Design Strategies Impulse Sustainable Facades Vol. 5

DESIGN
STRATEGIES
SPECIAL ISSUE Impulses from teaching and research
09.2025
SUSTAINABLE FAÇADES
volume 5 ISSN (Print) 2943-4459
ISSN (Online) 2943-4467
Summer Semester Report

EDITORIAL
With the fifth volume of Sustainable Façades, we keep exploring how
interdisciplinary research can related to facade design and engineering at
multiple scales (urban, building, human) contribute to more sustainable and
resilient urban environments. In our previous editions, this magazine has
provided a platform where perspectives from academia and industry converge,
presenting solutions and innovations that span both theoretical and technical
applications. These contributions showcase the central role façades play in
shaping the environmental impact, identity, and livability of our cities.
This issue brings together contributions ranging from the development and
application of new materials and pre-fabricated construction, building physics in
terms of thermal and acoustic performance, computational methods to better
understand human perception, as well as the preservation of the built heritage
of cities confronting disasters and war.
As an academic report, the transfer of scientific knowledge into education is one
of our main priorities. The themes presented in this magazine reflect the spirit
within the Institute for Design Strategies and the Master of Integrated Design
(MID), as well as our collaborators from our international academic and industry
partners, enthusiastic about exploring and sharing information relevant to
façade design and engineering.
The goal is to encourage exchange across disciplines and to create a community to
share knowledge and ideas. We hope that this issue supports dialogue between
researchers, practitioners, and policymakers. We thank our contributors and
readers for their continued engagement and invite new perspectives to join us
as we move forward with the next editions.
Alvaro Balderrama Chiappe
M.Eng., Dipl.-Arch., LEED
Prof. Daniel Arztmann
Dipl.-Ing., M.Eng.
EDITORIAL VORWORT
Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5
3

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
6
2. LATEST RESEARCH
8 – Robotic Wickering: Fiber-Mycelium Hybrid Modular System
Omar Abdelhady, Victor Sardenberg, Jens-Uwe Schulz, Hans Sachs
10 – Enhancing Community Participation for the Reconstruction of Residential Heritage in the Old City
of Aleppo
Christine Kousa, Barbara Lubelli and Uta Pottgiesser
12 – Computational Aesthetics in Architecture: Towards Computational Methods for Façade Design
Victor Sardenberg
14 – Calculating and Classifying Façade Absorption in Outdoor Environments
Alvaro Balderrama
3. ARTICLES
17 – Assessing the Potential of Materials for Future Window Innovations: A Comparative Study of
Aluminum, Steel, Timber, and PVC in Performance, Sustainability, and Cost
Bahareh Hemmatikhanshir (Supervisors: Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Daniel Arztmann, M.Eng. Alvaro Balderrama)
28 – Hydrogel Coated Concrete Bricks: Heavy Rain Damage Control
Ilayda Ergin (Supervisors: Prof. Daniel Arztmann, Asst.Prof. Zelal Çinar)
38 – Bridging the Gap Between Façade Execution and BIM: A Case Study at Heidersberger
Ghazaleh Valipour (Supervisors: Prof. Daniel Arztmann, Ruben Decuypere)
46 – A Review of Industrialized Construction
Andres N. Olmos
50 – An Exploration of Detmold’s Green Façades Through a Place-Based Education Workshop
Alvaro Balderrama
4 CONTENTS
Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5

4. MID DESIGN CONCEPTS
69 – MID 2040: Summer Semester 2025 Culture and Climate Related Façade Design
Lecturers: Alvaro Balderrama, Daniel Arztmann
70 – MID Student Posters
Aashish Singh, Anastasiia Krasnikova, Dila Dil, Marie Al Helou, Sara Hemmatyar
Esraa Ahmed, Nitesh Shrestha, Sylivia Kanyora, Bishal Sunar
Saba Tahan, Omar Shazi, Md Mejbah Sakib, Kumarinda Madushan
Zahra Parsafar, Erik Karimov, Fady Aziz, Kavyashree Govil, Zahra Tahmasbi
5. EVENTS
98 – Workshop Recap: Grid-2-Shell & Add-On Construction at Schüco
100 – Presentation at the 10th WMCCAU 2025 Conference
6. IMPRINT
102
CONTENTS
Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5
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1. INTRODUCTION
Design decisions in the built environment, whether
for new constructions or renovations, carry longlasting
consequences since buildings generally
stand for several decades or even over a century. A
building’s form, materials, and systems are agreed
upon by different key stakeholders involved in
the project like the owners, investors, architects,
engineers, and more. These choices may be guided
by cost, energy performance, aesthetics, or other
factors, but in any case, they shape the urban fabric
of a given place, leaving a footprint environmental,
the identity of a place, and the life of people that will
be inside and outside of the building.
The cover of this issue of Sustainable Façades
shows an exemplary case construction technology,
resilience, preservation, and adaptive reuse: Building
1 \ Faculty of Civil Engineering (FB3) at TH OWL’s
Detmold campus.
At the beginning of the twentieth century,
today’s Building 1 was constructed within the
Emilienkaserne, a Prussian barracks ensemble on
Emilienstraße. Constructed between 1901 and
1904 by Paul Schuster, who served as Detmold’s
city architect in the following decade, the threestory
block functioned as a soldiers’ barracks
(Mannschaftsgebäude) for the Infanterie-Regiment
55 “Graf Bülow von Dennewitz”. Distinctive
features include the masonry brick façades, greenglazed
brick details frieze and perimeter walls,
sandstone elements in windows and entrances,
iron railings, among others (Kleinmanns, 2023; LWL-
Medienzentrum für Westfalen, 2009).
After the withdrawal of British forces in the early
1990s, the site was converted for educational
purposes. Building 1 was adapted for Hochschule
Ostwestfalen-Lippe’s civil engineering faculty. The
project preserved the historic envelope and much of
the interior while inserting a new primary staircase
and elevator at the central entrance. Additional
interventions included a glazed entrance volume
and high-performance windows and doors to meet
contemporary comfort and energy standards.
The renovation was completed in 1995, with the
Staatliches Bauamt Detmold as architect and the
State of North Rhine-Westphalia as client (Votteler,
2009).
In November 2007 the university inaugurated the
“Campus Emilie” expansion, adding new teaching and
laboratory facilities. Notably, parts of the expansion
were conceived by staff and students working with
the state building agency (BLB NRW) in the “Werkstatt
Emilie,” with projects continuing through 2008/2009
(Technische Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, 2007;
bba, 2009).
Today the official campus plan of the “Detmold School
of Design” of TH OWL uses Building 1 as the home of
Bauingenieurwesen (FB 3), housing administration,
seminar rooms, and a lecture halls. Around the main
courtyard, multiple buildings create an atmosphere
where different historical and architectural periods
coexist. This volume of Sustainable Façades builds
on these themes, reminding us that sustainability is
made by a series of key choices that respect the past,
respond to the present, and prepare for the future.
References
bba. (2009, April 6). Neubau der Fachhochschule Lippe und
Höxter in Detmold: Studentischer Eigenbau. https://www.
bba-online.de/akustik/studentischer-eigenbau/
Kleinmanns, J. (2023). Schuster, Paul (1866–1932). lippelex.
de. https://lippelex.de/index.php?title=Schuster,_Paul_
(1866-1932)
LWL-Medienzentrum für Westfalen. (2009, June). Campus
Emilie, Detmold, 1904–1992 Emilienkaserne: Ehemaliges
Mannschaftsgebäude, heute Institutsgebäude der
Fachhochschule Lippe und Höxter. https://www.lwl.org/
marsLWL/de/instance/picture/Campus-Emilie-Detmold.
xhtml?oid=47101753
Technische Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe. (2007,
November 12). Campus Emilie eingeweiht. https://www.thowl.de/news/artikel/detail/campus-emilie-eingeweiht/
Votteler, D. (2009). Wo kleine und große Leute lernen – die
ehemalige 55er-Kaserne. In StadtBauKultur NRW (Ed.), Vom
Nutzen des Umnutzens II: Umnutzung von Denkmälern
für Bildung und Fortbildung. https://www.lwl.org/302adownload/PDF/Umnutzung/Vom%20Nutzen%20des%20
Umnutzens_II.pdf
6
INTRODUCTION
Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5

2. LATEST RESEARCH
7

LATEST RESEARCH
Robotic wickering: Fiber-Mycelium hybrid modular system
Summary of paper published in July 2025 at the 6th International Conference on Structures and Architecture. REstructure REmaterialize
REthink REuse - Rinke & Frier Hvejsel (Eds) (ICSA2025) – Antwerp
Link: https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003658641-44
Omar Abdelhady 1 , Victor Sardenberg 2 , Jens-Uwe Schulz 1 , Hans Sachs 1
1. Department of Computational Design, Master of Integrated Design (MID), Technische Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, 32756 Detmold, Germany.
2. Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo, Brazil.
Summary
Mycelium in Architecture
The construction industry is under significant
pressure to fight climate change by using fewer
resources and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions. Enhancing material efficiency,
along with diversifying material sources and
adopting circular design strategies, is essential
to maximize service life and minimize waste.
Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) have
gained attention as biodegradable, low-carbon,
lightweight materials, and can be a potential
solution. However, their limited capacity
to endure strong longitudinal stresses has
restricted their wide adoption, though their
customizable nature offers potential for various
sustainable construction applications.
Selected reviewed projects have therefore
focused on integrating reinforcement strategies,
such as natural and wood fibers, similar to
how steel reinforcement enhances concrete’s
strength, to enhance the structural capabilities
of MBCs. This paper focuses on developing
reinforcement strategies for MBCs by designing
a 2D natural fiber wicker-lattice frame through
custom robotic additive manufacturing, serving
as both a lost mold and reinforcement to
enhance structural performance for large-scale
applications (Figure 1).
anchors, then following a zigzag pattern to form
a lattice-like structure. By adjusting the distance
between grid segments, the density of the
wicker frame changes accordingly, contributing
to different visual and mechanical properties.
Various wicker syntax strategies were designed
to adapt to different geometries and functions.
Figure 1. Mycelium – wicker frame.
Robotics Wickering
To design reinforcement, a robotic wickering
process was developed using a 6-axis robotic
arm controlled within Rhino/Grasshopper
environment (Figure 2). The process starts
by defining a grid and creating nodes at fixed
Figure 2. Overview of robotic wickering process for
fabricating demonstrator slab panel.
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Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5

Mycelium and Fiber Compatibility
Wicker frames were prepared to test the
compatibility of mycelium and fiber using a pregrown
mycelium-hemp substrate (Figure 4). A
water-based adhesive was used to preserve
the fibers and improve overall biodegradability,
while mixing the substrate with a soluble fiber
enhanced bonding and growth. After incubation
and drying, all samples showed successful
integration as proof of concept.
covering, and a stiffer adhesive to extend the
composite’s applications to larger-scale, loadbearing
scenarios, supporting the adoption of
bio-based materials in architecture. (Figure 6)
System Explorations
To design reinforcement strategies, a
computational, structural, and optimization
workflow (Grasshopper, Karamba3D FEA, and
Galapagos) was used to translate the wickering
pattern into architectural applications (Figure
3). The analysis incorporated material-specific
properties for mycelium, simulating structural
forces and identifying tension and compression
areas for optimal material placement. Principal
moment curves were extracted and optimized
to minimize displacement and iteratively refined
to achieve structural requirements. The result
is a tailored geometry that considers the force
flow. A slab element was designed as a case
study, resulting in a sandwich construction with
top and bottom covers. The demonstrator panel
was produced and showed complete integration
of the mycelium with the wicker frame, proven
by the significant weight reduction after growth
and drying (Figure 5). The load-bearing behavior
of the demonstrator was tested in a nondestructive
walking test, where users could walk
on the wooden plates supported at both ends,
supporting a user weight of 85 kg, with deflection
ranging from 4 to 7 mm. Three-point bending
test was conducted on the final prototype,
which demonstrated a load-bearing capacity of
2.7649 kN and a displacement of 79.61 mm at
failure, indicating significant flexibility. While the
material’s performance is promising, it is lower
than conventional materials, requiring further
reinforcement and optimization for high loadbearing
scenarios.
Figure 3. Final wicker frame.
Figure 4. Filling process of wicker frame with
mycelium-substrate for the growing process.
Discussion
The three-point bending test showed that
failure primarily occurred at the top and bottom
wooden plates while achieving a significant
bending flexibility radius of 3.11m. The behaviour
contrasts with what would be expected from
mycelium alone. Both materials became mutually
supportive, thereby extending the mycelium’s
functionality beyond its traditional role,
achieving the primary goal. This paper presents
an innovative approach to enhancing the
structural performance of MBC by integrating
mycelium and natural fiber into an efficient
hybrid system. Further research is required
to improve reinforcement strategies, surface
Figure 5. Final prototype: fiber-mycelium- hybrid
modular system.
LATEST RESEARCH
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LATEST RESEARCH
Enhancing Community Participation for the Reconstruction of
Residential Heritage in the Old City of Aleppo
Summary of a Peer-reviewed journal article published in August 2025 at the Heritage Journal
Link: Heritage 2025, 8(8), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8080319
Christine Kousa 1,2* , Barbara Lubelli 1 and Uta Pottgiesser 1,2
1 Department of Architectural Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD Delft,
The Netherlands; B.Lubelli@tudelft.nl (B.L.); U.Pottgiesser@tudelft.nl (U.P.)
2 Detmold School of Design, Technische Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences and Arts (TH OWL), 32756 Detmold, Germany; uta.
pottgiesser@th-owl.de
Summary
This research contributes to the field of
participatory post-Syrian-war reconstruction of
residential heritage in the Old City of Aleppo.
It presents a co-creation model that integrates
validated teaching and participatory methods,
shifting the focus from merely physical
reconstruction to a more holistic, socially
inclusive, and participatory approach. This
model proposes the involvement of residents
not as a one-time event, but as a phased and
evolving process.
Methodology
The research was conducted in two distinct
rounds. The first round of review and analysis
involved screening capacity-building projects
and courses developed in the framework of
international initiatives that promote cultural
heritage preservation through education and
building capacity. The databases searched
included ICCROM, ICOMOS, UNESCO, German
Archaeological Institute (DAI), and ERASMUS+
Capacity Building in Higher Education (CBHE)
official websites. During this analysis, it
became clear that, although these initiatives
addressed different stakeholders, they often
lacked a strong participatory approach and did
not actively involve residents. Therefore, the
research was expanded with a second round
of review and analysis, in which participatory
co-creation initiatives were considered. In this
second round, projects were identified among
international initiatives that implemented
participatory co-creation practices and
empowered local communities (participatory
design process) in the process of designing
interventions in the housing sector (residential
areas and housing projects). The databases
searched were Community Re-search and
Development Information Service (CORDIS) and
the Trans-Atlantic Platform for Social Sciences
and Humanities (T-AP).
Figure 1. Streets of Aleppo.
Figure 2. Co-diagnostic phase and related residents’
roles, methods, and level of participation.
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Proposal for an Education
Program to Support the
Sustainable Reconstruction
This educational program aims to improve
the quality of reconstruction interventions on
traditional courtyard houses in the Old City of
Aleppo following the Syrian-war by stimulating
the active participation of residents. It attempts
to favor the transition from traditional topdown
approaches common in Syria to a more
inclusive, bottom-up approach that supports
democratization of decision-making processes.
A key aspect of this proposed shift is the
concept of co-creation, in which residents work
together with architects and craftsmen to shape
the interventions in post-Syrian-war residential
heritage in the Old City of Aleppo
.
The co-creation process proposed is structured
into four phases: co-diagnostic, co-design, coimplementation,
and co-monitoring. Each phase
requires different levels of resident participation,
which include informing, consulting, involving,
collaborating, and empowering. Each level
of participation demands different roles for
residents: interactors, coordinators, taskoriented
contributors, and producers. These
roles reflect varying degrees of resource
commitment, skill requirements, and involvement
intensity (Figures 2-5).
The validation of the applicability and
effectiveness of participatory methods within
the context of the post-Syrian-war will be a
critical aspect in the actual implementation of the
proposed program in the field. However, due to
ongoing political instability in Aleppo, organizing
and overseeing participatory activities on-site is
not currently feasible.
Figure 3. Co-design phase and related residents’
roles, methods, and level of participation.
Discussion and Conclusion
This research examines how co-creation
(participatory) methods, such as walkthroughs,
photovoice, surveys, games, brainstorming, etc.,
can be integrated with structured (teaching)
capacity-building methods like lectures and
case studies etc., throughout various phases
of an education program to actively involve
residents, architects and craftsmen in all phases
of the program. In this way, data gathered
through participatory activities is converted
into organized educational content. Besides,
residents are enabled to play a more active
role in interventions on traditional courtyard
houses, aligning these interventions with their
needs and current regulations, and promoting
the sustainable reconstruction of the residential
heritage in the Old City of Aleppo. This process
supports long-term knowledge transfer and
facilitates informed residential heritage
reconstruction efforts.
The methods used in the proposed education
program are selected based on specific criteria,
such as their ability to foster inclusivity, support
skill development, and take into account the
limited timeframe and scarce financial and
human resources, which are typically found in
post-war contexts.
Figure 4. Co-implementation phase and related
residents’ roles, methods, and level of participation.
Figure 5. Co-monitoring phase and related
residents’ roles, methods, and level of participation.
LATEST RESEARCH
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LATEST RESEARCH
Computational Aesthetics in Architecture: Towards Computational
Methods for Façade Design
Summary of a PhD thesis presented on July 4th, 2024, at the Leibniz Universität Hannover
Link: https://doi.org/10.15488/17879
Victor Sardenberg 1
1. Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, R. Itambé, 185 - São Paulo, Brazil, victor.sardenberg@mackenzista.com.br
Introduction
In recent decades, architectural discourse has
been dominated by concerns with sustainability,
material performance, and social impact. These
criteria are essential, yet they often overshadow
an equally critical dimension: the aesthetic
and perceptual qualities of architectural form.
This dissociation has created a gap between
professional criteria (efficiency and performance)
and public perception (form and appearance).
Façades, as the interface between building and
society, embody this tension most directly. This
PhD research addresses this gap by proposing
a computational framework for the quantitative
evaluation of architectural aesthetics, with
special emphasis on the design and perception
of façades.
relationships (Figures 2, 3, and 4), and spatial
depth. These parameters, grounded in aesthetic
theories and cognitive psychology, were chosen
for their ability to capture perceptual qualities
of form.
Dimensionality Reduction and Mapping –
Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), these
multi-dimensional attributes were reduced to
two- and three-dimensional design space maps
(Figure 5). These maps reveal the relative positions
of designs in terms of aesthetic similarity and
diversity, facilitating both comparative analysis
and the identification of clusters.
Background and Motivation
Historically, aesthetics has remained a largely
qualitative domain, rooted in philosophy and
subjectivity. With the emergence of digital design,
parametric tools, and advanced fabrication,
designers gained unprecedented freedom to
explore complex geometries. However, the
discipline lacked a systematic way to evaluate
and compare such forms beyond performance
metrics. Neuroscience and cognitive psychology
have demonstrated that aesthetic experience
can, at least in part, be measured through
eye-tracking, neural imaging, or crowdsourced
preference studies. Building on these insights,
this research sought to develop a computational
methodology capable of analyzing architectural
images at scale and producing quantifiable
indicators of aesthetic value.
Figure 1. The Wendy Pavilion, credit: HWKN
Architecture.
Methodology
Definition of Aesthetic Parameters –
Fourteen measurable attributes were extracted
from façade images, including brightness,
fractal dimension, visual complexity, part–whole
Figure 2. Building parts captured by the Computer
Vision algorithm MSER.
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Correlation Insights – Brightness and fractal
complexity were strongly correlated with higher
aesthetic ratings; however, the predicted hedonic
response (PHR) often diverged from “beauty”
alone. This suggests that the enjoyment of a
design does not always align with its perceived
beauty, a nuance that is relevant to design
evaluation.
Contribution to Façade Discourse
The thesis contributes three advances to façade
research:
Figure 3. Diagram of parts isolated and scaled.
Aesthetic as Performance – By treating
aesthetic qualities as quantifiable and mappable,
the study situates aesthetics alongside energy
and material performance as a design criterion.
Comparative Framework – The PCA maps
allow designers and researchers to compare
façade strategies across time, competitions, and
cultural contexts.
AI and Human Creativity – The inclusion of
AI-generated designs highlights the emerging
role of machine learning in expanding aesthetic
exploration, raising questions about authorship,
coherence, and creativity in façade design.
Conclusion
Figure 4. Diagram of connectivity graph. Parts
that intersect others have a line connecting their
centroids.
Findings
Several findings are relevant for façade research
and practice:
Exploration vs. Optimization – The results
demonstrated that aesthetic evaluation is
most productive when used to map a range
of design possibilities rather than to optimize
toward a single “best” solution. By visualizing
the aesthetic landscape, designers can navigate
among multiple options and articulate diverse
intentions, instead of reducing aesthetics to a
uniform target.
Coherence vs. Variability – AI-generated
façades displayed higher statistical coherence
and structured relationships among aesthetic
parameters, while human-designed façades
showed greater unpredictability and diversity.
This contrast highlights the potential for
computational design to either reinforce or
challenge established aesthetic norms.
This research demonstrates that aesthetics,
long considered elusive and subjective, can
be approached through computational means
without reducing it to mere numbers. The
proposed framework enables a systematic, datadriven
evaluation of façades, bridging the gap
between perception and performance, as well
as human and machine creativity. By mapping
aesthetic qualities, architects and engineers
gain a tool not only to assess but also to navigate
the design space of possibilities.
