, and how

to level the playing field for developing and leastdeveloped

country members to advance their digital

industrialisation. Furthermore, members agreed to

maintain the current practice of not imposing customs

duties on electronic transmissions (the moratorium)

until MC14. Members are continuing their discussions

under the Work Programme with a view to presenting

recommendations for action to the next Session of

the Ministerial Conference. The focus has been on the

digital divide and ways of addressing it, and on the legal

and regulatory frameworks that support an enabling

environment for the development of e-commerce.

Discussions will also continue with regard to the

moratorium. Members have also expressed interest

in discussing the relation between trade and artificial

intelligence (AI) as well as other emerging technologies.

At MC11 in 2017, a group of members issued the Joint

Statement Initiative (JSI) on E-Commerce to explore

work towards future WTO negotiations on trade-related

aspects of e-commerce. Following the exploratory work,

in January 2019, 76 members confirmed their ‘intention to

commence WTO negotiations on trade-related aspects

of electronic commerce’ and to ‘achieve a high standard

out-come that builds on existing WTO agreements and

frameworks with the participation of as many WTO

members as possible’. As of June 2024, there were 91

WTO members participating in these discussions. In

July 2024, the joint statement co-conveners (Australia,

Japan and Singapore) confirmed that after five years

of negotiations, participants had achieved a stabilised

text. The text builds on the WTO Agreements by

establishing rules aiming at facilitating electronic

commerce, ensuring an open environment for digital

trade, and promoting trust in e-commerce. Some of the

issues addressed by the provisions of the agreement

include electronic transactions frameworks, paperless

trading, online consumer protection and personal data

protection, electronic payments and customs duties

on electronic transmissions. The Agreement also

recognises that some developing and least-developed

members may require extended periods of time or

668

the acquisition of capacity to implement some of the

provisions of the agreement. It therefore envisages

support in response to members’ efforts. In this regard,

in June 2022 the co-convenors of the JSI, together

with Switzerland, launched the E-commerce Capacity

Building Framework to strengthen digital inclusion

and to help developing and least developed countries

to harness the opportunities of digital trade. As of

February 2025, the Agreement on Electronic Commerce

is supported by 71 WTO members. The co-sponsors of

the text have requested its incorporation into the WTO

framework as a plurilateral agreement under Annex 4

of the Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World

Trade Organization.


Discussions on AI have started to emerge in several

WTO bodies.

In 2022–2023, the draft EU ‘AI Act’ was discussed in

the TBT Committee in the context of a ‘specific trade

concern’ (STC). In June 2023, TBT Committee Members

organised a thematic session to discuss regulatory

experiences with respect to so-called ‘intangible

digital products’, in particular AI-embedded products.

Further thematic sessions on the role of international

standards for ‘critical emerging technologies’, including

AI, are planned for 2025 or 2026. China and Kenya have

also notified their respective AI regulations to the TBT

Committee (2024).

The interplay between AI and IP has been discussed

in the WTO Council for TRIPS under multiple agenda

items, including the items on the Work Programme on

Electronic Commerce, IP and innovation, technology

transfer to LDCs, notification, and technical

cooperation, over the past years.

Discussions on the interplay of AI, international trade

and development have also emerged in the context

of the Work Programme on e-Commerce. A dedicated

discussion on the topic will be held in 2025.

The topic of AI and international trade has been

integrated into WTO various technical cooperation

activities and is a key focus of the WTO research agenda.

The first WTO report on AI – ‘Trading with Intelligence:

How AI Shapes and is Shaped by International Trade’

– was launched in November 2024 at a dedicated

conference.

Access 2

Access to information technology infrastructure

and equipment

The Ministerial Declaration on Trade in Information

Technology Products, commonly known as the

Information Technology Agreement (ITA) was signed

at the WTO’s Singapore Ministerial Conference

in December 1996. The ITA has eliminated tariffs

on around 200 information technology products,

including computers, semiconductors, semiconductor

manufacturing equipment, telecommunication

apparatus, instruments and apparatus, data storage

media and software, and parts and accessories.

Initially signed by 29 participants, the ITA has

witnessed a significant rise in its membership in the

past 28 years, covering 85 WTO Members in 2025. In

the same period, world ITA exports have more than

tripled in value, to approximately USD 2.5 trillion in

2021.

In response to the dramatic evolution of the ICT sector

since 1997, 54 WTO Members decided to expand the

product coverage of the ITA to further liberalise trade

in the ICT sector. These expansion negotiations were

concluded in December 2015 at the WTO’s Tenth

Ministerial Conference, in Nairobi, Kenya. Under the

ITA Expansion (ITA II), import duties and other charges

were reduced to zero on 201 additional high-tech

products, such as new generation integrated circuits,

GPS navigation equipment, telecommunication

satellites, and medical equipment. Many of these

products play a key role in health emergencies and

crises, as they did during the fight against COVID‐19.

Through complete elimination of customs duties

and other charges on covered products, the

2

The issue of arbitration is referred to under the issue of ‘market access’ within the work of WTO.

669

DIGITAL TOOLS

ITA has contributed to reducing prices and thus

improved consumer access to key products such as

mobile phones and computers, lowered the cost of

establishing ICT infrastructure domestically, thereby

improving digital connectivity, and eliminated costly

administrative burdens at customs and reduced delays

for goods crossing borders. In the right circumstances,

ITA participation can ultimately facilitate the greater

integration of developing economies into global

production networks, while spurring innovation in

other sectors.

Additionally, in November 2024, Members agreed that

the TBT Committee will hold joint thematic sessions

with other WTO bodies on topics of relevance to the TBT

Agreement, based on proposals from Members and

in coordination with relevant other WTO bodies. The

purpose of such joint meetings would be to enhance

Members’ understanding of (and explore possible

synergies with) work in other areas of the WTO, bearing

in mind the scope of the TBT Agreement. Among various

cross-cutting topics to be explored jointly with other

committees, members agreed to hold one with the ITA

Committee specifically on non-tariff measures (NTMs)

under the ITA. See document G/TBT/56, para. 3.7(b)

(i), pages. 14-15. Besides ICT tariff elimination, the ITA

Committee also has a work programme on addressing

NTMs affecting ICT products.


Facebook @WorldTradeOrganization

Flickr @WorldTradeOrganization

Instagram @worldtradeorganization

Twitter @wto

YouTube @WorldTradeOrganization

670

International digital actors

with a Geneva presence

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

(ICANN)

Rue du Rhone 14 | 1204 Geneva | Switzerland

www.icann.org

About ICANN

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and

Numbers (ICANN) is a global non-profit organisation

responsible for coordinating the Domain Name

System (DNS), IP address allocation, and other critical

Internet resources functions. Established in 1998,

ICANN ensures a stable, secure, and interoperable

internet by managing domain name policies and

overseeing registries and, to some extent, registrars. It

operates through a multistakeholder model, involving

governments, businesses, and civil society.

