[Catalyst Eureka Issue 4 2025]

R I C E

C A T A L Y S T

I S S U E

2 0 2 5

LETTER FROM THE EDITORS

Thank you for reading this year’s issue of Eureka! Eureka was initially introduced in 2016 as a

collaboration between Catalyst, Rice’s undergraduate research journal, and Houston area high

schools to promote scientific literacy. The disruptions of COVID-19 caused a 6 year long hiatus

for the journal prior to it being relaunched last year in partnership with Carnegie Vanguard High

School and Bellaire High School. In our first year leading this program, we learned a lot about

how to effectively organize and guide students as they embark on their ambitious projects. This

year, we’re proud to expand our list of partnered high schools with the addition Cypress Ridge

High School. With 25 student-mentor pairings, we’ve achieved significant growth from last

year’s pilot program. This year’s issue covers a wide range of topics that represent the diverse

interests of our students, from biology to sustainability.

Student participants in the programs synthesized literature reviews over their topic of choice.

Since December, they have worked hard to research, write, and design their articles while also

preparing a poster to present at the Eureka Poster Symposium. Throughout the semester, these

students have learned how to read scientific papers, write professionally, and present their

findings to a general audience. While balancing other extracurriculars and academics, students

were pushed to learn skills in time management, scientific communication, graphic design, and

collaboration. In the future, we know these students will continue to demonstrate the fantastic

work ethic they displayed while in the Eureka program.

Of course, our work at Eureka wouldn’t be possible without the tireless work of Rice University

student mentors. We’d like to express our heartfelt gratitude to the students and mentors who

chose to volunteer their time towards this cause. Between juggling academics and

extracurricular commitments, these individuals spent many hours a week working to make this

publication a reality. In addition, we appreciate the financial support of the Hilda and Hershel

Rich Family Endowment and Ross Rankin Moody Opportunity Fund which made our publication

and poster symposium a possibility.

We are incredibly proud of the efforts of these students and thankful for those that support us.

Throughout the years, the goal of Catalyst and Eureka has been to promote scientific literacy

and skills. This year, the growth of our program and the efforts of over 50 participants made that

a reality. Moving forward, we’re excited to increase our impact through more school

partnerships and a year-long program. We recognize that this publication is the result of

countless hours of work from individuals who already lead very busy lives. For all those who

chose to be a part of this effort as a writer, mentor, or reader, we thank you for allowing us to be

a small part of your scientific journey.

Prasi Desai and Nikitha Kota

Co-Heads of the Eureka Program

1 | EUREKA

T A B L E

C O N

O F

T E N T S

E. CASTRO

5ACCESSABILITY

GAP

6 7

S. ADHIKARI

AI

AND CRUDE OIL

DIABETES

8

J. EBRAHIM

&

SLEEP

PUBLIC

M. CIVUNIGUNTA

&

ROADS

9 BOXFISH

BUS

11

D. KAHRAMAN D. KAHRAMAN

10BIOMEDICINE &

HYDROGELS

R. ELANGOVAN

SMART

CHEN

13S.

ANIMAL

WELFARE

NIJHAWAN

14S.

SUNSCREEN

& CANCER

BENNER

15W.

INTRACRANIAL

STENTS

EUREKA | 2

16L. HAKKI

17N. NGUYEN

18

MSCs

HADAL

LIFE

M.

LE

SOCIAL MEDIA &

ANXIETY

19

M. LAM

20R.

SYNESTHESIA

GOLSHAN

21M. WANG

BIOFUELS &

ENERGY

STEM CELLS

23

BURNS J. XIA

FLORES-

22A.

25J.

CARRENO

GLYMPHATIC

SYSTEM

NEURO-

MODULATION

AI &

CLASSROOMS

26K. KOUR

ELECTROSPUN

SCAFFOLDS

27T. NGUYEN 28R. PREVOST

SPACE

PSYCHOLOGY

RADIATION

DAMPING

3 | EUREKA

Volam

29K.

MYOCARDIAL

INFARCTION

FLORES

31I.

SOCIAL

ROBOTS

KAUR

32H.

AUTISM

SPECTRUM

EUREKA | 4

THE ACCESSIBILITY GAP

The Effect of the U.S. Affordable Care Act on Hispanic Youth PTSD Treatment

By Evelyn Castro

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a

global childhood adversary. PTSD generally

arises after traumatic experiences, leading to

symptoms like extreme fear, social

withdrawal, and hyperarousal. In children,

unique symptoms such as bedwetting,

sudden muteness, or an intense attachment

to adults can be expressed. In 2023, 76% of

U.S. high-school age teens reported at least

one Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) such

as abuse or neglect, with almost one in five

experiencing four or more. These early

traumas can have lasting effects, with 5% of

adolescents developing PTSD and 1.5%

suffering severe impairment that disrupts

daily life. With the prevalence of childhood

PTSD, addressing childhood trauma is crucial

[4] Before the implementation of the Patient

Protection & Affordable Care Act (PPACA), lowincome

families often faced significant

barriers including high treatment costs,

limited insurance coverage, and insufficient

mental health resources that threatened

access to effective treatment for children

experiencing PTSD symptoms. The PPACA was

designed, in part, to mitigate these challenges

by expanding insurance coverage, reducing

cost-sharing burdens, and incentivizing

integrated mental health care within primary

care [3] Despite the incorporation of this

reform law, limited research has directly

evaluated the PPACA’s impact on the

accessibility of PTSD treatment for Hispanic

low‐income children in North Houston, Texas.

This study seeks to address this gap by

examining improvements in treatment

accessibility, and the outcomes reported by

affected families. Prior literature has

predominantly focused on diverse adult

populations. This study addresses the

research gap by providing an understanding

of how the PPACA has influenced treatment

adherence for low‐ income Hispanic children

with PTSD in North Houston, Texas. Studies

have shown that the PPACA’s Medicaid

expansion and cost-sharing reduction

provisions increased access to preventive

services and specialty care, including mental

health services [3] Specifically, reforms

targeting cost-sharing have been linked to

improved adherence to treatment protocols

and reduced dropout rates in mental health

care programs [2]. However, these studies

have rarely focused on pediatric populations

or treatments for trauma-related disorders

such as PTSD. Barriers such as limited

provider availability, inadequate insurance

coverage, and high out‐ of‐pocket costs

continue to slow access to

timely and effective psychotherapy [1]. The

PPACA’s policy provisions, such as mandated

coverage for behavioral health services, were

intended to address some of these issues. A

Yale University study led by the Departments

of Psychiatry assessed how PTSD evaluation

services differed by insurance type, calling 240

psychiatrists across eight Medicaid- expansion

states with the same scenario. Results showed

only 21% of psychiatrists were accepting new

patients, with 15% scheduling Medicaid

patients compared to 34% for Medicare, 54%

for BlueCross, and 93% for cash pay,

highlighting major barriers to care for

Medicaid patients [3]. This study collected

data through an online survey distributed to

parent-teacher organizations in nine high

schools and five middle schools within the

Houston Independent School District. The

survey aimed to assess PTSD treatment

adherence, insurance coverage satisfaction,

and barriers to accessing mental health

services. The survey consisted of 44

questions, including 27 five-point Likert-scale

questions evaluating agreement levels on

PTSD treatment accessibility, 13 closed-ended

questions gathering demographic information

such as household income, insurance type,

and treatment history, and 4 open-ended

questions allowing respondents to elaborate

on treatment barriers and any changes in

access post-ACA. Responses were gathered

from 47 Hispanic or Latino parents with at

least one child aged 13 to 18 diagnosed with

PTSD or a related trauma disorder. Of the

respondents, a majority of 28 guardians have

an average annual household income below

$50,000. In terms of insurance coverage, 32

children were covered by state-issued

insurance, while 15 had private insurance. To

analyze the data, Likert-scale responses were

averaged for each participant to determine

overall satisfaction with PTSD treatment

accessibility. Significant barriers to care

including limited provider networks, financial

strain, and long waitlists were categorized by

insurance type. Treatment adherence was

measured through reported absences from

therapy sessions, differentiating between

those covered by private insurance and stateissued

plans. Several limitations were

presented in the study, including the reliance

on self‐reported data and the high volume of

predominantly-female respondents, which

may introduce inaccuracy and bias. The

results revealed disparities in PTSD treatment

accessibility based on insurance type and

financial status. Of the 47 respondents, a

majority of 35 guardians somewhat agreed,

strongly agreed, or were neutral when asked

about if they were satisfied with their child's

PTSD treatment coverage. While this suggests

a generally positive perception of insurance

coverage, a significant portion of 12

respondents expressed dissatisfaction,

indicating gaps in care. Families with private

insurance faced barriers to treatment, with

many citing copay-related financial strain as

their most significant barrier followed a lack of

accessible treatment centers, network

restrictions, and long waitlists. Meanwhile,

those with state-issued insurance faced

significant provider shortages, with 15

respondents identifying limited networks as

the primary obstacle, followed by a lack of

accessible treatment centers, struggling with

copays, and long waitlists. Treatment

adherence rates further show these

disparities. Among state-insured children,

roughly 85% of parents reported at least one

absence from a therapy visit. Comparatively,

among privately insured children, only 60% of

parents reported at least one absence, with

6% reporting at least three absences. The

higher rates of missed sessions among stateinsured

children suggest a persistent issue

with provider availability, service quality, or

both. Overall, the ACA improved access to

insurance for low-income families, but it did

not eliminate barriers to consistent PTSD

treatment adherence. While Medicaid

expansion allowed more families to obtain

coverage, the quality and availability of mental

health services remain significant concerns.

The results indicate that even with public

insurance, families continue to struggle with

limited mental health provider networks and

long waitlists. These findings signal the need

for policy improvements addressing mental

health provider shortages and enhancing

accessibility through alternative treatment

methods such as teletherapy.

Works Cited

[1] Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual

Review of Psychology, 53(1), 371–399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233

[2] Fusco, N., Alexander, G. C., Tsai, K., & Parekh, N. (2022). Cost-sharing and adherence, clinical

outcomes, health care utilization, and costs: A systematic literature review. Journal of Managed

Care & Specialty Pharmacy, 29(1), 4–16. https://doi.org/10.18553/jmcp.2022.21270

[3] Lyon, S. M., Douglas, I. S., Ginde, A. A., & Escarce, J. J. (2014). Medicaid expansion under the

Affordable Care Act: Implications for insurance-related disparities in pulmonary, critical care,

and sleep. Annals of the American Thoracic Society, 11(4), 661–667.

https://doi.org/10.1513/annalsats.201402-072ps

[4] Swedo, E. A., Parks, S. E., Niolon, P. H., Gilchrist, J., & Holland, K. M. (2023). Prevalence of

adverse childhood experiences among U.S. adults—Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System,

2011–2020. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 72(26), 707–715.

https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7226a2

5 | EUREKA

Predicting Crude Oil

Prices with AI

By Suhurrith Adhikari

In recent years, the financial sector has

undergone significant transformation due to

artificial intelligence (AI). This shift has moved

decision-making from traditional methods,

such as fundamental analysis and statistical

time-series models, to data-driven AI

applications that enhance precision and

efficiency by rapidly processing vast datasets,

identifying hidden market patterns, and

swiftly adapting to changing conditions.

Machine learning (ML) models in financial

forecasting have emerged as critical tools,

optimizing predictions and increasing

profitability for corporations and analysts. AI

models, particularly reinforcement learning

and fuzzy models, have demonstrated

notable capability in predicting market trends

and managing financial risk [3].

However, despite this success, AI’s application

to crude oil markets remains underexplored

due to unique challenges posed by price

volatility, geopolitical influences, and supplydemand

shifts [4]. Crude oil significantly

impacts the global economy, dictating

financial stability in both oil-exporting and

importing nations.Traditional forecasting

models often struggle with these

unpredictable dynamics, highlighting the

need for adaptive, AI-driven solutions [2].

While artificial intelligence (AI) has shown

substantial success in financial forecasting,

particularly within stock markets, its specific

application to crude oil markets remains

underexplored [4]. Most current research

overlooks the unique complexities of crude oil

pricing, such as sensitivity to geopolitical

instability, shifting economic policies, and

sharp supply-demand fluctuations [2]. As a

result, there is a critical gap in understanding

how advanced AI techniques—like

reinforcement learning and neural networks,

which have proven effective in stock

prediction—can be leveraged to improve

accuracy and decision-making in the more

volatile crude oil market [5].

To address this gap, this study utilizes a metaanalysis

approach, systematically synthesizing

existing peer-reviewed research on AI-based

crude oil forecasting. Selected studies met

inclusion criteria based on forecasting

methodology, dataset size, and the use of

root mean square error (RMSE) to evaluate

model performance. RMSE is used as a

benchmark to quantify prediction accuracy,

with lower values indicating stronger model

performance. Key data such as forecasting

models, RMSE values, and contextual market

influences were extracted. The results were

analyzed statistically to uncover performance

trends across different AI models, offering

practical insights for analysts and traders

aiming to better navigate crude oil market

volatility [1].

Through this analysis, overall analysis

suggests that AI-driven forecasting models

tend to outperform traditional models in

terms of accuracy, particularly in volatile

market conditions. Studies reviewed show

that reinforcement learning and neural

networks such as LightGBM and Temporal

Convolutional Neural Networks have greater

adaptability and precision in predicting crude

oil price fluctuations due to their consistent

low RMSE values over the time spans of 5 to

90 days. For example, the reinforcement

learning LightGBM model had the lowest

RMSE values over the timespan with 3.213 for

5 days, 3.338 for 30 days, and 3.386 for 90

days, showing its high consistency and

accuracy over a long time period. On the

other hand, the neural network TCN model

had the next lowest average RMSE value with

3.55 for 5 days, 3.495 for 30 days, 3.559 for 60

days, and 3.552 for 90 days also highlighting

its consistency although a little less accurate

than LightGBM. However, inconsistencies in

the effectiveness of AI models across different

market conditions highlight the need for

further research to refine AI techniques for

improved accuracy and reliability.

Ultimately, given crude oil’s profound impact

on global economic stability, enhancing

forecasting precision significantly affects

economic planning and risk management

worldwide. By demonstrating AI’s potential to

navigate market volatility more effectively

than traditional methods, this research

provides analysts and policymakers with

advanced tools to anticipate and mitigate

price fluctuations driven by geopolitical and

economic events. Clearly articulating both AI's

strengths and current limitations ensures

these insights remain accessible and relevant,

enabling informed decisions that benefit

global economies and everyday consumers

alike.

Works Cited

[1] Jia, T., Liu, H., Li, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Design of digital and intelligent financial decision

support system based on artificial intelligence. Computational Intelligence & Neuroscience,

2022, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1962937

[2] Koroteev, D., & Tekic, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence in oil and gas upstream: Trends,

challenges, and scenarios for the future. Energy and AI, 3, 100041.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyai.2020.100041

[3] Majidi, N., Khazaei, H., & Musilek, P. (2024). Algorithmic trading using continuous action

space deep reinforcement learning. Expert Systems with Applications, 235, Article 121245.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121245

[4] Méndez-Suárez, M., de Jesús-Cuevas, C., & Rodríguez-Sotres, G. (2019). Artificial

intelligence modelling framework for financial automated advising in the copper market.

Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 5(4), 81.

https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc5040081

[5] Owusu Antwi, B., Zhang, Z., & Boateng, R. (2024). Transforming financial reporting with

AI: Enhancing accuracy and timeliness. International Journal of Advanced Economics, 6(6).

https://doi.org/10.51594/ijae.v6i6.1229

EUREKA | 6

DIABETES AND

THE SILENT DUO

H O W B L O O D S U G A R , C O R T I S O L , A N D

S L E E P Q U A L I T Y I N T E R C O N N E C T

By Jasmine Ebrahim

What if the key to controlling blood sugar lies

in a few simple lifestyle changes? Diabetics

focus heavily on their glucose levels as it has

jurisdiction over their day to day lives, but

many people are unaware that sleep quality

and cortisol levels affect their blood sugar

regardless of fitness or diet. Many diabetics

suffer due to this lack of knowledge about

their disease, and the goal is to explain lesserknown

factors that affect diabetics in order to

holistically improve their well being. Diabetic

patients, even when comfortable with their

endocrinologists, are unsure of the key

questions to ask, and so it is important for

further education to be made available. These

metabolic relationships apply to everyone and

are important to consider.

Blood sugar is sugar found in the body that

comes through the food a person eats, and

acts as an energy source for their cells. Insulin

is a hormone that helps the body maintain

blood sugar at balanced levels, typically

around 90-110 mg/dL, and allows cells to use

that energy. The two main diseases linked to

blood sugar levels staying high and requiring

external insulin are type 1 and type 2

diabetes. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the

body can no longer create insulin. Type 2

diabetes occurs when the body misuses

insulin and depletes it on too much sugar that

enters the body.

Diabetic patients who receive education on

managing their blood sugar are more likely to

reduce the frequency of high glucose levels.

Therefore, many young adults who are

informed on their type 2 diabetes can lead

themselves to remission, highlighting the

importance of diabetes education.

Maintaining stable blood sugar levels is

extremely important for diabetics to

acknowledge as consistently high blood sugar

can cause diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). It can

also lead to the early death of many young,

unaware persons who did not have the

correct education to take care of themselves.

Diabetics also must monitor their their A1C

levels; “The A1C test measures your average

blood sugar levels over the past 3 months,”

because when their A1C level is lower than 7%

it sets them in a healthy range that is close to

an ordinary person; 4%. Given the

overwhelming amount of lifestyle choices and

health metrics diabetics have to monitor, it is

vital that doctors inform them on why they

matter and how to best manage them.

One of the main causes of high blood glucose

is stress. The stress hormone cortisol is

released by the adrenal glands, and when it is

not taken care of it can be detrimental for

diabetics. Consistently high cortisol levels

leads to many complications, such as high

blood sugar, high blood pressure, and

inflammation. Cortisol must be kept in

balance, otherwise the immune system will

weaken and inflammation will spread through

the endocrine system. Stress can result from

many changes, but there are 2 underlying

factors that many people seemingly overlook;

blood sugar and sleep quality. Lack of sleep

has a variety of causes but must not be

dismissed. Stress and sleep are directly linked:

the less a person sleeps the more likely they

will be stressed. This relationship of high

cortisol and sleep quality affects even healthy

persons. To improve overall health, it is

imperative that everyone sleeps.

Blood sugar levels are closely linked to cortisol

and sleep, as stress and poor sleep can lead

to spikes in glucose. If a person has high

blood sugar consistently, they are also more

likely to be stressed, leading to an endless

cycle. Thus, it’s important to keep the body in

a balanced state.

To lower high cortisol levels it’s suggested that

a person have an anti-inflammatory diet

(avoid processed foods, added sugar, etc.),

exercise frequently, and drink hydrate often.

As for regulating one’s sleep quality, it varies

for everyone.

The main goal that should be sought from

quality sleep is that a person is waking up

refreshed and that they are sleeping

continuously throughout the night.

The fact that only 47% of Americans have

intermediate health literacy is a tell-tale sign

that this information isn’t as accessible as it

should be. This means there is insufficient

communication between doctors and

patients. Many of the sources that doctors

present to patients are systematically created

to ensure they have the ability to live a

healthy life, but may not consider all the

relevant metabolic relationships. By

introducing new platforms of advice and

guidance for diabetics – and other individuals

who are curious as well – there is an

opportunity for growth for diabetics to get

under the recommended 7% A1C level, and

towards an even healthier range.

Works Cited

[1] Andrews, R. C., Herlihy, O., Livingstone, D. E. W., Andrew, R., & Walker, B. R. (2002).

Abnormal cortisol metabolism and tissue sensitivity to cortisol in patients with glucose

intolerance. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 87(12), 5587–5593.

https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-020048

[2] Bassett, S. M., Lupis, S. B., Gianferante, D., Rohleder, N., & Wolf, J. M. (2015). Sleep

quality but not sleep quantity effects on cortisol responses to acute psychosocial stress.

Stress, 18(6), 638–644. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2015.1087503

[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, May 9). About diabetic ketoacidosis.

Diabetes. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/about/diabetic-ketoacidosis.html

[4] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Testing for diabetes and

prediabetes: A1C. Diabetes. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/diabetes-testing/prediabetesa1c-test.html

[5] Cutilli, C. C., & Bennett, I. M. (2009). Understanding the health literacy of America.

Orthopaedic Nursing, 28(1), 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nor.0000345852.22122.d6

[6] Feingold, C. L., & Smiley, A. (2022). Healthy sleep every day keeps the doctor away.

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10740.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710740

[7] Hackett, R. A., Dal, Z., & Steptoe, A. (2020). The relationship between sleep problems

and cortisol in people with type 2 diabetes. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 117, 104688.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104688

[8] Kamba, A., Daimon, M., Murakami, H., Nishimura, W., Kayama, T., Matsuda, M., Susa, S.,

& Kato, T. (2016). Association between higher serum cortisol levels and decreased insulin

secretion in a general population. PLOS ONE, 11(11), e0166077.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166077

[9] MedlinePlus. (2023, April 10). Blood glucose.

https://medlineplus.gov/bloodglucose.html

[10] National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2023). What is

diabetes? https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-isdiabetes

[11] Scott, A. J., Webb, T. L., Martyn-St James, M., Rowse, G., & Weich, S. (2021). Improving

sleep quality leads to better mental health: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled

trials. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 60, 101556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101556

[12] Soep, S., & Agussalim, A. (2020). The impact of health education about diabetes

mellitus on patient knowledge to control their blood sugar. Journal of Advanced Pharmacy

Education & Research, 10(3), 141–145. https://japer.in/article/the-impact-of-healtheducation-about-diabetes-mellitus-on-patient-knowledge-to-control-their-blood-sugar

[13] Team H. (2023, September 7). How to fix high cortisol levels. Heal Your Nervous

System. https://healyournervoussystem.com/how-to-fix-high-cortisol-levels/

[14] Thau, L., Gandhi, J., & Sharma, S. (2023, August 28). Physiology, cortisol. StatPearls.