As the pressures of climate change demand
façades that are materially efficient and
environmentally responsive, this research
argues for an equally rigorous consideration of
their aesthetic impact. Sustainable façades must
be more than performative skins: they must also
address the perceptual and cultural dimensions
that define their relevance to society.
Figure 5. Latent space map containing 75 designs of
pavilions generated using a GAN.
LATEST RESEARCH
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LATEST RESEARCH
Calculating and Classifying Façade Absorption in Outdoor
Environments
Summary of paper published in August 2025 at the 54th International Congress and Exposition on Noise Control Engineering - Inter-Noise
2025, Sao Paulo
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395017253_Calculating_and_classifying_facade_absorption_in_outdoor_environments
Alvaro Balderrama 1,2
1 Architectural Façades and Products Research Group, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment,Department of Architectural Engineering and
Technology, TU Delft, Julianalaan 134, 2628 BL Delft, TheNetherlands.
2 Institute for Design Strategies, Detmold School of Design, University of Applied Sciences Ostwestfalen-Lippe,Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany.
Summary
Noise pollution is a persistent problem in
contemporary cities, where traffic, construction,
and other anthropogenic sources dominate the
soundscape and negatively affect public health.
Most façades in urban areas are made of reflective
materials such as glass, stone, or concrete, which
amplify noise by sending it back into the streets.
While acoustic absorption is well understood
and regulated indoors, there are no equivalent
standards for exterior façades, leaving a critical
gap in design practice. This research addresses
that gap by introducing a systematic approach to
measure and classify façade sound absorption,
adapting the framework of ISO 11654:1997 (for
room acoustics) to outdoor environments.
The methodology centers on the façade
absorption coefficient (Fα), a parameter
proposed to quantify how much of the incident
sound energy is absorbed by a building envelope.
The calculation process begins by establishing
the total façade surface area (FSTOT), which
is the sum of all materials that make up the
exterior. Next, each material’s area is multiplied
by its absorption coefficient at specific
frequency bands, and the results are added
together to give the total equivalent absorption
(FATOT). Dividing this value by the total surface
area yields the normalized façade absorption
coefficient (Fα), a number between 0 and 1
that makes façades of different sizes directly
comparable. To summarize the frequency-based
performance into a single metric, the weighted
façade absorption coefficient (Fαw) is derived
by averaging results across five octave bands
(250–4000 Hz). These values can be classified
into absorption categories from A to E, with
A denoting highly absorptive façades and E
denoting minimal absorption.
A series of formulas are provided to apply this
calculation and classification method: Equation
(1) sums the total façade area; Equation (2)
calculates the equivalent absorption for a given
frequency as the weighted sum of materials, and
Equation (3) normalizes the result to obtain a
comparable façade absorption coefficient for a
given frequency.
Where:
FSTOT = total façade surface area (sum of all
material areas, in m²),
FSi = surface area of each façade material (m²),
αi = sound absorption coefficient of each
material (dimensionless, frequency-dependent),
FATOT = total equivalent façade absorption (m²),
Fα = normalized façade absorption coefficient
(dimensionless, ranging from 0 to 1).
(1)
(2)
(3)
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A case study of six residential façades in Detmold,
Germany, was carried out to demonstrate the
applicability of the methodology. Each façade
was assumed to consist of 30% glazing, 5% wood,
and 5% smooth concrete, with the remaining 60%
assigned to different materials such as brick,
vegetation, stone, wood, porous and smooth
concrete.
Absorption values were sourced from literature,
and calculations were performed using a
Python script. Results showed that façades
incorporating vegetation and porous concrete
performed significantly better, each reaching
Class D with a weighted absorption coefficient
of 0.45. The remaining façades, dominated by
reflective materials, fell below the threshold for
classification.
Because façades typically include large
proportions of glazing (e.g. 30%), it is unlikely
they will reach the higher absorption classes
(A or B). This suggests that ISO’s indoor-based
thresholds are not directly applicable for
outdoor scenarios. The suitable adjustment
to the classes remains as a question for future
research.
For architects and engineers, the method offers
a practical tool that can be integrated into design
workflows, enabling rapid evaluation of material
choices. For policymakers, the classification
system could inform regulations and incentives
in noise-sensitive zones.
Façade 1 Façade 2 Façade 3
Façade 4 Façade 5 Façade 6
Figure 1: Six houses as visual reference for the materials and WWR.
Figure 2: Façade sound absorption coefficients (Fα250, Fα500, Fα1000, Fα2000, Fα4000) and
weighted façade sound absorption coefficient (FαW) for six façades.
LATEST RESEARCH
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15

3. ARTICLES
16 LATEST RESEARCH
Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.4

Assessing the Potential of Materials for Future Window Innovations:
A Comparative Study of Aluminum, Steel, Timber, and PVC in
Performance, Sustainability, and Cost
ARTICLE
Bahareh Hemmatikhanshir
Supervisors: Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Daniel Arztmann, M.Eng. Alvaro Balderrama
1. Detmold School of Design, University of Applied Sciences and Arts (TH OWL), Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany
Abstract
This study presents a comparative analysis of four major window frame materials; aluminum, steel, timber, and
PVC, evaluating their sustainability. The research responds to the urgent need for more sustainable building
practices amid climate change and resource depletion. Given the significant role of windows in energy efficiency
and building performance, the choice of material is critical for future innovations in façade and window design.
The analysis focuses on three core criteria: performance (thermal efficiency, mechanical strength, durability),
sustainability (assessed through Life Cycle Assessment following EN 15804, including Module D for end-oflife
scenarios), and cost (initial, operational, end-of-life, and shadow cost based on European market data).
The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) supports weighted decision-making, and environmental impacts are
quantified using OpenLCA, manufacturer data, and simulation results. Findings show that all four materials
have trade-offs: aluminum and steel are durable and recyclable but energy-intensive; timber has low embodied
energy but loses sustainability when chemically treated; PVC performs well thermally and economically, but
presents recyclability and toxicity concerns. The study concludes that no single material is ideal, but the
comparison establishes a benchmark for guiding future innovations. It also recommends advancing circular
window systems through bio-based composites, improved LCA allocation methods, and interdisciplinary
collaboration in façade design.
Keywords: window, material, life cycle assessment (LCA), material innovation, material performance
1. Introduction
The historical development of windows traces back
to ancient civilizations, beginning as simple openings
for ventilation and light (Smith, 1998), later evolving
through the use of animal hides, wood, and paper
(Johnson, 2005). The Romans pioneered glass
windows (Brown, 2010), and medieval Europe saw
the rise of timber, iron, and leaded glass as dominant
materials (Williams, 2012). The Industrial Revolution
enabled the mass production of steel and aluminum
windows (Taylor, 2018), followed by PVC in the 20th
century for its durability and affordability (Harris,
2021).
Simultaneously, rising global temperatures
approximately 0.6°C over the last century and
projected to rise 2–5°C more underscore the
urgency of sustainability in all sectors (Dincer A et al.,
1999). The construction industry, a key consumer of
resources, accounts for 40% of global material use
and 40–50% of greenhouse gas emissions (Eaton
et al., 2000). Windows play a crucial role in building
performance, affecting thermal comfort, daylighting,
and energy consumption (Smith et al., 2020), while
their material choice impacts a building’s lifecycle
footprint (Jones & Miller, 2021). Innovations in
window technology are essential for improving
energy efficiency and reducing environmental
impacts (Harris, 2022).
Despite their multifunctional role, windows often
represent structural vulnerabilities, particularly
under extreme environmental stress (Schittich
et al., 2012; Weller et al., 2012). Research lacks
comprehensive comparisons of structural and
material performance across traditional window
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materials like aluminum, steel, timber, and PVC. As
material science advances, newer options such
as composites and bio-based alternatives show
promise but require careful evaluation to balance
performance, cost, and environmental impact.
This study focuses on aluminum, steel, timber,
and PVC, analyzing their mechanical, thermal,
sustainable, and economic characteristics. It aims to
identify strengths and weaknesses, evaluate lifecycle
impacts and costs, and define the criteria for ideal
window materials without proposing a definitive
replacement but rather exploring future innovation
directions.
The research objectives are:
1. Compare mechanical, thermal, and durability
properties.
2. Assess environmental impacts including
embodied energy, emissions, and recyclability.
3. Evaluate cost-effectiveness, including both initial
and long-term maintenance.
4. Identify the ideal material criteria based on
observed limitations.
research is structured in three phases:
First phase is defining the problem and exploring
key concepts such as sustainability, circularity,
and energy efficiency; second phase is conducting
structural, thermal, and environmental assessments,
including potential energy loss, LCA from cradle
to grave, and using allocation method for module
D assessment; and last phase is comparing and
discussing the results to determine optimal material
strategies. This approach aims to offer an objective
material assessment and inform future window
design innovations.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Climate Change
Climate change remains one of the most pressing
challenges of the 21st century, largely driven by the
accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) resulting
from fossil fuel combustion, industrial activities, and
deforestation (Fawzy et al., 2020). The construction
sector alone is responsible for approximately 39% of
global energy-related CO2 emissions (Abergel et al.,
2019). A significant part of this environmental burden
arises from both the operational energy of buildings
and the embodied carbon in construction materials.
Among these, façades and window systems are
particularly influential, as they directly affect
thermal performance and energy use (Salazar et al.,
2008). Data from the United Nations Environment
Programme (2022) highlights a record high of 53
billion metric tons of CO2-equivalent emissions in
2022, with the building sector accounting for over
37% of total global emissions.
Figure 1. Research Approach and Methodology
pathway.
The main research question investigates how the
four materials compare in terms of performance,
sustainability, and cost, and what requirements an
innovative window profile must meet. Sub-questions
address their structural and thermal differences,
lifecycle impacts, end-of-life scenarios, and financial
implications. Methodologically, the study applies the
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to systematically
evaluate the materials using data from literature,
manufacturers, and sustainability databases. The
Figure 2. Global CO2 emissions by sector 2022 (UN
Environment 2022).
This alarming trend underpins the urgency of
adopting low-carbon practices, especially within the
building industry.
2.2. Interactions between envelope
design and building sustainability
The Brundtland Commission’s (1987) definition of
sustainable development “meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs” has shaped
the evolution of sustainable building practices.
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Sustainability in architecture now encompasses not
only environmental protection but also social and
economic dimensions (Zavadskas & Antucheviciene,
2006). The “Triple Bottom Line” framework—people,
planet, and profit—developed by John Elkington
(1994), remains central to evaluating sustainable
solutions in building design (Mills, 1999). Sustainable
architecture is defined by thoughtful material use,
energy efficiency, adaptability, and longevity (Mofidi
et al., 2008; Williams, 2007). The shift from resource
efficiency to whole-life thinking now considers
design, operation, and end-of-life strategies as
interconnected components of sustainability (Fallah,
2002). High-quality construction materials and
prefabricated systems are key strategies in advancing
this agenda. The building envelope acts as a mediator
between indoor and outdoor environments. Its role
in regulating thermal performance, daylighting,
ventilation, and energy transmission makes it critical
to both operational efficiency and occupant comfort
(Kohler & Hassler, 2014). Windows, as one of the
most sensitive and multifunctional parts of the
envelope, have a profound impact on energy flows
and sustainability (Sartori & Hestnes, 2007; Ding,
2008). Technological advances in window systems—
such as low-emissivity coatings, gas-filled cavities,
and thermally improved frames—enable reductions
in heat loss and solar gain, contributing to lower
energy consumption and improved indoor comfort
(Kats, 2003; Givoni, 1994; Tavares et al., 2021).
Assessment), and economic viability (through cost
analysis). This structured, data-driven approach
provides a comprehensive evaluation of each
material’s strengths and limitations, offering valuable
insights to guide the development of sustainable
and efficient window technologies.
2.1. Structural Analysis
The structural performance of four window systems
was evaluated by comparing key mechanical
parameters such as moment of inertia, profile depth,
and load-bearing capacity. Deflection under load
was calculated using the standard beam deflection
formula for uniform loading, considering material
properties and profile geometry. Steel showed the
greatest stiffness and lowest deflection (≈0.49 mm),
followed by aluminum at ≈1.17 mm, timber at ≈3.33
mm, and PVC at ≈8.88 mm. Compared to the typical
deflection limit (L/300 = 4 mm for a 1.2 m span), only
PVC exceeded the acceptable range.
Figure 3. Environmental Loads on Building Envelope
(Ivaro and Mwasha 2014).
Moreover, the building’s orientation and the
window-to-wall ratio significantly influence energy
performance, especially in different climatic zones
(Zhang et al., 2010; Inanici et al., 2000).
2. Methodology
This thesis employs a comparative analysis to
evaluate four widely used window materials;
aluminum (Schüco AWS 75.HI or SI), steel (Jansen HI),
timber (Historical Neuffer), and PVC (Veka 76MD),
to assess their potential for future window system
innovations. These materials were selected for their
diverse characteristics in thermal performance,
environmental sustainability, and cost-effectiveness.
The analysis focuses on key criteria including
thermal efficiency, ecological impact (via Life Cycle
Figure 4. Load Bearing Capacity comparison and
Calculated Deflection of Window Systems (1.2m
Span, 1000 N/m Load).
These findings emphasize the superior structural
performance of steel and aluminum, while
highlighting limitations of PVC in load-bearing
applications and the conditional suitability of timber
for moderate spans.
This structural assessment is a key part of the overall
evaluation, as deflection affects not only the visual
and functional integrity of the window but also its
long-term durability under environmental stressors.
2.2. Thermal performance
The thermal performance of each window
systems evaluated using a combination of certified
manufacturer catalog data and thermal simulations
conducted with BISCO software. Key thermal metrics,
including frame transmittance (Uf), overall window
transmittance (Uw), and the linear thermal bridge
at the glass-frame interface (Ψg), were sourced
from catalogs and standardized according to EN
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ISO 10077-1 and 10077-2. Among the materials, PVC
demonstrated the best thermal performance (Uw
= 0.77 W/m²K), while steel showed the weakest (Uw
= 1.10 W/m²K), with Ψg values ranging from 0.030
to 0.050 W/mK. To validate these figures and gain
insight into spatial heat flow, BISCO simulations
were used to visualize temperature gradients and
isothermal lines across vertical cross-sections.
PVC exhibited smooth temperature transitions
and minimal thermal bridging. Aluminum, despite
its conductivity, showed good performance due to
internal thermal breaks. Steel revealed significant
thermal bridging at frame edges and spacers, while
the timber system showed moderate insulation with
thermal leakage at joints.
This dual-method approach; combining quantitative
data with thermal imaging, provides a robust
and realistic evaluation of each system’s thermal
behavior. It not only confirms performance values
but also highlights potential weak points, forming a
solid foundation for the subsequent environmental
and economic assessments central to sustainable
window design.
Figure 5. Thermal Simulation by BISCO (in order;
Aluminium, Steel, Timber and PVC window frame).
2.3. Energy performance
A comparative calculation of annual heating energy
loss was conducted for four window systems based
on their Uw-values and standardized conditions for
the German climate (3,000 Heating Degree Days,
1.44 m² window area, 24 heating hours/day). Using
the formula: Q = Uw × A × HDD × 24 ÷ 1000
The annual energy loss was calculated for each
system. As an example:
PVC: Q =0.77×1.44×3000×24/1000=79.83 kWh/year
PVC showed the best performance with the lowest
energy loss (79.83 kWh/year), followed by aluminum
(82.94 kWh/year), timber (98.50 kWh/year), and steel
(114.05 kWh/year). These results confirm the strong
correlation between low Uw-values and reduced
heating demand, emphasizing the importance of
thermal transmittance in window design for energy
efficiency, particularly in temperate climates like
Germany. This analysis supports EU and national
energy efficiency goals and highlights PVC and
aluminum as suitable options for high-performance
or passive buildings.
Figure 6. Annual Energy Loss per Window (Germany
Climate, HDD = 3000, 1.2m Span).
2.4. Lifecycle Assessment (LCA)
This research applies a cradle-to-grave Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA), in accordance with EN
15804 standards, to evaluate the environmental
performance of each window frame material across
all life cycle phases; from raw material extraction to
disposal or recycling. Using OpenLCA software and
detailed inventory databases, the study assesses
key indicators such as Global Warming Potential
(GWP), Embodied Energy, Water Usage, and Toxicity
Potential. To ensure a comprehensive analysis,
each window system was disaggregated into its
components: frame, glazing, spacer, sealant, and
hardware. Timber was evaluated in both its untreated
and painted forms to capture the environmental
impact of surface coatings. Among the materials,
steel displayed the highest total impact across nearly
all categories due to its energy-intensive production,
high water use, and chemical treatments that elevate
toxicity potential. Although structurally strong
and durable, these benefits are outweighed by its
heavy production footprint. PVC systems showed
moderate environmental impacts. While less
energy-intensive to produce than metals, the use
of additives and plasticizers contributes to higher
toxicity, and recycling remains limited in practice.
Though stable in use, its long-term sustainability
is challenged by these factors. Untreated timber
emerged as the most environmentally favorable
material, with the lowest GWP, energy use, and
toxicity. As a natural, renewable resource, it requires
minimal processing, stores carbon, and is easily
repaired or composted at end-of-life. However,
these advantages diminish significantly when timber
is painted or chemically treated. Surface finishes
increase embodied energy, water use, and especially
toxicity due to the presence of VOCs, synthetic
additives, and the need for repeated maintenance.
Painted timber also becomes harder to recycle
or safely dispose of. Last but not least, Aluminum
showed a high environmental burden primarily due
to the energy-intensive smelting process, despite
its high recyclability and durability during the use
phase. Its impact is front-loaded in the life cycle,
but potential for reuse and long service life can help
offset this over time.
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Figure 7. Full Comparison Of LCA Indicators And
Recyclability (1.2m Span).
Additionally, the component-level Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) reveals significant differences
in the environmental performance of five window
materials: steel, aluminum, PVC, untreated timber,
and painted timber, based on key indicators such as
Global Warming Potential (GWP), embodied energy,
water usage, toxicity, and recyclability.
Steel has the highest carbon cost at 128 kg CO2-
eq per window unit, due to its energy-intensive
production involving smelting and chemical
treatments. It also ranked highest in embodied
energy (1610 MJ), water usage (226 liters), and toxicity
(5.35 kg 1,4-DB eq), making it the least sustainable
option. Aluminum follows with 111 kg CO2-eq,
largely from the high-energy electrolysis process
in manufacturing. While highly recyclable, its initial
production phase dominates its environmental
impact, though it performs slightly better than
steel in water use and toxicity. PVC windows show
a moderate carbon footprint of 91 kg CO2-eq, with
lower energy requirements than metals. However,
its environmental profile is affected by chemical
additives and poor recyclability (around 30%),
alongside a high toxicity potential. Untreated timber
emerges as the most environmentally favorable
material, with the lowest GWP (69 kg CO2-eq),
lowest energy demand (870 MJ), and lowest toxicity
(2.8 kg 1,4-DB eq). It also boasts a high recyclability
rate (90%) and benefits from carbon sequestration.
However, when painted or treated, its carbon cost
increases to 74 kg CO2-eq, recyclability drops to
40%, and other impact categories worsen due to
the use of VOC-containing finishes and repeated
maintenance.
These findings underscore that material choice; and
particularly surface treatments, plays a critical role
in environmental performance. Even small increases
in GWP can scale significantly across large projects,
making low-impact materials like untreated timber
ideal for sustainable facade and window design. For
truly sustainable outcomes, both material selection
and lifecycle considerations such as treatments,
maintenance, and end-of-life processing must be
carefully evaluated.
Figure 8. Carbon Cost (GWP) Distribution Across
Window Materials.
2.5. End of life stage of Window Frame
Materials
A comparative End-of-Life (EoL) analysis was
conducted to evaluate the environmental
performance of five common window frame materials,
focusing on how different EoL allocation methods
impact their cumulative environmental footprint and
sustainable material selection in façade design. The
study applied five widely recognized EoL allocation
methods; Losses of Quality, Closed Loop, Cut-Off,
50/50, and Substitution, each interpreting recycling
and reuse impacts differently, from accounting for
downcycling quality losses to assigning full credit or
burden between life cycles.
Material-specific data were used, including primary
production emissions, recycling-related emissions,
substitution credits, and quality factors reflecting
recyclability (ranging from 0.5 to 0.95). For instance,
under the Losses of Quality method, aluminum’s
environmental impact dropped drastically from 14.4
kg CO2 eq to 1.87 kg CO2 eq due to its high recycling
quality and low reprocessing emissions. Untreated
timber performed best overall, consistently showing
the lowest impacts; only 0.41 kg CO2 eq, thanks to its
biodegradability and ease of reuse. Treated timber
had higher impacts due to coatings and preservatives
that limit recyclability and circularity. Metals like
aluminum and steel showed strong performance
when high recycling rates and closed-loop potentials
were assumed. In contrast, PVC exhibited relatively
higher environmental impacts, especially under the
Cut-Off method, due to the challenges of recycling
chemically complex polymers and the burden of
virgin production. As an example:
Substitution Method L=(1−r)×R1+r×(V1 +W3)
Where: r is the recycling rate (assume 90% for
aluminum, 60% for timber, 15% for PVC)
W3 ≈ 0 unless incineration or hazardous waste
Example (Treated Timber, r = 0.3):
R1=1.0,1=5.0V1=5.0 L=(1−0.3)×1.0+0.3×5.0=0.7+1.5=2
.2KgCo2
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(This method is most optimistic for recyclable
materials.)
