Design Strategies IMPULSE

DESIGN

STRATEGIES

SPECIAL ISSUE Impulses from teaching and research

09.2024

SUSTAINABLE FAÇADES

volume 3 ISSN (Print) 2943-4459

ISSN (Online) 2943-4467

Summer Semester Report

EDITORIAL

Welcome to the third edition of Sustainable Façades, a Special Issue of the Design

Strategies Magazine, published by the Institute for Design Strategies (IDS) of the

University of Applied Sciences and Arts (TH OWL) in Detmold, Germany. With

volume 3, we celebrate the one-year anniversary of the first editions' publication.

The support for the two previous issues has been exceptionally positive. We

look forward to refining our processes and results, always aiming to provide

valuable content for those interested in the fields related to façade design and

engineering, as well as those related to the built environment, e.g. architecture,

urban planning, civil engineering, building physics, social sciences, and ecology

among many other backgrounds.

By the end of September 2024, there were over 2160 reads of volume 1 (published

in 09.2023), and over 830 reads of volume 2 (published in 04.2024). In the

previous two issues, we published a total of 12 original articles, five summaries

of recent journal or conference paper publications, projects developed in two

modules of the Master of Integrated Design (MID), and notes about several

events related to the academic and industrial network of the IDS and the MID,

including the European Façade network and partner universities. Aside from the

Editorial Team, a total of 39 people from different academic and professional

backgrounds contributed in the first year, most of them with architecture and

engineering backgrounds, but also urban planning, interior architecture, and

computer science among other disciplines. Some of the topics covered include

urban comfort, building automation, structural design, photovoltaics, façade

greenery, façade acoustics and soundscape assessment, life cycle assessment,

architectural interiors, as well as technical façade detailing and calculation.

Additionally, an emphasis on scientific methods for data collection and analysis

has been highly encouraged, and it’s worth noting that three articles published

in the first year have developed further into papers presented at international

conferences.

We hope that volume 3 will add value to this series that we have called Sustainable

Façades, with the aim of giving a critical look at the effects of façade design and

engineering on the social, environmental, and economic conditions in our cities.

Alvaro Balderrama Chiappe

M.Eng., Dipl.-Arch., LEED

Daniel Arztmann

Prof. Dipl.-Ing., M.Eng.

EDITORIAL VORWORT

Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.3

3

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

6

2. LATEST RESEARCH

3. ARTICLES

8 – The Role of Façades in the

Composition of Urban Soundscapes

Alvaro Balderrama, Alessandra Luna-Navarro, and

Jian Kang

11 – Understanding the Economic

and Environmental Performance of

Vertical Greenery Systems

Sofia Markson

20 – Guidelines for Vertical Farming

in Building Envelopes

Sofia Soruco G. and Alvaro Balderrama

27 – Design for Disassembly through

Additive Manufacturing: Exploring

the Potential of 3D-Printed Clay

Components for Sustainable Building

Construction

Luis Alfonso Gutierrez Suarez

38 – Influence of Façade

Construction on the Lateral Stability

of High-rise Buildings

Hiruy Gebremariam

44 – Enhancing BIM Integration in

Façade Design Process

Meltem Durmus

50 – Beyond Bricks and Stones: A

Comparative Analysis of Sustainable

Façade Construction Material

Alternatives in Germany and Jordan

Lama Ibrahim

55 – Extending the Service Life of

Unitized Façades: Case Studies

Faruk Cakir

4 CONTENTS


4. MID DESIGN CONCEPTS

64 – MID P5/P8: Integrated

Computational Façade Design

66 – Group 1:

Farah Gheith, Fady Aziz, Pegah Khademi

68 – Group 2:

Ilayda Ergin, Bekir Alperen Kalkan

70 – Group 3:

Daya Daniel, Amerah Khan, Jami Sai, Tej Sri Krishna

72 – Group 4:

Kumarinda Panditharathna, Melike Sert, Ammar

Nalbantoglu

74 – Group 5:

Sevtap Özyıldırım, Beyza Doganay, Elvan Törün

76 – Group 6:

Bahareh Hemmatikhanshir, Amir Raeisi, Didem

Pekdemir, Mohammad Amin Davarpanah

78 – Group 7:

Juan Hernandez, Arved Radkowski, Jerin Joy, Mejbah

Sakib

5. EVENTS

81 – Conference: Future Envelope 15

81 – Façade Fabrication Workshop at

Schüco: FWS 50

82 – Detmolder Räume 2024

Workshop: Façade Re-Form

88 – ROB.BAU: Research Facility for

Robotics in Construction

6. IMPRINT

92

CONTENTS


5

1. INTRODUCTION

Sustainability has become a central focus across

various disciplines, with numerous strategies

being explored to improve urban living conditions.

Although the term is occasionally associated

with greenwashing, the core concept remains

fundamentally positive, centered on genuine efforts

to balance ecological, economic, and social needs.

Increasing greenery in cities is a prominent strategy

that has shown considerable potential to improve

environmental quality and boost health and wellbeing.

Given that a significant portion of urban

surfaces is made up of building façades, particularly

in dense and high-rise environments, incorporating

greenery on these façades presents a valuable

opportunity to enhance the presence of nature

within the city. However, while vertical greenery is

widely acknowledged by the scientific community

for its potential, the field remains relatively young

compared to other wall construction methods, with

few in-situ studies and limited real-world application

despite its growing popularity and established

knowledge of construction techniques.

The cover of this issue of Sustainable Façades

features a house officially designated as monument

number 592 in the city center of Detmold, Germany

(Liste der Baudenkmäler in Detmold-Kernstadt, 2017)

and is preserved under the Monument Protection

Act of North Rhine-Westphalia. The house was

built in 1904, as indicated by the inscription on its

weathervane, and although it‘s likely that the original

design did not intend for the walls to be fully covered

in ivy, the plant has gradually overtaken the façade

and has remained that way for several decades,

contributing to the building‘s unique character and

integration with the surrounding environment.

To assess whether a greenery implementation is

truly sustainable, the evaluation must go beyond

the assumption that it is good simply because it

has plants. Instead, it should be judged on how

effectively it is integrated into the building and its

context. In this example, the choice of ivy (Hedera)

seems to be a suitable since it is a local plant species

that requires little water. Consistent maintenance

is likely necessary to stop the ivy from spreading

over windows and other transparent areas, as

uncontrolled growth can lead to issues like glass

breakage or damage to the building‘s foundations,

walls, or roof. Despite these concerns, the 120-yearold

building remains in good condition and is still in

use. This suggests that the ivy, while needing upkeep,

isn‘t seriously affecting the building’s structure and

might be improving the surrounding environmental

quality.

This volume of Sustainable Façades invites readers

to reflect on topics such as this one and many

others that are relevant for the development of

sustainable strategies that alleviate the existing

social, economic, and environmental challenges

within cities. Following this introduction, the Latest

Research section provides the summary of a paper

that was presented at the Acoustics session at the

International Building Physics Conference 2024.

The Articles section includes six contributions that

result from Master theses presented in the summer

semester of 2024 (four from TH OWL, one from TU

Delft, and one from UCB Tarija). Next, a study on 3D

printing techniques for masonry walls is presented,

followed by a simulation approach for studying

the lateral stability of high-rise buildings. Next, a

discussion on further implementations of BIM in

façade design processes is presented, and finally,

a comparative analysis of façade construction

materials. The Design Strategies section shows

the results of the class MID P5/P8, where students

designed pavilion proposals for a “Friedwald“

cemetery to shelter funeral ceremonies, focusing

on wood as the primary construction material.

The Events section presents three events that

occurred during the last semester: the Future

Envelope 15 conference by TU Delft; a hands-on

fabrication workshop at Schüco focused on the FWS

50 system; and the Detmolder Räume 2024, where

the workshop “Façade Re-Form” was conducted.

Additionally, news about the Research Facility for

Robotics in Construction, which acquired a new

collaborative industrial robot.

6

INTRODUCTION


2. LATEST RESEARCH

7

Latest Research

The Role of Façades in the Composition of Urban Soundscapes

Summary of paper published in July 2024 at the International Building Physics Conference:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383600512_The_Role_of_Facades_in_the_Composition_of_Urban_Soundscapes

Alvaro Balderrama 1,2 , Alessandra Luna-Navarro 1 , and Jian Kang 3

1. Architectural Façades and Products Research Group, Department of Architectural Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the

Built Environment, TU Delft, Julianalaan, 134, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands

2. Institute for Design Strategies, Detmold School of Design, TH OWL, Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany

3. Institute for Environmental Design and Engineering, The Bartlett, University College London, London, UK

Summary

As cities expand and densify, understanding

how buildings affect people’s perception and

experience of the acoustic environment in

context becomes more relevant. Due to the lack

of established methodologies to assess how

façades affect the soundscape, a framework was

developed through a series of steps involving

literature review and field studies that included

sound level measurements, 360-degree

video recordings, binaural and ambisonics

recordings, acoustic and psychoacoustic

analysis, soundwalks with a total of thirtyseven

participants, and a preliminary laboratory

experiment using virtual reality (VR) with six

more participants.

Since the gap between soundscape research

and real-world practice is one of the main

challenges for the discipline, the feasibility of

using the framework in practice was examined

through workshops with Master students of

façade engineering. The framework is intended

to be a tool to collect the essential information

to analyze the relationship of any façade in its

unique context and respective soundscape.

A brief description of the elements of the

framework is presented.

Façades: Generally, the vertical surfaces of the

building envelope, including the walls, doors,

windows, parapets and depending on the case,

possibly parts of the roof. The outdoor side of

building envelopes constantly interacts with the

urban acoustic environment. Depending on the

morphological and atmospheric conditions in a

given urban context, sounds propagate towards

façades and are reflected away, after absorbing

and some sound energy and transmitting some

of it indoors.

Context: ISO 12913-1:2014 defines the context

as “the interrelationships between people’s

activities in space and time”, therefore this

framework includes the location and time, urban

morphological conditions, as well as atmospheric

conditions.

Acoustic environment: ISO 12913-1:2014

defines the acoustic environment as “the sound

for a receiver from all sound sources, as modified

by the environment”. The main parameters

related to each sound source include their

location over time, sound pressure levels and

frequency spectrum, as well as social meaning.

The background noise, reflection patterns and

reverberation are the modifications of the

environment, or effects of the space.

People: According to the literature, personal

factors can lead to different evaluations of

sound levels, so the personal socio-demographic

factors of the people assessing the soundscape

are to be considered, as well as people’s activities

and behavior in different contexts. Regarding

8

LATEST RESEARCH


surveying people’s perception, whether it is

on-site (e.g. soundwalk) or reproduced (e.g. in

virtual reality), a soundscape assessment based

on ISO 12913-2:2018 can be used to obtain

soundscape descriptors such as perceived

affective quality, appropriateness, perceived

loudness, and overall soundscape quality among

other descriptors.

The framework‘s adaptability allows analyses

at different levels of detail depending on

the needs and the available resources. Its

application in design and engineering processes

offers a promising opportunity to examine

the implications of façade design on wellbeing

in terms of physical sound propagation,

as well as subjective interpretation. Applying

the framework should generally be viable, but

the methodology should adapt to the specific

needs and resources available. The quality and

depth of the results may vary depending on the

methodology, so further research is intended to

determine systematic applications.

The framework of façades and urban soundscape

is focused on outdoor environments, but it

has the potential to be adapted for indoor

environments with some modifications such

as considering sound transmission effects

through the façade, aside from sound reflection,

absorption, and emissions.

Figure 1 shows the four main elements (façade,

context, acoustic environment, people), along

with the respective interactions between

elements. Integrating the three elements of

soundscape and façades into a single framework

proved to be beneficial for investigating potential

façade influence on people’s perception

(through the acoustic environment or through

the context), a process that currently lacks an

established methodology.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of façades and urban soundscape

LATEST RESEARCH


9

3. ARTICLES

10 LATEST RESEARCH


Article

Understanding the Economic and Environmental Performance of Vertical

Greenery Systems

Sofia Markson 1

1. Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, TU Delft, Julianalaan 134, 2628 BL Delft, the Netherlands

Abstract

Vertical Green Systems (VGSs) represent a major advancement in integrating vegetation with urban architecture,

reflecting a historical evolution from ancient practices to modern innovations. Contemporary VGSs primarily

encompass two typologies: green Façades (GFs) and living wall systems (LWSs). Despite their potential, LWSs

are often criticized for their high costs, complexity, and questionable sustainability.

To address these criticisms, a scoping review of the literature was conducted. The review underscores the need

for standardized assessment frameworks, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA),

to provide a clearer understanding of the true value of VGSs. Findings reveal that while VGSs, particularly LWSs,

often involve higher investment costs compared to conventional building products, they can offer significant

long-term benefits in terms of ecosystem services. However, quantifying these ecosystem services remains

challenging, raising concerns about potential ‚greenwashing.‘

A comprehensive evaluation of VGS benefits and their quantification methods, along with resolving

inconsistencies in performance assessments, is essential for informed decision-making and improving the

practical implementation of VGSs in urban environments. This literature review, completed as part of the TU

Delft Graduation Studio in Building Technology, emphasizes the critical need for addressing these evaluation

and quantification challenges. In response to these insights, the master’s thesis presented a methodological

framework specifically designed to quantify the acoustic benefits of VGSs, with a focus on their effectiveness in

reducing urban noise pollution. Similar efforts are needed to quantify other key ecosystem services provided

by VGSs.

Keywords: Vertical Greenery System (VGS), Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), Environmental

Impact, Economic Feasibility, Ecosystem Services

1. Introduction

Vertical greening has ancient roots, notably seen

in the Hanging Gardens of Babylon from the 7th

century BC and has been employed by various

civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, Rome, and

medieval Europe, often using climbing plants on

structures like pergolas and lattices (Martins & de

Campos, 2019). Techniques evolved through the

Renaissance and Baroque periods, but it was the

Art Nouveau movement in the early 20th century

that integrated vertical greening into architecture,

blending nature with built environments (Pudelska

& Mirosław, 2015). Stanley Hart White‘s 1938 patent

for a „Vegetation-Bearing Architectonic Structure

and System“ laid the foundation for modern

green walls, though his invention remained largely

unnoticed until after his death (Hindle, 2012). The

concept gained wider recognition with Patrick Blanc’s

pioneering work on vertical gardens, first introduced

in 1986. Blanc‘s innovative design, featuring a metal

frame with waterproof plastic and synthetic planting

pockets, allowed plants to grow directly on wall

surfaces, revolutionizing the hydroponic green wall

system (Bianchini, 2016; Fernández-Cañero, Pérez

Urrestarazu, & Perini, 2018).

Building on the historical evolution of vertical

greening, modern Vertical Green Systems (VGSs)

are classified into two primary categories: green

ARTICLES


11

Façades (GFs) and living wall systems (LWSs). GFs

typically feature climbing plants that grow along

the building’s surface, while LWSs use advanced

materials and components to support a wider

variety of plant species, resulting in more uniform

coverage. Manso and Castro-Gomes (2015)

proposed a general classification in which GFs are

distinguished by direct or indirect typologies, and

LWSs are categorized as continuous or modular

systems. Radić, Brković Dodig, and Auer (2019)

further refined the schematic classification of

various VGS types. The general taxonomy for VGSs

is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Classification of VGSs Based on

Construction Characteristics

Growing plants vertically evokes a sense of

natural simplicity, but achieving success with

VGSs requires addressing a range of complex

challenges. This prompts the question: „What are

the key sustainability challenges in the widespread

adoption of VGSs, and how can they be overcome?“

This literature review examines several common

criticisms of VGSs, particularly LWSs, as identified by

Riley (2017):

• VGSs (mostly LWSs) being perceived as too

expensive and unsustainable,

• Concerns about the complexity of LWSs and

their susceptibility to failure,

• Criticisms regarding the decorative nature of

VGSs.

These criticisms are addressed by focusing on the

economic and environmental performance of stateof-the-art

VGSs. Firstly, a review of the economic

and environmental factors crucial for assessing

the feasibility of VGSs is conducted. Subsequently,

key ecosystem services provided by VGSs are

addressed. A discussion of the main challenges

in the widespread adaptation of VGSs is provided,

aiming to uncover the conditions under which they

can be considered feasible for implementation.

2. Methodology

To address the research questions related to the

economic and environmental performance of

VGSs, a scoping literature review was conducted.

The search strategy involved querying academic

databases such as Web of Science and Google

Scholar with keywords including „green walls,“ „living

walls,“ „vertical gardens,“ „vegetated Façades,“ and

„vertical greenery systems,“ paired with terms like

„life cycle assessment,“ „environmental impact,“

„economic feasibility,“ and „cost-effectiveness.“ Only

studies addressing the economic and environmental

aspects of VGSs were selected. Preference was given

to publications from 2015 onwards to capture recent

advancements, though significant earlier studies

were also considered.

The review was guided by several key sources.

Manso, Teotónio, Silva, and Cruz (2021) provided a

comprehensive analysis of the benefits and costs of

VGSs. Riley (2017) explored the complexities of LWSs,

addressing issues related to design, maintenance,

and cost. Rosasco (2018) emphasized the growing

importance of VGSs, presenting a sensitivity analysis

of costs and benefits to aid in understanding

their economic sustainability. Rowe, Poppe, Buyle,

Belmans, and Audenaert (2022) reviewed Life

Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodologies for VGSs,

proposing a framework for standardized assessment

and identifying gaps in current practices. Teotónio,

Silva, and Cruz (2021) conducted a systematic review

of green infrastructure economics, identifying

research gaps.

3. Literature Review

3.1. Economic Factors

The primary barrier hindering the widespread

adoption of VGSs, especially LWSs, is their

associated costs, which explains the relatively low

rates of implementation (Teotónio et al. 2021). To

address this challenge, it is imperative to evaluate

the long-term economic value of VGSs. One

effective method for such assessment is through

a Cost-Benefi t Analysis (CBA), which compares the

overall lifecycle costs and benefi ts of a product

to ascertain its viability. Throughout the CBA

process, all costs and benefi ts are quantifi ed

in monetary terms to facilitate comparison and

decision-making.

Typically, the outcomes of a CBA are expressed as

Net Present Value (NPV), offering insight into the

total economic impact over the system‘s lifespan.

Projects yielding higher NPV are deemed more

profi table (Teotónio et al. 2021). In comparison

to GFs, LWSs typically demonstrate lower NPV

due to their substantial initial investment and

maintenance costs. GFs impose fewer fi nancial

burdens on investors, although they contribute

less to social and environmental aspects.

12

ARTICLES


Conversely, LWSs may appear less attractive to

investors, yet they offer significant societal and

environmental benefits.

To make LWSs viable investments, incentives must

be considered, with positive outcomes linked to

improved building aesthetics and recreational

value, resulting in enhanced property values.

For example, Rosasco (2018) illustrates that two

variations of indirect GF systems contribute to the

longevity of the Façade, positively affecting NPV.

Specifically, extending the Façade‘s lifespan by five

years—about 15% of its total lifespan—leads to an

approximate 15% increase in NPV, primarily due to

deferred restoration costs. However, to maximize

these financial benefits and make LWSs more

appealing to investors, economic incentives are

crucial. Manso et al. (2021) underscored the need

for political and financial measures to ensure

the long-term viability of LWSs, suggesting that

initiatives such as tax breaks, reduced stormwater

fees, subsidies, and streamlined administrative

processes can make a significant difference.

Additionally, accurately estimating the benefits

of LWSs is essential for their inclusion in CBA

to ascertain their true potential. As noted by

Teotónio et al. (2021), while some studies focus

on specific advantages, such as energy savings,

others adopt a broader approach by evaluating the

global sustainability potential VGSs. For example,

thermal insulation translates into energy savings,

while improved air quality can be quantified

using the social cost of carbon. The impact of

these benefits varies depending on the scale of

the project, with larger urban-scale installations

offering more significant social and environmental

returns.

3.1.1. Life Cycle Costs

There is often an unexpected realization when

accounting for ongoing life-cycle costs. Lifecycle

costs encompass the initial investment,

ongoing operation and maintenance, and eventual

replacement or demolition expenses at the end of a

product‘s life (Teotónio et al. 2021). It is evident that

LWSs tend to be more costly than both direct and

indirect GFs. This higher expense is attributed to

factors such as the required maintenance (including

nutrient and watering systems), the materials used,

and the intricate design involved (Perini & Ottelé,

2014).

The intricate nature of VGSs, coupled with the

absence of a standardized solution, results

in various initial costs. The foremost expense

encountered is the design cost, which is contingent

upon the complexity of the chosen VGS design.

This cost typically ranges from a minimum of 6\%

to a maximum of 10\% of the total system cost

(Rosasco, 2018). For example, an indirect GF using

HDPE for supporting mesh is approximately twice as

economical as one utilizing steel mesh. The inclusion

of planter boxes, especially when implemented on

various levels for improved uniformity, can notably

escalate costs. In terms of different VGS types, both

indirect GFs and LWSs require an irrigation system,

with the former being approximately three times

less expensive than the latter.

Different types of VGSs entail varying installation

costs. GFs generally have lower installation

expenses as they require fewer components (Manso

et al. 2021). On the other hand, LWSs exhibit more

significant cost discrepancies due to the diverse

range of systems available. The installation costs

associated with LWSs can vary widely, with expenses

ranging from one-third to twice as high as GFs,

depending on factors such as panels, plant species,

and irrigation systems (Rosasco, 2018). According to

Manso et al. (2021), the average installation cost for

LWSs is estimated to be even higher, approximately

three times that of GFs.

Nevertheless, even if a VGS is well-designed, with

carefully chosen plants and proper construction,

its success heavily depends on maintenance.

However, there is still a lack of comprehensive data

on the costs associated with maintaining VGSs

(Teotónio et al. 2021). As a result, clients often

overlook these costs, as traditional perceptions

of a building envelope‘s operating costs lead to a

misunderstanding of the necessity of these systems.

In terms of direct GFs, the primary maintenance

cost involves pruning the foliage layer, with annual

adjustments to the irrigation system and occasional

pipe replacements constituting minor expenses

(Rosasco, 2018). Indirect GFs follow a similar trend,

although additional significant costs may arise from

replacing plants, particularly when planter boxes are

integrated along the Façade. For LWSs, the costliest

maintenance activities include annual pruning and

panel adjustments. Subsequently, 5% of panels and

10% of plant species must be replaced annually. The

maintenance of the irrigation system, particularly

the annual replacement of pipes, is contingent on

factors such as length, diameter, and materials,

potentially amounting to 15% of the total length

of pipes annually. Accordingly, Manso et al. (2021)

distinguishes that the average maintenance cost

for GFs is approximately one-third of that for LWSs.

Moreover, Riley (2017) highlights that maintenance

expenses per year can be as high as 15%, or even

more conservatively, equivalent to one-third of a

LWSs‘ initial costs.

There are fewer successful attempts to assess

replacement/demolition costs (Teotónio et al.