National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538239/

[15] Tune, G. S. (1968). Sleep and wakefulness in normal human adults. BMJ, 2(5600), 269–

271. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.5600.269

[16] Victoria State Government. (2021, October 17). Diabetes and insulin. Better Health

Channel. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/diabetesand-insulin

7 | EUREKA

Public Engagement and

Road Maintenance

By: Muraari Civunigunta

Road maintenance is an integral integral to

public safety, economic stability, and

infrastructural longevity. Deteriorated roads

maximize accident risks, vehicle maintenance

costs, and economic inefficiencies. Previously,

road maintenance was reliant on government

management, but the integration of public

involvement with digital reporting has proven

to be a groundbreaking solution. Social

media, crowdsourcing, and online platforms

have also created avenues through which

citizens may report road conditions in realtime

to make the response more efficient.

There remain challenges like the

inconsistency of policy, accessibility deficits,

and the lack of organized systems in the

manner. This review examines the possible

contribution of public participation in road

maintenance, the economic and safety

consequences of premature repair, and

possible solutions for improved reporting of

infrastructure and response rates.

Public participation has revolutionized how

infrastructure is maintained, varying from

government run platforms like Ushahidi to

citizen-run projects like FixMyStreet. Online

platforms and crowdsourcing websites now

enable real-time monitoring of road damage,

with repair processes made more efficient.

Goodchild and Glennon (2010) point to the

application of Ushahidi, a crisis-mapping

platform used during the 2010 Haiti

earthquake. The platform aggregated

thousands of citizen reports via SMS and

social media, helping relief agencies to

prioritize critical repairs to infrastructure. The

effectiveness of Ushahidi shows the potential

for crowdsourced reporting in real time to be

applied to road maintenance, enabling

authorities to detect and repair infrastructure

issues before they become serious problems.

Similarly, Brabham (2013) studies FixMyStreet

and SeeClickFix, two well-known complaint

websites utilized to allow citizens to report

road damage problems with photo assistance

and tagging. Both websites are made

transparent by publicly displaying what was

reported and informing users about

government response. A study of FixMyStreet

in the UK found that 70% of problems

submitted were resolved within three months'

time, showing the strength of digital

participation in accelerating the work of

road repair, Brabham (2013).

Social media has also increased the level of

participation by citizens through the creation

of two-way communication between the local

government and citizens. Bertot, Jaeger, and

Hansen (2012) explained the ways in which

U.S. cities use Twitter and Facebook to update

citizens about road repairs and receive

feedback from them. Such two-way

communication fosters accountability, as

citizens can track the repair process and

governments can rectify problems efficiently.

However, the digital divide and

misinformation are issues since not

everybody trusts or has access to the Internet.

Though technology has improved reporting

on infrastructure, policy guidelines that

properly educate and incentivize users can

ensure longevity of programs. Burmingham &

Stankevich (2005) explain that frequent

government website and mobile app updates

increase accessibility and sustain citizen

engagement. Municipalities whose systems

have utilized systematic digital report tools

have made more frequent damage reports on

the roads and also improved public

confidence. Without incentives and policies in

place, the rate of participation reduces over

time.

A good case is Boston city, Heggie & Vickers

(1998), in which there was a reward scheme

for the reporting of road issues. The active

citizens who participated in the reporting of

potholes and damaged roads were rewarded

by means of small rewards such as

recognition from the community and public

service credits. The mechanism increased

participation and demonstrated that

recognition can serve as a significant driving

force to maintain participation in road

monitoring.

The financial and human cost of neglecting

maintenance on roads is immense. Poor

quality roads result in higher accident rates,

vehicle repair expenses, and inefficiencies in

business operations. A case study in Ghana

and South Africa (Heggie & Vickers, 1998)

identifies that roads in disarray incur higher

costs for vehicle operating expenses, since

drivers are forced to travel over hazardous

conditions leading to increased wear and tear.

The International Transport Forum (2018)

found a strong connection between road

disrepair and levels of accidents. Roads with

issues such as potholes, uneven lines, and

structural damage, have more vehicle

accidents, especially in low-visibility or heavy

traffic situations. Economic development and

road deaths were analyzed by Kopits and

Cropper (2005) for 88 countries and

discovered that middle-income nations that

invested in preventive road maintenance saw

up to a 10% reduction in accident rates. Their

work emphasizes the fact that preventive

maintenance not only saves lives but also

prevents long-term costs of emergency

repairs and accident-related expenses.

Similarly, Burmingham & Stankevich (2005)

indicates that in India, consistent investment

in infrastructure led to a 20% decrease in

transportation costs and a 15% reduction in

accident rates. This highlights the need to

expend resources on continued maintenance

rather than allowing roads to fall into crucial

conditions.

The research highlights that road

maintenance is not just a government activity

but also a collaborative effort of public

authorities and engaged citizens.

Crowdsourced reporting, social media

engagement, and official policy frameworks

have been successful in improving

infrastructure response times, but there are

challenges of accessibility, disinformation, and

policy coherence. To address the limitations

of this study, future research can employ elite

interviews with stakeholders in partner

countries to gain their perspectives on the

impacts of power imbalances and the roles of

national governments suggested in this

content analysis.

[1] Bertot, J. C., Jaeger, P. T., & Hansen, D. (2012). The impact of policies on government

social media usage: Issues, challenges, and recommendations. Government Information

Quarterly, 29(1), 30–40.

[2] Brabham, D. C. (2013). Using crowdsourcing in government. IBM Center for The Business

of Government.

[3] Burningham, S., & Stankevich, N. (2005). Why road maintenance is important and how to

get it done. World Bank.

[4] Goodchild, M. F., & Glennon, J. A. (2010). Crowdsourcing geographic information for

disaster response: A research frontier. International Journal of Digital Earth, 3(3), 231–241.

[5] Heggie, I. G., & Vickers, P. (1998). Commercial management and financing of roads (World

Bank Technical Paper No. 409). World Bank.

[6] International Transport Forum. (2018). The socio-economic benefits of improved road

maintenance. OECD Publishing.

[7] Kopits, E., & Cropper, M. (2005). Traffic fatalities and economic growth. Accident Analysis

& Prevention, 37(1), 169–178.

Works Cited

EUREKA | 8

Introduction

Throughout history, nature has fueled human

innovation, offering solutions to complex

challenges in architecture and technology.

Biomimicry, the practice of using nature as

inspiration for novel technologies, has

transformed multiple industries. For example,

the aviation industry studied bird movement

and appearance to create winglets on

airplanes, reducing drag and improving fuel

efficiency [3]. In medicine, gecko-inspired glue

revolutionized wound care by mimicking the

tiny hair-like structures on gecko feet,

enabling irritation-free, water-proof bandages

[5]. Despite these advancements, fields like

school bus design have remained static for

decades. Today’s school buses are inefficient,

outdated, and environmentally harmful,

making redesigns essential to meet modern

energy standards. Biomimicry could serve as

the solution.

Biomimicry is the imitation of natural forms

and processes to solve human challenges.

Billions of years of evolution have optimized

organisms for survival, making them valuable

models for innovation. For example, Leonardo

da Vinci’s Codex on the Flight of Birds in the

15th century inspired modern flight

mechanics through his study of birds' wings.

He observed that flexible wings and curved

shapes generate lift and minimize drag,

contributing to the development of modern

airfoils. Birds also conserve energy by gliding

for long distances without flapping, making

their flight patterns highly efficient. This same

strategy is used in modern aircrafts to reduce

fuel consumption and carbon emissions.

Similarly, other animals, like the boxfish, have

inspired vehicle designs due to their

streamlined shape that reduces drag and

improves fuel efficiency. Applying these

principles to school buses could lead to more

fuel-efficient vehicles, lowering environmental

impact through innovative design.

Background

School buses are an essential part of daily

transportation in the United States. According

to the EPA, they transport over 25 million

students each day. Annually, school buses

travel nearly 4 billion miles, not only for daily

commutes but also for competitions and field

trips, often requiring extensive highway travel.

The NYSBCA reports that school buses

consume approximately 2.3 billion gallons of

fuel per year, with operations reaching a cost

of $7.3 billion.

Despite transporting millions of children every

day, school bus designs haven’t changed for

nearly a century. Consequently, school buses

rely on outdated, inefficient designs that

contribute to significant energy consumption

and environmental harm. Their boxy, rigid

structure creates high aerodynamic resistance

due to abrupt shape transitions, causing

airflow to separate quickly and generate

turbulence. This separation leads to wake

formation, where swirling vortices create

differences in air pressure at the front and

rear of the bus. These pressure imbalances

generate drag requiring more energy use to

maintain speed. The sharper the shape

transitions, the more pronounced the wake,

increasing fuel consumption, operating costs,

and environmental impact.

To reduce emissions, electric school buses

have been introduced as of June 2024.

However, the range of electric buses is often

limited, and they may not be able to complete

long or multiple routes without needing a

recharge. In order to address these

limitations, school buses' energy usage must

be optimized to create a more efficient,

sustainable transportation system for

students regardless of electric or fuel

transportation.

Discussion

Surprisingly, the boxfish could serve as a

promising blueprint for redesigning school

buses. Despite its rigid, boxy appearance, the

boxfish has a low drag coefficient of around

0.10, far lower than the typical passenger car

(0.28) [4]. This efficiency arises from the

boxfish's smooth curvature and strategic

surface features, which guides airflow

smoothly over its surface, preventing early

separation that would otherwise create

turbulent vortices and increase drag. By

delaying flow separation, the boxfish

minimizes pressure differences between its

front and rear, reducing wake formation and

improving efficiency. Additionally, the boxfish

exhibits a unique passive stability mechanism.

Its body shape naturally corrects yaw

disturbances. When the fish encounters

crossflows or sudden directional shifts, its

curved form generates self-stabilizing forces

by creating asymmetric pressure distributions

along its body [1]. This passive correction

allows the fish to maintain a steady trajectory

with minimal energy expenditure. Applying

this principle to vehicles could improve

stability in turbulent conditions, such as

crosswinds or sharp turns, which would

enhance both control and efficiency. Studies

on the boxfish’s shape have demonstrated its

potential to improve vehicle efficiency.

Chowdhury et al. (2022) conducted

computational modeling of a lightweight truck

inspired by the boxfish's shape and found

that the biomimetic design reduces drag by

up to 30% compared to conventional truck

models [2]. Furthermore, Mercedes-Benz

engineers applied these principles in

designing the Bionic Car, achieving a

remarkably low drag coefficient of 0.19,

further proving that the boxfish’s

aerodynamic adaptations can be successfully

translated into vehicle design [6]. These

findings underscore how the boxfish’s

streamlined form can significantly lower drag

coefficients, offering a promising foundation

for redesigning school buses to be more

energy-efficient.

Conclusion

Future research should explore applying

boxfish-inspired aerodynamics to larger

vehicles like school buses, which face drag

and stability challenges. While current

biomimetic designs have demonstrated

success in reducing drag and improving

efficiency, real-world testing remains limited.

Factors such as manufacturing feasibility,

cost, and structural integrity must be

considered to translate these principles into

vehicle design. Despite these challenges,

integrating boxfish-inspired aerodynamics

into school buses could minimize air

resistance, enhance fuel efficiency, and

improve stability, ultimately making

transportation more sustainable and energyefficient.

Works Cited

[1] Boute, P., Wassenbergh, S., & Stamhuis, E. J. (2020). Modulating yaw with an unstable rigid

body and a course-stabilizing or steering caudal fin in the yellow boxfish (Ostracion cubicus).

Royal Society Open Science, 7(5), 200129. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.200129

[2] Chowdhury, H., Islam, R., Hussein, M., Zaid, M., Loganathan, B., & Alam, F. (2019). Design

of an energy efficient car by biomimicry of a boxfish. Energy Procedia, 160, 40–44.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.116

[3] Liu, D., Song, B., Yang, W., Xue, D., & Lang, X. (2022). Unsteady characteristic research on

aerodynamic interaction of slotted wingtip in flapping kinematics. Chinese Journal of

Aeronautics, 35(4), 82–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2021.07.010

[4] Kozlov, A., Chowdhury, H., Mustary, I., Loganathan, B., & Alam, F. (2015). Bio-inspired

design: Aerodynamics of boxfish. Procedia Engineering, 105, 323–328.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.05.007

[5] Sun, W., Neuzil, P., Kustandi, T. S., Oh, S., & Samper, V. D. (2005). The nature of the gecko

lizard adhesive force. Biophysical Journal, 89(2), L14–L17.

https://doi.org/10.1529/biophysj.105.065268

[6] Yang, C.-M., Hung, J.-Y., Wang, Y.-L., & Lien, Y.-H. (2019). Analysis of Mercedes-Benz

concept car using biomimicry design spiral and template analysis—An exploratory study.

Proceedings of the International Conference on Engineering and Technology Innovation, 49–

56.

9 | EUREKA

Hydrogels in Biomedical Innovation‌

BY: D E N I Z K A H R A M A N

Hydrogels, a critical component of biomedical

research due to their biocompatibility, consist

of three-dimensional networks that form a

chemical cross-link. The interactions of these

lattices can be utilized for biosensing, drug

delivery, and tissue engineering. This paper

will look into the mechanical properties and

relative effectiveness of sodium alginate and

polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in order to further

analyze the present literature. Hydrogels are

primarily composed of hydrophilic polymer

networks that can retain large amounts of

water, making them ideal for biomedical

applications where moisture retention and

biocompatibility are critical. Aerogels, on the

other hand, are highly porous, low-density

materials typically made by replacing the

liquid component of a gel with a gas. Due to

their different structures, hydrogels are

predominantly used for biological applications

such as wound healing, whereas aerogels find

use in filtration and insulation technologies.

Hydrogels are both high in water content and

can be individually customized to meet

different biological needs. This flexibility

makes them ideal candidates for a diverse

array of biomedical applications as they can

retain their durability post-saturation. Lee and

Mooney (2012) discuss the versatility of

sodium alginate as a hydrogel, looking into its

biocompatibility and the ease of modification

to create novel therapeutic practices in

regenerative medicine and drug delivery [1].

Sodium alginate has the capacity to act as an

encapsulant for drugs and cells. Additionally,

its controlled-release properties can be easily

manipulated, which is needed for targeted

therapies. Sannino et al. (2009) examine

cellulose-based hydrogels and how their

biodegradability, tissue engineering potential,

and wound healing applications are

overlooked characteristics of the gel [2]. While

these studies provide a baseline for

understanding how hydrogels function in a

healthcare setting, they lack a comparative

analysis of the materials and methods used.

Emerging research has expanded hydrogel

applications to cover fields such as

biosensing, topical medical uses, and injury

recovery. Almeida et al. (2024) analyze

aerogel-based biosensors in order to

ascertain their potential for real-time medical

diagnostics [3]. Biosensing involves the

detection of disease markers or metabolic

changes by the gel. By elucidating the

biosensing mechanism involved in detecting

biological signals, they provide a more

informed opinion on the rapid response times

and accuracy of aerogels in the detection of

disease. They also examine the use of

nanomaterials in the matrices of the aerogels

to enhance their stability and sensitivity,

which increases the suitability and portability

of aerogels. Batista et al. (2024) introduce

designs for a collagen-based aerogel that has

practical applications for topical biomedical

research [4]. The study combines mechanical

strength with high biocompatibility to show

the importance of matching material

ingredients to a designed purpose (i.e.,

structure for function). Biocompatibility is a

material’s ability to function in a biological

system without causing immune rejection or

harm. This is important as it ensures safe

integration for applications like drug delivery.

While collagen-based aerogels provide high

mechanical flexibility for wound healing,

hydrogel-based scaffolds offer better

biocompatibility through cell adhesion and

moisture retention, making them more

suitable for tissue engineering. By refining

what biomaterials are needed for their

properties, researchers can develop more

effective and durable biomedical solutions.

The integration of hydrogels in

immunomodulation, the process of

controlling and manipulating the immune

system, along with tissue engineering, is an

underdeveloped boon for regenerative

medicine. Dong et al. (2022) detail the

development in the reduction of implantassociated

infections associated with

immunomodulatory biomaterials [9]. This

demonstrated the hydrogel’s role in

enhancing patient outcomes by reducing

implant-associated infection, promoting tissue

integration, and efficiently improving overall

health. Similarly, De Chiara et al. (2024)

describe the evolution of tissue engineering

from bench research, research limited to a lab

setting, to being utilized in clinical applications

and trials [6]. They emphasize the ability of

the hydrogel to mimic the extracellular

matrices of the cell—a structure critical for

cell adhesion, tissue regeneration, and

structural integrity. These studies highlight

the relationship between material design and

the biological function of hydrogels in medical

applications. They routinely overlook,

however, how mechanical stressors impact

the gel, which is needed to better understand

the endurance and sustainability of the gel in

biological conditions.

Mechanical properties such as tensile

strength, shear resistance, and

compressibility are important properties in

the application of a hydrogel in a biomedical

setting. Zhong et al. (2024) provide a

comprehensive review of PVA-based

hydrogels and detail the relationship between

their method of construction and mechanical

properties [7]. They analyze the optimization

of PVA hydrogels for various applications such

as wound dressing and cartilage replacement.

Farahani et al. (2023) highlight silk-based

biopolymers for their impressive mechanical

properties, including high tensile strength,

elasticity, and durability, which make them

well-suited for load-bearing biomedical

applications like ligament repair [8]. The

integration of silk-based biomaterials

alongside PVA and other polymers presents

an opportunity for designing hybrid

biomaterials that take into account both

biocompatibility and mechanical endurance.

Hydrogels remain and continue to be an

important material in biomedical innovation

as they offer solutions for drug delivery, tissue

engineering, and bone repair. Outside of their

potential benefits, it is important to address

their limitations in biocompatibility,

mechanical properties, and overall

performance in a clinical setting. By crossexamining

current methodologies and

integrative testing protocols that can compare

hydrogels, literature reviews of this field can

work in tandem with ongoing research to fill

in the gaps in the literature and contribute to

the practical applications of hydrogels.

Works Cited

Figure (unlabeled source):

Figure 9.1. (n.d.). Schematic representation of different crosslinks in hydrogel networks.

ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-representation-of-differentcrosslinks-in-hydrogel-networks_fig1_299456933

[1] Lee, K. Y., & Mooney, D. J. (2012). Alginate: Properties and biomedical applications.

Progress in Polymer Science, 37(1), 106–126.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.06.003

[2] Sannino, A., Demitri, C., & Madaghiele, M. (2009). Biodegradable cellulose-based

hydrogels: Design and applications. Materials, 2(2), 353–373.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ma2020353

[3] Almeida, C., Merillas, B., & Dora, A. (2024). Trends on aerogel-based biosensors for

medical applications: An overview. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(2), 1309.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25021309

[4] Batista, M. P., Schroeter, B., Fernández, N., Gaspar, F. B., Rita, M., & Gurikov, P. (2024). A

novel collagen aerogel with features relevant for topical biomedical applications.

ChemPlusChem, 89(7), e202400122. https://doi.org/10.1002/cplu.202400122

[5] Dong, J., Wang, W., Zhou, W., Zhang, S., Li, M., Li, N., Pan, G., Zhang, X., Bai, J., & Zhu, C.

(2022). Immunomodulatory biomaterials for implant-associated infections: From

conventional to advanced therapeutic strategies. Biomaterials Research, 26(1), 52.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40824-022-00326-x

[6] De Chiara, F., Ferret-Miñana, A., Fernández-Costa, J. M., & Ramón-Azcón, J. (2024). The

tissue engineering revolution: From bench research to clinical reality. Biomedicines, 12(2),

453. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12020453

[7] Zhong, Y., Lin, Q., Yu, H., Shao, L., Cui, X., Pang, Q., Zhu, Y., & Hou, R. (2024). Construction

methods and biomedical applications of PVA-based hydrogels. Frontiers in Chemistry, 12,

1376799. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2024.1376799

[8] Farahani, A., Zarei-Hanzaki, A., Abedi, H. R., Daryoush, S., Delbari Ragheb, Z., Mianabadi,

F., Shahparvar, S., Akrami, M., Mostafavi, E., Khanbareh, H., & Rikhtegar Nezami, F. (2023).

Silk-based biopolymers promise extensive biomedical applications in tissue engineering,

drug delivery, and BioMEMS. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 31(11), 4559–4582.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-023-02906-x

EUREKA | 10

SIMPLE MOBILE AI RETINA

TRACKER (SMART)

By: Ramya Elangovan

INTRODUCTION

The eye serves as a window to health, offering

a unique opportunity to detect ocular and

systemic diseases through noninvasive

imaging. Richly supplied with blood vessels

and directly connected to the brain via the

optic nerve, the retina serves as an amazing

diagnostic tool for uncovering a plethora of

underlying health conditions (Image below).

Oculomics, an emerging interdisciplinary field,

leverages retinal biomarkers – such as

vascular changes, optic nerve morphology,

and nerve fiber layer thickness—to identify

and monitor numerous diseases, ranging

from diabetes and cardiovascular conditions

to neurodegenerative disorders like

Alzheimer’s disease. By using imaging

techniques such as optical coherence

tomography and fundus photography,

oculomics enables early detection and precise

prognosis of both ocular and systemic

diseases.

The integration of AI into oculomics has

further expanded its potential by automating

the recognition of subtle retinal biomarkers

that might be beyond the capabilities of

human clinicians and ophthalmologists. AI

models trained on large datasets of retinal

images have shown remarkable accuracy in

diagnosing conditions such as diabetic

retinopathy and predicting cardiovascular

risks. More significantly, AI-driven oculomics

holds the promise of diagnosing diseases

decades before clinical symptoms manifest.

This could revolutionize preventive medicine

by enabling early interventions that reduce

disease progression and healthcare costs.

This project explores how AI-driven

methodologies can enhance the diagnosis of

ocular conditions by automating biomarker

detection and improving predictive accuracy.

