The Marine Biologist Issue 32

ISSUE 32 OCTOBER 2024
ISSN 2052-5273
THE MAGAZINE OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
BLue carbon
TURNING TO THE OCEAN
FOR CLIMATE SOLUTIONS

2
i n s i d e
contents
BLUE CARBON
06 LOOKING A GIFT
HORSE IN THE MOUTH
Can blue carbon in
coastal wetlands deliver
win-wins for climate and
biodiversity?
06
ON THE COVER:
Seagrass, Komodo, Indonesia.
© Matt Curnock / Ocean Image
Bank.
08 ‘THE FIERCE
URGENCY OF NOW
An interview with Carlos
Duarte, Distinguished
Professor, Marine Science,
at the King Abdullah
University of Science and
Technology.
08
14 MARVELLOUS
MEADOWS
The UK's largest seagrass
bed is the focus of research
and restoration efforts.
16 FORESTS ON
THE EDGE
Mangrove forests are
increasingly recognized
as carbon-storing
superheroes.
18PROTECTING
WILD SEAWEED
FOR BIODIVERSITY
AND CLIMATE
Harnessing the
climate benefits of
kelp forests.
21 KELP FARMS NO
‘SILVER BULLET’ FOR
CARBON CAPTURE
Farming seaweed has
many benefits, but climate
mitigation may not be one
of them.
22 OCEAN MUD'S
SUPERPOWER
The Convex Seascape
Survey delves into mud
on the world’s continental
shelves.
POLICY
25 INCLUSION AND
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN
GLOBAL CLIMATE ACTION
Costal wetlands, social justice,
and the Paris Agreement.
FEATURES
27 LOW OXYGEN ZONES
ARE GREAT FOR JELLYFISH
Invasive jellies find conditions
to their liking in the Baltic Sea.
30 COMPETITIVE ANGLING
AS A SCIENTIFIC TOOL
Anglers and scientists join
forces to help manage fish
stocks.
38
32 PROJECT POLLACK
Filling the knowledge gaps
for this less studied fish.
34 TRANSFORMING
FISHERY CONFLICTS
Can climate-driven fishery
clashes be averted?
The Marine Biologist is the Membership
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editor@mba.ac.uk
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ISSN: 2052-5273
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l e t t e r f r o m t h e e d i t o r 3
THE VOICE OF
MARINE BIOLOGY
36 MEET THE MEMBERS
A regular invitation to get
to know our fellow MBA
members.
38 CAREERS IN MARINE
BIOLOGY
A shoal of useful information to
help Young Marine Biologists
prepare for ocean-related
careers!
40 BURSARY REPORTS
MBA Bursary winners report
back
41
41 REVIEWS
27
the science
must be
sound if we
are to realize
win-wins for
climate and
biodiversity
Carlos Duarte is one of the world's top climate scientists who
moves among various disciplines with as little regard for
boundaries as a whale roaming the ocean. We are proud to
present an exclusive interview with Professor Duarte and, as the
man who coined the term ‘blue carbon’, we couldn’t hope for a better
guide to the theme of this special edition.
Professor Duarte estimates that marine carbon dioxide removal (CDR)
in all its forms could contribute up to a fifth of the 5 billion tonnes per year
CDR needed to keep global warming below 2°C above pre-industrial
levels. To find out more about where this carbon is stored and some of the
questions raised, our contributors take us on an occasionally very muddy
tour of blue carbon ecosystems from coastal wetlands to the edge of the
continental shelf.
In demonstrating their progress towards achieving climate targets,
countries can assess the carbon capturing potential of their natural spaces
and use that to offset their emissions. But, as Phil Williamson reminds us in
our leader article (page 6), the science must be sound if we are to realize
win-wins for climate and biodiversity that blue carbon can offer.
Let us turn away from mud (first ensuring your welly is coming with you)
to our features section where two related articles invoke the bracing air of
the English Channel. Fisheries Management Plans are central to the UK’s
new approach to securing the long-term sustainability of fish stocks. Data
is all-important to underpin management of commercial species, and we
learn how a government scheme is enabling scientists and fishermen to
join forces on data collection and research to support sustainable fisheries
management.
Marine biology is a competitive field to break into but, as our careers
feature on page 38 shows, there are many ways into a marine biology
career and a genuine passion for the subject can go a long way towards
securing that first job .
We are extremely grateful to all our contributors whose expertise will
no doubt inspire the next generation of marine biologists. Professor
Duarte himself takes inspiration from Māori values in which all parts of
nature are connected and taking must be balanced by giving back. We
are all part of the climate, ocean health, and biodiversity system and as
champions for coastal wetlands, kelp forests, and even muddy seabeds,
we can help in the fight against climate change and ensure healthier
coastal ecosystems for future generations.
Guy Baker, EDITOR
editor@mba.ac.uk
BLUE
CARBON
Organic carbon that is captured and stored by the
oceans and coastal ecosystems ¹
Rewilding charity
SCOTLAND: The Big
Picture are offering
MBA members a free
copy of their beautifully
illustrated eBook,
Coastlands. See page 35
1
Macreadie, P.I., Anton, A., Raven, J.A. et al. The future of Blue Carbon science. Nat
Commun 10, 3998 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11693-w
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SIGNIFICANT CORAL BLEACHING
IN THE SOUTHERN RED SEA
Climate-warming-induced coral bleaching is threating
coral ecosystems globally, with peaks of bleaching
associated with El Niño events. In the last decade,
notable large-scale coral bleaching events have occurred in
2014–17 and 2023, devasting many coral reefs around the
world. Forecasts suggest that 70–90 per cent of coral reefs
will still be lost if the rise in global temperature is limited to
1.5 o C above pre-industrial levels, rising to 99 per cent loss if
temperatures reach 2 o C. Red Sea hard corals were considered
to be unusually heat tolerant and a possible reservoir of heat
tolerant species. Previously, minimal bleaching occurred in
this region in 2012, 2020, and 2023, with very high rates of
coral recovery.
It is increasingly looking like 2024 is going to be a record
year for elevated water temperatures and, in September, while
on a recreational diving trip to the Southern Egyptian Red
Sea, I observed extensive bleaching of corals on the offshore
reefs at Large Giftun, The Brothers, Daedalus, and Elphinstone.
Bleaching was occurring in water depths from a few metres to
in excess of 30 m. In shallower water, 25–35 per cent of hard
corals were fully bleached and some soft corals appeared
impacted. The bleaching was worse the further south we went,
with Daedalus the most impacted reef. Our dive guide stated
that the bleaching had started in mid-July and that divers
had reported water temperatures of up to 33 o C on their dive
computers. Bleaching has not previously been reported on
these offshore reef systems, earlier bleaching events having
occurred on the shallow fringing reefs.
Bleached coral in the southern Red Sea. © Keiron Fraser.
Worryingly, it now appears that even some of the most
heat-tolerant corals in the world are being severely impacted
by our warming seas.
Keiron Fraser
Source: Hanafy, M.H. and Dosoky, M.Y.A. 2023. Coral bleaching event of 2023:
Exploring distribution, sensitivity and recovery potential of the Egyptian coast of the
Red Sea. HEPCA.
MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
RESEARCHER AWARDED THE PRIX
D’EXCELLENCE ICES AWARD
The MBA’s Dr Dan Smale has been awarded the ICES Prix d’Excellence. © MBA.
Senior Research Fellow Dr Dan Smale from
the Marine Biological Association (MBA)
has been awarded the Prix d’Excellence
by the International Council for the Exploration
of the Sea (ICES).
Dr Smale was nominated by his peers and
collaborators for his significant scientific
contributions to climate change impacts on
marine ecosystems, in particular his research in
marine heatwaves and kelp forest ecology.
The award, which is presented every third
year, acknowledges the highest level of
achievement in marine science.
Dr Smale said: ‘It is a huge honour to be
formally recognized by such a well-respected
and important organization in marine sciences.’
Neri Campbell
www.mba.ac.uk/staff/dr-daniel-smale
www.mba.ac.uk/benthic-ecosystems-smale
October 2024
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i n b r i e f 5
WHALES ARE NON-
HUMAN PERSONS
A
new treaty signed earlier this year has granted
whales legal person status. Indigenous Pacific
Island leaders from Aotearoa (New Zealand), the
Cook Islands, Tonga, Tahiti, and Rapa Nui signed He
Whakaputanga Moana, The Declaration for the Ocean,
granting whales protections such as the right to the
freedom of migration, a healthy environment, and the
ability to thrive. The treaty recognizes traditional Māori
and Pacific islander beliefs in the importance of whales
as ancestral beings, and is based in customary law rather
than Crown law.
King Tuheitia Pootatau Te Wherowhero VII from
Aotearoa described the treaty as ‘a woven cloak of
protection for our taonga [treasures]’, noting that the
presence of whales ‘reflects the strength of our own mana
[spiritual essence]’. The declaration aims to combine
traditional Māori knowledge with science, enabling
Indigenous groups to collaborate with governments on
legal protections.
Aotearoa has pioneered legal personhood status
to protect natural resources, starting with the 2014 Te
Urewara Act, granting rights to a forest, and the 2017
recognition of a river, both of which are now considered
to be owned by themselves. The treaty highlights the
growing respect for Indigenous knowledge in global
environmental protection and could signal a shift in the
region’s environmental policy.
Tanya Whipps
(See also: Interview with Carlos Duarte on page 8)
Sources: Te Rina Kowhai. (2024). ‘Māori king joins Pacific leaders’ call for whales
to be granted legal personhood’. NZ Herald. 30 March. Available at: https://
www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/maori-king-and-other-indigenous-pacific-leaders-signup-to-granting-whales-legal-personhood/2THXZK5GFVFCHDROZMPLZI3AWY/
Eco Jurisprudence Monitor. (2024). ‘He Whakaputanga Moana Treaty
(Declaration for the Ocean)’. (n.d.) Available at: https://ecojurisprudence.org/
initiatives/he-whakaputanga-moana-declaration-for-the-ocean-treaty/
SEABIRD
RECOVERY PLAN
LAUNCHED
Seabird populations in England are declining. Recent
figures from the JNCC's (Joint Nature Conservation
Committee) seabird census show a 62 per cent decline
in seabird numbers across the UK, with a 70 per cent decline
in Scotland. Since many of the figures in this census were
collected before the impacts of the Highly Pathogenic Avian
Influenza (HPAI) outbreaks around the UK's coasts, many
populations have likely been even more severely affected.
However, there is positive news that will help these
iconic and cherished birds, in the shape of a new recovery
plan that was launched in February. The England Seabird
Conservation and Recovery Pathway (ESCaRP) is part of
the UK Government’s Environmental Improvement Plan.
As Senior Marine Policy Officer at the RSPB Samuel Wrobel
reports, ESCaRP is essentially a ‘how-to’ guide for recovering
England’s seabirds.
Seabird colonies have been evaluated by Natural England
for vulnerabilities and sensitivities in areas such as feeding,
breeding, survival, and knowledge. This evaluation resulted
in 74 recommended actions, each linked to these themes.
The actions are based on seabird distribution, evidencedriven
analysis of human impacts, and the birds' sensitivity
to those impacts.
The publication of this strategy is recognized as a
crucial step forward for seabird conservation. As Natural
England says, ‘We have the recovery pathway—it is now time
to walk it!’
Tanya Whipps
Sources: https://hub.jncc.gov.uk/assets/1dae7357-350c-483f-b14d-
7513254433a5
Natural England (2022). English Seabird Conservation and Recovery Pathway:
Technical Report. Natural England
community.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/b/nature-s-advocates/posts/how-it-works-savingseabirds-edition
naturalengland.blog.gov.uk/2024/02/07/the-pathway-to-seabird-recovery-inengland/
A fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)—one of England’s iconic seabird species.
© Guy Baker.
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BLUE CARBON FOR
CLIMATE MITIGATION:
LOOKING A GIFT HORSE
IN THE MOUTH
Value coastal wetlands for the right reasons,
says Phil Williamson.
Mature mangrove forest in Australia. © Judith Rosentreter /
Southern Cross University.
There are not many good-news stories in environmental
science, particularly where climate is concerned. The
recent awareness of large-scale carbon accumulation
and storage by vegetated coastal habitats—primarily
saltmarshes, seagrass meadows, and mangroves—is therefore
rightly celebrated. Carbon removal is not the only natural service
that such blue carbon ecosystems (BCEs) freely provide: they
also help protect shorelines from storms, support commercially
important fisheries, provide habitat for many other organisms,
and reduce coastal eutrophication by removing nutrients.
Scientific interest in BCEs has grown from just a handful of
papers a year in the 1990s to more than 600 in 2023. BCEs have
also attracted the attention of governments, as a ‘natural solution’
in formal climate policies—on the basis that BCE restoration will
help achieve the global climate goal of net zero emissions by
mid-century. Indeed, a win-win opportunity is envisaged, since
both climate and biodiversity would benefit.
Carbon offsets are fine in theory
The proverbial advice is that gift horses should not be closely
examined for potential weaknesses; nevertheless, we need to
be confident that all is as it seems. That is because a lose-lose
outcome is also possible: if the climate benefits of BCEs should
prove illusory, then depending on them for mitigation purposes
would allow warming and sea-level rise to continue, directly
jeopardizing the future of BCEs (as well as ourselves).
Carbon offsets are now a multi-billion-dollar industry,
building on the net-zero concept developed by the 2015 Paris
Agreement on climate change. The basic science is sound:
if global anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are
balanced by their removal, there should be no further increase in
their atmospheric concentrations. All recent Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios that avert dangerous
climate change (between 1.5 and 2.0°C of surface warming) now
Carbon offsets are
now a multi-billiondollar
industry
Measuring gas exchange in the sediment of an Australian mangrove.
© Judith Rosentreter / Southern Cross University.
include gigatonne-scale carbon removal by 2050, as well as the
rapid change from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources.
The challenge of additionality for BCE
carbon removal
The validity of carbon offsets does, however, depend on two
core premises: there must be measurable additionality, i.e. net
climate benefit that would not have otherwise occurred, and
the carbon removed must be securely stored on a long-term
basis (at least 100 years). For international recognition that
these criteria are being met, formal monitoring, reporting, and
verification (MRV) are needed. The carbon removal process
should also be sufficiently scalable to provide non-trivial climate
mitigation, and the costs should be societally acceptable,
generally considered to be < $100 per tonne CO 2
removed.
Afforestation and enhanced forest protection have been
the main way of deriving carbon offsets to date, mostly via
the private sector. But forest carbon stores are inherently
insecure: they are vulnerable to fire and disease, and these
risks are increasing in a warmer world. Scalability is also a major
constraint, with forestation competing with food production and/
or natural habitat protection over much of the world. Hence the
October 2024
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 7
Saltmarsh sediment core at high tide. © Stephanie Nolte /
University of East Anglia.
Three other major uncertainties affect the reliability of BCE
carbon accounting:
• BCEs don’t just take up CO 2
but can also release methane
(CH 4
) and nitrous oxide (N 2
O). These greenhouse gases don’t last
so long in the atmosphere but have a much stronger warming
effect than CO 2
. Their emissions can be highly variable, changing
with local conditions, tidal cycle, and season.