2021). This scarcity of information might be because

many projects worldwide are relatively new and

have not yet reached the end of their service life,

thus resulting in a lack of readily available details.

Regarding VGSs, the disposal costs at the end of

the lifespan encompass factors such as plant and

support removal, transportation to the landfill, dump

ARTICLES


13

taxes, and plaster recladding of the existing Façade

(Rosasco, 2018; Teotónio et al. 2021). The average

disposal cost for direct GFs is estimated to be

relatively lower, averaging around one-tenth of the

disposal cost for LWSs (Rosasco, 2018). Meanwhile,

disposal costs for indirect GFs average about onesixth

of that of LWSs. LWSs incur much higher

disposal costs due to the diversity of components

involved.

3.2. Environmental Factors

Criticism frequently questions the extensive

adoption of VGSs, voicing concerns regarding their

superficiality, especially concerning environmental

sustainability (Riley, 2017). More precisely,

uncertainties persist regarding the full extent of

the benefits VGSs offer throughout their lifespan.

These uncertainties often lead to skepticism

about environmental claims, often termed as

‚greenwashing‘ (Rowe et al. 2022). A major challenge

in evaluating VGS performance is the limited

empirical data available among key parameters

such as expected lifespan, water usage, required

maintenance, and end-of-life considerations.

The longevity of VGSs, especially modern LWSs,

remains uncertain due to their recent development

(Riley, 2017). Therefore, it can be speculated that the

lifespan of the entire system can be estimated based

on the lifetime of its major components. Felt-based

systems have an estimated lifespan of around 10

years, primarily due to the life expectancy of the PVC

layers that provide structural support (Ottelé, Perini,

& Haas, 2013). In contrast, LWSs with HDPE planters

are expected to last about 50 years. Although Rowe

et al. (2022) suggested being more skeptical about the

lifespan of polyethylene parts, which are estimated to

last approximately 20–25 years. Metal supports, such

as stainless steel, generally offer longer durability. The

irrigation system is generally estimated to last around

7.5 years, with a maximum of 10 years, due to issues

such as clogging from salt crystallization and sediment

accumulation (Rowe et al., 2022). Although specific

data on the lifespan of inorganic substrates is limited,

organic substrates typically last no more than 10 years

(Reyhani, Santolini, Torreggiani, & Tassinari, 2022).

Water usage in VGSs is influenced by factors such

as the design, local climate conditions, and wall

orientation (Riley, 2017). Despite this understanding,

there is no consensus on which VGS type uses

the most water (Rowe et al., 2022), and average

water requirements for specific systems remain

debated. Generally, GFs require minimal irrigation

since plants are directly rooted in soil, and in areas

with sufficient rainfall, additional irrigation may be

unnecessary (Jim, 2015). Small GFs might only need

manual irrigation. In contrast, LWSs show significant

variability in water consumption, ranging from

730 to 2190 L/m2/year for felt-based systems and

from 146 to 2920 L/m2/year for those with plastic

planters (Rowe et al., 2022). However, these figures

may not be highly indicative due to the wide range of

values and the specific design characteristics of each

individual system. LWSs can mitigate potable water

use by harvesting rainwater or recycling irrigation

water, as demonstrated by projects like The Rubens

at the Palace in London (Riley, 2017). However,

recycling can be costly and might expose plants to

waste and non-nutrient salts.

The uncertainty in estimating the lifespan of

VGSs primarily arises from the variability in plant

replacement rates, which depend on factors such as

system design, plant species, local climate, irrigation

methods, and VGS orientation (Rowe et al., 2022).

Plants replacement rates typically range from 10% to

30% per year for modular systems, with higher rates

for geotextile felt systems. This rate often decreases

over time as plants adapt to the VGS, reflecting a

grow-in period. Additionally, maintenance needs can

impact system longevity, with structural elements

and irrigation systems potentially failing before their

expected lifespan. Costly maintenance activities

include annual pruning and panel adjustments, with

approximately 5% of panels and 15% of the irrigation

system‘s length potentially requiring annual

replacement to ensure accurate performance

estimates.

A key issue in managing end-of-life considerations

of VGSs is determining which components can be

reused or recycled and which must be incinerated

or landfilled (Rowe et al., 2022). Ideally, the system

should be modular, allowing for the replacement

of all functional pieces without necessitating the

destruction of the entire system. Continuous systems

may present a significant risk of functional impairment

if some components are still operational but cannot

be removed due to the system‘s characteristics.

Moreover, continuous systems, as mentioned

previously, typically utilize felt and mineral wool as

substrates, leading to a high impact in the end-of-life

stage as these materials cannot be recycled.

3.2.1. Life Cycle Performance

To combat ‚greenwashing‘ claims, it is crucial to

accurately quantify the environmental impacts of

VGSs across all lifecycle stages using a standardized,

repeatable, and verifiable methodology. Despite

many uncertainties in available empirical data, Life

Cycle Assessment (LCA) is considered an appropriate

approach for evaluating the environmental

practicality of VGSs (Rowe et al., 2022). LCA

systematically measures emissions, resource

consumption, and related environmental and health

impacts across a product‘s lifecycle, following

international standards (European Commission,

Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and

Sustainability, 2010). For VGSs, the main phases to

examine are production, usage, maintenance, and

end-of-life. The current focus is to highlight the

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primary findings of recent empirical studies, dating

up to five years ago, to elucidate the performance

of VGSs and their components across key life cycle

phases.

Chàfer, Pérez, Coma, and Cabeza (2021) compared

the environmental impact of buildings with LWS, GF,

and a reference building in a Mediterranean climate.

They found that during the production phase,

structural construction systems had the most

significant environmental impact. GF had a lower

impact than LWS in manufacturing because they

required minimal additional materials, mainly mesh

for vegetation support. The higher environmental

impact of LWS, however, was notably influenced

by the presence of stainless-steel supports and

recycled polyethylene modules. Interestingly, the

substrate in LWS had the least impact due to the

use of recycled organic components and coco

fiber. During the use phase, the high impact of LWS

was attributed to fertilizer and nutrient supply,

comprising up to 71% of the total impact. Overall, the

study highlighted the dominance of the use phase

in environmental impact, comprising around 85%,

overshadowing maintenance and disposal stages.

It emphasized the importance of material selection

and maintenance for mitigating environmental

impact, particularly advocating for the use of fewer

or organic fertilizers in maintaining VGSs.

Blanco, Vox, Schettini, and Russo (2021) aimed

to assess the environmental performance of an

indirect GF system compared to conventional nonvegetated

building solutions. The study utilized

a prototype GF system with vegetation climbing

on a steel frame. Environmental comparisons

were made between the green Façade system

and non-vegetated solutions with similar thermal

effects. Results revealed that the GF system posed

significant environmental challenges compared to

conventional solutions. Interestingly, substituting

the steel frame with a wooden one reduced the

carbon footprint of the GF by 58%, indicating

potential mitigation strategies for environmental

impact. Furthermore, the study found that the

shading effect by green Façades exhibited superior

environmental performance compared to nonvegetated

systems.

Cortês, Tadeu, Santos, de Brito, and Almeida (2021)

conducted an LCA analysis using a novel modular

LWS constructed with expanded cork agglomerate

(ICB) filled with lightweight substrate and enriched

fertilizer and tested with two plant species for

carbon acquisition. The results underscored the

substantial impact of ICB modules on overall

performance, primarily due to their abundance.

Moreover, their organic origin, which involves

carbon sequestration during the growth of cork

oak, contributes significantly to reducing global

warming potential. The production phase had

the highest contribution to the majority of the

impact categories, while the use phase notably

contributed to abiotic depletion potential (which

involves the depletion of non-living resources) and

fossil impacts (related to fossil fuel consumption),

primarily because of high water consumption and

plant fertilization. Comparison with conventional

building walls revealed the superior environmental

performance of the new modular LWS solution

across all assessed impact categories. Installation

benefits over time compensated for environmental

burdens associated with adding LWS components.

Reyhani et al. (2022) aimed to evaluate the

environmental performance of two types of LWSs

throughout their life cycle, focusing on embodied

energy, greenhouse gas emissions, material and

energy consumption, and embodied carbon. The

study compared a felt-based system without an

organic growth medium (pocket system) to a system

utilizing plastic (Expanded Polypropylene) modules

with an organic growth medium (tray system).

Findings revealed that the production phase

accounted for the most significant environmental

impacts, while the installation phase had the

lowest impact due to manual assembly without

specialized machinery. The felt-based system

exhibited greater environmental impact across most

categories, attributed to aluminum components in

the supporting system and the need for inorganic

chemical fertilizers due to the absence of a growing

medium for plants. Conversely, the plastic-based

system‘s environmental impact was primarily driven

by the high volume of polypropylene used in panel

production, water usage for plant irrigation, and

potting soil composition. Additionally, plants could

offset the carbon released during production within

12 to 14 years, contributing to air purification over

the building‘s estimated 50-year lifespan.

Reyhani, Santolini, Tassinari, and others (2023)

conducted a study to dissect different types of

LWSs, analyzing the contribution of materials and

components to their environmental performance.

Two systems were studied: System A, a modular

system using soil mix as a growth medium, and System

B, a felt modular system allowing plants to grow in

embedded pockets without soil. Eight scenarios of

component composition were evaluated for each

system over a 10-year period. Results indicated

that System A generally outperformed System B in

most impact categories, attributed to the significant

impact of aluminum parts in System B‘s supporting

system and the use of fertilizer for plant growth. For

System A, the optimal combination included HDPE

or Polypropylene modules, Perlite, compost, sand

substrate, and Pteropsida plants. In contrast, for

System B, the best combination comprised organic

fertilizer, HDPE panels, and a steel supporting

system. Additionally, due to plants‘ ability to absorb

carbon, it was determined that all carbon produced

during the production phase was compensated by

the fourth year of use phase, making the system a

carbon-capturing technology from the fifth year

onwards.

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3.3. Ecosystem Services

To accurately assess the environmental impact of

VGSs through LCA and their economic feasibility

through CBA, it is essential to include all ecosystem

services, which are a fundamental benefit of VGSs.

Nevertheless, challenges arise in determining the

measurable and monetary values of these benefits

due to insufficient data, inadequate models, and the

complex nature of certain ecosystem services. As a

result, many of these benefits are often only partially

acknowledged or overlooked in environmental and

economic assessments.

Most benefits have a significant impact on district

or urban-scale projects. However, when the

analysis is scaled down to a single building, some

benefits lose their significance as they contribute

less towards city-scale goals. As a result, the

advantages of VGSs can be divided into two main

categories: private and social. Private benefits are

those that directly affect individual residences,

while social benefits extend to the broader urban

environment.

3.3.1. Private Benefits

Private benefits associated with VGSs primarily

revolve around passive energy savings, particularly

in the context of building operations. Acting as

an additional layer on building walls, VGS can

significantly enhance the thermal performance of

building envelopes, consequently impacting the

operational costs required to maintain optimal

indoor quality (Riley, 2017). This influence is

especially pronounced in reducing cooling and

heating loads, thus enhancing energy efficiency.

Reducing Cooling Demands. Plants have the

ability to absorb solar radiation as part of their

biological processes, including photosynthesis,

transpiration, evaporation, and respiration

(Manso et al. 2021). This intrinsic characteristic

allows them to create a cooler microclimate by

effectively cooling both their foliage and the

surrounding air through evapotranspiration.

Additionally, VGSs provide shading for buildings,

reducing overheating by reflecting, absorbing,

or transmitting solar radiation through foliage

(Raji, Tenpierik, & van den Dobbelsteen, 2015).

This lowers external surface temperatures and

minimizes heat flux into the building envelope.

Overall, VGSs have the potential to significantly

decrease cooling loads by facilitating evaporative

cooling, providing shading, increasing surface

albedo, improving emissivity, and complementing

building insulation performance (Manso et al.

2021), thereby reducing the overall demand for

cooling during warmer periods.

Reducing Heating Demands. During cooler

periods, simple GF can lead to a reduction in

energy costs due to the warmer temperatures

maintained between the plants and the wall

surface. The phenomenon, known as the „thermal

buffering effect“, is attributed to increased

thermal resistance resulting from additional

building layers, such as air cavities and plant tissue

(Raji, Tenpierik, & van den Dobbelsteen, 2015).

Consequently, by utilizing a „thermal greenery“

approach, existing under-insulated Façades can

be upgraded or retrofitted without the expense of

traditional interior or exterior insulation systems

(Perini & Ottelé, 2014). However, heating loads in

winter can be reduced only if insulation by VGS

outweighs the shading effect (latter useful for

reduction of cooling loads) (Raji, Tenpierik, & van

den Dobbelsteen, 2015). Moreover, the thermal

insulation provided by vegetation, substrates,

and configurations of both, particularly in LWSs,

further enhances thermal resistance. Additionally,

vegetation acts as a buffer against wind, trapping

an air layer within the plant foliage. This feature is

significant as the wind can decrease a building‘s

energy efficiency by up to 50%, making the plant

layer an effective barrier that prevents wind from

moving along the building surface (Perini & Ottelé,

2014).

3.3.2. Social Benefits

Combating Urban Heat Island Effect. As

mentioned, plant evapotranspiration and shading

significantly reduce heat re-radiation from façades

and hard surfaces. This shields against heat

accumulation in the outer Façade layer, mitigating

the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. UHI, caused by

excessive heat uptake and storage in man-made

materials like concrete and asphalt, elevates city

air temperatures by a couple of degrees compared

to surrounding rural areas (Rosasco, 2018). The

UHI phenomenon results mainly from artificial

surfaces‘ high albedo and anthropogenic activities.

Assessing the exact mitigation impact of VGSs on

UHI is difficult because the effect of a single VGS

on UHI mitigation cannot be accurately measured,

as the potential of an individual VGS to mitigate

UHI is minimal at the urban scale. Substantial

urban greening is required to achieve noticeable

UHI mitigation. Consequently, incorporating the

UHI reduction benefit of a single building‘s VGS

into LCA and CBA is expected to have minimal

significance.

CO2 Uptake and Air Pollution Reduction. Urban

areas usually have higher concentrations of air

pollutants, which are harmful to human health,

mainly due to intense road and air traffic, and the

concentration of industries (Manso et al. 2021).

Plant species, depending on their form and

dimension, are able to sequester air pollutants

and consume carbon dioxide to develop their vital

functions. For instance, gaseous pollutants can

be dissolved or sequestered through stomata on

plants and leaves (Rosasco, 2018). Plants growing

take up CO2 and use it to form biomass via a

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process called photosynthesis. Moreover, each

year a percentage of plants on a VGS will need

to be replaced (Rowe et al., 2022). The removed

plants are sent to a composting facility, where

part of the carbon is released again as CO2. The

compost is then applied to agricultural soils,

where some of the remaining carbon is taken up

by soil bacteria and finally sequestered in the

soil. As a result, this contributes to a circular life

cycle, having a positive influence on LCA and CBA.

Noise Reduction. VGSs offer a potential solution

for reducing noise pollution in urban areas. These

systems absorb, scatter, and alter the reflection of

airborne sound, thereby enhancing the acoustic

properties of the surrounding environment

(Manso et al. 2021). Moreover, they not only

decrease noise levels in the urban vicinity, but

also mitigate sound transmission into building

interiors where they are installed. The amount of

plant biomass plays a crucial role in determining

the sound attenuation capacity of a VGS (Rowe

et al., 2022). Additionally, for LWSs, factors such

as substrate characteristics (material, porosity,

thickness, etc.) and other components are also

important considerations. However, despite the

potential benefits, further research is needed to

precisely quantify the impact of VGSs on noise

levels. Additionally, there is a methodological

challenge in integrating noise pollution reduction

into LCA and CBA, particularly because the effect

of individual VGS on a broader urban scale is not

well-established.

Unquantified Benefits. While certain benefits

of VGSs, such as improved well-being (mental

health) and aesthetic appeal, are subjective and

challenging to quantify, others, like biodiversity,

can be assessed qualitatively (Rosasco, 2018).

VGSs directly impact biodiversity by providing

habitats for flora and fauna (Rowe et al., 2022).

These systems have been observed to support

various invertebrate species, including insects

and spiders. The effect on flora largely depends

on the selection of plant species within the

VGS. A more diverse array of plants tends to

attract a greater variety of animal species,

particularly when local plant species are chosen,

benefiting native wildlife. Hence, these systems

should be incorporated alongside other green

infrastructures in urban environments to

help establish wildlife corridors, especially in

densely populated areas (Manso et al. 2021).

Despite some studies exploring the biodiversity

increase facilitated by VGSs, integrating such

a complex benefit into LCA and CBA remains

methodologically challenging.

4. Discussion

Revisiting the criticisms of VGSs, particularly more

complex LWSs, it becomes clear that achieving

genuine sustainability in the industry requires

a fundamental shift in perspective. Rather than

solely marketing the concept of a VGS as a „wall,“

the emphasis should transition towards promoting

comprehensive systems that provide a multitude

of benefits in contrast to the conventional cladding

materials (Riley, 2017). Consequently, it has been

determined that methodologies like LCA and

CBA can play a crucial role in either dispelling

or validating the accusations of ‚greenwashing‘

associated with VGSs.

It has been observed that the financial performance

of LWSs tends to be generally poor, frequently

resulting in negative outcomes. This is primarily

since LWS installations typically incur higher

costs for materials, operation, and maintenance

compared to traditional building products.

Consequently, enhancing the economic assessment

of LWSs requires incorporating their environmental

and social benefits to ensure a comprehensive

evaluation of both costs and benefits. By accounting

for all the benefits LWSs offer to buildings and urban

environments, they may demonstrate the greatest

long-term cost savings, thereby justifying their

added expense.

VGSs should ideally offset high investment costs

over time through economic advantages like passive

energy savings and increased property value. They

also offer social and environmental benefits, such

as reducing the UHI effect, carbon sequestration,

air pollution reduction, noise attenuation, and

fostering biodiversity. While energy savings,

carbon uptake, and pollution reduction are readily

quantifiable in LCA and CBA, other benefits—

such as biodiversity, noise reduction, and wellbeing—remain

under-researched (Rowe et al.,

2022). Empirical studies often focus on only a few

aspects in depth, leaving the full potential of VGSs

untapped. Moreover, as LWSs are cutting-edge and

largely developed by private businesses, opensource

data is scarce, further complicating their

comprehensive valuation and broader awareness

of their co-benefits. The issues related to economic

feasibility and environmental impact assessment

are represented in Figures 2 and 3.

In addition, empirical studies evaluating the

feasibility of different types of VGSs encounter

challenges in comparing results due to variations in

initial assumptions made by different authors (Rowe

et al., 2022). Inconsistencies in the methodologies

used for LCA and CBA pose another obstacle.

Authors often employ different definitions for

the scope of their studies, which can lead to

misunderstandings when comparing findings

across different research endeavors. To mitigate

these issues and ensure accurate comparisons,

there is a need to standardize the metrics used to

quantify the performance of VGSs. By establishing

uniform criteria, researchers can effectively

compare data between different VGSs, thereby

facilitating the optimization of the designs.

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17

Figure 2. Key Issues in Assessing the Economic Feasibility of LWSs

Figure 3. Key Issues in Assessing the Environmental Impact of LWSs

5. Conclusions

The economic viability of VGS, particularly

LWSs, hinges significantly on overcoming costrelated

barriers that deter widespread adoption.

Stakeholders often perceive high initial investments

and ongoing life-cycle expenses — such as

installation, maintenance, replacement, and

potential demolition costs — as substantial hurdles.

To assess the long-term economic value of VGSs,

CBA serves as a crucial tool. This method compares

the monetary costs and benefits throughout the

system‘s life cycle. By quantifying monetary benefits,

stakeholders can better understand the financial

feasibility and potential returns of implementing

VGSs.

The long-term environmental value of VGSs is primarily

reflected in the ecosystem services they provide.

To properly evaluate the long-term environmental

value, LCA serves as a crucial methodology. However,

conducting LCA for LWSs is complicated due to

the novelty of these systems, resulting in a lack

of comprehensive data and suitable models to

atccurately quantify the full range of benefits over

their lifespans. Therefore, existing research often

relies heavily on assumptions, which can introduce

uncertainties that lead to skepticism and concerns

about ‚greenwashing‘ claims, where environmental

benefits may be exaggerated or misrepresented.

Addressing stakeholder concerns about initial

costs while highlighting long-term savings and nonmonetary

benefi ts can significantly bolster the case

for incorporating LWSs into urban development

strategies. To support this, an initiative was

launched through the TU Delft Graduation Studio in

Building Technology to prioritize the quantification

of acoustic performance for VGSs in mitigating

urban noise, which is one of the vital ecosystem

services provided by these systems (Markson,

2024). Moreover, additional research is needed

to establish universal metrics for assessing other

ecosystem services provided by VGSs. Advancing

these metrics will enable stakeholders to better

understand the full range of benefi ts offered

by VGSs, leading to more informed feasibility

analysis and balanced decision-making in urban

development projects.

6. References

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Blanc. Patric Blanc’s official website. https://www.

verticalgardenpatrickblanc.com/medias. Retrieved

on 07/02/2024.

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Assessment of the environmental loads of green

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jenvman.2021.112927

Chàfer, M., Pérez, G., Coma, J., & Cabeza, L. F. (2021).

A comparative life cycle assessment between green

walls and green façades in the Mediterranean

continental climate. Energy and Buildings, 249, 111236.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111236

Cortês, A., Tadeu, A., Santos, M. I., de Brito, J., &

Almeida, J. (2021). Innovative module of expanded

cork agglomerate for green vertical systems.

Building and Environment, 188, 107461. https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107461

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handbook - General guide for life cycle assessment -

Detailed guidance (1st ed.). Luxembourg: Publications

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Fernández-Cañero, R., Pérez Urrestarazu, L., &

Perini, K. (2018). Chapter 2.1 - Vertical Greening

Systems: Classifications, Plant Species, Substrates.

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Hindle, R. L. (2012). A vertical garden: Origins of

the vegetation-bearing architectonic structure and

system (1938). Studies in the History of Gardens &

Designed Landscapes, 32(2), 99–110. https://doi.org

/10.1080/14601176.2011.653535

Jim, C. Y. (2015). Greenwall classification and critical

design-management assessments. Ecological

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ecoleng.2015.01.021

Manso, M., & Castro-Gomes, J. (2015). Green wall

systems: A review of their characteristics. Renewable

and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 41, 863–871.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.203

Manso, M., Teotónio, I., Silva, C. M., & Cruz, C. O.

(2021). Green roof and green wall benefits and costs:

A review of the quantitative evidence. Renewable

and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 135, 110111.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110111

Markson, S. (2024). Optimization of Vertical Greenery

Systems for Noise Mitigation in Urban Environments

[Master‘s thesis, Delft University of Technology].

