Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e

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Earthquakes and11SeismologyEarthquakes create different kinds of seismic waves that can be measured by a seismometer andthat describe their strength and location.275
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand how faultingcauses the ground to moveduring earthquakes■■Recognize how earthquakescause damage to buildings andother structures■■Learn how to locate anearthquake’s epicenter anddetermine its magnitude andwhen it occurredMATERIALSNEEDED■■Sharp pencil■■Clear plastic ruler withdivisions in tenths of an inchand millimeters (included inthe Geo Tools section at theback of this manual)■■Architect’s compass(or piece of string)■■Seismic overlay reading tool(in your toolkit at the back ofthis manual)11.1 IntroductionFew things are as fearsome as a major earthquake. Unpredictable and enormouslypowerful, a great earthquake destroys more than buildings and other structures.It shakes our sense of safety and stability as it shakes the solid rock beneathour feet. But it is not just the shaking that is dangerous. Devastating tsunamisin 2004 and 2011 reminded us that oceanic earthquakes can ravage coastlinesthousands of miles from the earthquake origin. Landslides and mudslides triggeredby earthquakes can engulf towns and villages, and the loss of water whenrigid pipes break beneath city streets can cause health problems and make itdifficult to fight fires.In our attempt to understand earthquakes, we have developed tools that revealEarth’s internal structure, define the boundaries between lithosphere plates, provethat the asthenosphere exists, and track the movement of plates as they are subductedinto the mantle. In this chapter, we look at what an earthquake is and whyit causes so much damage, and we learn how seismologists locate earthquakes andestimate the amount of energy they release. You will learn to read a seismogramand use it to locate an earthquake, determine when it happened, and measure itsstrength. First, let’s review some basic facts about the causes and nature of earthquakesthat are discussed in more detail in your textbook.11.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic WavesEarthquakes occur when rocks in a fault zone break, releasing energy. The energyis brought to the surface by seismic waves called body waves because they travelthrough the body of the Earth. It is this energy that causes the ground to shakeinitially.The point beneath the surface where the energy is released is called the focus(or hypocenter) of the earthquake. The point on the surface directly above thefocus is called the epicenter (FIG. 11.1). In most cases, the epicenter, being closest tothe focus, is the site of greatest ground motion and damage.FIGURE 11.1 The focus and epicenter of an earthquake.Epicenter BEpicenter AFocus BFault surfaceFocus ASeismic waveThe focus is the point on the fault where slip begins. Seismic energystarts radiating from it. The epicenter is the point on the Earth’ssurface directly above the focus. Earthquake A just happened;earthquake B happened a while ago.276 CHAPTER 11 EARTHQUAKES AND SEISMOLOGY
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LABORATORY MANUALFOR INTRODUCTORY G
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CONTENTSPreface viiCHAPTER 1Setting
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CHAPTER 8Studying the Earth’s Lan
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PREFACEThis laboratory manual is ba
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exercises interspersed throughout t
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Supplements(available for download
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ABOUT THE AUTHORSAllan Ludman is Pr
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ch
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One way to obtain more data would b
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TABLE 1.1 Basic definitions●●
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EXERCISE 1.2Reservoirs in the Earth
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EXERCISE 1.4Sources of Heat for Geo
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1.3 Units for Geologic MeasurementB
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FIGURE 1.5 Measuring the volume of
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FIGURE 1.6 The white cliffs of Dove
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MileFIGURE 1.7 Methods for dealing
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FIGURE 1.8 An example of the princi
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EXERCISE 1.9Name:Course:How Long Do
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APPENDIX 1.1Metric-U.S. Customary C
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
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plate between two continents, conti
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FIGURE 2.4 The Earth’s major clim
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More clues soon came from seismolog
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FIGURE 2.8 Magnetic reversals of th
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FIGURE 2.11 Rates of motion of the
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EXERCISE 2.7A Tale of Two RidgesNam
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EXERCISE 2.8Continental Rifting: Sp
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Even without any earthquake informa
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EXERCISE 2.10Estimating the Amount
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2.5.5 Hot Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks
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EXERCISE 2.11Name:Course:Determinin
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EXERCISE 2.12Name:Course:Long-Term
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 2Analyzing Plate
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand wh
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When a mineral grows without interf
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FIGURE 3.1 Specimens of the mineral
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3.4.5 HardnessThe hardness of a min
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FIGURE 3.4 Crystals of some common
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FIGURE 3.6 Cleavage in common miner
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3.4.9 MagnetismA few minerals are a
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EXERCISE 3.7Identifying MineralsNam
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The minerals and elements we most r
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EXERCISE 3.9Mineral Resources in Yo
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 3Extracting Miner
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APPENDIX 3.1Mineral Identification
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.3Common Minerals and The
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MINERAL PROFILE DATA SHEET NameSamp
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
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FIGURE 4.1 The rock cycle.Heating a
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FIGURE 4.3 Typical grain shapes.(a)
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EXERCISE 4.2Describing a Rock’s T