Table 1. Comparative End-of-Life Analysis of
Window Frame Materials Using Advanced Allocation
Methods (1.2m Span, last row is calculated for
untreated timber)
Figure 9. Cost Breakdown By window material (1.2m
Span).
2.7. AHP Evaluation and Final Ranking
The findings highlight that the choice of EoL allocation
method significantly influences material ranking and
sustainability assessments. Moreover, the analysis
suggests that untreated natural materials and
recyclable metals should be prioritized for durable,
low-impact building envelopes, while treated timber’s
sustainability is overestimated when considering full
cradle-to-grave impacts.
2.6. Cost Analysis
The cost analysis across the four window frame
materials highlights significant differences not
only in direct financial expenditure but also in
external environmental costs, often overlooked in
conventional assessments. PVC emerged as the
most cost effective option in terms of installation
(€50) and operational cost (€150 over 30 years),
though its moderate end-of-life cost (€40) reflects
limited recyclability. Timber, despite its low embodied
emissions, incurs the highest operational cost (€700)
due to ongoing maintenance requirements like
repainting and sealing, making it the least economical
over a long service life. Steel and aluminum had
higher installation costs (€90 and €60, respectively)
because of technical complexity and heavier material
handling, while their operational costs remained
moderate compared to timber. Interestingly, when
shadow cost; a monetized value for environmental
damage based on GWP, is factored in, aluminum
(€9.0) becomes the most environmentally expensive,
followed by steel (€7.0). Timber (€4.0) and PVC
(€5.0) perform better in this respect, with timber
benefiting from its natural carbon storage and lower
embodied carbon. However, these external costs
reveal an important hidden dimension: materials
that appear financially viable upfront may impose
much larger societal and environmental costs in the
long run. This reinforces the value of a lifecycle and
externality-inclusive approach to material selection,
especially when striving for sustainable and future
ready façade systems.
To determine the most suitable material among the
four widely used window frame options, a structured
multi-criteria decision-making approach was applied
using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a structured
multi-criteria decision-making method developed by
Thomas L. Saaty in the 1970s (Thomas L. Saaty, 1990).
This method provides a consistent and transparent
framework for evaluating alternatives against a set of
quantitative and qualitative criteria, derived directly
from structural, environmental, and economic
analyses previously carried out in this thesis. The
process starts with a pairwise comparison of the
criteria to determine their relative importance.
For example, if environmental sustainability is
considered moderately more important than
thermal performance, it may receive a value of 3
on Saaty’s 1–9 scale. These judgments are used to
populate a comparison matrix.
Table 2. Pairwise comparison of the criteria
The pairwise comparisons were used to build a
matrix, which was then normalized by summing
each column and dividing each value by the column
sum, followed by averaging each row to calculate
the relative weight of each criterion. Environmental
impact was given the highest priority, followed by
durability, while cost was weighted lowest, reflecting
the study’s focus on long-term sustainability.
Table 3. Normalized pairwise comparison matrix
with calculated relative weights of criteria,
prioritizing environmental impact, durability, and
cost
Each material was then rated on a scale from 1 (very
poor) to 9 (excellent) against each criterion.
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Table 4. Material ratings on a 1–9 scale for each
criterion
Now, each score is multiplied by the weight of its
criterion, and the results are added to get the final
AHP score.
Aluminum: (0.54×6)+(0.22×9)+(0.11×8)+(0.08×7)+(0.0
5×5)=3.24+1.98+0.88+0.56+0.25=6.91
The AHP results ranked aluminum as the most
suitable material due to its excellent durability,
recyclability, and balanced environmental profile,
despite not being the cheapest. Steel was a strong
second, valued for robustness and recyclability but
affected by higher emissions and costs. Timber
ranked third, benefiting from good insulation and
low emissions but limited recyclability, especially
when treated. PVC ranked lowest overall because
its affordability was outweighed by its high
environmental impact and poor recyclability.
Using the k-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) algorithm, the
study identified the innovative materials closest to
this profile in performance. The top substitutes
identified were Bio-PET Reinforced, GFRP, Recycled
Bio-Composite, and Bamboo Laminated. Bio-PET
closely matched PVC but with lower environmental
impact; GFRP offered strong structural performance;
Recycled Bio-Composite had the lowest GWP;
and Bamboo provided a renewable, low-impact
alternative to timber.
These materials showed the best balance
of environmental, technical, and economic
performance, making them strong candidates for
further evaluation in sustainable window frame
design.
This comprehensive AHP evaluation demonstrates
the benefit of using a transparent, multi-factor
approach for sustainable material selection that
goes beyond cost or thermal performance, aligning
with sustainable façade design principles.
Table 5. AHP evaluation results
2.8. Identifying Innovative Material
Substitutes for Window Frames
This part of the research aimed to identify sustainable
alternatives to traditional window frame materials
by using a data-driven, multi-criteria approach
implemented in Google Colab. Four key performance
indicators were used: thermal conductivity, density,
global warming potential (GWP), and cost. Each
indicator was weighted based on its importance, with
GWP receiving the highest weight (0.30), followed by
thermal conductivity and density (0.25 each), and
cost (0.20).
Six innovative materials were selected for
comparison: Bio-PET Reinforced, Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), Bamboo Laminated,
Accoya Wood, Recycled Aluminum, and Flax Fiber
Composite. All were either commercially available
or well-studied in sustainable construction. After
standardizing the data using z-score normalization,
a composite “average traditional material” profile
was created from aluminum, steel, timber, and PVC.
Figure 10. Code implementation in Google Colab.
3. Results
This thesis explores the strengths and weaknesses
of four widely used window frame materials;
aluminum, steel, timber, and PVC, through the lens
of sustainability. Each material brings something
unique to the table, but none is perfect. Aluminum
and steel are strong and long-lasting, making them
reliable choices for durability. However, they require
a lot of energy to produce and need special thermal
breaks to improve insulation. Timber offers great
thermal performance and has a lower environmental
impact at first glance, but when it’s treated with
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chemicals to increase its lifespan, its recyclability
suffers. PVC, often chosen for its affordability and
good insulation, falls short in long-term durability
and poses challenges when it comes to recycling due
to its higher environmental toxicity.
Looking deeper into sustainability through Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA), the study finds that aluminum
and steel, despite their high production impacts, can
be recycled efficiently, giving them an environmental
advantage at the end of their life. Timber’s reputation
as a sustainable option is not always justified,
especially when treatment processes are taken
into account. Meanwhile, PVC is inexpensive and
performs well thermally but doesn’t fare well in terms
of long-term environmental impact or recyclability.
From a cost perspective, PVC is the most budgetfriendly
option over its entire life cycle. Timber
comes next, although it can be more expensive to
maintain. Aluminum and steel require higher upfront
investments and carry heavier environmental costs,
but their durability and recyclability make them
worth considering in the long run. To make sense
of all these trade-offs, the study uses the Analytic
Hierarchy Process (AHP), a decision-making method
that helps weigh different factors. The result? No
clear winner; but a clearer understanding of how
each material performs across various criteria.
The thesis concludes by encouraging a shift toward
future-ready window solutions that combine the
best qualities of different materials. It recommends
exploring bio-based composites, refining how
we assess materials’ environmental impacts, and
designing window systems that can be more easily
disassembled and reused. Ultimately, this research
offers architects, designers, and engineers a practical
framework for making more informed, balanced,
and sustainable material choices; reminding us
that thoughtful design is key to building a more
responsible and resilient future.
4. Discussion
In addition to comparing conventional window frame
materials, this research also explored four emerging
materials that represent the next generation of
façade and window innovations. These materials;
Bio-PET Reinforced, Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(GFRP), Flax fiber Composite, and Bamboo Laminated,
are gaining recognition for their potential to address
current sustainability, performance, and circularity
challenges in building envelopes. Each material
was selected based on its unique combination of
technical promise and existing real-world use in
façade or window systems.
4.1. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(GFRP)
Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is a
lightweight, high-strength composite made from
glass fibers and polymer resins, offering excellent
corrosion resistance and dimensional stability (TP
Sathishkumar et al., 2014). Though it has limited
recyclability and can degrade under UV exposure,
it performs well thermally (~0.3 W/m·K) and
structurally (Rahman et al., 2020). Studies show
GFRP window frames reduce heating demands,
making them energy-efficient. It is used in curtain
walls and façades in projects like the Sofitel Hotel
and Kauffman Center, where it enables modern,
lightweight, and complex designs (Khedari et al.,
2004; Safdie, 2011).
Figure 11. The Kauffman Center for the Performing
Arts, Kansas City, USA (kauffmancenter.org).
4.2. Bio-PET Reinforced
This material discusses polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) derived partially or fully from renewable
sources like sugarcane or corn, enhanced with
reinforcing fibers such as glass or natural fibers. The
bio-based ethylene glycol component is produced
via fermentation and chemical processes, yielding
a polymer chemically identical to conventional PET.
Reinforcement methods include melt blending or coextrusion,
improving stiffness, thermal resistance,
and dimensional stability. Bio-PET’s inputs are
bio-based ethylene glycol, terephthalic acid (fossil
or bio-derived), and reinforcing agents. It offers
lower Global Warming Potential than fossil-based
PVC, good recyclability, and moderate mechanical
strength, though it is slightly more costly and
depends on agricultural feedstocks. This balance
makes it promising for sustainable window frames
compatible with standard manufacturing (Shen et
al., 2010).
A relevant case study by Araujo et al. (2022)
developed polymeric cladding panels reinforced
with PET fibers from industrial textile waste. The PET
fibers (20–30 µm diameter, stable up to 325°C) were
incorporated at 1%, 3%, and 5% contents and tested
for mechanical and chemical durability. The 5%
PET composite showed a 300% increase in impact
resistance, suitable for high-stress façade areas,
with acceptable toughness and chemical resistance.
However, UV degradation due to PET fibers was
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a limitation, suggesting future use of surface
treatments or additives for weathering resistance.
This study demonstrates that bio- and waste-based
PET composites are technically feasible for building
envelopes and contribute to circular construction
and low-carbon goals without compromising façade
functionality.
4.3. Bamboo Laminated
Engineered laminated bamboo is a sustainable
alternative to conventional timber, produced by
compressing bamboo strips; typically from Moso
bamboo, under heat and pressure. The process
involves harvesting mature culms, slicing into strips,
boiling to remove sugars and starches that cause
degradation, and laminating with eco-friendly
adhesives like melamine-formaldehyde or soy-based
resins.
Figure 12. Manufacturing process of LBL (Xue et al.,
2024).
The result is a dense, uniform, structurally stable
material known for fast renewability, high mechanical
strength, appealing aesthetics, moderate density
(~750 kg/m³), favorable thermal conductivity (~0.15
W/m·K), and low Global Warming Potential (GWP). Its
long-term durability depends on treatments to resist
moisture and pests, as it can be sensitive to humidity
fluctuations. Laminated bamboo is increasingly used
in structural and interior applications, including
flooring, paneling, and window frames in residential
and commercial buildings (Xue et al., 2023).
A notable application is the “Bamboo Cubic” project in
Shaowu City, Fujian Province, China, where Laminated
Bamboo Lumber (LBL) made by gluing bamboo
layers was used in façade renovation. Structural
design involved manual and finite element analysis
to comply with regulations. Precision-prefabricated
curved LBL members enabled an innovative curved
façade design reaching 16.86 meters in height. This
project demonstrated engineered bamboo’s viability
for both structural and aesthetic façade purposes
and highlighted potential for hybrid construction
combining steel and LBL frames (Xue et al., 2024).
4.4. Flax Fiber Composite
A bio-composite material is made by embedding flax
fibers from the flax plant into a polymer matrix such
as bio-resins or recycled thermoplastics. Flax fibers
are processed into mats or rovings and combined
with resin via compression molding, resin transfer
molding (RTM), or sheet molding compound (SMC)
techniques. Inputs include flax stems, decortication
equipment, and matrix resin. Flax composites are
biodegradable or recyclable depending on the matrix,
offering low weight, high specific stiffness, excellent
damping, and a significantly lower environmental
footprint than synthetic composites, with Global
Warming Potential (GWP) as low as 0.2 kg CO₂-eq/
kg. They are suitable for replacing heavier, carbonintensive
materials in semi-structural applications
but are sensitive to moisture and have lower impact
resistance than glass or carbon composites (Ghalme
et al., 2024). Flax composites are already used in
automotive interiors, furniture, and architectural
panels, and are gaining interest for lightweight
window frames due to their environmental and
thermal benefits (Dittenber & GangaRao, 2012).
The Centre Pompidou Metz in France demonstrates
the architectural use of bio-based fiber reinforced
polymers (FRPs). Incorporating natural fibers into
the roof structure enhanced sustainability and
maintained structural integrity for this large cultural
building, reducing its carbon footprint compared to
conventional materials. This project highlights biobased
FRPs’ combination of eco-friendly features
and high performance, proving their suitability
for sustainable modern architecture (Shigeru Ban
Architects, 2010).
Figure 13. The Centre Pompidou Metz, France
(Shigeru Ban Architects, 2010).
5. Conclusions
This thesis set out to explore how four widely used
window frame materials perform when we look at
them through the combined lenses of sustainability,
technical performance, and cost. Rather than
isolating just one or two criteria, I wanted to compare
these materials holistically; examining how they
behave thermally, how structurally sound they are,
what kind of environmental footprint they leave,
and how financially viable they are over time. To do
this, I used tools like BISCO for thermal simulations,
OpenLCA for life cycle assessments, methods like
EOL allocation methods and the Analytical Hierarchy
Process (AHP) to weigh all these factors in a balanced
way. Structurally, steel and aluminum came out
strong; they’re durable, resist deformation, and are
well-suited for buildings that demand precision and
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Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5
25

strength. But this strength has a cost: both materials
have energy-heavy manufacturing processes, which
means a high environmental impact right from the
start. Still, the LCA showed that their ability to be
recycled; especially when we apply methods like
Substitution or Closed Loop Recycling, helps offset
those initial emissions over the long run. Timber,
especially in its untreated form, had the smallest
environmental footprint overall. It’s renewable,
stores carbon, and requires far less energy to process
compared to metals. While it doesn’t match steel or
aluminum structurally and needs more care over
time, it offers a solid, environmentally responsible
option; particularly for projects with lower structural
demands. Interestingly, though, when looking at
treated timber, the story changes. Although often
seen as a greener choice due to its extended
lifespan, the LCA revealed that its recyclability is
significantly limited. Chemical treatments used to
make it more durable actually prevent it from being
recycled in most systems. In many cases, treated
timber ends up being incinerated or downcycled,
which undermines its sustainability claims. That was
a surprising but important insight.
PVC, meanwhile, turned out to be the most budgetfriendly,
both in terms of initial investment and
ongoing energy performance. It also provides
decent thermal insulation. But its environmental
downsides; especially its poor recyclability and the
harmful chemicals involved in its production and
disposal, make it a much weaker candidate when
sustainability is a priority. The cost breakdown
backed up these findings. PVC may be cheap at first,
but its environmental “cost” catches up. Timber
is appealing environmentally, but upkeep can be
demanding. Steel and aluminum are pricier up front,
but they pay off in the long term if recycled properly.
One big takeaway from this research is that choosing
sustainable materials can’t come down to just one
factor like cost or U-value. The thesis also pushes
back against a few common assumptions; like the
idea that all timber is inherently sustainable or that
PVC is part of a circular economy. Using cradle-tograve
data and standardized methods helped ground
these comparisons in facts, not just marketing
claims. Looking forward, it would be valuable to
move past digital models and test these innovative
materials in real-life conditions. Prototypes exposed
to real weather, installation processes, and user
interaction could reveal performance gaps we can’t
see in simulations. There’s exciting potential in new
material directions; like natural fiber composites,
recycled plastics, or smart hybrids that combine the
strengths of timber and metal. Tools like machine
learning could help us design better combinations
and anticipate trade-offs across different priorities.
In the end, I hope this thesis adds to the growing
conversation about sustainable façade design.
By comparing materials in a clear, comprehensive
way, and highlighting both their potential and their
limitations, the work supports more thoughtful,
future-oriented choices in how we build.
6. References
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ARTICLE
Hydrogel Coated Concrete Bricks: Heavy Rain Damage Control
Ilayda Ergin 1
Supervisors: Prof. Daniel Arztmann 1 , Asst.Prof. Zelal Çinar 2
1. Detmold School of Design, University of Applied Sciences and Arts (TH OWL), Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany
2. TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Söğütözü Caddesi, No:43, 06510 Çankaya, Ankara, Türkiye
Abstract
In the context of global climate change and urban densification, intense rainfall events and wind driven rain
(WDR) increasingly lead to torrential runoff and urban flooding. Conventional façade designs, which prioritize
the exclusion of water from insulation layers, contribute to the exacerbation of urban water impact. This
thesis proposes a turnaround strategy for WDR protection of the facades, with adaptive water absorption
and storage mechanisms of super absorbent polymers (SAP). The outermost wall layer is composed of triply
periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS): matrix-like structures that swell upon water exposure, absorbing from five
to ten times their dry weight while maintaining a high diffusional resistance. As water is absorbed, intracellular
filaments are elastically stretched, generating a counteracting force that limits excessive swelling and preserves
formal integrity. Once the exposure ceases, the SAP layer gradually releases the stored water, returning to its
original state without damage. The goal is to answer two main questions: How can the water absorption and
release mechanism be translated into an effective architectural façade for integrated urban water management,
and how does the hydrogel porous façade perform in water absorption, swelling, and release under cyclic
conditions? This thesis examines the standards of heavy rain events and impact parameters, characteristics
of SAP, and creates vulnerability tests on TPMS bricks to design a protective facade. This research investigates
the potential of hydrogel-based porous façade systems that actively absorb, store, and subsequently release
rainwater. Computational simulations and material prototyping are employed to assess the water absorption,
swelling, and shrinkage behaviors of these time related constructs. The findings aim to inform the development
of sustainable, water-responsive building envelopes that not only mitigate urban flooding and excessive
concretion but also provide a practical, real-life solution for efficient water management in metropolitan
environments through realistic material prototyping and scalable design implementations.
Keywords: wind driven rain loads, superabsorbent polymers, triply periodic minimal surfaces, sustainable
façade.
1. Introduction
1.1. Problem Definition
Concrete is globally one of the most common
construction materials. However, its long-term
performance is far too frequently undermined
by water-related degradation mechanisms like
cracking, freeze-thaw damage, chloride ingress,
and reinforcement corrosion. Solutions such as
waterproof membranes and corrosion inhibitors
solely focus on exclusion of the water impact have
cost, sustainability, and long-term performance
limitations.
Superabsorbent Polymers (SAP) are found to have
high potential since they have the ability to absorb
and retain large amounts of water and reversibly
swell and shrink. SAP were initially synthesized
for application in hygiene and agronomy and are
currently being explored for their application in selfhealing,
internal curing, and moisture control when
used in concrete.
Computational design methodologies, improving
material science, and additive manufacturing
open new possibilities for the design optimization
of superabsorbent polymer (SAP)-concrete dual
systems. Exploration of the formal and performal
potential of Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS)
and parametric modeling enables precise control
over void geometries, providing the possibility of
controlled distribution of SAP to achieve maximum
durability of buildings. This study envisions the
strategic distribution of SAP in concrete bricks
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for improving heavy rain event encounters while
questioning issues of scalability and practical
implementation.
1.2. Objectives
The overall objective of this study is to inspect
the performance effectiveness of SAP in concrete
structures, with the help of experimental material
investigations, computational simulations, and
parametric design methods. Step by step multiscale
design phase of testing materials, designing the
subject facade item- the brick block and the full
facade rain test simulation have been executed.
Researching SAP’s moisture-controlling mechanisms
and their effects on concrete durability (reduction
of shrinkage, mitigation of cracks, corrosion
resistance), developing a strategic SAP incorporation
method and analyzing TPMS-based void geometries
to optimize SAP distribution have been intended. A
realistic computational design environment (using
Rhino Grasshopper and specifically non-GUID
limited C# components) to model SAP-concrete
interaction with rain has been developed. The
proposed scalable, multiporous facade application
has proven its performance with the digital tests.
1.3. Research Questions
• How can the water absorption and release
mechanism of SAP be translated into an effective
architectural façade for integrated urban water
management?
• How do hydrogel porous facades perform in
water absorption, swelling, and release under
cyclic weather conditions and heavy rain events?
• Which SAP-concrete curing and coating practices
hold promise for further developments on water
damage control in architectural and engineering
strategies?
• How can wind driven rain and its damage to
buildings be simulated in Rhino-Grasshopper?
2. Methodology
This work utilizes an interdisciplinary experimental
material-computational methodology to explore the
optimum integration of Superabsorbent Polymers
(SAP) within concrete. The methodology integrates
personal material testing, finite element modeling,
and parametric design through Rhino Grasshopper
and C#. Experimental techniques involve material
characterization (swelling behavior, interfacial
adhesion) and article researches on vulnerability
classification methods and durability tests
(shrinkage, freeze-thaw resistance) using controlled
SAP-cement composites with different Triply
Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS) void geometries.
Rhino Grasshopper computational modeling
replicates SAP swelling behavior in TPMS, with the
optimization of void arrangement to minimize stress
concentrations, and finite element analysis (FEA)
validates mechanical functionality under hydration
cycles. Parametric scripting generates scalable
architecture models, bridging the gap between
material science and digital fabrication to ensure
practical usability. The method ensures a systematic
transition from laboratory-scale validation to realworld
construction solutions.