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tudelft.nl/record/uuid:165f7d97-f6ac-4bc4-be74-

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Martins, A. M. T., & de Campos, I. D. (2019). From

the horizontal garden to the vertical garden: An

architectural and environmental perspective of the

“green” element. IOP Conference Series: Materials

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org/10.1088/1757-899X/471/7/072022

Ottelé, M., Perini, K., & Haas, E. (2013). Life cycle

assessment (LCA) of green façades and living

wall systems. In Eco-Efficient Construction and

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Labelling and Case Studies (pp. 457–483). https://

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façades and living wall systems for sustainable

constructions. International Journal of Design &

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plants in Art Nouveau gardens. Acta Agrobotanica,

68, 99–108. https://doi.org/10.5586/aa.2014.055

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(2015). The impact of greening systems on building

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(2023). Environmental assessment of design choices

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P. (2022). Assessing the environmental performance

of plastic-based and felt-based green wall systems

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232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.12.016

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and costs of vertical greening systems. In G. Pérez

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Urban and Building Sustainability (pp. 291–306).

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of green roofs and green walls: A literature review.

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19

Article

Guidelines for Vertical Farming in Building Envelopes

Sofia Soruco G. 1,2 and Alvaro Balderrama 1,3

1. Detmold School of Design, TH OWL, Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany

2. Carrera de Arquitectura, Universidad Católica Boliviana – Tarija, Tarija, Bolivia

3. Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, TU Delft, Julianalaan, 134, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract

The use of vegetation in the façades of buildings is a strategy frequently applied in contemporary architecture

to fulfill ornamental purposes as well as functional purposes such as improving thermal and acoustic

properties, capturing Co2, or promoting biodiversity. Regarding a productive use for the vertical surfaces of

building envelopes, growing plants for food presents a high potential considering worldwide challenges such

as urban densification, food scarcity, and climatic events. This research explores the main principles related

to the design of agricultural systems integrated within the façade design process, for new constructions as

well as for interventions to existing buildings. A narrative literature review of vertical farming in façades was

conducted to provide an overview of the state of the art and to identify the key strategies to consider in

the design process. These include (i) location and climate; (ii) building structure and design; (iii) selection of

vertical greenery system; (iv) plant species selection; (v) maintenance and monitoring; (vi) harvesting. Finally,

a discussion regarding future research to refine the guidelines via a series of case studies is presented,

pointing out that the expected outcome of this study is to provide an accessible tool for decision making that

researchers and practitioners can apply.

Keywords: green walls, farming, food, automation, urban farming

1. Introduction

According to the United Nations (2022), the projected

population is above 8 billion people, and the latest

projections suggest that the global population

could grow to around 8.5 billion in 2030, 9.7 billion

in 2050 and 10.4 billion in 2100, raising significant

challenges for food security and stressing the need

for innovative agricultural strategies to feed the

rising population within limited urban spaces in

more efficient ways. Traditional farming methods

struggle to meet the demands of food production

while conserving essential resources like water and

arable land. As urban areas expand and cultivable

land decreases, vertical agriculture integrated

into building envelopes could transform urban

spaces into more productive land accompanied by

potential benefits aside from food supply such as

potential improvements to thermal, acoustic, and

visual comfort, as well as air quality. This approach

not only alleviates the damage on rural farmland but

also helps address urban food security concerns

(Mishra et al., 2024). As described by Cardinali et

al. (2023), green walls, along with green roofs, are

often the only alternative to integrate vegetation in

the city, especially where street space is too narrow

for trees. Evidence on the environmental benefits of

green walls is still scarce, but evidence of the positive

effects of green horizontal space is quite robust.

Therefore, if green walls would be able to positively

influence health outcomes similar to green space,

the predominantly bare walls in urban areas present

a huge potential to improve public health.

This research aims to provide information regarding

the key concepts to consider in order to design

vertical farming systems in building envelopes,

from identifying the kind of plants that would be

suitable according to their climate, to finding an

efficient system for those plants and considering

materials that are easily accessible on each location

to build and maintain the system. The goal of this

study is to provide a series of preliminary guidelines

for decision-making based on a literature review

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regarding the design of feasible vertical agriculture

systems for the exterior side of building envelopes

to benefit the communities and the environment.


2.1. Origins of Vertical Greenery and Status of

Vertical Farming

The use of greenery in buildings has been present

throughout human history, with early known

examples such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon,

supposedly built in Mesopotamia during the reign

of King Nebuchadnezzar II (630 BCE – 561 BCE). The

Hanging Gardens were mentioned by several Greek

authors, including the geographer Strabo of Amasia,

the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, the orator

Philo of Byzantium, and Cleitarchus (van der Spek,

2008). However, their exact location and evidence

of existence remain debated by historians. Evidence

of greenery in buildings across diverse cultures

throughout history in ancient civilizations is agreed

on cases such as Egypt, Rome, China, Mayas, and

Incas among others (Ramos Martin, 2015; Kulatunge

et al., 2022).

Over time, green wall technologies have evolved

from aesthetic features into more complex systems

that offer environmental benefits such as improving

thermal insulation, reducing noise, improving air

quality, and lowering CO₂ levels (Horvath, 2018). This

integration of greenery into building façades laid the

foundation for modern urban farming, where vertical

spaces are used to grow food. Vertical farming has

emerged as a promising solution to address food

shortages and pollution in urban areas, contributing

to food security and environmental resilience

(Mishra et al. 2024).

The term „vertical farming“ was first introduced in

1915 by Gilbert Ellis Bailey, though his focus was on

improving soil usage rather than farming on vertical

structures above ground level as we understand

today. Bailey envisioned using layers of soil to

enhance water retention and crop yields. However,

the modern concept of vertical farming kept

evolving, with Despommier (2011) proposing the

concept of vertical farms, referring to using the floor

space of buildings with multiple stories. He stated

that the idea for the vertical farm arose in response

to the inadequate model of a rooftop garden, and

that the amount of space provided by the roof is

minor when one takes into account the indoor

floor space of the entire building, and retro-fitting

existing buildings with hydroponic and aeroponic

growing systems seems like a logical next step

towards constructing free-standing vertical farms.

Today, urban agriculture considers vertical farming

as indoor or outdoor growing, on the façades

and/or the roofs, on vertical or horizontal planes.

Vertical farming, is gaining traction, especially in the

northern hemisphere where it is seen as a way to

enhance food security, promote social equity, and

improve environmental quality (Tornaghi, 2014).

This modern form of agriculture offers innovative

solutions to challenges like the growing demand

for food in cities, soil degradation, and habitat loss

(Yuana et al., 2022).

2.2. Indoor and Outdoor Vertical Farming

Vertical farming offers an innovative approach to food

production by transforming urban environments

into green spaces that can cultivate crops efficiently.

When integrated into building envelopes, façades

fulfill not only the traditional functions of shelter and

aesthetics, but also food production. Both indoor

and outdoor vertical farming systems can be adapted

to these façades, though each presents unique

advantages and challenges in terms of environmental

control, resource efficiency, and crop yields.

Indoor vertical farming within building envelopes

leverages controlled environments, where factors

such as light, temperature, humidity, and nutrient

delivery are precisely regulated. This level of control

allows for consistent crop production, regardless

of external weather conditions. Indoor systems,

often using hydroponics or aeroponics, are highly

efficient in water use and eliminate the need for

soil. Additionally, artificial lighting, particularly LED

grow lights, can supplement or replace sunlight and

only using optimal colors (red and blue) instead of

the whole light spectrum, ensuring optimal growth

conditions year-round. Indoor rack systems use

shelving structures to grow plants vertically, allowing

for several levels in one single room with a standard

height. Automation and monitoring systems are

often included using sensors to monitor and optimize

growing conditions (figure 3a). Tower systems

for vertical farming are similar to green walls but

using columns. Additionally, indoor vertical farming

precents advantages over traditional farming such

as food being free from harmful pesticides and

herbicides due to the controlled conditions, which

reduce the risk of pest infections and maximize

product nutrition (Al-Kodmany, 2018).

a)

b)

Figure 1: a) Vertical farming operation utilizing

hydroponic A-Frames (picture: Isifarmer, 2024-a);

b) Tower system (picture: Wallace-Springer, 2021)

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Outdoor vertical farming on building façades holds

considerable potential for large-scale urban farming.

Although, outdoor systems face different challenges

than indoor environments with more controlled

conditions. Outdoor plants are exposed to natural

elements and must be resilient to fluctuations

in light, temperature, and humidity, making crop

management more complex. Additionally, growing

plants directly exposed to polluted air could result

in produce that is unhealthy for consumption

2.3. Growing Medium

The traditional way of farming uses soil as a medium

where the roots can develop. Although soil is still

a used approach, other methods have advanced

in the past decades to increase efficiency and

reduce risk presented by soil (pests, mold, lack of

control). Nowadays the main techniques for urban

farming are with the use of substrates, hydroponics,

aeroponics, and aquaponics (Isifarmer, 2024-a).

• Vertical farming with substrates - Common earth

or soil can technically be considered a substrate

in its most basic form. However, in the context

of modern vertical farming systems, the term

substrate typically refers to alternative growing

mediums that are used instead of soil to provide

support for plant roots. These substrates are

often selected for their specific properties,

such as improved aeration, water retention, and

nutrient delivery, which make them more efficient

and predictable than traditional soil. Instead,

substrates like peat, coir (from coconut husks),

rockwool, or vermiculite are used because they

offer more control over the growing environment.

These materials are often sterile, lightweight, and

designed to optimize water retention and root

aeration, which is essential for maximizing plant

growth in vertical farming systems. However,

some vertical farming systems may still use soil

in certain settings, particularly in smaller-scale

or organic vertical farms where the natural

properties of soil are preferred for specific crops.

• Vertical farming with hydroponics - Hydroponics

is a soilless method where plant roots are

submerged in a nutrient-rich aqueous solution.

This system saves significant water and space

and reduces the incidence of soil pests and

diseases. Vertical towers of trays are typically

located in indoor environments; however,

they could also be applied to façades (e.g. to

a double skin façade where the plants are in a

semi-controlled environment while serving as

building envelope. In addition, the concept of

aquaponics is a take oh hydroponics but also

implementing fish cultivation (Despommier,

2011).

• Vertical farming with aeroponics - Aeroponics is

a highly efficient soilless growing method where

plant roots are suspended in the air and receive

nutrients through a fine mist. This technique is

promising for vertical agriculture within building

envelopes due to its efficient use of space and

resources. Aeroponics uses significantly less

water compared to traditional methods, making

it suitable for urban environments where

space and water conservation are critical.

However, it does require specialized equipment,

consistent maintenance, and reliable power, as

plants depend on regular misting for nutrient

distribution.

2.4. Classification of Green Wall Systems

The term “green wall” (GW) is an umbrella term,

similar to vertical greenery system (VGS), which

is more used in engineering fields (Cardinali et al.,

2023), but they can generally be subdivided into

two main categories: green façades and living walls

(Manso & Castro-Gomes, 2015; Susorova, 2013).

2.4.1. Green Façades

The traditional situation where plants have roots on

the ground and climb walls. However there are two

main subcategories for green façades: direct and

indirect.

• Direct green façades where plants are attached

directly to the building surface without separate

support structures (figure 2a). These façades

can be self-supporting climbers, with plants

growing from planters at ground level or at

intervals along the façade.

• Indirect green façades – where plants climb on

independent support structures such as cables,

grids or meshes, and not directly on the wall

(figure 2b).

2.4.2. Living Walls

Living walls are generally more complex settings

than traditional green façades, since they consist of

a structure located along the vertical surfaces of a

building with the requirements to host the growing

medium (substrates or water), as well as the plants

with their roots growing on a vertical plane and not

on the ground. Although there is a vast range of

systems for living walls, they can be classified into

two main types: continuous and modular.

• Continuous living walls – where the soil is

contained on the vertical plane by a retaining

material such as geotextile felt or sheet materials

with openings where the plants are exposed

while the roots grow in the back (figure 3a).

• Modular living walls – where each plant is

contained independently and the roots are

not in contact with roots from other plants.

These systems are typically composed by

prefabricated panels, mats, framed boxes, or

trays (figure 3b).

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a) b)

Figure 2: a) direct green façade: wall climber - Gütersloh;

b) indirect green façade: mesh climber - Detmold

a) b)

Figure 3: a) continuous living wall: geotextile felt - Höxter;

b) modular living wall: vegetated mat – Bielefeld

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2.5. Vegetation Suitable for Vertical Farming

Selecting the right vegetation for vertical farming

is critical for optimizing space, yield, and resource

efficiency. The choice of plants depends on the

specific goals of the system—whether for growth

of specific species, or several species depending

on the season, environmental sustainability (e.g.

pollinators), or decorative-oriented purposes.

Different categories of vegetation suited to vertical

farming was identified (ISIFarmer, 2024-b).

2.5.1. Leafy Greens and Herbs

Leafy greens are among the most commonly grown

crops in vertical farming because of their short

growth cycles, shallow root systems, and high

productivity. Lettuce, spinach, kale, arugula, and

chard are ideal for these systems as they thrive

in hydroponic or aeroponic environments and

require minimal space. These crops can be stacked

vertically and harvested frequently, making them

highly efficient in terms of yield.

In addition to leafy greens, herbs such as basil, mint,

parsley, and cilantro have potential as they grow

compactly, have high culinary demand, and can be

harvested multiple times during a growing season.

These herbs can flourish in both indoor and outdoor

vertical systems, provided they receive adequate

light and nutrients.

2.5.2. Root Vegetables

Vertical farming can also be adapted to grow certain

root vegetables, particularly those that do not

require deep soil. Potatoes, onions, garlic, and

carrots are examples of crops that can be grown

in deeper, substrate-based systems or specially

designed vertical containers. Root crops like these

are more challenging to grow vertically compared

to leafy greens but can still be highly productive.

They require careful management of substrate

depth and water levels to prevent diseases such as

root rot.

2.5.3. Fruits and Vegetables

Climbing vegetable crops well-suited for

vertical farming include tomatoes, particularly

indeterminate varieties like cherry tomatoes,

which grow effectively when supported by trellises.

Cucumbers also grow vertical, adapting well to

upright structures and producing substantial

yields. Zucchini, especially vining varieties, as well

as peas are and pole beans. For climbing fruit crops,

grapes are commonly grown on trellises, taking

advantage of their ability to climb and producing

significant harvests. Passionfruit grows well on

vertical supports such as pergolas or fences.

Small varieties of melons, such as cantaloupes and

watermelons, can also be successfully cultivated

in vertical systems, provided they have sufficient

structural support. Additionally, smaller pumpkin

varieties can be grown vertically, although they

require stronger supports to accommodate the

weight of the fruit.

2.5.4. Edible Flowers

Edible flowers can be a valuable addition to vertical

farming, providing both culinary use and aesthetic

appeal. Nasturtiums, pansies, calendula, and borage

are examples of edible flowers that thrive in vertical

farming environments. These flowers not only add

vibrant colors to salads, desserts, and drinks, but

also offer nutritional benefits such as vitamins and

antioxidants. While commonly known as a weed,

dandelions are fully edible, from their roots to their

flowers, and are highly nutritious.

Additionally, edible flowers can attract pollinators,

which can be beneficial for other crops in outdoor

vertical systems. These plants generally require

minimal space and can be easily integrated into

vertical farming systems, either alongside vegetables

and herbs or in separate compartments.

2.5.5. Mushrooms*

Although mushrooms are not plants, they can be

a cost-effective and nutritious addition to vertical

farms. Unlike most other crops, mushrooms do

not require sunlight, making them an interesting

alternative for dark, unused spaces. Button

mushrooms, shiitake, and oyster mushrooms can

be cultivated on vertical racks, using substrates

such as sawdust, straw, or compost. These fungi

grow efficiently in humid, controlled environments,

making them an excellent option for vertical farming

systems looking to diversify their produce.

3. Key Parameters for Designing Vertical

Farming Systems in Building Envelopes

Based on the insights provided by the literature

review, a preliminary set of considerations for the

design of vertical farming systems on façades is

proposed. Each of these elements plays a role in

optimizing food production and maintaining the

architectural and ecological integrity of the system.

3.1. Location and Climate

The location of the building is perhaps the most

significant factor in designing a vertical farming

system since it will determine the possibilities for

that specific context. Outdoor vertical farming on

façades depends heavily on local climatic conditions

such as sunlight, wind, and rainfall. Sunlight exposure,

in particular, will dictate the orientation and design

of the façade. South-facing façades in the Northern

Hemisphere, for example, receive more sunlight,

which can be beneficial for plant growth but may also

require shading during peak hours. Wind exposure,

especially at higher elevations, must be accounted for

in the structural design to protect plants. Rainwater

harvesting systems can reduce water consumption,

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though excessive rain and humidity may require

drainage systems. For indoor systems, external

climate conditions are less influential, allowing for

more control over temperature, light, and humidity,

but the availability of natural light remains important

for energy efficiency.

3.2. Building Structure and Design

The structural capacity of the building must be

carefully evaluated before implementing a vertical

farming system, as these systems often add significant

weight, especially when using soil or water reservoirs.

A thorough structural assessment will ensure that the

building can support these loads without compromising

its integrity. The design of the vertical farm must also

complement the architecture of the building, both

functionally and aesthetically. Proper waterproofing

and insulation are crucial to protect the building from

water damage, while also using the vertical farm as an

additional insulating layer that improves the building‘s

energy efficiency by reducing heat loss in winter and

cooling needs in summer.

3.3. Selection of Vertical Greenery System

The choice of vertical farming system depends

on several factors, including the type of plants

being grown and the environmental conditions.

The irrigation and drainage systems are critical

considerations from the early stages. Automated drip

or misting systems are commonly used to ensure

plants receive the correct amount of water without

waste, and rainwater harvesting can be incorporated

in outdoor systems to improve sustainability.

Although the current tendency includes the use of

sensors or automation, these are not necessary in

all setups.

3.4. Plant Species Selection

Selecting the appropriate plant species is a key

consideration in vertical farming. The plants must

be suited to the available light, temperature, and

humidity conditions. For indoor vertical farms, the

controlled environment allows for greater flexibility

in plant selection, enabling the growth of crops

that may not naturally thrive in the local climate. In

outdoor systems, plants need to be more resilient

to weather changes and environmental factors.

Additionally, species with vertical growth habits or

compact forms are ideal for maximizing the limited

space available on building façades. Incorporating

a variety of species can promote biodiversity and

improve the overall health of the vertical farm, while

crop rotation is important to maintain nutrient

balance and prevent depletion.

3.5. Maintenance and Monitoring

A well-functioning vertical farming system

requires regular maintenance and continuous

monitoring to ensure plant health and maximize

yields. Accessibility is a key factor in the design, as

maintenance staff need safe and easy access to the

plants, especially in tall buildings. Movable platforms

or modular panels can facilitate routine upkeep,

such as pruning, pest control, and cleaning of

irrigation systems. Automated systems for irrigation

and nutrient delivery are essential for maintaining

optimal growing conditions, and sensors can be

used to monitor factors like moisture levels, nutrient

concentration, and plant health. Early detection of

issues like pests or nutrient deficiencies can prevent

larger problems and reduce the need for manual

intervention. For outdoor systems, protection

against weather extremes, such as wind or excessive

rain, may require additional maintenance.

3.6. Harvesting

Optimizing yield is a core objective in vertical

farming, and the system should be designed to

streamline the harvesting process. For large-scale

operations, automation can significantly reduce

labor costs. Automated harvesting technologies,

such as robots or conveyor systems, can be

integrated into the design to manage crop collection

efficiently. For outdoor systems, seasonal planning

is essential to ensure that plants are harvested

at their peak. Crop selection should align with the

local climate to maximize growth during periods of

favorable weather. Additionally, waste management

strategies, such as composting or nutrient recycling,

can minimize post-harvest waste and improve the

overall efficiency of the farm.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

This study provides an overview vertical farming

methods, and synthesis the main factors involved in

the successful design of vertical farming systems on

building envelopes. Although most of the research

and development has been conducted on indoor

environments, outdoor applications still have great

potential, considering the amount of surfaces in the

urban fabric occupied by the façades of buildings.

The established theories and real-world examples

of (non-agricultural) vertical greenery systems

or green walls can serve a starting point for this

concept, requiring the assessment of suitability for

agricultural purposes.

The preliminary guidelines presented in this paper

provide valuable insight for the design of building

envelopes. When considering implementing these

principles in contemporary façade constructions,

there are several attractive alternatives, some

more innovative than others. Stating from the more

traditional approach, whether growing directly on the

façade, or on a sub-structure, climbing plants that

grow fruits and vegetables. Living walls could be more

beneficial for growing leafy greens, herbs and roots.

It is important to that the preliminary guidelines

presented have a series of six elements, but

depending on the case, the order of their relevance

can change depending on the situation. For example,

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25

in one case the design might start considering a

specific building and deciding what type of vertical

greenery system to apply and deciding what type of

plants to grow. However, in another case, the design

of the vertical farming system might start from

the desire to grow a specific plant, and from there

searching for buildings available. Therefore, this

proposal is envisioned as a reference to be adapted

to the need of specific situation.

Regarding the apparent disadvantage to indoor

environments, the use of double skin façades

could be applied to develop greenhouse-like

façades where the plants grow in a semi-controlled

environment. This is approach could integrate

hydroponics or aquaponics, and it can still provide

transparency to the interior, contrary to living walls.

Future research will focus on refining the guidelines

for vertical farming in façades, in order to provide a

decision-making tool in the design stages for new or

existing buildings. The next step will be conducting

case studies in order to test the applicability of the

guidelines, with two cities in different hemisphere

being considered: Detmold, Germany and Tarija,

Bolivia.

6. References

Al-Kodmany K. (2018). The Sustainability of Tall

Building Developments: A Conceptual Framework.

Buildings. 8(1):7. https://doi.org/10.3390/

buildings8010007

Bailey, G.E (1915). Vertical farming. Wilmington, Del. :

E. I. Dupont de Nemours Powder Co. https://archive.

org/details/farmingvertical00bailrich/mode/2up

Cardinali, M., Balderrama, A., Arztmann, D.,

Pottgiesser, U.: Green walls and health: An umbrella

review. Nature-Based Solutions. 3, 100070 (2023).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2023.100070.

Despommier, D. The vertical farm: controlled

environment agriculture carried out in tall buildings

would create greater food safety and security for

large urban populations. J. Verbr. Lebensm. 6, 233–

236 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00003-010-

0654-3

ISIFarmer,(2024-a), Técnicas y sistemas de

agricultura vertical. https://isifarmer.com/es/

aprender/tecnicas-y-sistemas-de-agriculturavertical

[accessed 10/09/2024]

Kulathunga, S., Perera T., Perera T., and Udawattha

C. (2022). Urban Farming: A Review on Techniques

Used in Urban Farming in Mayan Civilizations

Manso, M., Castro Gomez, J. (2015), Green wall

systems: a review of their characteristics. Renewable

and Sustainable Energy Reviews, volume 41. https://

doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.203/

Mishra, N., Hangshing, L., Shashank Kadam, D.,

Tapang, T., and Shameena, S. (2024). Advances in

Vertical Farming: Opportunities and Challenges.

Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, Volume

30, DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2024/

v30i82241

Ramos Martin, L. (2015), Los jardines colgantes

de Babilonia; The Lighting Mind. https://www.

thelightingmind.com/los-jardines-colgantes-debabilonia/

[accessed 10/09/2024]

Susorova I., Bahrami P. (2013), Façade-integrated

Vegetation as an Environmental Sustainable

Solution for Energy-efficient Buildings.

Tornaghi, C. (2014). Critical geography of urban

agriculture. Progress in Human Geography, 38(4),

551-567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132513512542

United Nations Department of Economic and Social

Affairs - Population Division, World Population

Prospects 2022. https://www.un.org/development/

desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/

files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf

van der Spek, R.J. (2008). Berossus as a Babylonian

Chronicler and Greek Historian, in: R.J. van der Spek

(ed.), Studies in Ancient Near Eastern World View and

Society, Presented to Marten Stol on the Occasion of

his 65th Birthday 277-318.

Yuan, Grace Ning, Gian Powell B. Marquez, Haoran

Deng, Anastasiia Iu, Melisa Fabella, Reginald B.

Salonga, Fitrio Ashardiono, Joyce A. Cartagena

(2022). A review on urban agriculture: technology,

socio-economy, and policy, Heliyon, Volume 8,

Issue 11, 2022,e11583, ISSN 2405-8440, https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11583.

Wallace-Springer N. (2021), What You Should Know

About Vertical Farming Production. https://www.

pthorticulture.com/en-us/training-center/what-youshould-know-about-vertical-farming-production

[accessed 10/09/2024]

Isifarmer (2024-b), Vertical Farming Crops and

Plants. https://isifarmer.com/learn/vertical-farmingcrops-and-plants

[accessed 10/09/2024]

Horvath M. (2018), Agricultura vertical ¿De qué se

trata? Foodunfolded. https://www.foodunfolded.

com/es/articulo/agricultura-vertical.

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Article

Design for Disassembly through Additive Manufacturing:

Exploring the Potential of 3D-Printed Clay Components for Sustainable

Building Construction

Summary of the Master Thesis presented for the Master of Integrated Design - Computational Design

specialization

Luis Alfonso Gutierrez Suarez 1

Supervisor 1. Prof. Michel Melenhorst 1 , Supervisor 2. Dr. Prof Markus Schein 1

1. Detmold School of Design, TH OWL, Emilienstrße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) offers a clear solution for shifting away from the current linear design approach

in building construction and defining new opportunities for circular sustainability. Reevaluating building design

towards adaptability and implementing AM approaches directly supports reuse and recycling processes and

encourages repair and refurbishment methods. This study explores strategies where additive manufacturing

can mitigate the risk of obsolescence in building construction, creating a framework focused on design for

disassembly, and resilience architecture. The study employs experimental prototyping of 3D-printed clay

elements as discrete building units, experimenting with the flexibility and smart use of local resources enabled

through digital design processes, speculating on formal iterations of passive thermal tuned properties that

will enhance efficiency and customization to a layered construction system, targeting the accessibility of the

components for future maintenance, replacement, or modification.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing; design for disassembly; digital design; 3D printed clay; discrete elements

1. Introduction

1.1. Additive Manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing (AM), commonly known as

3D printing, has revolutionized industries over the

past three decades by enabling the production of

parts layer by layer. This approach significantly

reduces material waste, distinguishing it from

traditional manufacturing methods like milling or

injection molding (Ghoushchi et al., 2020; Zhang

et al., 2013; Wolf et al., 2022). In the construction

industry, which traditionally depends on massproduced

and standardized components, AM is

beginning to gain traction for its ability to create

large, customizable elements tailored to specific

project needs (de Witte, 2022).

Recent technological advancements have expanded

the capabilities of AM, making it increasingly relevant

for modern construction practices. The potential

benefits are numerous, including faster and more

cost-effective building processes, the ability to use

locally sourced materials, and on-site production

capabilities. However, integrating 3D printing as

a standard construction technique remains a

challenge that the industry must address to fully

realize these benefits (Grigoriadis et al., 2024).

1.1.1. Implementation and Challenges

For AM to be effectively implemented in

construction, it must seamlessly integrate with

existing construction technologies and processes.

This integration involves not only the ability to print

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conventional building components but also the

incorporation of new information technologies into

established workflows (Grigoriadis et al., 2024). AM

can be utilized either by producing prefabricated

parts that are de- livered to the construction site

or by enabling on-site production. Critical factors

such as material deposition resolution, printing

speed, and the need for post-processing play a

significant role in determining the success of AM in

construction (de Witte, 2022).

Despite the advantages of AM, there are still

challenges that must be resolved for it to be widely

used in the construction industry. These challenges

include issues related to the scale of production,

material properties, accuracy, and regulatory

limitations. For instance, while increasing printing

speed can be managed by using multiple printers

or large on-site printers, such innovations may

initially disrupt current construction techniques.

Overcoming these challenges will be crucial for

the long-term success and integration of AM in

construction (Grigoriadis, 2024).

1.1.2. Impact on Construction Practices

AM has greatly enhanced the ability to create

complex shapes and internal geometries that were

difficult to achieve using traditional construction

methods. This capability allows architects and

builders to design unique structures that serve both

aesthetic and functional purposes (de Witte, 2022).

The technology’s ability to produce project-specific

elements offers new possibilities for increasing

architectural diversity while potentially reducing

labor costs compared to traditional methods

(Grigoriadis et al., 2024).

Moreover, AM enables the production of shapes

and forms that are not economically viable with

traditional formwork, allowing for the creation of

small batch sizes and unique designs. This flexibility

is particularly beneficial for producing three key

categories: complex forms that cannot be made any

other way, standardized complex forms producible

only through AM, and smaller sizes that are more

cost-effective with AM. These advancements

improve the performance and cost-efficiency of

construction projects and also open the door to

new architectural designs (de Witte, 2022).

1.1.3. Innovations in Earth and Clay Construction

Earth materials, including mud and clay, offer

a sustainable and cost-effective alternative for

construction. Clay, a fundamental building block of

civilization for over 10,000 years, continues to be

used in techniques such as adobe and rammed

earth (Grigoriadis, 2024; Trambitski, 2023). Modern

interest in clay is driven by its environmental

benefits, including low energy and carbon costs,

as well as its abundance near construction sites,

which reduces the need for transportation. These

materials require minimal processing, can be fully

recycled, and provide excellent thermal comfort

(Trambitski, 2023; Wolf et al., 2022).

Recent advancements in 3D printing technology for

clay have attracted significant attention, particularly

in the architectural sector (Sangiorgio et al., 2022).

The difference between AM ceramics and AM clay

mainly due to the firing process-expands their use

in construction. While fully 3D-printed buildings are

still being explored, the prefabrication of smaller,

intricate components shows significant promise,

combining traditional materials with modern innovation.

This blend of techniques highlights AM’s

potential to increase clay’s role in construction,

leading to more sustainable and adaptable building

solutions (Wolf et al., 2022).

Despite these benefits, unfired clay faces challenges

in terms of strength and durability when compared to

modern materials like concrete and steel. Although

environmentally friendly, clay often requires

stabilization to enhance its mechanical properties

and resistance to water erosion (Trambitski, 2023).

AM techniques could revolutionize the production

of ceramic and clay components, particularly for

complex geometries and small-scale projects, making

it a more economical option. This advancement may

herald a “fourth generation of bricks,” combining

efficiency with customization in ceramic building

materials (Wolf et al., 2022).

1.2. Responsive Design

The design process in construction has evolved

from traditional 2D drawings to advanced 3D

digital models, facilitating better collaboration

among architects, designers, engineers, and

production teams. This evolution is crucial in AM,

where digital design tools like CAD, CAE, CAM, and

PDM play essential roles at every stage (Teixeira

et al., 2023). AM, a prominent tool in the Fourth

Industrial Revolution, not only enhances efficiency

but significantly expands design capabilities. The

integration of digital tools transforms the work of

construction professionals, optimizing processes

and enabling innovative and adaptable design and

fabrication methods (Grigoriadis, 2024; Cupkova et

al., 2021).

Advancements in digital design tools enrich

design possibilities and foster creativity in passive

systems, encouraging architects to explore unique

approaches. Digitization in architecture facilitates

cost-effective customization, allowing architects to

achieve personalized designs more efficiently (Teixeira

et al., 2023). One notable advancement in responsive

design is the enhancement of creative design

in passive systems, where performance and design

influence each other dynamically. This approach

allows precise control over thermal absorption and

heat release, improving both performance and

aesthetic diversity (Cupkova et al., 2021).

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A practical application of AM in construction is

the creation of 3D-printed bricks, which perform

well due to the ability to embed air pockets within

walls, enhancing thermal properties and structural

integrity (Sangiorgio et al., 2022). The integration

of form and material in design aims to manage

thermal gradients between buildings and their

environments, contributing to personalized thermal

comfort and sustainability (Cupkova, 2017).

1.3. Rethinking Traditional Methods

Traditional construction methods have long relied

on local materials and craftsmanship tailored to

specific environmental and cultural contexts. For

example, Fachwerk houses, known for their timber

frameworks filled with brick or wattle, were designed

to meet local needs. However, maintaining and

restoring such buildings, especially those requiring

work at greater heights has become increasingly

expensive, leading to many being neglected or

abandoned (Dohotariu & Purcaru, 2020; Karantoni

et al., 2016; Syiemi- ong & Marthong, 2021).

AM offers innovative solutions by integrating

traditional craftsmanship with modern digital

design tools, allowing the use of locally sourced

materials with enhanced efficiency and reduced

waste. This integration not only addresses issues

related to the lifecycle of materials and renovation

costs but also explores how traditional and modern

techniques can coexist. Case studies on 3D-printed

clay components highlight the potential for AM

to replicate the benefits of traditional materials

while offering greater customization and ease

of production. As a result, AM holds significant

potential for transforming construction practices

while integrating historical contexts and improving

material performance. (Wolf et al., 2022; Sangiorgio

et al., 2022).

1.4. Design for Disassembling

Design for Disassembly (DfD) is a crucial approach

in modern construction, aligning with the principles

of the circular economy by emphasizing the reuse,

repair, or recycling of building components. The

design phase plays a crucial role in achieving

these objectives by making crucial decisions about

materials, connection types, and component specifications

(O’Grady et al., 2021). DfD promotes

modularity and opens the door for discrete element

system solutions, thanks to advancements in new

technologies, which simplify the management of

material reuse and recycling, facilitating future

updates and increasing the potential for component

reuse (Arisya et al., 2021).

AM supports DfD by generating significantly less

waste than traditional subtractive methods and

enabling the design of components that can be

easily disassembled and reused. This approach

reduces waste, supports a circular economy,

and improves the sustainability of construction

practices. By integrating AM with DfD principles,

the construction industry can create more flexible,

sustainable, and adaptable building components,

ultimately leading to innovative solutions for

future construction challenges (Grigori- adis, 2024;

Cappelli et al., 2007).

2. Objectives

2.1. Research Problem

The paper explores the integration of additive

manufacturing (AM) as a disruptive technology in

construction. It investigates innovative perspectives

toward sustainable construction practices by

using the flexibility and efficiency of digital design

processes. The study aims to mitigate the risk of

obsolescence in building construction through

a design framework based on disassembly,

deconstruction, and resilient architecture.

Specifically, this study aims to develop innovative

solutions for resilient architecture, enhancing the

adaptability and design of building components.

The research will produce experimental 3D printed

prototypes, demonstrating the functional and

aesthetic potential of digital fabrication technology,

particularly in developing passive strategies such as

self-shadow properties.

2.2. Research Question

How can additive manufacturing (AM) components

be integrated into traditional Fachwerkhaus systems

to repurpose existing structures, and in what ways

can the advantages of AM for design for disassembly

enhance the coexistence of modern computational

design approaches with traditional constructing

methods?

2.3. Scope and Limitations

The scope of this research involves developing

and testing experimental prototypes that

integrate additive manufacturing (AM) for

design for disassembly. The initial focus will be

on creating building components that propose

passive strategies, such as optimized self-shadow

properties and organic insulation strategies. The

second phase will concentrate on testing the

geometrical and material properties of these

building components, optimizing infill patterns for

thermal delay.

The research also emphasizes local production

and environmental impact, aiming to facilitate a

return to localized building production to reduce

the environmental footprint. Additionally, the study

will explore the integration of AM components

with traditional Fachwerkhaus systems in terms of

architectural design and fabrication. The goal is to

identify how these two technologies can coexist and

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complement each other, Utilizing the advantages of

AM for more sustainable and adaptable construction

practices.


3.1. Case Studies

Moreover, incorporating ornamental aesthetics

and passive strategies can improve the functional

and visual appeal of AM projects. Lastly, innovative

connection methods promise to improve structural

integrity and ease of assembly. By focusing on

these areas, the project aims to drive significant

advancements in AM, resulting in more sustainable,

efficient, and versatile building solutions.

4. Methodology

Figure 1. Case Studies, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

The project detailed in this paper builds upon the

analysis of various AM projects, identifying significant

research opportunities in specific areas. The study

highlights the potential for advancements in using

AM clay, which could lead to more sustainable and

efficient construction materials and techniques.

Additionally, in-situ fabrication offers streamlined,

on-site production, minimizing transportation

needs and costs. Enhancing Cartesian printer

technology can improve precision, scalability, and

accessibility in additive manufacturing processes.

The development of stacked/interlocking designs

and the integration of scaffolding can provide

greater freedom for end designs, overcoming

restrictions imposed by traditional manufacturing

processes, such as those resulting in igloo shapes.

The proposed research methodology is structured

into four distinct phases to systematically explore

and develop innovative solutions in additive

manufacturing. In the first phase, Performative

Design, the focus is on a bottom-up methodology

of building units, optimizing passive strategies for

clay units through a computational workflow and

responsive design, and investigating patterns and

thermal regulation. The second phase, Perform

for Disassembly, emphasizes the development of

connections between units and their adaptation to

scaffold systems, incorporating principles of design

for disassembly (DfD) to ensure sustainable and

flexible construction. The third phase, Prototyping,

involves fine-tuning a custom G-code for printing,

creating prototypes to validate structural and

aesthetic properties, and addressing integration

issues. The final phase, Design Speculations,

explores future applications and integrations

within existing architectural frameworks, including

the development of microarchitecture prototypes

and the integration of the developed 3D-printed

building components with existing structures.

Additionally, the research focuses on customized

discrete elements that adapt to specific building

environments, highlighting their identity through

materials that represent a direct connection

between technology and architecture in its

historical context. A future step involving testing and

simulation will bridge the gap between physical and

digital processes, ensuring the developed solutions’

performance and durability. This methodology aims

to drive significant advancements in AM, focusing on

sustainability, flexibility, and seamless integration.

Figure 2. Methodology , Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

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4.1. Design for Disassembly – Concept

The concept of performing for disassembly in

this project focuses on reinterpreting traditional

construction methods through the implementation

of additive manufacturing (AM) for clay, prioritizing

accessibility and adaptability over simply designing

for disassembly. By employing a bottom-up

methodology, the approach emphasizes the creation

of customized discrete elements that can be tailored

to specific building environments, showcasing their

identity through the chosen materials. The assembly

concept is inspired by the modularity of Jenga,

facilitating easy access to building components

and allowing for modifications within a base wood

frame structure. This strategy incorporates unfired

clay units, enhancing the flexibility and sustainability

of the construction process. By merging these

innovative techniques with traditional practices,

the project aims to create a versatile and accessible

building system that can be easily adapted and

reconfigured.

Figure 4. System Integration, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

Figure 5. Unit Typologies, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

Figure 3. Assembly concept, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

4.2. Design for Disassembly - System

The system consists of 3D printing clay building

components that are both functional and visually

appealing. These components enhance thermal

comfort through a gradient transition from a dense,

rectangular pattern to a smoother one, providing

self-shadowing effects. The design draws inspiration

from the traditional Fachwerkhaus, incorporating a

wooden frame that divides the outdoor 3D-printed

seamless pattern into modules of nine units each.

This modular approach ensures circularity, future

reuse, repair, or recycling of their components

and materials. The design allows the modules to

be modified according to changing needs. The

disassembly process for each module is systematic,

starting from top to bottom and right to left. The

top-right clay unit features a lock mechanism;

once this is removed, the interlocking connections

allow the units to slide out from the interior to the

exterior. This innovative approach combines wood

with various typologies to create a flexible and

sustainable building system.

Figure 6. Assembly process, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

Figure 7. Locking mechanism, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

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4.3. Performative Design

4.3.1. Pattern Fine-Tunning

In this project, experimenting with brick geometry

played a crucial role in exploring how surface area

impacts shadow patterns. Two types of bricks were

initially tested: the Standard Brick and the Clay

Brick Block. By increasing the surface area on the

exterior face of these bricks, the shadow patterns

were significantly enhanced. This effect was demonstrated

through 3D-printed digital models and

further variations of these bricks.

Using Rhinoceros and Grasshopper software,

detailed surface modifications were made, adding

geometric patterns that noticeably increased the

shadowed areas. For example, in both Variation 1

and Variation 2 of the brick types, the shadowed

areas were larger compared to their standard and

3D-printed counterparts. This increase was primarily

due to the enhanced surface texture, which broke

up the light, creating more shadows.

Additionally, the 3D-printed digital models showed a

significant decrease in brick volume. This reduction in

volume is beneficial for sustainability, as it means using

less material while still improving both functional and

aesthetic properties. These innovative brick designs

demonstrate how geometric enhancements can

improve visual appeal, contribute to better passive

thermal regulation through increased shading, and

promote material efficiency.

The research “Modulating Thermal Mass Behavior

Through Surface Figuration” by Dana Cupkova

and Patcharapit Promoppatum provided further

insights. It compares the thermal performance of

different unit typologies, specifically smooth versus

rectangular geometries. The research found that

smoother surfaces, which maximize contact with

airflow, release heat more quickly but with a shorter

delay in heat transfer. This is due to smoother

surfaces facilitating more efficient heat exchange.

On the other hand, rectangular geometries create air

pockets that reduce direct airflow contact, slowing

down heat transfer.

The project’s optimization strategy focuses on

maximizing shadow areas to enhance passive

cooling while minimizing the surface area used. By

designing patterns that generate more shadows, the

project aims to improve thermal regulation without

significantly increasing material usage. Future steps

will include optimizing volume as a constraint to

ensure material efficiency in fabrication.

Figure 9. Self-shadow patterns, Luis

Gutierrez, Self-created.

For unit distribution, panels are strategically

placed based on radiation analysis. By correlating

incident radiation values for specific periods

with the performance of different geometries,

each panel’s placement is optimized to maximize

shadow performance. This method ensures that

the self-shadow areas generated by the geometries

align with the areas receiving the most radiation,

enhancing the overall thermal efficiency of the

building envelope. The provided images illustrate

the transition from rectangular to smooth surfaces

and the integration of radiation analysis with tile

performance, demonstrating the balance between

design aesthetics and functional performance in

sustainable architecture.

Figure 8. Pattern optimization, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

Figure 10. Pattern distribution, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

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4.3.2. Infill + Insulation Assumptions

Thermal delay, or thermal lag, is a key concept in

designing building materials that regulate indoor

temperatures. It refers to the time it takes for heat

to transfer from the exterior to the interior of a

wall. In this project, the experimental infill design

aims to extend this thermal delay by creating longer

pathways for heat to travel, thereby improving

the bricks’ thermal performance. As shown in the

accompanying image, the infill design has evolved

from a simple initial concept to a more complex

version, with typological variations that will require

further testing and optimization.

Figure 11. Prototype progress , Luis


This project draws inspiration from IAAC research

on incorporating thermal performance into clay 3D

printing. The research demonstrates how controlling

thermal conductivity through intelligent infill design

can significantly enhance both structural integrity

and thermal performance (Giraud, 2017). By

strategically organizing and depositing material, the

infill patterns influence the hollow cavities filled with

air within the wall, affecting thermal lag by altering

heat flow paths.

This phase of the project focuses on testing organic

materials to demonstrate how clay units can

integrate additional materials, creating a hybrid

construction. For instance, the process begins with

preparing mycelium, a fungal material known for its

insulating properties, to fill the last row of cavities on

the interior side of the unit. The unit is then wrapped

in transparent plastic, like polyethylene film, to allow

visibility and containment. Small holes are made in

the wrap to maintain the necessary humidity for

mycelium growth. The wrapped unit is stored in a

dark, warm area for fi ve days, providing an optimal

environment for the mycelium to bond with the

clay structure. This process highlights the potential

to create hybrid units that combine the structural

benefits of clay with the insulating properties of

organic materials, offering an innovative approach to

sustainable building design. In addition to mycelium,

other infill materials like wood fibers, hemp, and cork

will be tested. These materials will be evaluated for

their insulating properties and compatibility with

the clay units. Each material will undergo a similar

testing process, with adjustments made to suit their

unique characteristics.

Future steps will include technical evaluations of

these organic insulation materials to assess their

effectiveness and integration with the clay units.

These evaluations aim to ensure that the hybrid

construction meets the desired performance

criteria. This approach seeks to explore a variety of

sustainable materials to enhance both the thermal

performance and overall sustainability of the

building system.

The experimental infill is divided into two zones

based on thermal performance. The first zone, facing

the exterior, features cavities with top and bottom

openings designed to either reduce heat gain or

retain heat, depending on the season. The second

zone, facing the interior, consists of two rows of

cavities intended to hold organic insulation materials

such as mycelium, wood fibers, hemp, or cork.

Figure 12. System properties, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

Figure 13. Experimental Insulation, Luis Gutierrez,

Self-created.

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4.3 Prototyping Digital to Physical 4.3.2 Prototypes 1:2

Figure 14. 3D-printed Porcelain Prototypes 1:1, Luis


Figure 15. 3D-printed Porcelain Prototypes

1:2, Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

4.3.1 Prototypes 1:1

The process of prototyping at a 1:1 scale involved

several critical steps to ensure the accuracy and

functionality of the units. Initially, the focus was on

checking tolerances and fine-tuning the G-code,

which is crucial for precise 3D printing. The aim was

to prepare for future tests by identifying and solving

potential issues early in the process.

One of the primary challenges encountered was

ensuring the correct tolerances between the infill

rows. Adjustments were made to the G-code to

improve the precision of these tolerances, ensuring

that the printed units met the required specifications.

However, another significant issue that arose was

the presence of air bubbles in the porcelain mixture.

These air bubbles interrupted some of the tests,

causing inconsistencies in the printed prototypes.

To address the problem of air bubbles, steps were

taken to improve the mixing process of the porcelain

paste. This involved experimenting with different

mixing techniques and durations to minimize the

incorporation of air into the mixture. Despite these

challenges, the prototyping phase provided valuable

insights and led to improvements that will enhance

the quality and reliability of future prints.

To optimize the use of materials and reduce the time

required for testing, the project transitioned to a 1:2

scale for prototyping. This change allowed for more

efficient use of resources while continuing to test the

patterns and unit connections effectively.

