The Fixture Stool

BY SABRINA BAILLIE
THE
Fixture Stool
1

Contents
2
4
6
36
42
44
Bio
Research Paper
7
8
10
16
18
19
20
30
31
34
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Opportunity
Significance
Ethics
Methodology
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Market Research
Design Brief
Concept Development
46
49
50
52
54
56
Ideation
Inspiration
Concept 14
Design Objectives
Concept 17 Version D
CAD Milestones
58
68
78
82
84
Prototype Testing
60
64
66
Making Process
70
72
73
74
Wet Moulding
Material connection
Concept 17 Version I
Scaffolds
Leather
Preperation
Moulding
Final Prototype
Evaluations
Bibliography
3

Bio
Sabrina Baillie is a product
designer trained at the University
of Technology Sydney. She
enjoys exploring her creativity in
developing products both by hand
and digitally, finding joy in following
the design journey of taking initial
concepts from prototyping &
testing to seeing the final, refined
products in use. She is often heavily
inspired by nature and its beauty,
her designs take influence from the
motiffs found in the environments
surrounding her, often shown
through their organic shapes and
forms.
4
5

Abstract
6
Research Paper
The focus of this research is
towards the negative impacts
that exist in the current furniture
design industry and how additive
manufacturing (AM) as a relatively
new technology can act as an
intermediary in solving these
issues. The AM process has been
theorised to be the next production
technology to be integrated into
the furniture discipline and design
industry (Murmura, 2017). Additive
technology process when examined
under the scope of furniture design,
are shown to have extensive positive
impact within rapid prototyping,
however, there are only limited
viable artifacts when investigating
the manufacturing stage of the
technology (Mellor et al., 2014).
While designs that incorporate AM
technology have been developed,
they have not yet breached widely
into user markets and spaces. This
can be attributed to a combination
of lack of access to the technology
required, limited material range,
cost restraints (Mellor et al., 2014)
and design preferences of users
(Shi et al., 2021; Bawa 2013). Hence,
the aim of this design research it
to develop a reasoning as to how
to form a bridge in the gap of the
current furniture space, inviting
users into the conversation.
7

8
Introduction
When defining the current space
surrounding the furniture industry,
various issues emerge from the
investigation. A combination of
smaller living spaces (Thøgersen,
2017), environmental impacts
(Chobanova, 2015; Maric et al., 2016),
and fluctuating customer demand
(Nirmal et al., 2018) all lead to an
increase in overall costs in furniture
manufacturing. While there are
many examples of furniture being
advertised and crafted for luxury,
users primarily interact with
furniture as a necessity (Thøgersen,
2017). Hence, the need for affordable
furniture that negates these issues
becomes apparent. To design
around these issues, new strategies
often founded on technological
advancements require that the
furniture industry be innovative and
welcoming of new developments
(Nirmal et al., 2018). These
requirements are evident within
the historical timeline of furniture,
new technology and materials often
leading to shifts in design trends,
styles and significantly impacting
the understanding of furniture
(Máčel et al., 2008; F. K. Baker, 2011).
Throughout the furniture timeline,
this sector has traditionally been
a resource and labour-intensive
industry (Chobanova, 2015). Many
factors contribute to this, such as
the over-use of raw materials and
the ability and energy required
of skilled workers (specialising
in timber craftsmanship)
(Grzegorzewska, 2021). Timber is
currently the most easily obtainable
biodegradable material. The
material’s inherent properties also
make it a staple in the furniture
industry; however, this material
is only sustainable over long
periods (Verkaik & Nabuurs, 2000).
Therefore, limiting its potential in
the expanding global market.
Consequently, a competitive
advantage is gained by searching
for differing, effective production
resources (Grzegorzewska, 2021).
These material-related challenges
translate directly into the current
skilled labour shortage (specific
to traditional craftsmanship)
(Mordor Intelligence, 2021). This
shortage is arising due to the
increasing amount of these skilled
labourers reaching retirement
age and fewer labourers trained in
traditional timber craftsmanship.
To compensate, development has
been focused on automation of the
production line (Dalheim, 2022).
A benefit of the trend towards
automation is the requirement for
workers with computer-technology
skills, hence creating an attraction
to the industry for younger
generations (Dalheim, 2022).
Unlike traditional furniture
construction, AM technology
relies on the workers adoption of
computer-aided design (CAD).
Within the current market, AM
primarily exists in aerospace,
automobile, and medicinal
disciplines (Grand View Research,
2022). These industries have thrived
with the incorporation of AM
technology due to the requirement
for complex, customisable parts and
the high funding levels available
to these industries. Over time 3D
printing technology has become
much cheaper and widely available
across multiple disciplines that do
not have the resources available
to the previously stated industries.
The global market share of AM is
expected to expand at a compound
annual growth rate (CAPR) of
20.8% from 2022-2030 (Grand
View Research, 2022). 3D printing
technology has cemented itself
within the furniture discipline;
however, this is only through
rapid prototyping (Mellor et al.,
2014). This is due to the benefits
this automation has given the
furniture production process, such
as bettering communication &
inspection methods and shortening
the time & energy it takes to
create multiple prototypes (Santos
et al., 2006). These benefits can
further expand the growth of the
furniture industry in moving into
the manufacturing process through
AM.
Rapid manufacturing, while
shortening the time taken on
sections of the production process,
can also address the resource
wastage prevalent within the
furniture industry. AM is a process
centred around the least wastage
of material possible, as all that is
used is necessary for the product
to be created (Jandyal et al., 2022),
allowing an opportunity for a
break away from the over-use of
timber-related products (Saad,
2016). Similarly, the constraints in
making AM-designed products
– especially large products – are
generated on an ‘on-demand’ basis,
further lessening overproduction of
material and products.
9

Literature
Review
Fig. 1: Sofa so good [Photoreactive resin with copper and chrome plating]
by Janne Kyttanen.
10
The latest technological
advancement evident in the
furniture space is AM. Research
into this manufacturing method
boasts the ability to develop
strong lightweight parts, minimise
material waste (Saad, 2016),
develop advanced geometries,
and are easily customisable (Aydin,
2015). Sofa So Good (2014) (Fig.
1), designed by Janne Kyttanen,
presents itself as an example of
AM used in the industrial furniture
space, manufactured on the 3D
Systems’ ProX 950 SLA device. This
stereolithography machine uses
photo-reactive resin and cures it
with a UV laser (Howarth, 2015). This
lattice structure, single print sofa is
impressive due to its outstanding
properties, reported by Kyttanen as
being able to withstand up to 100kg
of pressure while being constructed
of only 2.5kg of resin. Through
this prototype sofa, Kyttanen
hoped to express a method of
manufacture that by using less
material, energy consumption
and transportation costs could be
minimised. The impact of weight
on furniture pieces has always
been an extensively analysed factor
upon furniture production due to
both the size and volume of the
products (Güray et al., 2015). Hence,
this sofa piece demonstrates 3 of
the positive effects when using 3D
printing technology, however, it
also presents issues prevalent in the
technology. These issues relating to
the continuous 5 weeks of printing
taken to make it and the overall
costs reported in making a single
item (Kyttanen, 2014).
Another benefit of AM is its ability
to have easily made and replaceable
parts for assembly (Saad, 2016).
This is evident within the Hybrid
Chairs by Jon Christie (Fig. 2), the
draw of this design is in its ability
to enhance the ways of making
11