676

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

ICANN has maintained a consistent presence in

Geneva, participating in significant events and fostering

collaborations with international organisations and

other actors, including the ITU, WIPO, and IGF. Geneva

is a key hub for ICANN’s policy engagement, particularly

on issues like domain name disputes (through WIPO),

digital trust, and international cooperation on internet

standards.

ICANN operates an engagement centre in Geneva, which

serves as a strategic hub for ICANN’s interactions with

international organisations, governments, and other

stakeholders, facilitating dialogue and collaboration on

global internet governance issues.

ICANN’s new President and Chief Executive Officer

Kurt Erik ‘Kurtis’ Lindqvist is based in ICANN’s Geneva

office, reflecting the city’s significance in global internet

governance and ICANN’s strategic operations.

Credit: ICANN

677


Critical internet resources and Digital

standards

ICANN plays a crucial role in managing global internet

resources, including the Domain Name System (DNS)

and Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. It contributes to

Geneva discussions (in spaces such as ITU) on issues

related to DNS security, IPv6 deployment, and the

resilience of global internet infrastructure.

One of the key collaborative efforts is ensuring a secure

and stable DNS, which is critical for maintaining trust in

the internet. ICANN also contributes to discussions on

technical standards related to the internet, for instance,

in the context of ITU-T.

In 2022, ICANN joined the ITU Partner2Connect Digital

Coalition, a multistakeholder initiative designed

to foster meaningful connectivity and drive digital

transformation, particularly in underserved regions.

This partnership aims to bridge the digital divide

by expanding access to reliable and secure internet

infrastructure.


ICANN collaborates with WIPO to address domain namerelated

disputes through the Uniform Domain Name

Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP). WIPO administers

the UDRP, which provides a streamlined mechanism

for resolving conflicts between trademark holders and

domain registrants who engage in bad-faith practices,

such as cybersquatting.

The UDRP has become a widely recognised tool

for protecting brand integrity online and is used by

businesses, governments, and individuals worldwide.


ICANN actively engages in capacity-building initiatives to

strengthen the participation of governments and other

stakeholders in global internet governance discussions.

It collaborates with ITU’s Development Sector (ITU-D)

on tailored training programmes designed to equip

government officials and policymakers with the

knowledge necessary to engage effectively in digital

policy debates.

Governments and civil servants who participate in

these programs gain a deeper understanding of critical

digital issues, enabling them to develop more effective

national digital strategies and regulatory frameworks.

As a Sector Member of ITU-D, ICANN regularly

participates in ITU-D forums, contributing expertise

and insights to discussions on global digital policy,

digital inclusion, and the development of a resilient and

open internet ecosystem.

678

DIGITAL TOOLS


ICANN and other stakeholders work within various

multilateral and multistakeholder frameworks to

address the intersection of digital governance,

cybersecurity, human rights, and economic

development.

ICANN has been an active supporter of and contributor

to the IGF, having provided financial resources in

support of the forum and having contributed to IGF

activities (annual meetings, intersessional activities).

WSIS Forum, led by the ITU in collaboration with other

UN agencies, provides an annual platform for global

discussions on the implementation of WSIS action

lines. ICANN actively participates in the WSIS Forum,

contributing to debates on internet governance, digital

inclusion, and related topics.


Facebook @icannorg

Instagram @icannorg

LinkedIn @icann

X @ICANN

YouTube @ICANNnews

679

Internet Society

(ISOC)

Rue des Eaux-Vives 15 | CH-1207 Geneva | Switzerland

www.internetsociety.org

About ISOC

The Internet Society (ISOC) supports and promotes

the development of the internet as a global technical

infrastructure, a resource to enrich people’s lives, and

a force for good in society.

ISOC is a global organisation with a presence across

all regions of the world (through local chapters, staff,

and special interest groups). In Geneva, ISOC focuses

on collaborating with international organisations,

government representatives, the tech community, and

civil society in advancing its main missions of:

• building and supporting the communities that

make the internet work

• advancing the development and application of

internet infrastructure, technologies, and open

standards

• advocating for policy that is consistent with

an open, globally connected, secure, and

trustworthy internet

682

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

• Participation in the International

Telecommunication Union’s working group

activities, in particular those focusing on issues

related to ensuring the stability and functionality

of the internet (e.g. technical infrastructure).

• Participation in the World Summit on the

Information Society (WSIS) process, and other

multistakeholder processes and deliberations,

hosted by Geneva-based organisations.

• Support for capacity building and outreach

activities in humanitarian, educational, and

societal contexts, among others.

• Support and active participation in the activities

of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF),

including developing and promoting innovative

concepts such as best practice forums.

• Support for the activities of the Geneva Internet

Platform (GIP) Digital Watch as an information

and knowledge hub dedicated to providing

timely and reliable information about internet

governance and digital policy.

• Participation in academic and policy events

organised by the University of Geneva, GIP,

Graduate Institute, and other academic and

policy organisations in Geneva.

683

Credit: www.internetsociety.org/about-internet-society/

DIGITAL POLICY ISSUES, TOOLS AND INITIATIVES

Key areas of work include critical infrastructure, cyber

norms, encryption, network security, digital access,

capacity development, privacy and data protection,

critical internet resources, digital standards, net

neutrality and zero-rating, telecommunications

infrastructure, and liability of intermediaries.


Launched in December 2020, Internet Society Pulse

consolidates trusted third-party internet measurement

data from various sources into a single platform. We

use the data presented here to examine internet trends

and tell data-driven stories so that policymakers,

researchers, journalists, network operators, civil

society groups, and others can better understand the

availability, evolution, and resilience of the internet.


X @ISOC_Foundation

Facebook Internet Society

Instagram @internetsociety

LinkedIn @internet-society

YouTube @InternetSocietyVideo

684

United Nations Office for Digital and Emerging Technologies

(ODET)


www.un.org/odet

About ODET

On 1 January 2025, the Office of the Secretary-General’s

Envoy on Technology transitioned to a new UN Office for

Digital and Emerging Technologies (ODET). This historic

development flows from a decision by the UNGA on 24

December 2024, following the adoption of the GDC at the

Summit of the Future in September 2024.

The establishment of ODET reflects the growing importance

of a coordinated, inclusive and multistakeholder approach

to the governance of technologies anchored in the UN

Charter, human rights, and the sustainable development

agenda.

With a strengthened mandate, ODET helps the UN

address more effectively the opportunities and challenges

posed by today’s rapidly evolving technological landscape.

A key focus for the office is supporting the follow-up and

implementation of the GDC, including its decisions on the

governance of AI.

688

The speed of AI technology development and the

breadth of its impact require diverse policy

ecosystems to work more cohesively.

And in real-time. We will engage with all

stakeholders, including leading scientists

and academic centres from around the

globe, to realise this goal.’

Amandeep Singh Gill

Under-Secretary-General and Special Envoy for

Digital and Emerging Technologies

Message by the ODET Under-Secretary-General

The most pressing challenges facing the global community – such as digital inequality,

geopolitical tensions over technology, and the concentration of AI investments – transcend

national borders. In a globalised economy where data flows seamlessly across borders, digital

cooperation is not just beneficial; it is imperative.