• A highly variable but potentially large proportion (up to
50–80 per cent in estuaries) of the carbon accumulating in
BCE sediments originates from elsewhere, primarily from land.
Such non-local carbon may include soot, micro-plastics, and
other highly recalcitrant forms that arguably would have been
preserved anyway, regardless of the restoration. On the basis
that carbon credits should only be awarded as an unambiguous
consequence of management action, the ratio of local to nonlocal
carbon needs to be determined, and the latter excluded.
• BCEs often support high abundances of molluscs and
crustaceans: their calcium carbonate formation (calcification)
is therefore enhanced, releasing CO 2
. The opposite effect
can also occur, with carbonate dissolution. Site-specific
measurements are needed to determine which process
dominates, and whether it significantly decreases or increases
net carbon removal and storage.
growth of interest in ocean-based carbon removal, with focus
on BCE restoration as an apparently low-risk and societally
acceptable climate mitigation action.
There is, however, a fundamental problem in BCE carbon
accounting, due to high natural variability in sediment carbon
accumulation rates. I looked at this issue in some detail and
found a 19-fold range between the lowest and highest reported
values per unit area by mangroves, with a highly skewed
distribution (many more low results than high ones). For
seagrasses, the range of reported values is greater, with a 76-fold
range; for saltmarshes, greater still, with a 600-fold range.
This variability arises from a complex combination of
environmental factors that are not well understood. Using a
global ‘central tendency’ specific to each BCE hides the problem
but doesn’t solve it: important regional and local differences
are then ignored. A further issue is whether the effect of high
outliers should be reduced by using the geometric mean or
median rather than the arithmetic mean. A recent meta-analysis
of saltmarsh carbon dynamics led by Victoria Mason (see Further
reading) used the arithmetic mean; however, re-calculating
their carbon accumulation data for restored saltmarshes as a
geometric mean gave a global value that was 41 per cent lower.
Can risks and uncertainties be allowed for?
There is a solution to the above uncertainties: factor in the risks
when estimating BCE carbon offsets. Thus, instead of assuming
that planting mangroves will remove 45.1 kg of CO 2
per tree
per year (a recently published estimate), scale that back to, say,
4.5 kg per year. The potential error of an order of magnitude
may seem high, but is actually conservative, since there is also
a relatively high risk of restoration failure and reduced future
carbon removal as a result of climate change impacts. The
question, then, is whether BCE restoration is still cost-effective as
a climate mitigation action, or whether it can still be justified
on the basis of the many non-climatic benefits that coastal
wetlands provide. l
• Phil Williamson (P.Williamson@uea.ac.uk), University of East Anglia.
Further reading
Williamson, P. and Gattuso, J-P. 2022. Carbon removal using coastal blue
carbon ecosystems is uncertain and unreliable, with questionable climatic
cost-effectiveness. Frontiers in Climate, 4, 853666.
Mason, V.G., Burden, A., Epstein, G., Jupe, L.L., Wood, K.A. and Skov, M.W.
2023. Blue carbon benefits from global saltmarsh restoration. Global Change
Biology, 29: 6517-6545.
Bach, L.T., Vaughan, N.E., Law, C.S. and Williamson, P. 2024. Implementation
of marine CO2 removal for climate mitigation: the challenges of additionality,
predictability, and governability. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene,
12, 00034.
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 9
'THE FIERCE URGENCY OF NOW':
A JOURNEY OF DISCOVERY
WITH CARLOS DUARTE
The Marine Biologist spoke with Carlos Duarte, Distinguished Professor, Marine Science at KAUST, about blue
carbon, being open-minded, and our place in nature.
The following interview has been edited for length and clarity.
Was there a particular experience that started you
on your career path?
I didn't have an easy start and I was certainly not someone
who knew they were going to be a marine biologist. My early
days of schooling were in a reformatory where learning was a
painful exercise in the full meaning of the term because if I said
something wrong, or I didn't know an answer, I would be hit.
The most likely path would have been into drugs or crime—and
I saw many of my schoolmates go down those paths—but I was
lucky enough to receive a scholarship on a scheme to provide
high quality education to children whose parents didn't have the
means to send them to good schools or universities. That saved
my life, literally, and showed me that learning can be enjoyable. I
came across ecology, and I really liked it because at the time it was
a new science with the capacity to connect things and explore,
and that that gave me a sense of intellectual freedom.
How would you describe your approach to carrying
out research, and what shaped it?
In 42 years of research, I haven’t really had a single approach. I
was driven by curiosity and identifying gaps in knowledge. By
training I'm highly self-critical, but also critical of knowledge in
general and I learned early on that we can only advance science
through exercising constructive criticism. I'm often not satisfied
with current models, or theories and explanations for phenomena,
and I try to challenge them. Over the last decade of my career, I
have focused on research to tackle humanity’s grand challenges.
Why don't you specialize?
I hold a PhD, which stands for Doctor of Philosophy. I am
endowed with the tools—effectively the scientific method—to
address relevant questions in any domain of science that I
am drawn to by curiosity or my desire to generate solutions
to pressing problems. If I had been a career-driven scientist I
would have specialized in seagrass, and I could easily have been
recognized as one of the top experts on seagrass globally. When I
venture into a new field, it is rewarding to have a sense that I have
discovered something unexpected; eureka moments when I see
how things work and connect. I was less likely to be surprised by
something on seagrass than if I was studying, for example, sharks
or giant clams, or even questions beyond marine science.
Since 2021 I have been Distinguished Professor, Marine Science
at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST),
which I joined as Professor in 2015. Faculty are free to formulate
relevant research questions and are given significant funding
without having to write grant applications. We are evaluated on
our outputs, and everybody has a 5-year rolling contract. If my
performance and use of resources is considered positive, then
one more year is added. With 5 years ahead of me I can take risks.
My original training was as a limnologist. From time to time,
I work on lakes, rivers, springs, and groundwater, and I may
encounter a problem where I can use something I learned from
the ocean, or colleagues who have no marine experience may
have skills that I think can be used to advance solutions for the
ocean. These disciplinary interactions are difficult because both
our reward systems within institutions and universities and our
resource allocation systems are averse to working across fields.
Where will the most productive collaborations be
for ocean recovery?
I believe the most fruitful collaborations will come from working
with colleagues in photonics and sensor engineering. And
partnerships with colleagues in interdisciplinary physics and
AI will help to develop general laws and predictive power in
ocean recovery.
What is your view on blue carbon and valuing
marine life?
An ocean-positive economy would be one that invested in
living marine life. For the past 2,000 years, marine life only had
value when we extracted it and sold it. Healthy marine life has
only marginal value: a living tuna has no value unless it is killed
and brought to a market. So, in my opinion, blue carbon is an
intermediate step towards realizing the full value of natural
capital and I am eager that we move from blue carbon into
natural capital markets. The term blue carbon appeared for the
first time in a report that I wrote with UN colleagues that relied
heavily on my research into seagrass and mangroves, and their
capacity to act as intense carbon sinks to motivate society to
conserve and restore them. 1
I am about to submit a paper where we calculate the rise and
flow of carbon credits from coastal ecosystems, which shows
the impact both in delivering restoration of these habitats and
for climate action. I am concerned that only ecosystems that are
threatened or damaged are investable for blue carbon credits and
there may be perverse incentives for communities to damage an
ecosystem so they can be paid to restore them.
The presence of a healthy habitat is fundamental for restoration
and conservation, because if you restore a saltmarsh, or a
mangrove, or seagrass, or any other habitat, where are the seeds
or propagules coming from? And where are the ecosystem
components that will colonize the habitat and keep it healthy?
They must come from the adjacent, well-conserved habitats
which, therefore, must have value. The way to recognize that value
1
Nellemann, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. M., De Young, C., Fonseca,
L.E., and Grimsditch, G. 2009. Blue Carbon: The role of healthy oceans in
binding carbon. UNEP. www.researchgate.net/publication/304215852_Blue_
carbon_A_UNEP_rapid_response_assessment
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is not by creating blue carbon projects, but through natural capital
projects where we recognize the full value of the benefits we
receive from nature.
Investors might be attracted by the carbon or coastal protection
benefits, while private companies may invest because their
activities have impacts that they want to repair. In this way you
create an asset that is investable, and you don't need to chop it up
to sell the different components such as carbon or biodiversity.
Are carbon markets working to drive nature-based
solutions?
Like any nascent market, carbon markets have grown very
fast and are therefore subject to stress and problems.
Cryptocurrencies are another example. However, regulation is
improving and more reputable actors are entering the markets
as they scale up. As we show on a forthcoming paper, the
markets are rapidly improving and working.
What proportion of carbon dioxide removal can
marine nature-based solutions offer compared
to the amount that we need to remove from the
atmosphere?
Blue carbon doesn't just mean seagrass, mangroves, and
saltmarsh, it means the entire ocean. We started with mangroves,
seagrass and saltmarsh because they are very actionable and
easily accessible, and the science was sufficiently mature to
address questions that needed to be resolved. But there are many
other options. Mudflats are important for carbon sequestration,
and blue carbon projects can be activated around them. I
participate in the Convex Seascape Survey project, which is
concerned with stewardship and conservation of the continental
shelf, including protection of habitats from impacts such as
trawling as a way to reduce carbon emissions.
If you look at active seagrass, mangroves, and saltmarsh
restoration and conservation projects, we estimate they can
provide about two to five per cent of the greenhouse gas
mitigation required to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.
Two years ago, using our sensors mounted on tiger sharks, we
published the discovery of the largest seagrass ecosystem in
the world in the Bahamas, which expands the totality of known
seagrass by 30 per cent.² And I believe there are vast expanses of
seagrass habitat that are yet to be discovered. When we consider
the full scale of seagrass alone, then I think we can go closer to
five per cent.
I have been working on algal forests and their capacity to
contribute to carbon sequestration. This is a much harder
ecosystem to quantify for carbon mitigation than seagrass or
mangroves, because the carbon is often sequestered far away
from the habitat, making it difficult to track and to link to action
taken in a particular location. Nevertheless, it is there and should
be activated. I am also looking at seaweed farming as an activity
that can contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation and removal.
We are also looking at the potential role of very large animals
like great whales in maintaining the ocean in a highly productive
state, which is conducive to higher rates of carbon sequestration.
In Antarctica I am trying to find the ‘smoking gun’ to resolve the
role of great whales by demonstrating how carbon sequestration
declined alongside industrial whaling.
With around 1 billion cows in the world, what we feed
to ruminants can have a large impact on greenhouse gas
emissions. A small amount of dried asparagopsis (a red
seaweed) powder in bovine feed can reduce methane emission
and duration by 90 per cent. The potential therefore exists to
2
https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en/news/largest-seagrass-meadows-on-earthfound-in-bahamas
October 2024
reduce methane emission by ruminants, which is 18 per cent of
total greenhouse gas emissions.
When everything is fully activated and added together, the
potential for marine carbon dioxide removal can be up to 20 per
cent of that required to meet our climate goals in total.
What is your position on the question of
geoengineering?
For the last 15 months the ocean’s surface temperature has been
more than 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels. Given this, and
that we have probably underestimated the impacts to humans
and society of our world at 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels,
we need to consider all options, even those that carry risks.
The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
encourages all nations to maximize their ambition for
nature-based solutions because they contribute to meeting
biodiversity goals, mitigate climate change, have few
unintended consequences, and bring multiple co-benefits,
for example in natural capital. We can also reduce emissions
through renewable energy.
If that is not enough, and sadly it may not be, we may need
to activate geoengineering options. Iron addition experiments
were trialled in the 1990s but were stopped because there
were concerns about possible risks such as toxic algal blooms
and damage to marine ecosystems, which I think are very
unlikely. There are those in the research community who are
considering revisiting these experiments with larger doses
of iron because the unintended consequences are probably
far less risky than breaching the thresholds of the Paris
Agreement. Another option is enhancing ocean alkalinity.
There are pilot experiments in different areas, but so far, the
experimental evidence from open ocean or coastal waters is
not very encouraging. The main challenge is finding a source
of alkalinity that is available in powdered form in sufficient
quantities, ready to be loaded onto vessels to be distributed
across the ocean. There are other approaches that are not
ocean based, but they can interact with the ocean: for example,
cloud brightening or solar radiation blocking. These kinds of
defences do not address the root causes of climate change
and by adopting them, we will be committing ourselves to
maintaining them until we have the technology to reduce the
loads of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. And were we to
activate those solutions, the temptation might be to continue to
release greenhouse gases.
What other areas of research you have been
involved in?
Wearable nanosensors
Over the last 10 years I have been doing a lot of work on
developing flexible, wearable sensors. Adapting sensors for
medical applications or for athletes for use underwater was a
novel and exciting challenge. The sea is a corrosive environment,
radio waves do not transmit well, pressure is a problem, and
organisms like to grow on surfaces. In trying to tackle these
problems, we ended up with graphene as an excellent material
for nanosensors that not only measures flow around marine
animals but also harvests energy from that interaction with
the flow.
Applying marine science to advance biomedicine
In marine science we have developed the capacity to precisely
control the growth environment of cells and organisms in the
laboratory. Ocean acidification research has evolved to the point
where we can control pH with live organisms to one hundredth
of a pH unit, while also controlling temperature, salinity,
carbon dioxide, and so forth. These parameters are not closely
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 11
Blue carbon doesn't just
mean seagrass, mangroves,
and saltmarsh, it means the
entire ocean.
www.mba.ac.uk
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controlled in biomedicine where the environment of cell culture
drifts to levels beyond human physiological limits.
One of the reasons for the reproducibility crisis in biomedicine
is that experimental approaches are flawed. That led us to the
notion that biomedicine has been co-opted by the ‘tyranny of the
gene’, which is to say the genetic background controls everything.
In summarizing The origin of species, Darwin wrote that there
are two major forces that govern the fate of a species. One is the
conditions of existence, i.e. the environment, and the other is the
unity of type, which means the genetic material. Darwin considered
the environment to be most important. In Darwin’s time, Victorian
society was composed of a ruling class and a working class and
I think to uphold the system it was important to emphasize the
superiority of the genetic material and ignore the conditions of
existence. In ecology, the environment is very present, particularly
since we have the capacity to change it. But in biomedicine, the
gene is paramount and the importance of environment is neglected.
The problem of ageing
For at least a century, marine animals were used as model
organisms to learn about fundamental biology and how that
may be applicable to human health, but this tradition has been
lost over the past three decades. We are connecting with a big
program in the US that uses marine models, particularly jellyfish,
to explore how exceptions to ageing may exist. Some jellyfish
species are almost immortal and can even reverse their life cycles.
There are prominent biologists who had no idea that marine
organisms had those capabilities.
Photonics (optical wireless communication)
We can learn much about light and photonics from the ocean,
which will open new avenues for laser-based illumination systems,
and ‘Li-fi’.³ I am working on new materials for photonics from
marine organisms. A key to the bright colours of giant clams is the
arrangement of light-manipulating structures called iridocytes. 4
This material conducts electricity 50 times faster than any known
superconductor and, unlike conventional superconductors, it
operates at room temperature. The critical factor in transmitting
data is how fast the laser can switch on and off, which is where
these superconducting properties become relevant.