2.1. Vulnerability Classification
Heavy rain tends to damage different parts of the
building in unique intensities and the classification
of individual building components and entire
structures in terms of their susceptibility to heavy
rainfall is influenced by both structural factors and
regulatory conditions.
Post-event damage analyses have shown that water
intrusion typically occurs at localized weaknesses
or pre-existing flaws in the building envelope.
Consequently, a building’s vulnerability to heavy rain
is largely determined by the likelihood of construction
defects. As such, the evaluation of vulnerability
adopts a component-based approach, emphasizing
the identification of high-risk construction details
and sensitive design elements (Golz, 2016).
2.1.1. Vulnerable Elements
The impact of construction and design practices on
the vulnerability of particular building components
and overall structures is strongly emphasized. It
is within the architects’ and engineers’ domain
to define the basic requirements needed for
construction. Thus, the risk of vulnerability can be
considerably minimized by using resilient structural
systems, appropriate materials, and well-considered
detailing measures.
It is essential to determine the specific susceptibility
to damage for each individual element and
building component separately. The weighting of
vulnerabilities for each component is based on the
anticipated extent of damage and the associated
costs of repair or restoration.
In the researched literatures (Papathoma-Köhle,
2023, following indicators were selected based on
damage pattern descriptions: roof shape and slope,
presence and length of the overhang, roof material,
window sealing and glazing, presence and state of
the balcony, basement, gutters and intersections‘
waterproofing:, Number of floors (and floor height).
Even though the number of floors is not a considered
parameter in the studied literature (Papathoma-
Köhle, 2023), this thesis considers this title as a valid
and effective indicator for the following sections of
the studied concept’s development. Floors affect
the total height of the building and intersections
between construction details, sealings and size of the
facade elements i.e. envelopes, parapets, window inbetweens,
hence their exposure to the wind driven
rain and its damage. These indicators have a role in
the next sections of the project and therefore must
be considered as valid parameters.
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2.1.2. Weighting Vulnerability Parameters via
MACBETH Method
To proceed with solving the implementations of
vulnerability classifications, there is a great need for
a grading system to settle a hierarchy of importance
in the data given. The Analytic Hierarchy Process
(AHP), developed by Saaty (1987), has been one of
the most extensively used participatory methods
for weighting indicators in the field of multi-criteria
decision analysis.
The approach applied here follows the methodology
proposed by Dall’Osso (2009), originally developed
for tsunami vulnerability assessments, but adapted
to a new context with a different set of indicators
relevant to meteorological hazards affecting the built
environment.
2.2. Superabsorbent Polymers (SAP)
and Usage in Concrete
Superabsorbent polymers (SAP) are defined as
hydrophilic, cross-linked polymeric “smart materials”
that have a reversible swelling-shrinkage behavior
to absorb, hold large amounts of water compared
to their own weight, and dry. Buchholz (Bartolomé
and Teuwen, 2019) points out that SAP are designed
mainly to absorb water solutions and have the ability,
under ideal conditions, to absorb up to 500 times
their own weight in water. A wide range of sizes and
shapes of the polymers is manufactured to enable
their integration in specific material systems. Most
of the SAP used are polyacrylate acids (PAA) and
polyacrylamides (PAM), both of which contain amide
groups that can react with water to form carboxylate
groups with hydrogen.
In making an effort towards the goal, MACBETH offers
a significant advantage. Compared to traditional
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) software that
requires exact numerical information, MACBETH
only requires qualitative ratings (e.g., “weak,”
“moderate,” or “strong”) regarding the differences
in preference between alternatives. This aspect
significantly reduces the cognitive burden placed on
experts without compromising methodological rigor.
To minimize subjectivity and maximize the uniformity
of the weights assigned to the indicators, a formal
questionnaire was prepared and sent to a panel of
experts. In the software system, all the indicators
were set out as options and evaluated using a pairwise
comparison matrix. Every indicator placed in a row
was compared to those placed in the corresponding
columns; when an indicator was found to have more
significance, its qualitative difference in desirability
was expressed through a predetermined semantic
scale.
The result of the MACBETH test of heavy rainfall
events on building indicators are scored. Expectedly,
the roof slope, shape and materials carry the
heaviest MACBETH score weights. As this thesis
aims to focus more on the vertical elements rather
than roofing parameters, data is to be filtered by
the author to solely focus on presence and state of
balcony, overhang existence and length, and floor
heights.
Figure 2. Hydrogels in action, IAAC (Stott, 2015).
2.2.1. Chemical Characteristics of SAP
When SAP comes in contact with water, they swell
rapidly, increasing significantly in volume. When
dried, they shrink once again, with the ability to
reabsorb water in future cycles. This reversible
absorption-desorption behavior is most useful for
the application of internal curing in cement-based
materials.
The potential activity of SAP, either medicinal or
architectural, is determined by the swelling capacity,
type of the SAP, dose/percentage, and particle
size of SAP. Classification of SAP is done based
on morphology, chemical building blocks, crosslinking
chemistry, and the type of electrical charges
(Mechtcherine, 2021).
“The reaction conditions that make up the SAP should
be optimized to achieve a good balance between
properties based on the application goal. It should
achieve stable thermodynamic equilibrium (swelling
equilibrium at the balance of osmotic pressure), as
shown in equation” (Richter 2008):
Figure 1. MACBETH heavy rain scoring of building
elements (Golz, 2016).
∆π = ∆πelastic + ∆πmix + ∆πion + ∆πbath = 0
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very good fire-retardant effects. When used as a
coating on concrete cores (CONC/SP specimens),
the temperature at the interface and core was
significantly reduced in comparison to the uncoated
control specimens (CONC/CON). The SP-coated
specimens also experienced reduced compressive
strength loss after exposure to fire, hence proving
the feasibility of SP mortars for use as a passive fire
protection system (Jamnam, 2022).
Figure 3. Water absorbing mechanism of
superabsorbent polymer, (Miyajima, 2020).
2.2.2. Usability of SAP in Concrete
Throughout the life of concrete, water has central
importance. It is an essential ingredient in the mixing,
curing, and hardening of concrete, its exchange
with the surroundings causes hardened concrete
to shrink, swell, and possibly crack; its presence in
hardened concrete influences strength and creep;
and it plays a central role in deterioration caused by
frost action or alkali-silica reactions.
Control of water is important to concrete and
application of SAP as an admixture in concrete is the
idea that has attracted large interest—both among
the concrete research community as well as the
industry.
Abundant research has proven SAP’ multifunctional
role in the physical behavior of concrete, with
emphasis on their contribution to the modification of
rheological behavior, mitigation of autogenous and
plastic shrinkage, minimization of drying shrinkage
crack occurrence, while managing internal water
transport to avert leakage.
The drying shrinkage of concrete resulting from loss
of water to the environment is a common source of
cracking in both plastic and hardened concrete. This
kind of cracking can be prevented by slowing down or
halting the loss of water. By functioning as a source
of water, SAP can be repurposed for this purpose,
but these kinds of shrinkage are really surface
phenomena and it could be problematic to manage
the action of the SAP to this interface (Jensen, 2008).
The application of SAP in concrete has demonstrated
great potential regarding the improvement of
freeze–thaw resistance by means of engineered
air entrainment. In contrast to conventional airentraining
admixtures, which are prone to problems
of bubble coalescence, compactional air loss, and
incompatibility with water-reducing admixtures,
SAP provides a more predictable alternative.
Incorporated in dry form and then hydrated, SAP
swells and then shrinks as hydration continues,
leaving behind spherical, gas-filled voids that act like
entrained air voids.
SP mortar, as used as a plastering material, had
The future application of Superabsorbent Polymers
(SAP) to enhance the durability of concrete is
promising. The new potential for such innovative
polymers to extend the lifespan and enhance the
performance of concrete structures is in their
capability to effectively inhibit damage induced by
moisture. SAP may be incorporated directly into
concrete mixtures or applied as protective surface
coatings, in which instance their special properties
are essential.
Doubtless, the workability and its influences must
be studied carefully to select the correct match of
SAP and concrete. The international conference
on the exact subject (RILEM, 2010), and a technical
committee established under the international
materials research organization, RILEM (2012). In
addition, the first structures using this technology
have been constructed. Examples of successful
projects are the FIFA World Cup 2006 pavilion,
Kaiserslautern, Germany, and segments of the
Chinese high-speed railway (Mechtcherine and
Reinhardt, 2012).
2.2.3. Experimental Material Evaluations
The first series of trials examined the fundamental
relationship between SAP and cement when
prepared as a dry powder mixture. Basic manual
mixing methods were deliberately employed rather
than advanced techniques like precision spraying
or automated dispersion systems. This approach
left the Sodium Polyacrylate SAP particles visibly
distinct within the cement matrix - appearing as
irregular white aggregates between 1-5 mm in
size, resembling coarse sand grains. The physical
differences in particle density and size between
cement powder and SAP crystals naturally led to this
observable heterogeneity.
Figure 4. a) Set-up of the raw homogenous mixtures
b) Post-wetted powder mixtures (12 hours mark).
The fact that SAP drastically manipulates the rheology
of the PPC, experimenting how an additional layer of
SAP would interact with PPC’s drying cycle has been
tried. As foreseen from the limitations of former
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trials, an additional layer of SAP interacts easier
compared to non-ionized scaled, non-effective
incoherent mixtures. Swell and shrinkage cycles are
directly exposed to water contact, open to naked
eye observation, and most importantly have next to
none effect on rheology of PPC.
optimized, mathematically parametrized, boundary
driven forms suggest Triply Periodic Minimal
Surfaces (TPMS) as a suitable potential brick design
methodology. As the geometrical development of
TPMS asserts a method of creating a surface with
minimal area within a limited volumetric border,
this certainly brings the conclusion of the remaining
volume offering the suitable accommodation for a
secondary material-in the context of this paper, the
SAP. This conclusion is the main reason for selecting
to study TPMS as the bricks’ form.
To further explore the protective brick design,
multiple TPMS trials prioritize configurations that
accommodate SAP’s 500% volumetric expansion
while maintaining structural integrity. Key parameters
in this development phase include:
Figure 5. Post-wetted layered mixtures (12 hours
mark).
In spite of the intrinsic difficulty in maintaining a
stable control condition like material homogeneity,
curing conditions, and accuracy in measurement,
the experimental tests provided useful information
to proceed with the conceptual design stage. The
layered and the mixed setups showed that the
encapsulation of SAP salt in a continuous cement
matrix causes structural weakening through
repeated cycles of shrinking and swelling. To alleviate
this, SAP needs to be strategically integrated
in designed porous networks or extended void
structures in such a way that the microstructure
of cement can accommodate the 500% volumetric
swelling of the polymer without integrity loss.
Finite element modeling also corroborated this
by demonstrating that the minimization of stress
concentrations occurs when voids are geometrically
optimized to redistribute expansion forces.
• TPMS Void Morphology: Optimizing void
volumes to distribute SAP swelling.
• SAP Swell: Simulating swelled SAP thicknesses
to reflect real-world adhesion and expansion
behavior.
• Scalability: Evaluating how different brick
dimensions influence SAP performance and
practicality.
Figure 6. Design of spray-coating device a)
Schematic b) lab-size model (Kim, 2022).
According to the objectives of the study, the optimum
admixture preparation technique is spray-coating
SAP in multiple layers on corresponding Portland
Pozzolana Cement (PPC) substrates in these long
voids. Apart from improving interfacial adhesion, this
technique also provides uniform water absorption
and swelling behavior.
2.3. Designing Triply Periodic Minimal
Surface Bricks
The need of accommodating as much SAP as
possible, specifically on the surface of the brick,
brings the design concept of having highly porous,
wrinkly, carved bricks into consideration. Self
Figure 7. Available volumetric space for SAP within
TPMS.
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The models include a simulated SAP layer lining the
voids, in both hydrated and dehydrated states. It can
be concluded with the statement that each TPMS
form brings the need for a customized SAP thickness
to be able to provide the maximum state of swelling
rate: 5.00. Interestingly thicker SAP coating doesn’t
always correspond to a larger rate- in TPMS study
Fischer Koch and S Surface have a curved rating.
On the other hand, Schwarz P easily reaches the
expansion rate of 5.46 even though the TPMS has
the least surface area and volume. However, the
relationships of multiple blocks should be kept in
mind while making design decisions, as Schwarz P
has exposed volumes left in the boundary box, even
with other bricks placed in the wall.
With this rate-curve-finding method, it is possible
to provide a catalog for different climate needs with
different TPMS types and matched SAP coating
thicknesses.
2.4. Wind Driven Rain Simulation
Wind Driven Rain (WDR) is a type of rain that is
affected by the vector strength of the wind. As WDR
is one of the most important water-damage sources
for a building, in this study it is significant to have a
WDR simulation as a controlled event. This section
elaborates the inputs considered relevant to creating
a realistic WDR simulation, visualization of the
raindrop catch ratios and drying times, and case tests
in several building types within Rhino Grasshopper
with the prepared C# component. The visualization
options provide an easier understanding of which
facade parts are exposed heavily, and design a
protective brick layer customized for them.
material properties, and outputs both the evolving
wetness visualization (as color-mapped meshes)
and analytical data (drying time estimates). Key
technical components include mesh-ray intersection
testing for shadow computation, vertex-based fluid
transport modeling, and physically-based rendering
of wetness patterns that respond dynamically to
changing environmental parameters.
Evaporation is the key action for the SAP protection
and WDR damage to the exposed building. The
evaporation rate calculation in the modified code
uses a Penman-style equation adapted for this
project’s application, which refines weather based
potential evapotranspiration (PET) (Allen, 1998). The
protection bricks aim to hold the water as long as
the rain continues and then evaporates after the rain
event ends.
2.4.2. WDR Simulation on TPMS Bricks
Mesh colorizations make it possible to observe that
SAP coverage nor long drying rate don’t equal an
exceptionless protection for the brick.
Figure 8. WDR colorization simulation reference,
from zero rain impact (blue) to fully wet (red).
2.4.1. Coding a Realistic WDR Simulation
In the majority of calculation based WDR simulations,
WDR intensity is accepted uniformly in the building
facade. Such uniformity is not realistic. Elements
such as balconies and window parapets commonly
get exposed to WDR first, depending on the wind
vector. This code implements an environmental
simulation that models rainwater interaction with
architectural surfaces through a multi-physics
approach. The system initializes by processing
input meshes and establishing material properties
(absorption coefficient, porosity, roughness), then
simulates rainfall dynamics with wind-influenced
droplet trajectories that impact surfaces with
velocity-dependent wetting effects. For each
timestep, it calculates evaporation rates based
on thermodynamic principles (incorporating
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind
speed), updates surface wetness states through
physical absorption and capillary action, and
visualizes results via vertex coloring that encodes
both moisture levels and solar exposure. The
simulation tracks individual raindrops from cloud
emission to surface impact, computes drying
times per vertex using environmental factors and
Figure 9. Catch ratio visualization of TPMS.
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Most visible in Fischer Koch and S Surface, although
the mesh looks intensely covered and drying times
exceed 24 hours, holding the excessive water in a
longer period resulted in transfer of extra humidity
in inner layers.
This obviously clashes with the intention of the
protection brick. On the other hand, even though
Schwarz P (Primitive) TPMS gives the most unitized
mesh colorization- which would mean a calm postrain
event state, practically speaking this is the
result of the shape being greatly exposed to open
air circulation within the brick. In other words, the
brick itself would have holes that are not covered
with concrete nor SAP. To briefly evaluate the red
colorization staying in the direction of rain and a brief
drying rate, it can be concluded that Gyroid provides
the most balanced control on WDR control, and be
used for the bigger scale sample facade application.
2.4.3. Applied Facade Case Study
As previous visualized trials have clearly proved,
different facade elements catch the rain in different
intensities, and furthermore MACBETH (Measuring
Attractiveness by a Categorical Based Evaluation
Technique) software hierarchizes these catch
spots. This section delves into developing another
additional C# component to cover the obvious need
of automatized panelizing of facades and customizing
the TPMS brick- in this thesis’ selection case Gyroid
by porosity, scale, and of course, SAP thickness in
those catch spots based on the MACBETH hierarchy
system.
The designed Gyroid facade had been tested via
WDR algorithm and visualized before and after the
heavy rain event.
Figure 10. Colour grading by vulnerability, based on
MACBETH report results.
The processing algorithm hierarchically converts
input curves into a structured 3D building model
using a multi-stage computation pipeline. The
pipeline is fed by the Rhino canvas which has been
carefully layered. It initially creates plane surfaces
from closed curves of architectural openings (doors,
windows, balconies) using parametric tolerance
control, and then divides the main wall surfaces
vertically along dividing references supplied by floor
curves with topological indexing preserved.
Figure 11. Facade element tag previews of C# code.
Boundary edges are computed algorithmically by
geometric analysis of segment midpoints, frame
members are created by controlled offsetting of
curves, and vertical connection planes are created
by orthogonal projection and extrusion between
floor slabs and openings. They are all hierarchically
structured in a data structure that is indexed by floor,
with automatic naming by a standard nomenclature
system (ElementType[FloorIndex,ElementIndex])
and color-code system for visual recognition. The
process integrates geometric operations (extrusion,
surface splitting, curve offsetting) with spatial
reasoning (point projection, edge detection) to
produce a connected architectural model with
semantic relationships among building elements
preserved while enabling selective output of floorspecific
element sets through dictionary-based data
management.
This floor-specific division makes the TPMS C# code
to categorize by vulnerability, data gotten from
MACBETH final scores. Rest of the Grasshopper
algorithm color-grades the MACBETH scores
between black and white, black being the least
vulnerable and white being the most vulnerable.
This vulnerability grading is fed to the TPMS code
component for color-grade and point-attractor
mesh porosity manipulation. Scaling of the
porosity solely customized by vulnerability grade
procures and ensures the protection each facade
element requires. The effectiveness of the porosity
manipulation is tested with WDR simulation.
Solar irradiance, precomputed in surface
generation through raycasting, influences drying
rates, shadowed areas (resolved in architectural
processing) experiencing prolonged moisture
retention. Protection of the inner layer has been
successfully achieved, with the Gyroid facade’s 48-
57 hours estimated drying time.
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research has explored the methods for incorporating
SAP, their effects on concrete bricks, and the
optimization of their implementation in facades. This
thesis contributes as a practical manual for architects
and engineers to implement these findings in the
form of actual building construction.
3.1. Usability
Figure 12. Sample WDR impact on porous facade,
built with Gyroid bricks.
Figure 13. Sample WDR impact on west facade, built
without TPMS bricks.
Figure 14. Isometric view of interior building layers,
protected by TPMS wall.
Figure 15. Sample building, designed with Gyroid
bricks.
3. Discussion
In this thesis, the potential of Superabsorbent
Polymers (SAP) and Triply Periodic Minimal Surface
(TPMS) for increasing the sustainability and
durability of urban constructions against heavy rain
damages was explored. By employing experimental,
computational, and design-based approaches, this
SAP is a smart material application to control
moisture damage, reduce permeability, resist
shrinkage and cracking. Research revealed that
while SAP’s swell and shrink motion is beneficial for
controlling moisture, it can also lead to microcracking
if not properly executed. Thus, the designed porous
networks or void structures must be strategically
placed to prevent structural weakening. The
technique of spray-coating SAP in concrete TPMS
brick voids has been found to be an effective
technique, endorsing uniform material distribution,
which means uniform swelling and water bonding.
The study regarded TPMS structures as a suitable
canvas for SAP integration. The project simulations
revealed that the Schwarz P and Gyroid geometries
provide unique points in water intake and release
kinetics. SAP thickness implementation code with
TPMS classes was created, to be used furthermore
with climate-based adaptation for architectural
facade moisture control. Parametric modeling
workflow was set up in Rhino Grasshopper for
systematic investigations of void geometries. SAP
distribution, and the swelling behavior in concrete
bricks were visualized via the codes for the
algorithm to strategize smooth shifts from smallscale
prototypes to full-scale architectural facade
applications.
3.2. Limitations
Initial tests, which involved simply hand mixing of SAP
with dry cement powder, were shown fundamentally
to have one overriding flaw: the procedure produced
a heterogeneous material with SAP particles
remaining noticeably obvious as irregularities of
the cement matrix. Detection of the heterogeneity,
through the massive physical dissimilarity of the
material, seemingly impaired material functionality
and interface bonding, characteristic of one of the
main limitations of the experimental process.
From such results, the study finds spray-coating SAP
in successive coatings across substrates as the best
admixture preparation procedure. Spray-coating
should be that material which lines interior surfaces
of deep voids, with the emphasis of complementing
interfacial adhesion, homogeneous water
absorption, and swelling profiles. Such, however, is a
hugely tortuous and porous structure of the desired
TPMS brick, which is thus the biggest practical
challenge. The spray-coating efficiency of such highly
tortuous structure geometrically physically needs
to be experimented and optimized, as it couldn‘t
entirely be warranted by simulation alone.
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This gap reveals one of the primary limitations of
this thesis: that simulation rather than physical
detailing and prototyping of facade was its primary
focus. Whilst the underlying knowledge of the
computational models is valuable, they lack the
potential of replicating the practicalities of material
application at large, massive scale of the real world.
Hence, more work has to be done that closes this
gap. The future work has to test and prototype the
spray-coating process physically at large-scale TPMS
facades under real weather conditions. This will
authenticate the outcomes of the computational
models, fine-tune the coating process ready for
architecture application, and ultimately achieve a
more responsive and environmentally adaptable
material system.