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EXERCISE 4.3Understanding the Origi
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EXERCISE 4.4Interpreting the Textur
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■ Hardness: Use a steel safety pi
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FIGURE 4.6 Flowchart for determinin
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4.8 The Economic Value of RocksMost
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FIGURE 4.7 Examples of igneous, sed
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 4Deciphering Land
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crystalline rocks. Those that are s
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EXERCISE 5.3Interpreting Igneous Co
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FIGURE 5.4 Volcanic glasscontains n
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EXERCISE 5.5Interpreting Fragmental
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Felsic igneous rocks (from feldspar
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minerals melt, and (3) how plate-te
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EXERCISE 5.8Insights from Melting a
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EXERCISE 5.9Explaining Features of
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extreme crustal stretching has expo
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EXERCISE 5.13Interpreting Plate-Tec
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FIGURE 5.12 Distribution of volcano
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FIGURE 5.14 Comparison of areas in
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EXERCISE 5.15Stratovolcano Disaster
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 5Exploring the Na
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IGNEOUS ROCKS STUDY SHEET NameSampl
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FIGURE 6.2 Chemical weathering of f
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FIGURE 6.3 The five steps in clasti
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6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary RocksChe
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6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedim
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TABLE 6.2 Classification of common
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FIGURE 6.5 Flow chart for identifyi
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FIGURE 6.6 Sediment sorting.(a) Poo
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EXERCISE 6.7Recognizing Sediment De
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FIGURE 6.9 Sedimentary rock beds.(a
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FIGURE 6.12 Cross bedding, a type o
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FIGURE 6.15 Fossils reveal remarkab
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FIGURE 6.16 Examples of depositiona
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EXERCISE 6.10Interpreting Sedimenta
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SampleTexture(grain size, shape,sor
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FIGURE 7.1 Examples of changes from
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FIGURE 7.2 Growth of metamorphic mi
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FIGURE 7.3 Types of stress.(a) Comp
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FIGURE 7.5 Photomicrographs of rock
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FIGURE 7.6 Varieties of gneiss form
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EXERCISE 7.2Identifying Metamorphic
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FIGURE 7.11 Settings of metamorphis
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EXERCISE 7.4Interpreting the Type o
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EXERCISE 7.5Name:Course:Index Miner
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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EXERCISE 8.1Which Image Works Best?
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More sophisticated grid systems are
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EXERCISE 8.2The Latitude/Longitude
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EXERCISE 8.3Locating Points with th
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EXERCISE 8.4Locating Points with th
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But which north is north? No, this
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e300FIGURE 8.10 An area in eastern
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8.4 Vertical Exaggeration:A Matter
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 8Locating Places
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ho
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this information on the most recent
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FIGURE 9.5 Digital elevation model(
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250300300FIGURE 9.7 Hachured contou
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Page 247 and 248: FIGURE 9.11 The effect of vertical
Page 249 and 250: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 9Working with Top
Page 251 and 252: APPENDIX 9.1Topographic Map Symbols
Page 256 and 257: Interpreting GeologicStructures on
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Page 260 and 261: EXERCISE 10.2The Basic Types of Con
Page 262 and 263: EXERCISE 10.3Determining Strike and
Page 264 and 265: FIGURE 10.4 Block diagrams.Map view
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Page 268 and 269: FIGURE 10.7 Hanging wall, footwall,
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Page 278 and 279: EXERCISE 10.12Name:Course:Construct
Page 280 and 281: EXERCISE 10.13Interpreting Simple G
Page 282 and 283: FIGURE 10.13 Structural control of
Page 284 and 285: 10.6 Reading Real Geologic MapsYou
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Page 288 and 289: EXERCISE 10.18Making a Geologic Map
Page 290: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 10Name:Course:Und
Page 295 and 296: S-waves (FIG. 11.2b) are seismic wa
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Page 301 and 302: EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
Page 303 and 304: EXERCISE 11.4Locating an Earthquake
Page 305 and 306: EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
Page 307 and 308: EXERCISE 11.5Name:Course:Determinin
Page 309 and 310: 11.5 Predicting EarthquakeHazards:
Page 311 and 312: EXERCISE 11.7Locating Liquefaction
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Page 315 and 316: APPENDIX 11.1Seismic Analysis Works
Page 317 and 318: LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Determine t
Page 319 and 320: EXERCISE 12.2Relative Ages in Cross
Page 321 and 322: EXERCISE 12.3Applying the Principle
Page 323 and 324: EXERCISE 12.4Name:Course:Using Sedi
Page 325 and 326: FIGURE 12.6 How the three kinds of
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Page 333 and 334: FIGURE 12.9 Changing parent:daughte
Page 335 and 336: EXERCISE 12.7Putting It All Togethe
Page 337 and 338: EXERCISE 12.8What Numerical Ages Ca
Page 339 and 340: EXERCISE 12.9Correlation (continued
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EXERCISE 12.10Cretaceous Paleogeogr
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Landscapes Formed13by StreamsStream
