Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e

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Fracture occurs when there are no zones of particularly weak bonding within amineral. When such a mineral breaks, either irregular (irregular fracture) or curved(conchoidal fracture) surfaces form (FIG. 3.5). Conchoidal fracture surfaces are commonin thick glass and in minerals whose bond strength is nearly equal in all directions(e.g., quartz).FIGURE 3.5 Types of fracture in minerals.IrregularfractureCrystalface(a) Irregular fracture in garnet.(b) Conchoidal fracture in quartz.Cleavage occurs when the bonds holding atoms together are weaker in somedirections than in others. The mineral breaks along these zones of weakness, producingflat, smooth surfaces. Some minerals have a single zone of weakness, butothers may have two, three, four, or six (FIG. 3.6). If there is more than one zoneof weakness, a mineral cleaves in more than one direction. In describing cleavage,we note how many directions there are and the angles between them. Twodifferent minerals might each have two directions of cleavage, but those directionsmight be different. For example, amphiboles and pyroxenes (two importantgroups of minerals) are similar in most other properties and each have two directionsof cleavage, but amphiboles cleave at 568 and 1248 whereas pyroxenes cleaveat 908 (see Fig. 3.6).Note in Figure 3.6 that there may be many cleavage surfaces, but several are parallelto one another, as shown for halite. All of these parallel surfaces define a singlecleavage direction. To observe a mineral’s cleavage, hold it up to the light and rotateit. Parallel cleavage surfaces reflect light at the same time, making different cleavagedirections easy to see.Both crystal faces and cleavage surfaces are smooth, flat planes and might bemistaken for each other. If you can see many small, parallel faces, these are cleavagefaces because crystal faces are not repeated. In addition, breakage occurs aftera crystal has grown, so cleavage or fracture surfaces generally look less tarnishedor altered than crystal faces. Exercise 3.5 will help you recognize the differencebetween cleavage and fracture.3.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS63
FIGURE 3.6 Cleavage in common minerals. Some minerals cleave in four or six directions, but it is rare to see all of them in asingle specimen.Types ofcleavage Diagram Visual Examples1 direction Muscovite2 directionsat 90°Potassium feldspar2 directionsnot at 90°Amphibole3 directionsat 90°Halite3 directionsnot at 90°Calcite
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LABORATORY MANUALFOR INTRODUCTORY G
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CONTENTSPreface viiCHAPTER 1Setting
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CHAPTER 8Studying the Earth’s Lan
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PREFACEThis laboratory manual is ba
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exercises interspersed throughout t
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Supplements(available for download
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ABOUT THE AUTHORSAllan Ludman is Pr
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ch
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One way to obtain more data would b
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TABLE 1.1 Basic definitions●●
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EXERCISE 1.2Reservoirs in the Earth
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EXERCISE 1.4Sources of Heat for Geo
Page 27 and 28: 1.3 Units for Geologic MeasurementB
Page 29 and 30: FIGURE 1.5 Measuring the volume of
Page 31 and 32: FIGURE 1.6 The white cliffs of Dove
Page 33 and 34: MileFIGURE 1.7 Methods for dealing
Page 35 and 36: FIGURE 1.8 An example of the princi
Page 37 and 38: EXERCISE 1.9Name:Course:How Long Do
Page 39 and 40: APPENDIX 1.1Metric-U.S. Customary C
Page 41 and 42: LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
Page 43 and 44: plate between two continents, conti
Page 45 and 46: FIGURE 2.4 The Earth’s major clim
Page 47 and 48: More clues soon came from seismolog
Page 49 and 50: FIGURE 2.8 Magnetic reversals of th
Page 51 and 52: FIGURE 2.11 Rates of motion of the
Page 53 and 54: EXERCISE 2.7A Tale of Two RidgesNam
Page 55 and 56: EXERCISE 2.8Continental Rifting: Sp
Page 57 and 58: Even without any earthquake informa
Page 59 and 60: EXERCISE 2.10Estimating the Amount
Page 61 and 62: 2.5.5 Hot Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks
Page 63 and 64: EXERCISE 2.11Name:Course:Determinin
Page 65 and 66: EXERCISE 2.12Name:Course:Long-Term
Page 67 and 68: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 2Analyzing Plate
Page 69 and 70: LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand wh
Page 71 and 72: When a mineral grows without interf
Page 73 and 74: FIGURE 3.1 Specimens of the mineral
Page 75 and 76: 3.4.5 HardnessThe hardness of a min
Page 77: FIGURE 3.4 Crystals of some common
Page 81 and 82: 3.4.9 MagnetismA few minerals are a
Page 83 and 84: EXERCISE 3.7Identifying MineralsNam
Page 85 and 86: The minerals and elements we most r
Page 87 and 88: EXERCISE 3.9Mineral Resources in Yo
Page 89 and 90: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 3Extracting Miner
Page 91 and 92: APPENDIX 3.1Mineral Identification
Page 93 and 94: APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
Page 95 and 96: APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
Page 97 and 98: APPENDIX 3.3Common Minerals and The
Page 99 and 100: MINERAL PROFILE DATA SHEET NameSamp
Page 105 and 106: LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
Page 107 and 108: FIGURE 4.1 The rock cycle.Heating a
Page 109 and 110: FIGURE 4.3 Typical grain shapes.(a)
Page 111 and 112: EXERCISE 4.2Describing a Rock’s T
Page 113 and 114: EXERCISE 4.3Understanding the Origi
Page 115 and 116: EXERCISE 4.4Interpreting the Textur
Page 117 and 118: ■ Hardness: Use a steel safety pi
Page 119 and 120: FIGURE 4.6 Flowchart for determinin
Page 121 and 122: 4.8 The Economic Value of RocksMost
Page 123 and 124: FIGURE 4.7 Examples of igneous, sed
Page 125 and 126: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 4Deciphering Land
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crystalline rocks. Those that are s
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EXERCISE 5.3Interpreting Igneous Co
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FIGURE 5.4 Volcanic glasscontains n
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EXERCISE 5.5Interpreting Fragmental
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Felsic igneous rocks (from feldspar
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minerals melt, and (3) how plate-te
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EXERCISE 5.8Insights from Melting a
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EXERCISE 5.9Explaining Features of
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extreme crustal stretching has expo
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EXERCISE 5.13Interpreting Plate-Tec
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FIGURE 5.12 Distribution of volcano
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FIGURE 5.14 Comparison of areas in
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EXERCISE 5.15Stratovolcano Disaster
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 5Exploring the Na
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IGNEOUS ROCKS STUDY SHEET NameSampl
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