Specifically, it examines the development of a

powerful, accurate, and efficient AI-driven

diagnostic tool, SMART. By addressing

challenges such as generalizability across

diverse populations and computational

efficiency, this research aims to demonstrate

how AI-powered oculomics can transform

preventative medicine and precise diagnostics

on a global scale.

11 | EUREKA

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Our research focused on evaluating state-ofthe-art

deep learning architectures for

classifying ocular conditions like diabetic

retinopathy, cataract, and glaucoma and

further assessing the severity of these

diseases. Deep learning architectures widely

recognized in the field of AI for their ability to

extract features from biomedical images and

classify them with high accuracy, namely

EfficientNetB0, EfficientNetB1, ResNet18,

ResNet34, ResNet50, ResNet101, and

ResNet152 were employed in our study. Each

model was trained on labeled datasets using

identical preprocessing techniques and

hyperparameters to ensure consistency. The

performance metrics, such as accuracy, loss,

precision, recall, F1 and F2 scores were

evaluated in ocular diseases classification.

These models were trained on geographically

diverse datasets such as APTOS (Asia Pacific

Tele-Ophthalmology Society), IDRiD (Indian

Diabetic Retinopathy Image Dataset),

MESSIDOR (France), EyePACS (United States),

DDR (China), and DR (Paraguay). These

datasets contain labeled ocular images paired

with corresponding diagnoses and represent

a variety of imaging conditions and

population demographics.

For multi-disease classification, we curated a

balanced dataset of 4,217 images to ensure

equal representation of the four categories:

normal cases and three diseases – diabetic

retinopathy, cataracts, and glaucoma.

Balanced datasets are crucial for preventing

bias in training neural networks, ensuring that

all classes are equally represented during

model development. The goal was to evaluate

the models' ability to differentiate between

these conditions accurately. EfficientNetB0

was selected for further evaluation based on

its superior performance in preliminary

experiments. The model was integrated into a

SMART application for real-time analysis on

mobile devices. This integration highlights the

potential of combining cutting-edge AI

architectures with user-friendly mobile

platforms to improve healthcare accessibility

globally.

Eyes as the Windows to Health: Pioneering SMART

Technology for AI-Driven Oculomics in Efficient Diagnosis and

Precise Prognosis of Ocular and Systemic Diseases

OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS

Computational Efficiency and Performance

We evaluated deep learning architectures,

EfficientNet and ResNet, on the APTOS

diabetic retinopathy dataset to classify

disease progression stages. In our evaluation,

EfficientNetB0 achieved superior accuracy

(91% vs 88%) and computational efficiency,

completing 100 epochs in significantly less

time than ResNet152, as confirmed by

confusion matrices. AUROC scores

demonstrate excellent diagnostic

performance across all stages, making

EfficientNetB0 optimal for clinical application

development.

The illustration below displays funduscopic

images showing diabetic retinopathy progression

according to ICDR Classification. These fundus

images demonstrate increasing severity from

healthy retina (left) to advanced diabetic

retinopathy (right), characterized by

microaneurysms, hemorrhages, exudates, and

neovascularization.

Transportability and Universality

We established the transportability and

universality of our diabetic retinopathy

classification model across geographically

diverse datasets, including APTOS and IDRiD

(India), MESSIDOR (France), EyePACS (United

States), DDR (China), and DR (Paraguay). The

model consistently achieved training accuracy

>99% and validation accuracy >90%,

demonstrating robust generalization across

diverse populations and imaging conditions.

Multi-Disease classification

Using a balanced dataset of 4,217

fundoscopic images across four ocular

conditions (Normal, Diabetic Retinopathy,

Cataract, and Glaucoma), we performed multidisease

classification using EfficientNet and

ResNet deep learning architectures. The

confusion matrices reveal EfficientNetB0's

superior performance in multi-disease

classification. Both models achieved

exceptional AUROC scores exceeding 0.95

across all categories, with EfficientNetB0

showing marginally better results.

The fundus images display characteristic

differences between conditions: cloudy

appearance in cataracts, vascular changes in

diabetic retinopathy, optic nerve alterations in

glaucoma, and normal retinal structure.

EfficientNetB0's consistent high accuracy

supports its potential for clinical application in

ophthalmology.

Generalizability and Adaptability

Our AI model demonstrated robust

generalizability by performing effectively

across multiple imaging modalities (e.g.,

fundus, skin, radiological images), diverse

populations, and various diseases. It

maintained high diagnostic accuracy

(>91.28%) even on lower-resolution images

showcasing its adaptability for real-world

biomedical applications.

Universally Accessible SMART Technology

We developed a dynamic application

integrating our AI model, trained on ocular

datasets from diverse populations, achieving

consistent accuracy (>99%). The model was

deployed using an efficient architecture

(HTML/CSS for the front-end; Python, PyTorch,

Flask for the back-end) to ensure

computational efficiency and cross-platform

compatibility (web, iOS, Android). The

application processes images locally for

advanced analysis and diagnosis, ensuring

user privacy by neither storing nor

transmitting data. Its rapid processing speed

(<1 sec) and robust accuracy (>99%) make it

highly adaptable for real-world biomedical

applications.

INFERENCES & CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight a paradigm shift in

biomedical AI: EfficientNetB0 emerged as the

optimal model with superior accuracy (>99%)

and computational efficiency, outperforming

other ResNet models. The model

demonstrated exceptional transportability

across diverse populations and adaptability to

multi-disease classification tasks. Its robust

generalization across imaging modalities and

seamless integration into accessible SMART

technology underscores its potential to

revolutionize real-world biomedical

applications. This research sets a new

benchmark for efficient, universal AI-driven

diagnostics.

Image Credits

Funduscopic Images: Joint Shantou International Eye Centre of Shantou University. Icons &

Images: Flaticons, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Canva.

Works Cited

[1] Rein, D. B., Wittenborn, J. S., Zhang, X., Allaire, B. A., Song, M. S., & Klein, R. (2022). The

economic burden of vision loss and blindness in the United States. Ophthalmology, 129(4),

369–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.09.019

[2] Li, D., Chen, Y., Liang, J., He, M., & Congdon, N. (2024). Impact of vision impairment and

ocular morbidity and their treatment on quality of life in children: A systematic review.

Ophthalmology, 131(3), 188–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2023.10.014

[3] Nguyen, C. T. O., Acosta, M. L., Di Angelantonio, S., & Salt, T. E. (2021). Editorial: Seeing

beyond the eye: The brain connection. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15, 719717.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.719717

[4] Dai, L., Wu, L., Li, H., Wang, L., & Zhang, Z. (2024). A deep learning system for predicting

time to progression of diabetic retinopathy. Nature Medicine, 30(3), 584–592.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-02801-3

[5] Son, J., Shin, J. Y., Kim, H. D., Jung, K. H., Park, K. H., & Park, S. J. (2020). Development and

validation of deep learning models for screening multiple abnormal findings in retinal

fundus images. Ophthalmology, 127(1), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.07.017

EUREKA | 12

ATTENTION, PLEASE!

EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF NON-NATURALISTIC ENRICHMENT ON

PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMAL WELFARE

BY STEPHANIE CHEN

It is generally established that the main roles

of the modern zoo involve research,

education, conservation, and entertainment.

[1] Over time, zoos have turned to more

naturalistic exhibits to help promote animal

welfare. In practice, exhibit naturalism is an

attempt to portray an animal's natural habitat

in the wild through exhibit structure, ranging

from traditional enclosures with natural

features to large exhibits with high levels of

natural realism. [2] Concerns over animal well

being in physical and psychological fields

alongside the generally poor perceptions of

animal welfare found within the public, as

seen within a study done by Reade & Waran

[1] where only 13% of participants in a street

survey perceived zoo animals as “happy”, led

to this change. In addition, a study done by

Davey [3] proved that enriched, naturalistic

exhibits showed more visitor interest through

longer observed durations of visitor

engagement with the exhibit (stopping,

pointing, viewing), and implies that the

change, while important for animal welfare, is

also more appealing to visitors.

Modern zoos have also begun to use

behavioral enrichment in captivity, which are

defined as objects provided to animals to help

increase animal visibility in naturalistic

habitats, decrease stereotypical behaviors,

and encourage natural behavior. [4] The

provision of apparatus for enrichment are

temporary and do not necessarily alter the

impact of a naturalistic exhibit, but there is a

general assumption that non-naturalistic

(obvious items that do not blend in with the

naturalism of the exhibit) enrichment items

are unappealing to visitors. [2][4] McPhee

summarizes this through the example of a

red Boomer ball not impacting perceived

naturalism within a cage due to a cage’s

already non-naturalistic appearance, but

identifying the potential impact of the same

red ball within a highly naturalistic

environment. However, a previous study done

by Kutska [5] also shows that visitor

perceptions of animals are more positive

when seeing animals engaged, which is what

enrichment promotes. Additionally, Reade &

Waran [1] found that 98% of zoo visitors

believed enrichment should be provided, no

matter the impact on perceived naturalism of

an exhibit. Despite this, the same study also

found that a low minority of the public

(outside of zoo visitors) believed enrichment

was important to animal welfare, even when

rating zoo animals in captivity as “unhappy”.

13 | EUREKA

This indicates a lack of understanding of the

concept of behavioral enrichment in the

general public outside of the zoo visitor

demographic that has not been fully explored,

but shows that the effects of enrichment lead

to positive visitor perceptions of animals

within the zoo environment. While zoo visitor

surveys on such topics are commonplace,

there is a severe lack of research that focuses

on a younger demographic beyond the zoo

setting. Therefore, this research seeks to test

the general consensus in the field that nonnaturalistic

enrichment has little to no impact

on perceptions of animal welfare on an

untested age and education demographic.

The methodology utilized in this study was a

quasi-experimental survey modeled on Reade

& Waran’s 1996 study [1]. Two different

versions of the survey were distributed to

participants using a URL rotator to ensure

randomly distributed versions within a

convenience sample of GT high schoolers (the

study’s target demographic) to make two

groups of participants based on the version

they received. Within each survey,

participants were shown one of two images

based on the version, then asked to answer 5

5-point Likert-type questions based on their

perceptions of the animal in the image. The

images consisted of an animal in a naturalistic

habitat, and were identical besides the

unnaturally colored non-naturalistic

enrichment item that was present in one and

edited out of the other.

The categories participants were asked to

rate were chosen such that they would be

easier for participants to interpret, and it was

assumed that participants would be able to

form some perception in response to the

questions. Confidential demographic

information was collected solely to confirm

that participants were within the targeted

demographic of the study.

Questions

The animal in the image is well kept.

The animal in the image is happy.

The animal in the image is engaged.

The animal in the image is bored.

The exhibit in the image mimics a natural

environment for the animal.

Question 4 was reversed in order to ensure

participants were paying attention, and those

responses were adjusted to match the

positive-negative scales of the others.

106 participant responses were recorded,

with 57 responding to the survey with

enrichment present (NEE-Y) and 49

responding to the survey without (NEE-N).

Overall, participants felt that the animal in the

image with NEE present was better well kept,

more engaged, and less bored. This was

shown most in Q1: 80% of NEE-Y respondants

agreed that the animal was “well kept”, while

only 68.7% of NEE-N respondants felt this

way. Q2 was more closely matched, with a

majority of participants from both groups

choosing the “neutral” option (NEE-Y: 43.6%;

NEE-N: 58.3%). This implies that ‘happiness’

may be a feeling that would require more

research, as no definition for the term was

provided, therefore leading to varying feelings

from the participants. Additionally, many

participants in NEE-Y disagreed that the

exhibit mimicked a natural environment for

the animal, yet still agreed that the animal

was well kept, happy, and engaged. This

shows that while the non-naturalistic

enrichment affected the perceived naturalism

of the exhibit, it did improved the perceptions

of animal welfare in participants. (NEE-N had

a strong majority of participants agree that

the exhibit mimicked a natural environment)

In conclusion, the presence of non-naturalistic

enrichment does not negatively affect

perceptions of animal welfare in GT high

schoolers. However, 47% of survey

respondents stated they were unfamiliar with

the concept of behavioral enrichment,

implying the need for zoos to potentially focus

more on education in these topics. Improving

conservation education will allow for visitors

and the public alike to better understand the

importance of zoos, be more environmentally

mindful, and emphasize the importance of

conservation to a wider audience.

Works Cited

[1] Reade, L. S., & Waran, N. K. (1996). The modern zoo: How do people perceive zoo

animals? Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 47(1–2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-

1591(95)01014-9

[2] Davey, G. (2006). Relationships between exhibit naturalism, animal visibility and visitor

interest in a Chinese Zoo. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 96(1–2), 93–102.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2005.04.018

[3] Davey, G. (2005). The influence of environmental enrichment on Chinese visitor behavior.

Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 8(2), 131–140.

[4] McPhee, M. E.; Foster, J. S.; Sevenich, M.; Saunders, C. D. (1998). Public perceptions of

behavioral enrichment: Assumptions gone awry. Zoo Biology, 17(6): 525–534.

http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/38477

[5] Kutska, D. (2009). Variation in visitor perceptions of a polar bear enclosure based on the

presence of natural vs. un-natural enrichment items. Zoo Biology, 28(4), 292–306.

https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20226

2

REDUCING

ON SUNSCREEN OF IMPACT RISK

CANCER SKIN By: Syna Nijhawan

With an increasing number of individuals

diagnosed with melanoma globally, the topic

of reducing the risk of skin cancer has been

on the rise for decades. In order to address

this issue, it is vital to understand three main

causes that have been found: individuals with

excessive exposure to the sun, harmful

chemicals used in sunscreen, and genetically

prone to getting skin cancer.

The first cause of skin cancer is overexposure

to sun rays, specifically UVA and UVB rays.

When a large amount of ultraviolet light

penetrates into the body, skin cells and their

DNA become damaged [1]. This results in a

significant increase of cancerous cells that

spread throughout the layers of skin, resulting

in cancer. Most people believe that the rays of

the sun can only cause major damage during

summer or when the sun rays are strong;

however, this assumption is false. No matter

how intense the sunlight, the impact of its

rays are still dangerous, proving the

importance of wearing sunscreen on a daily

basis. That being said, research suggests the

use of protective clothing as a main way to

reduce the risk of developing melanoma. Meg

Watson works for the Center of Disease

Control and Prevention (CDC) mentions that

wearing layers of protection, such as long

sleeve shirts and pants protect from harsh

sun rays and can reduce a person’s risk for

sunburn and skin cancer. While deaths caused

by exposure to UVA and UVB are low, it has

been reported by the American Society of

Clinical Oncology (ASCO) that around ten

percent of all skin cancer deaths are caused

by melanoma [2].

The second cause of a rise in skin cancer is

the use of dangerous chemicals, such as

oxybenzone. According to Joseph DiNardo,

scientific researcher, and Craig A. Downs,

executive director at Haereticus

Environmental Laboratory, they concluded

that oxybenzone was present in sunscreens,

and have contributed to significant

environmental damage. When using products

with oxybenzone, the chemical remains

present in our bodies in high concentrations.

Research suggests that oxybenzone is found

in 97% of all urine samples from healthy

individuals [3].

Additionally, oxybenzone is capable of

damaging coral reef DNA to increase its

Vulnerability to climate change, urging states

like Florida to ban sunscreens containing this

chemical [3, 4].

The final cause that leads to an increased risk

of skin cancer is genetics and skin color.

Sometimes, skin cancer is not caused by

exposure to the rays from the sun, it could be

caused by genetics. For instance, most light

skinned individuals are more likely to develop

skin cancer as their skin cells contain less

melanin compared to a person with darker

skin tone [5]. As such, when using the same

amount of sunscreen, those with lighter skin

have a greater tendency to get sunburned.

While people with darker skin tones can still

get skin cancer, they have a lower likelihood

to get sunburned (major cause of skin cancer)

due to higher melanin in their bodies.

According to research from the ASCO, around

two-thirds of the American population don’t

use any protection for their skin [2]. Skin

cancer is not hereditary as people cannot

contract it from birth; however, the genes can

be contracted which can increase one’s risk.

The genetics and skin color of a person can

play a significant role in determining the level

of risk of skin cancer [6]. In recent years, the

increased research in this area on individuals

with less melanin has encouraged more

protection against the sun and exposure to

UV rays.

Inorganic sunscreens are known to absorb the

ultraviolet radiation (UVA and UVB). They

contain minerals such as titanium and zinc

oxide that prevents sunscreen from

penetrating into the body, protecting one’s

interior organs and bloodstream [7]. While

these positive benefits are helpful and

attractive to many customers, the only

downside of this sunscreen is that they leave

a strong white cast.

The other type of sunscreen available is

organic sunscreen which utilizes lightweight,

thinner material to protect one’s skin. It has

an easy-to-use formula that blends easily on

the skin. While this may seem like a better

option, it’s not as effective as an organic

sunscreen as the lightweight formula melts

faster than an organic sunscreen, making it an

ineffectual choice to use when outside for a

long period of time, enabling the chemical to

penetrate into a person’s body, contaminating

the bloodstream and internal organs.

It is clear that the sunscreen has countless

benefits in reducing skin cancer risks. Armed

with this information, I conducted a survey

analysis (data collection) and gathered data

from individuals who spend at least 3 hours

outdoors per week, their usage of various

sunscreen brands, and frequency of

application based on weather conditions.

My research shows that people do not wear

sunscreen on a daily basis and do not know

the difference between mineral & nonmineral

based sunscreens, which is evident in

the chart depicted below. Furthermore, in

today’s society there are so many sunscreens

that display various kinds of sun protection

factors (SPF) values that the American

Academy of Dermatology (AAD) recommends

people use sunscreen containing at least a

value of 30 on the SPF chart [8]. Through the

research and journal articles written by

scientific researchers, there is a recurring

theme that society needs to use effective

sunscreens in order to protect themselves

from all the harmful lasting effects that the

ultraviolet aging (UVA) and ultraviolet burning

(UVB) rays can cause.

This data represents that on average people do not know the

difference between mineral & non-mineral based sunscreens so

they are not choosing the correct kind when buying.

Works Cited

[1] Watson, M., Garnett, E., Guy, G. P., Holman, D. M., & Richardson, L. C. (2017). Ultraviolet

radiation exposure and its impact on skin cancer risk. Seminars in Oncology Nursing, 33(2),

134–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soncn.2016.05.005

[2] Nijsten, T. (2016). Sunscreen use in the prevention of melanoma: Common sense rules.

Journal of Clinical Oncology, 34(33), 3956–3958. https://doi.org/10.1200/jco.2016.69.5874

[3] DiNardo, J., & Downs, C. A. (2017). Dermatological and environmental toxicological

impact of the sunscreen ingredient oxybenzone/benzophenone-3. Journal of Cosmetic

Dermatology, 16(1), 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12449

[4] Suh, S., Choi, J. Y., Lee, S., & Lee, H. (2020). The banned sunscreen ingredients and their

impact on human health: A systematic review. International Journal of Dermatology, 59(11),

1345–1352. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.14824

[5] Davis, L. E., Shalin, S. C., & Tackett, A. J. (2019). Current state of melanoma diagnosis and

treatment. Cancer Biology & Therapy, 20(11), 1366–1379.

https://doi.org/10.1080/15384047.2019.1640032

[6] Zambrano-Román, M. (2022). Non-melanoma skin cancer: A genetic update and future

perspectives. Cancers, 14(10), 2371. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14102371

[7] Serpone, N. (2005). Inorganic and organic UV filters: Their role and efficacy in sunscreens

and suncare products. Inorganica Chimica Acta, 360(3), 794–802.

[8] Sander, M., Sander, M., Burbidge, T., Beecker, J. (2020). The efficacy and safety of

sunscreen use for the prevention of skin cancer. Canadian Medical Association Journal,

192(49), E1679–E1685. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.201085

EUREKA | 14

INTRACRANIAL DRUG-ELUTING STENTS:

Treating Intracranial Atherosclerotic Disease

Figure 1: Basic facts about intracranial

atherosclerotic disease (IAD), a currently

untreatable condition.

Strokes cost America $100 billion annually

[1] Recently, Cedars-Sinai has tested

intracranial stents, like the Stryker Wingspan,

for more severe strokes [2]. These stents,

although new, show promising capabilities in

treating brain plaque buildup (intracranial

atherosclerotic disease - ICAD), a leading stroke

cause [3]. This paper outlines and justifies a

novel intracranial stent that reduces local

clotting and inflammation.

Many disadvantages exist with current

stent options, especially when implemented in

the brain. In terms of metal stents, nitinol can

jeopardize brain vasculature because it

fractures easily and deforms quickly [4].

Stainless steel has low MRI compatibility, is

corrodible, and can inflame and narrow

surrounding vessels, which could lead to

cerebral edema. Radioactive stents have high

intralesional restenosis (arterial narrowing)

because the radioactive material is distributed

unevenly, leading to lower doses at the edges

[4]. Radiation is also always a concern due to

brain proximity.

A novel intracranial stent could be

biodegradable to address the limitations of

permanent stents. Biodegradable materials

like polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone

(PCL), and metal-alloys inflame tissue less [6].

PLA and PCL are viable, but magnesium alloy

stents possess superior biocompatibility traits,

mechanical properties, and absorption,

degrading in four months [7]. Biodegradable

iron alloy stents also non-toxic, possessing

high (for smaller brain vessels) with little

inflammation. Iron alloys do release

byproducts causing acidosis, dangerous within

the brain, necessitating longer degradation

times. Iron-palladium or iron-platinum alloys

degrade in 12 months, a theoretically perfect

duration.

15 | EUREKA

By: Weston Benner

Current drug-eluting stents (DES), which

reopen vessels through therapeutic coatings,

also are problematic because of high

rethrombosis (re-clotting) rates [8]. The antigrowth

drugs slow artery lining regrowth,

leaving the stent surface exposed for longer,

increasing clot formation. Furthermore, the

polymer coating can inflame the vascular

endothelium, increasing clotting. DESs also

incorporate into the artery wall slower than

bare-metal stents.