The Geneva Digital Atlas 2025 itself exemplifies this interconnectedness. Once it is published,

its content will travel across servers located in multiple countries, be routed through undersea

cables owned by various entities, and stored on networks operating under different legal

689

Message by the ODET Under-Secretary-General

frameworks. This highlights the need for a coordinated global response to ensure an equitable

digital future.

In the same manner, the challenges of digital inequality, geopolitical tensions over technology,

and the concentration of AI investments demand a coordinated global response. The GDC–

a key outcome of the Pact for the Future – outlines concrete steps to ensure that digital

advancements are inclusive, sustainable, and equitable.

The UN Office for Digital and Emerging Technologies (ODET) plays a central role in advancing

this vision through five key areas of work:

• serve as advocate and focal point for digital cooperation in the UN

• facilitating inclusive multistakeholder dialogue

• providing strategic advice to UN leadership on key technology trends

• enhancing coordination across the UN system

• supporting the implementation of the GDC

2024 marked a significant turning point for global digital cooperation, and 2025 is set to

build on this momentum. Discussions are advancing on two major UN-led initiatives: the

Independent International Scientific Panel on AI and Global Dialogue on AI Governance.

These efforts aim to address critical gaps in scientific expertise and representation in AI

governance, ensuring a more inclusive and globally representative decision-making process.

In parallel, ODET is supporting the UN Secretary-General’s report on innovative financing

mechanisms to drive AI capacity building at the scale and speed required to ensure no one

is left behind.

Given the challenges ahead, reinforcing engagement across all stakeholders is essential.

Multistakeholder partnerships will be key to the success of these initiatives and to realising

the vision of the GDC. ODET looks forward to continued collaboration in Geneva and globally

to advance shared goals for a responsible and inclusive digital future.

690

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

Digital and emerging technologies – including AI,

robotics, quantum computing, and big data – are

reshaping societies and economies. ODET is helping the

UN advance digital cooperation and the governance of

these technologies across key areas, including the GDC,

governance of AI, digital public infrastructure (DPI), and

open-source ecosystems.


To support the GDC’s follow-up and implementation,

ODET is working in close collaboration with key UN

agencies, including ITU, OHCHR, UNCTAD, UNDP,

UNESCO, United Nations Industrial Development

Organization (UNIDO), United Nations University

(UNU), and UNDESA. Negotiated by 193 member states

and informed by global consultations, the GDC outlines

commitments to international law, human rights

online, and a safe, secure digital space. The Compact

also recognises the essential role of the private sector,

technical experts, researchers, and civil society in

shaping an inclusive digital future. The GDC is now

open for endorsement by all stakeholders.

Governance of AI

The UN Secretary-General’s High-level Advisory Body on

AI released its final report, Governing AI for Humanity, in

September 2024. The report builds on months of global

consultations and over 200 contributions submitted by

stakeholders.

691

ODET is engaged in UN-wide discussions on the

governance of AI, supporting member states and

stakeholders in shaping inclusive, science-based

approaches. The Permanent Representatives of Costa

Rica and Spain are co-facilitating the intergovernmental

process to establish an Independent International

Scientific Panel on AI and a Global Dialogue on AI

Governance. ODET also supports discussions on

innovative voluntary financing, including a global fund

on AI, to promote equitable AI capacity building.

Digital Public Infrastructure

Developing a common framework and standards for

digital public infrastructure is a key priority for ODET.

In collaboration with UNDP, ODET is leading efforts

to develop a Universal Safeguards Framework to

maximise DPI’s potential while mitigating risks. The

multistakeholder DPI Safeguards Working Group

Members are supporting the framework’s evolution

and contributing key knowledge resources for DPI

stakeholders.

Open Source

Open source technologies are essential for accelerating

progress toward the SDGs. This year, the UN Open

Source Week will take place from 16–20 June 2025,

building on the 2024 Open Source Programme Offices

(OSPOs) for Good Symposium with the United Nations

Office of Information and Communications Technology

(OICT), which convened open-source experts to

examine OSPOs’ role in digital cooperation.


Through these initiatives, ODET advances an inclusive,

rights-based digital transformation which not only

reduces costs, but also fosters local innovation and skill

development, aligned with global development goals.


Adopted by world leaders in September 2024 at

the Summit of the Future in New York, the GDC is a

comprehensive framework for global governance of

digital technology and AI. Twenty years after the WSIS,

it charts a roadmap for global digital cooperation to

harness the immense potential of digital technology

and close digital divides.

Negotiated by 193 member states and informed by

global consultations, the GDC commits governments

to upholding international law and human rights online

and to taking concrete steps to make the digital space

safe and secure.

The GDC recognises the critical contributions of the

private sector, technical communities, researchers,

and civil society to digital cooperation. It calls on all

stakeholders to engage in realising an open, safe, and

secure digital future for all.

The GDC pledges a range of ambitious actions. To

close all digital divides and deliver an inclusive digital

economy, it calls for connecting all people, schools, and

hospitals to the internet; making digital technologies

more accessible and affordable to everyone, including in

diverse languages and formats; increasing investment

in digital public goods and digital public infrastructure;

and supporting women, youth innovators, and SMEs.

To build an inclusive, open, safe, and secure digital

space, the GDC calls for strengthening legal and policy

frameworks to protect children online; ensuring that

the internet remains open, global, stable, and secure;

and promoting access to independent, fact-based, and

timely information to counter mis- and disinformation.

To strengthen international data governance and

govern AI for humanity, it supports the development of

interoperable national data governance frameworks;

the establishment of an Independent International

Scientific Panel on AI and a Global Dialogue on AI

Governance; and the development of AI capacitybuilding

partnerships, including consideration of a

Global Fund on AI.

ODET is facilitating the GDC’s endorsement process

and supporting the integration of its commitments

into the updated WSIS framework. This approach

aims to strengthen existing structures while avoiding

duplication, with both processes aligned in their vision

of an inclusive, safe, secure, and human-centred digital

society. Implementation and the WSIS+20 review will

continue through 2025, culminating in a high-level

review in 2027.

692

Turning the GDC into action requires collective effort.

Thousands of people and organisations contributed to

its development, and all stakeholders are encouraged

to engage in shaping a digital future for all.

AI Governance

To foster a globally inclusive approach to the

governance of AI, the UN Secretary-General convened

a multistakeholder High-level Advisory Body on AI for

12 months starting in October 2023. The 39 members,

selected from over 2,000 nominations, and serving

in their personal capacity, brought diverse expertise

across public policy, science, technology, human rights,

and more.

The Body engaged and consulted widely with existing

and emerging initiatives and international organisations

to bridge perspectives across stakeholder groups

and networks. Working at speed, it delivered an

interim report in two months, consulted over 2,000

stakeholders in five months, and released its final

report, Governing AI for Humanity, in September 2024.