4. Conclusions
As urbanization and climate change demands grow,
SAP-infused and SAP-coated concrete facades
stand as a great potential for longer lasting, low
maintenance, and resource-saving infrastructure.
The infusion of SAP into concrete to store humidity
until the heavy rain impact ends is a turn-around
approach towards water damage management.
However it is promising for long-lasting, selfsustaining,
and sustainable building materials. The
research has worked to fusion computational design,
material science, and architectural innovation, the
research as a foundation for future-proof concrete
systems.
The adaptive SAP barrier plays a series of important
roles: it effectively minimizes the permeability to
water, prevents moisture ingress, and hinders the
ingress of harmful substances like chloride ions and
sulfates into the internal layers of the concrete.
By controlling the moisture dynamics, SAP
technology tackles some of the fundamental
degradation processes in concrete structures.
SAP’s water-holding capacity can enhance curing
processes more effectively and lead to less water use
in the construction process. It effectively reduces
shrinkage cracking, lowers reinforcement corrosion
risks, and improves resistance to freeze-thaw
cycles. All these protection aspects combine to offer
extended service life for concrete structures along
with rare maintenance and related repair expenses.
The use of SAP promotes more sustainable
construction methods in various ways. The
technology minimizes the use of supportive
protective membranes or coatings, thereby
decreasing the consumption of materials. Its impact
on durability also aligns with less use of resources
and less environmental footprint over the lifecycle.
As continuing research advances SAP formulations
and application techniques, the technology can
provide ever more sophisticated protection
solutions. Future innovations of this type can
include stimulus-sensitive SAP formats reacting
to environmental stimulus, or nano-engineered
polymers with controlled release. These innovations
advance the performance of concrete further,
facilitating the infrastructure with unprecedented
durability that responds to changing sustainability
requirements in the built environment. The age
of smart, adaptive building materials is here—
powered by the synergy of sustainable polymers
and computational precision.
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ARTICLE
Bridging the Gap Between Façade Execution and BIM: A Case Study
at Heidersberger
Ghazaleh Valipour 1
Supervisors: Prof. Daniel Arztmann 1 , Ruben decuypere 2
1. Detmold School of Design, University of Applied Sciences and Arts (TH OWL), Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany
Abstract
Despite the increasing digitization of construction processes, small to medium-sized façade fabrication firms
often remain disconnected from BIM-based practices. Their deep reliance on established 2D CAD routines,
combined with the complexity and customization inherent in façade systems, raises an essential question: is it
worthwhile—and under what conditions—for such companies to invest in BIM integration?
This thesis aims to investigate that question through a hybrid approach that is both analytical and solutionoriented.
It examines BIM maturity as a key enabler of long-term alignment with digital project delivery,
exploring how maturity levels can be gradually developed within SME contexts. Through a case study with a
real subcontractor involved in fabrication and installation, the research analyzes organizational and technical
barriers while mapping existing workflows and software environments. Building on this analysis, a potential BIM
workflow is proposed and prepared for testing in the context of actual project conditions. The workflow design
is informed by the constraints and habits typical of SME fabricators, as well as the limitations and capabilities
of current digital tools. The study ultimately seeks to bridge the gap between conceptual BIM frameworks and
the operational realities of execution-phase façade work—contributing to a more pragmatic understanding of
how BIM might evolve in this segment of the industry.
Keywords: BIM, façade execution, BricsCAD/SysCAD, interoperability, openBIM/IFC
1. Introduction
Façade delivery sits at the junction of design,
engineering, and fabrication—yet SME
subcontractors often coordinate multi-trade work
with 2D deliverables and manual hand-offs. The
resulting silos and re-entries increase risk just when
execution decisions are most cost-sensitive.
While BIM promises earlier certainty and richer
coordination, much of the façade sector still relies
on detailed shop drawings rather than informationrich
models. This thesis starts from that practical
tension and asks: How can BIM be adapted—
incrementally and safely—to an SME façade
contractor’s execution workflow so that benefits are
realized without abandoning proven 2D expertise?
The theoretical frame draws on BIM maturity models
and dimensions, ISO 19650 delivery processes, and
openBIM/IFC/IDS for interoperable exchange, then
tests a tailored, hybrid workflow in a live project
setting.
2. Methodology
This research was designed as a three-stage process.
The aim was to first establish a solid theoretical
foundation, then analyze the specific characteristics
of the façade industry and company workflows, and
finally validate the findings in practice through a pilot
project.
Stage 1 – Literature Review
The literature review covered two main areas:
BIM Foundations: Definitions of BIM, maturity
frameworks and key standards.
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Façade Industry Specifics: Characteristics that make
façade subcontracting distinct and slow in BIM
adoption, with a focus on commonly used software,
and their integration challenges.
Stage 2 – Workflow Study
The second stage examined façade industry
practices and conducted a detailed study at
Heidersberger Fassadenbau. The current workflows
and BIM maturity were assessed to identify barriers
and opportunities for improvement.
Stage 3 – Pilot Case
Finally, a pilot project (VBKI Berlin) tested a
lightweight BIM–MCAD workflow (BricsCAD Ultimate
with SYSCAD), demonstrating how medium-sized
façade contractors can gradually transition from 2D
processes to BIM-based execution.
2.1. Literature review
2.2.1. BIM Fundamentals and Information
Levels
Building Information Modeling (BIM) constitutes
both a digital representation of a facility’s physical
and functional characteristics and an integrated
process framework for information management
throughout the entire lifecycle of the built asset, from
early design to operation and maintenance (Penn
State University, 2010). In contrast to conventional
CAD, which primarily digitizes drafting practices,
BIM is object-oriented and parametric: each building
element is modeled as a semantically rich object,
embedded with attributes such as geometry,
material, performance parameters, and relational
dependencies. This semantic layer transforms
the model into a data environment that supports
simulation, cost estimation, lifecycle analysis, and
multidisciplinary coordination (Eastman et al., 2011;
Baldwin, 2019).
To ensure precision and consistency, the Level of
Development (LOD) and the Level of Information
Need (LOIN) frameworks define the granularity
and reliability of geometric and non-geometric
information across project phases. In parallel, BIM
maturity models provide a means to assess an
organization’s capability to implement and sustain
BIM practices. While stage-based models such
as Bew–Richards describe a progression from 2D
drafting to fully integrated BIM, more advanced
scoring and hybrid approaches—such as NBIMS,
Siebelink’s SME-oriented framework, and BIM
QuickScan—evaluate maturity across strategic,
processual, and technological dimensions (Succar,
2009; NBIMS, 2007; Siebelink et al., 2017; Van Berlo
et al., 2012).
information, while the latter measures organizational
readiness for digital transformation.
2.2.2. The Need for BIM Adoption
BIM delivers value across all project phases by
improving coordination, visualization, and decisionmaking.
In early stages, it supports feasibility and
performance analysis, while during design it ensures
consistency, reduces revisions, and enables clash
detection (Eastman et al., 2011; Dodge Data &
Analytics, 2015). In construction, 4D scheduling and
CNC-driven fabrication reduce waste and optimize
logistics, while BIM-based as-built models enhance
facility management (Eastman et al., 2011).
Economically, BIM front-loads effort into design,
as illustrated by the MacLeamy Curve, enabling
cost control, reduced rework, and shorter project
durations—benefits confirmed by industry surveys
(Eastman et al., 2011; Dodge Data & Analytics,
2015). In Germany, BIM adoption has accelerated
through government roadmaps such as the
Stufenplan Digitales Planen und Bauen and the BIM
Masterplan for Federal Buildings, which mandate
phased implementation from design to full lifecycle
integration by 2027 (BMVI, 2015; BMWSB, 2022).
Figure 1. The German BIM Masterplan timeline,
illustrating the staged rollout of mandatory BIM
implementation for federal construction projects
between 2022 and 2027 (BMWSB, 2022).
2.2.3. Standards and Interoperability
The absence of unified BIM standards long hindered
adoption, as national frameworks such as COBIM,
Statsbygg, and NBIMS evolved in isolation. With
ISO 19650 (2018), a global framework for lifecycle
information management was established,
introducing concepts like EIR, BEP, and LOIN (Ellis,
2019). Yet, its effectiveness depends on technical
implementation through machine-readable methods
such as IDS, mvdXML, and IFC-based validation, which
operationalise requirements and enable automation
(Tomczak et al., 2023).
Collectively, LOD/LOIN and maturity assessments
form complementary instruments: the former
governs the quality and reliability of project
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Table 1. BIM standards (technical.buildingsmart)
2.2.4. Roles and Responsibilities
BIM implementation is also defined by organizational
structures. According to ISO 19650 and VDI 2552,
responsibilities are divided into three levels: strategic
(decision-makers and BIM champions), tactical (BIM
managers and coordinators), and operative (BIM
authors and modelers). This distribution clarifies
accountability and secures data consistency across
disciplines (Succar, 2009; VDI 2552-8.1, 2020).
2.2.5. Façade Industry Context
The façade has evolved into a specialized discipline
that must be closely integrated with structural,
architectural, and MEP systems, requiring early
and continuous collaboration among diverse
stakeholders (Klein, 2013; Van Dijk et al., 2022). In
smaller projects, subcontractors typically enter
late in the process, whereas complex or highperformance
buildings demand decentralized, multiactor
coordination from the outset (Le et al., 2020).
Figure 2. Stages of development process for façade
products (based on scheme in Klein, T. 2013).
Key participants include façade consultants, system
suppliers such as Schüco or Wicona, engineers,
sustainability experts, regulators, and contractors,
whose involvement varies across project phases
(Knaack et al., 2007). A typical workflow spans system
design, concept development, tendering, execution
design, fabrication, mock-up testing, installation, and
commissioning—each governed by relevant DIN/EN
standards and performance requirements (JFDE,
2018; JFDE, 2023).
Successful façade delivery depends on aligning
design intent with fabrication logic, a process
increasingly supported by BIM through clash
detection, production integration, and lifecycle
documentation (Van Dijk et al., 2022).
However, adoption among medium-sized German
subcontractors remains limited, as fragmented 2D
workflows with ATHENA, SYSCAD, or HiCAD cause
inefficiencies, delays, and material waste (Planen-
Bauen 4.0, 2020; Advenser, 2023). In contrast, BIM
enables fabrication-ready 3D models, 4D scheduling,
and 5D cost planning, while shared environments
enhance collaboration and production efficiency
(Advenser, 2023; 3Dfindit, 2022; Gallego et al.,
2020). Yet challenges remain: IFC standards still
lack the granularity required for façade fabrication
data, and without dedicated Model View Definitions
contractors must rely on generic classes and manual
workarounds (buildingSMART, 2021; VDI 2552-11.8;
DIN SPEC 91400).
2.2.6. Software Landscape for Façade
Execution
Although BIM is becoming standard in Germany’s
public sector and is steadily expanding into private
projects, its uptake among medium-sized façade
subcontractors remains limited. These firms
continue to rely on fragmented 2D-based tools
such as ATHENA, SYSCAD, and HiCAD, which do not
integrate with federated BIM environments. As a
result, workflows are marked by redundant modeling,
manual data transfers, coordination gaps, and
material waste of up to 25% (PlanRadar, 2021; BRZ
Bau-Blog, 2021; Planen-Bauen 4.0, 2020; Advenser,
2023). By contrast, BIM offers fabrication-ready 3D
models (LOD 400+), digital prototyping, early clash
detection, and 4D/5D planning—capabilities that
have already demonstrated significant benefits
for execution efficiency and safety (Advenser,
2023; 3Dfindit, 2022). Open standards such as IFC
further strengthen these advantages by enabling
collaboration, logistics optimization, ERP and CNC
integration, and traceability across the value chain
(Ghaffarianhoseini et al., 2017; Enclos, 2023; Gallego
et al., 2020).
Yet substantial barriers persist. While IFC remains
the backbone of openBIM, it lacks the granularity
required to encode fabrication-critical information
such as tolerances, alloys, or cutting paths. This
forces façade contractors to rely on generic entities
and inefficient workarounds, such as Excel mapping
or isolated MCAD platforms (buildingSMART
International, 2021; VDI 2552-11.8, 2022; DIN SPEC
91400, 2020). German VDI guidelines provide useful
classification frameworks but still lack standardized
interfaces for direct factory integration (VDI
5200, 2016; VDI 2552-11.8, 2022). Consequently, a
structural digital gap emerges: BIM environments
are built on semantic–spatial hierarchies designed
for coordination, whereas MCAD systems operate
on bottom-up part–assembly logic optimized for
fabrication (buildingSMART International, 2020;
Camba et al., 2016). Bridging these fundamentally
different models is essential to achieve true digital
continuity from design to production in façade
execution.
This divide is particularly evident in practice. BIM
platforms such as Revit, Archicad, and BricsCAD BIM
support spatial coordination, regulatory compliance,
and interoperability through IFC, while MCAD
systems such as HiCAD, Inventor, and SolidWorks
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excel at detailed geometry, assemblies, tolerancing,
and CNC-ready outputs (Siemens, 2019; Autodesk,
2023; ISD Group, 2023). At the data level, IFC enables
semantic extensibility and federated workflows but
falls short in fabrication-level precision (Eastman et
al., 2011; Succar, 2009). Conversely, MCAD relies on
kernels such as Parasolid or ACIS and neutral formats
like STEP or SAT, which preserve geometry but strip
away semantics and spatial context (Camba et al.,
2016; ISO, 2014). The outcome is a frequent loss of
metadata, lifecycle information, and automated BIM
functionality when transferring between domains—
often leaving fabricators with little more than “dumb
solids” (Pauwels et al., 2017; Di Giuda et al., 2019).
To address this, middleware and meta-modeling
solutions are emerging. Autodesk Informed Design
synchronizes Inventor parts with Revit models in
real time; GeometryGym generates IFC data directly
from parametric assemblies; and OpenCascade
provides B-Rep to IFC conversion (AEC Magazine,
2024; Autodesk, 2023; GeometryGym, 2022;
OpenCascade, 2023). Domain-specific platforms
such as Orgadata’s LogiKal extend this approach by
linking system-based fabrication logic with both BIM
and MCAD, supporting CNC preparation and partial
Revit integration (Durmus, 2022; Orgadata, 2023).
High-end tools like CATIA and Tekla also enhance
interoperability, though their cost and complexity
limit adoption in small- to medium-sized firms
(Schwindt, 2022; Trimble, 2022; 3ds.com, 2023).
Despite progress, BIM–MCAD integration remains
partial, hindered by semantic mismatches, workflow
disruptions, manual enrichment, and lifecycle data
loss (Dore & Murphy, 2014; Di Giuda et al., 2019;
Borkowski & Maroń, 2024; Retief, 2025). A unified
meta-model reconciling BIM’s semantic–spatial
logic with MCAD’s fabrication precision is needed
to enable true digital continuity in façade execution
(Pauwels et al., 2017).
Figure 3. BIM (IFC) and MCAD data structure.
2.2.6.1. Examples of Bridging BIM and MCAD:
Autodesk Revit is one of the most widely used BIM
platforms, valued for coordination, documentation,
and regulatory compliance. Yet its limitations in
fabrication-level detailing—such as sheet-metal
modeling and CNC preparation—make bridging
with MCAD essential in façade engineering (AEC
Magazine, 2024).
Revit supports federated coordination, 4D
scheduling, and 5D cost planning, with tools like
Create Parts for segmenting curtain wall systems
into fabrication units (Autodesk, 2023). Plugins such
as AGACAD Ventilated Facades add rails, brackets,
insulation, and panels, generating shop drawings
and live BOMs, though complex folded panels still
require export to MCAD (AGACAD, 2020; AGACAD,
2024). Inventor fills this gap with advanced sheetmetal
tools, bend allowance calculations, and CNCready
flat patterns. Through Autodesk Informed
Design, Inventor parts retain parametric intelligence
while synchronizing with Revit families, enabling
bidirectional updates (Symetri, 2018; AEC Magazine,
2024).
Domain-specific solutions like Orgadata’s LogiKal
further bridge design and fabrication. With system
libraries (e.g., Schüco, Wicona, Hueck), LogiKal
supports static analysis, cost estimation, and CNC
outputs (Durmus, 2022). Interfaces to SolidWorks,
Inventor, HiCAD, and SysCAD enable seamless data
exchange, while a Revit plugin now allows metadata
synchronization for 4D/5D planning (Orgadata,
2023).
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Other MCAD platforms have responded to BIM
demands. HiCAD offers dual IFC/STEP exports
for coordination and CNC workflows, applied in
projects such as the European Central Bank in
Frankfurt, though semantic interoperability remains
a challenge (ISD Group, 2023). SolidWorks now
includes IFC support, allowing subcontractors to
contribute detailed assemblies (SolidWorks Help,
2024). Advanced tools like CATIA and Tekla extend
interoperability but are costly or limited in façade
applications (Schwindt, 2022; Trimble, 2022).
A notable hybrid is BricsCAD Ultimate, a DWG-native
platform combining BIM and MCAD. Extended by
SYSCAD, it supports system libraries (e.g., Schüco,
Wicona), automated 2D detailing, and CNC-ready
outputs. BricsCAD BIM includes parametric modeling,
property set enrichment, classification (IfcCovering,
IfcMember), and automated data extraction for
BOMs. BricsCAD Mechanical adds sheet-metal
unfolding (SMUNFOLD), bend allowances, and DXF/
CAM exports. Case studies (e.g., TAL Engineering)
show reductions in detailing time and efficient CNC
workflows. Integration with LogiKal further connects
façade planning with fabrication by synchronizing
system data and production documentation
(SYSCAD GmbH, n.d.; Bricsys NV, n.d.).
Figure 4. SYSCAD generates 3D models and BOMs
directly from 2D smart drawings for efficient façade
fabrication. (Syscad Solutions GmbH. (n.d.).)
Together, these platforms illustrate different
approaches to bridging BIM and MCAD: from
specialized hybrids like HiCAD and BricsCAD, to
domain connectors like LogiKal, and advanced but
costly systems such as CATIA. While interoperability
has improved, full digital continuity between BIM
coordination and fabrication workflows remains
constrained by semantic mismatches and partial
standardization.
2.3. Workflow Analysis at Heidersberger
The existing workflow at Heidersberger fassadenbau
was mapped across tendering, technical
development, and fabrication/installation (figure. 5).
Processes rely heavily on 2D drawings for design and
shop documentation. BOMs and costs are generated
in Excel or LogiKal, and logistics tables are prepared
separately. Manual data transfers dominate, and
no standardized BEP or CDE is in use. The maturity
assessment confirms a low BIM level: digital tools
exist but are isolated, leading to rework, delays, and
limited coordination.
Figure 5. Workflow summary (Author, own
illustration based on interviews, 2025).
2.4. Pilot Case Study – VBKI Berlin
The VBKI Berlin project at Bleibtreustraße 48A
served as a pilot case for introducing BIM-based
workflows into Heidersberger’s façade practice.
The project was coordinated under a structured
BIM framework, with governance defined by the
client’s Employer’s Information Requirements (EIR)
and the BIM Execution Plan (BEP). BIM management
and coordination were handled by BUILDING
EFFECTS, while a PoolarServer-based Common Data
Environment (CDE) ensured ISO 19650-compliant
data exchange, issue tracking, and version control.
The façade contractor, Heidersberger Fassadenbau,
was tasked with delivering a BIM model suitable
for integration into the federated model, primarily
for coordination and quantity validation. Key
stakeholders included architects, structural
engineers, MEP consultants, and the façade
subcontractor, all contributing discipline-specific
models for clash detection and model-based
coordination.
Traditionally, Heidersberger’s workflows were
centered on SYSCAD, where façade systems are
created as intelligent 2D drawings using certified
supplier libraries (e.g., Schüco, Wicona, Hueck). In
this pilot, SYSCAD acted as the bridge between
familiar 2D logic and BIM: its smart 2D sections
could be directly converted into 3D components,
carrying manufacturing constraints and system
accuracy. These 3D assemblies were then
transferred into BricsCAD Ultimate, where they
gained BIM intelligence through classification (e.g.,
IfcPlate, IfcWindow, IfcCovering) and the assignment
of project-specific property sets for materials, cut
lengths, fixing methods, and performance values.
Figure 6. Extracting 3D model from smart 2D
drawings with different LOD.
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BricsCAD Ultimate provided a unified environment
where BIM and Mechanical functions could operate
side by side. Standard façade components were
developed within the BIM workspace, while detailed
parts such as aluminum sheets, connectors, and
brackets were modeled using BricsCAD Mechanical
tools. This dual capability enabled both IFC-compliant
classification and fabrication-level detailing—
without the need to switch to an external MCAD
platform. Importantly, SYSCAD supported automatic
generation of BOMs, cutting lists, and shop drawings,
which were synchronized with BricsCAD’s Data
Extraction tools, ensuring traceable links between
design intent, BIM data, and execution outputs.
The enriched façade model was exported in
IFC4 format, filtered by Information Delivery
Specifications (IDS), and uploaded to the CDE for
interdisciplinary coordination. Weekly model reviews
in Solibri and Navisworks created a feedback loop:
clashes and inconsistencies were detected, logged
via BIM Collaboration Format (BCF), and resolved
collaboratively in coordination meetings. In parallel,
BricsCAD’s data extraction supported early material
estimation, while ERP integration (via ProFLEX)
was tested through semi-automated Excel/CSV
workflows.
Figure 8. Clash detection was performed in
Navisworks, and the issues were uploaded to the
BIM Collaboration Format (BCF) platform for RFI
submission and coordination meetings.