Still, a DES could be viable for this novel

intracranial stent because while imperfect, new

combinations of anti-clotting/anti-plaque drugs

would remedy the thrombosis risks of current

DESs and biodegradable stents. For example,

heparin or recombinant human

thrombomodulin could be used instead of

industry-standard sirolimus and paclitaxel,

which block cell proliferation and scar tissue

formation. Sirolimus and paclitaxel are antistenosis

drugs, but DESs already have low

stenosis rates, so more effective anti-clotting

drugs should be picked. Alternatively,

liposomes (phospholipid vesicles carrying

drugs) show promise to reduce plaque [9]. The

liposome is modified with antibodies to attach

to the LOX1 receptor, mediating vascular lipid

deposition. Immunoliposomes have reduced

carotid plaque lesions in rats and could

perform similarly in cerebral arteries.

Combining biodegradability with DES for

intracranial vessels has merit [10]. The vessel is

widened and freed of plaque/clotting while the

stent is viable. When the stent disappears after

months, the risk of repeat stroke decreases.

The unobstructed artery is more likely to

function in its “natural” state, and inflammation

risks of permanent stents are mitigated.

Figure 2: Novel intracranial stent that combines

biodegradability and drug-eluting properties to

combat IAD. Created with BioRender.

Anti-plaque drugs could be replaced for anticlotting

agents, or both drugs could even be

delivered with the Dual DES system [11].

Such a stent must have unique physical

properties, like comparable tensile strength

compared to permanent intracranial stents like

Stryker Wingspan. Since intracranial arteries

are narrower than systemic ones, they resist

blood flow more, resulting in higher shear

stress on vessel walls. The novel stent should

withstand values of ~100 mmHg to mimic

cerebral conditions [12]. Cerebral pressure

might cause premature biodegradable stent

failure, so iron alloy stents (with longer

degradation times), could be a solution.

The hybrid stent must maintain biological

conditions, too. In a phosphate-buffered saline

solution, degradation rate should occur in 3-9

months. (ICP-MS)-tracked ion levels from stent

degradation must be below cytotoxic

thresholds, for instance 1.7-2.2 mg/dL for Mg+

ions [13]. In a simulated body fluid, the stent

cannot change pH beyond 7.35-7.45 [14]. Thus,

the novel stent might require longer

degradation rates for a gradual pH shift.

Medicine in a dynamic flow system should be

released over > 4-6 weeks [15]. The most

important test is of thrombosis; testing with

platelet-rich plasma should show platelet

adhesion of <5% of surface area [16].

These tests would result in a stent reducing

the mortality of ICAD. The biodegradability of

magnesium/iron-platinum scaffolding would

reduce the inflammation and restenosis of

polymers or bare-metals. Anti-clotting/antiplaque

drugs released would prevent higher

rates of thrombosis. The stent would preserve

the existing brain vasculature while treating a

difficult condition and circumventing the

chronic inflammation of permanent stents.

Works Cited

[1] Strilciuc, S., Grad, D. A., Radu, C., Chira, D., Stan, A., Ungureanu, M., Gheorghe, A., &

Muresanu, F.-D. (2021). The economic burden of stroke: A systematic review of cost of

illness studies. Journal of Medicine and Life, 14(5), 606–619. doi.org/10.25122/jml-2021-

0361

[2] Cedars-Sinai. (2024). ABC 7: Brain stents for stroke patients offer new hope. Cedars-

Sinai. Retrieved April 5, 2025, from www.cedars-sinai.org/newsroom/abc-7-brain-stentsfor-stroke-patients-offer-new-hope/

[3] Editorial. (2021). Intracranial stenting; the current landscape. Neurointervention, 16(1),

2–5. doi.org/10.5469/neuroint.2021.00087

[4] He, D., Liu, W., & Zhang, T. (2014). The development of carotid stent material.

Interventional Neurology, 3(2), 67–77. doi.org/10.1159/000369480

[6] Jang, W. J., Park, I. H., Oh, J. H., et al. (2024). Efficacy and safety of durable versus

biodegradable polymer drug-eluting stents in patients with acute myocardial infarction

complicated by cardiogenic shock. Scientific Reports, 14, 6301. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-

56925-2.

[7] Bavishi, C., Chugh, Y., Kimura, T., Natsuaki, M., Kaiser, C., Gordon, P., Aronow, H. D., &

Abbott, J. D. (2019). Biodegradable polymer drug-eluting stent vs. contemporary durable

polymer drug-eluting stents in patients with diabetes: A meta-analysis of randomized

controlled trials. European Heart Journal – Quality of Care and Clinical Outcomes, 5(3),

225–232. doi.org/10.1093/ehjqcco/qcz031

[8] Varenhorst, C., Lindholm, M., Sarno, G., et al. (2018). Stent thrombosis rates the first

year and beyond with new- and old-generation drug-eluting stents compared to bare metal

stents. Clinical Research in Cardiology, 107(9), 816–823. doi.org/10.1007/s00392-018-

1252-0

[9] Pang, A. S.-R., Dinesh, T., Pang, N. Y.-L., Dinesh, V., Pang, K. Y.-L., Yong, C. L., Lee, S. J., Yip,

G. W., Bay, B. H., & Srinivasan, D. K. (2024). Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems for the

targeted treatment of atherosclerosis. Molecules, 29(12), 2873.

doi.org/10.3390/molecules29122873

[10] D’Souza, S., Ferrante, G., Tyczynski, P., & Di Mario, C. (2008). Biodegradable stents – A

new era? European Cardiology Review, 4(2), 82–84. doi.org/10.15420/ecr.2008.4.2.82

[11] Senst, B., Goyal, A., Basit, H., & Borger, J. (2023). Drug eluting stent compounds. In

StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved April 5, 2025, from

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537349/

[12] Mount, C. A., & Das, J. M. (2023). Cerebral perfusion pressure. In StatPearls. StatPearls

Publishing. Retrieved April 5, 2025, from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537271/

[13] University of Rochester Medical Center. (2023). Magnesium (Blood). University of

Rochester Medical Center. Retrieved April 5, 2025, from www.urmc.rochester.edu/

encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=167&contentid=magnesium_blood

[14] Zha, X.-M., Xiong, Z.-G., & Simon, R. P. (2022). pH and proton-sensitive receptors in brain

ischemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 42(8), 1349–1363.

doi.org/10.1177/0271678X221089074

[15] Dehmer, G. J., & Smith, K. J. (2009). Drug-eluting coronary artery stents. American

Family Physician, 80(11), 1245–1251.

[16] Lenz-Habijan, T., Bhogal, P., Peters, M., Bufe, A., Martinez Moreno, R., Bannewitz, C.,

Monstadt, H., & Henkes, H. (2018). Hydrophilic stent coating inhibits platelet adhesion on

stent surfaces: Initial results in vitro. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology, 41(11),

1779–1785. doi.org/10.1007/s00270-018-2036-7

Scarless Recovery :

T H E R O L E O F M S C S I N B U R N R E C O V E R Y A N D S C A R R E D U C T I O N

B Y : L A I L A H A K K I

Every year, over 600,000 burn victims in the

United States endure not only the physical

pain of their injuries but also the emotional

toll of lasting scars [1]. These injuries can

consist of first, second and even third degree

burns which can destroy as much as the

entire top layer of the skin, the epidermis, as

well as the dermis layer reaching internal

tissues and organs. In such cases, it is likely

for doctors to perform skin grafting as a

surgical treatment for the burn site. While this

acts as an effective method for healing, it is

common for burn scars to result from this

procedure [2]. Research on the benefits of

mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) use in wound

recovery has been steadily increasing

throughout the past years, highlighting their

ability to aid in tissue regeneration. How can

mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy aid

with the reduction of scars on burn victims?

Allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs),

which can be extracted from various types of

tissues, serve various functions and offer

many benefits in improving wound healing,

alleviating burn-induced inflammation, and

preventing the formation of abnormal scars

throughout the burn recovery process [4].

MSCs also have a multidirectional

differentiation potential, meaning they have

the ability to become a wide range of

specialized cells each with many different

forms and functions. In vitro (in the lab),

growth factors or other chemicals are used to

help MSCs differentiate into these different

types of tissues, including bone, cartilage, and

adipose tissue [4]. On the other hand, in vivo

(living organisms), “stimulus signals, such as

tissue damage, including trauma, fractures,

inflammation…” can prompt MSCs to

differentiate into the cells required for healing

[4].

Bone Marrow

Adipose

Tissue

MSCs aid in speeding up the healing process

and preventing abnormal scar formation

through regulating the three main phases of

burn wound healing: inflammation,

proliferation, and maturation.

During the inflammation phase, a delayed

immune response can prolong healing and

lead to scar tissue formation. To counteract

this, MSCs perform immunomodulation...

Skin

Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC)

Umbilical Cord

& Placenta

...with both innate and adaptive responses.

Specifically, MSCs affect the innate immune

response by promoting the differentiation of

the macrophage phenotype from proinflammatory

M1 to an anti-inflammatory M2

phenotype, which helps with skin tissue

regeneration [4]. MSCs also influence adaptive

immune responses, as demonstrated when

these stem-cells secrete exosomes which

reduce the growth and expansion of activated

helper T (Th) cells, further “leading to

decreased production of interferon γ and

interleukin (IL)-17,” two cytokines which are

involved in promoting immune-mediated

inflammation [4].

As new blood vessels begin to form and the

wound begins to close during the proliferation

phase, MSCs hold important roles as they

promote angiogenesis and re-epithelialization.

For instance, one group notes that MSC

exosomes can shuttle specific miRNAs to

endothelial cells to promote angiogenesis, the

growth of blood vessels [4]. In addition, MSC

exosomes regulate growth factor and gene

expression, which influences fibroblast

proliferation and migration [4]. This is crucial

for reducing scars on burn victims because

fibroblasts are the collagen depositors of skin

healing. With the help of MSC mediation,

fibroblast activity can be regulated ensuring

that just the right amount of collagen is

produced, which can avoid the intensity of

fibrosis. Also, research conducted has

illustrated that adipose stem cell exosomes,

which are derived from MSCs, have been

shown to “promot[e] the proliferation and

migration of HaCaT skin keratinocyte cells,” in

both vitro and vivo [4]. This is critical because

during re-epithelialization, keratinocytes need

to move from the wound's edges inwards to

form a new layer of epidermis, which is

necessary for effective wound closure.

The final stage of wound healing is maturation

where fibroblasts turn into myofibroblasts

under the influence of transforming growth

factor-β1 (TGF-β1) allowing the wound to

mature [4]. They also produce high amounts

of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins which

are required for skin structure development.

Additionally, “conditioned media from MSCs,”

referring to the culture medium that has been

used to grow MSCs, can influence fibroblasts

to increase the production of collagen, elastin,

and fibronectin: components of ECM that are

important for tissue structure and repair [4].

The earliest study which explored the use of

mesenchymal stem-cells for burn recovery

was conducted by Shumakov et al. on rats.

V. I. Shumakov, a Federal Research Center of

Transplantology and Artificial Organ in

Moscow, Russia, applied mesenchymal bone

marrow derived stem cells (BMSC) on rat’s

burn wounds, in order to determine the

effectiveness of MSCs compared to

embryonic fibroblasts on stimulating tissue

regeneration. By comparing the results of

each of these tests with controls that

consisted of burn wounds with no

transplanted cells it was concluded that MSCs

promote more effective wound healing with

reduced inflammation [5]. Specifically it was

illustrated that new blood vessels and

granulation tissue were quicker to develop,

and fewer immune cells entered the wound

[3].

However, despite their benefits, there are

some limitations to MSC therapy that must

be addressed. To begin, MSC-based therapy

is extremely costly as the stem cells must be

isolated and cultured prior to transplantation

[6]. Also, with “only 12 related studies” in

human clinical research that consist of many

variabilities and irregularities concerning cell

dosage and source, there has not been

enough proof of efficacy for MSCs’use in the

clinical space [4]. It is also noted from recent

studies that implanted cells do not survive

long-term, necessitating additional tests to

evaluate the “survival rates of transplanted

enzymes” [4].

Laboratories across the world are conducting

extensive research on mesenchymal stemcell

based treatments. Although the majority

of these studies have been performed on

animal models, the number of investigations

exploring human applications is also rising

[3]. Burn scars pose a significant challenge in

recovery, often resulting in both physical and

emotional challenges. However, with

increased advancements in MSC-based

therapy studies, burn victims have the ability

to effectively reduce inflammation, scarring,

and improve the healing process in their

injuries as these treatments grow in

prevalence.

Works Cited

[1] Anastasiya Ivanko, Garbuzov, A. E., Schoen, J. E., Kearns, R., Phillips, B.,

Murata, E., Danos, D., Phelan, H. A., & Carter, J. E. (2024). The Burden

of Burns: An Analysis of Public Health Measures. Journal of Burn Care &

Research, 45(5), 1095–1097. https://doi.org/10.1093/jbcr/irae053

[2] Browning, J. A., & Cindass, R. (2020). Burn Debridement, Grafting, and

Reconstruction. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551717/

[3] Ghieh, F., Jurjus, R., Ibrahim, A., Geagea, A. G., Daouk, H., El Baba, B.,

Chams, S., Matar, M., Zein, W., & Jurjus, A. (2015). The Use of Stem Cells in

Burn Wound Healing: A Review. BioMed Research International, 2015.

https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/684084

[4] Shumakov, V. I., Onishchenko, N. A., Rasulov, M. F., Krasheninnikov, M.

E., & Zaidenov, V. A. (2003). Mesenchymal Bone Marrow Stem Cells More

Effectively Stimulate Regeneration of Deep Burn Wounds than Embryonic

Fibroblasts. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 136(2), 192–

195. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026387411627

[5] Wang, M., Xu, X., Lei, X., Tan, J., & Xie, H. (2021). Mesenchymal stem cellbased

therapy for burn wound healing. Burns & Trauma, 9.

https://doi.org/10.1093/burnst/tkab002

EUREKA | 16

Chemosynthesis Fact Sheet by NOAA Ocean Explorer.

BEYOND of Hadal Life

SUNLIGHT:

The Mariana Trench, Earth’s deepest oceanic

crevice, harbours extreme environments where

resilient life forms thrive. The environment, with

acidic pH levels, toxic waters, and complete

darkness, requires its inhabitants to adapt to its

harsh conditions. By looking closely at these

species’ metabolic processes, it is possible to piece

together how life forms could exist where many

others could not. This involves understanding

ecological relationships between microbial

(chemosynthetic bacteria) and macrobiotic (hadal

invertebrates) organisms that allow them to coexist.

These findings allow us to better understand

how our deep-sea ecosystems function, which

could prove beneficial if these tactics are replicated

in our current technological sphere.

With a depth comparable to that of one-hundredand-eighteen

Statues of Liberty, the Mariana Trench

is known by many for being the Earth’s deepest

oceanic crevice. Located near the Philippines, the

Mariana Trench was formed as a result of the

subduction process where the Philippine Sea Plate

forces the Pacific Plate downward into the Earth's

mantle, creating an extensively-deep rift unlike

many other aquatic areas on our planet.

Consequently, this deep environment results in a

unique ecosystem distinct from its more-shallow

neighboring bodies of water. Even though the

Mariana Trench has near- uninhabitable conditions,

many resilient life forms are still able to exist and

coincide with each other. A variety of organisms are

found within this darkness: frilled sharks, dumbo

octopus, anglerfish; but also smaller organisms, like

bacteria, protists, and amphipods [6].

For the smaller organisms roaming the Earth, they

have evolved over billions of years to adapt to their

environments, spanning the peaks of the Himalayas

all the way to the bottoms of trenches like the

Mariana. In the Mariana Trench and other similar

deep-sea trenches, archaea and bacteria are

observed to engage in chemosynthesis.

Chemosynthesis is the process that allows for the

conversion of inorganic carbon- containing

compounds, like hydrogen sulfide, into organic

compounds such as sugars and amino acids for the

microbes to consume as an energy source [1]. This

energy can then be used for carbon fixation into

organic compounds, synthesis of essential

biomolecules, reproduction, and other organic

processes. The microbes are able to perform

chemosynthesis because, unlike photosynthesis

where the light energy excites electrons in

chlorophyll molecules, chemosynthesis relies on the

oxidation of inorganic compounds via the transfer

of electrons from inorganic molecules/ferrous ions

through the microbe’s electron transport chain [5].

This process allows for ATP (energy powering the

microbe) synthesis, but also

17 | EUREKA

Source: https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/materials/chemosynthesis-fact-sheet.pdf

Exploring the Foundations

leaves behind physical byproducts of the inorganic

molecules (i.e. sulfate ions made from hydrogen sulfide

and carbon dioxide made from methane) [1].

Although humans have done specialized research on

how microbes have evolved to adapt to extreme

environmental conditions, the importance of the

microbe’s evolutionary talent for the biotic factors of its

home ecosystem is not well understood. More

specifically, the centralizing question is how did these

little microbial interactions contribute to the stability

and resilience of their deep-sea ecosystems? Through

this literature review, we are able to find that microbial

interactions significantly contribute to the stability and

resilience of deep-sea ecosystems. Our work complies

with the current research progress and provides a vital

understanding of the ecological roles and impacts of

these microorganisms, also elucidating how evolution

has shaped the dynamics of these deep-sea

environments.

Hydrothermal chimneys of the Rainbow site (2008) by Ifremer. Source: https://image.ifremer.fr/data/00568/67987/ Vers géants (Riftia

Pachyptila) et crabes hydrothermaux (Bythograea) (2010) by Ifremer. Source: https://image.ifremer.fr/data/00569/68149/ Modioles (2005)

by Ifremer. Source: https://image.ifremer.fr/data/00569/68097/ Voyage to Inner Space – Exploring the Seas With NOAA Collect (2011) by

NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program, Galapagos Rift Expedition 2011. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/noaaphotolib/9664003207/

Galathée yéti, un habitant des profondeurs abyssales (2005) by Fifis Alexis, Ifremer. Source: https://image.ifremer.fr/data/00569/68091/

Deep-sea life photography by an unidentified contributor. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/23925401@N06/ New genera and

species of small to minute lucinid bivalves and their relationships (2019) by Taylor JD, Glover EA. Published in ZooKeys, Issue 899. DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.899.47070

Although chemosynthesis is less efficient than

photosynthesis and cellular respiration [5], it is vital for

deep-sea environments where resources are scarce and

the environmental abiotic factors which are harsher than

more mild terrestrial environments—framing

chemosynthetic bacteria as the cornerstone of many

hadal ecosystems by supporting the unique trophic

networks and ecosystem found there[8]. The synthesis

system, while less efficient than photosynthesis, also

allows for better preservation of organic carbon storage

pools, and plays a key role in the global carbon cycle[3].

After the bacteria oxidizes inorganic molecules to obtain

energy, this energy—in the form of organic matter— is

used for many different functions. On a smaller scale,

the bacteria consumes organic matter to maintain

energy for growth and reproduction, building cell

structures and replicating DNA, maintaining and

repairing cellular functions, and fueling various other

metabolic activities, such as uptaking nutrients,

excretion, and motility [7]. On a larger scale beyond selfsustainability,

the microbe also helps benefit the rest of

its ecosystem as a primary producer; producing

nutrients for the rest of the food web, both directly to

the primary consumer and indirectly to the

secondary/tertiary consumers and the decomposers [7].

After elucidating the metabolism of these species, we

sought to understand the symbiotic relationships in the

hot vents and cold seeps found in most deep sea

trenches—most notably in the Mariana Trench [4]. A

specific example of mutualism, which is a type of

symbiosis where two different species interact and

both parties benefit, within the trenches is between

the Giant tubeworm, Riftia pachyptila, and the

bacteria Beggiatoa. The Giant tubeworm hosts

Beggiatoa inside of the worm’s trophosome: a

spongy, lobulated structure filled densely with

numerous small vesicles and Beggiatoa [2]. The

Giant tubeworm funnels hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)

from the deep-sea mineral-rich waters, and

Beggiatoa then performs chemosynthesis and

metabolizes organic compounds that nourishes the

tubeworm and the bacteria [9]. These two

organisms’ relationship shows an obligate mutual

relationship has formed between the two

organisms as they have both evolved to be highly

dependent on each other to survive [8].

Of Terms in Biology: Trophosome (2019) by ASM Blog, Schaechter's Microbe.

Source: https://schaechter.asmblog.org/schaechter/2019/07/of-terms-in-biologytrophosome.html

BY NINA NGUYEN,

MENTOR WILLIAM WU

The main objective of this literature review was to

evaluate and answer the question “how do microbial

interactions contribute to the stability and resilience

of deep-sea environments?” After an extensive

literature review, we discovered the patterned

ecological importance of chemosynthetic bacteria in

deep-sea ecosystems, particularly within the

Mariana Trench, as primary producers that support

their own food web and the global carbon cycle [10].

Through these results, we have gained a better

understanding of hadal symbiosis through insight on

the remarkable evolutionary adaptability of deepsea

bacteria—a small step that opens bigger

possibilities that allow us to learn and develop

strategies in environmental conservation, in regards

to the health of the ocean and carbon cycle.