Fig. 3: Bench, “Rustic” Pattern [Cast iron, paint], Janes,
Beebe & Company (1837).
Fig. 2: Hybrid Chair [Timber and polyamide] by Jon Christie
traditional timber furniture, the 3D
printed joints act as a substitution
for the need of advanced joinery
that is often required of timber
products (Watkin, 2016).
This substitution increases user
accessibility due to a price reduction
within manufacturing due to the
lowering of difficulty in making and
assembly. It also becomes easier for
users to construct the disassembled
chair independently. Current trends
boast this benefit in design making,
as there is a growing demand
from users for do-it-yourself (DIY) &
ready-to-assemble (RTA) furniture
products, especially in the home
and office furniture segments
(Mordor Intelligence, 2021). This
design differs widely from other 3D
printed furniture pieces due to the
incorporation of multiple materials,
in this case, the 3D printed joints are
the secondary material acting as a
subsidiary of the primary material
(Fabian, 2016). Whilst the Hybrid
12
Chairs are successful from an
objective viewpoint, as they address
the issues Christie outlined when
they were first developed; the issue
of a timber craftsmanship deficit,
easy assembly/disassembly, and
ease of customer customization
(Three questions to designer Jon
Christie, 2018). The chairs, however,
are not held to the same standard
as traditional timber furniture
products (Mellor et al., 2014), this can
be seen in the lack of advertisement
for the Hybrid Chairs on the official
Jon Christie Design Studio site
(Studio Jon Christie, 2022).
Through the analysis of a broader
market review, the largest impacts
currently affecting the furniture
market’s growth are stated.
“Regular introduction of
luxurious and innovative
items by the associated
companies is crucial for the
market’s growth”
Fortune Business Insights, 2022.
Historically it can be seen that as
new technology or material is first
introduced into the furniture space,
initial designs often only use that
one single material or technology
(Mellor et al., 2014; Orrom, 2018), this
can be attributed to a designer’s
attempt to communicate the
possibilities found in a new
method of making. These single
material designs, however, often
face resistance when entering
the space (Davey, 2014). As such,
it is only when multiple forms of
making interact and heighten
each other that new technology
can be embraced. Metal as a new
technology and material had once
been considered in the same light
as AM is today, exiled to only select
applications and contexts (Máčel
et al., 2008). The first recorded
example of cast iron furniture was
the Bench, “Rustic” Pattern (Janes,
Beebe & Company, 1837) (Fig. 3), a
piece of cast iron garden furniture
exemplifying the rustic style of
the Victorian era. This product
was popular during this period,
although its aesthetic mirrored
pre-existing timber-constructed
garden furniture. The material
factors of weather resistance,
mass production benefits made
the product readily available
and affordable making it highly
fashionable. However, the design
style utilised in cast iron furniture
forwent comfort over aesthetic
(Janes, Beebe & Company, 1837).
As design style preferences shifted
from the overly ornamental rustic
style, cast iron garden furniture
slowly became unfashionable
and metal furniture production
grounded to a halt (Máčel et al.,
2008).
The reintroduction of metal
furniture into the living-room
space was conducted by the
designer Marcel Breuer. The Easy
13

Chair (1929) (Fig. 4) differed from
previous designs through its (at
the time) unseen composition,
consisting of lines and surfaces
and the incorporation of secondary
material, canvas seating; hence,
heightening the plated form of the
tubular steel. This revolutionary
success in developing an aesthetic
style key to metal was impacted by
two features, the link to avant-garde
architecture and the incorporation
of tubular steel (Máčel et al., 2008).
The trends of interiors at the time
were dedicated to transparency,
only furniture that did not form
spatial obstacles could be accepted
into this type of space (Máčel et al.,
2008). The key success of Breuer’s
design incited designer interest in
experimenting with the material
technology of tubular steel, leading
to the concept that metal is as
essential in furniture as cement is in
architecture (Perriand, 1929).
A later design that incorporates the
notion of structure plus interface
is present within the Cab chair
by Mario Bellini (1977) (Fig. 5),
this design displays the positive
significance that arises from a
transfer of knowledge between
multiple disciplines, fashion and
furniture. The underlying structure
of the chair appears almost crude
in design, being made of basic
welded steel tubing, however,
it is the care and quality of the
crafted, saddle-leather casing that
demonstrates the beauty of the
design (Orrom, 2018). While the Easy
Chair communicates a rich design
language that accentuates the steel
framing and minimises the impact
of the canvas seating, Bellini takes
his design in the opposite direction
and places the seating material at
the forefront of the design (Orrom,
2018). This direction of the design
language allows users to connect
with this highly luxurious design,
which continues its production
14
today (Design Italy, 2022). The key
factor determining this prolonged
connection lies in the long-term
use of the Cab Chair, as the leather
ages and develops a rich patina (the
weathered look of aged leather) and
softness. Representing the physical
interaction, the user holds with the
design.
Fig. 4: Easy chair [Chrome-plated tubular steel;
black canvas] by Marcel Breuer.
Fig. 5: Cab Chair [Tubular steel; saddle leather] by
Mario Bellini.
Thøgersen, K. (2017). Designing
furniture for small spaces,
in connection with human
wellbeing. Department of
Design. Norwegian University of
Science and Technology.
PROBLEM SPACE
Mordor Intelligence. (2021).
Furniture Market – Growth,
trends, covid-19 impact, and
forecasts (2022 – 2027). https://
www.mordorintelligence.com/
industry-reports/furnituremarket.
Chobanova, R. & Popova, R.
(2015 October). Furniture
Manufacturing Challenges
on the World Market: The
Bulgaria’s Case [Paper
presentation]. International
Scientific Conference Wood
Processing and Furniture
Manufacturing Challenges on
the World Market. Dubrovnik.
Croatia.
EXISTING
RESEARCH
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR NEW
PERSPECTIVES ON
THE NATURE OF THE
PROBLEM
1
Research Question
How might the combination of traditional and
emerging material technologies lead to greater
acceptance of additive manufacturing within a
furniture context?
GAP
NEW
RESEARCH
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR NEW
KNOWLEDGE
CONTRIBUTIONS
1b
EXISTING
RESEARCH
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR NEW
PERSPECTIVES ON
HOW TO ADDRESS
THE PROBLEM
Saad, R. (2016). The
revolution of materials
used in 3D Printing
applications in Furniture
& Interior Design.
International Design
Journal, 6(3), 143-163.
SOLUTION
SPACE
Mellor, S., Hao,
L. and Zhang, D.
(2014). Additive
manufacturing:
a framework for
implementation.
International Journal
of Production
Economics. 149,
194-201, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijpe.2013.07.008
Fig. 6: Concept Framework
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© Copyright UTS
15