However, scaling down the prototypes introduced

new challenges, particularly affecting the overall

tolerances. The smaller scale required additional

testing and fine-tuning of the G-code to ensure

accuracy. Issues with layer height and extrusion

values became apparent and were evident in the

sample pictures. These problems necessitated

further adjustments to the slicing parameters, which

save the G-code for printing, to achieve the desired

precision and quality.

The process involved meticulous calibration of

the slicing settings, including adjustments to the

layer height and extrusion rates, to address the

discrepancies caused by the scale change. This phase

of prototyping was crucial in refining the design

and ensuring that the patterns and connections

functioned correctly at different scales. Through

iterative testing and adjustments, the project aimed

to resolve these issues and improve the reliability of

the prototypes for future stages.

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5. Design speculations

Figure 16. 3D-printed Final Prototypes 1:2, Luis


The proposed system shows great promise for

creating flexible and adaptable living spaces. One

idea is to develop small, modular living units that

can be built on-site using 3D printing technology

(see Figure 17). These units are designed to be

easily assembled, disassembled, and reconfigured,

making them ideal for changing needs.

Figure 17. 3D-printed Final Prototypes 1:2, Luis


Figure 18. Design speculations Microarchitecture ,

Luis Gutierrez, Self-created.

The results of the prototyping phase demonstrated

significant progress and development, effectively

transitioning from digital models to physical

experimentation with the material. To optimize

material usage and reduce testing time, the project

scaled down to a 1:2 ratio for prototyping. This

adjustment allowed for efficient resource use while

continuing to test patterns and unit connections

effectively. Initially, the smaller scale introduced

challenges, particularly with overall tolerances,

which required additional testing and fine-tuning

of the G-code for accuracy. Issues with layer height

and extrusion values were evident in the sample

pictures. However, once the errors in the code and

printing settings were resolved, the middle row of

clay units was successfully printed.

Further customization of settings was identified as

a key area for enhancing results regarding time and

material efficiency. Decentralizing parts of the unit

could lead to better outcomes, such as assigning

different extrusion values to the contour of the brick

compared to the infill pattern. Additionally, adjusting

the printing speed decreasing it for the pattern area

and increasing it for other parts of the unit could

further improve efficiency.

This phase highlighted the importance of meticulous

slicing settings and iterative test.

Figure 19. Design speculations Integration to existing

structures fachwerk- house scan by netgis Sketchfab.

Another idea is to adapt 3D-printed building units

to fit traditional Fachwerkhaus Façades, using

advanced 3D scanning methods (see Figure 18). This

approach allows us to blend modern construction

techniques with historical architecture, preserving

the original look while adding new functions and

improving energy efficiency.

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These design ideas highlight how 3D printing can be

used in both new and old buildings, offering flexible,

sustainable, and innovative solutions. Future

research will explore these possibilities further,

focusing on how to best combine new technology

with existing structures.

6. Conclusion

This thesis set out to explore how additive

manufacturing (AM) can be integrated into sustainable

construction practices, with a focus on creating resilient

building components that can adapt to future needs.

By developing strategies for design for disassembly

and utilizing digital fabrication techniques, the research

aimed to address the growing demand for sustainable

and flexible construction systems.

Throughout the research, significant progress was

made in applying AM to sustainable construction,

particularly through the development and testing of

3D-printed clay components. The findings revealed

the design flexibility offered by discrete elements,

showcasing their potential to enhance building

adaptability. However, challenges such as scalability

and production efficiency were identified, highlighting

areas that require further exploration.

These findings have several important implications

for the future of construction. The flexibility

of discrete elements in AM introduces new

possibilities for innovative building designs, yet

addressing the challenges of scaling and production

time will be crucial for broader adoption.

Additionally, the inclusion of multiple materials,

such as organic insulation, suggests the potential

for hybrid approaches that combine the best of AM

and traditional methods, optimizing construction

processes for both efficiency and sustainability.

Particularly, the design concept of disassembly and

system flexibility brings to light the importance of

hybrid elements that allow for the replacement of

exterior parts without exposing the interior. This

approach is essential for maintaining the integrity

and resilience of the systems.

Furthermore, the speculative designs presented

in this thesis highlight the potential of integrating

3D-printed components into existing structures.

This approach maximizes the performance of

traditional construction methods by targeting

specific gaps rather than reshaping entire structures.

By focusing on these critical areas, the design

process becomes more realistic and efficient,

especially when considering the time required for

fabrication. This strategy not only enhances the

adaptability of existing buildings but also optimizes

the use of resources, making it a practical solution

for modern construction challenges.

Looking ahead, future research should prioritize

the use of site-sourced clay in prototyping to

better understand the material properties and

constraints. Testing the thermal strategies

developed in this study will provide valuable data

that can be used to refine the concept of hybrid

elements, ensuring they are seamlessly integrated.

Furthermore, exploring the behavior of local

materials, particularly in terms of shrinkage, and

optimizing the G-code for printing efficiency will

be key steps in advancing the technology and its

practical applications.

In summary, this project underscores the

transformative potential of combining modern

digital design with traditional building practices

to create construction systems that are not

only sustainable but also highly adaptable and

resilient. The findings lay a strong foundation for

future innovations in additive manufacturing for

sustainable architecture, pointing toward a future

where hybrid building components-blending the

strengths of AM with traditional methods-offer

versatile and efficient solutions that respect and

enhance historical architecture.

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Article

Influence of Façade Construction on the Lateral Stability of

High-Rise Buildings

Summary of the Master Thesis presented for the Master of Integrated Design - Façade Design specialization

Hiruy Gebremariam 1

Supervisor 1. Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Jens-Uwe Schulz 1 ; Supervisor 2. Prof. Dipl.-Ing Daniel Arztmann 1


Abstract

The global pursuit of constructing the tallest skyscrapers remains a significant trend, driven by advancements in

construction technology and safety over the past century. Key innovations, including structural bracing systems

and new materials, have enabled the achievement of unprecedented building heights. Recent challenges involve

ultra-thin mega-tall structures and the use of a sustainable materials like timber, necessitating environmentally

conscious design solutions.

This thesis explores an innovative approach to vibration control using a building‘s double skin façade as a Tuned

Mass Damper (TMD), a concept proposed by Moon in 2007. The research includes a case study of Mjøstårnet,

the world’s tallest timber-framed building, which uses concrete floor slabs to mitigate vibrations. The study

investigates replacing the concrete with a Double Skin Façade (DSF) featuring flexible connections for wind load

design. Results indicate this method could achieve similar vibration reduction with less mass, though further

evaluation is needed before widespread application.

Keywords: high-rise buildings, lateral stability, Double skin façade, vibration control mechanisms

1. Introduction

The construction of high-rise buildings has advanced

significantly in the 20th and 21st centuries, driven

by the need to accommodate growing urban

populations within limited spaces. As cities in

both developed and developing countries expand

vertically, the demand for taller buildings has surged,

bringing new challenges in structural stability,

vertical transportation, material selection, and fire

safety. Various standards, such as the National

Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the Council

on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), have

been established to classify these buildings based

on height.

High-rise construction has been propelled by

technological advancements, including the

development of elevators and new building materials

like steel and reinforced concrete. However, taller

buildings introduce significant challenges in ensuring

structural stability, particularly against lateral

forces from wind and earthquakes. Modern highrise

designs have evolved to address these issues,

incorporating innovative structural systems and

optimized building shapes to reduce lateral loading

and enhance stability. As sustainability becomes

increasingly important, the use of materials like

Glulam and CLT timber in high-rise construction is

also gaining traction, requiring detailed analysis to

ensure long-term serviceability and safety.


The literature review is done on several studies

focusing on the role of façades in improving lateral

stability and seismic performance of buildings.

(Amanda AOUN, 2016), analyzed the seismic

response of a multi-story building with and without

façades using a 10-story concrete structure. Her

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findings indicated that including façades slightly

increased story displacements and shear forces due

to the added mass, highlighting the need for better

integration of façade effects in structural analysis.

She faced challenges with modeling software

limitations for accurate vibration analysis.

(Bedon & Amadio, 2017), proposed a vibration

control device, a flexible curtain wall support, to

enhance the dynamic performance of buildings,

inspired by the tuned-mass-damper (TMD) design.

Their research showed significant benefits in

reducing top displacements, tensile stresses,

deformations in glazing components, and avoiding

plastic hinges in steel members when properly

designed devices were used.

(Moon, 2011), introduced the use of a Double Skin

Façade (DSF) system for structural motion control,

arguing that the outer skin of a DSF with low axial

stiffness connectors and damping mechanisms can

reduce the dynamic motion of buildings. However,

this approach raised concerns about the practicality

and safety of stabilizing entire buildings using DSFs

due to the shorter lifespan of façades and potential

user discomfort.

2014), evaluated the in-plane and out-of-plane

movements of DSFs connected to buildings using

„sacrificial elements.“ They found higher in-plane

stiffness significantly reduced lateral displacements,

suggesting the need for combined in-plane and outof-plane

capabilities in DSF designs.

(Azad, 2016), proposed using smart façade systems

with energy-absorbing devices to reduce structural

responses to wind loading. He optimized the

stiffness and damping properties of façade brackets,

demonstrating that movable exterior façades could

dissipate wind-induced vibrations effectively.

(Quiel et al., 2018), they introduced the Variable

Friction Cladding Connection (VFCC) to mitigate

multi-hazards. They found that VFCCs outperformed

other connection strategies in reducing inter-story

drift and absolute acceleration, offering better

overall performance under different hazards.

(Zhang, 2023), proposed a distributed-Multiple Tuned

Façade Damping (d-MTFD) system using movable

DSF outer skins as damping masses. This system,

tested in collaboration with Josef Gartner GmbH,

showed promise in reducing building vibrations and

harvesting energy. Zhang emphasized the potential

for energy harvesting to increase the reliability and

self-sustainability of semi-active control systems,

reducing the carbon footprint of high-rise buildings.

These studies together highlight the evolving role of

façades in structural dynamics and vibration control,

showcasing various innovative approaches and their

respective benefits and challenges in enhancing

building performance.

3. Methodology

Figure 1. Concept diagram of DSF used as vibration

control for high-rise buildings (Moon, 2011)

(Tat S. Fu, 2013), built on Moon‘s work by exploring

the effects of different damper configurations

in DSFs. He found that optimizing the damper

location and number could significantly reduce

building vibrations. Fu emphasized the potential of

DSFs to adjust internal and external conditions for

improved building performance. (Abtahi & Samali,

This study investigates the dynamic performance

of a high-rise timber structure, focusing on modal

and time-history analysis under different scenarios.

The selected case study is the Mjøstårnet building

in Norway, the tallest fully timber-framed highrise

globally, at 85.4 meters. The research involves

modeling the structure using Grasshopper tools and

RFEM 6 software, analyzing the building‘s response

to dynamic loads, and exploring the potential of a

Double Skin Façade (DSF) with flexible and damping

supports to mitigate excessive vibrations.

Figure 2. some Proposed bracket designs and VFCC system (Azad, 2016 & Quiel et al., 2018)

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3.1. Case Study: Mjøstårnet

The Mjøstårnet building in Brumunddal, Norway,

was selected for its significance as the tallest timberframed

structure, making it relevant to this study.

The building, with 18 floors, includes a glulam timber

pergola atop its structure. It features large-scale

glulam columns, beams, and trusses for gravity

and lateral stability, with Cross Laminated Timber

(CLT) walls for the staircase and elevator shaft. The

slabs vary from timber decks with concrete screed

to concrete floors at the top, designed to meet

dynamic performance criteria concerning human

comfort. The focus is on finding an alternative to the

concrete slabs on the upper floors by implementing

a DSF.

3.3. Dynamic Analysis

The dynamic analysis included both modal and timehistory

analyses. The base model of the building,

as built, was analyzed first. Modal analysis was

performed using the Lanczos method to identify the

natural frequencies and mode shapes. The results

were compared with those from previous studies,

showing that the RFEM model‘s frequencies were

higher due to certain modeling choices, such as

excluding the pergola mass.

Figure 3. The Mjøstårnet building

(Nina Rundsveen, 2019)

Figure 5. base model (a) and its modal analysis

results (b) Mode 1[0.423Hz, 2.36s],

and (c) Mode 2[0.492Hz, 2.03s]

3.2. Structural Modeling

The structural model was developed using

Grasshopper and RHINO software, which allows for

parametric modeling. Dlubal‘s Grasshopper plugin

facilitates the export of the modeled structure

to RFEM 6 for dynamic analysis. Key considerations

in modeling included assigning materials, support

types, and connection releases. The building‘s

foundation is supported by pin connections, and

the glulam elements were modeled based on the

specifications from previous studies. The CLT walls

were excluded from the dynamic analysis as they

do not contribute to lateral stability. The slabs were

modeled as shell elements with specified material

properties, and the external wall mass was added

as a live load.

Figure 6. Full timber deck model (a) and its

modal analysis results (b) Mode 1[0.60Hz,

1.67s], and (c) Mode 2[0.719Hz, 1.39s]

Figure 4. Mjøstårnet building structural components

(Liven & Abrahamsen, 2023) and RFEM 6 model

Time-history analysis was conducted to assess the

building‘s response to wind loads, considering both

undamped and damped scenarios. The results

showed a reduction in deformation and acceleration

when damping was considered. A second model

with all floors constructed from timber decks was

analyzed to evaluate the impact of changing the

top floors from concrete to timber. This model

exhibited higher frequencies and greater sensitivity

to dynamic loads, confirming the necessity of

additional damping measures.

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Figure 9. The damper system in Dlubal RFEM 6

Before using this damper as a support directly to the

thesis model, it is tested on a simple timber framed

stick façade system. For the checking, a model for the

pin-supported curtain wall and another model for

the damper system support are prepared. Then the

effect of different damping coefficients is checked.

The two timber-framed curtain wall models with the

pin and damper supports are presented here:

Figure 7. Time history analysis output

in the Y direction

3.4. Model with Double Skin Façade

The third model introduced a Double Skin Façade

(DSF) on the top six floors, replacing the concrete

slabs with timber decks. The DSF was supported

by flexible support with dampers to control

vibrations. An alternative model with a rigidly fixed

DSF was also created to explore different support

mechanisms. The analysis indicated that the DSF,

when supported by flexible damping mechanisms,

could effectively reduce vibrations and improve the

building‘s dynamic performance. This approach

offers a viable alternative to using heavier concrete

slabs, potentially preserving the all-timber design

while maintaining comfort and stability.

Figure 10. Sample timber Façade with pin

supported (left-hand side), and damper supported

(right-hand side)

Figure 11. time-history analysis results of the

pin support (left-hand side), and the damper

(right-hand side)

Figure 8. A model with DSF (a) and their modal

analysis results (b) Mode 1[0.493Hz, 2.03s],

and (c) Mode 2[0.509Hz, 1.96s]

In Dlubal RFEM 6 there is a damper member option

with the Kelvin–Voigt model principle. This model

consists of a damping element and an elastic spring

connected in parallel. This configuration allows the

damper to exhibit both viscous and elastic behavior

making it suitable for time-history analysis. This

damper is used to represent an axial movable and

damping support system for this thesis.

Figure 12. Acceleration comparison graph of the

pin supported Vs. proposed damping support

with different axial stiffness values at the center of

the middle mullion of the timber façade for timehistory

analysis

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Figure 13. Acceleration comparison graph of the

proposed damping support with different damping

coefficient values at the center of the middle mullion

of the timber façade for time-history analysis

Figure 17. Comparison of acceleration at node 310

for the base model and full timber deck model

The results of the time-history analysis for the

model with DSF connected with both rigid support

and the axial damper support system are as follows:

4. Results

The results of the time-history analysis for the built

building’s deformation and acceleration value at the

top level for the base model and the full timber deck

building model are presented here as a comparison:

Figure 14. A Deformation output of the RFEM timehistory

analysis at node 310 comparison

Figure 18. Comparison of the base model with

the proposed DSF supported with a damper

system for deformation

Figure 15. An Acceleration output of the RFEM timehistory

analysis at node 310 comparison

Figure 19. Comparison of deformation at node 310


Figure 16. Comparison of deformation at node 310


And the results of the proposed model with DSF

connected with axial movable support with damping

characteristics and the base model is presented as

a comparison for the deformation and acceleration:

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5. Discussion

The analysis compares three models: the base

model, a full timber deck model, and a proposed

Double Skin Façade model, focusing on deformation

and acceleration at the top floor. The study found

that replacing timber with concrete slabs on the top

six floors increases the building‘s weight, improving

its resistance to wind loads and reducing excessive

vibrations. The base model with concrete slabs

stabilizes faster, with less acceleration (<0.4 m/

s²) compared to the full timber model (>0.6 m/

s²). However, both models show similar maximum

deformations. The concrete slab effectively reduces

vibration, enhancing structural stability.

The Double Skin Façade (DSF) is proposed as a

mass damper to replace concrete floors, aiming to

reduce the building‘s weight from 5,221,670 kg to

4,188,760 kg. This weight reduction increases the

first mode frequency from 0.423 Hz to 0.628 Hz

with a rigid connection. When a flexible connection

with a spring and damper is used, the frequency

decreases to 0.493 Hz. The DSF mass affects the first

and second modes, particularly when fixed with a

flexible connection. Time history analysis shows that

the flexible DSF connection slightly reduces building

acceleration and deformation, influenced by axial

stiffness and damping coefficient.

The proposed Double Skin Façade (DSF) model,

with reduced mass, shows lower deformation at the

top floor compared to the base model, indicating

its potential despite different influencing factors.

Acceleration values are also slightly better in the DSF

model, suggesting improved performance over the

base model.

6. Conclusions

This paper explores the potential of Double Skin

Façades (DSF) in enhancing the lateral stability

and vibration control of high-rise buildings, using

Mjøstårnet, the world‘s tallest fully timber-framed

building, as a case study. A comprehensive literature

review on façade construction‘s influence on lateral

stability was conducted, followed by creating a

digital model in Dlubal RFEM 6 using Grasshopper.

The model underwent wind and dynamic analysis,

focusing on wind loads in one direction to streamline

calculations. The study also tested a new damper

system in RFEM 6, comparing traditional pin supports

with dampers featuring various spring stiffness and

damping coefficients.

The analysis revealed that replacing concrete

floors with a DSF system on Mjøstårnet’s top floor

significantly reduced the building’s mass while

providing comparable vibration control. Although

concrete mass aids in stabilizing against windinduced

overtopping, this study centered on

vibration control, where the DSF system excelled.

The DSF’s flexible and damping support effectively

reduced excessive vibrations, though monitoring

relative movement between the DSF and the main

structure in large-scale buildings proved challenging.

The thesis met its primary objectives, which included

reviewing state-of-the-art façade-based vibration

control methods and evaluating the DSF system‘s

potential using Mjøstårnet. The findings suggest that

DSF with flexible and damping supports reduces

building movement better than converting timber

slabs to concrete, though further investigation

into lower axial stiffness‘s impact is necessary.

Additionally, while the new damper option in RFEM

6 provided promising results, further validation with

advanced software is recommended.

7. References

Abrahamsen, R. (2017). Mjøstårnet-Construction of

an 81 m tall timber building.

Abtahi, P., & Samali, B. (2014). Evaluation of in-plane

and out-of-plane movement of Façade panels to

reduce structure response during earthquake

excitation. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/

by/4.0/

Amanda AOUN. (2016). Earthquake Simulation

Earthquake Simulation Software Response

Interaction between Building and Façade. http://

www.hs-owl.de/skim/opus/home

Azad, A. (2016). Application of Smart Façade System

in Reduction of Structural Response During Wind

Loads.

Bedon, C., & Amadio, C. (2017). Enhancement of

the seismic performance of multi-storey buildings

by means of dissipative glazing curtain walls.

Engineering Structures, 152, 320–334. https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.09.028

Fu, T. S., & Zhang, R. (2016). Integrating Double-Skin

Façades and Mass Dampers for Structural Safety

and Energy Efficiency. Journal of Architectural

Engineering, 22(4). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)

ae.1943-5568.0000218

Moon, K. S. (2011). Structural design of double

skin Façades as damping devices for tall buildings.

Procedia Engineering, 14, 1351–1358. https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.07.170

Pipitone, G. (2020). Optimal design of building

envelopes for passive structural control. https://doi.

org/10.26174/thesis.lboro.12493382.v1

Quiel, S., Ricles, J., Cao, L., Gong, Y., Micheli, L., &

Laflamme, S. (2018). Performance evaluation of a

semi-active cladding connection for multi-hazard

mitigation. 9. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2295933

Zhang, Y. (2023). Self-sufficient semi-active vibration

control of high-rise buildings under wind excitation

by moveable double-skin Façades. https://doi.

org/10.26127/BTUOpen-6381

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Article

Enhancing BIM Integration in Façade Design Process


Meltem Durmus 1

Supervisors: Prof. Dipl.Ing. Daniel Arztmann 1 , Dipl.Ing. Jochen Hoelscher 2

1. Detmold School of Design, TH OWL, Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany

2. Hoelscher GmbH, Karl-Kisters-Straße 20, 47533 Kleve, Deutschland

Abstract

The implementation of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the Façade industry, despite some partial

implementations, is still slow due to the lack of holistic approaches. Although BIM has significantly improved

construction processes and management, taking full advantage of its benefits remains a challenge. This is

particularly noticeable in the Façade processes, where unclear requirements and lack of interdisciplinary

coordination often led to data loss, over-modeling, time waste, and cost overruns. This research begins with

a review of relevant data from existing standards, guidelines, and literature. Maturity analysis criteria have

been developed to understand the current level of BIM adaptation in organizations. Through a case study

with Hoelscher Façade company, their practical workflow was analyzed to identify current implementation

gaps, and the maturity analysis was applied. Based on the findings, recommendations are made to increase

BIM integration. The study presents a conceptual workflow integrated into BIM, detailing the necessary steps

to improve maturity levels and optimize BIM adoption. Overall, this thesis aims to increase BIM effectiveness

by developing a comprehensive analysis and approach around the key components of BIM, providing a

structured roadmap to increase BIM adoption and maximize its benefits at different levels.

Keywords: Building Information Modeling (BIM), BIM Execution, BIM Adoption, Workflow Optimization

1. Introduction

Although BIM has significantly enhanced construction

processes by improving coordination and reducing

errors, its full potential remains untapped, especially

in Façade design. Façade processes often face

challenges such as data loss, time wastage, and

coordination issues due to unclear requirements

and insufficient interdisciplinary collaboration. This

thesis aims to address these gaps by exploring BIM

implementation in the Façade industry, focusing on

developing criteria for measuring BIM maturity and

providing strategic recommendations for improving

BIM integration. The key research questions guiding

this study are: What criteria should be identified

and optimized to enhance BIM integration in Façade

companies? Additionally, where are BIM applications

lagging in practical workflows, and how can they be

improved to streamline the overall process?