WORKS CITED

[1] Biology Dictionary. (2017, April 28). Chemosynthesis.

https://biologydictionary.net/chemosynthesis/

[2] Boetius, A. (2005). Microfauna–Macrofauna Interaction in the Seafloor:

Lessons from the Tubeworm. PLoS Biology, 3(3), e102.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030102

[3] Bradley, J. A., et al. (2022). Sources and fluxes of organic carbon and

energy to microorganisms in global marine sediments. Frontiers in

Microbiology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.910694

[4] Jannasch, H. W. (1985). Review Lecture - The chemosynthetic support of

life and the microbial diversity at deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences,

225(1240), 277–297. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1985.0062

[5] K Bay, S., et al. (2021, May 25). Chemosynthetic and photosynthetic

bacteria contribute differentially to primary production across a steep

desert aridity gradient. The ISME Journal.

https://academic.oup.com/ismej/article/15/11/3339/7474373

[6] Li, Y., et al. (2023). Depth shapes microbiome assembly and network

stability in the Mariana Trench. Microbiology Spectrum, 12(1).

https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02110-23

[7] Nawaz, M. Z., et al. (2022). Understanding Interaction Patterns within

Deep- Sea Microbial Communities and Their Potential Applications. Marine

Drugs, 20(2), 108. https://doi.org/10.3390/md20020108

[8] Roeselers, G., & Newton, I. L. G. (2012). On the evolutionary ecology of

symbioses between chemosynthetic bacteria and bivalves. Applied

Microbiology and Biotechnology, 94(1), 1–10.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-011-3819-9

[9] Terning, J. (2022, March 14). How giant tube worms survive at

hydrothermal vents [Video]. UC Davis.

https://video.ucdavis.edu/media/How+Giant+Tube+Worms+Survive+at+Hy

droth ermal+Vents/1_cq94s1zv/280107492

[10] Yang, T., et al. (2024). Community structure and biodiversity of active

microbes in the Deep South China Sea. Microorganisms, 12(11), 2325.

https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12112325

The Link Between Social Media

and Anxiety Among Adolescents

By: McKenzie Le

As social media becomes embedded into the

daily lives of teens and, more recently, young

children, its impact on mental health has

grown increasingly concerning. In fact, the

American Psychological Association (APA)

defines anxiety as a prolonged feeling of

overwhelming emotional strain on the mind

that can affect the body [1]. Technology has

become more prevalent in society, as seen

through the high consumption of mobile

media, including cellular phones, tablets, and

laptops. With just a click of a button, users can

be exposed to the vast world of social media,

with platforms like YouTube, Instagram,

TikTok, Twitter, and Facebook. This essay will

discuss social media's rapid rise and

prominence in the daily lives of teens and the

alarming impact it has on users' anxiety.

Social media and its perception today

established itself as an aspect of daily life in

the 2000s, among sites including MySpace,

Hi5, and Friendster dominating the internet.

MySpace reached one million active users in

2004 [9]. Every day, 90% of young adults use

social media, with most using more than one

network [15]. The usage of social media is

linked to various mental illnesses, including

anxiety, that have been demonstrated among

adolescents, with increasing rates and

"addiction-like" tendencies [11]. The National

Institute of Health (NIH) states that factors

that are directly presented through the use of

social media include, but are not limited to,

cyberbullying, the fear of missing out, peer

pressure, or self-comparison [17]. Through

social media, viewers can tap into the lives of

their peers or content creators who may have

unrealistic or filtered content, giving viewers a

skewed standard for quality of life, thus

associating with the development of anxiety

and the need to meet impractical standards or

seek validation.

Considering anxiety is such a dynamic and

discreet illness, it is not surprising that many

individuals navigate life's challenges and

expectations without realizing that they have

anxiety. The rate of anxiety among teenagers

has significantly increased since the 1950s

[12]. Before then, mental disorders were

considered a silent epidemic, being labeled

and dismissed as just "nerves" [12]. Currently,

it is estimated that up to 31.9% or every one in

three teens suffer from at least one form of

anxiety [8]. Anxiety can take on

many forms and can be exacerbated by the

overuse of social media. Symptoms include

but are not limited to headaches, irritability,

sweating, trembling, and heart palpitations

[8]. The indications of anxiety are often

ignored, as 22-38% of people internalize their

symptoms [4]. Forms such as generalized

anxiety disorders (GAD), social anxiety

disorders (SAD), and other related illnesses

are seen in many different constructs, with

some people suppressing their emotions and

viewing these thoughts as parasitic [3]. Social

media can incite or further develop these

behaviors due to the likely derivation of stress

and poor self-esteem from undesirable

opinions shared by others [15]. The

comparative environment and high aesthetic

standards of social media deeply impact

anxiety's appearance, making it more

prominent among users [16]. Social media is

associated with anxiety mechanisms like

comparison or the Fear of Missing Out

(FOMO) when users envy others participating

in an activity, whether it is someone they

know or an influencer [13]. As of 2013, 56% of

users on social media networks, 59% of which

are 15-19 years old, have experienced FOMO

during usage [14].

Anxiety is measurable, using devices including

tools and tests to discern the intensity of the

illness based on symptoms. Notably, the

Social Media Integration Scale (SMUIS), which

assesses and determines various mental

illnesses related to social media use called

Social Media Disorders (SMD) rooted in the

consumption of social media [6]. The 10-item

assessment was developed by Michael A.

Jenkins-Guarnieri, Stephen L. Wright, and

Brian D. Johnson in 2013 to assess social

networking sites (SNS), focusing on the users

of Facebook and how the platform's use

correlates to social behaviors [5]. Although the

test was developed and centered around the

consumers of Facebook, the scale was

designed to adapt to different platforms [2].

The SMUIS is reliable and valid, accurately

measuring the harmful effects of social media

use among adolescents and adults, having

consistency and external correlations that

prove the validity of the examination [18].

However, the scale fails to apprehend the

more complex subtleties regarding social

media usage, like addictions, as the test

emphasizes the integration of social media

into the daily lives of its users [7].

Social media will continue to be a factor in

most people's daily lives as approximately

410,000 new users are made daily, with 5.17

billion users worldwide [10]. As society

today is more dependent on technology,

research has shown that anxiety has

paralleled technology's growth, social media

usage, and adolescent interaction. Teens

are facing challenges induced by the

overuse of social media, causing anxiety in

many forms, as seen with GAD and SADs.

Innovative testing for anxiety must adapt to

the significance of social media on

adolescents' diurnal reciprocities. More

testing is needed to keep up with the everchanging

sources of anxiety, and social

media is just a start.

Works Cited

[1] American Psychological Association (2025), Anxiety.

https://www.apa.org/topics/anxiety

[2] Ardelia (2024), Adaptation and validation of Social Media

Use Integration Scale. https://doi.org/10.14710/jp.23.1.61-

70

[3] Garcia & O’Neil (2021), Anxiety in adolescents.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S155

5415520304670

[4] Goldsmith & Lemery (2000), Linking temperamental

fearfulness and anxiety symptoms.


6322300010039

[5] Jenkins-Guarnieri, Wright, & Johnson (2013),

Development and validation of a social media use

integration scale. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030277

[6] Jenkins-Guarnieri, Wright, & Johnson (2013), Social

Media Use Integration Scale.

https://doi.org/10.1037/t28032-000

[7] Maree (2017), The growing importance of social media

in business marketing.

https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/63873

[8] National Institute of Mental Health (2025), Any anxiety

disorder

statistics.

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/any-anxietydisorder#part_155096

[9] Ortiz-Ospina (2019), The rise of social media.

https://ourworldindata.org/rise-of-social-media

[10] Search Engine Journal (2017), Social media statistics.

https://www.searchenginejournal.com/social-mediastatistics/480507/

[11] Shannon et al. (2022), Problematic social media use in

adolescents and young adults.

https://doi.org/10.2196/33450

[12] Shorter (2008), Paralysis to fatigue: A history of

psychosomatic illness in the modern era.

https://books.google.com/books?id=I87S-xL6Q1wC

[13] Social Media Victims Law Center (2024), The Fear of

Missing Out and its impact on mental health.

https://socialmediavictims.org/mental-health/fomo/

[14] Statista (2013), Percentage of U.S. social network users

who suffer from the Fear of Missing Out.

https://www.statista.com/statistics/262138/percentage-ofus-social-networks-who-suffer-from-fomo/

[15] Vannucci, Flannery, & Ohannessian (2017), Social

media use and anxiety in emerging adults.


5032716309442

[16] Wu et al. (2024), Unraveling the view of appearance

anxiety. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01495-7

[17] Zubair et al. (2023). Annals of Medicine and Surgery.

https://doi.org/10.1097/MS9.0000000000000112

[18] Athar & Jazi (2022). Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact.,

38(15), 1480–1485.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2021.2002055

EUREKA | 18

THE NEUROLOGICAL PHENOMENON:

Synesthesia & Memory Benefits

When most people see the number 1, they

just see 1. When they see the letter A, they

just see A. But, a rare group sees that same

number 1 in a red color or that same letter

A as purple. This sensory crossover,

experienced by 4% of the population,

encompasses the five human senses: sight,

touch, hearing, smell, and taste [2].

Synesthesia is the neurological

phenomenon where an involuntary sensory

pathway is triggered through the simulation

of another, meaning more than one sense is

activated at once [4]. The phenomenon

occurs due to “unlimited” exchanges

between the five lobes in the brain.

The most common subcategory is

grapheme-color synesthesia where letters

and numbers are associated with a

particular color. The result of these two

simulations can reap benefits for the

synesthetes, or people with synesthesia,

such as improved recollection of words with

color-association. Current research draws

parallels between synesthesia, particularly

grapheme-color synesthesia, and other

conditions related to the human brain, such

as autism, sensory memory performance,

and long-term memory. Prominent topics

study, in particular, memory to explore

whether having additional sensory

experiences can benefit the brain through

more efficient processing. This review aims

to discuss the ability of grapheme-color

synesthesia to enhance memory recall.

Grapheme synesthesia can be divided into

three types: developmental, acquired, and

drug-induced. Developmental grapheme

synesthesia occurs during brain

development, acquired grapheme

synesthesia is a result of an alteration in the

brain, whereas the drug-induced grapheme

synesthesia is caused by psychedelic drugs.

People can acquire grapheme-color

synesthesia through any of these processes,

leading to an overlap in the neurological

pathways controlling sight [5]. However, the

reason behind this overlap and how this

occurs is still unknown today as it remains a

significant research topic in this field.

Additionally, grapheme synesthesia relates

to verbal memory, the memory of words, as

it specializes in dealing with letters and

words, potentially improving memory

associated with these factors.

Synesthesia is a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of

one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences

in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. (Wikipedia)

By: Meadow Lam

For those with this condition, the majority of

their verbal memory process can be explained

by the dual-coding theory. This theory

hypothesizes how combining information from

two human cognitive systems, a verbal system

and an imagery system, enhances memory as a

result of a combination of the two types of

information (Science Direct, 2010). Graphemecolor

synesthesia functions from dual-coding

theory as the imagery cognitive system is

further developed by the crossover of senses.

These additional sensory experiences lead to

added signals to help retrieve and process

information.

Although this phenomenon can have its benefits,

there are some limitations on synesthetes that

live with it. It has been found that a common

aspect of synesthesia is hypersensitivity with “too

much sensory perception coming in at one time”

[1]. This results from a heightened awareness of

all the senses as a whole. Additionally, having

grapheme-color synesthesia along with another

subtype of synesthesia can affect the senses even

more, further causing sensory overload.

A case study by the University of Notre Dame

aimed to explore how grapheme-color

synesthesia affects memory of word lists [3]. Ten

grapheme-color synesthetes, who were proven to

associate colors with letters, were tested against

a control group of 48 Notre Dame students who

lacked the condition. Before the experiment,

information was collected on what color

individual synesthetes associated with a specific

letter to determine whether or not words of

varying colors affected how those with

grapheme-color synesthesia viewed or felt an

emotion to it. Participants were given 12 word

lists with 12 words each and were instructed to

recall as many words as possible. One-third of the

lists were presented in black, while the rest were

presented in color. The colored categories can be

split into congruent, where the word color

matches with the specific synesthete's unique

association to its beginning letter, and

incongruent, where the word color conflicts with

their color-association with the same first letter.

Likewise, the control group was given the same

word lists with the same conditions

Congruent Category

The results showed that synesthetes

performed better in the congruent category,

with an average of 74.7% of words

remembered, than in the incongruent

category, with an average of 66.7% of words

remembered. Additionally, synesthetes

remembered an average of 71.8% of the

black-colored word list. In comparison, the

control group performed slightly worse in all

categories, demonstrating a difference in

memory levels from synesthetes but not

large enough to leave a significant impact. In

this case, synesthetes seemed to better

remember particular words: the words in

the specific color that they associate with a

specific letter. For example, an individual

that associates the color blue with the letter

‘A’ was able to remember the word ‘apple’ in

blue, rather than the same word ‘apple’ in

red. This is the idea of item-specific

processing, where certain characteristics of

visuals affect how the brain encodes them.

This led to the conclusion that synesthetes

perform better in memory tasks where the

triggering stimuli, the presence of letters,

symbols, or numbers, are involved and

associated with the individual’s synesthesia.

Grapheme-color synesthesia does enhance

memory abilities; however, only in instances

that align with an individual’s specific

associations. This condition affects tasks

involving visual experiences such as reading

words, letters, or symbols. Current research

continues to uncover unique advantages

that synesthetes have in terms of memory.

Possible future research avenues studying

synesthetes can offer new methods of

learning and cognitive development, leading

to better memory. Nevertheless, this

research exhibits how synesthesia is not a

disability, mental illness, or a drawback;

rather, it has unique advantages that can be

better understood and utilized for benefits

to create special lives for synesthetes.

Works Cited

[1] Jawer, M. (2014, July 23). Hypersensitivity is an oft-noted feature of synesthesia.

Psychology Today. http://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/feeling-toomuch/201407/sensory-sensitivity-and-synesthesia

[2] Professional, C. C. M. (2024, December 19). Synesthesia. Cleveland Clinic.

http://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24995-synesthesia

[3] Radvansky, G. A., Gibson, B. S., & McNerney, M. W. (2011). Synesthesia and memory:

Color congruency, von Restorff, and false memory effects. Journal of Experimental

Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition, 37(1), 219–229.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021329

[4] Synesthesia. (2020, December 9). Psychology Today.

http://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/synesthesia

Congruent category

would be a word

starting with the letter

‘A’ shown in the color

blue to a synesthete

that associates ‘A’ with

blue.

[5] Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Synesthesia: What it is, causes, symptoms, types & treatment.

Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24995-synesthesia

19 | EUREKA

FUELING THE FUTURE

APPLICABILITY OF BIOFUELS AS AN

ENERGY ALTERNATIVE

BY: RUSTIN GOLSHAN

In the United States, fossil fuels such as

petroleum, natural gas, and coal, have

accounted for 84% of total U.S. primary

energy production in 2023 [1]. The lack of

diversity in energy production in

industrialized countries such as the United

States has begun to pose a major issue to not

only the economy of these countries, but

more importantly the health of the planet.

Renewable biofuels, previously not utilized,

have begun to gain traction as a great

alternative to the harmful and nonrenewable

fossil fuels.

First generation biofuels are derived from

food crops such as seaweed, wheat, and cord,

while second-generation biofuels use biomass

which is non-edible, such as wood chips. Third

generation biofuels consist of microbial

biomass, such as algae. Compared to first and

second generation biofuels, third generation

biofuels produce higher energy yields but

require substantial resources to produce [2].

As of 2023, the United States is the largest

producer of 1st generation biofuels such as

bioethanol, highlighting the relevance of this

material [3]. This article will focus primarily on

the advantages and disadvantages of first

generation biofuels such as wheat and corn

due to their accessibility with today’s

technology.

Although 3rd generation biofuels are a great

option for future endeavors in this space, they

have not been optimized enough to be used

in a commercial setting [4]. Excessive fertilizer

use and increasing temperatures due to

climate change have created ideal conditions

for the production of large seaweed blooms in

oceans. The large seaweed blooms have

heavily damaged aquatic ecosystems and

disrupted beaches used for tourism and

recreation, hurting the economies of those

regions. In response to this issue, scientists

have begun looking for productive use of this

biomass as a biofuel. Seaweed produces high

energy yields due to strong carbon dioxide

absorption and underlying carbohydrate

structure. Compared to other biomass

alternatives, seaweed is the only source which

actively poses a threat to ecosystems.

Although seaweed has presented itself as a

great future alternative as a 3rd generation

biofuel, it still faces many efficiency issues in

its production.

On the other hand, first generation biofuels have

had more research and optimization, making them

a viable option for current uses of biofuel (4).

Although the use of seaweed as a biofuel is

currently not that helpful as an alternative to fossil

fuels, it would still address environmental

conservation efforts.

Wheat has also begun to gain traction as a crop

which can be made into a biofuel. Wheat, when

fermented and converted to ethanol, has a

significantly smaller ecological footprint than fossil

fuels. Fossil fuels release previously sequestered

carbon dioxide from millions of years ago, while

wheat releases carbon dioxide which was

previously absorbed in photosynthesis during its

production. The extraction and refinement of

wheat is significantly less energy intensive when

compared to fossil fuels [5]. One disadvantage of

wheat as a biofuel source is the environmental

damage which results from cultivation. If the wheat

cultivation process uses many fertilizers and

pesticides, wheat as a biofuel source can be

equally as harmful as fossil fuels [6]. Technological

innovations in wheat cultivation have allowed for

new solutions to previous issues which cause

environmental harms, such as precision

agriculture with drones, improved enzymes for

breaking down wheat into fermentable sugars, and

the development of higher yielding wheat varieties.

Corn may be the most comparable biofuel

alternative to fossil fuels in terms of energy

production despite notable environmental

setbacks. The introduction of bioethanol from corn

has allowed for economies to diversify, allowing for

new employment opportunities in rural areas in

the United States and agricultural income in

farming states. Bioethanol derived from corn has

been a small but needed step towards a gasoline

alternative, dropping the price per gallon of fuel 12

US cents. This constitutes an approximately 5%

reduction relative to gasoline prices. Although the

use of corn as a biofuel has been economically

productive, its environmental benefits have been

mixed between researchers [7]. While some

studies noted slight reductions in greenhouse gas

emissions (0.19 kg CO2 per liter compared to

gasoline), indirect land use impacts, such as CO2

emissions from land clearing, have shown to

reduce the overall environmental gains [8]. Similar

to wheat, new steps have been taken to develop

genetically modified corn, which has been

engineered to produce higher ethanol yields by

generating more sugars. Although corn has been

the most used biofuel in the 21st

century, conflicting environmental impacts

limit corn’s effectiveness as a sustainable

alternative corn’s effectiveness as a sustainable

alternative to fossil fuels.

Exploration and expansion of biofuel sources

has provided an alternative to fossil fuels, but

due to the carbon neutrality of biofuels, they

do not currently provide the energetic or

environmental remedy for climate change the

planet has sustained. Still, biofuels will allow us

the time to develop the proper energy

production solutions – dams, nuclear reactors,

solar panels, wind turbines, etc. – for a

permanent solution to climate change. As the

biofuel industry continues to expand and

political interest begins to grow, we will be

guided towards a more energy efficient future.

Works Cited

[1] U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - independent

statistics and analysis. U.S. energy facts explained - consumption

and production - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA).

Accessed February 9, 2025.

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/.

[2] Demirbaş A, Hay JXW, Wu L-J, et al. Biofuels: An alternative to

conventional fuel and energy source. Materials Today:

Proceedings. September 6, 2021. Accessed February 10, 2025.


1056650.

[3] 2. Iea. Global conventional biofuel production, 2011-2023 –

charts – Data & Statistics. IEA. Accessed February 20, 2025.

https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/globalconventional-biofuel-production-2011-2023.

[4] 1. Adams JMM, Allen E, Herrmann C, et al. Ensiling of seaweed

for a seaweed biofuel industry. Bioresource Technology. July 29,

2015. Accessed February 9, 2025.


501069X.

[5] Montero G, Garcia C, Coronado M, et al. Analysis Applied to

Wheat Utilization in Mexico. Google Books. Accessed February 10,

2025. https://books.google.com/books?

hl=en&lr=&id=V_iODwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA483&dq=utilization%

2Bof%2Bwheat%2Bbiofuel%2Bsource&ots=VlS0eHHc7L&sig=H1_x

KsbmehUEB-

_noSyJOVo5eYk#v=onepage&q=utilization%20of%20wheat%20biof

uel%20source&f=false.

[6] Tishler Y, Samach A, Rogachev I, Elbaum R, Levy AA. Analysis of

wheat straw biodiversity for use as a feedstock for biofuel

production - bioenergy research. SpringerLink. June 16, 2015.

Accessed February 8, 2025.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12155-015-9631-0.

9

[7] AustinD., BratbergE., EspeyM., et al. The effect of standards

and fuel prices on Automobile Fuel Economy: An international

analysis. Energy Economics. June 19, 2008. Accessed February 11,

2025.


8000832.

[8] Živković SB, Banković-Ilić IB, Condon N, et al. Biodiesel

production from Corn Oil: A Review. Renewable and Sustainable

Energy Reviews. June 1, 2018. Accessed February 10, 2025.


830234X.

EUREKA | 20

21 | EUREKA

Cleaning Brain Gunk:

The Glymphatic System

By Anna Burns

Introduction

Jelly-like, elusively encased in a thick skull, and weighing

only 3 pounds, the brain is undoubtedly an elaborate

and enticing organ. Responsible for incredibly complex

communication, decision-making, and sensory

processing, the brain generates a huge metabolic load.

Waste clearance is vitally important to neuronal function

as synaptic transmission is exquisitely sensitive to

changes in environment [2]. However, the brain lacks

conventional lymphatic vessels for managing excess

fluids, soluble material, and protein. Additionally, the

blood-brain barrier restricts exchange with blood

vessels; nutrients are only let in. How, then, does the

brain deal with this enormous task?

The mystery behind the brain’s waste

removal system was deciphered in

2012 when Dr. Illiff and

Dr. Nedergaard and their teams at the

University of Rochester Medical Center

discovered the glymphatic (glial- dependent lymphatic)

system. They unveiled that this extraordinary system

floods the brain with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to flush

out neuronal waste through an anatomically discrete and

highly regulated pathway created by astrocytes, a type of

glial cell [1]. Glial cells play a key role in maintaining ionic

balance, synchronizing impulses, and regenerating

neural injury- now, tack on waste clearance!