Opportunity
HOW might the combination
of traditional and emerging
material technologies lead to
greater acceptance of additive
manufacturing within a furniture
context?
AM can reroute the current
labour intensity as the process is
predominantly computer-aided,
allowing less energy to be spent
on construction and assembly. The
furniture industry has growing
complications with the number of
workers skilled in traditional timber
craftsmanship due to them rapidly
reaching retirement age and fewer
new workers are trained in these
required skills (Grzegorzewska,
2021). Hence, a gap is opening for a
new type of skilled worker to enter
the furniture industry. Additive
manufacturing would allow for new
workers skilled in computer-aideddesign
(CAD) to enter the space.
However, as seen through the
case studies explored within
the Literature Review, additive
manufacturing has not yet
breached into user-centred
spaces. The prototypes previously
developed only exist as exploratory
examinations of the possibilities
of AM as new technology. Hence,
it becomes important to examine
how the benefits of AM can be
incorporated and appreciated
within the furniture industry and
users alike.
To establish a well-regarded
uniformed language between two
varying materials and technologies,
the method of connection
becomes increasingly important
to the process. Most furniture that
incorporates multiple materials
utilise a third-party bonding agent,
such as glue, screws, stitching
and many others (Orrom, 2018). As
illustrated in the Hybrid Chairs,
Christie comments.
“The biggest problem often
is finding suitable bonding
agents when working with
multiple materials.”
While these methods of assembly
are designed to support the
materials and minimise the
breakage of furniture products
when in use. These third-party
combination methods often
mean that the product is unable
to be dissembled, or at least with
any level of ease. Difficulty in
disassembly leads to an increase
in wasted furniture, especially
seen in the trends of fast furniture
(DEMİRARSLAN, 2021).
16
Current trends within the traditional furniture industry are impacted by
smaller living spaces, labour intensity, skill deficit, resource consumption,
and a growing number of costs (Chobanova, 2015; Thøgersen, 2017; Nirmal
et al., 2018; Grzegorzewska, 2021; Mordor Intelligence, 2021). Additive
manufacturing has benefits that can directly improve a number of these
current issues. This manufacturing method can be used to address the
over-use of raw materials, as it can present an alternative and allow our
natural resources the time to regenerate by placing user focus upon new
methods of making. Whilst also directly combating the wastage that
is prevalent from the use of raw materials (Daian & Ozarska, 2009), as
additive manufacturing is designed to only utilise the necessary material to
construct the product.
Both the Easy Chair and the
Cab Chair display the approach
of ‘structure + interface’ in their
methods of material connection.
This approach differs, however,
through the chosen factor of
emphasis on the design, the
new material, or the traditional
material. By utilising this method
of approach, a design language
can be developed for the material
process of additive manufacturing
by incorporating a highly valued
traditional supplementary material.
Hence, this design language can
act as an intermediary in the
contemporary view of AM as a viable
furniture manufacturing method.
17

Significance
Ethics
18
Not only has it been seen that there
is a growth in wasted furniture,
as these products predominantly
end up in landfill fully or primarily
assembled, they take up large
amounts of space leading to further
displacement of our growing waste
environments (Calabrese, 2012).
As such, it becomes significant
to create a design that promotes
disassembly, while still retaining its
structural integrity as assembled.
This can be attempted by
minimising the number of parts
and sealants required. Furniture
that utilises the least number of
materials has greater ability to be
recycled and disassembled due to
the removal of considerations in
the process (Calabrese, 2012). This
is especially true if in the process of
basic disassembly, all materials are
separated.
While AM is currently limited by its
primary use of synthetic materials
in its production (with options for
recyclability), developments are in
place to create viable sustainable
materials that can be used within
the technology (Saad, 2016). In using
furniture as an exploratory space
for AM, interest can be promoted
within designers and others to
further explore and develop this
manufacturing technology in future
endeavours.
In developing a method of material
connection without the utilisation
of fasterners, this design can have
application in industries other
than furniture. Primarily, industries
that often require assembly and
dissassembly. This opens up options
for industries such as automotive or
hospitality.
As the result of this research will
be demonstrated through the
production of a physical product, it
becomes apparent how every stage
of the process will be defined by
user response. To create an ethically
considered design, users are an
almost active participant in the
process; information gained from
surveys, interviews, and product
testing lose meaning if not defined
by user response. Especially in the
context of furniture, chair design, as
this product is in essence designed
only for users, from ergonomics
factors, availability/access, cost,
context, and product use.
It should be noted that as a product
designer, bias is a difficult concept
to completely remove from oneself,
especially as the primary generator
behind this research emerged
from past experiences. Hence,
by repeatedly incorporating user
evaluation this personal bias can be
limited to its max capacity, when
combined with secondary research
that developed the problem space,
the factual background elevates and
moves beyond what were previously
only assumptions. To avoid harm
to participants, no testing will be
completed without first examining
any risks that could be caused
to users, and any response given
by users will be kept anonymous
unless stated specifically by the
participant otherwise.
19

Methodology
Leather Moulding
Analysis of leather material
began with secondary research,
conducted into the properties, and
recommended types of leather to
use for a range of existing products.
This, however, only provides a
limited scope into what is possible
when working with the material. As
such, proper testing was needed to
properly examine the possibilities
the material provides to this project.
The series of wet moulding
experiments (Fig. 7) aimed to
examine processes, aesthetic form,
feel, strength and pliability. These
experiments involved various types
of moulds (Fig. 8) that the leather
would stretch and form around
through the wet moulding process.
Through these tests it was noted
how easily leather would hold the
form from the mould and how the
material would become stiffer after
moulding. The steps involved in the
process of moulding did not change
between different moulds as such
the key factors that changed the
process was the complexity of the
mould. After the leather moulding
20
The problem space surrounding
additive technologies was
defined through a combination
of secondary, academic research,
a market analysis, and an
examination of case studies. The
academic research gathered from
the literature review served as
providing a logical background of
information into the possibilities AM
can contribute to design, as well as
what issues the furniture market
currently face. This gathering of
knowledge acted as a foundation
that would allow a thorough selfdirected
analysis into what already
exists in the contemporary design
market of chairs specifically. Chairs
were chosen as the furniture focus
of this project due to their rich
history and how tightly woven the
ergonomics interact with users in
their everyday lives. This market
analysis aided in finding the key
players that currently exist in the
space, allowing for a narrowing of
focus into individual case studies.
In noting the critical failures and
successes from case studies
examined within the literature
review, design objectives were
defined for the success of the
product:
1. Presentation of a uniform
language between natural
and synthetic material.
2. Method of material
connection that utilises the
unique properties of additive
manufacturing.
3. Ergonomic strength of the
product.
The method of material
combination and the presentation
a uniform language was explored
through the concept of ‘structure
+ interface’. By maximising the
use of ‘high-valued’ traditional
material of leather and minimise
the user’s focus upon the ‘lowvalued’
perception of additive
manufactured material. It allows
users to experience the new
material in a way they are familiar
with through the incorporation of
traditional furniture material.
a) b) d)
e) f)
Fig. 7: Leather wet moulding experiments using different moulds a) Ex_LWM1 b) Ex_LWM2
c) Ex_LWM3 front view d) Ex_LWM3 underside e) Ex_LWM4 seperated form f) Ex_LWM4
Combined form.
21
c)