The report outlines a blueprint for addressing AI-related

risks and sharing its benefits globally. It urges the UN

to lay the foundations of the first globally inclusive and

distributed AI governance architecture; proposes seven

recommendations to address existing governance gaps;

and calls on all governments and stakeholders to work

together to foster development and protect human

rights. It also proposes light institutional mechanisms

to complement existing efforts and enable global

cooperation on AI governance that is agile, adaptive,

and effective in keeping pace with the technology’s

rapid evolution.

An Independent International Scientific Panel on AI

and a Global Dialogue on AI Governance, outcomes

of the GDC

Following the adoption of the GDC, member states

agreed to continue collaborating on the development

of new mechanisms to support the governance of

AI. Two key proposals included in the GDC are the

establishment of an Independent International

Scientific Panel on Artificial Intelligence and the launch

of a Global Dialogue on AI Governance.

These mechanisms aim to address the critical gaps

identified by the Secretary-General’s High-level

Advisory Body on AI. At present, there is no single,

impartial source of authoritative scientific knowledge

on AI. As a result, policymakers face significant

information asymmetries– both among themselves

and in relation to leading AI developers. At the same

time, international AI governance remains fragmented.

Of the 193 UN member states, only seven currently

participate in the seven most prominent global AI

initiatives, leaving 118 countries, primarily in the Global

South, without a voice in shaping global AI norms.

693

The Independent International Scientific Panel on AI

and the Global Dialogue on AI Governance represent

an important step toward building a more inclusive and

coherent global governance architecture for AI, one

grounded in international law and human rights. ODET

is engaged in supporting the intergovernmental process

co-facilitated by Costa Rica and Spain, appointed by the

President of the General Assembly. An elements paper

and zero draft were released in April 2025, reflecting

inputs from consultations with member states and

stakeholders.

ODET is also preparing a report on Innovative Voluntary

Financing Options for AI capacity building, drawing

on recommendations from the High-level Advisory

Body on AI on a global fund to complement existing

UN mechanisms. The report will be submitted to the

General Assembly at its 80th session.

Understanding the implications of AI

In June 2024, a special report was developed in

partnership with the ILO on the topic of AI and the

world of work. The publication, Mind the Divide:

Shaping a Global Perspective on the Future of Work,

offers recommendations for harnessing the potential

of AI while mitigating its impacts on employment.

It emphasises the importance of workforce

empowerment, AI capacity building, and sustained

social dialogue.

Digital Public Infrastructure

In his policy brief on A Global Digital Compact – an

Open, Free and Secure Digital Future for All, the UN

Secretary-General called for the development of

common frameworks and standards for DPI. Like roads

and bridges, DPI comprises digital building blocks that

enable governments to deliver inclusive and secure

services at scale. While some countries are deploying

DPI rapidly, others are in the early stages of their

digital transformation. Regardless of the stage, robust

safeguards are essential to ensure DPI is safe, trusted,

and inclusive for all.

To advance this agenda, ODET – together with the

Government of Egypt, UNDP, ITU, the World Bank, and

Co-Develop – hosted the inaugural Global DPI Summit

in October 2024, convening participants from over

100 countries to explore the future of digital public

infrastructure and exchange knowledge, practices, and

experiences across regions.

In parallel, ODET and UNDP jointly stewarded the

development of the Universal DPI Safeguards

Framework to help unlock the full potential of DPI while

mitigating its risks. The framework was shaped through

collaborative, multistakeholder working groups

with diverse experts from government, civil society,

academia, donor institutions, and the private sector.

It was informed by consultations with 12 international

694

organisations and countries, and drew additional

input from 13 public consultations and over 100 public

contributions.

The resulting Universal Safeguards Framework includes

more than 250 recommendations addressing both

process and practice. It provides practical guidance

to help stakeholders ensure that DPI implementation

is inclusive, rights-based, and aligned with the SDGs.

In 2025, a second cohort of working group members,

along with an advisory body, is refining and advancing

the framework toward implementation.

Open Source

In his Roadmap for Digital Cooperation, the UN

Secretary-General recognised the critical role of open

source solutions in advancing the SDGs. Open source

acts as a powerful equaliser in the global digital

landscape, promoting equitable access to innovation

regardless of economic status. By reducing costs and

fostering local innovation and skill development, open

source technologies enable countries at all levels

of development to build tailored, context-specific

solutions. Given its convening power and its role

as a platform for governments, the UN is uniquely

positioned to promote the effective use of open source

across the public sector.

To support this effort, ODET has collaborated with

OICT to host the OSPOs for Good Symposium – a

global convening that brought together stakeholders

from governments, civil society, and the open source

695

community. With over 500 participants in 2024, the

conference facilitated discussions on the governance,

sustainability, and funding of open source technologies,

responding to the growing urgency to accelerate digital

cooperation in support of the SDGs. The 2024 edition

also expanded its focus to explore how open source

networks can foster international collaboration around

digital public goods and digital public infrastructure,

both within and across countries.

The 2025 edition, revamped as UN Open Source Week,

will take place from 16–20 June and feature a broader

range of programming, including the UN Tech Over

Hackathon, OSPOs for Good, a dedicated Digital Public

Infrastructure Day, and a series of partner-organised

side events.


LinkedIn United Nations Office for Digital and Emerging

Technologies

X ODET_UN

Bluesky

YouTube @UNODET

Contact odet@un.org

DiploFoundation / Geneva Internet Platform

(Diplo/GIP)

7bis Avenue de la Paix | Genève 1202 | Switzerland

www.diplomacy.edu

www.giplatform.org

About DiploFoundation and Geneva Internet Platform

DiploFoundation (Diplo) is a nonprofit organisation

established in 2002 by the governments of Malta

and Switzerland. It has offices in Malta, Switzerland,

Serbia, and the USA. With the mission to increase the

power of small and developing states to influence their

own future and development, Diplo’s main activities

are dedicated to developing capacity, organising

meetings and events, delivering courses, conducting

research, publishing analyses, and experimenting with

technological tools.

Over the years, Diplo has successfully trained over 7,800

alumni from 208 countries and territories, including

individuals working in government, the private sector,

civil society, media, and academia.

The Geneva Internet Platform (GIP) is an initiative

supported by the Swiss Federal Department of

Foreign Affairs (FDFA), the Swiss Federal Office of

Communications (OFCOM), and the Republic and

Canton of Geneva. It is operated by Diplo.

698

DIGITAL ACTIVITIES

The GIP engages actors, fosters meaningful dialogues on

digital governance, and monitors digital policy processes

in Geneva and beyond. The GIP also provides a neutral

and inclusive space for digital policy debates, recognised

as a platform where different views can be voiced and

the risks and vulnerabilities of technology addressed.

Concretely, GIP activities are centred on two pillars: 1)

the physical platform in Geneva that hosts events and

delivers training and 2) the GIP Digital Watch Observatory,

which monitors and tracks the latest updates, overviews,

instruments, resources, events, and actors across 7

baskets of over 50 internet governance and digital policy

topics, trends, and processes.