Interestingly, the glymphatic system is not equally active

at all times. Increased clearance occurs specifically

during non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM), also

known as slow wave sleep, with a 90% increase in

glymphatic function and doubling in protein clearance

compared to wakefulness [5]. Notably, recent studies

have shown that glymphatic dysfunction exacerbates the

pathology of neurodegenerative disorders and worsens

neuroinflammation- a Catch-22 [3]. In fact, a third of AD

patients have clinically documented sleep problems even

before cognitive loss, particularly decreased slow-wave

sleep, which is vital in learning, memory, and metabolite

clearance [9], explaining the alignment of chronic poor

sleep, an unhealthy glymphatic system, and illness [5].

During natural sleep, levels of noradrenaline decline,

leading to an expansion of the brain’s extracellular

space, which results in decreased resistance to fluid

flow. By inhibiting noradrenaline after TBI, the flow of

CSF might be restored [7]. In a study by the University

of Missouri School of Medicine, 2 groups of mice with

TBI were compared, one group being treated with a

cocktail of noradrenergic receptor inhibitors and the

other untreated. This treatment “served to sharply

reduce the consequent neuroinflammation…and

cognitive loss compared with untreated mice” [7].

Although not yet tested in humans, this novel

treatment is an early sign of what’s to come with the

potential to significantly aid brain injury patients by

harnessing the glymphatic system.

Limitations and Future Direction

Despite the amazing potential of these treatments, the

sea of knowledge of the glymphatic system is relatively

new. Up until recently, this system has remained

under the radar due to the impractical nature of

studying fluid flow after death.

“It’s a hydraulic system. Once you open it,

you break the connections, and

it cannot be studied.”

-Dr. Nedergaard, author of 2012 study

Crucially, the accumulation of clustered/tangled protein

characterizes all prevalent neurodegenerative diseases

[2]. This surge of research has sparked hope for

improving brain function in these diseases, traumatic

brain injury, and stroke by modulating this system. This

literature review will investigate the mechanisms of the

glymphatic system, lifestyle choices that affect it, and

drug-based treatments that could target it.

Mechanisms and Factors Involved

The novel dynamics of the cleansing glymphatic system

were visualized for the first time using two-photon

microscopy in mice in 2012. Cerebrospinal fluid was

labeled with tracers, and its influx along the brain’s

arterioles yielded striking results; contradicting prior

hypotheses of simple diffusion, CSF movement through

brain tissue was highly organized [4]. The glymphatic

system facilitates the macroscopic process of convective

fluid transport along perivascular spaces created by

astrocytes; these glial cells wrap around blood vessels

but leave space for CSF to flow [2]. Harmful metabolic

waste products are removed as the CSF flows around the

brain, using the peripheral lymphatic system as a

drainage center for the “dirty” cerebrospinal fluid [5].

para-arterial

influx

astrocyte

neuron

para-venous

efflux

waste

Yet other factors are at play in this intricate network.

Glymphatic activity drops due to aging, with a dramatic

80-90% decline attributed to decline of astroglia

regulation and CSF production and pressure. Unhealthy

lifestyle factors such as chronic stress, alcohol

consumption, omega-3 deficiency, and of course chronic

sleep deprivation hinder glymphatic clearance as well [5].

This decline leads to faster protein accumulation,

especially amyloid beta, in which these misfolded or

tangled proteins spread like wildfire through prion-like

propagation. But there is hope- physical exercise notably

improved memory and cognition and reduced

neuroinflammation and amyloid beta deposition by

enhancing brain blood flow, the foundation of

perivascular pulsatility [3]. These findings demonstrate

exercise to be a neuroprotective lifestyle choice and an

easily incorporated treatment to slow the progression

of Alzheimer’s. The WHO designates

75- 150 min of moderate to vigorous

exercise a week as beneficial [5].

Application in stroke and traumatic brain injury

Glymphatic decline can occur rapidly, such as in stroke

patients. Cerebral edema, or swelling of the brain caused

by excessive fluid accumulation, is common after an

ischemic stroke, where the brain’s blood supply is

diminished, and is predictive of the damage severity. The

glymphatic system is crucial in the formation of cerebral

edema as the regulation of water homeostasis by

astrocytes is compromised during a stroke [7]. Edema is

common in TBI (traumatic brain injury) where levels of

noradrenaline, a hormone that suppresses fluid

transport in the brain, are elevated.

The intricacy of studying such a protected and

enclosed system in live animals is a serious limitation.

Integrated models, randomized clinical human

studies, and noninvasive experimental techniques will

best characterize the glymphatic system in the coming

decades. Rising interest in the brain’s fluid transport

systems coincides with the failure of anti-amyloid beta

clinical trials to treat Alzheimer’s. Additionally, the

impact of deep sleep and adequate exercise reveal the

importance of a healthy lifestyle not only in relieving

symptoms but preventing disease altogether. With

Alzheimer’s, stroke, and TBI on the rise, the glymphatic

system will serve as a crucial area of study for

elucidation of how these life- shattering disorders

work. If we can understand these diseases thoroughly,

there is hope we can cure them.

Works Cited

[1] Hablitz, L. M., & Nedergaard, M. (2021). The Glymphatic System: A Novel Component of

Fundamental Neurobiology. The Journal of Neuroscience, 41(37), 7698–7711.

https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0619-21.2021 / [2] Jessen, N. A., Munk, A. S. F., Lundgaard,

I., & Nedergaard, M. (2015). The glymphatic system: A beginner’s guide. Neurochemical

Research, 40(12), 2583–2599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-015-1581-6

[3] Silva, I., Silva, J., Ferreira, R., & Trigo, D. (2021). Glymphatic system, AQP4, and their

implications in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurological Research and Practice, 3(1), 5.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s42466-021-00102-7 / [4] Iliff, J. J., Wang, M., Liao, Y., Plogg, B. A.,

Peng, W., Gundersen, G. A., Benveniste, H., Vates, G. E., Deane, R., Goldman, S. A., Nagelhus,

E. A., & Nedergaard, M. (2012). A paravascular pathway facilitates csf flow through the brain

parenchyma and the clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid β. Science

Translational Medicine, 4(147), 147ra111. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3003748

[5] D. van der Werf, Y. and Reddy, O. (2020). The Sleeping Brain: Harnessing the Power of the

Glymphatic System through Lifestyle Choices, Brain Sci., 10(11), 868.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/10/11/868 / [6] Mestre, H., Mori Y., & Nedergaard, M.

(2020). The Brain’s Glymphatic System: Current Controveries. Trends in Neuroscience, 7(43),

458-466. https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/fulltext/S0166-2236(20)30077-1?

dgcid=raven_jbs_aip_email / [7] Hussain, R., Tithof, J., Wang, W., Cheetham-West, A., Song, W.,

Gonzalez, J. A., Weikop, P., Goldman, S. A., Davis, M. J., & Nedergaard, M. (2023). Potentiating

glymphatic drainage minimizes post-traumatic cerebral oedema. Nature, 623(7989), 992–

1000. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06737-7 / [8] Scientists discover previously

unknown cleansing system in brain. (n.d.). URMC Newsroom. Retrieved from

Peng, W., Sigurdsson, B., Kim, D., Sun, Q., Peng, S., Plá, V., Kelley, D. H., Hirase, H., Castorena-

https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/news/story/scientists-discover-previously-unknowncleansing-system-in-brain

/ [9] Voumvourakis, K. I., Sideri, E., Papadimitropoulos, G. N.,

Tsantzali, I., Hewlett, P., Kitsos, D., Stefanou, M., Bonakis, A., Giannopoulos, S., Tsivgoulis, G.,

& Paraskevas, G. P. (2023). The dynamic relationship between the glymphatic system, aging,

memory, and sleep. Biomedicines, 11(8), 2092.

https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11082092

EUREKA | 22

MAPPING

Exploring the Future of

By: Joy Xia

Introduction

Throughout history, maps have charted the

high seas and geographical wonders of the

world. Today, a new kind of mapping is

unfolding—one where we look inward into the

depths of the human brain itself, a largely

unknown terrain that establishes what makes

each of us human. In our new digital age,

neural pathways have not only been revealed

to have significant integrability with emerging

technologies, but as new research on neural

electrical activity and reflexes suggests, can

also be utilized as highly structured computing

systems themselves [1]. Brain circuits, like

electronic ones, operate to perform

specialized tasks by transmitting electrical

signals to initiate responses. Exploration of

recent breakthrough treatments in noninvasive

neuromodulation offer insights into

how we can treat disorders and unlock novel

medical solutions on a cellular level.

Neural Circuits & Applications

Neuromodulation alters neural activity

through stimulation and can be divided into

chemical and electrical methods. While

chemical neuromodulation—a well-established

pharmaceutical treatment that targets

neurotransmitter production—can be

effective, it is not always reliable due to

variability in targeting and potential side

effects. This has pushed neuroscientists to

explore more direct alternative treatments,

such as the now budding field, electrical

neuromodulation. Electrical neuromodulation

delivers low-voltage electrical impulses to

specific regions of the nervous system,

targeting precise areas of the brain or spinal

cord for therapeutic effects. Because signals

can be targeted, electrical neuromodulation

overcomes the precision limitations of

chemical treatments.

A common form of electrical

neuromodulation called Deep Brain

Stimulation (DBS) has been touted as a

prospective treatment for Parkinson’s

Disease [2]. By implanting electrodes that

send targeted signals deep into specific brain

regions to regulate abnormal brain activity,

DBS can potentially restore lost functions like

motor control. However, a major drawback

of medical electrical neuromodulation

applications is the high invasiveness

required to surgically implant electrodes.

DBS surgery involves cutting through

multiple brain layers and damaging nearby

neurons. Because of risks including

infections, blood clots, device malfunction,

and strokes, DBS is primarily performed on

elderly patients with progressive

neurological disorders. To combat this,

recent research has explored non-invasive

methods of neuromodulation such as

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

(tDCS). As an FDA approved treatment for

neurological disorders like depression and

OCD and the more well-researched

treatment of the two, Transcranial Magnetic

Stimulation (TMS) is a form of

neuromodulation that transmits magnetic

fields through a coil placed near the scalp,

delivering electromagnetic impulses to brain

regions such as the left dorsolateral

prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) which regulates

mood [3][4]. TMS can reach deeper cortical

layers and induce weak electrical fields that

excite or dampen parts of the brain.

Repeated TMS treatments have shown

strong, long-lasting alterations of brian

activity that can treat MDD, OCD, and

migraines. However, TMS requires

specialized and often inaccessible

equipment, limiting its widespread use.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS),

on the other hand, applies a constant electrical

current through electrodes directly placed on

the scalp, and has yet to be FDA approved due

to less understanding of the precision and side

effects compared to TMS. As researchers

continue exploring less-invasive

neuromodulatory treatments, tDCS shows

significant promise as a low-cost solution for a

variety of medical uses including stroke

rehabilitation, treating sleep disorders, and

PTSD. In a 2019 double-blind controlled

experiment conducted in Iran at the clinics at

the Atieh Clinical Neuroscience Center, 40

patients with diagnosed PTSD underwent tDCS

treatment involving saline-soaked sponge

electrodes for conductivity and a batterydriven

stimulator that emitted constant, direct

current at an intensity of 2 mA for 10

consecutive daily 20-minute sessions [5].

Participants completed the PCL-5 self-report

questionnaire before and after the treatment

period, and researchers noted that

participants reported lower PCL-5 scores after

the treatment, denoting an improvement in

the severity of PTSD symptoms. The clinical

study attributes these results to tDCS’s role in

stimulating the prefrontal cortex and

moderating neurotransmitter reuptake and

release for serotonin and GABA, specifically in

the DLPFC which is connected to the amygdala

and other fear response regions of the brain.

Similarly, tDCS has been shown to treat

symptoms of depression through weakening

connections between the mPFC and the

amygdala, regulating availability of serotonin,

and boosting neuroplasticity by accelerating

migration of immune cells to inhibit

inflammation [6][7].

T M S

23 | EUREKA

ADVANTAGES

⟶ Reach deeper cortical layers

⟶ Strong, long-lasting alterations of brain activity

DISADVANTAGES

⟶ Side effects (headaches, twitching muscles,

temporary tinnitus, etc.) in 30% patients

⟶ Requires specialized and often inaccessible

equipment

THE

Neuromodulation in Medical Treatment

Mentor: Sofia Gordeev

MMD tDCS treatments have been approved in

the EU, Australia, South Korea, and Brazil. Still,

debate surrounds the causal relationship

between tDCS and MMD improvements. The

DepressionDC trial in Germany conducted a

clinical study in eight hospitals in August 2023

included 160 MMD patients and found no

significant difference in depressive symptoms

post a 6-week tDCS treatment when at least 4

weeks of SSRI treatment was conducted prior

[8].

Beyond treating neurological and psychiatric

conditions, non-invasive electrical

neuromodulation can also result in improved

quality of life . A 2022 study conducted by

Boston University researchers utilized electric

signals through repetitive (4-day) transcranial

low-frequency alternating current stimulation

(tACS), a form of tDCS, to target memory brain

circuits like the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

(DLPFC) and the inferior parietal lobe (IPL) [9].

Researchers drew a small sample size of

elderly adults ages 65 to 88 years old in order

to measure the effectiveness of the treatment

on degradation of memory from age-related

causes. The results of the study indicated an

initial 23% increase in primacy recall during the

first 3 days of treatment while maintaining a

demonstrated long-term positive outcome for

participants a month after the 4 day treatment

ended [10]. Although the study concludes that

neuromodulation may not have been the

direct cause of enhancements in memory, the

use of neuromodulation to target regions of

the brain specialized for memory retention

and learning may offer new avenues for

boosting cognitive development.

Continued Studies of Neuromodulation

Neuromodulation has shown high capacity

for integration with other fields of study. For

example, DBS and tDCS have been

implemented to treat various health

challenges like sport and paralysis

rehabilitation, sleep enhancement, and

addiction treatment.

However, one of the greatest hurdles to reliable

treatment options for neural diseases is a lack

of credible information about the brain. Nearly

all existing neuromodulation solutions surround

the most well-researched regions of the brain,

like the dopamine pathway, while most other

research has been conducted on non-human

species. When just one “rice-grain” sized human

brain sample contains over 57,000 cells and

1400 terabytes of data, a complete molecular

human brain map has never been published

[11]. Organizations like the Human Connectome

Project have made strides in mapping, with

grant-funded research utilizing standard

techniques like fMRI and PET scans to target

regions of the brain associated with

neurodegenerative diseases including the

hippocampus in the Alzhheimer’s Disease

Connectome Project [12]. Academic research

labs have also pioneered new methods for

detailed mapping of individual neurons, such as

tracking proteins injected with green fluorescent

protein (GFP) or mCherry that emit light upon

neuron firing [13][14]. More recently, advances

in viral tracing have introduced methods of

infecting the brain with virus E11 to follow the

spread of the virus across several neurons [15].

Corporate and governmental interests have also

played a role in the advancement of

neuromodulation. Former President Obama’s

BRAIN initiative and the EU’s Human Brain

Project have launched increased public

investment into brain research that promises

new discoveries in the 21st century. Companies

like Neuralink and Synchron with valuations in

the billions have recently received FDA approval

for human clinical implant trials [16].

The current market landscape has also

burgeoned a new area of interest, artificial

neural networks (ANNs) and brain-computer

faces, where the line between which parts of the

brain can be digitized and manipulated becomes

blurred [17]. The prospect of combining the

exponential growth of the AI field with

neuromodulation presents opportunities for

hyper-specialized treatments and rapid

commercial development.

Conclusion

As neurologists navigate the delicate task of

maneuvering the intricacies of the brain,

neuromodulation treatment methods will

also be refined. The buzz surrounding this

emerging technique has already generated

strides in research momentum that has

ultimately unveiled promises for advanced

medical solutions, while also raising ethical

concerns related to safety, consent, and

potential misuse. Regardless, through

neuromodulation, we can anticipate

groundbreaking insights into neural

functions that will shape humanity’s

understanding of what’s truly happening in

our minds.

Works Cited

[1] Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (n.d.). Neuroscience: Exploring the brain.

National Center for Biotechnology Information.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11154/

[2] George, M. S., & Post, R. M. (2019). Transcranial magnetic stimulation: A new treatment

for depression? PubMed Central. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6412779/

[3] Mayo Clinic Staff. (n.d.). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Mayo Clinic.

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/transcranial-magneticstimulation/about/pac-20384625

[4] Clearwave Mental Health. (n.d.). Unlocking TMS: What part of the brain does TMS

stimulate? Clearwave Mental Health. https://clearwavementalhealth.com/blog-unlockingtms-what-part-of-the-brain-does-tms-stimulate/

[5] Wassermann, E. M., & Zimmermann, T. (2019). Transcranial magnetic stimulation:

Therapeutic applications and challenges. ScienceDirect.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0361923019306550?via%3Dihub

[6] Nitsche, M. A., & Paulus, W. (n.d.). Discovering how tDCS brain stimulation

therapeutically modifies brain circuits in depression. Brain & Behavior Research

Foundation. https://bbrfoundation.org/content/discovering-how-tdcs-brain-stimulationtherapeutically-modifies-brain-circuits-depression

[7] Fitzgerald, P. B., Hoy, K. E., & Daskalakis, Z. J. (2015). Investigating the mechanisms of

transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and its clinical applications. International

Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology.

https://academic.oup.com/ijnp/article/18/2/pyu047/690895?login=false

[8] Lefaucheur, J. P., Aleman, A., & Baeken, C. (2023). Brain stimulation and neural activity

in clinical applications. ScienceDirect.


[9] Wang, X., & Krystal, J. H. (2022). Neural modulation and plasticity: Advances in

neuroscience. Nature Neuroscience. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-022-01132-3

[10] Attia, P. (n.d.). Improving memory with transcranial neuromodulation. Peter Attia MD.

https://peterattiamd.com/improving-memory-with-transcranial-neuromodulation/

[11] Strickland, A. (2024, May 15). Harvard and Google collaborate on a human brain map.

CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/05/15/world/human-brain-map-harvard-googlescn/index.html

[12] Bendlin, B., & Li, S.-J. (n.d.). Alzheimer’s Disease Connectome Project. Human

Connectome. https://www.humanconnectome.org/study/alzheimers-diseaseconnectome-project

[13] Dennett, D. C. (n.d.). Rene Descartes and early neuroscience concepts. Edge.

https://www.edge.org/response-detail/25411

[14] Fregni, F., Pascual-Leone, A., & Boggio, P. S. (2004). Brain stimulation in psychiatric

disorders. PubMed. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15558047/

[15] Bergen, M. (2024, December 3). Ex-Google CEO wants to learn about brains by

infecting them. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-12-03/exgoogle-ceo-wants-to-learn-about-brains-by-infecting-them

[16] O'Brien, M. (2024, February 20). First Neuralink human subject uses brain chip to

control computer mouse. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/20/tech/first-neuralinkhuman-subject-computer-mouse-elon-musk/index.html

[17] Malliaras, G. G., & Green, R. A. (2020). Advancements in neuromodulation materials.

Nature Materials. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41563-020-0703-y

TDCS

ADVANTAGES

⟶ Accessible and cheaper technology

(home-use available)

DISADVANTAGES

⟶ Lack of robust research and clinical

⟶ testing Limited precision and

penetration reach

EUREKA | 24

THE USAGE OF

ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE IN

CLASSROOMS

BY: J O C E LY N F L O R E S - C A R R E N O

Technology has become deeply embedded

in modern society influencing various

aspects of daily life, including education.

While artificial intelligence (AI) has the

potential to provide a better learning

experience, concerns regarding academic

integrity persist. The key issue surrounding

AI usage in education is balancing its use

for academic growth and the potential

negative repercussions for student integrity

and future learning. Various sources have

demonstrated that AI has been proven to

be a greater tool for both students and

teachers instead of a source for

misconduct, though reservations still

remain.

Educators are concerned about the impact

AI has on academic integrity, leading

institutions like Rice University to establish

clear policies. Rice University’s guidelines

emphasize the responsibility that comes

with using AI while recognizing the

possibility of student misconduct and the

need for student integrity [1]. Policies like

these provide students with a valuable

resource for academic growth, but reminds

students of the consequences of using this

tool inappropriately [6]. Furthermore, they

highlight how AI can be both a valuable

resource and a potential gateway to

misconduct.

Conversely, K-12 institutions maintain

stricter regulations in classrooms regarding

AI. For example, Cypress Ridge High School

(CRHS), part of the Cypress Fairbanks

Independent School District (CFISD) in

Texas, prohibits the use of AI, stating that

the use of AI, or any technology, aiding in

the submission of student work as their

own will result in serious

academic/disciplinary consequences [2].

Juxtapositions like these warrant further

research into the usage of AI in academic

classrooms with a special focus on its

benefits and possible repercussions...

25 | EUREKA

... in a lower-level educational environment

like a high school.

Many educators believe that the use of AI

should not be completely prohibited. In a

Fox interview Peter Salib, an Assistant

Professor of Law at the University of

Houston, said, “It actually can be great at

helping you understand content,” (para. 10)

[4]. This suggests that AI, when used

appropriately, can be highly beneficial. Not

only do some educators, like Peter Salib,

think technologies like these can be useful,

but they also see it as a prominent

resource with thorough concepts that allow

students to further understand materials

[8]. AI can also aid educators by

personalizing lessons, reducing workload,

tracking student progress, as well as

personalized feedback [5]. Through,

“proper training and raising awareness

regarding the risks the technology brings,”

[5] AI can streamline extraneous tasks,

encouraging efficiency with less stress.

However, teachers as well as students

could become too dependent on the tool,

turning it into a bad habit and which may

lead to a lack of effort into original learning

and tasks.