a) b)
c)
Fig. 9: Leather wet moulding experiments 1:1 a) Ex_LWM5 b) Ex_LWM6 c) Ex_LWM7.
Fig. 8: Leather wet moulding experiments, moulds (Ex_LWM1, Ex_LWM2,
Ex_LWM4, Ex_MC3).
experiments were completed,
it became a judgement of the
aesthetic form the shadows would
produce on the leather moulded
over a 3D printed scaffold.
Later leather moulding tests
involved a series of 1:1 scale tests
with 3D printed material (Fig.
9), these aimed to examine the
amount of leather required for
the total product, the optimal
pattern to allow for the easiest
moulding process, & issues that
arose from the higher quantity of
material used. The pattern gained
from this series of process testing
is critical to the success of the
design, due to the difficulty of
moulding around the unique form
of the scaffold. Understanding
the minimum amount of material
required holds significance related
to minimising material wastage,
and understanding costs required
for the entirety of the process for a
22
completed stool product.
From these 1:1 scaled tests it was
noted that bunching became an
issue due to the amount of material
moulded around a curved object
(Fig. 10), hence the leather needed
to be cut and moulded in a way to
minimise this issue. Tests involving
painted leather (Fig. 11) also aided
in noting which areas of the leather
required the most stretching. These
key areas noted from this prototype
aided in defining the pain points in
the moulding process that required
the most attention when moulded.
Fig. 10: Leather wet moulding experiment 6,
displaying bunching of material.
Fig. 11: Leather wet moulding experiment
7, displaying stretch marks from painted
leather.
23

Material Connection
a)
a)
Fig. 12: Material Connection test 1 & 2.
Fig. 13: Leather wet moulding experiment 4,
demonstrating tight fit method.
Originally, the material connection
tests began with simple methods
often present within other types
of materials such as, timber &
injection moulding processes (Fig.
12). These methods of connection
were however, disregarded due to
their similarities to other materials
& as such it was decided to find a
connectivity method specific to 3D
printed forms.
It was later discovered that a tight
fit seam was a possible method of
material connection between a 3D
printed scaffold and leather (Fig.
13). When further examined, the
requirements to make this method
24
successful were defined (Fig. 14):
1. At least 2mm space
between the two 3D
printed scaffolds (when
using 1.8mm thick
leather).
2. The tight fit seam must
fit from 4 directions on
the same plane, to be
held in place.
3. Corner edges can not
be too sharp to avoid
overlap.
While the theory of a tight fit test
was proven to work on a small scale,
the test still had to be repeated
onto a larger scale model with
b)
Fig. 14: Material connection test 4, tight fit
seam a) seperated b) connected.
the designed scaffold (Fig. 15).
In combination with the 1:1 scale
leather moulding tests (Fig. 9), these
prototypes aimed to prove in finality
how the moulding connection
process would be conducted on the
final product. These 1:1 experiments
proved the strength of the leather
in adhering to the edge as it would
hold the shape after wrapped
around the top section, issues arose
however when bunching occurred
on the flat connection edge. The
bunching in this section was visible
from an outer perspective and did
not match the visual language of
the combined form. The spacing
originally placed between the 2
scaffolds, while possible to form a
seal with this amount of space, it
proved difficult to place this much
material into the space as bunching
became difficult to fully remove
(Fig. 16) as such it was determined
that this space be increased from
2mm to 2.5mm.
Fig. 15: Material connection test 5, tight fit
seam a) external view b) internal view.
b)
Fig. 16: Bunching of material near
connection point, Ex_LWM6.
25

Ergonomic Testing
Final User Responses
Fig. 17: Low-fi sketch models, concepts 13,
14, 16.
This technical logic gained transfers
the design into the prototype
form phase, a space dedicated to
modelling and how the physicality
of the product can be elevated.
These steps began with a focus
upon low quality, scaled down,
sketch models (Fig. 17), due to ease
of which they can be made and
tested; leading to a greater quality
of data gained from the process.
Low-fi models tests the overall
form and shape ratios, and simple
sensory reactions – such as touch –
examined through observation and
peer review. These models also aid
in heightening the communication
of a previously two-dimensional
concept presentation to users,
peers, and industry leaders.
Prototypes generated gain detail
(Fig. 18) and slowly approach 1:1
scale (Fig. 19) as the testing phase
continues. This slow progression
of size and detail prototypes is due
to the break between computer
aided development and physical
dimensions. Hence, ensuring that
strength and form are viable as a
26
Fig. 18: 1:5 scale model of Ver 17_F,
3D printed.
Fig. 19: 1:1 cardboard scaffold model, Ver
17_F.
stool for use.
It was noted that for an optimal
stool designed for an adult user, it
should be approximately 420mm
in height (at least), however, issues
relating to cost restraints informed
the design process. Hence, resulting
in the smallest viable stool.
Fig. 20: Fixture Stool, appearance
model
This process relies on the evaluation
at each section of designing,
starting with the development of
concepts. Each examined based
upon how well it fulfilled the stated
design objectives and how users
responded to the designs. Detailed
technical information was gained
from having the benefit of feedback
of individuals that are trained in
the realm of ‘design’, allowing for
a greater level of response that
is unhindered by the concept of
‘familiarity’ that consumers have
shown a leaning towards. This also
allows for further development into
technical design details that may be
unnoticed to the ‘untrained’ eye.
While having individuals trained
in design research had aided the
process, the interviews conducted
with ‘untrained’ users allowed for
the development of a value system
for furniture design concepts:
Fig. 21: Fixture Stool (appearance
model), user testing.
1. Structural support
2. Comfortability
3. Familiarity
4. Novelty.
Once all prototype testing
was completed, tests could be
conducted with users and the final
appearance model (Fig. 20). The
stool was tested (Fig. 21) through
unprompted user exploration of the
stool & directed questions towards
users. The weight of the design was
also tested for the ease of which
users can move & carry the stool.
27

MANUFACTURING
EVALUATION
TESTING PHASE
• Ergonomics
• Durability
• Material type
• Material connection
• User response
• Application
CREATIVE DESIGN PHASE
MODELLING
EVALUATION
PRIMARY
• Physical Defects
• Texture
• Final material
• Future
application
evaluation
• Defining what does not work
• Provide direction
• Focus upon concept
• Differation from current
• market
DESIGN
OBJECTIVES
IDEATION
EVALUATION
EVALUATION
PRIMARY
• Physical Defects
• Strongest positive
effect (from various
experiments) taken to
next stage
• Redefine possibility
SECONDARY SOURCES
• Academic
Research
• Market Analysis
• Case Studies
PROBLEM
SPACE
EVALUATION
PRIMARY
• User Response
• Revaluate understanding
of user preference
• Assumptions
• Experience
SELF
PRIMARY
GENERATOR
PRIMARY
• Tut Feedback
• Peer Feedback
• Framing the space
RE-EXAMINE
• User Response
• Sorting of research
papers by design
objective
Fig. 22: Methodology diagram
28
29