Apart from the GIP, Diplo also operates the Diplo

Academy, which delivers a wide range of courses primarily

dedicated to diplomats and government officials. Longrunning

courses cover subjects in internet governance,

AI, cybersecurity, e-diplomacy, science diplomacy, and

tech diplomacy.

Diplo hosts an AI lab that develops in-house AI solutions

that can be used in research, courses, training, and other

projects. Its notable projects include an AI reporting

system, AI assistants, and other internal tools.

Diplo is also advancing on conferencing technologies

through the ConfTech project, providing resources

guiding event planners through the how-to of hosting

hybrid meetings.

699



Diplo’s research on and analysis of AI stretches from

the most pertinent policy and governance issues to

reflections on AI development in general. For instance,

Diplo pooled together resources on national AI

strategies and international negotiation processes on

AI governance; in the Stronger Digital Voices from Africa

report, Diplo also included a specific section analysing

how African countries approach frontier technologies

like AI. Across the seven baskets of digital issues covered

by the Digital Watch Observatory, Diplo experts also

highlighted the policy implications AI brings to a given

issue, allowing domain experts from different fields to

comprehend the impact of AI technologies.

Under the banner of humAInism, Diplo experts also

offer their timely reflections on AI development in the

form of blog posts, policy briefs, and reports, exploring

the nexus of governance, diplomacy, technology,

philosophy, linguistics, and arts.

Specifically, in exploring the interplay between AI and

diplomacy, Diplo provided detailed analyses of how

AI technologies might affect the field of foreign policy

and diplomacy; commissioned by the Finnish Ministry

for Foreign Affairs, Diplo wrote a report titled Mapping

AI’s Challenges and Opportunities for the Conduct of

Diplomacy.

Dedicated to upskilling diplomats, students, and other

professionals, Diplo Academy launched the AI Campus

700

in 2024, containing a series of modules introducing the

technical foundations, applications, governance and

regulation mechanisms, and philosophical aspects of AI.

Notably, in 2024, Diplo introduced an AI Apprenticeship

course that offers a hands-on approach to learning

about generative AI, specifically designed for digital

governance, diplomacy, and international relations

professionals (see more under Capacity development).

Cybersecurity

The Geneva Dialogue on Responsible Behaviour in

Cyberspace (GD) was launched in 2018 by the FDFA in

cooperation with the GIP. It is implemented by Diplo,

with the support of other actors, and maps the roles

and responsibilities of various stakeholders in the

implementation of agreed cyber norms. Through this

work, the Geneva Dialogue contributes to a more

secure cyberspace in the context of international peace

and security. It is an ongoing process that identifies and

connects existing initiatives, highlights good practices,

addresses gaps in norms implementation, and offers

recommendations to bridge those gaps. The Dialogue

also serves as a platform, both in Geneva and globally,

for diverse stakeholders to engage in discussions on

responsible behaviour in cyberspace.

In 2023, the Geneva Dialogue announced the first

chapter of the Geneva Manual on Responsible

Behaviour in Cyberspace, a comprehensive guidance

discussing the implementation of the norms related

to supply chain security and responsible vulnerability

reporting. The Geneva Dialogue and Geneva Manual

were included in written and verbal statements to the

UN Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) on the security

of and in the use of information and communications

technologies in December 2023. Since January 2024,

the GD has been discussing existing norms and

confidence-building measures (CBMs) related to critical

infrastructure protection. In May 2025, it launched the

second chapter of the Geneva Manual.

The Geneva Dialogue also runs a series of podcast

conversations and publishes blog posts by experts in

cybersecurity and cyber diplomacy to raise awareness

of the implementation of cyber norms and to support

stakeholders in meaningfully contributing to cyber

diplomacy processes.


As per its stated mission to support small and developing

states in participating in digital policy negotiations and

discussions, Diplo develops and hosts a wide range

of training, courses, and events in both Geneva and

across the world. The Geneva office is Diplo’s main

outreach post where Diplo engages with diplomatic

communities in the International Geneva. Diplo hosts

monthly briefings for Geneva-based diplomats who

cover science, technology and innovation issues;

its in-house experts dissect the latest digital policy

negotiation processes and provide space for diplomats

701

to ask questions and form opinions. Once a year, a

high-level briefing on global digital governance and the

role of Geneva is hosted by Diplo, dedicated to heads of

permanent missions newly appointed to Geneva.

Diplo also partakes in multiple events in and around

Geneva, supporting other diplomatic or international

organisation actors with its network of experts in

the fields of cybersecurity, AI, digital infrastructure,

data governance, digital economy, etc. The team

also regularly hosts visits from various stakeholders

(government delegations, representatives of

international organisations, academic institutions, etc.),

providing insights into matters related to digital and AI

governance and diplomacy.

Below are some examples of specific programmes

delivered by Diplo, with the support of various

permanent missions, government entities, or

international organisations. These programmes blend

a capacity development focus with an emphasis on

facilitating informal dialogue.

• From 2023 to 2024, Diplo ran the Policy Meets Tech

series to help bridge the gap between technology

and policy in digital governance. Dedicated to

missions of small and developing countries, the

series included events in which experts ‘opened

the black box’ of technical subjects like the

internet, AI, quantum computing, virtual reality,

satellites, and cryptography.

DIGITAL TOOLS

• In the lead-up to the UN Summit of the Future

and the adoption of the Global Digital Compact,

Diplo delivered two rounds of training on digital

governance issues for New York-based diplomats

and hosted a two-day expert-guided diplomatic

dialogue in Geneva to facilitate honest and

transparent exchanges of information and

opinions among diplomats, providing both

background information of the GDC and clarifying

technical details.

• In 2025, Diplo started hosting a series of diplomatic

dialogues on AI, dedicated to providing a space

for Geneva-based diplomats to engage in open

and informal debates on AI governance issues.

Apart from more Geneva-based and globally

focused events, Diplo also delivers more countrytailored

training on demand. Taking requests from

governments all over the world, Diplo curates a

series of activities and lectures for diplomats or

governmental officials according to their needs. For

instance, with the support of various partners, Diplo

has long been building digital governance capacities in

the Caribbean and African regions.

Lastly, Diplo Academy is Diplo’s online learning

platform, offering a wide range of courses covering

different facets of diplomacy and the most topical

digital policy domains. The faculty consists of highranking

practising and retired diplomats, as well as

renowned academics in the fields of digital policy,

diplomacy, and international relations. Since 1994,

Diplo Academy has run more than 500 courses and

trained more than 7,800 alumni from 208 countries

working in governments, civil society, the private

sector, media, and academia.

The most recent course in Diplo Academy includes

Diplo’s flagship AI Apprenticeship course, launched in

Autumn 2024. The course integrates both theoretical

and practical components. In the theoretical section,

participants gain a thorough understanding of key AI

concepts, while the practical segment allows them

to apply this knowledge by creating their own AI

assistant using generative AI tools. Throughout their

course projects, participants leverage their expertise

in areas such as diplomacy, international relations,

and digital governance to create AI tools that will help

optimise their daily jobs and develop skills essential

for leadership in AI governance and diplomacy.