The Hinemoana Halo—indigenous rights over land and ocean
I am fortunate to be scientific advisor on an inspirational
project called the Hinemoana Halo. This is a hugely ambitious
indigenous-led restoration project. After 30 years of litigation with
the government of New Zealand the Māori people have finally
consolidated significant rights over a vast expanse of land and
ocean. And now they intend to heal nature. The project is guided
by three principles that are inherent to Māori culture: we are
nature; everything is interconnected (their projects are continuous
from watershed to the open ocean); and in nature everything is
about reciprocity (you take from nature but you give back).
The Māori have made agreements with all Polynesian peoples,
so a project which started in New Zealand has already expanded
across the Pacific and beyond to the native Americans in Alaska
and British Columbia, and then also to the Inuit in the Arctic. This
sophisticated project extends from Antarctica to the Arctic and it's
all indigenous-led.
I was in the Cook Islands recently where a meeting was held
between Māori tribes, the Māori King, the king of the local
indigenous groups, and the leadership of other Polynesian
tribes. The Māori King and the King of the Cook Islands
presented a declaration that granted personhood rights to
great whales. It was a very moving experience and a beautiful
3
Li-fi: a wireless communication technology that uses light to transmit data.
4
Iridocytes contain regularly stacked protein platelets that selectively scatter
and reflect different wavelengths of light.
declaration. Māoris go back 26 generations, and their 26th
ancestor was not a human: it was a humpback whale. Nature
and people are one; therefore, if people have rights, nature has
rights too. We hope to follow up with a campaign to urge as
many nations as possible to adopt this in their legal code as the
foundation for global conservation of whales.
How does your work influence or inform policy
making?
The work that I and my collaborators do creates options for policy
makers, the private sector, and civil society, to address ocean issues.
It is important to design a less dystopian future for the ocean. Once
we have a plausible—even hard to achieve, positive future, we can
identify the hurdles and challenges and make all possible efforts to
overcome them.
What advice would you give to someone who is
contemplating a PhD?
Before I went on sabbatical, I met with all my students because I
wanted them to reflect on what it means to do a PhD. You must
have a good reason to dedicate 5 per cent of your life to doing that
one thing.
To become a scientist, you are going to generate new knowledge
and that means that you are going to be alone. You will need to
allocate the best of your capacity and power to overcome the
difficulties that you will experience. Because you're going to fail,
you're going to feel alone, and you're going to have moments of
despair. I told my students that they need to be fit, healthy, and
mentally robust, and I even told them about improving their diets.
I told them they should also enter research with an open mind.
Students need the space to chase opportunities wherever they
emerge, to change direction and entertain serendipitous ideas that
might be outside their mindset.
What has been your most memorable marine
life encounter?
I was stationed with my wife, Susana—also a Professor at KAUST—
in Antarctica. Every day, from the window of our land-based
lab, we saw a humpback whale and its baby come into the bay.
We wanted to be in the water with them to admire them, but
it was almost a kilometre to the water to launch the boat, and
everything in Antarctica is hard and slow. On our last day at the
base, I had everything ready and by the time the whales were
entering the bay we were on the water. We stopped the engine
in the middle of the bay and both the baby and the mother
surfaced about a metre away from the boat. They looked at us
and there was clear eye contact and that spark of intelligence
in the way we were being observed. After a few minutes of that
interaction, they dove and then began breaching next to our
boat. I realized later this was dangerous, but at the time we never
considered the risk, we just enjoyed the experience. It was a very
emotional moment to reconnect with the ocean and have hope
for the future, too.
In Māori values, you take, and you give back. As scientists we
have the opportunity to learn and discover, and we need to
give back.
I gave a special opening talk last year at the Association for the
Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (I was President between
2007 and 2010) about the role of scientists in addressing global
challenges. I ended with a repurposed extract from a speech by
Martin Luther King: ‘We are now faced with the fact that tomorrow
is today… We are confronted with the fierce urgency of now… Now
let us rededicate ourselves to the long and bitter—but beautiful—
struggle for a new world’. I think that encapsulates a broader role for
scientists in society beyond our individual journeys of discovery. l
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 13
In Māori values,
you take, and
you give back. As
scientists we have
the opportunity
to learn and
discover, and we
need to give back.
www.mba.ac.uk
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MARVELLOUS MEADOWS
Martin Attrill and Oliver Thomas describe a
collaborative research programme investigating
the carbon storage capacity of the UK’s largest
subtidal seagrass bed.
When blue carbon habitats are discussed, the focus
tends to be on mangroves, saltmarshes, and
seagrass meadows—all of which are formed by
‘true plants’ (angiosperms) adapted to life in, or by,
the marine environment. Seagrass meadows differ in a couple
of significant ways from the other two habitats, however. Firstly,
seagrass species are the only true plants that complete their full
life cycle under the sea—including flowering, pollination, and
seed production. Secondly, they have a global distribution, with
seagrass meadows found from the tropics to the Arctic, unlike
mangroves, which are confined to the tropics and saltmarshes in
temperate areas. In the tropics, seagrass beds are often multispecies
meadows with a mix of morphology, from strap-like
grasses to broad-leaved species. Here they are very important
grazing sites for large marine vertebrates such as green turtles
and dugongs. It seems that some beds can also be extremely
old, mainly reproducing and spreading vegetatively for centuries.
A seagrass bed in Australia is now thought to be the largest living
plant in the world, while some meadows in the Mediterranean
are possibly up to 200,000 years in age, making them the oldest
living organisms!
The value of protection and restoration
In Northern Europe, seagrass beds tend to be mostly made up
of one species, Zostera marina, which can form large, beautiful
and diverse beds across suitable shallow subtidal areas. This
species can also extend into the intertidal (Fig. 1), but here
another rarer species, Zostera noltei, can also be found. Work
on the blue carbon potential of UK seagrass beds has taken off
comparatively recently, with several surveys defining the amount
of carbon stored in the sediment underneath meadows. These
values can be highly variable, both between beds and even
amongst cores taken from within the same meadow. The crucial
information needed is whether the amount of carbon stored
by seagrass beds, and perhaps the value of other ecosystem
services, is sufficient to develop a financial credit that may aid the
protection and restoration of these important habitats. A series of
collaborative projects within Plymouth marine partners is looking
to answer some of these questions, building on seagrass ecology
research that has been ongoing since the late 1990s. The Ocean
Conservation Trust is currently restoring the largest subtidal
seagrass bed in the UK, in Plymouth Sound, and collaborative
research with Plymouth, Exeter, and Imperial universities through
PhD students is looking to provide data on the added value of
the new bed and improve restoration techniques. As part of
this, Jessica Cramp (University of Plymouth) has been obtaining
high resolution carbon data from beneath local seagrass beds
to provide evidence on the rate of carbon storage by attempting
dating of cores using radioisotope ( 210 Pb) analysis. This is vital
to predict likely carbon sequestration by new seagrass beds
into the future and ascertain whether there is enough carbon to
make credits financially viable. Jess is also looking at gathering
information on the fisheries value of new and old beds, using a
combination of video, eDNA and soundscape methods. Previous
some meadows in the
Mediterranean are
possibly up to 200,000
years in age
Figure 1. The seagrass Zostera marina at Salcombe, Devon.
© M. Attrill.
October 2024
Glorious mud! ©Nigel Mortimer.
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 15
work from Plymouth showed that the fisheries nursery function
of Mediterranean seagrass meadows was worth over €200
million a year!
Intertidal expansion
The UK’s intertidal meadows have not had as much ecological
study as subtidal beds, so there is much less known about how
they affect biodiversity, carbon, nutrient cycling or other factors,
compared to bare intertidal flats. A collaboration between the
University of Plymouth, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, and the
Marine Biological Association has been looking to address this
lack of data, working on some extensive intertidal seagrass
meadows that have appeared in recent years.
In the past decade, intertidal meadows in Europe have been
doing well, recovering in places where they had historically
declined and expanding their extent: a trend in stark contrast
to the subtidal meadows, which have been declining over the
same period. This has been linked to EU-wide legislation aimed
at improving coastal and upstream water quality. In the Tamar
estuary between Devon and Cornwall, in the space of less than
two decades, three large seagrass meadows have appeared and
colonized vast tracts of bare intertidal mudflats.
Now that the equivalent of around 60 football pitches’ worth
of seagrass has appeared in the Tamar, the pertinent question is,
how does this change the habitat? Intertidal seagrass meadows,
though very similar to their subtidal counterparts, behave a little
differently. For one, they are only submerged under the tide
for half the day, and for the other half they lie exposed to the
elements, enduring heatwaves in summer and frosts in winter.
Perhaps, as a consequence of becoming semi-terrestrial, they
have also become highly seasonal, with massive above-ground
biomass die-off over autumn and winter and rapid growth of new
foliage from spring to summer. These drastic swings are quite
unlike what is seen in subtidal meadows, and lead us to believe
the intertidal beds may function differently and provide an
alternative suite and magnitude of ecosystem services.
In our current research, we are examining how biodiverse the
meadows are compared with bare mudflats, seeing how effective
they are at storing blue carbon, and monitoring how they are
changing over time using Earth observation. This has started to
paint a fuller picture of their function and the role they play at
local and regional scales.
Whilst subtidal seagrass is widely regarded as being highly
effective at storing blue carbon, in the intertidal we are not seeing
the same trends. Adjacent habitat, like bare sediment, seems to be
holding as much, if not more, carbon than the seagrass meadows
and the seasonal die-off may, aided by storms and scour, be
releasing sediment stored over summer during the winter. The
areas that intertidal meadows inhabit are generally sheltered, in
muddy estuaries, bays, or coastal lagoons. It may be the physical
properties of these environments which are driving the high levels
of organic carbon, rather than the seagrass themselves. Further
studies and longer time series are needed to fully establish what
role they play in blue carbon storage, but further focus is also
needed on the other ecosystem services they provide. In the
Tamar we are moving on to analysing the relationship between
intertidal seagrass and biodiversity. Watch this space! l
• Martin J. Attrill 1,2 and Oliver Thomas 1,3,4
1. University of Plymouth
2. Ocean Conservation Trust
3. Marine Biological Association
4. Plymouth Marine Laboratories
Drone shot of an intertidal
seagrass bed in the Tamar.
© Oliver Thomas.
The joys of sampling intertidal
seagrass! © Oliver Thomas.
15 m
Further reading
Arnaud-Haond, S. et al. 2012. Implications of Extreme Life Span in Clonal
Organisms: Millenary Clones in Meadows of the Threatened Seagrass
Posidonia oceanica. PLOS ONE 7(2): e30454. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0030454
Jackson, E.L., Rees, S.E., Wilding, C. and Attrill, M.J. 2015. Use of a
seagrass residency index to apportion commercial fishery landing values and
recreation fisheries expenditure to seagrass habitat service. Conservation
Biology, 29: 899-909. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12436
De los Santos, C.B. et al. 2019. Recent trend reversal for declining European
seagrass meadows. Nature Communications 10: 3356. https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41467-019-11340-4
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FORESTS
ON THE EDGE
Mangrove forests are powerful allies in our battle against climate change.
By Barend van Maanen and Dunia H. Urrego.
When people think about mangroves, they often
associate them with the smell of rotten eggs
and with swarms of mosquitoes. While they do
create a peculiar odour and perhaps host some
unpleasant insects, these unique forests are amongst the most
valuable ecosystems on the planet. Mangrove trees typically
thrive in harsh environments, surviving hot, muddy, and salty
conditions at the margin of land and sea in many tropical and
subtropical regions. Mangroves provide a wealth of ecosystem
services including essential habitats for many animals, helping
filter pollutants, and shielding the coast from waves and storms.
Moreover, mangroves play a crucial role in combating climate
change, as they capture and store carbon from the atmosphere.
In fact, these forests sequester carbon faster than most land
ecosystems.
How do mangroves capture and hold on to so
much carbon?
Mangrove trees grow fast, storing large amounts of carbon
within their living biomass (Fig. 1). Dead roots and leaf litter
also accumulate within the—largely anaerobic—mangrove soils,
where the decomposition of organic material is very slow
and can persist for hundreds of years or even longer. And,
because of their unique location as a link between land and sea,
mangroves can trap material that is imported by rivers and tides,
capturing carbon transported from both upstream catchments
and the ocean. Mangroves are very effective at trapping carbon
because of their complex root systems. The aerial roots that
allow mangroves to survive frequent flooding also slow down
tidal currents and therefore allow the trapping of carbon-rich
sediments (see Fig. 2). Because of this, mangroves are among
the world’s most carbon-rich ecosystems, accounting for 14 per
cent of carbon sequestration by the global ocean.
Nevertheless, mangroves are heavily threatened, having
been impacted by degradation and deforestation, with 20–35
per cent of global mangrove extent lost over the last 50
years. This loss is primarily driven by expanding agriculture
and aquaculture, and ongoing urban development. Climate
change and ocean warming are exacerbating these losses
from land-use change. Sea-level rise is expected to impose
additional stress on these already vulnerable ecosystems,
as it can result in drowning of mangrove trees. Mangroves
grow well under regular inundation by tides, but they cannot
survive prolonged flooding. As dead roots, leaves, and
branches accumulate within their muddy soils, mangroves
gain elevation, and the build-up of dead plant material
creates carbon-rich sediments. If mangroves keep up with
sea-level rise by accumulating carbon-rich plant material in
their soils, then carbon stocks can increase. However, if sealevel
rise outpaces mangrove soil buildup, then tree mortality
will reduce carbon storage.
Clearly, mangrove environments and the processes
determining changes in carbon stocks are highly complex. To
predict whether, and how much, carbon will be sequestered by
mangroves in the future, we need to improve our understanding
of these delicate systems.
Figure 1. Mangroves store large amounts of carbon within their living
biomass. © Job de Vries.
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17
Mangroves in Mayotte,
Comoros archipelago.
© Gaby Barathieu /
Ocean Image Bank.
Understanding carbon accumulation in
mangroves over time
At the University of Exeter, we apply different methodologies
to investigate the development of mangrove ecosystems and
their response to natural and anthropogenic drivers. We are
collecting empirical data from different field sites in Colombia
where mangrove trees can reach up to tens of metres in height,
making these forests true carbon storage hotspots. Sediment
corers are used to obtain soil samples up to 5 metres deep. In
the laboratory, we determine the age of sediments and then
determine their carbon content, enabling an estimate of the
rate of carbon accumulation over the past decades to centuries.
We are conducting these analyses at sites that are subject to
different management strategies: some sites are protected and
others are not. This means we can examine the effectiveness
of conservation measures, and we have already found that
protection can help to limit anthropogenic disturbance, improve
forest structure, and increase biomass carbon stocks. Results also
suggest that sediment carbon stocks are controlled by longerterm
processes that are likely to pre-date the implementation of
protective measures. To understand such longer-term changes
in mangrove forest development and carbon burial, we use
microscopic plant remains preserved in the soil to discover any
potential changes in dominant mangrove species and whether
this has influenced carbon accumulation.