Results
Discussion
Gathered from the various leather
moulding prototypes it was
determined that the optimum
leather type for this design was
vegetable tanned leather of 3-5Oz
(approximately 1.8mm thick) and
be of a temper range from soft to
semi-soft.
Material connection was proved
to be successful using the tight fit
method, due to the absence of a
3rd party bonding agent and the
stability provided in holding the
leather & two scaffolds together.
The key points for a tight fit seam
connection to be viable were:
The optimum dimensions for the
stool were between 500-600mm
in height and a diameter between
285-350mm. Bottom point of the
legs must be in line with the widest
edge of scaffold A, improving
stability. To ensure the strength of
Scaffold B the thickness must be a
maximum of 5mm and a minimum
of 3mm.
30
1. At least 2mm space between
the two 3D printed scaffolds
(when using 1.8mm thick
leather).
2. The tight fit seam must fit
from 4 directions on the
same plane, to be held in
place.
3. Corner edges cannot be too
sharp to avoid overlap.
4. Leather pattern must be
designed individually (prior
to moulding) to fit the
mould without bunching.
5. Scaffold must have enough
internal space to allow
for the leather to adhere
internally to Scaffold A.
6. Flat seam edge when seen
from an external perspective
must appear uniform along
the seam between Scaffold A
& Scaffold B.
During the early stages of research,
it was recognised that while additive
manufacturing had lightly stepped
into the realm of furniture it was
not yet wildly accepted. Information
gathered from a series of interviews
allowed for the development of
a value system of the desired
users in relation to furniture. This
system placed a large amount
of emphasis upon the user’s
understanding of comfort and
familiarity. As such this emphasis
proved a barrier in allowing
additive manufactured furniture
pieces access and acceptance
into the user centred furniture
industry. To combat this initial
design concepts were focussed on
fostering the material acceptance
of additive manufacturing within a
furniture context. From examining
furniture chair case studies that
shined through their success in
incorporating a new material
technology, it was theorised that
combining the use of a highly
valued furniture material with 3D
printing, a greater level of design
acceptance could be accomplished.
Demonstrated in the series of
leather moulding tests, the wet
moulding process allows for a
gentle adhering to the form of
Scaffold A. The subtlety of form
allows for the leather’s texture to
shine, reminiscent of the crafted
form present in Bellini’s Cab
Chair. While the Cab Chair hides
the structural scaffold Breuer’s
Easy Chair shines in its display
of its structural support. The
concept of ‘structure + interface’
is displayed through this design
project in hiding the unique form
of Scaffold A behind the wellknown
and valued material, leather.
The unique form of scaffold A on
its own may produce feelings of
uncertainty in consumers, due to
the lack of familiarity of the form
31

and the perceived rigidity of the
AM material. The leather is able
to soften this uncertainty both
mentally and physically. Even
though the entirety of the unique
form is hidden behind the leather,
in adhering the leather to the
patterned form slightly, users gain
a sense of curiosity in the form. This
feeling of curiosity and intrigue
is boosted due to the softness of
the moulded leather. The subtle
shadows that play in the light along
the top section entice a physical
interaction with users, as they
seek to touch the form to further
examine the uniqueness of the
design.
The tight fit seam proved a
successful method of material
connection, due to its breakaway
from 3rd parting bonding agents
& the ease of disassembly.
Initially the objective for material
connection was focussed on
using the unique properties of
additive manufacturing as a point
of focus, it was determined that a
greater level of success could be
achieved through using the unique
properties of leather to form a
connection between bodies. This
decision arose naturally through
the experimentation of multiple
prototypes when it was discovered
unintentionally from an early
leather moulding prototype. While
leather is placed in emphasis
within this connection method it
would have been of a much higher
difficulty to retain success if the
scaffold were made from a different
material. This was due to the
accuracy in crafting that can only be
achieved through 3D printing.
In focusing on a design that allows
for quick and easy disassembly, user
accessibility is prioritised. The repair
of the design regarding the leather
is also in connection promoted,
in other furniture products that
32
involve leather it is often difficult
or even impossible to repair the
material without completely taking
apart the furniture first. This is
often due to the sealing methods
involved in initial assembly leading
to either highly expensive repair or
replacement. In comparison the
tight fit seam method promotes
easy disassembly that has no effect
on the other materials as such
repair only involves a single section.
The ease of accessibility is also
promoted due to the designing &
making process of this AM stool
design. While many furniture
products currently available are
highly labour intensive in the
making process, this project
minimised the intensity of
labour. This minimisation largely
occurred through the additive
manufacturing process of the
scaffolds, as it required the labour
of only one person to conduct the
machinery and complete post
processing of the scaffolds. While
the production of the leather and
in assembly requires more focus of
attention it was determined that
the minimisation of labour from the
additive manufacturing process was
significant enough for the design to
still be regarded as positive despite
the hand crafting requirement of
leather working.
From the evaluations of models, it
was determined what the minimum
size of the stool would need to
be. The reason for the decision to
discover the minimum dimension
requirements were due to cost
restraints. While these minimum
dimensions were used for the final
prototype of this project it was
noted that these dimensions were
not optimum for users and should
be increased for future production
if given the budget. The increased
dimensions of the stool should be
350mm in diameter and 500mm in
height, as this would allow a larger
option of users to be able to viable
use the stool in comfort.
Due to the focus towards refining
the method of material connection
minimal focus was placed upon the
form of the legs beyond strength
and stability. If more time were to
be given in the future to improve
this project, it would be opportune
to refine the design of the legs
from scaffold B to reflect slightly
the design from scaffold A, without
taking emphasis from the leather.
While the furniture market is
dependent on the constant growth
and innovation of technology,
currently additive manufacturing
is limited by access and materials
available. The range of synthetic
materials with varying properties
continues to expand as more
research is conducted, however,
the lacking sustainable options still
limits the potential possibilities of
products for a wider market (Saad,
2016). By insighting interest in
the additive manufacturing field
within the context of furniture
design, more workers will become
attracted to working with this new
technology hence leading to greater
advancement of the technology.
Currently sustainable options for
3D printing can be sourced from
marine, wood, or agricultural
wastes (Sardon et al., 2022). This
sourcing from wastes can more
greatly boost the opportunity of this
project in minimising waste and
reducing the usage of raw materials.
However, the challenges that are
faced in obtaining reproduceable,
high-quality materials from these
resources are still too severe for
these material types to be viable
for this design project. If possible,
in future recreation the additive
manufactured scaffolds could be
redesigned to suit the properties
of these biodegradable sustainable
materials when they become more
accessible and viable.
33