AI assistants

For 30 years, we have been at the forefront of

finding solutions at the intersection of diplomacy

and technology. Diplo has actively experimented

with digital technologies and developed the DiploAI

Ecosystem. This comprehensive suite includes AIdriven

tools, services, research, and training, all

designed to bridge ancient wisdom with contemporary

approaches to support diplomacy, governance, and

policy processes in the age of AI.

702

Our offerings include AI chatbots, reporting tools,

and policy process agents that enhance transparency,

streamline decision-making, and provide context-rich

insights rooted in decades of diplomatic expertise.

Unlike conventional chatbots, DiploAI Agents act

as expert personal advisors, offering specialised

support in diplomacy, governance, and international

relations. Using retrieval-augmented generation (RAG),

researchers can customise these assistants using thirdparty

large language models (LLM) and curated datasets

of governance documents and official statements. This

allows the assistants to combine insights from ancient

thinkers with contemporary expertise, providing

relevant and tailored advice.

Our guiding principles focus on creating open source,

bottom-up, and traceable AI solutions. We apply these

principles to our website (diplomacy.edu), where an

AI assistant helps users find the appropriate Diplo

resources.


In experimenting with AI tools to meet the diplomatic

needs of reporting from events and meetings, Diplo

takes conferencing technologies to another level.

During a UN Security Council special session, Diplo

deployed its human-AI hybrid system, generating

just-in-time reports on country statements and key

questions. The hybrid system leverages AI’s real-time

transcription and summarisation capability along with

human quality control. The system has been used

during larger international conferences and events,

such as the 79th UN General Assembly, IGF 2024, the

Summit of the Future, and the World Economic Forum

2025.

Digital footprint

Started as a mapping exercise to understand the

significance of major Geneva actors’ digital presence

in the world, the Geneva Digital Footprint application

shows the visibility of more than 200 Geneva-based

actors on Google’s search engine. The application

evaluates how visible Geneva-based actors’ website

domains are in 50 cities worldwide as users enter 500-

plus keywords pertinent to digital policy discussions,

such as trade, healthcare, emerging technologies,

humanitarian aid, etc. The application is updated

frequently, its rich repertoire of data serving as a basis

for the 10th Geneva Engage Awards and other analyses

on Geneva’s overall importance in the field of digital.

Data Browser

Data Browser is a powerful tool within DiploAI designed

to simplify interaction with complex data. It serves

as a central hub for exploring thousands of curated

datasets, organised across key thematic areas such as

703

economics, health, and the environment. With intuitive

navigation and built-in comparison features, the Data

Browser helps researchers quickly identify relevant

data, understand patterns across countries or regions,

and prepare information for deeper analysis.

Colour of flags

Diplo’s AI lab developed a simple game of guessing

the pattern of the country flag colour compositions

and generating new flags for countries based on such

patterns. The game was developed to show in the

simplest possible way the logic behind AI algorithms,

which are broadly based on ‘probabilistic calculations’

and ‘pattern recognition’, in order to reduce barriers for

non-technical background diplomats and policymakers

who must negotiate the governance of AI technologies.

The Colour of Flags is physically playable as a cardbased

board game and is also available digitally.


Facebook @DiploFoundation

Instagram @diplofoundation

LinkedIn @diplofoundation

X @DiplomacyEdu

YouTube @DiploFoundation

Monthly newsletter @ www.diplomacy.edu/subscribe/

Contact @ geneva@diplomacy.edu

Other tools

For more of Diplo’s publicly available tools, please check

the DiploAI Ecosystem page.

704

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

3GPP

5Ps

A

ADR

ADS

AEC

AES

AfCFTA

AGAT

AGCCI

AI

AIDA

ALKS

ALT

AMWA

AOGEO

API

AR

ASEAN

ASP

AU

AUC

AWS

B

B2C

3rd Generation Partnership Project

people, policy, products, provision, and

personnel

alternative dispute resolution

Automated Driving System

Austrian Economic Centre

Advanced Encryption Standard

African Continental Free Trade Area

Advisory Group on Advanced Technology

in Trade and Logistics

African Girls Can Code Initiative

artificial intelligence

Artificial Intelligence for Development

Analytics

Automated Lane Keeping Systems

Adult Language Training

Advanced Media Workflow Association

Asia-Oceania Group on Earth Observations

application programming interface

augmented reality

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Asia-Pacific region

African Union

African Union Commission

autonomous weapon systems

business-to-consumer

BDT

BEPS

BHBM

BHR

BIG-E

BitSight

BOCA

BPFs

BPI

BSG

BSO

BSP-RDM

C

C4DT

CAP

CARE

CBDC

CBF

CCC

CCIG

CCSD

ccTLDs

CD

CDN

CDR

Bureau de développement des

télécommunications [Telecommunication

Development Bureau]

Base Erosion and Profit Shifting

Be He@lthy, Be Mobile

business and human rights

Batumi Initiative on Green Economy

Branch Organizational Capacity

Assessment

Best Practice Forums

Business Preparedness Initiative

Bridging the Standardization Gap

business service organisation

Buy-Ship-Pay Reference Data Model

Center for Digital Trust

common alerting protocol

Collective benefit, Authority to control,

Responsibility, Ethics

Central Bank Digital Currency

Capacity Building Fund

Crisis Connectivity Charter

Geneva Chamber of Commerce, Industry

and Services

Data Science Competence Center

country code top-level domains

compact disc

capacity development network

corporate digital responsibility

707

CEA Community Engagement and

Accountability

CEB Chief Executives Board

CERN Organisation européenne pour

la recherche nucléaire [European

Organization for Nuclear Research]

CERT computer emergency response team

Childhood USA World Childhood Foundation USA

CIRT computer incident response team

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States

CIT Cyber Incident Tracer

CITS Collaboration on Intelligent Transport

Systems Communication Standards

CIXP CERN Internet eXchange Point

CJEU Court of Justice of the EU

COP Child Online Protection

COP Conference of the Parties

CPD Carnet de Passages en Douane [Customs

Passage Book]

CRASA Communications Regulators’ Association

of Southern Africa

CRC Committee on the Rights of the Child

CRVS civil registration and vital statistics

CSIS Cyber Security in the context of

International Security

CSO civil society organisation

CSIRT computer security incident response team

CSMS cyber security management system

CSTD Commission on Science and Technology

for Development

CTA CERN Tape Archive

CUE Collaborative UN/CEFACT Environment

CUSO Conférence Universitaire de Suisse

Occidentale [University Conference of

Western Switzerland]

CUTS Consumer Unity & Trust Society

CWG-Internet Council Working Group on International

Internet-related Public Policy Is-sues

D

DAC

DAKs

Development Assistance Committee

digital adaptation kits

DASH-IF

DCs

DCAF

DCGI

DCM

DESA

DFFT

DFQF

DFS

DHIS

DHS

DIHS

DiSTIC

DLC

DLT

DNS

DPA

DPHEP

DPM

DTC

DTT

DVB

DVD

DW

DW4SD

E

EAC

EACO

EBU

ebXLM

ECA

ECASIS

ECDE

ECE

ECHO

DASH Industry Forum

Dynamic Coalitions

Geneva Centre for Security Sector

Governance [originally Geneva Centre for

the Democratic Control of Armed Forces]