1.1. Objectives

Developing and applying BIM maturity criteria to

assess the current state of BIM adoption in a Façade

company. Identifying gaps in BIM implementation

b y a n a l y z i n g t h e c o m p a n y ‘ s p r o j e c t w o r k fl o w s .

Providing strategic recommendations to enhance

and streamline processes within the BIM framework.

2. Methodology

The study started with a literature review on

BIM concepts, adoption, maturity levels, and its

application in façade projects. Following this, the

research is divided into various phases to address

the research questions using both qualitative

and quantitative methods. Phase 1 involved data

collection through semi-structured interviews

with the façade company. Phase 2 focused on

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process mapping, where visual representations

of the company‘s project workflows were created

to highlight key processes, information flow, and

team roles in Façade design and construction. The

final phase entailed developing a BIM maturity

measurement tool based on existing studies to

assess the company‘s current level of BIM integration

and identify areas for improvement.

2.1. Developing BIM Maturity Criteria

The maturity criteria for BIM integration, based on

reference studies such as Succar (2010), Azzouz et

al. (2016), and Siebelink et al. (2018), are structured

across three levels: firm, process, and project.

Firm Level: Focuses on including BIM clauses in

contracts, ensuring compliance with standards like

ISO 19650, using proper classification systems, and

having adequate technology infrastructure for BIM.

Process Level: Evaluate the organizational

structure, team roles, workflow readiness for BIM,

use of collaborative tools, and the competence of

BIM software and tools.

Project Level: Involves outlining a BIM Execution

Plan (BEP), assessing the effectiveness of a Common

Data Environment (CDE), and implementing

advanced BIM uses (4D, 5D, 6D). It also includes

analyzing documentation practices and data

management throughout the project lifecycle.

2.2. Data Collection

Data collection involved three stages: Pre-Tender,

Preliminary Design, and Final Design. In the Pre-

Tender phase, data was entered into ERPlus,

with system elements managed via Schücal and

non-system elements integrated from external

suppliers. During the Preliminary Design, AutoCAD

was used to update project drawings from client

PDFs, categorize the Façade, and produce detailed

designs. The Final Design phase focused on

preparing manufacturing drawings based on the

assembly sequence, organizing them by materials,

and generating the BOM in ERPlus, with orders

placed for external sources.

Data management involved using a naming convention

for organizing files but lacked a product library and

faced version control issues due to inconsistent

updates between tools. Most drawings were created

and updated in AutoCAD, with manual entry of

quantity, dimensions, and materials into layout

templates. Client communication was managed via

DWG or PDF files. Documentation was handled with

ERPlus for data synchronization and AutoCAD for

detailed drawings, which included key information

such as location, quantity, and Façade type.

3. Results

3.1. Identified Challenges

The analysis reveals several challenges with the

current 2D-based Façade design workflow and its

limited BIM integration. The manual processes and

traditional methods result in significant inefficiencies.

Data transfers from AutoCAD to the ERP system

(ERPlus) are error-prone, especially for quantity

reporting. The reliance on 2D drawings complicates

the design of complex assemblies like corner points,

while the lack of inter-departmental communication

leads to version control issues and outdated

files. Manual quality control with 2D drawings

increases the risk of undetected errors, potentially

escalating construction costs. Additionally, material

management is hampered by delays since quantities

are only calculated after shop drawings are finalized.

A BIM system could streamline this by enabling

earlier generation of the bill of materials (BOM).

The sequential flow of information, where activities

like structural analysis are performed only after

drawings are complete, causes further delays and

inefficiencies due to manual communication and

coordination. Documentation remains inefficient,

with data manually extracted from AutoCAD

drawings and changes not dynamically reflected

in related documentation, adding to the overall

inefficiency of the process.

3.1.1. Correlation of Problems

The challenges identified in the workflow are

interconnected. These correlations were mapped to

prioritize problem-solving efforts. The full problem

correlation table is presented in Figure 2. The vertical

column represents j and the horizontal column

represents i. A = j causes i, V = i causes j, X = problems

support each other, and O = problems are irrelevant.

Figure 1: BIM Maturity Criteria

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Figure 2: Interconnection of Problems

3.2. BIM Maturity Level Analysis

The company’s BIM maturity assessment identified

several areas needing improvement:

Firm Level

BIM clauses and classification systems are not in

use in contracts and standard practices. Although

adequate infrastructure is there for large projects,

cloud storage, and leading BIM software are lacking.

Process Level

There is no dedicated BIM department, and BIM

processes are not standardized across projects.

Although parametric models for complex Façades

are developed by computational engineers,

structural analysis is outsourced, and 3D modeling

is not used by the construction team. Integration

is hampered by the absence of a centralized

platform, with reliance on emails causing version

control issues. The current tools, including Rhino

and AutoCAD, lack advanced BIM capabilities like

information management and collision detection.

Project Level

There is no formal BIM Execution Plan (BEP),

leading to unstandardized processes. The absence

of a Common Data Environment (CDE) causes

data fragmentation and inefficient collaboration.

Advanced BIM functionalities are not used, with

cost data updated manually, increasing error risk.

Documentation is manually generated in AutoCAD,

and data management is fragmented, with limited

BIM benefits due to reliance on DWG files.

The analysis indicates that the company is at BIM

Level 1, with limited 3D and 2D integration, but is

working towards BIM Level 2, which will require full

data integration, improved project management

workflows, and more integrated contracts to

enhance efficiency and transparency.

3.3. Improvements

3.3.1. Setting Up the BIM Environment for

Façade Processes

To optimize Façade processes, the company must

first define its specific BIM uses, aligning tasks with

appropriate BIM tools to create an interconnected

project management system. The Façade, as a

complex and detail-intensive element, stands to

benefit greatly from BIM’s information extraction

capabilities, though a planned transition period will

be required to fully adapt to BIM workflows.

3.3.1.1. Modeling Software

Rhino-Visual Arq

Figure 3: Maturity Analysis Score

Rhino is widely used in Façade companies due

to its design flexibility, particularly for complex

geometries. Although not a BIM tool, plugins like

Elefront help bridge the gap by adding metadata

to geometry, bringing the model closer to BIM

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standards. However, Rhino lacks built-in objects and

a unified language, making standardization difficult.

VisualArq offers flexible BIM functionalities within

Rhino, providing relational object shaping, dynamic

documentation, and the ability to automate

modeling tasks. By integrating VisualArq, the

company can standardize its modeling approach,

simplify documentation, and leverage Open BIM

capabilities for better analysis and planning

as different components require varying detail

levels. Although the firm currently lacks product

design software, potential BIM integrations are being

explored. Minich (2020) proposed a workflow using

Inventor and Rhino to manage complex surfaces,

creating parametric templates and automating

data exchange between software. Currently, the

company’s workflow involves isolated phases for

calculations, execution, and fabrication without

BIM integration. Adopting a coordinated 3D modeldriven

approach would enhance interoperability

and consistency, with tools like Speckle enabling

collaborative editing and data management across

Figure 4: Creating Grasshopper BIM Object

(VisualARQ. (n.d.))

Revit-Agacad

Revit excels in parametric modeling and

collaboration. With the Agacad add-on, Revit‘s

capabilities expand to include advanced Façade

detailing, shop drawings automation, and CNC

exports, making the modeling process faster and

platforms.

Figure 6: Automation between

Inventor-Rhino (Minich, 2020)

3.3.1.3. Communication and Collaboration

Effective communication and collaboration are

essential for project management within the BIM

framework. Cloud-based platforms like BIM 360

centralize project data, improve version control,

and enhance stakeholder coordination. Tools for

clash detection, such as Solibri and Navisworks,

ensure model accuracy before production, leading

to better project outcomes. This restructuring

focuses on advancing from current BIM capabilities

to more integrated systems, emphasizing tools and

methodologies that optimize Façade engineering

processes.

more precise.

Figure 5: Curtain Wall with Agacad

(Be Smart Software, 2022)

3.3.1.2. Interaction with Other Software

In adapting to BIM, organizations must choose

suitable tools and ensure interoperability, especially

for Façade engineering, where achieving high Levels

of Detail (LOD), such as LOD 400 for manufacturing,

is crucial. A coordinated approach is recommended

3.3.1.4. Extension to 4D, 5D, 6D BIM

Through the integration of the BIM model,

advanced BIM dimensions such as 4D, 5D, and

6D can be used. 4D BIM improves construction

management by integrating time and sequence

data for detailed scheduling, collision detection, and

optimized logistics. 5D BIM adds cost data, enabling

real-time budget tracking and cost estimation

through integration with ERP systems and cost

management tools. 6D BIM focuses on sustainability

by incorporating energy usage, maintenance, and

operational data to enhance long-term efficiency,

support waste management, and align with circular

economy principles.

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3.3.2. Workflow

The proposed workflow integrates BIM into

the current process to ensure consistency and

efficiency. Initially, traditional methods will be used

for pre-tender calculations, with a shift to BIM for

detailed design and project approval. The LOD 300

model will support the extraction of 2D drawings

for consistency and accuracy. During the fabrication

phase, product design software will enhance the

level of detail. Continuous updates to the BIM

model will track Façade components‘ maintenance,

repairs, and modifications throughout the building‘s

lifecycle.

3.3.3. Roadmap for Maturity Level

Improvements

This section outlines the steps the company needs

to take to achieve Level 2 BIM integration and serves

as a roadmap for enhancing overall integration.

4. Discussion

BIM adoption in the Façade sector faces challenges

due to a limited understanding of its full scope, which

covers design through management. Many Façade

companies focus on using modeling for fabrication

and prefer parametric design, with limited success

in integrating BIM into tools like Rhino. Recent

advancements, such as the integration of Revit with

Rhino through Rhino Inside Revit, show promise

but require further development. Effective BIM

adaptation involves optimizing software, ensuring

seamless tool integration, and testing workflows

that combine mechanical modeling with design

management tools. Training professionals in digital

skills is essential, as many lack modeling expertise.

Addressing concerns about 3D modeling‘s detail

compared to 2D drawings involves maintaining

updated 3D models while continuing 2D detail

work. Understanding BIM maturity levels is crucial,

emphasizing the integration of 2D and 3D processes

for Level II, with the more advanced Level III reliance

on models as a future goal. Developing industryspecific

Façade modeling guidelines could also

reduce the need for extensive remodeling caused by

complexities in architect-provided models.

4.1. Drivers of BIM Implementation

Parametric Design and BIM: Combining Rhino and

Revit enhances parametric design within the BIM

framework, improving model precision and reducing

errors through automated processes.

Interdisciplinary Coordination: BIM fosters better

communication and coordination among different

disciplines, leading to early detection of conflicts and

efficient problem resolution.

Repetitive Components: Utilizing a 3D parametric

library accelerates design processes and promotes

standardization in manufacturing.

Documentation: BIM enables faster and more

controlled documentation compared to traditional

2D methods, particularly when integrated with ERP

systems.

Integrated Design: Open BIM formats, such as

IFC, allow for the early involvement of various

stakeholders, improving project quality and

efficiency.

Reducing Construction Errors: Advanced BIM

features, including 4D scheduling and 5D cost

integration, enhance construction planning,

accuracy, and error reduction.

4.2. Areas of Opportunity

Circular Economy: BIM supports sustainable

practices by facilitating the recycling and reuse of

Figure 7: Roadmap for Improvements

48 ARTICLES


materials throughout a building’s lifecycle.

IoT Integration: Incorporating IoT devices during

the building’s operation phase provides valuable

feedback on Façade performance and maintenance

needs, improving proactive maintenance and overall

building performance.

4.3. Limitations

This study‘s limitations include its focus on one

company, which restricts the applicability of the

findings to other firms in the sector. The maturity

analysis might yield different results if applied to

a broader range of companies. Additionally, the

recommendations are specific to the early stages of

BIM adoption, addressing initial needs and laying a

groundwork for future advancements.

5. References

Azzouz, A., Copping, A., Shepherd, P., & Duncan,

A. (2016). Using the Arup BIM maturity measure

to demonstrate BIM implementation in practice.

Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/305115558_Using_the_Arup_

BIM_Maturity_Measure_to_Demonstrate_BIM_

Implementation_in_Practice

Be Smart Software. (2022). Modeling curtain

wall and panels in Revit. YouTube. Retrieved

June 25, 2024, from https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=qK8mWVgEVEw&t=983s&ab_

channel=BeSmartSoftware

Minich, D. (2020). Rhino/Inventor workflow.

YouTube. Retrieved June 18, 2024, from https://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SQre590hWE&ab_

channel=DimitrijMinich

Siebelink, S., Voordijk, J. T., & Adriaanse, A. (2018).

Developing and testing a tool to evaluate BIM

maturity: Sectoral analysis in the Dutch construction

industry. Journal of Construction Engineering and

Management, 144(9), Article 04018092. https://doi.

org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001527

Succar, B. (2010). Building information modeling

maturity matrix. In C. J. Anumba, M. Ruikar, & G.

A. Ugwu (Eds.), Handbook of research on building

information modeling and construction informatics:

Concepts and technologies (pp. 65-103). Information

Science Reference, IGI Publishing. https://doi.

org/10.4018/978-1-60566-928-1.ch004

VisualARQ. (n.d.). Learn. VisualARQ. Retrieved May

28, 2024, from https://www.visualarq.com/learn/

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49

Article

Beyond Bricks and Stones: A Comparative Analysis of Sustainable

Façade Construction Material Alternatives in Germany and Jordan


Lama Ibrahim 1

Supervisor 1. Prof. Stephanie Stratmann 1 ; Supervisor 2. Prof. Miquel Rodriguez 1


Abstract

The global building and construction industry has an immense environmental footprint as one of the largest

contributors to carbon emissions worldwide. Not only does it account for a major share of energy usage and

related greenhouse gases through materials processing, on-site operations and building energy needs over

their multi-decade lifespans, but the extraction of raw materials fundamental to construction like stone, clay

and aggregates is also depleting finite natural resources at an unsustainable rate.

The properties and performances of mycelium composites and rammed earth were analysed in depth. Results

showed both materials meet or exceed technical specifications for masonry applications compared to traditional

options. Mycelium‘s hygroscopic network enables efficient moisture control aligned with rigorous building

codes. Its production from agricultural byproducts embodies renewable construction and lower embodied

carbon. Likewise, rammed earth provides thermal mass and durability as per standards, with localized sourcing

prioritizing sustainability.

Keywords: Sustainability, Low-carbon building materials, Mycelium composites, Rammed earth, Masonry

1. Introduction

Typical Façade materials such as concrete, brick,

aluminium, steel, plastics, and glass raise several

sustainability concerns due to their high embodied

energy and resource depletion over their lifetimes.

Concrete and brick manufacture uses energyintensive

burning methods that produce large

volumes of carbon dioxide, which contributes

significantly to buildings‘ high embodied energy and

carbon footprint. The resource-intensive quarrying

technologies used to obtain stone building

materials decrease limited natural resources. The

disposal and lifetime of these materials is frequently

disregarded, as the majority end up in landfills

rather than being recycled or reused at the end of

their useful lives. This linear method contradicts

circular economy concepts aimed at reducing waste

and environmental concerns. Furthermore, Routine

maintenance activities, such as painting Façades

and repointing brickwork, also have a continuous

environmental impact.

Adobe, Rammed earth, Hempcrete, and Mycelium

are examples of natural materials that absorb

atmospheric carbon and are currently being

investigated as alternative sustainable material

solutions. Sourcing construction components

from area manufacturers can help to lessen

transportation impacts. This master‘s thesis

studies the sustainability of several ecological

Façade materials in different climatic contexts,

such as cold continental locations like Germany

and warmer Mediterranean climes like Jordan. The

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goal is to discover high performance, low embodied

energy alternative material solutions that solve the

sustainability problems present in existing masonry

construction methods.

and limitations of these materials, guiding material

selection and design decisions for sustainable and

locally produced structures.

2. Methodology

This study utilized a comprehensive literature review

as the primary research methodology. An extensive

search of relevant online academic databases and

industry/organization resources was conducted to

source appropriate literature. Keywords were used

to locate related journal articles, conference papers,

reports and standards.

Sources were carefully screened based on

publication dates, peer-review status, and alignment

with evaluating material properties and masonry

performances. The most relevant and current

applicable literature was selected for in-depth

review.

Data was extracted from the selected references

relating to material compositions, manufacturing,

mechanical qualities, insulation properties moisture

behaviours, carbon impacts, code assessments

and any testing results. Findings were summarized

in tables and sections comparing attributes of

Mycelium composites, Rammed earth, Hempcrete

and Adobe bricks.

After a thorough multi-stage comparison approach,

four potential materials were identified based on

renewable sourcing or lower environmental impacts.

Data on technical performance, production, and

embodied carbon was compiled. Rammed earth

and mycelium composites were found to be top

performers.

Their suitability for specified German and Jordanian

masonry applications was analysed against

respective national standards and construction

practices. Results were interpreted to identify the

sustainability benefits and technical viability of

suggested low-carbon alternatives to traditional

materials.

The methodology aims to arrive at well-evidenced

conclusions on promising sustainable replacement

options through a rigorous academic exploration

of available published literature on relevant

construction products and their associated

characteristics. Areas requiring further research

were also identified.

Figure 1. Jordan comparison charts

Fulfilling UN Sustainability Goals with the ESC

method

By developing viable alternative Façade construction

materials to replace burned brick in Germany and

limestone in Jordan, which are two of the most often

used materials, it would assist progress many of the

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Goals 1, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15 and 16 clearly correlate

with the overall global goals of being ecologically

sustainable, socially inclusive and economically

productive. Creating locally produced, low-carbon

replacements that improve building insulation

and resilience might help achieve Goals 1 and 3

by lowering poverty and increasing health. More

sustainable choices created by clean production

also contribute to Goals 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12 by reducing

emissions and encouraging green industries.

Affordable options that promote infrastructure

access are linked to Goals 1, 9, and 11 for community

benefits. Choosing materials through responsible

consumption and manufacturing frameworks, such

as complete lifecycle analysis, contributes to Goal

12. Innovating conventional Façades in a way that

respects ecosystems and incorporates naturebased

solutions can benefit Goals 13 and 15 as well.

Overall, pursuing these interrelated UN Sustainable

Development Goals through responsible material

innovation builds the framework for a more

sustainable future.

2.1. Sub-section

Jordan comparison charts

The chart compares four biological materials for

building purposes, evaluating their sustainability,

reuse, location, energy, thermal mass, durability,

and cost. The research aims to identify strengths

Figure 2. UN Sustainable Development Goals

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51

ESC Radar maps comparison-Rammed earth and

Adobe bricks

The radar maps comparing rammed earth and

adobe bricks as viable material options for

limestone Façades in Jordan were developed

following comprehensive investigation into each

option‘s performance. A vast quantity of information

was gathered about the environmental, social, and

economic consequences of replacing limestone

Façades with rammed earth or adobe bricks.

Following a thorough review of this extensive data,

the charts clearly illustrated which sustainability

areas each option excelled at in comparison to

limestone.

The findings showed that rammed earth

outperformed adobe bricks in terms of

environmental sustainability, financial efficiency,

and social acceptability. Rammed earth proved to

have the highest promise as a limestone substitute,

doing well in all three pillars of sustainability based

on the substantial data examined to populate the

comparison radar maps.

ESC Radar maps comparison- Mycelium and

Hempcrete

The radar maps comparing hempcrete and mycelium

bricks as feasible material options for burned clay

brick Façades in Germany were developed following

comprehensive investigation into each option‘s

performance. A vast quantity of information was

gathered about the environmental, social, and

economic consequences of replacing burned clay

brick façade with hempcrete or mycelium bricks.

Following a thorough review of this extensive data,

the charts clearly illustrated which sustainability

areas each option excelled at in comparison

to burnt clay bricks. The findings showed that

mycelium bricks outperformed hempcrete in terms

of environmental sustainability, financial efficiency,

and social acceptability.

Mycelium bricks proved to have the highest promise

as a substitute for burnt clay bricks, doing well in

all three pillars of sustainability based on the vast

information assessed to populate the comparison

radar maps.

3. Results

A research of four sustainable biological

construction material alternatives revealed that

rammed earth and mycelium are the best options

for Jordan and Germany. The study evaluated each

material using environmental, economic, and social

parameters. The charts clearly represent a single

material‘s performance across three sustainability

indices, making it possible to compare the reference

construction materials used in each scenario.

Rammed earth provides the best sustainability

profile for Jordanian Façade applications, and

mycelium outperforms Hempcrete to substitute

burned clay bricks in Germany.

Both materials (Rammed earth and Mycelium) show

a balanced ability for environmental stewardship,

financial prudence, and social welfare, which

corresponds well to each country‘s specific

conditions.

4. Discussion

4.1. Main outcomes

Figure 3. Sustainable biological

construction material

The purpose of this study is to experimentally

examine the viability of biological materials as

alternatives for traditional masonry construction in

Germany and Jordan using a comparative analysis. As

discussed in the prior literature, mycelium composite

bricks and rammed earth have the potential to

provide environmental and sustainability benefits

over traditional building techniques if structural

performance is comparable.

The next part provides an early evaluation of

important features for a sample 50cm wall assembly

made of burned clay brick, the standard approach,

and the biological alternatives under consideration

- mycelium composite brick for Germany and

rammed earth for Jordan. Material properties

were determined through research into industry

standards and past experimental investigations, as

cited.

Germany is exploring mycelium composite brick as

an alternative to traditional burnt clay brick wythe,

focusing on thermal resistance, density, water vapor

permeability, and durability. Jordan is assessing the

feasibility of rammed earth walls as a replacement

for conventional limestone building using identical

performance standards. This review aims to provide

quantifiable baseline data before launching the

experimental wall building and analysis. If biological

materials show equal thermal insulation and loadbearing

capacity to traditional assembly, they could

functionally replace conventional masonry while

providing environmental and social benefits.

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Calculating U-Value: Recommended Max U Value:

0.57 W/m2K for Jordan‘s climate according to

ASHRAE standards

Rammed earth construction details

Figure 7. Typical rammed earth exterior wall

Figure 4. U-Value for Jordan‘s climate

Mycelium composite bricks construction details

Calculating U-Value: Recommended Max U Value:

0.24 W/m2K - Germany

Figure 8. Typical mycelium composite

exterior wall

5. Conclusions

Figure 5. U-Value for Germany‘s climate

4.2. Global Warming potential: for every

(50mm thickness 1m2) 60 years lifetime

This thesis sought to evaluate promising sustainable

alternatives to traditional masonry construction

materials. Through a comprehensive literature

review of rammed earth, mycelium composites,

fired clay brick, and Ma‘an limestone, the research

aimed to determine the viability of these materials

for replacing conventional options in German and

Jordanian wall systems.

The results show that both mycelium composites

and rammed earth exhibit equivalent or improved

technical specifications for low-rise masonry

applications compared to traditional materials.