34
Conclusion
During the earlier stages of this
research project the key design
objectives were defined as:
1. Presentation of a uniform
language between natural and
synthetic material.
2. Method of material connection
that utilises the unique
properties of additive
manufacturing.
3. Ergonomic strength of the
product.
The first objective was dedicated
towards material technology
acceptance of additive
manufacturing. It was found that
a uniform language between
materials allowed for a balance
within the design’s form. Choosing
to place significance upon
the leather that reflected the
underneath form subtly allowed for
a greater acceptance of the unique
form of scaffold A. This is due to
the softening that the leather
conducts to the stool in the users’
perceptions, as leather is a known
material utilised in a wide variety
of furniture products for its temper
and comfort. Hence, it is shown
that the concept of ‘structure +
interface’ may be a viable method
of incorporating multiple materials
for acceptance as it allows users to
discover the new object on their
terms through curiosity boosted by
the comfort of familiarity.
The second objective listed for key
design features was in response
to finding a method of material
connection that breaks away from
3rd party bonding agents. Initially,
this objective was focussed on
finding a method that utilises the
unique properties of 3D printing,
however, it was decided that the
tight fit method produced the most
positive results, and it primarily
utilised the properties of leather.
The tight fit method of connection
was proven successful in how it held
the multiple bodies together, this
was due to the accuracy created
from 3D printed material and the
way in which leather can hold its
form after wet moulding.
The third objective was dedicated
towards the ergonomic form of the
stool. Ergonomics plays a key role
in furniture design due to its tightly
woven interactions with users,
therefore, it is required that users
find the stool comfortable to use
& strong enough to support their
weight. The thickness of the shell
of scaffold B was made to be 5mm
thick made from PA12-GB: Nylon 12
with glass bead, from an industrial
printer similar to Selective Laser
Sintering (SLS) printers. The printer
used in this process was the HP
Multi Jet Fusion 4200 printer that
rather than using a laser melting
process, utilises heat lamps to
melt the plastic powder, this result
is a product stronger than prints
available from typical SLS printers.
Even scaffold A which has sections
4mm thick, with the wrapped form
of the unique pattern it is strong
enough to support an adult user.
The open section of leather over
the top of scaffold A experiences
minor stretching when used. While
this stretching does not impact the
comfort of the user in a negative
way, over time it may become overly
pronounced visually and therefore
leather replacement should be
considered.
As presented within the Discussion
due to cost restraints the
dimensions of the chair had to be
minimised to keep to the available
budget. In future exploration it
would be opportune to increase
the dimensions to the optimal
dimensions defined within the
Discussion. If this research is
examined further in the future,
an appropriate perspective would
be to look toward sustainable,
biodegradable 3D printing material
available for manufacturing.
As this would further boost the
positives of additive manufacturing
as a sustainable method of
manufacturing focussing on the
minimising raw-material wastage.
35

Market Research
36
Chairs
3D Printed
Peeler Daniel Widrig
• An exploration of creating
new ways of making furniture
& environments which push
boundaries
• Printed in only a few hours
• Minimum waste of material
• Example of design that is based
around machinary
• Satisfies ergonomic constraints.
RvR Kooij
• Indoor furniture (outdoor
possible but will experience
colour change due to sun
exposure)
• Single extruded shape
• Recycled plastic
• Pigment tone shifts during
printing process
• Low resolution 3D printing.
37

Truss Chair Piegatto
• Outdoor furniture
• Biodegradable, weatherproof
PLA with openings that create
transparency
• Made from PLA
Chairs
Timber
Woven Concrete Furniture
XtreeE
• Series of benches
• Collaboration between XtreeE &
Studio 7.5
• Tailor-made street furniture
• Woven relief patterns
• Welcoming appearance
• Minimum quantity of concrete
XXX Bench Print City Project
Pinch ‘Avery’ Dining Chair
Spence & Lyda
• Rigorous simplicity of form
• Reference of Shaker Style, a
distinctly minimal style with
clean lines and little to no
decoration
• Hand-crafted and meticuously
finished in Pinch style
• Offered in 2 types of timber oak
or walnut
• Expensive ($1230) due to the
care taken in hand-crafting this
relatively simplistic design
• Street furniture
• Recycled waste
• 100% circular system
• Robotic 3D printing
Similarities:
• Each displays unique focus that highlights the unique
properties of 3D printing
• Simplistic overall form
• Outdoor furniture examples appear heavier with thicker
edges
• Each displays a unique texture to promote different
experiences
• Majority of 3D printed furniture is for public use,
primarily due to product quantity, funding & availability
No. 18 Thonet
• Thonet is an Australian furniture
brand, specialising in bent wood
pieces
• This specific chair is considered
a staple design of the brand
• Originally produced in 1876, still
widely popular today
• Light sturdy frame
• Versatile seat options
• Focus on functionality and
elegance
• Wide range of options of timber
and laminate
• The quintessential restuarant
chair
38
39

J42 Chair Thørge Mogensen
• First designed early 1940s
• Popular enough that is has been
reproduced by Hay’s and is still
produced and sold today
• With a broad plywood seat and
frame in solid oak or beech
• Demonstrates a timeless quality
• Is sold in option of oiled, matt
lacquer and painted finishes.
Eames LCW Chair C & R Eames
• Times magazine named it
the “Best Design of the 20th
century”
• Began as an experiment
involving moulded plywood in
the “Kazam!” machine
• Represents the beginning of the
plywood group
• Released 1946, is still made in
the same configuration today
Pipo Chair Alejandro Estrada
• Breaking from traditional timber
stye chairs
• A monolithic piece
• Light passes through
• Concious use of materials
• Plywood
• Composed of 29 main curve
sections
Chairs
Metal + Leather
Cab 412 Mario Bellini
• Demonstrates positive results
that arise when two diverse
fields work in tandem (fashion &
furniture)
• Standard sadle leather casing
places design focus on the high
quality of the leather rather than
the simple steel tubing structure
• Draw of the design is in the
aged patina of the leather
B35 Leather Lounge
(Easy Chair) Marcel Breuer
• Cantilever design
• Design focus is on the
interesting lines of the steel
tubing
• Leather creates a sense of
comfortability & softness to the
design
• The quality of timber chairs is dependant upon care
Similarities:
taken into the making process and how the design
heightens the colour and warmth of the timber finish
and quality
• Celebration of material in focus
• If the wood is of lower quality focus is brought to the
design through interesting and unique forms
• Focus on functionality & elegance
40
Structure
+
Interface:
• A method of design that acts as a combination
between a main material & a secondary material
• The designer makes a choice on what to draw the user’s
focus towards, either the structure or interface
• Stucture acts a the scaffold of the design while the
interface is the material in which users interact
• In placing focus upon a highly regarded material
attention can be drawn away from a low status material
41

Design Brief
42
To develop a chair design
that aims to address the
growing issues in the
contemporary furniture
industry relating to labour
intensity and material
wastage, through the
embracing of additive
manufacturing technologies.
By developing a uniform
language between AM forms
and traditional leather
material, user’s can more
easily embrace an unfamiliar
material technology within
the furniture industry.
43