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FIGURE 6.2 Chemical weathering of f
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FIGURE 6.3 The five steps in clasti
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6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary RocksChe
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6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedim
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TABLE 6.2 Classification of common
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FIGURE 6.5 Flow chart for identifyi
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FIGURE 6.6 Sediment sorting.(a) Poo
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EXERCISE 6.7Recognizing Sediment De
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FIGURE 6.9 Sedimentary rock beds.(a
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FIGURE 6.12 Cross bedding, a type o
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FIGURE 6.15 Fossils reveal remarkab
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FIGURE 6.16 Examples of depositiona
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EXERCISE 6.10Interpreting Sedimenta
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SampleTexture(grain size, shape,sor
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FIGURE 7.1 Examples of changes from
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FIGURE 7.2 Growth of metamorphic mi
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FIGURE 7.3 Types of stress.(a) Comp
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FIGURE 7.5 Photomicrographs of rock
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FIGURE 7.6 Varieties of gneiss form
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EXERCISE 7.2Identifying Metamorphic
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FIGURE 7.11 Settings of metamorphis
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EXERCISE 7.4Interpreting the Type o
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EXERCISE 7.5Name:Course:Index Miner
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
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EXERCISE 8.1Which Image Works Best?
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More sophisticated grid systems are
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EXERCISE 8.2The Latitude/Longitude
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EXERCISE 8.3Locating Points with th
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EXERCISE 8.4Locating Points with th
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But which north is north? No, this
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e300FIGURE 8.10 An area in eastern
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8.4 Vertical Exaggeration:A Matter
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 8Locating Places
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ho
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this information on the most recent
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FIGURE 9.5 Digital elevation model(
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250300300FIGURE 9.7 Hachured contou
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9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Con
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EXERCISE 9.6Name:Course:Survival of
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FIGURE 9.8 Map of the microwave tow
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FIGURE 9.11 The effect of vertical
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 9Working with Top
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APPENDIX 9.1Topographic Map Symbols
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Interpreting GeologicStructures on
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of structures on the ground (the ma
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EXERCISE 10.2The Basic Types of Con
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EXERCISE 10.3Determining Strike and
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FIGURE 10.4 Block diagrams.Map view
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FIGURE 10.6 Block diagrams showing
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FIGURE 10.7 Hanging wall, footwall,
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is not the same as that of the beds
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EXERCISE 10.9Name:Course:Interpreti
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FIGURE 10.9 Geologic maps (continue
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EXERCISE 10.11Name:Course:Using Sym
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EXERCISE 10.12Name:Course:Construct
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EXERCISE 10.13Interpreting Simple G
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FIGURE 10.13 Structural control of
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10.6 Reading Real Geologic MapsYou
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FIGURE 10.14 (continued).Geologic M
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EXERCISE 10.18Making a Geologic Map
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 10Name:Course:Und
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S-waves (FIG. 11.2b) are seismic wa
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FIGURE 11.4 Worldwide distribution
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FIGURE 11.5 Travel-time curves show
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EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
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EXERCISE 11.4Locating an Earthquake
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EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
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EXERCISE 11.5Name:Course:Determinin
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11.5 Predicting EarthquakeHazards:
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EXERCISE 11.7Locating Liquefaction
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After watching dramatic images of t
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APPENDIX 11.1Seismic Analysis Works
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Determine t
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EXERCISE 12.2Relative Ages in Cross
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EXERCISE 12.3Applying the Principle
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EXERCISE 12.4Name:Course:Using Sedi
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FIGURE 12.6 How the three kinds of
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EXERCISE 12.5Name:Course:Decipherin
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becoming extinct. When we find an i
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EXERCISE 12.6Name:Course:Dating Roc
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FIGURE 12.9 Changing parent:daughte
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EXERCISE 12.7Putting It All Togethe
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EXERCISE 12.8What Numerical Ages Ca
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EXERCISE 12.9Correlation (continued
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EXERCISE 12.10Cretaceous Paleogeogr
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Landscapes Formed13by StreamsStream
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EXERCISE 13.1Differences between St