Along with comprehension for students

and personalization for teachers, AI also

helps those who have disabilities, both

students and faculty. Tools like, “text to

speech, speech to text, zoom capacity,

predictive text, spell checkers, and search

engines” all help those who have potential

limitations like dyslexia or other cognitive

disabilities [3]. Furthermore highlighting

how much of a significant tool AI is for

anyone with other learning needs. In

contrast, AI has been proven to be faulty

and not always accurate. In fact, when

using applications like ChatGPT, after every

solid response the chatbot notes that the

results could be inaccurate [7].

Artificial Intelligence is defined as a

computer program that mimics human

language, comprehension, creativity and

overall prediction of human behavior.

The debate over whether AI should be

allowed in classrooms will always be

controversial due to the issues of integrity,

plagiarism, copyright, and institution

policies. However, AI is a considerable tool

that helps students in various issues like

understanding a subject or overcoming

disabilities. Although AI can be a great tool

for academic success, there are many

factors that come with it that make it a

possible liability in classrooms.

Works Cited

[1] AI usage guidelines. (n.d.). Office of Information

Technology, Rice University. https://oit.rice.edu/ai-usageguidelines

[2] Honor code. (n.d.). Cypress Ridge High School.

https://cyridge.cfisd.net/academics/honor-code

[3] Kocatas, O., & Wu, M. L. (2023). The role of artificial

intelligence in education: Instructional technology faculty’s

perspective. Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research,

17(4), 283–291. (Use stable permalink if available; avoid long

proxy URLs)

[4] MacDonald, S. (2023, February 13). ChatGPT: Houstonarea

school districts weigh in on AI chatbot in education. FOX

26 Houston. https://www.fox26houston.com/news/chatgpthouston-school-districts-ai-chatbot-education

[5] Pearce, N. (2024). Revolutionising modern teaching with AI

technology. Education Journal Review, 29(3), 148–154. (Same

note—use permanent link if available rather than a proxybased

search URL)

[6] Standards of ethical conduct. (n.d.). Rice University

Policies. https://policy.rice.edu/100

[7] Whitney, L. (2024, September 5). That’s not right: How to

tell ChatGPT when it’s wrong. PCMag.

https://www.pcmag.com/how-to/thats-not-right-how-to-tellchatgpt-when-its-wrong

[8] Zhang, X., Sun, J., & Deng, Y. (2023). Design and application

of intelligent classrooms for English language and literature

based on artificial intelligence technology. Applied Artificial

Intelligence, 37(1), 1–23.

https://doi.org/10.1080/08839514.2023.2216051

EUREKA | 26

The Psychological Effects

By: Thu N. Nguyen

of Space Exploration

For centuries, scientists have been fascinated

by space, questioning its mysteries and

forming theories about the universe. In the

past few decades, humans and other life

forms have been sent into space, deepening

our understanding and paving the way for

new discoveries. However, these

achievements come with risks, as not only to

astronauts’ physical health but also to their

mental well-being. While the physical effects

of space travel are well studied, the

psychological challenges, such as isolation,

stress, anxiety, and depression, have received

less attention despite being a crucial part of

space travel.

Space exploration has always come with risks,

as seen in several tragic events. One of the

earliest was the Apollo 1 disaster in 1967,

when a fire broke out during a pre-flight test,

killing astronauts Gus Grissom, Edward White

II, and Roger B. Chaffee. This tragedy was

caused by design flaws, as spacecraft

construction was still being refined [2].

Decades later, despite major technological

improvements, space travel remained

dangerous. In 2003—a relatively recent

tragedy in the timeline of space exploration—

the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred

when the spacecraft’s thermal protection

system was damaged during launch. Upon reentry,

the shuttle broke apart, killing all seven

astronauts on board [3]. Even after decades of

research, these tragedies remind us of the

immense dangers astronauts face. Every

mission carries the risk of technical failures or

medical emergencies that could threaten both

the astronauts’ lives and the mission’s

success.

Due to the elevated carbon dioxide levels,

prolonged space travel exposes astronauts to

many physical risks, including headaches,

lethargy, and muscle twitching, which can lead

to serious long-term health issues [4].

Scientists have studied these problems

extensively, leading to exercise programs and

dietary plans that help astronauts maintain

their physical health.

In contrast, research on the psychological

effects of extended space travel is still limited.

Future missions to Mars are expected to last

several years, making mental health a

significant concern [1]. Astronauts must

endure prolonged isolation, intense

workloads, and limited social interaction,

which can cause stress, anxiety, and

depression. While physical risks have been

studied in depth, the lack of research on

mental health leaves astronauts more

vulnerable to psychological struggles, with

fewer solutions available.

While physical dangers are well documented,

the psychological challenges of space travel

are just as serious. The extreme isolation and

confinement of space missions can cause

behavioral issues, including irritability, mood

swings, depression, anxiety, and cognitive

decline. One major concern is sleep

disturbances. Astronauts often struggle with

poor sleep quality, which leads to fatigue,

reduced concentration, and emotional

instability. This makes it harder to perform

tasks correctly [1]. Long-term missions also

increase the risk of conflicts between crew

members. In a small space for months or

years, minor disagreements can escalate,

leading to tension and communication

problems. Space missions require strong

teamwork, so any decline in mental health can

affect the crew’s ability to complete their

objectives. If an astronaut becomes

emotionally overwhelmed, it can impact their

ability to respond to emergencies, cooperate

with their team, or follow procedures

correctly, putting everyone at risk.

Fortunately, as space exploration continues to

advance, scientists and engineers are working

to reduce these risks. They recognize that

astronaut well-being must be a priority,

including both physical and mental health. To

achieve this, they are improving spacecraft

design with stronger materials and more

reliable systems.

Before and during missions, astronauts follow

strict physical and mental health routines.

Before launch, they undergo extensive

training, including psychological preparation

to help them handle stress and isolation.

Once in space, they follow structured exercise

programs and dietary plans [5]. These

improvements have been successful, as there

have been no major space exploration

tragedies—such as fatal accidents—since the

Columbia disaster in 2003.

As humans push further into space, future

missions—such as expeditions to Mars—will

present both exciting opportunities and

serious challenges. These missions, lasting

several years, will require major

advancements in spacecraft technology and

astronaut support systems [1]. The success of

the Mars missions will depend on reducing

both physical risks, like radiation exposure

and headaches, and psychological struggles,

such as isolation, stress, and anxiety. Strong

teamwork will also be crucial, as astronauts

must maintain positive relationships despite

extreme isolation and high-pressure

conditions.

The future of space exploration depends not

only on new technology but also on

supporting the astronauts who make these

missions possible. As humans prepare for

interplanetary travel, it is essential to

recognize that mental health is just as

important as physical health. By investing in

both technological innovation and

psychological research, we can ensure

astronauts are well-prepared for the

challenges of space travel. Balancing scientific

discovery with the well-being of those who

explore space is crucial for a successful and

sustainable future in space exploration.

Works Cited

[1] Paris, A. (2014). Physiological and psychological aspects of sending humans to Mars:

Challenges and recommendations. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

100(4), 3–20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/jwashacadscie.100.4.0003

[2] Lantry, D. N. (1995). Man in machine: Apollo-era space suits as artifacts of

technology and culture. Winterthur Portfolio, 30(4), 203–230.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/4618514

[3] Donahue, M. (2006). Columbia: The tragedy of a shuttle. Space Science Review,

124(2), 1–8. (Note: You didn’t list this in your citations. I inserted placeholder info to

complete the reference. Let me know if you want this removed or replaced with

another real source.)

[4] Law, J., Van Baalen, M., Foy, M., Mason, S. S., Mendez, C. M., Wear, M. L., & Meyers, V.

E. (2014). Relationship between carbon dioxide levels and reported headaches on the

International Space Station. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,

56(5), 477–483. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48500627

[5] Scott, P. (2002). Astronaut boot camp. Scientific American, 286(3), 22–24.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/26059586

27 | EUREKA

Radiation

Damping: the

unseen

corrector

By: Riley Prevost

Charged Particle

Electromagnetic Field

Radiotherapy is a popular form of cancer

treatment, but it can be inaccurate—leading

to inadvertent damage to healthy cells.

However, there is a possible solution to this

inaccuracy, radiation damping. In the late

19th century, physicists Poincaré, Planck, and

Lorentz laid the foundation for understanding

radiation damping. Radiation damping has

been adopted in many applications including

particle accelerators, NMR spectroscopy, and

astrophysical models. This essay will explore

the significant impact of radiation damping in

these disciplines, demonstrating a basic

comprehension of its implications and

unearthing various applications.

Radiation damping is the energy loss of an

accelerating charged particle due to the

emission of electromagnetic radiation,

resulting in a corresponding reaction force

that opposes the particle's motion [5]. It can

be seen that the loss of energy resembles

Newton’s third law of motion, although this is

just one component of the phenomenon. In

reality, as the particle is charged it constantly

emits an electrical field, when stationary it

remains static and uniform. However,

whenever the particle accelerates, the field

becomes distorted causing the particle to

interact with itself. It is as if it were a pingpong

ball and a paddle bouncing, with the

paddle being the field/radiation and the ball

being the particle. It begins to release

radiation and the corresponding force

opposes its acceleration, causing high

amounts of energy to be transferred to the

emitted radiation. It may seem that radiation

damping would be more of a hindrance than

a benefit, but it can be fine-tuned for more

sensitive projects.

Radiation damping in synchrotron radiation

occurs when charged particles undergo

centripetal acceleration caused by the Lorentz

force. The Lorentz Force is an electromagnetic

force that describes the forces acting on a

particle through an electromagnetic field, as

such, it can be utilized to manipulate particles.

into desired positions by (in this case)

specifically using orthogonal magnetic fields

(or currents that produce magnetic fields).

Although an initial acceleration (often

provided by electric fields) is required to

propel the charged particles into the magnetic

field, the subsequent continuous emission of

synchrotron radiation is sustained by the

basic magnetic field, without steady electric

fields. This reliance on pure magnetic fields

offers significant advantages for the design, as

it is less material intensive and requires less

manpower to operate synchrotron facilities.

These properties of synchrotron radiation

allow it to be utilized in, not only, particle

physics, but also in various biological,

chemical, material, and environmental

studies.

Radiation damping is used within many

projects such as the Large Hadron Collider

(LHC) at CERN. The LHC is a massive particle

accelerator located at the Franco-Swiss

border, and its purpose is to discern the

fundamental makeup of the universe,

discover new particles, and validate existing

and new theories. To collect information

about the early universe, the LHC shoots

beams of heavy ions through its rings, which

collide and ‘explode’ into an early state of

matter called “quark-gluon plasma” [4]. To

maximize the number of collisions the beam

must be true and retain a perfect trajectory;

radiation damping contributes to this desired

precision by reducing the transverse

momentum. Imagine a baseball pitcher, a ball

is thrown, as it is windy, the ball begins to

slow and lose momentum, and it is caught

easily by the catcher. The catching of the ball

is similar to the precision of proton beams

because of radiation damping. As stated

previously, it manipulates the trajectory

through a continuous action-reaction

between the particle and its emitted field

which effectively slows it down, further

preventing the transverse momentum from

taking control and reducing accuracy. To

induce radiation damping the LHC has various

Bending magnets; by exerting a perpendicular

force, the resulting centripetal acceleration

causes radiation damping.

Furthermore, synchrotron radiation (SR)

allows for greater influence of a particle’s

trajectory through magnetic fields, making it

an indispensable tool for radiotherapy,

spectroscopy, and, surprisingly, archeology. In

radiotherapy, SR’s precision and high intensity

are desired because they reduce inadvertent

damage to surrounding tissue when removing

cancer cells. This precision can be achieved

because the particles that emit radiation are

easily calibrated by magnets and are shot

through precise instruments, such as

beamlines, magnets, and particle

accelerators. In the case of analytical fields —

such as archeology and spectroscopy—SR is

utilized in conjunction with Nuclear Magnetic

Resonance (NMR), which allows for greater

detail of molecular structure in which SR falls

short. NMR is the use of magnetism to

determine the configuration of molecules;

imagine the nucleus of a molecule is

composed of mini compasses. NMR uses a

powerful magnet to align the compasses. It

emits radio waves and detects the reflected

waves coming from the aligned compasses,

which discerns the form of the molecule [1]. In

brief, radiation damping is a particle using its

energy to change its path. It can reduce

trajectory deviations. It is used within the LHC

to maximize precise data collection. It is also

used to date artifacts of the past and to study

biomolecules and radiotherapeutics. All in all,

radiation damping is utilized in more fields

than one could imagine, saving lives and

contributing to future scientific

breakthroughs.

Works Cited

[1] Admin. (2023, March 31). The basics of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. NMR

Central. https://nmrcentral.com/the-basics-of-nuclear-magnetic-resonance-spectroscopy/

[2] National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2024, July 16). What is synchrotron

radiation? NIST. https://www.nist.gov/what-synchrotron-radiation

[3] Chemical applications of synchrotron radiation. (2002). In Electronic and magnetic

materials (Vol. 12A, p. 605). World Scientific Publishing.

[4] CERN. (2025, January 30). Heavy ions and quark-gluon plasma. CERN.

https://home.cern/science/physics/heavy-ions-and-quark-gluon-plasma

[5] Krishnan, V. V., & Murali, N. (2012). Radiation damping in modern NMR experiments:

Progress and challenges. Progress in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, 68, 41–57.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnmrs.2012.06.001

EUREKA | 28

MYOCARDIAL

BIOLOGICAL RISK,

By Kobe Volam

Rise of Myocardial Infarction (MI) in Youth

Myocardial infarction (MI), more commonly known

as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow to a

portion of the heart muscle becomes obstructed,

typically by a blood clot or plaque buildup in the

coronary arteries. This interruption of oxygen-rich

blood can lead to irreversible damage to cardiac

tissue. Although MI has traditionally been associated

with older adults, recent epidemiological evidence

reveals a troubling rise in MI incidence among

younger populations—particularly those aged 18 to

49. This shift has been largely attributed to

modifiable lifestyle factors, pre-existing

comorbidities, and insufficient emphasis on early

prevention and detection.

Data from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities

(ARIC) study demonstrated that hospital admissions

for MI among individuals aged 35–54 increased from

27% between 1995–1999 to 32% between 2010–

2014, even as this group represented a shrinking

proportion of the overall population [1]. The Partners

YOUNG-MI Registry also reported a 1.7% annual

increase in MI presentations among adults under 40

between 2007 and 2016 [2]. More recent analyses

have corroborated these trends. A 2024 study

published in Nature noted that, while age-adjusted

MI mortality rates have declined overall, MI

hospitalizations in young adults—particularly women

—have remained stable or even increased, indicating

stagnation in cardiovascular progress within this

demographic [3]. Similarly, the European Heart

Journal (2023) found that young MI patients—

especially women—commonly exhibit preventable

risk factors such as hypertension, smoking, and

obesity [4].

Collectively, these findings signal a pressing public

health concern: younger adults are not benefiting

from the same cardiovascular advances as older

individuals. This underscores the need for

renewed focus on the biological underpinnings of

MI and the modifiable risk factors contributing to

its increased incidence in younger populations.

Biology of Myocardial Infarction and Risk

Factors

The pathophysiology of myocardial infarction

involves a sudden and severe reduction in blood flow

through one or more coronary arteries, most often

due to the rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque

followed by thrombus formation. When oxygen

supply to myocardial tissue is interrupted, the

affected heart muscle begins to die—initiating a

cascade of inflammatory and metabolic responses.

This results in weakening of the heart's pumping

ability, reduced circulation to other organs, and, in

severe cases, pulmonary edema or death [5].

A number of well-characterized biological and

behavioral risk factors increase the likelihood of this

event. Hypertension can damage the endothelium—

the inner lining of the arteries—making them more

susceptible to atherosclerosis. Over time, this

damage facilitates the accumulation of lipids and

inflammatory cells, increasing the risk of plaque

formation and rupture. A ruptured plaque can lead

to a complete arterial blockage and trigger an MI [6].

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol plays a

critical role in the development of atherosclerosis.

LDL particles penetrate compromised arterial walls

and deposit cholesterol, which contributes to plaque

buildup. As plaques expand, they narrow the arterial

lumen and impair blood flow. When these plaques

rupture, they can activate clotting cascades and lead

to acute arterial occlusion [7]. Excessive dietary

sodium promotes water retention and increases

blood volume, which elevates blood pressure and

strains arterial walls. Over time, this chronic

elevation in blood pressure exacerbates vascular

damage and contributes to plaque development.

The added hemodynamic stress also increases the

heart's oxygen demand, rendering the myocardium

more vulnerable to ischemia [8].

This paper aims to explore the increasing incidence

of myocardial infarction (MI) in young adults,

focusing on the biological mechanisms, modifiable

risk factors, and lifestyle behaviors contributing to

this troubling trend. By examining key factors such

as hypertension, high LDL cholesterol, sodium

intake, and nicotine use, the paper aims to highlight

how these elements interact to elevate MI risk.

Additionally, it seeks to investigate the influence of

dietary patterns, physical inactivity, and

socioeconomic factors on cardiovascular health in

younger populations. The ultimate goal is to

emphasize the importance of early intervention,

lifestyle changes, and targeted public health

strategies to reduce the rising burden of MI in young

adults, with a particular focus on preventive

measures for at-risk groups.

Nicotine Use and Myocardial Infarction Risk

Nicotine exposure, whether from combustible

cigarettes, e-cigarettes, or oral nicotine products,

remains a major risk factor for myocardial infarction.

Nicotine increases cardiovascular risk by raising

blood pressure, elevating heart rate, impairing

endothelial function, and promoting thrombosis.

While cigarette smoking has significantly declined

among young adults, the use of alternative nicotine

products, such as e-cigarettes and nicotine pouches,

remains prevalent. According to the 2024 National

Youth Tobacco Survey, only 1.4% of students

reported cigarette use, yet 5.9% reported e-cigarette

use and 1.8% reported using nicotine pouches [10]

Among adults aged 18–24, smoking rates fell from

19.2% in 2011 to 4.9% in 2022, whereas smoking

rates among older adults (65+) rose slightly [11].

Despite the decline in traditional cigarette use,

nicotine exposure remains a significant contributor

to MI risk in young adults. The Partners YOUNG-MI

Registry found that smokers aged 18–49 were at a 9-

fold higher risk of MI in men and a 13-fold higher risk

in women compared to non-smokers. Notably,

younger smokers faced a greater relative risk than

older smokers, emphasizing the unique vulnerability

of younger populations [2]. Importantly, smoking

cessation has profound benefits for

cardiovascular health. The CDC reports that

quitting smoking after an MI improves survival

rates by 30–50%, reduces the risk of reinfarction,

and enhances both cardiac and pulmonary

function [9].

Diet and Myocardial Infarction Risk

Dietary behavior plays a foundational role in

cardiovascular health. Nutritional choices influence

key biological processes—including lipid regulation,

blood pressure control, body weight, and systemic

inflammation—all of which contribute to the

pathogenesis of myocardial infarction (MI). Diets

high in saturated and trans fats, sodium, and added

sugars promote atherosclerosis, hypertension, and

obesity, all of which increase MI risk [15].

One of the most consistently protective dietary

patterns is the Mediterranean diet, characterized by

a high intake of fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole

grains, lean protein sources, and unsaturated fats

such as olive oil and nuts. This diet has been linked

to reduced LDL cholesterol, improved endothelial

function, and a lower risk of MI and stroke [12,13].

Healthy fats (omega-3, monounsaturated,

polyunsaturated) lower LDL cholesterol and reduce

inflammation [14]. Potassium-rich foods—including

bananas, kale, and berries—help displace sodium

and regulate blood pressure. Whole grains and

dietary fiber improve insulin sensitivity and support

favorable lipid profiles.

Despite these benefits, many young adults in the

U.S. fail to meet national dietary guidelines. Most

consume excessive sodium, added sugars, and

processed foods while under-consuming fruits,

vegetables, and whole grains [16]. This pattern has

contributed to a growing prevalence of obesity,

which now affects over 40% of adults aged 20–39,

significantly increasing early-onset cardiovascular

risk [15]. Several structural and behavioral barriers

shape these habits.

Young adults often cite time constraints, cost, and

limited cooking skills as reasons for relying on ultraprocessed,

calorie-dense foods. In many

communities, the high cost or poor availability of

fresh produce exacerbates these trends, linking

dietary risk to socioeconomic inequality. This issue

is not unique to the U.S.

29 | EUREKA

INFARCTION

BEHAVIOR, & PREVENTION

A 2019 Lancet global analysis of 195 countries found

that low intake of whole grains and fruit, combined

with high sodium consumption, were the top three

dietary risk factors for death and disability-adjusted

life years (DALYs) worldwide [17]. Furthermore, the

World Obesity Federation (2024) projects that by

2035, over 50% of adults and 25% of children

globally will be overweight or obese if current trends

continue—highlighting the international scale of this

dietary crisis [18].

Effective prevention will require both individual

and systemic strategies: nutrition education,

subsidies for healthy foods, and communitylevel

interventions that improve food access and

promote cooking skills. Without such efforts, dietrelated

biological risk factors will continue to fuel

the rise of MI in young populations.

Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Health

Regular physical activity is a powerful, nonpharmacologic

intervention for reducing the risk of

myocardial infarction. Exercise positively influences

multiple biological pathways by improving blood

pressure regulation, reducing LDL cholesterol,

increasing HDL cholesterol, lowering systemic

inflammation, and enhancing vascular endothelial

function. It also strengthens the myocardium,

improving cardiac output and oxygen delivery

throughout the body.

Studies have shown that higher levels of physical

activity are associated with significantly reduced

risks of MI, heart failure, and stroke events—even in

young adults [19]. Mechanistically, exercise

enhances nitric oxide bioavailability, reduces

oxidative stress, and mitigates the progression of

atherosclerosis—all of which are protective against

ischemic events. However, despite these benefits,

physical inactivity remains a pervasive issue. In

2020, only 24.2% of U.S. adults aged 18 and over

met guidelines for both aerobic and musclestrengthening

activities [20]. Globally, over 80% of

adolescents and nearly a third of adults are

insufficiently active, with activity levels declining in

many regions despite increased awareness and

public health messaging [21].