Concept
44
Developement
Design Moodboard
45

Ideation
User Responses
1. Of these sketches of chairs what stands out
to you?”
2. What do you like or dislike about them?
Concept
Positive/
Negative
Response
Quotes
0.1
[+][-]
“Looks like wood”
0.2
[+]
“Like how it looks like mushrooms”
0.3
[+]
“comfortable”
0.4
[+]
“looks organic, like a tree stump”
0.5
[-][-][-]
“does not support weight”
0.6
[+]
“comfortable, looks like plastic”
Chair ideation sketches
0.7
[+][+]
“looks like branches”
“looks like something [they] could see buying”
46
Initial designs were very open and
‘blue sky’ in nature. During the
beginning of this project heavy
inspiration was taken from timber
furniture aesthetics, this was due
to retained quality and value
that timber has held throughout
histroy & continues to hold in
contemporary times.
Many of these original designs were
focussed on being a monopart
design, as this would display the
additive manufacturing process in
the strongest light. However, due to
interviews and opinions gathered
based on these original sketches
it was seen that if users found a
design had the appearance of weak
or lacking support they would
immediately produce a negative
response, even if they did find the
novelty of the design interesting.
Familiarity was an interesting
concept that was unforeseen at
this point in the design process,
interviewees would show
preferences for familiar forms in the
designs. These familiar forms were
the designs that most resembled
current designs in the market.
It was also noted that the
preference for novelty was subject
to change depending on the
individual user and was difficult to
map into a simplified state.
1
8
10
[+][+]
[-][+][-][+][-][+]
[-][+][+][+][+][+]
[+][-]
“Do not like the bottom, looks like it would break”
“Do not like highchairs”
“Legs look weak”
“Looks like a bar chair”
“Looks weird because bar stools don’t have a lot of
mass in the legs”
“Could be a central piece of a room, like a focal
point”
“If you took the back off, it’d looks more like a bar
stool”
“Like the divet, looks more comfortable”
“I like this one”
“Looks interesting”
“Having a moulded seat would be cool”
47

Inspiration
3 4 5 6 7 8 10
13 14 15 16 17 18
Concepts iterations
From the interviews a value system
was able to be determined that best
showed what users look for when
examining furniture.
1. Structural support
2. Comfortability
3. Familiarity
4. Novelty
Eventually it was determined that
a convergence between leather
and AM material may promote
the desired acceptance of AM as
a manufacturing technology in
the furniture space. The notion of
structure + interface was decided to
use as the concept for designing.
Leather was chosen as the
secondary material due to its
versatility, quality and withstanding
history within the furniture industry.
While the structural support of
the chair is achieved through a
3D printed scaffold, the leather
promotes a feeling of comfortability
by softening unfamiliar forms.
Partu Cabinet
Johnny Nargoodah & Trent Jansen
The cabinet is made from a combination of wire mesh and
Italian leather. The furniture in their Partu line all replicate
this honeycomb-like structure, as this design embraces
the malleability of leather to merge itself to the tactile
surface of the mesh. ‘Partu’ is the Walmajarri word for ‘skin’,
representing the focus on the unique properties of leather
moulding. This piece is the result of their 2020 collaborative
project experimenting with unorthodox outcomes resulting
from the confluence of their oddly mismatched sensibilities
and skills in working animal skins.
The Partu cabinet was used as an inpiration for the Fixture
Stool due to its ability to incorporate the same convergence
in a 3D printed sturcture and leather.
48
Low-fi sketch models
49

Embossed structure pieces
Seperate from main structure
Allows for more care to be taken in
when assembling leather with the
AM material
Concept 14
Skeleton structure
Leather
Internal structure 01
Skeleton structure
This concept was the first to
be decided on as a focus within
this project. this was due to its
appearance being very familiar
to users, & the symbllic point of
material convergence between the
leather and the 3D printed scaffold.
The visual interest of 3D printing is
visible from all angles of the design,
while the leather section that
primarily interacts with the user
only minimally reflects the design
language of the scaffold. This design
decision was made to promote
softness & comfort.
This concept’s chosen form of
material connection was a “snap fit”,
a method commonly used in both
3D printing and injection moulding.
This “snap fit” would ensure the
seperate pieces and leather would
essentially lock in place thus
ensuring the chair would not come
loose if people were to use the chair.
Concept 14
50
51

Design
Objectives
1
Presentation of a uniform
language between natural &
synthetic material.
2
Method of material
connection that utilises the
unique properties of additive
manufacturing.
52
3
Ergonomic strength of the
product.
53

Concept 17
Version D
Scaffold A
Concept 17 arose due to a various
constraints that arose for the
predicted making of concept 14.
These constraints related primarily
due to budgetary reasons, as such
it was decided to convert the chair
design into a stool design.
decrease weight & differentiate itself
from injection moulding forms.
This design also promotes a simpler
method of leather incorporation
when compared to previous design.
Sectional Scaffold B
3D print scaffold
This iteration still holds the same
method of construction of concept
14, however, the design shifts to
a simplified leg scaffold & allows
for the key design feature to be
the leather moulded over the top
patterned section of the scaffold.
54
Scaffold B has a hollow structure,
in order to minimise material use,
55

Concept 17
CAD Milestones
1:5 scale model VER 17_F
VER 17_D
• Scaffold A has the top lip & lower
lip feature
• Original rough dimensions,
closer to seat dimensions of
Concept 14
VER 17_F
• Dimensions minimised to be as
small as viable (primarily due to
cost constraints)
• Scaffold A only has a lower lip in
the design
• Straight edge material
connection on the top of
scaffold B
VER 17_G
VER 17_H
• Curved lip removed from
scaffold B
• Space between scaffold A & B
increased to 2.5mm
VER 17_I
• Material connection spacing
returned to 2mm
• Scaffold A is the same
dimensions from VER 17_H
56
• Same dimensions from VER 17_F
• Curved edge for material
connection on top of scaffold B
(filleted edges)
1:1 scale cardboard model, VER 17_F
57

Prototype Testing
58
59

Wet Moulding
60
Leather wet moulding is a method
of leather working utilised by
leather craftsmen for generations.
It has a proven method of the
strength of which it allows leather
to hold and stretch over a form.
The initial series of tests working
with wet moulding served as a
method of learning the method
of success and what promotes the
most success in pattern aesthetics
and feel.
The first emergence of the idea for
a tight-fit seam possibility emerged
in one of these early tests. This test
has a simple flat 3D printed scaffold
made of two pieces, the spacing
between the two scaffold edges was
a 2mm offset. This space was made
as an allowance for the leather to
wrap around the centre scaffold
and judge the edge lining between
leather an a 3D printed form. It was
not expected that this 2mm gap
would promote a tight fit seam
allowing for the leather to almost
hold itself in place.
The following test would take
this theory into a more threedimensional
space. This test used
the same offset dimension of 2mm,
except this edge was produced
internally. Allowing for the tight
fit seam to be pressed on the
leather from four directions on the
same plane. This proved a possible
method of material connection as
all pressure on the final stool will
be downward in nature from the
scaffold A section.
Leather moulding experiments
61