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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RFIGURE 13.5 The Genesee River sout
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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FIGURE 13.8 A floodplain and its as
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ST. FRANCIS CO4070797064UNION PACIF
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1000Big900900B I G H I L LARKANSAS9
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FIGURE 13.13 Major drainage basins
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anchWTJ54MurphyNew BloomfieldTown65
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EXERCISE 13.6Recognizing Stages of
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MT T L E62446267DogRock757266170634
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13.7 When Streams Don’t Seemto Fo
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EXERCISE 13.7Deducing the History o
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13.8 When There’s Too Much Water:
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EXERCISE 13.9Estimating Potential F
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13.9 Streams, Society, and the Envi
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Groundwater as aLandscape Formerand
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EXERCISE 14.1Factors Affecting Infi
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EXERCISE 14.1Name:Course:Factors Af
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FIGURE 14.2 Groundwater landscape e
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60075000750600FIGURE 14.4 Karst top
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FIGURE 14.5 The water table separat
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EXERCISE 14.4Effects of a Changing
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100100100FIGURE 14.9 Karst topograp
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4400B a l d r i d g e C a n y o n42
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EXERCISE 14.7Name:Course:Environmen
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EXERCISE 14.8Name:Course:Environmen
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Glacial Landscapes15These jagged mo
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FIGURE 15.2 Mountain and continenta
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EXERCISE 15.1Comparison of Glaciers
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EXERCISE 15.3Erosional Features of
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15.3.2 Depositional LandscapesLands
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EXERCISE 15.4Landforms at the Termi
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900900800BOWEN1000700C R E E K900RO
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450400LEMON400ROADSLAYTON4504503Spo
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15.4 Landscapes Producedby Mountain
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The base level for a tributary stre
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3700380036003900Northwest BasinLake
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FIGURE 15.17 Atmospheric temperatur
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 15Flowing Ice as
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GRID: 10/inch = 39,4/10cm
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Processes and Landforms16in Arid En
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FIGURE 16.2 Types of arid regions.(
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16.2 Processes in Arid RegionsNow l
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16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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RiverGila85WatermanWashR A I N B O
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85130011001000FIGURE 16.8 Topograph
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FIGURE 16.10 Characteristics and ev
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400040004000L o w e V a l l e y4100
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FIGURE 16.13 Vulnerability to deser
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Shoreline Landscapes17Coastlines co
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FIGURE 17.1 Types of shorelines.(a)
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EXERCISE 17.1Erodibility and Stabil
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17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shor
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1382427FIGURE 17.5 Maine coastline
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EXERCISE 17.5Measuring Sea-Level (a
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FIGURE 17.7 Area just south of Lake
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17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Depositi
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FIGURE 17.11 Erosional features of
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EXERCISE 17.7Erosional Processes an
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17.3.5 Depositional FeaturesPromine
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EXERCISE 17.9Depositional Processes
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FIGURE 17.18 The shoreline of theno
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FIGURE 17.21 Aerial view showing ho
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EXERCISE 17.10Name:Course:Unintende
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FIGURE 17.24 Counterclockwise wind
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EXERCISE 17.11Name:Course:Effects o
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FIGURE 17.27 Flooding caused by hur
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EXERCISE 17.12Effects of Storm Path
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 17Understanding T
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Explain why p
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EXERCISE 18.1Humans and Earth Syste
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EXERCISE 18.2Short-Term Changes in
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Weather describes atmospheric condi
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FIGURE 18.5 The greenhouse effect.G
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EXERCISE 18.3Name:Course:Assessing
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FIGURE 18.8 Movement of water from
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FIGURE 18.10 Projected sea-level sc
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EXERCISE 18.4Effects of Sea-Level R
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FIGURE 18.13 Estimated human popula
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FIGURE 18.14 Two bird species hunte
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EXERCISE 18.6Name:Course:How Quickl
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 18Inducing Change
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Courtesy of Allan Ludman; p. 162 (t
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270 280260240 250290 300Clay310 320
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Align with northern latitude tick m
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Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e

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