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Workflow
Analysis confirmed that Heidersberger’s workflow is
dominated by 2D drawings and Excel spreadsheets.
BOMs and costs are prepared in isolation, and
approvals are delayed by repeated manual data
entry. Communication is fragmented, and no
structured BIM coordination exists.
3.2. BIM Maturity Assessment
The maturity evaluation (Table 4) placed the company
at a low level. While digital tools such as LogiKal were
in use, they operated in silos without standardized
data exchange.
Table 2. BIM maturity assessment
Figure 7. Workflow summary.
As the modeling progressed, the façade model
gained increasing levels of detail and information.
BOMs could be automatically extracted, connections
were enriched with metadata, and the model became
suitable for integration with other disciplines. This
incremental process demonstrated how a façade
subcontractor, starting from 2D detailing, could
create a progressively enriched BIM model without
abandoning familiar workflows. The resulting model
served both as a coordination tool within the project
and as a basis for execution planning, thereby
closing the gap between design documentation and
fabrication requirements.
3.3. Practical Implications for Façade
SMEs
The maturity assessment underscores that for
façade subcontractors such as Heidersberger, a
direct transition to fully BIM-oriented environments
such as Revit is neither economically nor
operationally viable. The investment in licenses,
training, and workflow restructuring would outweigh
the immediate benefits for firms whose primary
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expertise lies in execution and fabrication rather
than early-stage design.
A stepwise approach to BIM adoption is therefore
more realistic. MCAD-oriented platforms that have
integrated BIM capabilities, such as HiCAD with
its BIM configurator, or hybrid solutions such as
BricsCAD Ultimate combined with SysCAD, provide
a feasible entry point. SysCAD demonstrated the
ability to transform intelligent 2D details into 3D
assemblies with automatic BOM generation, while
BricsCAD Ultimate enabled IFC classification and
property enrichment of these assemblies. This
gradual pathway allows SMEs to maintain familiar 2D
practices while progressively developing data-rich
3D models suitable for coordination and execution.
3.5. Benefits
The pilot demonstrated reductions in manual reentry
of data, improved traceability of BOMs, and
earlier identification of clashes. Structured property
sets allowed for more consistent data extraction,
and the use of a CDE improved communication and
transparency across stakeholders.
3.6. Challenges
Several limitations were observed. BricsCAD Ultimate
does not support direct editing of 2D sections,
which complicates design modifications. Metadata
was partially lost in transfers between SysCAD,
BricsCAD, and LogiKal. Furthermore, execution-level
BIM functions in 4D and 5D remain less advanced
than in more established ecosystems such as Revit
combined with Navisworks.
4. Discussion
The findings of this study confirm that façade
subcontractors operate under distinct conditions
compared to architects and general contractors,
which explains their slower BIM adoption. Their
workflows remain heavily execution-oriented and
largely dependent on 2D documentation, with
fragmented software support across Excel, LogiKal,
and isolated CAD environments. This aligns with
wider literature describing the façade sector as
digitally underdeveloped despite the high technical
and economic significance of façades.
The pilot case demonstrated that hybrid workflows
bridging BIM and MCAD offer a feasible pathway for
small and medium-sized enterprises. By combining
SysCAD’s ability to derive 3D assemblies from
intelligent 2D details with BricsCAD Ultimate’s IFCbased
classification and property enrichment, it was
possible to incrementally transform conventional
drawings into structured BIM objects. This
approach provided measurable benefits in terms of
transparency, coordination, and data consistency,
while remaining compatible with established
practices.
Nevertheless, important limitations remain.
Metadata transfer between platforms was
incomplete, BricsCAD lacked efficient 2D editing,
and execution-level 4D/5D functions did not match
the maturity of established ecosystems such as Revit
and Navisworks. These issues highlight the need for
middleware or metamodel strategies that can more
effectively unify BIM and MCAD domains.
4.1. Limitation
This research was limited by its focus on a single
medium-sized subcontractor and one pilot project.
The findings therefore cannot be generalized
without caution. The software workflow tested was
specific to BricsCAD Ultimate, SysCAD, and LogiKal;
other toolchains may yield different outcomes.
Furthermore, the pilot remained at a prototype
level, meaning that long-term impacts on project
efficiency and cost could not be fully assessed.
These limitations suggest that broader case studies
and cross-platform evaluations will be necessary to
validate the conclusions.
5. Conclusions
This research has shown that for façade
subcontractors such as Heidersberger, a full transition
to BIM-oriented software is neither economically
justified nor operationally realistic. Instead, gradual
adoption through hybrid platforms provides a more
viable route. The study demonstrated how 2D-driven
workflows can be progressively enriched with BIM
functions, delivering tangible benefits without
disrupting established expertise in execution and
fabrication.
The key contribution of this work lies in proposing a
stepwise adoption strategy that balances economic
feasibility with digital integration. Hybrid solutions
such as BricsCAD Ultimate with SysCAD or HiCAD
with its BIM configurator illustrate how façade SMEs
can move towards BIM compliance while preserving
efficiency.
Future research should further explore
interoperability frameworks and domain-specific
plugins that bridge BIM and MCAD more seamlessly,
as these will be essential to achieving full digital
maturity in façade execution.
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ARTICLE
A Review on Industrialized Construction
Andres N. Olmos 1
1. ZIGURAT Global Institute of Technology – Almogávers, 66, 08018 Barcelona
Abstract
Industrialized construction refers to building systems where components are manufactured in controlled
industrial facilities and later assembled on-site. This approach, inspired by modularity and mass production
principles, represents a shift from traditional on-site construction methods. The article reviews the historical
roots of industrialization, its advantages—such as time reduction, enhanced safety, waste minimization, and
process simplification—and its disadvantages, including high initial costs, limited flexibility, and increased
planning demands. Current applications and trends are discussed, ranging from single-family housing and
modular buildings to bio-based prefabricated materials, supported by digital technologies like BIM, Lean
Construction, and Design for Manufacturing, Assembly, and Disassembly (DfMA+D). Industrialized construction
is presented as a critical pathway toward sustainability, efficiency, and quality improvement in the built
environment, highlighting its potential to reduce emissions and enhance durability while aligning with global
environmental challenges.
Keywords: Prefabrication; Modular buildings; BIM; Lean Construction; Bio-based materials
1. Introduction
Industrialized construction can be defined as any
type of building manufactured in advance in a
plant or industrial facility and later assembled at
its final site (Sotorrío Ortega et al., 2023). The basic
concept consists of producing modules in controlled
environments and then transporting them to be
assembled on-site, much like a “puzzle” or “LEGO”
(Kamali & Hewage, 2016). However, behind this
apparent simplicity lies a profound transformation
in the way we conceive and execute construction
projects.
The Hodgson Company, founded in 1892 by Ernest F.
Hodgson in Dover, Massachusetts, is recognized as
one of the earliest producers of true prefabricated
houses in America (figure 1). Starting with small
prefabricated products like poultry brooders and
sheds, Hodgson soon expanded into summer
cottages, garages, and eventually full houses built
from standardized wall, roof, and floor panels that
could be shipped and assembled quickly on site. The
company’s catalogues promoted both seasonal and
Figure 1. Hodgson Company catalog from 1916.
year-round homes, which gained popularity across
the U.S. and even abroad, including uses for disaster
relief (E. F. Hodgson Co., 1916).
Industrialization is not a recent phenomenon.
Records show that even before the year 1400,
trades such as shoemaking or blacksmithing
already had industrial-like processes. Later, with
the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, mass
production radically transformed our daily lives:
almost everything we use today is the product of
industrialized processes (Mendels, 1972).
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2. Methodology
A narrative literature review was conducted to
explore the current state, benefits, challenges,
and future trends of industrialized construction.
The review focused on peer-reviewed literature,
professional reports, and industry sources
published in recent years. The review was guided by
the following research questions:
• Why is construction still primarily carried
out on-site despite the proven benefits of
industrialization?
• What are the main advantages of industrialized
construction compared to traditional
approaches?
• What disadvantages or limitations have been
identified in the adoption of industrialized
construction?
• What are the current trends and emerging
practices shaping the future of industrialized
construction?
3. Results
3.1. Persistence of On-Site
Construction
Despite the proven benefits of industrialization in
other sectors, construction continues to rely heavily
on traditional on-site methods. A key reason is the
challenge of scale and logistics. Unlike consumer
goods that can be produced, packaged, and
transported with ease, buildings are inherently
larger and more complex. The transportation of
entire houses or larger structures such as hospitals
and office towers poses significant logistical barriers,
making full prefabrication impractical in many
contexts (Pervez et al., 2022).
Another factor is the contextual variability of
construction projects. Each building is influenced by
local conditions such as climate, soil characteristics,
cultural preferences, and regulatory requirements,
which often require bespoke solutions. This contrasts
with industries like automotive or electronics,
where products can be standardized across global
markets. Consequently, these contextual demands
have historically limited the widespread adoption of
industrialized methods in construction (Pan, Gibb, &
Dainty, 2007).
3.2. Advantages of Industrialized
Construction
One of the most frequently emphasized benefits is
time efficiency. Prefabricated modules, which may
integrate both structural and enclosure functions,
allow for the parallelization of production and on-site
activities. This significantly reduces project timelines
and minimizes exposure to weather-related delays
(Blismas, Pasquire, & Gibb, 2006). Industrialized
construction also enhances safety and workforce
conditions. By reducing the number of tasks
performed on-site, fewer workers are exposed to
accidents and hazardous conditions. Moreover, the
reliance on standardized factory production helps
to mitigate the growing shortage of skilled labor
(Assaad et al., 2022).
Another recognized advantage is improved
management and quality control. Concentrating
production in industrial plants reduces the number
of suppliers and subcontractors, streamlines
administrative procedures, and ensures higher
consistency in the final product (Liu & Jiang, 2025).
Pan, Gibb, & Dainty (2007) also observed that
clients appreciate the predictability and reliability of
industrialized construction processes, particularly in
terms of schedule and quality performance.
Environmental considerations further reinforce
the value of industrialization. Prefabrication allows
for better waste management, minimizing material
losses and facilitating recycling. It also reduces
emissions linked to the frequent transport of
construction materials and provides opportunities
to design for improved building energy performance
across the lifecycle (Qi et al., 2025).
Figure 2. Diagram of an industrialized process,
progressing from floor to floor with pre-fabricated
facade panels.
3.3. Disadvantages of Industrialized
Construction
Despite its advantages, industrialized construction
faces several obstacles that limit its widespread
application. Among these, reduced flexibility
is frequently mentioned: unlike traditional
construction, which accommodates late design
changes on site, prefabricated approaches demand
decisions be finalized in advance, and deviations later
tend to incur higher complexity and cost (El‐Abidi &
Ghazali, 2015).
Another significant challenge is the high demand for
planning and coordination; industrialized methods
require detailed upfront design, specialized technical
knowledge, and precise logistical management,
yet many firms struggle due to limitations in
organizational capacity and expertise (Hu, Chen,
Gao, & Ding, 2024).
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3.4. Emerging Trends and Innovations
3.4.1. Single-Family Housing
Proposals for modular or foldable houses that can
be assembled in just a few hours are becoming more
common. In some cases, these solutions are even
marketed through digital platforms and delivered
by truck, ready to be connected and inhabited
immediately. However, the main limitation of these
housing models lies in their size constraints and the
lack of customization options, which reduce their
appeal in markets where personalization is highly
valued.
3.4.2. Modular Buildings
In modular buildings, a fixed structural core is
combined with variable modules that can be adapted
to user requirements. This approach enables spaces
to be expanded, altered, or reconfigured without
disrupting the primary framework, making modular
buildings particularly suitable for schools, hospitals,
and office environments where demand for flexibility
is high (Kucan et al., 2024).
3.4.3. Industrial and Office Facilities
Many industrial warehouses and corporate
buildings are now conceived as factory-assembled
systems. Structural components, enclosures,
and even electrical and plumbing installations
are prefabricated in controlled environments and
subsequently mounted on-site within a short
timeframe. This reduces construction duration
significantly, improves quality, and minimizes
disruptions in urban or industrial contexts.
3.4.4. Bio-Construction and Natural Materials
Another promising trend is the incorporation
of sustainable and bio-based materials into
industrialized processes. Cross-laminated timber
(CLT/XLAM), prefabricated clay panels, and
hemp-based building elements exemplify how
industrialization is increasingly linked with ecological
practices. These materials not only reduce the
carbon footprint of buildings but also demonstrate
how industrialization can contribute to broader
sustainability and circular economy objectives.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1. Industrialization and the
Persistence of Traditional Methods
The results highlight a paradox: although
industrialized construction offers clear benefits,
traditional on-site methods remain dominant. This
reflects what Gibb and Isack (2003) describe as the
“cultural inertia” of the construction sector, where
established practices, supply chains, and professional
Figure 3. Diagram of pre-fabricated façade panels,
starting with the formwork that includes ventilation
holes, followed by inserting the structural elements,
insulation with natural fiber, installation of heating/
cooling and hydraulic systems, and plastering.
identities slow the adoption of disruptive methods.
Flexibility and the capacity to accommodate clientdriven
changes remain crucial in many markets,
giving traditional methods a competitive edge. The
literature suggests that industrialized construction is
most successful in contexts where repeatability and
standardization provide economies of scale, such
as in large housing developments or standardized
office facilities (Pan, Gibb, & Dainty, 2007).
4.2. Alignment with Sustainability and
Policy Goals
One of the most compelling findings concerns
the environmental benefits of industrialized
construction. Reductions in waste, emissions, and
operational energy use align with the urgent need
to mitigate the environmental impact of the built
environment, which is responsible for nearly 40% of
global carbon emissions (UNEP, 2020). Industrialized
methods enable controlled production environments
that facilitate recycling and energy efficiency, and
their synergy with bio-based materials such as
cross-laminated timber and hemp-based panels
positions them as key contributors to sustainable
development. These aspects are increasingly
valued in policy frameworks promoting sustainable
construction, such as the European Union’s Circular
Economy Action Plan (European Commission, 2020).
4.3. Digital Transformation and Future
Directions
The integration of digital technologies is essential
for overcoming many challenges for industrialized
construction. Building Information Modeling (BIM)
and Lean Construction approaches provide tools for
the detailed planning and coordination required by
prefabrication, reducing risks and inefficiencies. The
concept of Design for Manufacturing, Assembly, and
Disassembly (DfMA+D) extends this by incorporating
end-of-life reuse and recycling of components.
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Emerging technologies such as 3D printing, robotics,
building automation, and AI-based optimization
further suggest that industrialization will increasingly
rely on digitalization.
5. References
Assaad, R. H., El-Adaway, I. H., Hastak, M., & LaScola
Needy, K. (2022). The impact of offsite construction on
the workforce: Required skillset and prioritization of
training needs. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, 148(7), 04022056. https://doi.org/10.1061/
(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0002314
Blismas, N. G., Pasquire, C. L., & Gibb, A. G. F. (2006).
Benefit evaluation for off-site production in construction.
Construction Management and Economics, 24(2), 121–130.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01446190500184444
El‐Abidi, K. M. A., & Ghazali, F. E. M. (2015). Motivations
and limitations of prefabricated building: An overview.
Applied Mechanics and Materials, 802, 668‐675. https://
doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.802.668
European Commission. (2020, March 11). A new Circular
Economy Action Plan: For a cleaner and more competitive
Europe (COM(2020) 98 final). Publications Office of the
European Union. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-
detail/-/publication/6e6be661-6414-11ea-b735-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en
Gibb, A. G. F., & Isack, F. (2003). Re‐engineering through
pre‐assembly: Client expectations and drivers. Building
Research & Information, 31(2), 146‐160. https://doi.
org/10.1080/09613210302000
E. F. Hodgson Co. (1916). Hodgson portable houses
[Catalogue]. E. F. Hodgson Co. Retrieved from https://
archive.org/details/E.F.Hodgson3
Hu, Q., Chen, Y., Gao, L., & Ding, C. (2024). Construction
Project Organizational Capabilities Antecedent Model
Construction Based on Digital Construction Context.
Buildings, 14(11), 3471. https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings14113471
Kamali, M., & Hewage, K. (2016). Life cycle performance
of modular buildings: A critical review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 62, 1171–1183. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.031
Kucan, D., et al. (2024). Sustainable Future‐Proof Healthcare
Facilities: A Modular and Adaptable Design Approach. Delft
University of Technology. [pdf] Retrieved from https://
research.tudelft.nl/files/218669371/kucan-et-al-2024-
sustainable-future-proof-healthcare-facilities-modularand-adaptable-design-approach.pdf
Liu, Y., & Jiang, Y. (2025). The impact of supply chain quality
management on firm performance in manufacturing
business: The moderating role of digital intelligence.
Sustainability, 17(9), 4165. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su17094165
Mendels, F. F. (1972). Proto-industrialization: The first
phase of the industrialization process. The Journal of
Economic History, 32(1), 241–261. https://doi.org/10.1017/
S0022050700075495
Pervez, H., Ali, Y., Pamucar, D., Garai-Fodor, M., & Csiszárik-
Kocsir, Á. (2022). Evaluation of critical risk factors in the
implementation of modular construction. PLOS ONE, 17(8),
e0272448. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272448
Pan, W., Gibb, A. G. F., & Dainty, A. R. J. (2007).
Perspectives of UK housebuilders on the use of offsite
modern methods of construction. Construction
Management and Economics, 25(2), 183–194. https://doi.
org/10.1080/01446190600827058
Qi, Y., He, X., Li, Y., et al. (2025). Threshold effect study on
the development of prefabricated buildings for energy
conservation and emission reduction in the construction
industry. Scientific Reports, 15, Article 27269. https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41598-025-12811-z
Sotorrío Ortega, G., Cobo Escamilla, A., & Tenorio Ríos, J.
A. (2023). Industrialized construction and sustainability: A
comprehensive literature review. Buildings, 13(11), 2861.
https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112861
UNEP. (2020). 2020 global status report for buildings
and construction. Global Alliance for Buildings and
Construction (GlobalABC). https://globalabc.org/sites/
default/files/inline-files/2020%20Buildings%20GSR_
FULL%20REPORT.pdf
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ARTICLE
An Exploration of Detmold’s Green Façades Through a Place-Based
Education Workshop
Alvaro Balderrama 1,2
1 Institute for Design Strategies, Detmold School of Design, University of Applied Sciences Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Emilienstraße 45, 32756 Detmold, Germany.
2 Architectural Façades and Products Research Group, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Architectural Engineering and
Technology, TU Delft, Julianalaan 134, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands.
Abstract
To strengthen practice in sustainable façade design, training for emerging professionals should combine both
theory and practice such as field observations, laboratory measurements, and other related approaches that
add value with direct engagement. This article shares the experience of a workshop conducted in Detmold
between May and June of 2025, using the city’s green façades as examples for façade-engineering education.
Fifteen Master’s students worked in groups to examine seven façades (n = 7), conducting in-situ observations
of vertical greenery systems with attention to water management (irrigation/drainage), local environmental
conditions, fabrication, installation, and integration with the surrounding urban fabric. The workshop design
aligns with place-based learning by requiring participants to examine and interact with real elements in their
city and to synthesize findings through photographs, technical drafting, and structured discussions. The
results indicate that student engagement was high due to the personal aspect of analyzing a building with
a complex/special façade system within the same city. Finally, the article discusses implications for curricula
and professional practice: first-hand familiarity with existing systems equips emerging designers to ground
decisions in observed conditions and to translate those observations into more robust specifications and
maintenance considerations.
Keywords: greenery, sustainability, façade education, environmental design
1. Introduction
Cities around the world face significant environmental
challenges, notably rapid urbanization, loss of
biodiversity, climatic events, and deteriorating
mental health (Grimm et al., 2008; Seto et al., 2012).
Addressing these challenges requires innovative
urban design solutions, particularly increased
integration of nature-based solutions such as
green walls or community gardens (Raymond et al.,
2017). Implementing greenery in building envelopes
effectively contribute to urban resilience by
mitigating environmental stressors like urban heat
island effect, noise and air pollution, reducing risk
of disasters related to atmospheric conditions and
supporting biodiversity (Berardi et al., 2014; Pérez et
al., 2011).
The widespread implementation of green walls in
the construction industry remains limited despite
robust evidence of their environmental and social
benefits (Perini et al., 2011; Cardinali et al., 2023). A
critical barrier to its implementation is likely related
to inadequate education and awareness among
architects, engineers, and planners regarding the
practical implementation and maintenance of vertical
greenery systems (Pauleit et al., 2019). Architectural
and engineering curricula often emphasize
theoretical knowledge of vertical greenery systems
but without sufficient emphasis on practical,
experiential, and contextual learning (Pacini et al.,
2025). Research indicates that educational gaps limit
professionals’ capacities to design and implement
green infrastructure effectively (Escobedo et al.,
2019).
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Place-based education, as conceptualized by
Gruenewald (2003) and further developed by Sobel
(2005), emphasizes the importance of grounding
learning experiences in the local environment and
community. This approach connects participants
to the specific ecological, cultural, and historical
contexts in which they live and study, allowing
them to visit these places during daily-life activities,
maybe even spontaneously. In architectural and
engineering education, such grounding can provide
a deeper and more personal understanding of how
buildings interact with their local environment,
ecosystems, and social dynamics (Smith & Sobel,
2010). Place-based learning promotes ecological
literacy (Orr, 1992), which encourages learners to
become active participants in solving environmental
challenges rather than passive recipients/observers.