In addition to investigating their history and current status,
we are developing computer models to simulate the future
responses of mangroves to sea-level rise and their ability
to continue sequestering carbon. Through models, we can
explore the effects of different IPCC climate change scenarios
and human interventions, such as the building of upstream
dams, that reduce sediment supply to coastal systems. Our
model simulations indicate that increasing rates of sea-level rise
trigger drastic losses in the mangrove carbon sink because of
tree mortality, decomposition of organic matter, and erosion of
carbon-rich soils. Increasing availability of sediments generally
enhances mangrove resilience and thus carbon storage.
Figure 2. The aerial roots of mangroves are effective at trapping
sediment and associated carbon. © Barend van Maanen.
These computer modelling insights can help us to unravel the
multiple potential responses of carbon dynamics to changing
environmental conditions.
Given the crucial importance of mangrove ecosystems as
carbon sequestration hotspots, new research approaches
are needed to help develop sustainable management and
conservation strategies. In parallel, given that these natural
ecosystems are inherently linked to human activity, an ongoing
dialogue between research institutes, NGOs, governments,
local communities, and other stakeholders is needed. These
discussions should also address mechanisms to finance
mangrove protection, especially because mangroves can play a
key role in meeting national-level climate mitigation goals and
help to achieve the Paris Climate Agreement goal of limiting
global warming. l
• Barend van Maanen (B.Van-Maanen@exeter.ac.uk)
Dunia H. Urrego (D.Urrego@exeter.ac.uk)
Department of Geography, University of Exeter, UK.
Acknowledgements: The mangrove research at the University of Exeter
mentioned in this article is funded by the UK Natural Environment Research
Council under project NE/V012800/1.
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PROTECTING WILD
SEAWEED FOR
BIODIVERSITY
AND CLIMATE
Seaweeds are highly effective at taking up carbon dioxide, but, as Ana Queirós
explains, tracing the fate of that carbon is a key scientific challenge.
When you’re on a beach and there is seaweed
‘littering’ the sand, do you ever think about
the important role these organisms play in
the marine environment? They could be
helping to limit climate change, and research at Plymouth
Marine Laboratory and the Marine Biological Association is
exploring this potential.
Seaweeds—multicellular marine algae that grow in narrow
rocky fringes in coastal waters—serve an important functional
role in the ocean as ecosystem engineers that provide
habitat and increase the three-dimensional complexity of
the marine environment. In doing so, seaweeds promote
the coexistence of many other species that shelter from
risks such as predators, wave action, and temperature stress.
Seaweed also lessens the effects of waves on coastlines,
reducing coastal erosion, and can help buffer ocean
acidification. All of these processes are seen to provide
benefits to local species biodiversity, including commercial
species, and to promote healthy coastlines.
In addition to these physical and chemical effects, seaweeds
are also known to have high rates of uptake of carbon dioxide
(CO 2
) from the seawater around them and in some regions
of the world, seaweed may be more effective at absorbing
CO 2
than phytoplankton. Seaweeds are a food source for
many species, and they also shed carbon-rich material into the
surrounding ecosystem all year round. This serves as a source
of food for other ecological communities, including seabed
fauna. Unsurprising then, that many seaweed habitats are
presently seen as high-value conservation sites and worthy
of protection, in addition to their traditional value to coastal
communities and indigenous peoples going back thousands
of years.
It is the productivity of seaweed that has captured the
imagination of marine researchers around the world for the
best part of two decades. In the midst of a climate emergency,
seaweed beds are viewed as part of a potential portfolio
of nature-based solutions to help curb man-made CO 2
emissions. Researchers have therefore been investigating the
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 19
a. b.
Blue Carbon
Global
Climate
Regulation
Source and sink MPA
Figure 1. In habitats typically captured by blue carbon conservation schemes (saltmarsh, seagrass meadows, and mangroves), CO 2
is fixed
in the same area where organic carbon is sequestered (a), so that protected habitat patches deliver the whole blue carbon process (organic
carbon source and sink). Protecting connected macroalgal-sediment blue carbon (b) requires the protection of highly productive macroalgal
communities in which CO 2
is fixed into the living biomass (source of organic carbon) as well as the seabed hotspots of sequestration where
exported macroalgal organic carbon sinks (sink of organic carbon) after transport across the coastal ocean. MPA: marine protected area.
Reprinted with permission from: Identifying and protecting macroalgae detritus sinks toward climate change mitigation, Queirós 2023.
Ecological Applications. Wiley Online Library.
question: can seaweed’s high uptake of CO 2
be harnessed
and maximized to help limit climate change?
Coastal ecosystems that deliver carbon sequestration
for more than 100 years (i.e. long term), such as saltmarsh,
mangrove, and seagrass, are termed blue carbon ecosystems
(BCE). In the case of seaweed, it is unclear how long CO 2
is
captured for and if can we stop this CO 2
from returning to the
atmosphere. In essence, can seaweed truly be classified as
a BCE?
There is high confidence that some of the CO 2
taken on
by seaweed as part of their living biomass will end up in
long-term sinks in the deep ocean and within the seafloor,
in the form of detritus particles that are either unprocessed
or have been partially processed in the food web. Several
observational studies employing tracing tools, such as stable
isotope analyses, environmental DNA analyses (eDNA), and
other molecular techniques, have successfully identified
Modelling the transport of
biological material
Physical models that simulate the transport
of particles by oceanic currents are used
routinely to predict the movement of other
neutrally buoyant particles and of particles
with well-established physical properties,
such as plastic and metal. However, modelling
the transport of biological material, such
as seaweed detritus, requires additional
complexity. Some seaweed material is initially
buoyant due to the presence of air vesicles
and other structures, becoming non-buoyant
as it degrades. Different seaweeds also
have different properties and detritus can
be viable: for example, some can carry out
photosynthesis for some time, staving off
degradation until environmental conditions
are suitable, or breaking up during transport.
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seaweed material in surface layers of the seafloor, in deeper
and older sediment cores, within the seabed of coastal areas
harbouring other BCEs, such as seagrass beds, and in deeper
areas of coastal waters, such as deep fjords. Modelling studies,
informed by observation and experiments, suggest that this
material can reach areas within the deep ocean (beyond the
200 m depth of the continental shelf), where it may remain
sequestered as detritus or as re-mineralized inorganic carbon for
over 100 years. These studies have highlighted the potentially
important contribution of seaweed to long-term oceanic carbon
storage that could help regulate the climate, but such studies are
still too few to create robust estimates of the importance of these
contributions. Therefore, actioning the conservation of such sinks
for seaweed carbon may still be a couple of years in the future.
To help overcome this challenge, researchers have been
improving tools to explain the pathways of carbon between
a particular seaweed habitat and an oceanic sink. Under this
model, long-term conservation of seaweed carbon would
require protecting both the source and the sink habitat (Fig. 1).
Such work is done primarily via physical models that simulate the
transport of particles by oceanic currents, which are affected by
wind, wave and tidal patterns, especially in coastal areas where
seaweed occur.
Linking sources to sinks
Clearly, the process of predicting the pathways of seaweed
detritus dispersion is complex. However, initial studies informed
by field and laboratory observations are becoming available,
along with improved computational tools and more refined
tracing techniques. These studies have been able to back-trace
the source of seaweed stranded on shorelines (‘beach cast’), and
to link a source seaweed community to potential sink sites.
Studies deploying such tools are helping to inform a more
comprehensive approach to seaweed conservation—one that
protects not only the source of fixed carbon, but also potential
sinks on the seafloor. These approaches are well aligned
with policy direction in the UK and elsewhere, which seek to
design marine protected areas that preserve not only the wild
biodiversity of our seas and coasts, but also their contribution
to climate regulation. There is thus much to win if we can
successfully predict the location of seaweed carbon sinks.
Particulate detritus is not the only contribution of seaweed
to the ocean carbon pool. Recent studies are showing that
seaweed may also contribute to alkalinity, the ocean’s longterm
store of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). And if you have
held seaweed in your hands, especially kelp, you will have felt
that slimy substance, which is in fact rich in dissolved organic
carbon (DOC). Seaweed produces this in abundance, and
since much of it is difficult to break down, it may be long-lived
in the ocean. The science surrounding these two contributions
is less well developed and represents active research fields.
It has been suggested that these processes may represent
even greater contributions of seaweed to long-term oceanic
carbon storage, although for now, the design of management
mechanisms to protect this material from returning carbon to
the atmosphere remains elusive.
Beyond much interest from the private sector to use them in
carbon credit trading markets, there is certainly an ecological
case to protect seaweed ecosystems and their contributions
to oceanic carbon stores. The pace of climate change
necessitates that we continue to educate ourselves about
the processes through which the natural world has regulated
our global climate system for millions of years. Seaweeds,
as key contributors to the oceanic carbon cycle, have been
underrepresented in the global carbon models that inform
the ways in which we agree, internationally, to invest in ocean
conservation. Observation, experimental and modelling
studies from the past two decades tell us that there is much
to gain from understanding and protecting oceanic seaweed
carbon sinks and their source populations, providing this longterm,
planetary service. l
• Professor Ana M Queirós (anqu@pml.ac.uk), Principal Investigator of Marine
and Climate Change Ecology, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, and Honorary
Professor at the University of Exeter.
@dranaqueiros
• Kelly Davidson, Senior Communications Officer, Plymouth Marine Laboratory.
Acknowledgement: This article is dedicated to Professor
Paul J. Somerfield, who instigated seaweed blue carbon
studies at Plymouth Marine Laboratory.
Further reading
Queirós, A.M. et al. 2022. Identifying and protecting macroalgae detritus sinks
toward climate change mitigation. Ecological Applications. doi.org/10.1002/
eap.2798
Seaweed on Cairn beach, Mornington Peninsula
National Park, Victoria, Australia. Hijacinta, CC
BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
October 2024
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 21
KELP FARMS NO ‘SILVER BULLET’
FOR CARBON CAPTURE
Scientists and policymakers are increasingly looking to the
ocean for ‘blue’ solutions to the climate crisis. Significant
amounts of atmospheric carbon are drawn down into
the ocean by vegetated ecosystems like seagrass
meadows and kelp forests. If this ‘blue carbon’ is removed from
the atmosphere, stored in the deep sea or continental shelf
sediments for geologically relevant timescales—over a century—
climate change mitigating benefits can be reaped.
The potential for seaweed farming to provide a blue carbon
solution is attracting considerable interest. However, the scientific
understanding of the complex carbon flows associated with
these systems remains limited. Our research focuses on putting
numbers to some of these persistent unknowns.
By measuring the growth and loss rates of farmed Saccharina
latissima (sugar kelp) over a typical cultivation season (January–
May), we quantified the carbon sequestration potential of a
small-scale kelp farm (Cornwall, UK). As illustrated in the graphic,
we found that 0.14 tonnes of carbon were captured by the sugar
kelp per hectare, annually. The majority (70 per cent) of this
carbon was released into the marine environment via chronic
tissue erosion and dislodgement of whole kelp. Of this ‘lost’
fraction, only 15 per cent is likely to be sequestered, translating
to 0.05 tonnes CO 2
equivalent per hectare per year.
This suggests that carbon sequestration should be considered
a passive co-benefit of kelp farming and that primary benefits
lie in producing low-carbon alternative products, creating jobs,
and enhancing marine biodiversity by providing quality habitat.
Scaling up kelp farming could still be beneficial in the UK, but it
should be pursued with realistic expectations regarding its role
in climate change mitigation and not as a ‘silver bullet’.
Policy decisions around climate targets will have potentially
far-reaching implications. Further research to understand
the complex dynamics of blue carbon and the broader
environmental and economic impacts of seaweed farming
is critical to provide the evidence to underpin sound policy
decisions. l
• Maxine Canvin (maxcan@mba.ac.uk), PhD candidate, Newcastle University
and The Marine Biological Association.
Further reading
Canvin, M.C., Moore, P.J. and Smale, D.A. 2024. Quantifying growth, erosion
and dislodgement rates of farmed kelp (Saccharina latissima) to examine the
carbon sequestration potential of temperate seaweed farming. Journal of
Applied Phycology. doi.org/10.1007/s10811-024-03323-w
Pessarrodona, A. et al. 2022. Global seaweed productivity. Science Advances
8 (37). doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn2465
Krause-Jensen, D., Duarte, C. 2016. Substantial role of macroalgae in marine
carbon sequestration. Nature Geoscience 9: 737-742. doi.org/10.1038/
ngeo2790
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n
INTERVIEW
WOMEN IN STEM
OCEAN MUD'S SECRET
SUPERPOWER
In this edition we welcome Gabriella Gilkes,
Senior Research and Evidence Manager at
the Crown Estate.
Interview date: 16 April 2024
How did you get into marine science?
My first degree was in social anthropology. My thesis took
me to the coral gardens of northern Sulawesi in Indonesia.
I was looking at the effects of reef erosion and tourism on
the communities there. The people living there are the most
amazing free divers and, inspired by them, I began working
as a diver. I went on to work as a boat engineer and somehow
ended up involved in shark tagging all over the world. I
started to want to understand and use the data that I was
helping to collect. So, I worked hard and saved up and put
myself through marine science training.
While I was at Plymouth doing a master's, I applied and found
myself onboard a global marine expedition called Tara Oceans.
So, serendipitously, I was running the dry lab on board on and
off for 2 years, sampling and analysing plankton communities all
over the world. Quite an unorthodox way into marine biology!
Your previous role was as Programme Manager for the
Convex Seascape Survey. Can you tell us about that?
The Convex Seascape Survey is a 5-year global study that is
collecting robust, open-source data to help fill the knowledge
gaps in our understanding of sediment and seascape carbon
in the shallow shelf seas. Far from a murky, lifeless zone, this
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s p e c i a l e d i t i o n : b l u e c a r b o n 23
is an incredible ecosystem of microbes and animals that live
in and on the mud, and they're all playing a role in the ocean
cycles, drawing carbon down from the water column and into
the sediments, locking it away for millennia.
The Survey is an interdisciplinary group of up to 100
experts from a range of disciplines across 19 organizations in
nine different countries, working to answer one of the great
questions of our time: what is the role of the ocean in helping
slow climate change?
Where does seabed carbon come from: land or sea,
animal or plant? How long does it take to accumulate? How
vulnerable are those ocean carbon stores to disturbance,
through natural processes and cycles or human activities like
bottom trawling, pipeline and cable laying?
The Convex Seascape Survey is collecting data on the bits
of this puzzle where data is lacking, particularly around the
disturbance activities. The focus is on how much carbon is
being resuspended and remineralized back into the water
column and then returned to the atmosphere.
The Survey examines how marine life affects these
processes. What marine creatures live in the mud and what
is their role in this carbon storage journey? The aim is to
understand how to manage the ocean to increase the amount
and length of time that carbon is stored within it. How could
the ocean be supported to be our best ally in the fight against
climate change?
Would banning trawling in marine protected areas be part
of that?