Digital Currency Global Initiative

Division of Conference Management

Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Data Free Flow with Trust

Duty-free, Quota-free

Digital Financial Services

District Health Information Software

Demographic and Health Surveys

Digital Innovations in Health Systems

Division of Information and

Communication Systems and Technologies

Digital Law Center

distributed ledger technologies

Domain Name System

Data Protection Authority

Data Preservation in High Energy Physics

data processing and management

Digital Transformation Centre

Digital Terrestrial Television

digital video broadcasting

digital versatile disks

Digital Watch observatory

Decent work for sustainable development

East African Community

East African Communications Organization

European Broadcasting Union

Electronic business using eXtensible

Markup Language

Economic Commission for Africa

Electronic Communication, Audiovisual

Services and Information Society

e-commerce and the digital economy

Economic Commission for Europe

European Union Civil Protection and

Humanitarian Aid

708

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range

Weather Forecasts

ECOSOC Economic and Social Council

ECU electronic control unit

EE Executive Education

EEA European Economic Area

EEC European Economic Community

eFBL Electronic International Federation of

Freight-Forwarders Associations (FIATA)

Multimodal Bill of Lading

EFTA European Free Trade Association

EIOS Epidemic Intelligence from Open Sources

EMF electromagnetic field

ENVR L’École nationale en Cybersécurité à

vocation régionale [National school of

cybersecurity with a regional vocation]

EO Earth observation

EOSC European Open Science Cloud

EPFL L’École Polytechnique Fédérale de

Lausanne [Federal Polytechnic School of

Lausanne]

ERP enterprise resource planning

ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for West

Asia

ESG environmental, social, and governance

ESSN Emergency Social Safety Net

ETH Zurich Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule

Zürich [Swiss Federal Institute of

Technology Zurich]

ETC Emergency Telecommunications Cluster

ETSI European Telecommunications Standards

Institute

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation

of Meteorological Satellites

F

FDI

FDFA

FDRS

FG-AI4H

FG-AN

FG DFC

FG DLT

FG-QIT4N

FIATA

FIGI

FLUX

Fongit

FRT

FTA

FTC

foreign direct investment

Federal Department of Foreign Affairs

Federation-wide databank and reporting

system

Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for

Health

Focus Group on Autonomous Networks

Focus Group on Digital Currency including

Digital Fiat Currency

Focus Group on Application of Distributed

Ledger Technology

Focus Group on Quantum Information

Technology for Networks

International Federation of Freight-

Forwarders Associations

Financial Inclusion Global Initiative

Symposium

Fisheries Language for Universal Exchange

Geneva Foundation for Technology

Innovation [Fondation Genevoise pour

l’Innovation Technologique]

facial recognition technology

free trade agreement

File Transfer Service

FAIR

FAO

FbF

FDA

findable, accessible, interoperable,

reusable

Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations

forecast-based financing

Food and Drug Administration

709

G

GA

GATE

GATHER

GATJ

GATS

GATT

GBON

GCA

GCI

GCSP

GCTF

GDPC

GDPR

GEO

GEO-BON

GEOSS

GESDA

GESP

GFOI

GGE

GHC

GHF

GHRP

GIP

GIS

GIZ

GOs

GPEVAC

GRM

GRRC

GRVA

GSC

General Assembly

Global Cooperation on Assistive

Technology

Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent

Health Estimates Reporting

Global Alliance for Tax Justice

General Agreement on Trade in Services

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

Global Basic Observing Network

Global Cybersecurity Agenda

Global Cybersecurity Index

Geneva Centre for Security Policy

Global Counterterrorism Forums

Global Disaster Preparedness Center

General Data Protection Regulation

Group on Earth Observations

Biodiversity Observation Network

Global Earth Observation System of

Systems

Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator

Global E-waste Statistics Partnership

Global Forest Observation Initiative

Group of Governmental Experts

Global Health Centre

Geneva Health Forum

Geneva Human Rights Platform

Geneva Internet Platform

geographic information systems

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale

Zusammenarbeit [German Agency for

International Cooperation]

Global Observatory for e-Health

Global Partnership to End Violence Against

Children

Global Research Map

Global Risk and Resilience cluster

Groupe de travail des véhicules

automatisés/autonomes et connectés

[Working Party on Automated/

Autonomous and Connected Vehicles]

Global Standards Collaboration

GSI

GSMA

GSP

GSPI

GSR

gTLDs

GTS

H

HbbTV

HCSS

HEAD

HEAT

HEMP

HIE

HIP

HIS

HLCP

HLG-MOS

HMIS

HLPF

HPEM

HQ

HRDD

HRW

HS

HTML

I

IaaS

iAHO

IANYD

IAWG-AI

IBF

Global Studies Institute

Groupe Spécial Mobile Association [Global

System for Mobile Communi-cations

Association]

Generalized System of Preferences

Geneva Science-Policy Interface

Global Symposium for Regulators

generic top-lLevel domains

Global Telecommunication System

Hybrid broadcast broadband TV

The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies

Haute école d’art et de design [Geneva

School of Art and Design]

Health Equity Assessment Toolkit

High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse

health information exchange

Health Information Platform

health information systems

High-Level Committee on Programmes

High-Level Group for the Modernisation of

Official Statistics

health management information system

UN High-level Political Forum on

Sustainable Development

High Power Electromagnetic

headquarters

human rights due diligence guidance

Human Rights Watch

Harmonized Commodity Description and

Coding System (Harmonized System)

HyperText Markup Language

Infrastructure as a Service

Integrated African Health Observatory

Inter-Agency Network on Youth

Development

Interagency Working Group on AI

impact-based forecasting

710

ICAS

ICANN

ICCPR

ICD

ICP

ICRC

I-CoDI

ICT

ICT4D

I-DAIR

IDRC

IEC

IECEE

IECQ

IEEE

IETF

IFRC

IGF

IHEID

IHL

IHR

IHRL

IISD

ILO

ILOSTAT

ILP

IMT

IOC

IOM

IoT

Industrial control and automation systems

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names

and Numbers

International Covenant on Civil and

Political Rights

International Classification of Diseases

Impact Collaboration Programme

International Committee of the Red Cross

International Centre of Digital Innovation


technology


technologies for development

Digital Health and AI Research

Collaborative

Canadian International Development

Research Centre

International Electrotechnical Commission

IEC System of Conformity Assessment

Schemes for Electrotechnical Equipment

and Components

IEC Quality Assessment System for

Electronic Components

Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers

Internet Engineering Task Force

International Federation of Red Cross and

Red Crescent Societies

Internet Governance Forum

Institut De Hautes Etudes Internationales

Et Du Développement [Gradu-ate Institute

of International and Development Studies]