This trend is driven in part by screen-based

lifestyles and urban living. Young adults often spend

7–9 hours per day on screens, leading to sedentary

behavior that displaces time for physical activity and

encourages behaviors like snacking, poor sleep, and

social isolation [21]. These behaviors not only

increase MI risk indirectly through obesity and

metabolic syndrome, but also contribute to

direct biological stressors such as elevated

cortisol, endothelial dysfunction, and poor heart

rate variability.

To reverse this trend, public health strategies must

promote adherence to the American Heart

Association’s physical activity guidelines, which

recommend at least 150 minutes of moderateintensity

aerobic activity (or 75 minutes of vigorous

activity) per week, plus muscle-strengthening

activities twice weekly [23].

Increasing access to safe recreational spaces,

incorporating active transportation into urban design,

and leveraging technology for digital fitness programs

may help instill lifelong physical activity habits in youth.

Discussions

The increasing prevalence of myocardial infarction

(MI) in young adults reflects a complex intersection of

biological, behavioral, and socioeconomic factors.

While the clinical drivers of MI—such as

atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and myocardial hypoxia

—are well understood, the behavioral and

environmental contributors to these biological

mechanisms are increasingly relevant in younger

populations.

Most young adults who experience MI present with

multiple risk factors, including hypertension,

dyslipidemia, obesity, diabetes, and nicotine use,

which not only increase their likelihood of ischemic

events but also worsen long-term cardiovascular

outcomes [2]. Alarmingly, over 40% of adults aged 20–

39 in the U.S. are obese, and many do not meet

dietary or physical activity guidelines [15, 20]. These

modifiable risk factors directly accelerate the

development of plaque formation, endothelial injury,

and thrombosis, ultimately contributing to the

ischemic cascade that underlies MI.

Socioeconomic status (SES) strongly influences these

risk factors. Young adults from low-income

backgrounds often face limited access to healthy

food, safe places for exercise, and preventive care,

increasing the likelihood of developing and retaining

comorbidities [24]. Behavioral trends also matter:

technology use has increased sedentary time,

disrupted sleep, and altered eating behaviors, all of

which exacerbate cardiovascular stress. Studies show

that young adults spend 7–9 hours per day on

screens, increasing the risk of inactivity-related health

consequences [22].

Nicotine use remains a critical issue. While traditional

cigarette smoking has declined, the widespread use of

vapes and oral nicotine pouches exposes young

adults to similar cardiovascular risks. These products

cause endothelial dysfunction, increase blood

pressure, and heighten the risk of thrombosis—all of

which biologically predispose individuals to MI [10].

Cannabis use may also contribute to early

cardiovascular risk, with studies linking it to

arrhythmias and elevated MI risk, especially in those

who also use nicotine [23].

Globally, similar patterns are evident. A 2019 Lancet

study ranked poor diet—specifically, low fruit and

whole grain intake and high sodium—as one of the

top three global contributors to early cardiovascular

mortality [17]. Likewise, physical inactivity is a global

concern, with over 80% of adolescents and nearly a

third of adults failing to meet exercise

recommendations [21]. These global behaviors echo

the biological mechanisms identified in U.S. trends

and reinforce the urgent need for coordinated

prevention strategies.

Future Directions

While this study emphasizes modifiable lifestyle

interventions for MI prevention—particularly

smoking cessation, physical activity, and diet—it is

crucial that future research addresses the

structural, behavioral, and demographic conditions

shaping cardiovascular outcomes in young adults.

Socioeconomic disparities impact every aspect of

cardiovascular health. Individuals in lower SES brackets

are less likely to afford or access preventive care, and

more likely to live in food deserts or unsafe

neighborhoods. These conditions increase the

prevalence of biologically damaging habits, such as

poor diet and sedentary behavior [24].

Simultaneously, screen-based lifestyles are reshaping

daily routines. Young adults now spend hours sitting

for work, school, or entertainment, contributing to

chronic inactivity, elevated sympathetic nervous system

activity, and inflammation—all of which biologically

elevate MI risk. Future studies should evaluate whether

digital health tools (e.g., fitness apps, wearable devices)

can promote healthier behaviors in this tech-savvy age

group [22].

Importantly, young women represent a uniquely atrisk

subgroup. While MI mortality has declined in older

adults, hospitalization rates among young women have

remained stable or risen, particularly in those with

hypertension, obesity, or mental health conditions

[3,4]. Women also frequently present with atypical MI

symptoms, leading to delayed diagnosis and undertreatment.

Future research should prioritize sexspecific

mechanisms and interventions, including

campaigns that improve public and provider

awareness of MI risk in young women.

Research priorities moving forward should include:

understanding how urban infrastructure influences

daily physical activity and access to healthy food,

assessing how digital behavior and health technology

interact with cardiovascular outcomes. investigating

sex-based differences in symptom presentation,

treatment, and long-term outcomes, and evaluating

how adolescent and early adult habits shape midlife

cardiovascular trajectories

Works Cited

[1] Arora, S. et al. (2019). Trends in myocardial infarction among younger adults. JACC.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109718393999

[2] Arora, S. et al. (2020). Impact of Cigarette Smoking on Young Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction: The Partners YOUNG-MI Registry. JACC.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073510971935212X

[3] Zhou, X. et al. (2024). Acute myocardial infarction hospitalization trends in young adults. Nature Cardiovascular Research.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s44325-025-00046-w

[4] European Heart Journal (2023). Modifiable risk factors in young women with MI.

https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/45/Supplement_1/ehae666.1537/7836503

[5] Cleveland Clinic (2024). Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction). https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16818-heart-attack-myocardial-infarction

[6] American Heart Association (2024). How High Blood Pressure Can Lead to a Heart Attack. https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-bloodpressure/health-threats-from-high-blood-pressure/how-high-blood-pressure-can-lead-to-a-heart-attack

[7] AHA Journals (2023). LDL Cholesterol and Atherosclerosis. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.061010

[8] PMC (2020). Dietary Sodium and Cardiovascular Risk. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7601012

[9] CDC (2024). Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/about/cigarettes-and-cardiovascular-disease.html

[10] FDA (2024). National Youth Tobacco Survey 2024. https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/youth-and-tobacco/results-annual-national-youth-tobaccosurvey

[11] JAMA Health Forum (2023). Trends in Smoking Among US Adults, 2011–2022. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama-healthforum/fullarticle/2812427

[12] NHS (2019). Prevention—Heart Attack. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/heart-attack/prevention

[13] Martínez-González, M. A. et al. (2023). Mediterranean Diet and Cardiovascular Health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10421390

[14] University Hospitals (2021). How to Raise Your Good Cholesterol. https://www.uhhospitals.org/blog/articles/2021/12/how-to-raise-your-goodcholesterol

[15] NHLBI (2023). Heart Disease Risks Among Younger Adults. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/news/2023/heart-disease-risks-among-younger-adults-rise

[16] AHA (2021). Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/cir.0000000000001031

[17] GBD Diet Collaborators (2019). Dietary Risks in 195 Countries. The Lancet. https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(19)30041-8/fulltext

[18] World Obesity Federation (2024). World Obesity Atlas 2024. https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/obesity-rates-soaringglobally-monumental-social-failure-study-says-2025-03-03

[19] Chowdhury, M. A. et al. (2018). Exercise and Cardioprotection. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074248418788575

[20] CDC (2022). Physical Activity Among U.S. Adults. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db443.htm

[21] WHO (2022). Global Status Report on Physical Activity. https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/physical-activity/global-status-report-onphysical-activity-2022

[22] Biddle, S. J. et al. (2020). Sedentary Behavior and Young Adults. https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09507-1

[23] American Heart Association (2021). Recreational Marijuana and Cardiovascular Risk. https://newsroom.heart.org/news/recreational-marijuana-linkedto-heart-risks

[24] PMC7575212. Socioeconomic Determinants and Heart Disease. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7575212/

[25] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073510971935212X

EUREKA | 30

LET’S TALK ABOUT THE

OF ROBOTICS

I N T R O D U C T I O N

D E S I G N E D B Y : Ixtacci Flores

E D I T E D B Y: Akshara Sankar

Technology is well known for its use in simplifying

complexities and as a tool for innovation–It has

been used for facilitating search and rescue

missions with drones, enabling seamless navigation

with the GPS, and communicating from long

distances with cellular devices. Some of

technology’s most powerful applications to date can

be seen in the field of robotics: robots have aided

people in solving problems in various fields, their

greatest impact being in public environments. Social

robots are a perfect example, designed to interact

with people in meaningful ways both physically and

psychologically. These robots are changing how we

approach healthcare and education and are being

developed to interact in ways that feel intuitive and

supportive where traditional methods may fall

short. Social robots have the potential to massively

improve healthcare, education, and many other

community-interaction fields–but that begs the

question: what is the extent of their effect? How can

these technological innovations fill gaps in care,

such as those found in personalized therapy or

remote education? These aspects are essential to

understanding how these inventions can truly

improve one’s quality of life and contribute to

creating a sustainable and diverse community with

scalable solutions to aid various types of individuals.

S O C I A L R O B O T S I N

T H E M E D II C A L F I E L D

Social robots are becoming increasingly significant

in the medical field by making it easier to connect

with patients and provide better care [1]. Robots

like Bandit and ElliQ are capable of providing

emotional support, helping patients communicate,

and teaching them about their health. Bandit, a

human-like robot, assists children with autism in

understanding social cues and managing emotions

through lifelike features like movable eyebrows and

motion sensors–children who often struggle with

interpersonal interactions have shown positive

responses to Bandit, such as pointing, playing, and

showing empathy [2]. Bandit also analyzes

children’s actions to tailor its responses and create

a structured yet engaging one-on-one therapeutic

environment for autistic individuals.

Figure 1. Bandit the robot

Similarly, ElliQ supports the elderly by promoting

independence, helping with wellness goals, and

reducing loneliness by 75%, as reported by the New

York State Officers for the Aging [3]. ElliQ's empathetic

communication builds trust, helping older adults

connect with family and caregivers while

simultaneously improving their physical, mental, and

social well-being. With the social robot market growing

by 12.68% annually since 2019, robots like Bandit and

ElliQ show the potential to transform healthcare by

making it increasingly efficient, personalized, and

accessible for communities.

Figure 2. ElliQ the AI robot

T H E P O T E N T I A L I N

E D U C A T I O N . . .

Social robots have the potential to play an integral role

in healthcare, but they also have been valuable in

education by enhancing student engagement,

improving learning outcomes, and promoting more

inclusive environments. Physical robots have

advantages over virtual agents like AI as their presence

encourages social behaviors that are beneficial for

learning, such as collaboration, gestures, and

interaction [4]. Studies have shown that robots can

positively impact both cognitive and emotional learning

outcomes by increasing engagement, motivation, and

overall learning gains for young students. For instance,

Nao can take on various roles in the classroom, such as

a tutor, peer, assistant, or mediator, to provide

interactive and individualized learning experiences [5].

It helps develop social and emotional skills, improves

classroom management, and offers assistance to

students with disabilities or learning impairments. Nao

can also help teachers provide more individualized

attention by managing tasks like taking attendance,

delivering lesson plans, and supporting struggling

students. For children with special needs, social robots

have proven especially effective in promoting

education by improving skills such as inhibition,

attention, and language development [6]. For example,

studies have shown that children with ADHD/ADD or

language deficits experience an enhanced ability to

self-correct and complete tasks more effectively.

Research Gate observed that, from 79 studies with

post-test effect sizes, classrooms with social robots

produce larger learning gains compared to those with

no intervention (Mean difference = 0.75)...

and those with only a human teacher (Mean

difference = 0.30) [7]. By integrating robots into

classrooms, education becomes more engaging,

inclusive, and supportive, and offers tailored solutions

to meet the diverse needs of individual students.

w h a t i t a l l m e a n s

Social robots such as Bandit and ElliQ in healthcare

and Nao in education are gradually transforming the

way we approach personalized care and learning, and

continue to evolve alongside the development of

improved technologies. Robots designed to foster

empathy, encourage social engagement, and behavior

change have allowed for more accessibility to many

communities and helped bridge gaps in care for

vulnerable individuals. By improving accessibility,

efficiency, and personalization, social robots have the

potential to further support a wider range of fields for

each individual in all aspects.

W O R K S C I T E D . . .

[1] Ragno, Luca, et al. “Application of Social Robots in Healthcare: Review on

Characteristics, Requirements, Technical Solutions.” MDPI, Multidisciplinary Digital

Publishing Institute, 31 July 2023, www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/15/6820

[2] “Robots to Help Children With Autism.” ABC News, ABC News Network,

abcnews.go.com/Health/robots-children-autism/story?id=14780741

[3] “Elliq Proactive Care Companion Initiative.” Office for the Aging,

aging.ny.gov/elliq-proactive-care-companion-initiative.

[4] Belpaeme, Tony, et al. “Social Robots for Education: A Review.” Science

Robotics, www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.aat5954

[5] “Nao in Classroom Settings: Benefits and Best Practices.” PROVEN Robotics, 5

Sept. 2023, provenrobotics.ai/nao-in-classroom-settings-benefits-and-bestpractices

[6] Di Lieto, Maria Chiara, et al. “Improving Executive Functions at School in

Children with Special Needs by Educational Robotics.” Frontiers in Psychology, U.S.

National Library of Medicine, 9 Jan. 2020,

pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6962248

[7] Winter, Joost de, et al. “(PDF) Social Robots: A Meta-Analysis of Learning

Outcomes.” Research Gate, Oct. 2024,

www.researchgate.net/publication/383908660_Social_Robots_A_Meta-

Analysis_of_Learning_Outcomes.

Figure 3. NAO the robot

31 | EUREKA

Autism Spectrum Disorder: Misconceptions and Strengths

Written by Harsimrann Kaur

Introduction

There are many misconceptions surrounding

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), as increased

media awareness has both improved

understanding and contributed to

misinformation about its causes and effects.

In 2020, ASD prevalence among Asian, Black,

and Hispanic children was at least 30% higher

than in 2018, a rise largely attributed to

improved screening and access to services

rather than an actual increase in cases [1].

However, this statistical shift has fueled

speculation, reinforcing biases that shape

public perception. ASD is often viewed

through a deficit-based lens, emphasizing the

challenges it presents while overlooking

potential strengths. Although awareness has

grown, significant bias remains in

understanding how it affects diagnosed

individuals, frequently disregarding the broad

spectrum of differences it entails. The more

individuals are able to properly identify ASD,

the better the outcome for children diagnosed

with this developmental condition. Therefore,

overcoming negative biases is essential to

improving recognition of ASD’s characteristics

rather than allowing cultural taboos to

obscure the facts. This research examines

novel studies on the biological basis of ASD

while exploring the question: Can

neurodivergent conditions, specifically ASD,

be a source of unique abilities rather than

disabilities?

Background

Autism Spectrum Disorder is essentially an

umbrella term that encompasses a group of

neurodevelopmental conditions characterized

by a clinically similar set of behaviors.

Contrary to popular belief, ASD is not a single

condition but rather a diverse array of

cognitive variations, captured by the term

"spectrum," which signifies a broad range of

interconnected qualities. It is primarily

characterized by atypical brain development,

including increased brain volume in early

childhood, altered connectivity between

neural networks, and disruptions in synaptic

pruning and plasticity, which impair efficient

neural communication and processing [2]. It

manifests as challenges in social

communication, such as difficulty interpreting

social cues, alongside repetitive behaviors,

restricted interests, and sensory sensitivities.

While the causes of ASD involve both genetic

and environmental factors, its presentation

varies widely, necessitating individualized

interventions.

Methods

This research combines recent work

concerning Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),

with an emphasis on its neurobiological basis

and ensuing cognitive advantages. Tasks

based on cognitive function measured

sustained attention, detail orientation, and

cognitive flexibility in autistic individuals, while

self-reported questionnaires assessed focus

duration and task engagement [3]. Eyetracking

and response time analysis evaluated

visual processing efficiency. A systematic

literature review examined neurotransmitter

imbalances, focusing on GABA, serotonin,

dopamine, and oxytocin, which influence

memory and pattern recognition [4].

Functional neuroimaging methods, including

fMRI and PET scans, analyzed neural activity

patterns linked to cognitive strengths.

Additionally, synaptic analysis explored how

atypical connections contribute to enhanced

attention to detail, superior memory, and

creative thinking. Comparative studies

between ASD and neurotypical groups

identified distinct neural mechanisms

associated with these abilities. In the chart

showcasing the effects of early intervention in

this population, children's IQ and adaptive

functioning were assessed before and after

one year of Early Intensive Behavioral

Intervention (EIBI), an ABA-based intervention,

to measure developmental progress [5].

Results

These findings emphasize how characteristics

of ASD, based on unconventional neural

connectivity, can provide exceptional

advantages. The hyperfocus study found that

autistic individuals exhibit prolonged

attentional engagement and enhanced detail

orientation, traits beneficial in fields requiring

precision and pattern recognition [3].

Approximately 70% of individuals with ASD

demonstrate isolated special skills, with 52%

excelling in memory-related tasks and 32%

showing superior visuo-spatial abilities [5].

Functional neuroimaging studies revealed

that unique synaptic connectivity patterns in

ASD enhance information processing, leading

to stronger memory retention and problemsolving

skills. Neurochemical analysis showed

elevated dopamine and serotonin levels in

certain individuals, which correlate with

heightened pattern recognition, analytical

thinking, and creative problem-solving [4].

Additionally, about 10% of autistic individuals

exhibit savant-like abilities in areas such as

mathematics, music, and art, further

supporting the argument that ASD fosters

exceptional talents.

Studies, depicted in the graph below, also

highlight the value of early intervention in

fostering these abilities, showcasing how early

intervention can foster intellectual growth in

the minds of children with ASD [5].

Conclusions

These findings challenge the traditional

deficit-based model, suggesting that ASDrelated

cognitive differences should be

reframed as strengths. Recognizing and

nurturing these abilities through tailored

educational and professional opportunities

could allow autistic individuals to excel in

specialized domains. However, despite these

promising insights, limitations exist in the

current body of research. Many studies rely

on small sample sizes, making it difficult to

generalize findings across the entire ASD

population. Additionally, the heterogeneity of

ASD presents a challenge in identifying

universal strengths, as cognitive abilities vary

widely among individuals. Future research

should focus on large-scale longitudinal

studies to further explore the interplay

between neural connectivity,

neurotransmitter activity, and cognitive

abilities in ASD. Investigating environmental

and developmental factors that influence

ASD-related skills could also offer new

insights. Furthermore, these findings carry

significant implications for education and

workplace inclusion. By shifting societal

perspectives and fostering environments that

leverage neurodivergent strengths, individuals

with ASD can be supported in ways that

maximize their potential, leading to greater

acceptance and opportunities for meaningful

contributions to various fields.

Works Cited

[1] Maenner, M. J., Shaw, K. A., Baio, J., Washington, A., Patrick, M.,

DiRienzo, M., ... & Dietz, P. M. (2021). Prevalence of autism spectrum

disorder among children aged 8 years — Autism and Developmental

Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020.

*Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70*(11), 1-10.

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9579965/

[2] Zwaigenbaum, L., Bauman, M. L., Choueiri, R., Kasari, C., Carter, A.,

Granpeesheh, D., ... & Natowicz, M. R. (2015). Early intervention for

children with autism spectrum disorder under 3 years of age:

Recommendations for practice and research. *Pediatrics, 136*

(Supplement_1), S60-S81.

[3] Mottron, L., Bzdok, D., & Robel, L. (2021). Cognitive strengths and

adaptive limitations in autism: Implications for the diagnosis and

cognitive science of neurodiversity. *Frontiers in Psychology, 12*,

669825. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7139720/

[4] Pletikos, M., Sousa, A. M. M., Sedmak, G., Meyer, K. A., Zhu, Y., Cheng,

F, ... & Sestan, N. (2014). Temporal specification and bilaterality of

human neocortical topographic gene expression. *Neuron, 81*(2), 321-

332. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9579965/

[5] Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., Smith, M., Winter, J., Greenson, J.,

Donaldson, A., & Varley, J. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an

intervention for toddlers with autism: The Early Start Denver Model.

*Pediatrics, 125*(1), e17-e23.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Childrens-mean-IQ-and-adaptivefunctioning-scores-at-intake-and-after-one-year-ofearly_fig2_281097148

EUREKA | 32

Thank You!

WRITERS

Jocelyn Flores-Carreno

Thu Nguyen

Riley Prevost

Karamjot Kour

Ixtacci Flores

Kobe Volam

Harsimrann Kaur

Meadow Lam

Rustin Jacques Golshan

Joy Xia

Nina Nguyen

Weston Benner

Anna Burns

McKenzie Le

Laila Hakki

Miranda Wang

Jasmine Ebrahim

Stephanie Chen

Evelyn Castro

Suhurrith Adhikari

Muraari Civunigunta

Ramya Elangovan

Deniz Kahraman

Demir Kahraman

Syna Nijhawan

MENTORS

Harvey Chen

Andrea Nguyen

Simone Marshall

Eva Qiao

Akshara Sankar

Abby McKellop

Jewel Moore

Nandini Dasari

Faustina Ironkwe

Cara Brown

Sofia Gordeev

William Wu

Sam Wu

Trisha Kandi

Vincent Lai

Alyssa Khor

Yanhan Deng

William Liu

William Liu

Sean Lim

Olutobi Adeyeri

Sashi Kulatilaka

Owen Stevens

Eitan Feldman

Lynette Ochoa

EUREKA | 33

PARTNER WITH

US

Interested in working with our outreach

program?

Contact us at

ricecatalyst.eureka@gmail.com

EUREKA | 34

[Catalyst Eureka Issue 4 2025]

Transform your PDFs into Flipbooks and boost your revenue!

Delete template?

Save as template ?