Scientifically, it makes sense to quantify where the most
important stores of carbon are and restrict trawling in those
places. In their latest paper, Atwood and colleagues put the
amount of CO 2
emissions that would be saved in the range of
about 0.36 gigatons per year if we did that. 1
Historically, MPAs weren't designated for their ability to
store carbon. Certainly, in the UK, Marine Conservation Zones
were designated based on vulnerable or unique marine
species and habitats, and soft-bottom seafloor sediment was
considered just one of a range of habitats. We now recognize
that from a carbon and a biodiversity point of view, mud is
very important. Part of the climate-smart MPA work is looking
at how designation needs to migrate and change over time,
and sediment carbon will be accounted for in that. Because of
ocean currents and disturbance activities elsewhere, carbon
stores are likely to move and the location of an MPA would
need to shift over time to protect them.
Why is blue carbon receiving so much attention?
The ocean is now widely recognized as the planet's largest
carbon sink. We are only just beginning to appreciate and
promote its value as a key regulator of our climate and as an
ally in helping keep within the suggested 1.5° C warming
limits of the Paris Agreement. We have understood the
importance of terrestrial carbon sinks, like forests and peat
bogs, in this for much longer.
Nature-based solutions are initiatives to maximize and
restore natural processes and ecosystems that will help to
benefit climate change, nature, and people. Restoration of any
blue carbon habitat would be an example of a nature-based
solution. But you can also include things like regenerative
agriculture or reforestation on land.
And why now? There is a lot of interest in blue carbon;
scientifically, politically, and increasingly from a financial
perspective. Habitats that store carbon have a value that can
be leveraged through financial mechanisms called carbon
credits. The restoration of marine habitats that are effective
as carbon sinks earn credits that can be purchased by
organizations that are on a journey to carbon neutrality, to
‘offset’ their own carbon emissions. Similar financial schemes
extend to investments in biodiversity and marine protection
credits, which, put together, we call stacked marine credits.
Above left: The Convex Seascape Survey at work,
collecting data on seabed carbon. © Matt Jarvis.
Above: The Convex Seascape Survey Arran team. Left
to right: Gabi Gilkes, and Tara Williams, Mara Fischer,
and Dr Ben Harris from the University of Exeter.
How long can natural sinks lock carbon away for?
Ecosystems like mangroves and tropical forests on land capture
carbon quickly, with capture rates of about 5 millimeters per
year. Carbon storage in seafloor muds is much slower. The
various biogeochemical ocean cycles, what we call the ‘ocean
pump system’, move matter from the atmosphere through
the ocean and back. Take, for example, phytoplankton at the
ocean surface and the massive daily migration of zooplankton
1 Atwood, T.B., Romanou, A., DeVries, T., Lerner, P.E., Mayorga, J.S., Bradley,
D., Cabral, R.B., Schmidt, G.A., Sala, E. 2024. Atmospheric CO2 emissions
and ocean acidification from bottom-trawling. Frontiers in Marine Science. 10.
10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137
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from the depths up to the surface to eat the phytoplankton,
to then be eaten by small fish, which in turn are consumed by
top predators which transport the carbon around the global
ocean. These cycles operate constantly on various timescales.
Understanding these cycles could help us to help them function
at their peak effectiveness.
In another example—a whale fall occurs when a whale dies
and sinks to the seafloor. Its corpse is slowly absorbed into the
mud as the seabed microbial community get to work and the
carbon that was contained within the whale body is locked away
into the muds for thousands of years. Seabed sediment cores,
5–10 metres long, collected by the Convex Seascape Survey, tell
us how much carbon was buried and at what rate, right back to
the last glacial maximum 21,000 years ago.
But we shouldn’t lose sight of the need to decarbonize and
reduce our emissions as quickly as possible alongside blue
carbon initiatives. We absolutely should plant trees and stop
deforestation of our mature tropical and temperate forests.
The interest in blue carbon stems from the rate that the
ocean can store carbon compared to terrestrial environments,
and the potential maximum storage. Ecosystems like
mangroves are quite well studied, and we know that they can
store carbon up to ten times faster than tropical rainforests and
around three to five times as much per unit area. That equates
to 1,000 tonnes of carbon per hectare in their biomass and
soils. And then consider that 95 per cent of our biosphere is
ocean. The current estimates in recent IPCC and McKinsey
reports are that 861 gigatons of organic carbon are stored
by the world's forests, and the estimates for blue carbon are
38,000 gigatons of carbon: around 16 times as much.
What would the potential stock of carbon in the ocean have
been historically?
That is also part of the Convex Seascape Survey. There are
historical accounts and government records of fishing in the UK,
Global Fishing Watch data, and global datasets of fish landing
catches from the 1950s onwards assembled by Daniel Pauly’s
Sea Around Us team in British Columbia. All this information is
being pieced together into a map to help establish baselines of
seabed carbon stores before the industrial revolution.
The project is building a picture of where carbon stores were
from the last glacial maximum. That is a large but relatively
straightforward exercise. The human activity since the industrial
revolution can then be overlaid, to map where we've disturbed
the stored carbon and where it has transgressed off the
continental shelf into the deep ocean. What happens to it after
that? We don't know.
Does your work influence marine policy?
A requirement of the Convex Seascape Survey funding is
to collect seabed data to help fill knowledge gaps in our
understanding of sediment and seascape carbon in the shallow
shelf seas. That is the priority, rather than to turn indicative
results into a campaign. That said, I have spent a lot of time as
program manager at global policy forums and events like COP
(the UN’s Conference of the Parties meetings) promoting the
project and the role of sediment carbon in general.
We want to start thinking how we can get emerging blue
carbon solutions—like seascape estimates—taken seriously by
agencies like the UNFCCC and the IPCC and think about how
they can be reflected in the current global stocktake that is
happening ahead of 2030. 2
2
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Phronima sp. a small, translucent crustacean. © Gabriella Gilkes.
However, we also need to tread very carefully when bringing
sediment carbon and other emerging solutions into NDCs
(Nationally Determined Contributions), where countries
could potentially use these as an offset or an excuse against
decarbonizing.
What has been your most memorable marine life encounter?
On board the Tara Oceans expedition in the mid-Pacific
Ocean, I was looking down a microscope at a creature called
a Phronima. It is a type of zooplankton and the inspiration for
the creature in the film series Alien. I didn't know anything
about them at the time. As I was looking at it in the petri dish,
this thing burst out of the clear bubble it was in and buzzed
around looking really angry. It would have been under heat
stress in the microscope.
Fortunately, we were documenting it. What they do is
eat out the insides of another marine creature—a salp—and
then get inside to lay their eggs. So, I could be one of only a
handful of people in the world who got to see the moment
that a Phronima burst out of the creature that it was living in.
What advice would you give to a young person who wants to
make a career in marine science, policy or conservation?
The marine policy field is really interesting at the moment
and full of bright young people working closely together to
become greater than the sum of their parts. In marine science
you have to consider making your own opportunities. In the
science realm, rather than following the pack, perhaps think
of the skills and the jobs that are coming online or might be
needed in the future. Bioinformaticians, genomic experts, AI
programmers: this is where the exciting work and money can
be. Right now, I feel you will never be without work if you know
how to manage AI for data handling. l
Gabriella Gilkes (Gabriella.Gilkes@thecrownestate.co.uk) is Senior Research
and Evidence Manager at the Crown Estate. (Formerly, Program Manager,
The Convex Seascape Survey at Blue Marine Foundation.)
For more information on the Convex Seascape Survey,
contact: convexseascape@bluemarinefoundation.com
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p o l i c y 25
INCLUSION AND SOCIAL
JUSTICE IN GLOBAL
CLIMATE ACTION
Amrit (Imi) Dencer-Brown describes how the Nationally Determined Contributions process is designed to
include those most affected by climate change.
What are Nationally Determined Contributions?
At the core of the Paris Agreement on climate change,
Nationally Determined Contributions, or NDCs, are
commitments that aim to encapsulate the efforts of each
signatory country to reduce carbon emissions and show
adaptation and mitigation measures against climate change.
NDCs consider issues of inclusion and social justice in
the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
There are many ways in which each country’s NDCs
can contribute to emissions reduction, one of which is
the restoration and conservation of their blue carbon
ecosystems.
The role of blue carbon in countries’ NDCs can be significant. Blue
carbon ecosystems are extremely important to coastal communities
in less developed countries for the provision of income, and for
protection against climate-related events such as storms and floods
(see Fig. 1). Coastal blue carbon ecosystems can also store three to
five times more carbon than tropical forests, and so they have huge
capacity for coastal ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA).¹
1
As defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), EbA is ‘the use of
biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall strategy to help people
adapt to the adverse effects of climate change’. wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
handle/20.500.11822/28174/EBA1.pdf
Figure 1. Key factors related to
social justice and inclusion in
Kenya’s submission to climate
action. These factors could
be applied to many other
countries. Graphic created
for Kenya’s policy brief: Blue
Carbon Solutions for Kenya’s
Climate Actions. © Amrit
Dencer-Brown.
Figure 2. Themes from a horizon scan
on integrating blue carbon in NDCs,
which highlights the importance of
working with local communities in a
way which fosters long-term buyin
from local people (themes 1–5).
Graphic created for: Dencer-Brown,
A.M., Shilland, R., Friess, D. et al., 2022.
© Amrit Dencer-Brown.
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p o l i c y
Why are inclusion and social justice important?
The Paris Agreement states that Parties should ‘respect, promote
and consider their respective obligations on human rights’ when
undertaking climate action, while the United Nations Development
Programme's Climate Promise has inclusion as one of its key areas.
Investment in coastal wetlands has the potential both to help
address human rights issues such as gender equality, poverty
eradication, and food security, and to aid in the livelihoods of
many people, creating opportunities for small-scale sustainable
fisheries and ecotourism, as well as helping to prevent natural
disasters. However, community engagement is a must in the
design and successful implementation of NDCs (Fig. 2).
Challenges of implementation
Women and girls are disproportionately affected by the impacts
of climate change, especially in the global south. Their role
as primary carers and providers of food and water security,
combined with a lack of opportunities for leadership roles and
decision-making, put women and girls at greater risk of poverty.
As countries work towards their 5-yearly submissions, NDCs
are getting more ambitious, and a key performance indicator
is consideration of integrated gender equality. As of April
2024, 106 of 120 Climate Promise-supported countries have
considered gender equality in their submissions.
Indigenous communities, youth, disabled people, and those
living in poverty are also disproportionately affected by climate
change, and inclusion as a whole must be considered for
effective contributions. The NDC process should be inclusive
to all, with decision-making and participation of marginalized
groups integral to the success of planned outcomes.
Conditions for successful integration with the
NDC process
In order for local community-based projects to be integrated
in the NDC process, they should ideally be long-term, with
community buy-in from the start. For these projects to be
sustainable, they also need to generate income for locals who
live and work in and around blue carbon ecosystems. Examples
of successful projects include those implemented by the charity
Association for Coastal Ecosystem Services (ACES), which
currently has two community-led, long-term projects in Kenya:
Mikoko Pamoja and Vanga Blue Forest.² The income generated
from the sales of carbon credits not only goes towards
conserving and protecting the local mangrove ecosystems,
but also towards community development projects such as
improving water sanitation, healthcare, housing, and education
for the children of the villages involved in the projects.
Every project has its challenges and obstacles, but success for
both people and the environment can only be achieved with
inclusion and social justice at the heart of the NDC process. l
• Amrit (Imi) Dencer-Brown (I.Dencer-Brown@napier.ac.uk), Edinburgh
Napier University.
Further reading
Dencer-Brown, A.M., Shilland, R., Friess, D. et al. 2022. Integrating blue:
How do we make nationally determined contributions work for both blue
carbon and local coastal communities? Ambio, 51, 1978–1993. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13280-022-01723-1
2
https://www.aces-org.co.uk/
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October 2024
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f e a t u r e 27
LOW OXYGEN ZONES ARE
GREAT FOR JELLYFISH
Magnus H. Andreasen on how current expansions of low oxygen zones indirectly favour jellyfish.
The Baltic Sea is a unique, brackish, semi-enclosed sea
with a hinterland inhabited by 85 million people. The
ecosystem faces significant challenges. The restricted
circulation means that water molecules stick around
for an average of 35 years—allowing excess nutrients from
agriculture and urban areas to accumulate over time. This
leads to eutrophication, in which an overload of nutrients fuels
extensive algal blooms. These blooms block sunlight that
bottom-living plants and algae depend on. But the problems
don’t end with sunlight deprivation. When these profuse
algae die and sink to the bottom, they are decomposed by
bacteria. This process requires large amounts of oxygen,
creating hypoxic (low oxygen) zones that are expanding in
both size and duration.
Hypoxia is challenging for most marine life. Fish, benthic
invertebrates, crustaceans, and most other organisms rely
on oxygen-rich waters to thrive—just like we rely on ample
oxygen on land. When oxygen levels drop, these organisms
struggle to maintain basic functions and activities like foraging
and reproduction (Fig. 1). However, not all marine creatures
are equally affected. For instance, jellyfish have a simpler
metabolism and can survive in low-oxygen environments and
thereby outcompete other organisms in their search for food.
Main image: the comb jelly, Mnemiopsis
leidyi grows up to around 10 cm long and
is native to the Americas. © Julie Skotte.
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28 f e a t u r e
One such jellyfish is Mnemiopsis leidyi, a comb jelly that
found its way into the Baltic Sea in 2006, likely via ballast water
from ships. M. leidyi is particularly resilient, capable of enduring
the murky, low-oxygen conditions that are becoming more
common in the Baltic Sea. This resilience provides M. leidyi with a
competitive edge over fish—their key competitor for food.
Fish such as the three-spined stickleback rely on their vision
and swift movements to catch prey like copepods. But as light
penetration is reduced and oxygen levels fall, they become less
efficient hunters. Their prey, the copepods, become slower and
less able to escape. This would seem to be an advantage for fish,
Figure 1. Monthly fluctuations in
oxygen observed in a western Baltic
fjord from 1986 to 2019, along with
indications of ecosystem consequences
(bottom left). Figure adapted from
Würgler, Hansen & Rytter (2023).
but the reduced oxygen levels affect the fish more than their
prey. As a result, fish abandon hypoxic areas, leaving the more
tolerant jellyfish with exclusive access to the slow prey.
But can’t fish just control jellyfish populations by feeding on
them? While fish do eat jellyfish in well-oxygenated waters,
hypoxia changes the situation. Studies have shown that fish
avoid areas with oxygen levels of around 40 per cent, meaning
they’re unlikely to venture for long periods into the hypoxic
zones where jellyfish thrive. Even if fish were present, their
reduced hunting efficiency in these conditions would make it
difficult for them to control jellyfish numbers effectively (Fig. 2).
The implications of growing hypoxic
zones are profound. As they expand,
jellyfish could increasingly dominate
marine ecosystems, leading to shifts in
the food web which could ultimately
affect large systems like the Baltic Sea
region. This issue extends beyond
fish, impacting entire ecosystems and
the coastal societies that rely on them
for food, recreation, and essential
ecological functions like nutrient cycling
(Fig. 3).