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EXERCISE 13.1Differences between St
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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RFIGURE 13.5 The Genesee River sout
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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FIGURE 13.8 A floodplain and its as
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ST. FRANCIS CO4070797064UNION PACIF
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1000Big900900B I G H I L LARKANSAS9
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FIGURE 13.13 Major drainage basins
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anchWTJ54MurphyNew BloomfieldTown65
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EXERCISE 13.6Recognizing Stages of
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MT T L E62446267DogRock757266170634
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13.7 When Streams Don’t Seemto Fo
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EXERCISE 13.7Deducing the History o
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13.8 When There’s Too Much Water:
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EXERCISE 13.9Estimating Potential F
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13.9 Streams, Society, and the Envi
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Groundwater as aLandscape Formerand
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EXERCISE 14.1Factors Affecting Infi
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EXERCISE 14.1Name:Course:Factors Af
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FIGURE 14.2 Groundwater landscape e
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60075000750600FIGURE 14.4 Karst top
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FIGURE 14.5 The water table separat
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EXERCISE 14.4Effects of a Changing
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100100100FIGURE 14.9 Karst topograp
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4400B a l d r i d g e C a n y o n42
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EXERCISE 14.7Name:Course:Environmen
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EXERCISE 14.8Name:Course:Environmen
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Glacial Landscapes15These jagged mo
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FIGURE 15.2 Mountain and continenta
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EXERCISE 15.1Comparison of Glaciers
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EXERCISE 15.3Erosional Features of
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15.3.2 Depositional LandscapesLands
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EXERCISE 15.4Landforms at the Termi
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900900800BOWEN1000700C R E E K900RO
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450400LEMON400ROADSLAYTON4504503Spo
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15.4 Landscapes Producedby Mountain
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The base level for a tributary stre
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3700380036003900Northwest BasinLake
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FIGURE 15.17 Atmospheric temperatur
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 15Flowing Ice as
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GRID: 10/inch = 39,4/10cm
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Processes and Landforms16in Arid En
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FIGURE 16.2 Types of arid regions.(
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16.2 Processes in Arid RegionsNow l
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16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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RiverGila85WatermanWashR A I N B O
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85130011001000FIGURE 16.8 Topograph
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FIGURE 16.10 Characteristics and ev
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400040004000L o w e V a l l e y4100
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FIGURE 16.13 Vulnerability to deser
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Shoreline Landscapes17Coastlines co
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FIGURE 17.1 Types of shorelines.(a)
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EXERCISE 17.1Erodibility and Stabil
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17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shor
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1382427FIGURE 17.5 Maine coastline
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EXERCISE 17.5Measuring Sea-Level (a
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FIGURE 17.7 Area just south of Lake
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17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Depositi
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FIGURE 17.11 Erosional features of
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EXERCISE 17.7Erosional Processes an
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17.3.5 Depositional FeaturesPromine
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EXERCISE 17.9Depositional Processes
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FIGURE 17.18 The shoreline of theno
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FIGURE 17.21 Aerial view showing ho
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EXERCISE 17.10Name:Course:Unintende
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FIGURE 17.24 Counterclockwise wind
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EXERCISE 17.11Name:Course:Effects o
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FIGURE 17.27 Flooding caused by hur
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EXERCISE 17.12Effects of Storm Path
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 17Understanding T
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Explain why p
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EXERCISE 18.1Humans and Earth Syste
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EXERCISE 18.2Short-Term Changes in
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Weather describes atmospheric condi
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FIGURE 18.5 The greenhouse effect.G
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EXERCISE 18.3Name:Course:Assessing
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FIGURE 18.8 Movement of water from
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FIGURE 18.10 Projected sea-level sc
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EXERCISE 18.4Effects of Sea-Level R
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FIGURE 18.13 Estimated human popula
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FIGURE 18.14 Two bird species hunte
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EXERCISE 18.6Name:Course:How Quickl
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 18Inducing Change
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Courtesy of Allan Ludman; p. 162 (t
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270 280260240 250290 300Clay310 320
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Align with northern latitude tick m
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