Particularly in sustainability-focused curricula,
place-based strategies allow for meaningful
engagement with real-world challenges and foster a
sense of responsibility and connection to the place
(Gruenewald & Smith, 2008).
of the façades with their urban surroundings. This
included analyzing visual quality, soundscape quality,
air quality, shading, accessibility, and contribution
to urban biodiversity. Their observations were
compiled and are presented in ANNEX 1.
This study presents the results of a workshop
aimed at providing façade engineering students
direct exposure to green façades within the city of
Detmold, nearby their place of study, guiding them
to analyze and document the existing buildings
and the technology used. The workshop‘s intended
outcomes included enhancing students‘ technical
comprehension of green façade systems, promoting
experiential and place-based learning approaches.
2. Methodology
2.1. Learning objectives
The workshop was designed to provide students
deeper technical knowledge about different vertical
greenery systems, including aspects such as
structural components, plant selection, drainage
and irrigation methods. The pedagogical strategy
also aimed to reinforce ecological literacy and
contextual awareness, aligning with the principles
of place-based education (Gruenewald, 2003; Sobel,
2005). Students were encouraged to analyze their
findings considering the urban fabric of Detmold, its
environmental conditions, and its integration with
the surrounding environment.
2.2. Workshop task
During the workshop, students were organized in
pairs and assigned specific green façades located
in Detmold. Green façades (a typology of Green
Walls or Vertical Greenery Systems) were specifically
selected since other typologies (e.g. living panels,
modular systems) are not so common in the city and
regional closeness was a priority.
Figure 1 shows a satellite view of Detmold, with
markers on the seven (n=7) façades analyzed in the
workshop. In addition to technical components,
students were instructed to reflect on the integration
Figure 1. Satellite view of Detmold with markers on
the seven façades studied.
3. Results and Discussion
The main workshop task was presented by seven
groups, followed by a round of questions and a
discussion. All green wall cases were climbing green
façades. The results show different approaches (e.g.
direct and indirect climbing), fitted into their specific
sites and environmental conditions.
After the workshop, the feedback collected
indicated that this learning experience improved
the students’ comprehension of these systems
compared to their previous (theoretical-only)
knowledge. Furthermore, this pedagogical approach
showed potential for broader applications within
architectural and engineering education by directly
engaging with existing infrastructure. Students can
develop practical competencies and a personal
opinion based on experience, much needed within
the industry. These types of pedagogic activities
reinforce students‘ roles as active contributors to
sustainable urban design and help them to be more
equipped to promote the implementation of green
walls in cities through more convincing arguments.
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4. References
Berardi, U., GhaffarianHoseini, A., & GhaffarianHoseini,
A. (2014). State-of-the-art analysis of the environmental
benefits of green roofs. Applied Energy, 115, 411–428.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.10.047
Cardinali, M., Balderrama, A., Arztmann, D., & Pottgiesser, U.
(2023). Green walls and health: An umbrella review. Nature-
Based Solutions, 3, 100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
nbsj.2023.100070
Escobedo, F. J., Giannico, V., Jim, C. Y., Sanesi, G., &
Lafortezza, R. (2019). Urban forests, ecosystem services,
green infrastructure and nature-based solutions: Nexus
or evolving metaphors? Urban Forestry & Urban Greening,
37, 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.02.011
Grimm, N. B., Faeth, S. H., Golubiewski, N. E., Redman, C. L.,
Wu, J., Bai, X., & Briggs, J. M. (2008). Global change and the
ecology of cities. Science, 319(5864), 756–760. https://doi.
org/10.1126/science.1150195
Gruenewald, D. A. (2003). The best of both worlds: A critical
pedagogy of place. Educational Researcher, 32(4), 3–12.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X032004003
Gruenewald, D. A., & Smith, G. A. (2008). Place-based
education in the global age: Local diversity. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315769844
Orr, D. W. (1992). Ecological literacy: Education and the
transition to a postmodern world. SUNY Press. https://doi.
org/10.1017/S0889189300004537
Pacini, A., Brüggemann, M., Flottmann, M., Großschedl,
J., & Schlüter, K. (2025). Sustainability Education Through
Green Facades: Effects of a Short-Term Intervention
on Environmental Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices.
Sustainability, 17(6), 2609. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su17062609
Pauleit, S., Andersson, E., Anton, B., Buijs, A., Haase,
D., Hansen, R., Kowarik, I., Stahl Olafsson, A., & Van der
Jagt, S. (2019). Urban green infrastructure – connecting
people and nature for sustainable cities. Urban Forestry
& Urban Greening, 40, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ufug.2019.04.007
Pérez, G., Rincón, L., Vila, A., González, J. M., & Cabeza, L.
F. (2011). Green vertical systems for buildings as passive
systems for energy savings. Applied Energy, 88(12), 4854–
4859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.06.032
Perini, K., Ottelé, M., Fraaij, A. L., Haas, E. M., & Raiteri, R.
(2011). Vertical greening systems and the effect on air flow
and temperature on the building envelope. Building and
Environment, 46(11), 2287–2294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
buildenv.2011.05.009
Raymond, C. M., Frantzeskaki, N., Kabisch, N., Berry, P.,
Breil, M., Nita, M. R., Geneletti, D., & Calfapietra, C. (2017). A
framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits
of nature-based solutions in urban areas. Environmental
Science & Policy, 77, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envsci.2017.07.008
Seto, K. C., Güneralp, B., & Hutyra, L. R. (2012). Global
forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts
on biodiversity and carbon pools. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 109(40), 16083–16088.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211658109
Smith, G. A., & Sobel, D. (2010). Place- and communitybased
education in schools. Routledge. https://coga.uccs.
edu/sites/g/files/kjihxj1851/files/2020-10/Place_and_
Community_based_Education_in_Schools.pdf
Sobel, D. (2005). Place-based education: Connecting
classrooms and communities. Orion Society. https://
coga.uccs.edu/sites/g/files/kjihxj1851/files/2020-10/Place-
Based_Education.pdf
ANNEX: Compilation of green façades analyses by
MID students
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Figure 2. Green façade of Haus im Weinberg 1 during Autumn 2022.
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Papenbergweg 27, 32756 Detmold
Aashish Singh, Sara Hemmatyar
• Building Information:
The building is a single family residential house with a gable roof. The list of floors from bottom to top are as
follows: basement level, ground floor, first floor and attic. The materials of the wall are such that the brick walls
have stone and cement exterior cladding. The surrounding neighbourhood is also fully residential with other
houses of similar footprint. The building was discovered while on the way to the Studierendenwerk student
dorm on Mozartstrasse in Detmold, a popular residential dormitory for students of the Technische Hochschule
Ostwestfalen-Lippe (TH OWL) as well as the Hochschule für Musik (HfM). Aside from its lush green facade, the
building has quite rustic features with various wooden ornamentation on it’s entrance foyer. The attached
greenhouse to the side is very unique as well.
• Green Wall Description:
The undulations of the rough cement exterior finish on the cladding is what allows creeper plants to grip and
climb up the wall. No additional support is needed for the creeper plants, the high tessellation of the rough
cement exterior finish is enough to allow the plant’s gripping along the wall.
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Figure 2: Details Section made using Revit
Figure 3: 3D View with Exterior Cement Finish Images
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Haus im Weinberg II, Allee 25, 32756 Detmold, Germany
Anastasiia Krasnikova, Dila Dil, Marie Al Helou
• Building Information:
Surrounded by historic villas, the retirement home is located along the Friedrichstaler Canal and the Knochenbach
stream. The building is a historic stone structure featuring Gothic revival elements, such as battlements, arched
windows, and turrets. The masonry consists of rough-cut stone and lime plaster.
• Green Wall Description:
The Green Wall Constructive System is a ground-based, direct green façade where Parthenocissus tricuspidata
(Boston Ivy) climbs directly on the building surface without trellises, using natural adhesive mechanisms. It
shows dense, cascading growth, especially around upper windows, and provides seasonal color and texture
variation. The system uses a solid wall structure capable of supporting plant adhesion, with ground-based
or drip irrigation and ground-level drainage. Maintenance involves occasional pruning and health checks to
prevent overgrowth or wall damage. This green wall enhances thermal insulation, reduces heat gain, supports
biodiversity, improves local microclimate, and contributes to both indoor comfort and exterior aesthetics.
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Figure 2: Hand sketch of the green façade
Figure 3: Climbing green façade diagram
Figure 4: Climbing green façade details and section
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Bandelstraße 2, 32756 Detmold, Germany
Bishal Sunar, Nitesh Shrestha
• Building Information:
The building in the image features a historic architectural style with natural stone or plastered brick walls, a
pitched clay tile roof, and arched wood or metal-framed windows. The facade is fully covered with self-clinging
climbing plants like ivy, forming a natural green façade without visible support structures. Decorative elements
such as stone window sills and wrought iron fencing enhance the traditional character. Surroundings include
a concrete sidewalk, street furniture, ornamental plants, and a garden space enclosed by metal fencing on a
stone base, contributing to a charming and well-integrated urban setting.
• Green Wall Description:
The green façade system is a passive vertical greening approach where climbing plants grow either directly on
the building surface (self-clinging) or with the support of external structures like trellises, stainless steel cables,
or mesh. In the case of self-clinging plants (like ivy), no additional framework is needed as the plants attach
directly to the façade using rootlets or tendrils. Alternatively, support structures are anchored to the wall,
keeping plants off the surface to prevent damage. The plants are rooted in the ground or in planter boxes at the
base, drawing natural water and nutrients from the soil, with optional drip irrigation systems for support. This
system is low-maintenance, promotes biodiversity, and provides benefits such as thermal insulation, shading,
and aesthetic enhancement.
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Figure 2: Isometric View
Figure 3: Sectional Elevation Showing the internal
function of the building
Figure 4: Part Elevation Showing Details
Figure 5: Part Section Showing the Green Wall
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Location: Marienstraße 5, 32756 Detmold
Sylivia Kanyora,Esraa Ahmed
• Building Material and Structure Description:
The building appears to be a traditional European-style masonry structure. The external walls are likely
insulated concrete with a stucco (rendered plaster) finish, painted in a light beige/ yellow tone with standard
rectangular aluminum windows with a white paint finish, likely double-hung sash type.
The building features pitched roof clad with clay roof tiles. Metal rainwater downpipes are visible at the corners,
typical of older constructions adapted with modern rainwater systems.
• Green Facade Description
The green facade is a direct facade greening system. This means climbing plants are growing directly on the
building‘s surface without the support of external trellis systems. The dense leaf coverage and climbing nature
strongly resemble Parthenocissus tricuspidata (Boston Ivy) or Hedera helix (English Ivy) -both popular for
vertical greening due to their ability to adhere to surfaces and cover large areas.
The plants grow organically along the walls, framing windows and wrapping around architectural elements.
The vegetation is particularly thick on the facade and stretches to parts of the roofline and eaves.
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Figure 2: Direct facade as exhibited by the case study
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Behringstraße 13, 32756 Detmold, Germany
Kavyashree Govil, Erik Karimov
• Building Information:
The building is located in a dense development in the center of Detmold and the main facade faces the street
Behringstraße.
It is an architectural monument, built in 1842. The purpose of this building is residential.
It is a one-storey building with a basement and an attic. The building is designed in a classical style. The main
walls of the building are made of masonry. Brick is used locally for decoration.
• Green Wall Description:
It is a green facade. It consists of two ivy trees growing on both sides of the porch and encircling the three
facades of the building (southeast, southwest and northwest). The green facade has no additional structure
and the ivy grows clinging only to the stone wall.
Irrigation occurs naturally: rainwater flows down from the roof of the house and enters the soil through
drainpipes. Most likely, the maintenance of a green facade as such only includes calling a specialist to prune
branches with the necessary equipment. The building is not high, so a ladder is enough to trim the upper
branches. The green facade creates a very interesting and attractive appearance of the building. There are no
trees on this section of the street and the building pleasantly dilutes the monotony of the facades around. It
also seems that ivy has a positive effect on the noise insulation of the building and reduces the reflection of
noise from the facade itself.
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Figure 2: Axonometric image of building detail
Figure 3: Section and section plan of building detail
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Wallgraben 28, 32756 Detmold, Germany
Omar Shazi Alikkal, Md Mejbah sakib
• Building Information:
The building is located on Wallgraben Street in Detmold, Germany, a region known for its rich architectural context
and urban planning standards. As a residential structure, it follows typical German construction technologies
that emphasize energy efficiency, structural integrity, and compliance with local building regulations. The
façade is clad with stone, giving the building a robust and timeless appearance, while windows and doors are
integrated with modern materials, likely aluminum or uPVC, to ensure insulation and durability. Although the
exact year of construction is not known, the building exhibits characteristics common in recent residential
developments in Germany, such as clean lines, efficient use of space, and attention to thermal performance.
• Green Wall Description:
The green wall featured on the façade is a Green Façade (GF) system using a ground-based direct greening
method with self-climbing ivy, chosen for its ability to grow vertically without the need for support structures.
With the building height at approximately 10 meters (three floors), the ivy can effectively cover the façade
without additional framework, making it a simple and low-maintenance solution. The ivy is planted in soil beds
at the base and irrigated mainly through natural rainfall, with optional manual watering during dry periods. Its
role is both functional and ecological: it provides passive thermal regulation by shading the wall in summer and
insulating it in winter, filters air pollutants, and enhances biodiversity by supporting insects and birds. Periodic
maintenance, such as pruning and health checks, is easily managed due to the modest building height. The
choice of ivy also reflects local sun and wind conditions, ensuring resilient and sustainable growth. Moreover, it
creates a microhabitat for insects and birds, enhancing biodiversity in the urban environment.
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Figure 2: 3D visualization of green façade.
Figure 3: Elevation and vertical section of main façade.
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Sparkasse [Paderborn - Detmold] Building - Paulinenstraße 34 - 32756
Detmold
Saba Tahan, Zahra Tahmasbi
• Building Information:
Material | WaschBeton / Metal
Surrounding | Next to City Center / Commercial Buildings / Office Buildings / Street with moderate / Heavy
traffic flow
• Green Wall Description:
Green Facades - Ground-Based
Indirect climbing on the Secondary Structure
Secondary Structure | Load Transfers by Metal Cage hanged on walls using Wall Nail Hooks
Plant: Wisteria
Figure 2: Climbing plants over sub-structure
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Figure 3: Detail of cable climbing.
This diagram illustrates a system designed to support the vertical growth of a climbing plant using a metal wire
anchored to a building wall. The plant grows from the ground and is guided upward by the tensioned wire, which
is attached to the structure using an eyebolt fixed into the upper part of the wall. The detailed view highlights
the connection point, showing how the wire is securely fastened to ensure stability and proper guidance for the
plant. This method is effective for training climbing plants along vertical surfaces, offering a simple yet durable
solution for green facades or urban walls.
Figure 4: Eye Bolt with Metal Wire
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4. MID DESIGN CONCEPTS
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Culture and Climate Related Façade Design
MID 2040: Summer Semester 2025
MID DESIGN CONCEPTS
Alvaro Balderrama & Prof. Daniel Arztmann
Project summary:
The module MID 2040 (former MID S5): Cultureand
Climate-Related Façade Design is focused on
raising awareness on how the local context can
determine multiple key aspects for sustainable
design, and how façade designers can operate
within those conditions considering environmental,
social, and economic performance.
A series of workshops were conducted throughout
the semester to allow students the chance
to explore new concepts that they can also
implement in their projects. The topics included
vertical greenery systems, concepts for vertical
real estate, unitized facade systems, life cycle
assessment (with guest lecturer Dima Othman),
and 15-minute cities (with guest lecturer Aylin
Erol).
The main semester task was organizing the design
of façades of similar geometric boundaries, but
optimized for high performance in different
climates and cultures. The exercise introduces a
supposed “client” that requests the design and
engineering of these façades, having explicit
expectations: every proposal must demonstrate a
contribution to at least one domain (environmental
performance, social value, or economic profit)
while remaining as coherent architecture (e.g. that
would be approved by local regulations).
Figure 1. Specified building dimensions.
The building presented has a height of 12 meters
and a front of 9 meters. Physical models of the
building structure were constructed in MDF, in
a scale of 1:25 and 1:50 to provide a canvas for
student projects in the final presentation.
Figure 2. Glueing of scale models cut by CNC.
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Cities studied during Summer Semester 2025
Cities studied during Summer Semester 2023
Cities studied before Summer Semester 2023
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Salvador, Brazil
Saba Tahan, Omar Shazi, Md Mejbah Sakib, Kumarinda Madushan
Set in Salvador, Brazil—a tropical city rich in Afro-Brazilian culture and colonial architecture—the proposed
façade is designed to handle high rainfall, humidity, and intense solar exposure. Taking inspiration from
vibrant local features like cobogós (perforated bricks), wooden shuttered balconies, and colorful façades,
the team crafted a solution that fuses tradition with modern performance.
The design uses kinetic louvers (both vertical rotating and sliding), green walls, and terracotta rainscreen
cladding, forming a breathable façade that regulates heat and moisture while celebrating the local visual
language. The Schüco AWS 65 window system (U-value: 1.6–2.9 W/m²K) supports double-glazed panels and
is integrated with shading devices and natural ventilation features.
Challenges such as mold growth, overheating, and poor indoor air quality are addressed using ventilated
walls, high thermal performance glazing, and sustainable materials like terracotta. The green wall system
not only improves aesthetics but also contributes to urban cooling and better air filtration.
The façade’s geometry is derived from local rhythm and repetition found in Salvador’s architecture.
Technically, it includes layers of insulation, structural anchors, and rotating elements designed to withstand
tropical storms and intense sunlight. The result is a façade that is visually dynamic, culturally sensitive, and
environmentally efficient—tailored to Salvador’s year-round warm, wet climate.
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Harbin, China
Saba Tahan, Omar Shazi, Md Mejbah Sakib, Kumarinda Madushan
The Harbin façade design responds to the city’s humid continental climate, characterized by hot, humid
summers and extremely cold winters. Drawing from the city‘s Russian architectural heritage and modern
construction technologies, the team proposed a rainscreen façade system that ensures durability, thermal
comfort, and aesthetic harmony with local traditions.
Traditional architectural elements such as courtyard houses, pitched roofs with wide eaves, and thick
brick walls were translated into a contemporary form through CUPACLAD® slate cladding, triple-glazed
windows, and a ventilated façade system with Schüco FWS 50 SI Curtain wall. The rainscreen system
mitigates condensation, prevents mold, and reduces thermal bridging—essential for Harbin’s -20°C winters
and humid summers.
Energy efficiency is a key driver: the ventilated air cavity stabilizes internal temperatures and reduces
structural movement, improving the façade’s lifespan. The system achieves impressive thermal performance
(U-value: 0.33 W/m²K) while being environmentally conscious. The CUPACLAD® slate cladding system
significantly lowers CO2 emissions, water consumption, and energy use compared to traditional materials.
The final design reflects Harbin’s architectural spirit, with a strong geometric form and modern materials
layered to enhance insulation and ventilation. Its pitched roof and vertical façade lines echo traditional
silhouettes, while its engineering provides contemporary environmental control. The project balances
form, function, and sustainability within one of China’s most climatically demanding environments.
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Jaipur, India
Zahra Parsafar, Erik Karimov, Fady Aziz, Kavyashree Govil, Zahra Tahmasbi
Jaipur, popularly known as the “Pink City,” stands as one of India’s most celebrated urban landscapes,
renowned for its Rajput-Mughal architectural vocabulary, its distinctive terracotta-colored facades, and its
recognition as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city’s architectural identity is deeply intertwined with
its cultural and social fabric: semi-public spaces such as balconies, terraces, and courtyards act as vital
extensions of domestic life, accommodating both private rituals and collective gatherings. This layering
of spaces reflects a deep concern for privacy, aesthetics, and social interaction—principles that remain
central to Jaipur’s evolving architectural narrative.
Architecturally, Jaipur is distinguished by the rhythmic repetition of perforated screens (Jali’s), ornamental
balconies, arcaded facades, and the generous use of local sandstone and lime mortar. These elements not
only embody the city’s historic craft traditions but also reveal an adaptive intelligence in responding to both
climate and cultural life. The use of lime mortar, for instance, is not only symbolic for the continuity with
the past but also provides insulation against the extreme heat of the region. Similarly, carved sandstone
screens filter sunlight, allowing interiors to remain cool while ensuring privacy, a balance of environmental
necessity and cultural expression.
Climatically, Jaipur falls within India’s hot semi-arid zone, where summer temperatures soar above
44°C while winters are mild and comparatively pleasant. High levels of solar radiation, coupled with low
humidity, create a pressing need for passive cooling strategies, effective sun-shading devices, and careful
orientation of built form. In this context, the architectural language of Jaipur has long emphasized layered
facades, shaded thresholds, and semi-open spaces that temper the harsh desert environment. Traditional
techniques—such as deep verandas, projecting balconies, and folding shutters—demonstrate a sensitivity
to climatic extremes while enhancing spatial richness.
Within this framework, the façade design takes shape as a contemporary interpretation of Jaipur’s
architectural legacy, combining climate responsiveness with cultural resonance. Perforated sandstone
screens are integrated as a primary design element, cooling air as it passes through while casting intricate
patterns of light and shadow across the interiors. These screens not only mitigate solar gain but also
extend the tradition of the “Jali”, ensuring that the façade remains visually and symbolically connected to
its heritage. Projecting balconies and horizontal overhangs are introduced to block direct sunlight during
peak summer months, creating shaded thresholds that simultaneously serve as semi-public extensions
of domestic life. Folding shutters enhance the adaptability of the façade, offering occupants the ability to
regulate privacy, airflow, and light in response to shifting climatic conditions.