Efforts to combat hypoxia, such as
those seen in the UK's Thames and
Mersey estuaries, show that, with
concerted action, it is possible to
reverse these trends. For the Baltic
Sea, international cooperation and
continued efforts to reduce nutrient
inputs are therefore crucial if we are to reestablish
a balanced and thriving marine
ecosystem for future generations. l
• Magnus Heide Andreasen (mhean@aqua.dtu.dk), PhD student, National
Institute of Aquatic Resources, Section for Oceans and Arctic, Technical
University of Denmark, DTU.
Figure 2. Experiments show that fish
do prey on M. leidyi larvae, but at a
lower rate compared with copepods,
their natural prey. Furthermore, hypoxia
reduces feeding on both prey types.
Figure 3. The introduction of species, high fishing pressure on large fish species, and addition
of nutrients, together destabilize marine ecosystems like the Baltic Sea. A and B denote
processes that are of particular interest to our laboratory at the National Institute of Aquatic
Resources at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU).
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f e a t u r e
29
The comb jelly, Mnemiopsis leidyi. © Julie Skotte.
Hypoxic (low oxygen)
zones in the Baltic Sea
are expanding in both
size and duration
www.mba.ac.uk October 2024

30 Rf e as te ua r ec h
COMPETITIVE
ANGLING
AS A SCIENTIFIC
TOOL
Anglers are providing vital data to help manage
fish stocks. By Christina Hunt.
Figure 2. Recreational anglers releasing a smoothhound back into the water. © Sophie Honey.
It is a glorious June day on England’s south coast and the
sun is shining onto the still waters of Portsmouth harbour.
The marina is buzzing with activity as anglers prepare their
hooks and lines, sort their bait, and make their plans for the
next 2 days. Among them is a group of researchers, ensuring
each boat is equipped with a fish-measuring board, GPS
tracker, and GoPro (see Fig. 1). This collaboration between
anglers and researchers began in 2021 when Ross Honey,
owner of Angling Spirit and organizer of prestigious angling
competitions across Europe, approached the University of
Portsmouth with an offer to share the vast quantities of data
being collected by the anglers. Ross could see the immense
value in the hundreds of fish records being collected over the
annual 2-day ‘Sea Angling Classic’ competition and wanted to
see these records put to good use.
This collaboration between the University of Portsmouth,
Angling Spirit, and Southern Inshore Fisheries Conservation
Authority (IFCA) became the research project named
Competitive Angling as a Scientific Tool, or CAST for short.
Funded by DEFRA under the Fisheries Industry Science
Partnerships scheme, CAST aims to increase our knowledge
on the biology and ecology of data-deficient fish species
in the Solent and use this to inform the development and
improvement of sustainable fishery management plans.
Collecting fisheries ecological data requires a significant
investment of time and money, so utilizing recreational anglers
as citizen scientists opens up a vital data source that would
otherwise be unattainable.
The Sea Angling Classic, which provides the data for
the CAST project, is a strictly catch-photograph-release
competition. This ensures that all fish go back into the water
(see Fig. 2). The photographing in each competition generates
large numbers of images that we can use for our research. The
competition has been running for 3 years, plus a launch event
Figure 1. Competitors arriving at Portsmouth marina and being
equipped with GoPros by the Competitive Angling as a Scientific Tool
(CAST) team. © Anthony D’Souza photodsouza.co.uk
in 2021, and has generated data on over 2,500 fish so far. The
competition targets five species/groups that are considered
data deficient within the UK: European seabass (Dicentrarchus
labrax), black sea bream (Spondyliosoma cantharus), skates/
rays (Raja spp.), smoothhound (Mustelus spp.) and tope
(Galeorhinus galeus).
The competition attracts competitors from across the
UK, with a prize of a £100,000 boat for the winning team.
With such a large prize at stake, verifying anglers’ catches
is crucial. The anglers must submit a geo-referenced photo
of each fish on a competition measuring board to enable
it to be counted. These photos are submitted through an
app, enabling the competition HQ to immediately verify the
species and length of fish as the images are submitted. From
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f e a t u r e 31
Competitors heading for the
fishing grounds in the English
Channel off Portsmouth, at the
annual Sea Angling Classic
competition. © Sophie Honey.
these photos, the CAST research team can collect data
on the species, size, catch location, and the presence of
disease or external parasites.
In addition to the photo data, each competition boat also
has a GPS tracker and GoPro. The trackers allow us to identify
the areas where boats are fishing and estimate the length of
time they spend fishing there. The advantage of GPS trackers
is that they show areas where boats have been fishing but
didn’t catch anything, whereas the georeferenced images
only show locations where fish were caught. This summer
we introduced GoPros to record the fishing activity on deck
as a more accurate method of recording fishing effort, as we
can review footage to record the exact length of time spent
fishing and how many fishing rods were used. Together,
these datasets will allow us to calculate catch per unit effort
(CPUE): the number of fish caught per fishing rod, per hour
at each fishing location.
Citizen science is a large part of the CAST project, but we
are also collecting additional data to further expand our
knowledge on the biology and ecology of the target species.
For example, we are collecting DNA swabs of smoothhounds
to determine whether both starry and common species are
present in the Solent, and we will assess habitat associations
and prey availability at a range of fishing sites to assess
habitat preferences of our target species.
The overall aim of the CAST project is to create a
standardized data collection workflow that will be repeated
at the Sea Angling Classic in future years and could also be
used at other angling competitions in the UK and abroad.
This would include the collection of images submitted
by anglers, analysis of GPS tracker data, and automatic
identification, classification, and estimation of fish length
from images by the AI model. Our data collection workflow
provides a cost-effective way of collecting long-term data
on local fish stocks, thereby overcoming fisheries research
budget limitations. We have already collected fish data from
the equivalent of 350 boat-days, something that would be
economically and logistically unattainable with traditional
research projects. The long-term datasets generated
through our data collection workflow will be essential for the
development and continuous improvement of sustainable
fisheries management plans. l
Data from images
Aside from the biology and ecology research, another aspect
of the CAST project is to develop machine-learning models
(a type of Artificial Intelligence) that can be used for fisheries
research. We are using a computer vision model to detect and
remove the image background and obstructions in the images
submitted by anglers (such as hands on the fish, see below),
then identify and measure the fish. The goal is for the models
to be able to accurately identify and estimate the length of
fish without the need for a measuring board or scale bar in
the image. Although the models haven’t quite reached the
necessary level, the more images we can use, the better the
accuracy.
If any readers have images of our target species on measuring
tapes or boards that they would be happy to share, then please
get in touch via the project website (see below).
Figure 4. Demonstration of the AI model’s capability to detect
the object of interest (smoothhound) and potential obstructions
(angler’s hands and ID sticker).
Image credit: anonymous angler.
• Dr Christina Hunt (christina.hunt@port.ac.uk), Senior Research
Associate, University of Portsmouth.
Georgina Banfield, Dr Obinna Umeh, Dr Ian Hendy, Professor Gordon
Watson.
All co-authors at University of Portsmouth.
For more information, please visit our website:
https://castproject.co.uk/
www.mba.ac.uk
October 2024

32 Rf e as te ua r ec h
Mirage, skippered by Dave Uren from the PBA,
one of the boats in the Pollack FISP recreational
consortium. © Nick Kennedy.
PROJECT POLLACK:
ANGLING FOR ANSWERS ALONG
ENGLAND'S SOUTH-WEST COAST
Hannah Rudd, Bryce Stewart, Simon Thomas, and Rebecca Nesbit describe an angler-scientist partnership
that collects vital data to support better management of the beleaguered pollack.
Figure 1. Dr Simon Thomas dissecting otoliths (fish ear bones) from
a pollack. © Bryce Stewart.
Pollack is an unassuming fish that few outside the fishing
world will likely know much about. Although a relative, it
isn't as engrained in our heritage as cod, it doesn't have
the marketing of salmon, nor does it possess the exotic
appeal of tuna. What it does share with these species, though, is
recreational and commercial importance. Despite its high value
to coastal communities, we know relatively little about pollack
scientifically.
Once touted as a sustainable alternative to cod, pollack is
now experiencing a demise of its own. With little information
currently available, fisheries managers and policymakers
are struggling to tailor management to support sustainable
fisheries and thriving coastal economies. Recreational anglers,
charter skippers, and commercial fishers have long warned
of an impending pollack stock collapse off the south-west
coast of England, where the main fisheries are located. Their
experiences of spending every day at sea have provided these
communities with unique insights into fish stocks in our waters.
For many years, these experiences were overlooked, but
increasingly, there is recognition of the value of collaborative
multi-stakeholder research to improve fisheries science and
management.
Pollack has become a hot topic following the UK Government
and European Commission's designation of it as a bycatch-only
species in the English Channel and Celtic Sea in 2024. This
dramatic reduction in permitted landings has caused immense
frustration within the fishing community and highlighted the
dire need for investment in long-term monitoring.
Over 18 months before these events unfolded, a consortium
of recreational charter skippers began gathering data on their
pollack catches due to concerns for the population. When a call
for funding became available, a unique partnership was formed
to bring together experts from the recreational charter sector
and fisheries science.
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f e a t u r e 33
Pollack FISP—a unique partnership
Pollack FISP is a Fisheries Industry Science Partnership led
by Dr Emma Sheehan from the University of Plymouth in
partnership with the Professional Boatmans Association (PBA),
the University of York, the Marine Biological Association, and
the Angling Trust. It is funded for 2 years by the Department
for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) and runs until
March 2025. The funding scheme focuses on collaborative
projects that combine scientific and fishing sector expertise.
Pollack FISP aims to understand pollack movement and site
fidelity across the South West, gather fisheries data to improve
understanding of stock dynamics, and interview pollack
fishing stakeholders to identify historic trends in populations
and attitudes toward management. Through the project, we
aim to answer vital questions that can help improve fisheries
management, ultimately safeguarding pollack populations
and the coastal communities that depend on them.
Tracking pollack
Pollack FISP is tagging and tracking pollack
off the Devon coast. Led by Dr Thomas
Stamp at the University of Plymouth,
the team has fitted 92 pollack with
acoustic tags, and signals are
detected from tagged fish that
swim within roughly 300 metres
of any one of a network of
strategically placed acoustic
receivers (Fig. 2) anchored to
the seabed.
Like many deep-water fish,
pollack suffer from barotrauma
due to the pressure change when
they are reeled up to the surface.
These barotrauma injuries—which
can include a blown swim bladder, the
stomach protruding through the mouth,
and bulging eyes—are often fatal and so
can present a significant barrier to tagging
these fish. Working closely with recreational charter
skippers, the research team experimented with a releasecage
system that lowers the fish back to the depth at which
it was caught, providing it time to recover before release.
The survival rate is at least 77 per cent for fish tagged and
then released using the cage.
The team has already uncovered exciting findings about
the daily routines of pollack. Some individuals appear to
move between different locations for the day and night.
To date, most pollack have remained within 20 to 30 km
of where they were caught, but we don't yet know how far
pollack travel in their lifetimes or whether there are any
seasonal changes in their movements, such as during their
spawning season from January to March. We hope that these
tagged fish will start to unravel those mysteries.
Fisheries data
A unique aspect of this project is how closely it partners
with recreational charter skippers to gather fisheries data.
Like commercial fishers, recreational charter skippers
depend on healthy fish stocks for the success of their
business. Collaborating with this historically undervalued
sector provides valuable opportunities for fisheries data
collection and biological monitoring beyond traditional
research surveys.
Led by Dr Simon Thomas from the University of York, Dave
Figure 3. Juvenile pollack.
© Bryce Stewart.
Uren from the PBA, and Dr
Bryce Stewart from the
MBA, charter skippers
are collecting biological
data on pollack, including length
and maturity, as well as stomach
contents and otoliths (fish ear bones,
see Fig. 1), which provide information
on age and growth. To date, the
consortium of 14 skippers has collected
length data on 14,078 pollack from 716 trips,
helping to inform our understanding of stock
abundance, composition, and recruitment.
People and pollack
Along with the pollack tracking and catch sampling, we are
analysing other data sources, such as fishermen’s diaries
and angling club records, and conducting interviews and
workshops with recreational and commercial fishers to gain
a longer-term perspective on trends in the fishery. Analysis
of historical data and fishers’ knowledge has confirmed
previous concerns about the decline in catch rates and
size of pollack, particularly in the last 10 years. Potential
causes suggested by fishers include overfishing, climate
change, and natural predation, particularly from the recent
resurgence in bluefin tuna stocks.
Where to next?
Pollack FISP is already providing unique insights into pollack
in South West England. We are continuing to collect data
and speak with fishers. We will be sharing our findings with
policymakers, scientists, and the fishing community, with the
aim of helping to rebuild pollack stocks. l
• Hannah Rudd (Hannah.Rudd@anglingtrust.net)
Figure 2. Acoustic receiver deployment
off the Devon coast. © Rebecca Nesbit.
For more information, please visit www.plymouth.ac.uk/
research/marine-conservation-research-group/pollack-fisp
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34
f e a t u r e
A fishing vessel heading out
at sunset. Vela Luka, Croatia.
© Benjamin Grecic.
TRANSFORMING FISHERY
CONFLICTS
Can climate-driven fishery clashes be averted? By Benjamin Grecic.
In 2020 the global aquatic food trade value was estimated
at £150 billion. Fisheries, therefore, make an important
contribution to economic development, food security, and
poverty alleviation, particularly in developing nations. Fish
are a valuable, limited resource, hence nations have come
into conflict over their catch, with military action sometimes
resulting. Examples include the ‘Scarborough Shoal dispute’
between China and the Philippines and the ‘Turbot War’
between Spain and Canada in the 20th century. Both
conflicts occurred due to a breach of national boundaries
or quotas, upon which current fisheries management is still
based today. Put simply, coastal nations are obliged to jointly
manage mobile fish stocks which move between countries'
exclusive economic zones (EEZs), or enter international
waters. Frameworks such as the EU Common Fisheries
Policy allocate quotas within EEZs, whilst regional fisheries
management organizations (RFMOs) manage fisheries beyond
EEZs. However, climate change threatens to uproot current
agreements and increase the risk of fishery conflicts.
Climate change: a cause of conflict
Due to ocean warming, the geographical distribution of fish
stocks is changing; in general moving away from the equator
towards the poles. This is known as a range shift. Over half
the world’s fish populations are likely to move from their
historic habitats by the end of the century, thus altering the
fish assemblages in many EEZs, around which management
practice is currently built. In some areas where range shifts
are not possible, such as when a land mass blocks movement
(e.g. anchovies in the Mediterranean), or the distance to the
next coastal habitat is too large (e.g. some South African
and Australian species), fish populations are likely to reduce
dramatically as water temperatures rise. Both issues will increase
the pathways for fisheries conflicts. For example, mackerel
stocks in the Northeast Atlantic are shifting northwards. In 2011,
Iceland increased its own quota and political conflict unfolded,
leading to Norway and Scotland banning Icelandic boats from
landing mackerel in their ports. This disagreement resulted
in unsustainable quantities being caught and the loss of the
previous MSC sustainability certification.