62
63

Material
Connection
VER 17_F VER 17_G VER 17_H VER 17_I
While only minimal adjustments
were made to the shape of the inner
lip of scaffold B, there was a process
of change throughout the seperate
versions.
Version F & G have a 2mm gap
between scaffolds. Their are no
fillets around the internal section
of Version F. Version G is the outlier
of the form versions, the outward
facing lip was originally created to
ease the leather moulding process
by allowing the leather excess more
space to lean into.
The lip from Version G was
disregarded as it did not effect the
moulding process at all. Version
64
H distinguishes itself through an
increased space for moulding,
2.5mm. This spacing when tested
however, allowed too much
movement and was not viable as a
tight-fit seam.
Ver 17_I was returned to a 2mm
spacing. It differs from Ver 17_F
through an increased thickness
on the lip. This was however, due
to scaffold A Ver 17_H having
already been sent for final printing.
Hence, the only way to decrease
the spacing was to adjust the lip of
scaffold B slightly, as scaffold B still
had not been sent for printing.
1:2 scale moulding tests, 1 & 2
65

Concept 17
Version I
R142.5
R90
R100
TOP VIEW
408
(~410 with leather)
66
The final CAD version while
retaining the overall form, held the
features on a single straight lip over
the top of scaffold B. This edge acts
as the ‘hold’ line between scaffold A,
B & the leather. Filleted edges were
added to allow for a slightly easier
moulding process.
Due to cost contraints, concept 17
dimension’s were minimised to the
smallest possible stool. While this
version of the stool is quite small it
still has enough strength to support
an adult.
FRONT VIEW
67

Making Process
68
69

Scaffolds
Technical Details
Printing Process:
Powder/inkjet fusion
Accuracy:
Material:
±0.2 mm
PA12-GB: Nylon 12 with
glass bead
The final scaffolds were decided to
be printed on a type of Selective
Laser Sintering (SLS) printer, in this
case the HP Multi Jet Fusion 4200
printer. SLS printing is a trusted
process by various manufacturers
and industries, due to its ability to
produces strong, lightweight parts.
Post printing prep requires taking
the completed print out of the
powder & then removing all the
remaining powder left on the piece.
This can be done by utilising a sandblaster
and a small brush to srub off
anymore powder remaining on the
print.
70
The Jet Fusion printer has the ability
to create multiple complex parts
quickly, due to support material
not being required in this process.
While it uses a similar technology
to SLS printers it differs through the
use of heat lamps instead of lasers
in the melting process. This method
of melting also results in stronger
parts than typical SLS printed parts.
Powder printed parts produce
satisfying finish on parts that do not
require any post processing that
adjust this texture, however, parts
are able to be dyed to adjust colour
if required.
71

Leather
Technical Details
Preperation
72
Process:
In order to fit the dimensions
printed in the scaffold, the leather
is required to be ~4 Oz (~1.8mm)
and have a temper of soft to semisoft.
Vegetable tanned leather is
the only leather suitable for the wet
moulding, as it is absorbent.
Vegetable tan leather has the added
bonus of ageing better, developing
a richer patina than other tanning
methods.
For the purpose of this project the
leather was determined to be kept
in its natural finish. This is due to
the quality of the colour & texture of
the natural leather. By keeping the
natural finnish it also pays heed to
the desire to focus upon the natural
traditional form of the leather vs
the synthetic form of the 3D printed
scaffold.
Wet Moulding
Thickness:
4 Oz
Material:
Vegetable Tan Sheep
Leather
Discrepancies in leather surface
Prior to wet moulding the leather
needs to first be inspected. This
process requires the judgement
on the softness, the colour,
the thickness & if there are any
discrepancies on the surface. These
discrepancies can be in the form
of dents, sratches, rips, tears or
colouration changes.
After the leather piece has been
chosen that is held to the standards
defined for this project it needs to
be marked for cutting. This is done
by using scaffold A to mark roughly
the edge of the leather that needs
to be cut. This is done by marking
where the centre of the leather will
be on the stool and then rolling the
scaffold outwards to find the leather
required for moulding.
There is always atleast 50mm of
extra leather over the edge, this is
to ensure the required amount is
always reached when moulding. It
also makes the moulding process
easier if this extra leather is used as
a handle to stretch the leather.
73

Moulding
The moulding process began in the
same way as done in the previous
prototypes. The pain points of the
process is to focus on a smooth
initial curve over the top of the
scaffold, and ensure only minimal
creases occur around the edges.
These creases are designed to only
be focussed on the raised edges.
After the leather has been
smoothed along the top edges,
the excess material is tucked
underneath the scaffold. This
allows for a seperation between
the outside and inside folds, and
eases the process of moulding. After
the outside edge holds its shape
the internal work can begin. This is
done through the process of cutting
and darting the leather in order to
remove overlap.
completely flat, the scaffolds can
be pressed together. While the
tight-fit seam is strong and holds
the multiple pieces together, this
proves a slightly difficult step in the
moulding process as it takes a lot
of pressure to push the leather and
scaffold A into place.
Scaffold A & the leather must stay
held in place by scaffold B for 2 days
after moulding, as this allows for
the leather to completely dry. After
which it is okay to remove the 2
sections.
After the leather is dry, the edges of
leather can be neatened by cutting
the excess so the edge line on the
internal is uniform.
Once the bottom edge is
74
75

76
77

Fixture Stool
78
79

80
81

Evaluations
82
1. Presentation of a
uniform language
between natural &
synthetic material.
In choosing to place significance
upon the leather, users are able to
be slowly eased into the new AM
form. This is possible due to the
softening that is accomplished, as
it minimises the harsheness of any
edges or curves.
Leather also aims to soften users
perception of the Fixture stool,
as leather is a well-known highly
traditional furniture material,
users gain a sense of familiarity
from the design hence allowing
them to approach the new form
comfortability.
Another benefit of the leather
working process in this design is the
juxtaposition of the highly accurate
computerised manufacturing of
the AM scaffolds and the handmade
unique process of the leather
moulding. A process where no two
mouldings are exactly the same.
2. Method of material
connection
that utilises the
unique properties
of additive
manufacturing.
The final stool also fulfills the design
objective of a method of material
connection that forgoes the use
of 3rd party sealants and bonding
agents.
While the tight-fit method is viable
as method of connection, the
rubbing of the leather together
produces a type of “creaking” sound.
In future developments it would be
opportune to address this issue to
remove said sound. This could be
accomplished by a more careful
moulding procedure to ensure
absolutely no overalp in the leather
or by adding a softening material
over the scaffold B connection
points.
3. Ergonomic strength
of the product.
When tested the Fixture Stool
was able to support the complete
weight of an adult human, without
breaking or bending. It may even be
possible to decrease the thickness
of scaffold B to 4mm instead of
5mm.
The open section of leather over the
top of scaffold A experiences minor
stressing when used. It is noted that
this stretching does not adversely
affect the stool, but over time it may
become overly stretched if enough
pressure over time is focussed on
the centre section. At which point,
replacing the leather should be
considered.
While the height of the stool is
viable for shorter persons, it is highly
advised that in later developments
the length of the legs be extended.
This improvement would be quick
and simple to fix on the orginal
CAD files, for later printing. It is
predicted that a more opportune
height of the stool be 500-600mm.
83

84
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