Mycelium‘s hygroscopic network enables efficient

moisture control aligned with Germany‘s stringent

energy codes. Being grown from agricultural

byproducts, mycelium production contributes

to renewable construction goals and reduces

embodied carbon emissions.

Figure 6. Global Warming potential chart

Similarly, rammed earth exhibits benefits such as

thermal mass and durability meeting Jordanian

standards. Sourced locally using stabilized

soils, rammed earth construction prioritizes

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53

environmental stewardship and social sustainability

over carbon-intensive imports. Both sustainable

materials foster natural aesthetics while bolstering

their nations‘ innovations in low-impact building.

Most notably, transitioning to mycelium and rammed

earth could meaningfully lower the construction

sector‘s carbon footprint through optimized

localized solutions, supporting key UN Sustainable

Development Goals such as SDG 13 on climate

action. With further research and testing, these

materials show promise as sustainable alternatives

contributing to global climate mitigation efforts.

6. References

Abu-Hammad, A., Assaf, A., & Al-Sane, E. (2006).

Evaluation of thermal insulation systems for buildings in

hot climate regions. Energy and Buildings, 38(4), 251-257.

Abu-Hmeidan, H., Al-Rashdan, D., Alawneh, A., Abu-

Hmeidan, A., & Albsoul, J. (2017). Improve the thermal

properties of rammed earth walls using natural local

materials. Energy Procedia, 110, 138–143.

Adhikari, S., & Li, K. (2017). LCA of building materials:

Developing a consistent methodology and

incorporating database uncertainty. Energy and

Buildings, 139, 634-643.

Aga Khan Trust for Culture. (2013).

Al-Amoush, H., Abdulrazak, M., & Farrajat, S. (2012).

Causes of deterioration of historical monuments in

Jordan and inappropriate restoration techniques.

International Journal of Conservation Science, 3(3),

213-222.

Al-Hinti, I., Al-Ghenaim, B., Gan, G., & Sokry, T. (2009).

Thermal performance analytical study for residential

buildings in the dry desert climate of Jordan. Journal

of Buildings and Environment, 44(7), 1464-1474.

Alkhaldi, M. A. (2015). Preservation of historical

buildings Façades stone in Petra, Jordan. In

IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and

Engineering (Vol. 89, No. 1, p. 012063). IOP Publishing.

Al-Ta‘ani, A. A. (2012). Climate change impacts on

water resources and agricultural sustainability in

Jordan. Climate Research, 52(1), 103–110.

Araque Hontoria, R., Escrig Bosch, A., & Carbonell

Payá, E. (2017). El sistema constructivo ‘tapial’.

Revista La Construcción, 21, 223-227.

Arbabi, S. M., & Afsharpour, H. (2019). Experimental

investigation on moisture transfer in adobe brick

walls. International Journal of Architectural Heritage,

13(7), 959-972.

Arbabi, S. M., & Heidari, M. (2018). Experimental and

numerical analysis of unreinforced adobe masonry

walls under in-plane loading. Construction and

Building Materials, 159, 598-609.

Avci, H. H., & Tunçok, B. (2018). Architecture of

the Harran plain during antiquity: Typology of

structures in baked brick and mudbrick. Near

Eastern Archaeology, 81(3), 178-189.

Barrette, A., Plouffe, D., Lortie, B., & Mathieu, F. (2017).

Indoor air quality of a room fitted with mycobrick

walls. Building and Environment, 117, 186-191.

Basseri, M. R., & Skibniewski, M. J. (2014). Durability

evaluation of natural stones used for external

façade cladding in buildings. Architectural Science

Review, 57(2), 148-157.

Baumann, H., & Scherer, V. (2018). Embodied

energy in buildings: A review of the literature and a

proposed method for assessment. Renewable and

Sustainable Energy Reviews, 85, 1026–1038.

Bell, J., & Walker, P. J. (1992). The analysis of vernacular

housing as a guide to design: the case of adobe

construction in New Mexico. Environment and

Planning B: Planning and Design, 19(1), 3-24.

Bello, O. O., & Akpom, C. C. (2018). Vernacular

architecture for sustainable development: Adoption

of local resources and environmental consideration

in building forms. Journal of Sustainable

Development, 11(1), 108.

Birgisson, B., & Lund, H. (2013). Embodied energy in

building materials: A comparative study of different

materials and production methods. Energy, 55, 109-

118.

Bonazountas, M., Kalogeropoulos, A., Patlakis, G.,

& Diplas, S. (2007). Investigation of Ma’an stone

dynamic characteristics and artificial aging effects.

Natural Stones, 863-866.

Devlieghere, F., Verheyen, K., Marcati, C. R., Dewulf,

J., Pandelaers, E., Fechner, R., & Wieland, S. (2022).

Mycelium composites for building applications:

A state-of-the-art review. Journal of Cleaner

Production, 340, 130589.

Dewan, A., Bano, S., & Rahman, M. M. (2018).

Availability, properties and efficiency of the

wastes from brick manufacturing industries in

Bangladesh–A review. Construction and Building

Materials, 187, 411-422.

Gaspar, M., de Brito, J., & Evangelista, S. (2017). Adobe

as sustainable earth construction. International

Journal of Conservation Science, 8(3), 437-444.

Hall, M., & Djerbib, Y. (2004). Rammed earth sample

production: context, recommendations and

significance. Construction and Building Materials,

18(4), 281-286.

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Article

Extending the Service Life of Unitized Façades: Case Studies


Faruk Cakir 1

Supervisor 1. Prof. Dipl.Ing. Daniel Arztmann 1 ; Supervisor 2. Alvaro Balderrama 1,2


2. Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, TU Delft, Julianalaan, 134, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract

The longevity and adaptability of unitized curtain wall façades are critical for sustainable building design.

This study investigates the factors influencing the service life of these systems, with a particular focus on

their structural configuration, material dependencies, and ease of intervention. Through an analysis of six

high-rise case studies from different geographic regions, the research evaluates how design choices impact

maintenance, retrofitting feasibility, and long-term durability. Findings reveal that reliance on structural silicone

and interlocking systems often restricts access for repairs, leading to costly and complex interventions. This

study highlights key strategies for extending the service life of unitized façades, promoting for disassemblyfriendly

designs that facilitate maintenance and future adaptability. The results provide insights into optimizing

façade performance while reducing environmental and economic burdens over the building’s lifespan.

Keywords: Unitized façade, Service life, Disassembly, End of life

1. Introduction

Maintaining the “take-make-dispose” economic

model in the façade industry is unsustainable, as

buildings are major contributors to climate change

and resource depletion. Construction and operation

generate over a third of all waste in the EU and

account for nearly 50% of global material extraction

[1]. To meet sustainability goals, the industry must

shift from a linear economy to a circular one,

preserving value and conserving natural resources.

The longevity and adaptability of unitized curtain

wall systems are critical for sustainable façade

design. While these systems dominate tall building

construction due to their efficiency in fabrication

and installation, their long-term performance and

potential for intervention are often overlooked.

Current unitized curtain wall designs, especially those

utilizing structural silicone, fail to accommodate

future interventions, making maintenance laborintensive,

costly, and carbon intensive. In high-rise

buildings, these complexities frequently lead to full

façade replacements rather than targeted repairs.

Despite the inevitability of at least one intervention

during a building’s lifespan, unitized systems are rarely

designed with this in mind, resulting in expensive

and complex retrofitting processes. Designers face

a trade-off: either integrate intervention strategies

upfront, increasing initial costs but reducing future

expenditures, or minimize upfront costs at the

expense of costly future interventions.

This research investigates the limitations of structural

silicone unitized curtain wall systems through realworld

Schüco projects, focusing on how initial design

strategies impact intervention challenges, durability,

and long-term adaptability.

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55

2 . Case Studies

The Schüco „Project Finder“ archive was used to

identify relevant case studies, focusing on projects

that exemplify the highest levels of dependency and

the lowest exchangeability potential.

Only tall buildings ranging from 110m to 160m

were selected, as intervention complexity increases

significantly at these heights due to time constraints,

labor intensity, and safety concerns. To provide

a comprehensive understanding, case studies

from different geographic regions were chosen,

reflecting global design tendencies and challenges.

The selected projects, spanning from 2013 to 2024,

offer insights into existing design approaches and

inform future façade strategies. The six case studies

include: (1) ANA Tower in Romania, (2) Wisal Tower

in Dubai, (3) EZ Tower in Brazil, (4) Mercury Tower

in Malta, (5) Vadi Istanbul, and (6) Mall of Istanbul in

Turkey.

Each case study follows a structured approach:

general project and façade details are presented

first, followed by an analysis of the system design

based on façade construction details. Evaluation

criteria are derived from existing research, assessing

façades in terms of ease of intervention, accessibility,

and disassembly potential, among other factors.

Finally, a comparative chart summarizes key findings

across all case studies.

2.1. ANA Tower

ANA Tower project is a 25-storey office building

which is in Bucharest, Romania. The tower designed

by Westfourth Architecture is the first office building

in Bucharest that complies with the Green Building

LEED Platinum standard. The façade accounts for

6,800 m² glass façade which is designed with Schüco

UCC 65 SG (unitized curtain wall with structural

silicone). The project used double glazing unit which

is structurally bonded to the main frame with SG

profile that provides reliable bonding surface. In

opaque part of the unitized panel, 4mm aluminum

sheet cladding is used which is mechanically fixed

to the panel via substructure and aluminum

connectors.

Figure 1. The façade of Ana Tower by Arch (Image:

ANA HOLDING)

Diagnosis of System Design

The Schüco UCC 65 SG has a stack joint connection

between units. While the stack joint with a saddle

gasket improves water infiltration resistance and

the inner gasket provides airtightness, it creates

a durability weak point due to its inaccessibility

(Patterson, 2022). In fact, the use of the adhesive

compound Schüco Flex 2 makes disassembly even

more difficult. Moreover, this sectional interface

between panels, leading to the sequential assembly

(Klein, 2013), ultimately creates an additional

challenge for façade intervention. This means that

if a façade panel needs to be replaced, it cannot be

done without damaging the adjacent units.

The glazing units are chemically fixed to the unitized

curtain wall’s frame using UV-resistant structural

silicone. This filled connection type hinders the ease

of intervention in case of an upgrade or replacement

of glass units. Furthermore, the use of an SG profile

between the glass assembly and the main frames

creates an indirect connection type. Nevertheless, it

cannot be accessed without removing the glass unit

and the structural silicone, as the profile is positioned

between the glass unit and the main frame. However,

thanks to the screw-type connection, it provides a

clean surface and a groove on the main profile for a

new infill panel and its fixation once unscrewed. This,

in turn, enhances exchangeability and decreases

dependency.

In the case of the opaque section of the unitized

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curtain wall, a 4mm aluminum sheet is fixed (indirect

connection) to the panel using mechanical fasteners,

allowing disassembly through intervention from the

outside. Thus, the infilled part, consisting of the

aluminum sheet, its substructure, thermal break

end profile, and insulation boards, can be accessible

and exchangeable with labor intensive intervention

applications. Moreover, the aluminum sheet at the

innermost layer is mechanically fixed (indirectly) to

the transom with screws, increasing the accessibility

of the infilled section from inside. It should be noted

that the ceiling setting and the clearance between

the slab and the panel are determinants for such

intervention.

2.2. Wisal Tower

Wisal Tower is a 41-storey residential building

which is in Dubai, United States Emirates. The

project is designed by APG Architecture & Planning

Group. The façade is designed with Schüco USC SG

special design (unitized curtain wall with structural

silicone) where mullion and transom profiles have

different extrusion form, thereby do not match

45-degree angle at the corner. This unitized system

is specified for Middle East market by Schüco which

accommodate coupling profile between units,

structural silicone glazing, open profiles, and square

cut profile. The façade panels are equipped with

double glazing units which are structurally bonded

to the main frame directly without SG profile unlike

Ana Tower. In spandrel part of the unitized panel,

shadow box is used whose glazing unit is chemically

bonded like the glazing unit in vision area.


The Schüco UCS SG system features stack joint

with chicken head gaskets and coupling profile

(back gutter) between panels. While the stack joint

with chicken head gaskets improves water and air

infiltration resistance, it creates a durability weak

point due to its inaccessibility (Patterson, 2022).

Additionally, the coupling gasket is also inaccessible

since it is positioned between the head and sill

profiles.

Unlike the Ana Tower, where a one-piece saddle

gasket is used in the stack joint, this project employs

two separate gaskets: chicken head gaskets and a

rainscreen gasket. This functional decomposition

(one-to-one mapping) facilitates easier inspection

and intervention for the rainscreen gasket since it

is accessible from the outside. Consequently, the

watertightness membrane at the front gutter area

can be inspected and replaced after removing the

rainscreen gasket.

The chicken head stack joint type creates a sectional

interface, leading to sequential assembly. As a result,

this design presents additional challenges for façade

interventions similar to those encountered in the

Ana Tower (disruptive panel replacement).

The glazing units are chemically fixed to the unitized

curtain wall’s frame using UV-resistant structural

silicone. This filled connection type hinders the ease

of intervention in case of an upgrade or replacement

of glass units. Unlike the ANA Tower, this system does

not use an SG profile between the glass assembly

and the main frame, resulting in a direct infilled

connection. This, in turn, increases the dependency

on the panel.

In the spandrel area, the glazing unit of the shadow

box assembly is chemically fixed (indirect connection)

to the panel using structural bonding, making

disassembly nearly impossible without disruption.

The innermost layer is not accessible from the inside

(with bent ears facing inwardly), preventing the

exchange of the back-pan and insulation within the

assembly.

2.3. EZ Tower

The EZ Tower, completed in 2015 and located in the

business district of Chácara Santo Antônio in São

Paulo, Brazil, is an architectural landmark designed

by Aflalo/Gasperini. This twin-tower complex has

Tower A at 151 meters and Tower B at 143 meters

whose detail is taken for the case study.

Figure 2. Wisal Residential Tower (Image: APG)

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57

years for structural bonding in glazed units (EOTA,

2017). However, the rate and extent of degradation

depend on the type of adhesive and the specific

environmental exposure it faces (Van Lancker et

al., 2016). Thus, it can be assumed that higher UV

radiation and moisture levels of Sao Paulo could

accelerate degradation, leading to durability weak

point. Additionally, detachment of glass pane due to

loss of structural integrity of bonding might lead to

safety risk.

While the stack joint connection with saddle

gasket improves water infiltration resistance, it

creates another durability weak point due to its

inaccessibility, as Patterson noted in the literature.

Moreover, the interlocking fixing principle using a

steel sleeve (joint connector) presents an additional

challenge for façade intervention. This means that if

a façade panel needs to be replaced, it cannot be


Figure 3.

EZ Tower in Sao Paolo (Image:

Carlos Ott Architect)

The glass façade is built with Schüco Unitized

Curtain Wall System with structural silicone through

which the single glazed unit is bonded into the main

frame. The male-female connection type is used

between vertical and horizontal aluminum frame

profiles. The units are interlocked with steel sleeve

(joint connector) for structural integrity.


The project utilizes single-pane glass, which

offers a longer service life compared to double or

triple-glazed units. Single glazing is not part of an

encapsulated assembly (integrated) that does not

need components like spacers, desiccants, and butyl

that typically limit the service life of multi-pane units.

Patterson (2022) pointed out the dramatic difference

between the indefinite potential service life of float

glass and the glass units where multiple panes are

bonded into each other in order to have better

thermal performance. Klein (2013) emphasized that

glass with integral product architecture (a closed

system) restricts ease of intervention, meaning if a

glass pane breaks, the entire unit must be replaced.

In this project, the service life of structural bonding

is seen more critical than that of the glass itself,

assuming no breakage occurs due to thermal

stress or impact. Indeed, structural adhesives

used in exterior façades are subjected to harsh

environmental conditions, including humidity, UV

radiation, and thermal cycling that significantly

degrade the mechanical properties of the adhesives

over time. The EOTA specifies a working life of 25

The unitized panels have vertical decorative stripes

made of aluminum profiles attached to the main

frame with aluminum brackets and screws. This

indirect connection type and open geometry

provides the benefit of ease of disassembly and

accessibility. However, once removed, the outer

gaskets, which provide watertightness, cannot be

kept in place since the decorative elements hold the

gasket. This lack of functional decomposition, where

aesthetic and functional roles overlap, negates the

benefit of physical decomposition. Thus, during

intervention, the façade‘s first barrier, the outer

gasket, cannot remain in service, eventually resulting

in leakage. Furthermore, the bracket cannot be

replaced due to inaccessibility to the screw from

either the inside or outside without removing the

adjacent unit or the adjacent unit’s glass pane. This

creates another dependency within the system

design.

2.4. Mercury Tower

The Mercury Tower is a high-rise, mixed-use building

in St. Julian‘s, Malta. At 121 meters (397 ft) tall, it has

been Malta‘s tallest building since 2020. Designed by

Zaha Hadid Architecture, the building has 31 floors.

The narrow-side façade without balconies of the

upper block residential units is considered in this

analysis. This façade consists of continuous stripes

from bottom to top, featuring two alternating types

of panels that are separate from each other. For

both types, Schüco unitized curtain wall systems are

used.

The transparent rows are designed with the Schüco

UCC 65 SG special design, a unitized curtain wall

with structural silicone glazing and a glazing frame

for glass replacement. The profiles within the panels

share the same extrusion shape, similar to the UDC

80 system. The façade panels are equipped with

double glazing units that are structurally bonded to

the glazing frame (cassette), unlike those in the ANA

and Wisal Towers. In the spandrel part of the unitized

58 ARTICLES


panel, a shadow box is used, where the glazing unit

is chemically bonded to the glazing frame, similar to

the glazing unit in the vision area.

In the opaque rows, GFRC (Glass Fiber Reinforced

Concrete) panels integrated into the Schüco UCC 65

unitized curtain wall are used. The fixation occurs

through the substructure of the GFRC to the vertical

profile of the panel using steel L-shaped brackets.

full accessibility for intervention from the inside once

the cover profile is removed. Similarly, the window

unit can be easily removed and internally intervened

upon once the cover plate and screws are unfixed.

In the spandrel area, the glazing unit of the shadow

box assembly is chemically fixed (indirect connection)

to the panel using a glazing frame, similar to the vision

area. However, since the glass in the spandrel area is

not accessible from the inside, it makes disassembly

nearly impossible without disruption. It should be

also noted that the innermost layer is accessible

from the inside, as the galvanized sheet is extended

onto the back of the profile and mechanically fixed

which makes it accessible from inside.

In the opaque area, there is a dependency resulting

from the integration of the GFRC panel into the frame,

as the panel and its subassembly (aluminium sheet,

insulation board, and galvanized sheet) cannot be

directly accessed without removing the GFRC panels.

The GFRC panels are hung using attachment hooks,

creating an interpenetrating and direct connection

type, as well as a sequential assembly type. Thus,

individual disassembly of panels is impractical.

However, apart from the hook connection, the

connection from the profile to the L bracket through

the substructure and hook is completely mechanical

and indirect. This design decreases dependency

while enhancing disassembly and accessibility only if

hook connection is improved.

2.5. Vadistanbul Office Tower

Figure 4. Mercury Tower (Image: Zaha Hadid

Architects)


The Schüco UDC SG special system features steel

sleeves and adjustment clips with a continuous

saddle gasket between panels. While the saddle

gasket and inner coupling gasket improve water and

air infiltration resistance, they create a durability

weak point due to their inaccessibility, hindering any

type of intervention. Moreover, the joint connectors

present another weak point during intervention

because of the interlocking fixing principle. This

means that if a façade panel needs to be replaced,

it cannot be done without damaging the adjacent

units.

The glazing units in vision areas are chemically fixed

using UV-resistant structural silicone to the glazing

frames, which are then mechanically fixed to the

unitized curtain wall’s frame. This direct/infilled

connection through bonding is compensated by

providing an indirect mechanical connection with

an additional frame. Moreover, thanks to the special

profile design, the screw channel in the profile for the

glazing frame is accessible from the top, providing

Vadistanbul is a shopping center and mixed-use

complex in Istanbul, forming the northern edge of

the Istanbul Central Business District. This district

comprises a series of clustered residential and

office blocks, shopping malls, hospitals, universities,

venues, and more (Vadistanbul, 2024). The case

study building, completed in 2018, is one of the

office buildings in this business hub, standing at

132m tall. Designed by iki design group, the building

accommodates 19.300m² custom designed unitized

curtain wall system.

The façade is designed with the Schüco custom

design unitized curtain wall with structural silicone

glazing and a glazing frame for glass replacement.

The panels’ profiles have the same extrusion shape,

similar to the UDC 80 system, enabling 45-degree

connection at the profiles joints. The façade panels

are equipped with double glazing units that are

structurally bonded to the glazing frame (cassette),

unlike those in the ANA, Wisal, and EZ Towers. In

spandrel area of the panel, the assembly, consisting

of finished aluminum sheet at the outside, galvanized

sheet at the inside and insulation board in between,

is used.

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59

The glazing units in vision areas are chemically fixed

using UV-resistant structural silicone to the glazing

frames, which are then mechanically fixed to the

unitized curtain wall’s frame. This direct/infilled

connection through bonding is compensated by

providing an indirect mechanical connection with

an additional frame. Moreover, thanks to the special

profile design, the screw channel in the profile for the

glazing frame is accessible from the top, providing

full accessibility for intervention from the inside

once the cover profile is removed. Similarly, the

window unit can be easily removed and internally

accessed for intervention once the cover plate and

screws are unfixed. Nevertheless, although the

glazing bead with clip connection makes the glazing

unit accessible, the bonding application between

the sash profile and the outer pane of the doubleglazing

unit (DGU) creates dependency (direct and

infilled) and hinders the replacement of the glazing

unit within the window unit.

In the spandrel area, the decorative aluminum

element, which runs only horizontally, is mechanically

fixed to the glazing frame using a clip connection that

is easily removable. Once it is unplugged, the fixing

of the aluminum sheet cladding can be accessed

from the outside. The finished aluminum sheet is

mechanically fixed with screws (indirect connection)

to the glazing frame on the sides parallel to the

horizontal profile. In contrast, the vertical sides

are chemically fixed. Using bonding on these sides

creates dependency, undermining the benefit of

using the glazing frame that is mechanically fixed to

the main frame, due to its inaccessibility.

Additionally, the innermost layer is accessible from

the inside, as the galvanized sheet is not bent and

is extended onto the back side of the main profile,

which is mechanically fixed with screws.

2.6. Hilton Mall of Istanbul

Figure 5. Vadi Istanbul (Avrupa Konutları, 2024)


The Schüco special system features joint connectors

(steel sleeves vertically and adjustment clips

horizontally) with a continuous saddle gasket

between panels. While the saddle gasket and inner

coupling gasket improve water and air infiltration

resistance, they create a durability weak point

due to their inaccessibility, preventing any type of

intervention. Moreover, the joint connectors present

another weak point during intervention because of

the interlocking fixing principle. This means that if



Hilton Mall of Istanbul is a hotel building in Istanbul,

situated next to the Mall of Istanbul complex,

providing guests with direct access to over 350

shops, dining options, and entertainment venues.