For commercial fish species in decline due to barriers to
poleward migration, fishing vessels must travel further to find
dwindling stocks, potentially causing conflict. In 2020, 18 crew
members of an Italian fishing boat were detained by Libyan
authorities for entering Libyan waters, causing a political
standoff and protests in Italy until their eventual release more
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f e a t u r e 35
Figure 1. Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), one of the many
species affected by range shifts and the subject of a fisheries conflict in
the Northeast Atlantic. © Benjamin Grecic.
than 3 months later.
A recent WWF report identified ‘conflict hotspots’ prone to
future climate-driven fishery conflicts across the world. Political
status, foreign fishing effort, and geographical position are
some of the determining factors. Conflict hotspots include
the Mediterranean, the North Sea, the Arctic Ocean, Ecuador,
the Horn of Africa, and more. How conflict risk is dealt with at
hotspots will have major repercussions.
Conflicts can bring opportunities for change
The conflicts forecasted above may encourage nations to
address the problems on a case-by-case basis and recognize
current management limitations. If the right steps are taken,
conflict risk may be viewed as a rare opportunity to make
positive management changes—a concept known as conflict
transformation. The first step is to hold equitable discussions
between nations to avoid escalation, including stakeholders
such as fishing communities closest to the issue. Once
issues are identified, improvements or even entirely new
management strategies can be created. These must be
more adaptive and holistic in nature, perhaps involving
updating quotas more frequently, or creating a system where
management control can move with fish stocks across EEZs.
These potential management improvements could resolve
and prevent future conflict, increasing capacity to deal with the
future movement and reduction of fish populations.
In the wider context of global food security, range shifts
of fish are only one of the many challenges climate change
presents. Fishery conflicts could serve as an example of a
challenge transformed into an opportunity, representative of
our species’ capacity to cope with our changing planet. l
• Benjamin Grecic (benjamingrecic@gmail.com)
Based on The Catch podcast and discussion, hosted by
Foreign Policy, 9 December 2023, COP28.
Further reading
FAO 2024. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Palacios-Abrantes, J. et al. 2022. Timing and magnitude of climate-driven
range shifts in transboundary fish stocks challenge their management, Global
Change Biology. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16058
Glaser, S. 2023. Identifying Hotspots of Future Fisheries Conflict Under
Climate Change. WWF.
Dahlet, L.I., Himes-Cornell, A., and Metzner, R. 2021. Fisheries conflicts
as drivers of social transformation. Current Opinion in Environmental
Sustainability, 53, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2021.03.011
COASTLANDS
Exclusive for MBA members, a free copy
of this beautifully illustrated celebration
of Scotland's 'blue carbon' habitats.
Historically, we had a much closer connection
with the sea. Human communities were once
concentrated around the coast where the rich
inshore waters teemed with life, providing food
and livelihoods for centuries. Today, these same
waters support a fraction of the life they once
did, but we continue to be reliant on the vital
resources they provide.
Coastlands, the eBook by rewilding charity
SCOTLAND: The Big Picture, is a richly visual
celebration of Scotland's incredible marine
ecosystems, a warning of their plight, and a
source of inspiration and hope for their recovery.
As a member of the Marine Biological
Association, you can download a FREE copy
of the Coastlands eBook. Simply scan the QR
code and enter the exclusive code CLMBAFOC
at checkout.
Find out more at: www.scotlandbigpicture.com
www.mba.ac.uk
October 2024

36
t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y
MEET THE MEMBERS
A regular opportunity to meet MBA members and find out what they do.
My role
As part of a module in my master’s degree, I took part in a
research project in Northern Cyprus on biodiversity loss in
the eastern Mediterranean with a focus on molluscs. I was
responsible for the lab work and processed the samples,
selecting them under the microscope and storing them correctly.
A follow-up trip is planned for this October. I am very grateful
for the opportunity I was given by the project leader to attend a
master’s thesis programme in Naples. I am applying for funding
and have my fingers crossed! If it works out, I will be working in
the lab with samples from the eastern Mediterranean.
My typical day
My dream routine would be working with coral reefs, combining
practical work in the field, lab work, and science communication.
Name: Gözde Özer
MBA Membership category: Professional Member
Position/Job title: I am studying for a master's
degree in Ecology and Ecosystems at the University
of Vienna. I also work part time at an animal rights
association, where we run campaigns for the
protection of marine animals.
Journey highlight
During a field trip to Egypt as part of a university course, we
surveyed the local coral reef. We learned a lot about corals
and their identification, and I was mesmerized by the colours
and variety of coral species. Right now, we are in the process
of publishing a paper based on the data obtained during this
field trip. I am excited about all the marine adventures and
knowledge that my future holds.
My role
My role as a marine biologist in a consultancy company is based
on helping clients meet their environmental requirements. This
is achieved by conducting environmental impact assessments or
acting as environmental monitor for marine based projects (ports,
offshore wind, etc.).
My typical day
In the consultancy world, a typical day for a marine biologist
varies between seasons. Spring and summer are very much field
based, meaning that I could be working on a boat or on the shore
collecting water quality, sediment, or tissue samples, or acting as
MMO (Marine Mammal Observer). On the other hand, autumn and
winter are report seasons when the data collected during the field
season is interpreted and compiled into reports for clients. It is also
the time of year to write proposals for the next field season.
Name: Célia Stachowiak
MBA Membership category: Professional Member
Position/Job title: Marine Biologist
Employer/Institution: WSP Inc. Canada
Marine biology career highlight
I was fortunate enough to be able to transfer from the WSP France
(Lyon) office to the WSP Canada office. Now based in Victoria, I am
privileged to see orcas, seals, porpoises, or otters during almost
every field outing. Being in a big international company allows you
to create your opportunities and be the driver of your career.
www.linkedin.com/in/célia-stachowiak-02b9ba17a/
Meet and interact with your community of
MBA members at mymba.mba.ac.uk
October 2024
www.mba.ac.uk

t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y 37
THE 140TH ANNUAL
GENERAL MEETING AND
ANNUAL SCIENCE TALK
Tuesday 3 December 2024
The Annual General Meeting is how you, as a
Member*, get to have your say in the running of the
Marine Biological Association.
The AGM is accompanied by our Annual Science
Talk given by a keynote speaker who has made notable
contributions in their field.
This will be a hybrid event. Make a day of it and attend
both the talk and the AGM to network with your membership
community. Look out for emailed invitations at the end of
October to reserve your space.
This event is open to Members only. The agenda, along
with details of Trustees, the Annual Report, and Financial
Report will be made available on MyMBA.
* Please note: If you are a YMB/Student member, you are not
yet a voting Member, but we welcome you to take part, learn
how the MBA is run, and meet other Members.
MBA ANNUAL SCIENCE TALK
Ali Hood Mem.MBA—Beyond science: the multiple facets of conservation decision-making
Ms Hood has led the Shark Trust conservation programme over the past 2 decades, with a focus on shark and ray policy
concerns, supported by effective public campaigning. Ms Hood advises the UK government with respect to Regional Fishery
Management Organization negotiations, wildlife treaties, and domestic policy. She has a long history of participating as an
invited member on several expert working groups at UK and EU levels, and regularly engages with the European Commission,
the UK devolved administrations, and international NGO working groups. Recent focus has seen work on shortfin mako, blue,
and oceanic whitetip sharks in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and angel shark and guitarfishes in the Mediterranean. Prior to
her time at the Shark Trust, Ms Hood worked to establish the MarLIN programme at the MBA.
Ms Hood will share her first-hand experiences of the challenges associated with securing and implementing shark and ray
management through high seas fisheries management bodies—with a view to maximizing the traction of available and proposed
scientific outputs.
• Ali Hood is the Director of Conservation for the Shark Trust.
www.mba.ac.uk
October 2024

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t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y
CAREERS INFORMATION FOR
Society needs the next generation of marine
biologists to deepen our understanding of the
intricate, interconnected marine environment—one
that we all depend on every day.
See if you can picture yourself in these different marine
biology roles: studying marine life on a rocky beach or
muddy estuary; inspecting catches on the rain-soaked deck
of a boat in the windy North Sea; diving, recording species or
sampling water in the sun-drenched tropics; in a lab in a white
coat with a microscope; at a screen crunching numbers and
analysing data; or liaising with sea users, communicating with the
public, or teaching students.
As well as marine life and the environment on which it depends,
marine biology overlaps with many other disciplines such as
physics, chemistry, social science, and economics. Scientists use
the laboratory, field experiments, and computer modelling to
understand how marine organisms and ecosystems respond to
change. See the Marine Biological Association (MBA) website for
more information: mba.ac.uk/what-we-do/our-science/
A variety of Career areas (see panel on right) are open to
marine biologists. You could become involved in academic
research, assess the impacts of human activities, or help manage
the many resources the sea provides. Teaching or communicating
about marine biology are also popular careers. Increasingly, there
are opportunities in data and AI, and in formulating policy.
Getting a head start
Marine biologists develop strong technical, research, scientific,
and interpersonal skills (see panel on right). Getting relevant
experience, either paid or voluntary, can be key to landing that
first job.
At school, explore, experience, and think about your future.
Believe that your education is relevant to your imagined future in
work. Higher participation in career development activities, for
example: learning and networking through MBA membership;
job shadowing; and online resources (see Signposts), can lead to
improved levels of employment.
Practise writing skills: Young Marine Biologist members of the
MBA can submit short articles or stories for potential publication
on the website or in this magazine.
Qualifications (see panel on right)
Get connected
Communication and connection are important: employers value
these ‘soft skills’ that you can develop in:
• Part-time employment
• Work placements/internships
• Volunteering in the community
You can begin to develop your network of contacts while you are
at school, for example by joining the MBA and taking part in the
online community.
Search for events and volunteering opportunities in your area.
Projects such as The Rock Pool Project (see Signposts) are great
ways to get inspired and meet people.
Salaries and conditions
Salaries for entry-level positions are in the region of £19,500 to
£24,000.
Research is often funded by grants and sponsorships meaning
short-term contracts for junior staff.
Qualifications
If you are aiming for a Science, Technology, Engineering
and Mathematics (STEM) path, don’t specialize too early.
For Further Education (i.e. A-levels in England, Wales,
and Northern Ireland) the standard science subjects will
give you a solid grounding. Adding maths will help you to
specialize later on.
Key skills and qualities
• Numeracy skills
• IT and data handling skills
• Communication and interpersonal skills
• Project management skills
• Analytical thinking, ability to solve problems
• Being observant, curious, and creative
• Ability to work alone
“Good grades and experience are important, but so is
the ability to connect with people and demonstrate
your passion”
Sophie Locke
“There is really exciting work in the world of
bioinformatics, genomics, and artificial intelligence
programming”
Gabriella Gilkes
Sources: OECD 2021. How youth explore, experience and think about
their future. issuu.com/oecd.publishing/docs/how-youth-exploreexperience-think-about-their-fut
www.prospects.ac.uk/job-profiles/marine-scientist
October 2024
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t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y 39
YOUNG MARINE BIOLOGISTS
Career areas
• Academia (research and teaching in higher education)
Traditionally: Bachelor’s degree, followed by a higher degree
(e.g. a Master's), then a PhD.
The first salary comes with a 'postdoc' position, for example,
Postdoctoral Researcher or Assistant Lecturer.
• Industry and government
Marine environmental consultants employ: ecologists,
taxonomists, ornithologists, marine mammal specialists, data
and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) analysts to work
on environmental impact assessments and collect and analyse
samples (see P36). Government and its agencies (in the UK,
Cefas, Natural England, Marine Scotland etc.) lead on natural
resources management. They designate and monitor marine
protected areas and employ marine biologists in various roles
including fisheries officers and marine policy experts.
• Engagement
Lecturer or teacher
Curriculum designer
Communications officer
Photographer/videographer
Freelance writer/author
• Technical, engineering
Lab technician
Logistics expert
Design /maintenance engineer
Sea-going technician
ROV pilot
“Marine life is full of
surprises: you’ll walk into
an enticing life if you let the
ocean show you the way”
Shubha Sathyendranath
“For every field scientist
there are two to four
science support workers
who dive, run boats,
drive trucks, and keep
generators going”
Paul Rose
"It won't be a linear journey,
expect something to go wrong
at some point. But if you are
really passionate about it, you
will make it work"
Amelia Bridges
“Put your phone or iPad
down, go out and look
for things for yourself”
Eve Southward
Key messages
• Academia is only one of many routes into a marine
biology career.
• You can begin to prepare now: explore, experience, and think
about your future. Take opportunities to get soft skills.
• As a young person exploring career options, you are allowed
to ask lots of questions.
• Be flexible and open minded.
• Explore upcoming areas in marine biology, for example.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and marine policy.
Read this article online for links to further resources!
Humpback whales, Mo’orea, French Polynesia. © Toby Matthews/
Ocean Image Bank.
Signposts
• Join the Marine Biological Association: mba.ac.uk/our-membership/
• The Rock Pool Project: www.therockpoolproject.co.uk
• Online skills resources: youthemployment.org.uk/dev/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Skills-Career-Activities-for-Young-People-1.pdf
• Learn about the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (the Ocean Decade) and how it guides marine research,
policy, and conservation. There are opportunities for the public, including young people, to get involved.
• Become more ocean literate: ocean.org/learn-explore/education/ocean-literacy
• Got a big idea for ocean recovery? Why not submit it to the OceanLove Innovation Awardoceanloveawards.com
• Public aquariums may have work experience opportunities or host youth programmes, for example: www.national-aquarium.co.uk/
learning-at-the-aquarium/marine-biologist/ and the Teen Climate Council at the Aquarium of the Pacific @aopteens
www.mba.ac.uk October 2024

40
t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y
MBA STUDENT BURSARY REPORTS
SOCIETY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY
AND CHEMISTRY (SETAC) 34TH ANNUAL
MEETING, SEVILLE, SPAIN
5–9 May 2024
The conference brought together over 3,000 attendees from
all over the world, including professional ecotoxicologists,
ecologists, modellers, social scientists, chemists, regulatory
officials, and many others, making for fantastic networking
opportunities!
I attended various talks and plenary sessions, my favourite
being a presentation about pharmaceuticals in the marine
environment. It was great to see so many people who share a
passion for environmental toxicology and the common goals
of improving the health of the environment and ourselves.
The conference maintained a very wholesome and welcoming
atmosphere, which allowed for engaging and interesting
conversations. There were nearly 2,000 posters on display,
highlighting current research in different environmental
toxicology disciplines: my favourite was about PFAS (Per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances) levels in fish in the UK and the impact
on human health.
Whilst a number of talks and posters emphasized a rather bleak
picture when it comes to environmental health and anthropogenic
impacts, it was also great to see a number of presentations that
provided a sprinkle of hope, too. I was lucky enough to have the
opportunity to present my work on the ecotoxicological effects of
sunscreens and UV filters on the marine environment, from both
my Master of Research (MRes) and PhD to date. This allowed me
to practise my science communication and presentation skills and
THE EUROPEAN CORAL REEF SYMPOSIUM
(ECRS) 2024, NAPOLI, ITALY
2–5 July 2024
The ECRS was an opportunity for me to present
the preliminary results of my master’s research
and to network with coral researchers doing
the kind of work I envision in my future.