international humanitarian law

International Health Regulations

international human rights law

International Institute for Sustainable

Development

International Labour Organization

ILO portal to labour statistics

Immigration Policy Lab

international mobile telecommunications

International Oceanographic Commission

International Organization for Migration

internet of things

IP

IP

IPCC

IPL

IPU

ISC

ISMS

ISO

ISP

IT

ITA

ITDB

ITIO

ITRs

ITS

ITU

ITUC

ITU-D

ITU-R

ITU-T

ITU-T SSG

IUCN

IWG

IXP

711

intellectual property

internet protocol

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change

Immigration Policy Lab Integration Index

Inter-Parliamentary Union

International Science Council

information security management system

International Organization for

Standardization

internet service provider

information technology

Information Technology Agreement

International TIR Data Bank

International Transport Infrastructure

Observatory

International Telecommunication

Regulations

Intelligent Transportation Systems

International Telecommunication Union

International Trade Union Confederation

ITU Telecommunication Development

Sector

ITU Radiocommunication Sector

ITU Telecommunication Standardization

Sector

Telecommunication Standardization Sector

study group

International Union for Conservation of

Nature

informal working group

internet exchange point

J

JIU

JSI

JST

K

KACEDDA

L

LAWS

LDC

LHC

LLDC

LMIC

M

MaaS

MAG

MCH

MDG

MERIAM

MHEWS

MICS

MIT

ML

MMT-RDM

MOOCs

MoU

MP

MSME

MWC

Joint Inspection Unit

Joint Statement Initiative

Joint Task Force

Kofi Annan Commission on Elections and

Democracy in the Digital Age

lethal autonomous weapons systems

least developed country

Large Hadron Collider

landlocked developing country

low and middle-income country

Mobility as a Service

Multistakeholder Advisory Group

Maternal and Child Health

millennium development goal

modelling early risk indicators to anticipate

malnutrition

multi-hazard early warning system

Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

machine learning

Multi-Modal Transport Reference Data

Mode

massive online open courses

memorandum of understanding

member of parliament

micro, small, and medium-sized enterprise

Mobile World Congress

NFT

NGO

NGSO

NIS

NMHSs

NoW

NRC

NRIs

NSD

NSS

NTB

NTM

NWP

O

OAS

OASIS

OCAC

OCEANIS

ODA

ODR

OEWG

OH

OHCHR

OSCE

OSI

OT

OTN

OTT

P

non-fungible token

non-governmental organisation

non-geostationary satellite systems

nutrition information systems

National Meteorological and Hydrological

Services

Network of Women

Norwegian Refugee Council

National, regional and youth IGF initiatives

National Society Development

National Standardization Secretariats

non-tariff barrier

non-tariff measure

Numerical Weather Prediction

Organization of American States

Organization for the Advancement of

Structured Information Standards

Organisation Capacity Assessment and

certification

Open Community for Ethics in

Autonomous and Intelligent Systems

official development assistance

online dispute resolution

Open-Ended Working Group

Open Health

Office of the High Commissioner for

Human Rights

Organization for Security and Co-operation

in Europe

open systems interconnection

operational technology

optical transport network

over-the-top

N

NETPs

national emergency telecommunications

plans

P3

PCI

PER

PHM

Partnership Projects Program

Productive Capacities Index

Preparedness for Effective Response

Health and Migration Programme

712

PII

PNs

PON

PSM

Q

QoE

QoS

QIT

QTI

R

R&D

R2R

RadioDNS

RCC

RCRC

RHIS

RHO

RoO

RPA

RRR

RTED

RULAC

S

SC&C

SCOAP3

SCORE

SCRDM

SCTI

SDG

SDO

SDT

SecTec

SG

SG

personally identifiable information

Policy Networks

passive optical network

public service media

quality of experience

quality of service

quantum information technology

Quantum Technology Initiative

research and development

Road Map to Community Resilience

Radio Domain Name System

Regional Cooperation Council

Red Cross and Red Crescent

Routine Health Information Surveys

Regional Health Observatory

developing preferential rules of origin

robotic process automation

Rolling Review of Requirements

Real-Time Epidemiology & Dashboard

Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts

smart cities and communities

Sponsoring Consortium for Open Access

Publishing in Particle Physics

Survey, Count, Optimize, Review, and

Enable

Supply Chain Reference Data Model

South Centre Tax Initiative

sustainable development goal

standards developing organisation

special and differential treatment

Security and Technology Programme

Secretary-General

study group

SIAC safety, integrity, availability, and

confidentiality

SIEM security information and event

management

SIDS small island developing states

SiDLab Science in Diplomacy Lab

SIMS Surge Information Management Support

SITCIN Sustainable Inland Transport Connectivity

Indicators

SCT South Centre Tax

SMART Science Monitoring and Reliable

Telecommunications

SMPTE Society of Motion Picture and Television

Engineers

SO strategic objective

SQ study question

SSC South-South cooperation

SSC smart sustainable city

SSR security sector reform

SS7 Signalling System No. 7

STEM science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics

STI science, technology, and innovation

SWAN service for web-based analysis

713

PII

PNs

PON

PSM

Q

QoE

QoS

QIT

QTI

R

R&D

R2R

RadioDNS

RCC

RCRC

RHIS

RHO

RoO

RPA

RRR

RTED

RULAC

S

SC&C

SCOAP3

SCORE

SCRDM

SCTI

SDG

SDO

SDT

SecTec

SG

SG

personally identifiable information

Policy Networks

passive optical network

public service media

quality of experience

quality of service

quantum information technology

Quantum Technology Initiative

research and development

Road Map to Community Resilience

Radio Domain Name System

Regional Cooperation Council

Red Cross and Red Crescent

Routine Health Information Surveys

Regional Health Observatory

developing preferential rules of origin

robotic process automation

Rolling Review of Requirements

Real-Time Epidemiology & Dashboard

Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts

smart cities and communities

Sponsoring Consortium for Open Access

Publishing in Particle Physics

Survey, Count, Optimize, Review, and

Enable

Supply Chain Reference Data Model

South Centre Tax Initiative

sustainable development goal

standards developing organisation

special and differential treatment

Security and Technology Programme

Secretary-General

study group

SIAC safety, integrity, availability, and

confidentiality

SIEM security information and event

management

SIDS small island developing states

SiDLab Science in Diplomacy Lab

SIMS Surge Information Management Support

SITCIN Sustainable Inland Transport Connectivity

Indicators

SCT South Centre Tax

SMART Science Monitoring and Reliable

Telecommunications

SMPTE Society of Motion Picture and Television

Engineers

SO strategic objective

SQ study question

SSC South-South cooperation

SSC smart sustainable city

SSR security sector reform

SS7 Signalling System No. 7

STEM science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics

STI science, technology, and innovation

SWAN service for web-based analysis

714

7bis Avenue de la Paix

Genève 1202

Switzerland

Digital Geneva Atlas

Transform your PDFs into Flipbooks and boost your revenue!

Delete template?

Save as template ?