Completed in 2018, the high-rise stands at 110

meters tall with 24 floors. Designed by BCT Design

Group, an architecture and design firm, the building

consists of 34 stories. The façade of the Hilton Mall of

Istanbul is characterized by its extensive use of glass.

The glass-dominated exterior is complemented by

structural elements that provides aesthetic appeal

and functionality for the building. It should be

noted that these structural elements cladded with

aluminum composite panels are excluded from the

analysis.

Figure 6. Mall Of İstanbul, Hilton Oteli (enerji ve

tesisat, 2021)

60 ARTICLES



The Schüco special system features joint connectors

(steel sleeves vertically and adjustment clips

horizontally) with a continuous saddle gasket

between panels. While the saddle gasket and inner

coupling gasket improve water and air infiltration

resistance, they create a durability weak point

due to their inaccessibility, preventing any type of

intervention. Moreover, the joint connectors present

another weak point during intervention because of

the interlocking fixing principle. This means that if



The outer pane of the glazing unit in the vision area is

chemically fixed using UV-resistant structural silicone

to the glazing frame, which is then mechanically

fixed to the unitized curtain wall’s frame. This direct/

infilled connection through bonding is compensated

by providing an indirect mechanical connection

with an additional frame. Thanks to the special

profile design, the screw of the glazing frame can

be accessed and disassembled once the saddle

gasket is lifted. Nevertheless, this special design only

enables intervention from the outside.

Similar to the vision glass unit, the outer pane

of the glazing unit in the shadow box assembly

is chemically fixed (indirect connection) to the

glazing frame, which is then mechanically fixed to

the unitized curtain wall’s frame. Since modular

assembly is used, the back-pan, insulation board,

and inner sheet can be accessed once the modular

glazing unit is dismounted, enhancing disassembly

capacity while leading to less disruptive intervention.

Additionally, the innermost layer may be accessible

from the inside, as the galvanized sheet is extended

onto the back of the profile and mechanically fixed,

making it accessible from the inside.

3 .Discussion

Unitized panels across all case studies exhibit

interlocking and direct connections, and sequential

assembly due to the required connection joints

(stack joint, chicken head, steel sleeve, and alignment

clip) for unit assembly. This creates dependency

and hinders individual panel replacement without

disruption. Additionally, the close geometry of

the joints means that the gaskets (saddle gasket,

chicken-head gaskets, inner gasket) securing

watertightness and airtightness cannot be replaced.

However, the weather gasket, the outermost gasket

in the chicken-head configuration used only in Wisal

Tower, allows replacement since it is a separate

and accessible element, unlike the saddle gasket

in other joint types, which combines the first and

second lines of watertightness defense. It should

also be noted that the chicken-head gaskets are not

reachable and thus cannot be intervened upon.

Infill units in vision areas, including window units,

claddings, and fixed units, present dependency in

each project due to the bonding application using

structural silicone. This direct and close configuration

makes disassembly labor- and time-intensive, posing

challenges during intervention. These challenges are

exacerbated in tall buildings due to harsh working

environments, when construction is integral (direct

bonding to frame) as seen in the system designs of

ANA Tower, Wisal Tower, and EZ Tower. However,

these challenges can be minimized with the use of

modular solutions such glazing frames (cassettes)

in system designs, as found in Mercury Tower,

Vadistanbul Office Tower, and Hilton Mall of Istanbul.

The system design of Mall of Istanbul Office Tower

only allows intervention from the outside. Therefore,

the special profile designs of Mercury Tower and

Vadistanbul, which allow intervention from the

inside, are more practical due to their higher level of

accessibility, as internal intervention is considered a

better option for tall buildings.

The common design tendency for the spandrel areas

of unitized panels is a closed configuration, resulting

in a lack of design for disassembly. However,

there are two projects where the spandrel can be

intervened: Hilton Mall of Istanbul and ANA Tower.

The system design of Hilton Mall of Istanbul allows

the replacement of the glazing unit of the shadow

box in the spandrel section from the outside thanks

to the demountable glazing frame. In the system

design of ANA Tower, the aluminum sheet in the

spandrel area can be disassembled due to the

fully mechanical and indirect connection between

elements. Nevertheless, this type of intervention for

removing the spandrel units of ANA Tower is timeconsuming

and requires a high level of workmanship

since it involves sequential assembly where

disassembly must be executed step by step.

Spandrel areas can be intervened by removing

the innermost layer, as the back sheet is not bent

inwardly but extended through the backside of

the main frame and fixed, resulting in an open

configuration and indirect/mechanical connection

type, except for Wisal Tower. However, this type of

intervention from the inside is dependent not only

on direct determinants such as connection and

configuration type but also on indirect determinants,

including indoor floor setting, clearance (the distance

between panel and slab), and design complexity of

unitized panel.

The table below compares projects based on

the findings discussed in the case study analysis.

Each project is clustered into three sections,

which first provide project information, including

location, completion year, height, and type of

unitized curtain wall. This is followed by two criteria

sections: exchangeability and dependency. In the

exchangeability section, glass replacement, infill unit

replacement, spandrel panel replacement, panel

replacement, and fixing elements replacement

are considered. In the dependency section, the

connection principle of panels, use of adhesives, and

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61

accessibility to fasteners are listed. Each evaluation

box contains stars, each representing one point

and used for evaluation. It should be noted that

dependency and exchangeability work oppositely:

five stars represent the best performance in the

exchangeability section, whereas five stars indicate

the worst performance in the dependency section.

Table 1. Comparison Chart of Case Studies

4. References

European Commission. Joint Research Centre.,

GHG emissions of all world countries: 2023. LU:

Publications Office, 2023. Accessed: Jun. 22,

2024. [Online]. Available: https://data.europa.eu/

doi/10.2760/953322

Patterson, M. “Resilience by design: building façades

for tomorrow,” in Rethinking Building Skins, Elsevier,

2022, pp. 359–375. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-822477-

9.00002-4.

EOTA, “Insulated Glass Unit With Structural

Sealant Puntually Anchored,” European Technical

Assessments, Technical Assessment EAD 090035-

00-0404, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.

eota.eu/download?file=/2015/15-09-0035/ead%20

for%20ojeu/ead%20090035-00-0404_ojeu2017.

pdf

Vadistanbul. May 22, 2024. Accessed: Jun. 16, 2024.

[Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/

index.php?title=Vadistanbul&oldid=1225094478

Klein, T. “Integral Façade Construction: Towards

a new product architecture for curtain walls,” ABE

Archit. Built Environ., vol. 3, May 2013, doi: 10.7480/

abe.2013.3.

Van Lancker, B., J. Dispersyn, W. De Corte, and J. Belis,

“Durability of adhesive glass-metal connections for

structural applications,” Eng. Struct., vol. 126, pp. 237–

251, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.07.024.

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63


MID P5/P8

Integrated Computational Façade Design

Project / SoSe2024

Pavilion Friedwald Kalletal

During the Summer Semester 2024, students of

MID P5/P8, divided between the Computational

Design and Façade Design groups, had the task

to develop a concept for a pavilion structure or

roof construction for a “Friedwald” - or “forest

cemetery”, an alternative concept to traditional

cemeteries (see https://www.friedwald.de/

nordrhein/westfalen). The structure is intended

for funeral ceremonies, providing shade and

protection from the elements (rain, hail, snow) for

an audience of around 35 seated people, as well

as the officiating priest or speaker.

The task required for the construction to be

built out of wood since the “client” has enough

material to supply for the construction, and the

design should fundamentally incorporate the

unique properties and behaviors of the chosen

wood, especially considering how the material

responds to environmental changes. Key factors

like transformation due to drying processes or

biochemical reactions from sun exposure should be

central to the material-integrative design concept.

These phenomena may inspire new methods of

connection, assembly, and responsive design

properties, ultimately influencing the pavilion‘s form

and design. Students were encouraged to explore

hybrid materials primarily based on wood, to achieve

specific structural behaviors in the construction. The

design process should be driven by the material and

its processing, and the final construction should

visibly reflect this generative approach.

A site visit was coordinated with the group in April

2024. A series of recordings for photogrammetry

were conducted by Luis Alfonso Gutierrez Suarez

and Aram Badr in order to provide a 3D model of

the site, and 360-degree videos and ambisonics

recordings were carried out by Alvaro Balderrama in

order to provide a virtual reality (VR) scene for the

students to revisit the site.

The students could talk to the LWL team, responsible

for the Friedwald Kalletal to ask questions

regarding the function of the space, as well as to

take measurements of the site and have a better

understanding of the natural conditions. The final

submission received six projects which will be

presented to the team of the Friedwald Kalletal, and

their selected project might be used for a real-life

implementation.

The design proposals were expected to emerge from

a detailed consideration of the material‘s properties,

craftsmanship techniques, or construction

principles like stacking, plugging, folding, stretching,

printing, or bending. The group projects were free

to involve a Generative Modeling process using tools

such as Grasshopper, a visual programming plugin

for Rhinoceros 3D. Physical prototyping was highly

recommended.

Prof. Hans Sachs & Alvaro Balderrama

64

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


Figure 1. Location of the project, where currently ceremonies are carried out

without weather protection

Figure 2. Group of MID P5/P8 visiting the site

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


65

Group 1: Farah Gheith, Fady Aziz, Pegah Khademi

66

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


67

Group 2: Ilayda Ergin, Bekir Alperen Kalkan

68

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


69

LOGSCAPE

The Idea!

Group 3: Daya Daniel, Amerah Khan, Jami Sai, Tej Sri Krishna

70

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


Section:

Robotic Fabrication:

Interiors:

Genetic Algorithm:

Input:

-Diameter of logs

-No of logs

-Tree Tag

Output

-Minimise No of trees

-Minimise overlap

No of generations:3625

Mutation rate: 0.05

Gen : 102 Gen : 1054 Gen : 15 Gen : 921 Gen : 325 Gen : 594

Karamba Analysis:

Optimizing the vault to reduce

internal tensile loads

and making it compressive

load bearing structure using

Karamba

Tension Compression

FormFinding Flow:

Mesh Relaxation in

kangaroo

Creation of Log

Library

Genetic Circle

Packing

Optimising for

Compession

loads in

Karamba

Parametric

Joints

Robotic Digital

Fabrication

Milling holes for screws

Starting point for the Robot-arm

Milling the grooves for axial joints

Milling the grooves for axial joints

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


71

Group 4: Kumarinda Panditharathna, Melike Sert, Ammar Nalbantoglu

72

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


73

TRI-BEND PAVILION

BASE Details

We wanted to work with oak, the local wood type, in the forested

area of our land. We researched different methods of working

with wood and discovered the steam bending method. We based

our pavilion concept on this method.

ETFE Cover

When this method was used, a design with a focus on the curve

form naturally emerged. As a result of the site conditions, we

designed a triangular base plan. 3 oaks obtained by steam

bending form the arch base plan. We designed 3 openings

arising from the triangular plan. Two openings receive people

and direct them to the seating area. The main opening opens to

the forest.

In the layout diagram, we noticed three different orientations

on the land, the axes coming from above and below are

accessible to the road

and open to the forest. Taking these three orientations as

reference, we started with a triangular central plan.

Hyperbolic Curves

Then we wanted the structure to be simple but effective. We

created the main structure with 3 semicircles.

BASE Details

Plywood is an engineered material with an alternating layer

grain direction which controls its strength but also keeps a

degree of flexibility.

Centeral Beams

Steam Bending_ Construction Details

External Frame

Steam Bended Arches

Grasshopper Diagra

Main Arch Structure

Main Slicing-Joinery System

Triangular Base

Corner of Arch Structure

Corner-Joinery System

Wood Behaviour_Curvature

ETFE Details

Group 5: Sevtap Özyıldırım, Beyza Doganay, Elvan Törün

74

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


BASE Details

Steam Furniture

BASE Details

Material Behaviour with Radius

Grasshopper Diagram

Steam Bending on Corner

We tried to give the form by understanding the limits and

advantages of the elastic bending behavior of the material.

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


75

Group 6: Bahareh Hemmatikhanshir, Amir Raeisi, Didem Pekdemir, Mohammad Amin Davarpanah

76

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


77

Group 7: Juan Hernandez, Arved Radkowski, Jerin Joy, Mejbah Sakib

78

MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


MID DESIGN CONCEPTS


79

5. EVENTS

80 DOKUMENTATION - KM EXKURSION

EVENTS

Conference: Future Envelope 15

Delft, May 28th 2024

Building products are the basic components of

the built environment and are thus central to the

circular transition. FE15 focused on the status quo

of research related to circular building products by

asking the question: what should be the industry’s

circular targets for the upcoming years? and how

are we going to achieve them? A lively discussion

with 12 international speakers addressed those

issues.

Workshop: Façade Fabrication at Schüco

Bielefeld, May 16th 2024

The class MID S5 was invited to spend a day at the

headquarters of Schüco in Bielefeld, guided by Mr.

Peter Stockbruegger, who started the day with a

theoretical lecture about stick constructions and

the system FWS 50.

Next, a tour around the campus was conducted

so students could enjoy a quick breakfast at

the Welcome Forum, followed by a tour of the

showroom where the company displays its latest

products. Additionally, the newly built pavilion

using the Grid-2-Shell system was also examined,

so students could be informed about the freeform

possibilities of the system.

Finally, the afternoon was dedicated to a handson

fabrication workshop at Schüco‘s training

center, as it has been a tradition of the MID FD for

about five years. This workshop focused on FWS

50 and students were able to build a prototype,

gaining a deeper understanding of the system’s

components and the tips and tricks for its

installation.

Photo: Daya Sara Daniel Photo: Alvaro Balderrama

Photo: Alvaro Balderrama

EVENTS


81

EVENTS

Detmolder Räume 2024

Workshop: Façade Re-Form

Detmold, June 3rd - 8th 2024

https://www.detmolderschule-galerie.de/detmolder-raeume

Following the yearly tradition, the Detmold School

of Design dedicates one week to the “Detmolder

Räume”, providing a series of workshops and

lectures from local academic staff and international

guests. This year, the topic of the event was entitled

“Re-Form Peace” addressing the pressing societal

issues like the major wars that unfolded in the past

couple of years, and reflecting on how architects

can contribute to alleviating these matters. With

concepts such as resilience and adaptive re-use in

mind, the MID-FD organized the workshop “Façade

Re-Form” along with its academic partner Ozyegin

University from Istanbul Turkey.

The participant students conducted a case study,

selecting a building from a data base provided by the

organizer, and evaluated the thermal performance,

condensation risk, water tightness, and acoustic

performance of the building according to the given

criteria. Then, they developed a 3D model and

a physical model in scale 1:10 to showcase the

different materials involved and their respective

functions.

Representing the B-Tech Lab (Building Envelope

Design & Technology Laboratory), the full-time

lecturer and researcher Yağdır Çeliker Cenger visited

Detmold and conducted the workshop, guiding

students into the principles of multi-layered wall

constructions, complementing the program’s deep

knowledge about curtain wall constructions.

Photo: Alvaro Balderrama

Photo: Harishankar Kallepalli

82

EVENTS


EVENTS


83

Façade Re-Form Workshop Results

Case study: Kuchl Campus, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences: Salzburg, Austria

Group participants: Maryam Ebrahimi Rad, Bahareh Hemmatikhanshir

During the yearly event ‘’Detmolder Räume’’,

students of the Master of Integrated Design

- Façade Design participated in a workshop

organized in collaboration with Ozyegin University,

le d by Yağdır Çeliker Cenger. The hands-on activity

used a case study to bring theoretical concepts

to practice - the extension at Kuchl Campus,

Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, designed

by the firm Dietrich | Untertrifaller Architekten.

3D modeling and technical drawings served as the

blueprint for physical modeling. A physical 1:10 scale

model integrating opaque façade strategies was

developed. The tangible output provided a clearer

understanding of the technology employed by the

architects, reinforcing key principles of building

physics.

This building features a glazed corridor wrapping

into an L-shape, with the ground floor housing a

foyer and art room, and upper levels containing

seminar spaces and a library. The structure uses

a frame system with reinforced concrete walls

providing sturdy bracing. Cross-laminated timber

panels and timber box elements span the rooms,

while integrated steel beam cutouts enable

streamlined ceiling services. Solid steel columns

and untreated silver fir cladding lend a warm,

natural aesthetic. The glazed Façade incorporates

both exterior solar protection and interior

blinds for sunlight control. Notably, the building

integrates passive house design by combining a

highly insulated envelope with solar heat gain and

recovery systems.

The workshop kicked off with an immersive look

at the layered composition of opaque walls.

Participants got hands-on with various insulation

materials, evaluating their unique properties,

applications and performance across different

environmental conditions.

Next, students analyzed opaque wall sections

from the building in Salzburg, and hypothetically in

Detmold, in order to compare two cities with distinct

climates. A qualitative performance assessment was

conducted to understand how design and materials

respond to varying weather impacts. The results

provided insights into similarities and differences

between the two locations.

Figure 1. Section analyzed and layers.

84

EVENTS


Figure 2. Kuchl Campus: Salzburg University of Applied Sciences

Source: Detail Magazine

Figure 3. Axonometric drawing of exterior layers

Figure 4. Axonometric drawing of interior layers

EVENTS


85

Table 1. Performance evaluation

Figure 5. Materials diagram

86 EVENTS


Figure 6. Physical model (Exterior))

Figure 7. Physical model (Interior)

EVENTS


87

ROB.BAU: Research Facility for Robotics in Construction

Funding: FF HAW-Geräte, PTJ Project Management Jülich / Forschungszentrum Jülich, Ministry of Culture

and Science of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia

Participants: Prof. Hans Sachs

Background

In the coming decades, robotics will play a

significant role in the necessary transformation of

the construction industry as part of the digitization

of building processes and the development of

new, sustainable materials and methods. Through

the installation of the collaborative robotic system

UR10e, the research activities of the Chair of CAAD

in the area of „Digital Construction“ will be expanded

within the newly established „IDS-Institute for

Design Strategies“ and the planned Center for

Digital Construction „ZNDB“ at the Creative Campus

Detmold.

The ROB.BAU project provides a foundational

platform for research and development in the

context of digital construction production with

robots. It strengthens the collaboration between

technical and creative disciplines (e.g., electrical

engineering and technical computer science / media

production), particularly with a focus on construction

(Detmold School of Architecture and Interior Design

/ Department of Civil Engineering). This collaboration

benefits the mentioned departments, the Institute

for Design Strategies, as well as faculty and students

throughout the TH OWL.

Collaborative Industrial Robot Ur10e

The requested device, the UR10e, is a versatile

„collaborative industrial robot“ (cobot). Thanks to

its ability to perform „human-robot collaboration“

(HRC), it allows direct, intuitive, and largely safe

interaction. Unlike traditional separation-based

systems, humans and machines now work in a

shared process (Buxbaum, Kleutges, 2020).

The UR10e is characterized by a relatively high

load capacity of 12.5 kg for its size and a reach of

1,300 mm, making it ideal for experiments in digital

construction production. Weighing only 30 kg and

with six coordinated joint axes, the robotic arm allows

for the manipulation and movement of materials

and construction elements from various angles. A

key feature of the system is its ability to equip the

robotic arm with different tools and switch them

within a production process. The comprehensive

„tool ecosystem“ from UR and third-party suppliers

enables flexible adaptation of the robot for various

projects and new challenges.

The device has been enhanced with an additional

axis, a 3,000 mm long rail, and a tool changer (flange)

to facilitate tool switching. This enables the robotic

arm to be flexibly used for various manufacturing

processes, including subtractive manufacturing,

additive processes, and the shaping of specific

materials.

The system was installed in the Department of

Architecture and Interior Design in direct connection

to the FABLAB|OWL (Fabrication Laboratory) at the

Creative Campus Detmold. In the medium term,

the system will be integrated into the construction

robotics division of the planned „ZNDB.NRW - Center

for Sustainable and Digital Construction NRW.“ The

goal of the ZNDB is to implement digitization in

construction from planning through production to

on-site execution, as well as throughout the entire

lifecycle of a project. Sustainability and materialconscious

construction are central focuses.

Research Focus

The ROB.BAU project focuses on researching

non-standardized fabrication and assembly

processes as part of the „Initiative for Digital and

Material-Conscious Construction.“ A key project is

„Individualized Natural Fiber-Based Reinforcement

Structures and Meshes for Load-Bearing Structures

in Construction.“ Here, cooperative, heterogeneous

multi-robot-human manufacturing systems are

being developed. Initial experiments with natural

fibers and industrial robots were conducted as early

as 2012. In addition, there are already initial projects

within the focus area „AI.BAU – Artificial Intelligence

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in Construction“ that integrate AI models into the

automated to autonomous control of robots. The

research field „AI+Robotics in Construction“ will be

further developed as part of the aforementioned

initiatives and platforms.

In the ROB.BAU project, the following research

questions, among others, are being explored: Can

human-robot collaboration in the prefabrication of

natural fiber-based reinforcement structures create

a sustainable alternative to conventional methods?

How can human-robot-supported manufacturing be

supplemented and optimized through „Augmented

Reality“ (AR)? How can robots and humans interact

effectively? What role does artificial intelligence play

in interaction and digital construction processes?

Outlook

The ROB.BAU project strengthens research activities

in the field of digital construction production and

enables the acquisition of third-party funding

and the publication of results at international

conferences. The Chair of CAAD is continuing to build

on its core competencies in this area and developing

new collaborations. The project is also intended to

promote collaboration within the university and with

external partners, advancing the development of

innovative and sustainable construction methods.

Figure 1: ROBOT UR10e in Detmold

sources: Pressestelle TH OWL

Figure 2: ROBOT UR10e in Detmold

Yusuf Aykin

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89

Figure 3: ROBOT UR10e in Detmold; Yusuf Aykin

Figure 4: Illustration of robotic construction workshop:

Victor Sardenberg (LUH - Hannover)

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Figure 5: Photos and Illustration of robotic construction workshop:

Victor Sardenberg (LUH - Hannover)

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91

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Publisher

OWL University of Applied Sciences and Arts

IDS Institute for Design Strategies

Emilienstrße 45, D-32756 Detmold, Germany

Editors

Alvaro Balderrama

Prof. Daniel Arztmann

Layout and Graphics

Alvaro Balderrama

Najmeh Najafpour

Guest Reviewers

Florian Zander

Johanna Götz

Cover

Alvaro Balderrama

Contributions and Illustations

Unless stated otherwise, the illustrations

belong to the respective authors in each

contribution, or to the Editorial Team.

The authors in this report are credited

individually and are responsible for their

contribution.

Teaching Department

Façade Construction

Prof. Daniel Arztmann

Contact:

IDS Institute for Design Strategies

OWL University of Applied Sciences and Arts

Emilienstraße 45, D-32756 Detmold

E-Mail: ids@th-owl.de

Web: www.th-owl.de/ids

Sustainable Façades volume 3

ISSN (Print) 2943-4459


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