This event is promoted by the International Coral
Reef Society (ICRS) with the intention of connecting
coral researchers from all over the world to address
issues impacting corals. ECRS was of particular interest
because it brought together researchers investigating
tropical, temperate, and deep-sea coral reefs to share knowledge
and to advance our understanding of these different reef settings
and the challenges they face.
This was my first conference, so I was very nervous about talking to
people more knowledgeable than me. However, I found everyone,
from staff to researchers, to be friendly and approachable. The
agenda was packed with interesting talks, from coral conservation/
Anneliese Hodge at the Society of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry Annual Meeting in Seville. © Anneliese Hodge.
become more confident in articulating myself when answering
questions.
I would like to thank the Marine Biological Association for
supporting me to attend SETAC through an MBA Bursary. I am
grateful to have been given the opportunity to engage and be
part of the SETAC community!
• Anneliese Hodge, PhD Student, University of Plymouth and Plymouth
Marine Laboratory.
restoration techniques, behaviour and molecular responses
of reef-associated fishes to different stressors, to
microplastics, 3D reef surveying and monitoring
techniques, and talks about soft coral reefs (my current
focus), to name but a few. I had the opportunity to
speak to presenters and exchange details to connect
at some point in the future.
My poster presentation provided more
opportunities for me to speak to researchers, and I was
kept busy during both poster sessions. I was pleasantly
surprised to find that so many researchers knew about the
marine research we do at Plymouth University, and quite a few, upon
seeing the MBA logo, had very positive feedback to give about their
impression of the MBA.
• Ana Ferreira Coelho, University of Plymouth.
Instagram: seawitch713
www.linkedin.com/in/ana-coelho-a3a21463/
October 2024
www.mba.ac.uk

r e v i e w s 41
REVIEWS
MBA members review the latest marine
biology books, films, and podcasts.
THE CHAGOS ARCHIPELAGO:
A BIOLOGICAL BIOGRAPHY
Author: Charles Sheppard
ISBN: 9781032713380
Format: Hardback, 135 pages
Published by: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis
Professor Emeritus Charles Sheppard OBE’s latest (and final)
book on the coral reefs and biogeography of the Chagos
Islands is a highly engaging and accessible narrative, but
ultimately a plea to act on climate change and human impacts on
coral within a decade—or there won’t be much left.
Much coral research now largely ‘only adds more decimal
points of accuracy to the post-mortem of coral reefs’, he says after
half a century’s work on Chagos’s reefs, viewing the challenge
ahead as ‘more of a political, sociological, and governmental
problem than a scientific one’.
With this in mind, Charles vividly paints the Chagos archipelago
as a unique and broadly instructive microcosm of the world’s
conservation and governance conundrums, and an ecological
reference point: ‘It contains it all. Displaced people, old and
derelict industry, the military, politics, rich ecosystems that some
want to exploit, ruined habitats on land, climate change, and
territorial claims.’
The book was aimed at a black hole in publicly accessible
knowledge on the sprawling atolls of the central Indian Ocean,
and it should attract generalist, scientific, and policy attention.
The author is a unique witness: the atolls were closed off and
wrapped in secrecy for decades after being declared as the British
Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) in the 1960s. Cold War logic led to a
declining plantation population being shoddily evicted for the US
strategic air force base at Diego Garcia—the only realistic regional
site at the time—now in quiet battle against sea-level rise.
Starting with the extensive archipelago’s natural history, the
author covers colonial settlement and the introduction of animals
(not least rats) and plants, including environmentally devastating
coconut plantations. He explains the rationale, difficulties, and
successes of restoration, and outlines the status of Chagos’s coral
reefs and science from the early days to now. Later chapters
address climate change, including the Indian
Ocean’s alarming coral bleaching events since
1998—which reignited global interest in BIOT
conservation and fast-tracked the establishment
of the BIOT (British Indian Ocean Territory)
Marine Reserve, briefly the world’s largest ‘notake’
area.
Charles was among the few scientists cannily
leveraging military adventure training and
logistics to do scientific work there in the 1970s,
initially with future TV celebrity Professor David
Bellamy. However, access gaps followed until
the catastrophic coral bleaching events of 1998
onwards, in which heat killed 90 per cent of
shallow-water coral. He describes the trials and
tribulations of trailblazing science in hard-toreach
areas on remote, uninhabited islands—
where he documented staggeringly intact
stands of coral and marine life. His life’s work
in the Indian Ocean and Caribbean led to 250
publications, and with 20 trips to BIOT over
five decades, a body of 200 or so that are
handily referenced here. Charles introduced
around 1,000 scientists and colleagues to BIOT,
taking its atolls from perhaps the world’s least
to most studied.
The book also treks through progress with
land conservation and restoration, which
the author worked on too. The case studies
presented include red-footed boobies,
coconut crabs, and native shrubs, and
showcase what is still possible worldwide.
It is a testament to his research and
persuasiveness that Charles was so
instrumental in the establishment of the BIOT reserve in 2010.
He and others showed Chagos’s importance to oceanic
ecosystem linkages and function, going so far as to demonstrate
financial values to even distant littoral states with rising hungry
populations.
He later served later as Scientific Advisor to the British
Commissioner (2003–2013) but lamented the ignorance
he often encountered about the islands in the media and
beyond—toxifying debate and the sensitive legal cases over the
Chagossians’ right to return, ownership, and by implication what
‘sustainable development’ might mean in reality.
The UK announced in October 2024 that it was handing Chagos
sovereignty to Mauritius under an expected new treaty allowing
the UK to retain its use of Diego Garcia on a 99-year initial lease,
satisfying the US military. That aspect is therefore absent from
the book but clearly, it marks a sea-change for the islands’ future.
Charles warns in his book that the lessons of the nearby Maldives
are that 80 per cent of atolls could be under water by 2050–and
resettlement plans may need an evacuation appendix.
The book ultimately is a clarion call. Delays to effective policy
already mean the current drive to fully protect 30 per cent of
oceans may be insufficient. Its chapters warn repeatedly of
‘shifting baseline’ risks: the human blind spot of each generation
holding an incomplete or false picture of the prior state
ecosystems, meaning science and policy goals may be set too
low, if at all.
There are few branches of science whose practitioners hope
that the outcomes of their lifetime’s research might be wrong or
become irrelevant, but Charles reminds us, ‘that is the case both
for scientists researching climate change and its effects on natural
systems, not only coral reefs’.
By nature an optimist, he stops short of writing coral’s obituary,
but only just. His optimism was clearly tested.
As for Chagos and its reefs? We must retain
hope, he said, or we are lost. ‘After all, we know
we will be dead one day but would still see a
doctor tomorrow if needed. Why?’.
Sadly, the first print of this book arrived at
his door just days after his sudden death in
2024 not long after ‘retirement’. It is a fitting
final publication. His colleagues and friends will
sorely miss him.
Charles is survived by his wife, Anne, a
biologist, taxonomist, and writer. She often
worked with him in Chagos and is the
photographer for this book. She is pictured on
a diving trip with Charles on the rear cover—
their smiles broader than the research horizon
before them.
• Matthew Bunce FMBA
www.mba.ac.uk
October 2024

42
r e v i e w s
SEAWEEDS OF THE WORLD: A GUIDE TO
EVERY ORDER
Author: John H. Bothwell
ISBN: 9780691228549
Format: Hardback, 240 pages
Published by: University of Chicago Press
MBA
member
discount
with this
publisher
When this book arrived, I was wowed by its design, the
quality of the printing, the abundance of superb colour
photographs, and the clarity of many of the diagrams.
The book is divided into three main sections.
‘Introduction’ includes chapters which help provide an overall
understanding of the subject of phycology, including ‘What
Are Seaweeds?’, ‘Early Evolution’, ‘Multicellular Life Forms’,
and ‘Taxonomic Variation’. All of these are difficult subjects to
describe to the layman in simple terms.
‘A Natural History’ provides a potted history of pioneer
phycologists in ‘Early Phycology’. The difficult subject of
‘Seaweed Reproduction’ is written with clarity aided by easyto-follow
diagrams, as is the case in ‘Seaweed Photosynthesis
and Primary Production’. I found the chapter ‘Geographical
Distribution’ less satisfying and a bit too general to be
informative. ‘Food, Fodder, and Fertilizers’, on the other
hand, gives a great overview of our use of seaweeds and this
is continued in ‘Extractive Industries and Seaweeds in the
Anthropocene’.
The third section, ‘Seaweed Diversity’, provides the bulk of
this book, and it’s here that I found the book’s title, ‘A Guide to
Every Order’, to be rather confusing. I expected to see chapters
dedicated to each of the seaweed orders, but this is not the
case. On the back cover, the book is advertised as a guide to the
‘seaweed families of the world’, but this is not the case, either. A
chapter entitled ‘Selected Species’ explains how 75 genera are
described, and justification is given for the ones that have been
chosen for inclusion.
As an author, I know how easy it is for mistakes to enter a book
unnoticed, despite efforts of proofreaders. I noticed factual
errors and potentially misleading statements. For example,
the fossil Bangiomorpha pubescens is not strikingly similar
to modern-day Polysiphonia, but rather to the modern-day
Bangia. It isn’t useful to generalize and state that kelps are
annual and grow afresh every year because not all of them do. A
bibliography would have made the book a more useful resource
for undergraduates.
The book is a great compendium of information about
seaweeds and my hope is that in a future edition, some of the
problems will be ironed out.
• Francis Bunker
CORAL REEFS: A HANDBOOK FOR
THEIR FUTURE
Author: Orla Doherty
ISBN: 9780956560094
Format: Hardback, 233 pages
Published by: Biosphere Foundation
This book is a great resource for anyone
interested in understanding and
preserving these vital ecosystems, aimed
both at novices and those with a strong
knowledge of coral ecology. This is due to
Doherty’s ability to clearly explain various
aspects of coral reefs and highlight the
most crucial points, from their fascinating
history and complex ecology to their current
challenges.
The chapters focusing on the various
residents of coral reefs were among my
favourites. In them, Doherty brings these
communities to life, showing how integral
each inhabitant is to the overall health and
resilience of the ecosystem. The book also
excels in its coverage of the natural and
human-induced threats to coral reefs. These
sections are vibrant and colourful, adding
depth to the reader’s perception of these
ecosystems.
One of the book’s high points, in my view,
comes right at the beginning in Abigail
Alling’s introduction. She sets the tone for
the book with a powerful and affecting
piece that made me think about coral reefs
in a way that I hadn’t quite done before.
Alling starts with the ‘Ahh’ and ‘Ooh’
moments that a person experiences when
first encountering a reef and then goes on
to something more profound, reflecting
movingly on their importance.
I think that Coral Reefs: A Handbook
for their Future is a must-read for anyone
interested in the future of these enchanting
ecosystems. This book couples rich scientific
knowledge with a passionate plea for corals
and their ecosystems, whilst offering a
pathway of hope towards their long-term
survival.
• Carlo Di Natale
October 2024
www.mba.ac.uk

r e v i e w s 43
CORAL REEFS: A NATURAL HISTORY
Author: Charles Sheppard
ISBN: 9780691198682
Format: Hardback, 240 pages
Published by: Princeton University Press
MBA
member
discount
with this
publisher
Corals and coral reefs have long
occupied a place in my mind
reserved for the beautiful and
enigmatic. I have known the basics
for years, having seen corals in
aquariums and while snorkelling,
but I’ve never been able to go
beyond the surface. Until now.
What Charles Sheppard has
achieved in this volume is nothing
short of magic. He has taken what
could easily be an overwhelming
subject and divided it down into
two-page sub-sections, with
wonderful success. As someone
who has wanted to learn more about corals for years,
this book could not be more appreciated. The way the
information is arranged across chapters made for an
easy and delightful read, even if I only had a few minutes
to spare.
The book follows a nice progression, starting with corals
as a species, moving through to the mechanics of the
coral reef, the interactions of other flora and fauna, and
then looking at the impacts of climate change and human
uses of reefs.
The conversation around corals and coral reefs can be
a disheartening one, with degradation and loss of coral
reefs being a very present and real result of anthropogenic
climate change. Sheppard still offers up glimmers of
hope for the future of these organisms and highlights the
conservation efforts going on to try and save this most
valuable marine habitat.
I would strongly recommend this title for anyone
interested in corals, and keep my fingers crossed that the
author’s optimism proves true for their future.
• Gareth Dowle
SHARKS, RAYS & CHIMAERAS OF EUROPE
AND THE MEDITERRANEAN
Author: David A. Ebert and Mark Dando
ISBN: 9780691205984
Format: Hardback, 384 pages
Published by: Princeton University Press
MBA
member
discount
with this
publisher
This field guide offers a truly
comprehensive look at all the
species of chondrichthyans of the
Mediterranean Sea and Northeast
Atlantic Ocean. The book is
divided into two main sections: an
introductory overview of regional
chondrichthyan biodiversity, habitat
features, and their conservation,
followed by detailed species
accounts. These accounts are
organized into three groups—
Chimaeras, Skates and Rays, and
Sharks—each with key guides to aid identification. Each species
entry includes explicit illustrations with diagnostic characteristics
in bold, descriptions of habitat, biology, diet, and IUCN Red List
status, as well as size information, depth range, a distribution
map, and more.
The guide contains almost everything you need to know
about a species, making it an excellent resource for identifying
species and understanding their ecological roles. The use of
bold text to highlight key characteristics in the illustrations is
one of my favourite features of the book. However, there are
notable flaws. The distribution maps are somewhat unreliable,
especially concerning the Mediterranean Sea. For example,
the great hammerhead is incorrectly mapped across the
Adriatic, when it has, to my knowledge, never been recorded
there. Additionally, the shark order key guide is incomplete,
leaving out some presented orders and directing readers to an
incorrect page.
Despite the issues, this guide achieves wonderfully what is
crucial—making species of sharks and their relatives go from
just being to being seen. This opens the doors through which
we can get to know them better and come to appreciate them
and the underwater realms they inhabit.
• Gaj Kušar
THE VISUAL ELEMENTS—DESIGN: A
HANDBOOK FOR COMMUNICATING SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
Author: Felice C. Frankel
ISBN: 9780226829166
Format: Paperback, 208 pages
Published by: Princeton University Press
More than a handbook for creating figures that
support your hard work, this book makes
you think more deeply about how you present
your research and how you communicate with
your audience. As the author says, ‘Your research
is unique, so your figures should be too. Your
figures should have their own voice.’
But how do you find that unique ‘voice’ that will
make your research stand out? Frankel begins
by discussing what you should and shouldn’t
do. Case studies by different researchers and designers from all
over the world give insights into how and why these professionals
came up with their designs, and help the reader think completely
differently about their own designs.
The principle of ‘don’t tell: show’, is what makes
this book such an interesting, easy read; and as we
would expect, the illustrations are rich and colourful.
Having introduced her approach towards
design, Frankel describes strategies that can
increase the clarity of graphics: a very important
aspect of representing your science visually. As
she says: ‘Good design decisions will improve
your communication and help you and others
understand the critical and fascinating research
world.’
I give this book a five-star rating and would
recommend it to all scientists and illustrators
of science.
• Leonie Sophia van den Hoek
www.mba.ac.uk October 2024

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