Materiality reinforces both environmental performance and cultural continuity. Locally sourced sandstone
provides thermal mass to buffer the extremes of daytime heat and nighttime cooling, while lime mortar
ensures breathability and long-term resilience. The resulting façade is conceived as a layered, dynamic
system that mediates between interior comfort and external climate, between contemporary performance
and historic continuity. It operates as an environmental filter, softening the intensity of solar radiation and
desert winds, while at the same time celebrating the ornamental richness of Jaipur’s architectural heritage.
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Bali, Indonesia
Zahra Parsafar, Erik Karimov, Fady Aziz, Kavyashree Govil, Zahra Tahmasbi
Bali, celebrated for its spiritual richness and cultural vitality, is equally renowned for an architectural
tradition that embraces harmony with nature. The island’s-built environment is deeply connected to its
tropical landscape, where architecture is designed not as a barrier to climate but as a mediator between
interior and exterior life. Open-air layouts, transitional spaces, and abundant use of natural materials
characterize Balinese design, reflecting a philosophy that prioritizes balance, community, and integration
with the environment. Traditional structures often incorporate bamboo, volcanic stone, and locally made
brick, materials that are not only environmentally responsive but also symbolic of cultural continuity and
craftsmanship.
Climatically, Bali experiences a tropical environment with year-round temperatures ranging between 20°C
and 33°C, accompanied by high humidity and intense solar radiation. Such conditions demand architectural
strategies that emphasize natural ventilation, shading, and breathable materiality. Cross-ventilation
becomes essential in managing thermal comfort, while sun-shading devices help mitigate the glare and
heat of the tropical sun. The architectural language of Bali has therefore evolved around openness,
permeability, and adaptability, ensuring comfort in a climate where heavy reliance on mechanical cooling
is both impractical and unsustainable.
Within this context, the façade design adopts a strategy that responds simultaneously to climate, culture,
and modern living patterns. Folding and sliding wooden shutters are employed to provide adjustable
shading, allowing interiors to be protected from the harsh midday sun while maintaining openness during
cooler parts of the day. These operable elements enhance flexibility, enabling the façade to shift between
enclosure and permeability in response to weather conditions and user preferences. The use of breathable,
lightweight materials such as bamboo ensures that the façade remains responsive to humidity, allowing
natural airflow to pass through and prevent heat buildup.
Balconies are recessed into the building mass, creating shaded outdoor extensions that optimize views while
reducing direct solar exposure. These recessed zones also encourage cross-ventilation, acting as buffers
that allow fresh air to circulate through the interiors. Integrated greenery along these balconies further
moderates the microclimate by providing evaporative cooling and visual connection to the surrounding
tropical landscape. Together, these elements transform the façade into an active environmental system
that tempers heat, channels breezes, and softens the impact of high humidity.
The resulting façade emerges as a layered, adaptive skin that negotiates between climate, culture, and
contemporary needs. It is both a protective envelope and a living interface, filtering sunlight, enabling
airflow, and framing the lush tropical surroundings. By blending operable wooden elements, breathable
materials, recessed balconies, and vegetation buffers, the design reinterprets Balinese architectural
principles for a modern context. The outcome is a façade that sustains the island’s identity while ensuring
environmental responsiveness, creating spaces that remain comfortable, meaningful, and deeply rooted
in the place.
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Isfahan, Iran
Saba Tahan, Omar Shazi, Md Mejbah Sakib, Kumarinda Madushan
The Isfahan façade design draws from the city’s rich cultural and architectural heritage while addressing
the challenges of its hot, dry climate. Inspired by iconic landmarks such as the Ali Qapu Palace, the team
analyzed traditional Persian elements—such as iwans, windcatchers, thick mud-brick walls, and lattice
screens. These features, historically used to cool interiors and filter light, provided a foundation for
developing a modern yet culturally rooted design. The final concept integrates kinetic vertical louvers,
solid brick walls, and a Schüco curtain wall, creating a dynamic interface between historical motifs and
contemporary sustainability.
Isfahan’s climate presents several challenges, including extreme heat, high solar radiation, dust infiltration,
and wide temperature swings between day and night. To respond to these, the façade features a Schüco
FWS 50 stick system curtain wall with high-performance triple glazing (U-value: 0.282 W/m²K), paired
with rotating sun-shading louvers. This combination enhances thermal insulation, reduces solar gain, and
improves indoor comfort through passive ventilation.
The design process began with extracting and abstracting geometries from Isfahan’s historical architecture,
resulting in a façade system that balances form, function, and cultural symbolism. The kinetic louvers
reference traditional mashrabiyas, providing visual depth and dynamic shading throughout the day.
Overall, the Isfahan façade merges cultural identity with environmental responsiveness, delivering a
performance-driven design that is both innovative and deeply contextual.
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Osaka, Japan
Esraa Ahmed, Nitesh Shrestha, Sylivia Kanyora, Bishal Sunar
The Japanese façade designed for a cultural building in Osaka reflects a harmonious integration of climate
sensitivity, traditional aesthetics, and contemporary needs. Situated in Tennoji Ward, the structure
responds thoughtfully to Osaka’s humid subtropical climate—hot, humid summers, and mild winters—
through the use of breathable, layered materials and passive design strategies.
Drawing from traditional Japanese architectural principles, the façade incorporates natural wood cladding,
shoji screens, and a sloped roof, creating a dialogue between old and new. These materials not only
age beautifully over time, aligning with the wabi-sabi philosophy, but also enhance thermal comfort and
ventilation. The integration of concrete and steel ensures structural resilience, especially important in
earthquake-prone regions, with seismic joints and flexible anchors discreetly embedded within the system.
The design concept, Sen to Sabi – The House of Time, Art & Silence, emphasizes introspection and
community connection. The façade communicates this ethos through layered elements—solid and void—
offering transitions between public and private, light and shadow. Engawa, or transitional porches, soften
the boundary between interior and exterior, encouraging pause and reflection.
Culturally, the building supports an aging population and community engagement, offering spaces for tea,
art, reading, and contemplation. The library, elder studio, and rooftop garden all extend the building’s
purpose as a retreat in the urban environment. The use of weathered wood and glass blocks balances
transparency and privacy, while steel pergolas offer shade without visual heaviness.
Ultimately, the façade is not just an exterior skin but a lived experience— quietly resilient, sensitive to both
climate and culture, and deeply rooted in Japan’s architectural lineage while embracing the contemporary
spirit of the place.
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Lamu, Kenya
Esraa Ahmed, Nitesh Shrestha, Sylivia Kanyora, Bishal Sunar
Swahili architecture, particularly in Lamu, Kenya is an active expression of culture shaped by trade,
religion and environment across centuries. It draws on Arab, Persian, Indian, and African traditions, heavily
prioritizing privacy, ornamentation, passive cooling, and social space. Homes consist of a strong central
area with courtyards, heavy engraved doors, jali (lattice) screens, and makuti roofs, all functioning with
respect to the hot and humid coastal climate.
The design is a multi-story mixed-use building with ground-level commercial spaces (duka) and residential
apartments above, wrapped around a shaded courtyard to optimize privacy, cross ventilation, and
community interaction— similar to the conventional Swahili house typology.
Swahili architecture is defined by unique design features such as the courtyard; an open area at the center
of the building supporting ventilation, receiving natural light, and acting as a space for socialization—
critical for the Swahili domestic realm. Projecting timber balconies with mashrabiya (jali) screens providing
filtered light, passive cooling, and visual privacy; reminiscent of the famous projecting balconies of Lamu.
All timber ventilated windows are constructed with interlocking boriti dowels with mvule frames, and
assembled using traditional mortise-and-tenon joinery with wooden pegs—maintaining a tangible craft of
Swahili joinery. With the walls of the building made from coral stone and lime plaster finish, boriti poles and
mvule wood, to be locally sourced not only allows the building to respond to its climate, but also roots the
building to local tradition and material culture.
The front elevation is symmetrical, containing carved mvule doors and arched windows creating functionality
combined with aesthetic experience using Swahili architecture. The beautiful crenellated details on the
parapets and pointed arches signify Islamic and Omani influence.
With the design being a thoughtful reinterpretation of existing knowledge, practices, cultural logic and
environmental knowledge of Swahili architecture that has evolved to be useful in today‘s context. This design
retains the spirit of the Swahili way of space-making: privacy, adornment, cooling and community. Using
significant amounts of handmade elements, passive strategies, and culturally significant configurations, it
offers a climate resilient, identity rich building.
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Beirut, Lebanon
Aashish Singh, Anastasiia Krasnikova, Dila Dil, Marie Al Helou, Sara Hemmatyar
Beirut, Lebanon’s capital, is a city where East meets West, architecturally, culturally, and climatically.
The urban fabric of Beirut reflects layers of history, including Ottoman, Roman, Byzantine, and modern
influences. This unique hybrid identity is most evident in neighborhoods like Al Kantari, where residential
and civic architecture embody a blend of heritage and innovation. Buildings such as the “Gruyère” (Koujak-
Jaber building), designed in 1964 by Victor Bisharat, remain iconic for their modernist yet locally adapted
design features like projecting balconies and circular forms.
Beirut has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. It is not officially climatezoned
under national codes but instead follows international benchmarks like ASHRAE and LEED. Green
design is increasingly valued due to growing environmental challenges, including rising temperatures and
urban heat island effects. As such, façades in Beirut aim to balance aesthetic identity with passive cooling
strategies.
Design elements specific to the region include the use of Musharabiya (traditional wooden screen lattices)
that filter sunlight and promote ventilation, acting as a second skin for buildings. Additionally, grapevine
trellises are common on rooftops, offering natural shading while holding symbolic significance, representing
abundance and hospitality in Lebanese culture.
From a technical standpoint, the design integrates high-performance glazing systems with U-values as
low as 1.0 W/m²K, utilizing low-emissivity coatings and thick insulated layers. Photovoltaic integration and
advanced shading systems further enhance energy efficiency. The architectural language embraces a
“twist of modernism” while remaining deeply rooted in cultural traditions.
Beirut’s evolving skyline is shaped by both reconstruction and innovation. The city stands as a resilient
example of how historical and climatic considerations can guide future-forward design, harmonizing
cultural heritage with sustainable, modern architectural practice.
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Mustang, Nepal
Esraa Ahmed, Nitesh Shrestha, Sylivia Kanyora, Bishal Sunar
The façade design for the Mustang region of Nepal, specifically Lo Manthang, is a thoughtful blend of
tradition, climate response, and modern comfort. This high-altitude, cold desert area experiences strong
winds, harsh sunlight, and drastic temperature fluctuations. Design solutions to these issues rely on
passive strategies and a material choice that honors the respect for the environment, and the historical
Tibetan Buddhist culture of the area.
The materials of the design, sun-dried mud brick, stone, and timber were all materials found locally and
used for their durability, thermal mass, and cultural meaning. Buildings in the area have thick walls for
insulation and flat roofs that can be utilized for various purposes. The windows are small and placed in
areas that minimize heat loss and help withstand strong winds. Larger windows appear mostly on solarfacing
sides; in addition, they are usually shaded with traditional overhangs or motifs that reduce glare and
prevent overheating in the summer while allowing warmth during the winter.
From wooden decoration frames and flower motifs to structural forms inspired by monasteries and
traditional houses, every bit of the design goes deep into culture. The façade reflects culture, embracing
the old by taking modern glazing and insulation technologies along with the vernacular aesthetics to design
a strong and comfortable living environment.
Wind, dust, and limited rain also impact the material palette. White and red lime plasters provide UV
protection and water-proofing, glass elements improve energy performance and daylighting, and timber is
used sparingly, but with meaning and value in structure and symbolism.
This vernacular-modern concept is not about simply preserving: it is about transforming heritage. The
design is nimble, sustainable, and culturally sensitive, with hotel rooms, dining areas, and lounges that
promote not only comfort but an affiliation and connection to the stunning landscape and inventive local
life. In Mustang, the façade is more than an exterior skin. It becomes a narrative of place, people, and
adjustment.
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Irkutsk, Russia
Aashish Singh, Anastasiia Krasnikova, Dila Dil, Marie Al Helou, Sara Hemmatyar
Irkutsk, located in southeastern Siberia, is a city rich in cultural heritage and traditional wooden architecture.
Founded in the 17th century, it developed as a major administrative and cultural center. One of its most
defining architectural features is its extensive use of log and timber construction. These wooden buildings
are often adorned with intricate carvings around windows, porches, and cornices, displaying high levels
of craftsmanship and serving as expressions of regional identity. The city’s layout and many of its historic
structures have been preserved, showcasing a unique blend of expressive woodwork and durable design
suited to the harsh Siberian climate.
The climatic conditions in Irkutsk are extreme, with long, severe winters and short summers. The region
falls within Russia‘s climatic subzones D1 or D2, as outlined in SP 50.13330.2012. As such, the thermal
performance requirements are stringent, with very low U-values required for building envelopes. To
address this, highly insulated systems such as triple-glazed units (TGU) with advanced coatings and argon
gas fillings are utilized to ensure low thermal transmittance and high resistance to heat loss.
Design strategies derived from the local vernacular include pitched roofs to handle snow loads, decorative
wooden lacework, and horizontal wood cladding slats that serve both aesthetic and functional roles. The
implementation of photovoltaic panels also demonstrates a move toward energy self-sufficiency. The use
of modern aluminum profiles with foam-insulated cores ensures compatibility between traditional visuals
and modern performance needs.
Overall, Irkutsk’s architecture embodies a successful dialogue between cultural expression and
environmental adaptation. The richly decorated wood elements tell a story of tradition, while modern
energy-efficient implementations secure its relevance in today’s architectural landscape. This duality
serves as an inspiring model for sustainable restoration and innovation in cold climate architecture.
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Eskişehir, Turkey
Aashish Singh, Anastasiia Krasnikova, Dila Dil, Marie Al Helou, Sara Hemmatyar
Odunpazarı, a historic district in Eskişehir, Turkey, is renowned for its preserved Ottoman-era timber
architecture and narrow winding streets. Once a center for the timber trade, hence the name „wood
market“, this district today represents a harmonious blend of traditional heritage and contemporary
cultural vibrancy. Architecturally, the area is defined by colorful facades, extended floor slabs supported
by ornamented wooden brackets, traditional wooden grills, and pitched roofs. The presence of the
Odunpazarı Modern Museum (OMM), a contemporary architectural gem, exemplifies the district’s modern
reinterpretation of wooden culture and identity.
Culturally, Odunpazarı reflects Anatolian domestic life with an emphasis on family and community, which is
echoed in the layered spatial arrangements and detailed ornamentation of the facades. Environmentally,
Eskişehir falls under Turkey’s Climate Zone 2, experiencing cold winters and hot summers. Consequently,
design elements such as shading devices and thermally insulated systems play a vital role in energy
performance. Turkish regulations, particularly TS 825 and BEPTR, guide façade insulation and energy
efficiency standards.
The project implementation emphasizes thermal performance, using glass technologies such as Schüco
sliding systems with low U-values and high light transmittance. The facade incorporates traditional elements
with a modern twist, combining wood cladding slats, wooden lacework, and thermally efficient doubleglazing
units (DGU). The result is a façade that honors regional heritage while meeting modern building
performance standards. This duality—modern materiality coupled with historic symbolism—makes the
architectural language of Odunpazarı particularly unique, both visually and functionally. The district stands
as a model for how traditional wooden architecture can be reinterpreted in contemporary contexts while
preserving identity and environmental responsiveness.
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Erzurum, Turkey
Zahra Parsafar, Erik Karimov, Fady Aziz, Kavyashree Govil, Zahra Tahmasbi
Erzurum, located in eastern Turkey, is defined by its cold continental climate and its architectural heritage
that reflects layers of Seljuk and Ottoman influence. The city experiences long, severe winters where
temperatures can plunge well below freezing, while summers remain mild, rarely exceeding 31°C. These
climatic conditions place indoor comfort and thermal performance at the center of architectural design,
demanding façades that can resist extreme cold, prevent heat loss, and maximize opportunities for solar
gain.
Culturally, Erzurum carries a strong architectural identity shaped by its Islamic heritage. Monumental
stone portals, intricate geometric ornamentation, and deep-set architectural elements define its historic
structures, many of which were designed to endure the harsh winters of the Anatolian plateau. Social
life adapts to these conditions, shifting largely indoors during the colder months, though semi-enclosed
spaces continue to function as important transitional zones, offering protection from the elements while
maintaining social interaction. The architectural language of the city therefore emphasizes enclosure,
depth, and resilience, coupled with ornamental detail that reinforces cultural identity.
In response to these climatic and cultural parameters, the façade design integrates strategies that optimize
thermal performance while remaining rooted in tradition. Cold exposure and strong winter winds are
addressed through thick, insulated walls that form a thermal buffer around the interiors. Deep-set glazing
is introduced to minimize heat loss and shield openings from drafts, while also echoing the traditional
recessed compositions seen in Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. Larger south-facing windows capture
valuable solar heat during the winter months, with the building’s thermal mass absorbing and slowly
releasing warmth to maintain stable indoor conditions.
Materiality plays a pivotal role in this approach. Locally sourced stone provides both cultural continuity and
excellent thermal retention, allowing façades to store heat during the day and radiate it back during colder
nights. Triple-glazed windows significantly improve insulation, reducing energy loss while maintaining
transparency to daylight and views. Wooden frames are used to complement the stonework, adding warmth
to the façade both visually and thermally, while also recalling traditional Ottoman construction practices.
Together, these materials create a façade that is both robust in performance and deeply tied to the place.
The resulting façade is conceived as a protective yet expressive envelope, one that negotiates between
the demands of Erzurum’s extreme climate and the richness of its cultural heritage. It operates as an
environmental shield, reducing heat loss and maximizing solar gain, while also preserving the ornamental
depth and material solidity characteristic of the city’s historic architecture. By combining thermal insulation,
deep-set glazing, and carefully chosen local materials, the design ensures year-round comfort without
compromising identity. The façade thus stands as a contemporary continuation of Erzurum’s architectural
lineage, demonstrating how tradition and performance can merge to create spaces that are resilient,
meaningful, and enduring.
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Pictures of physical models for the 12 cities studied in the summer semester 2025
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EVENTS
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EVENTS
Workshop Recap: Grid-2-Shell & Add-On Construction at Schüco
Bielefeld, June 26th 2025
Second-semester students from the Master of
Integrated Design (MID) Façade program at TH-
OWL participated in an engaging one-day workshop
at Schüco’s headquarters in Bielefeld. The event,
titled “Grid-2-Shell & Add-On Construction”, was
led by façade expert Mr. Ulrich Artmann and
provided a unique blend of theoretical learning
and practical application.
The workshop began with an in-depth lecture
covering Add-On Construction principles, the
Grid2Shell concept, and Schüco’s AOC 50 ST and
TI systems. This session laid the groundwork for
a full day of exploration into advanced façade
technologies.
In the afternoon, the group moved to Schüco’s
training center for a hands-on session. There,
students assembled an AOC 50 TI prototype,
reinforcing their understanding of system
components and installation techniques. The
session also included a live introduction to the
UDC 80 unitized system and an explanation of the
Grid2Shell mock-up built on site.
The day concluded with a visit to the Schüco
Forum, where students explored the BAU Forum
exhibits and examined real-life applications of
cutting-edge façade solutions up close—offering
inspiration and practical insight into current
innovations shaping the industry.
This workshop not only strengthened students‘
technical knowledge but also connected academic
learning with real-world practice, making it a
highlight of their semester.
Photo by: Aashish Singh, Text by: Marie Al Helou
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Photos by: Aashish Singh
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EVENTS
Presentation at the 10th WMCCAU 2025 Conference
Ostrava, September 1-5, 2025
Between 1-5 September, the 10th World
Multidisciplinary Congress on Civil Engineering,
Architecture and Urban Planning (WMCCAU) took
place at Technical University of Ostrava, Czech
Republic.
The WMCCAU represents a new and exciting
discussion forum for professionals, enthusiasts,
and emerging scientists in the fields of construction,
architecture, and spatial planning from around the
world. The Congress focuses on a multidisciplinary
approach that combines innovative ideas and
approaches in the aforementioned and related
fields. It aims to create an environment for
discussion about the latest trends, solutions, and
challenges in these areas and to seek inspiration
for the future.
The WMCCAU strives to bring new perspectives
and to showcase best practices in civil engineering,
architecture, and urbanism. WMCCAU is welcoming
experts, scientists, academic staff, doctoral
candidates, and students who will collectively
contribute to discussions, present research
findings, and exchange knowledge.
Phd Students Aylin Erol and Nathania Nadia from
Technische Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe
(TH OWL) and Promotionskolleg NRW (PK NRW)
presented their first research results at the 10th
WMCCAU 2025.
Nathania Nadia presented the fulltext entitled:
Sustainable Design for Mental Health: A Framework
of Spatial Indicators for University Campuses.
This study aims to address the gap in Campus
Sustainability Assessment Tools (CSATs) regarding
students‘ mental health and to develop spatial
indicators for universities to embed mental health.
Findings offer a practical foundation for evaluating
existing environments and guiding future design
interventions.
Aylin Erol presented the fulltext entitled: A
Systematic Review of the 15-Minute City Concept:
Indicators for Urban Liveability and Sustainability.
The results are expected to give insights into how
to operationalise the concept of 15-minute cities
in modern sites of historic urban landscapes, in
order to improve liveability while simultaneously
preserving its values.
Photo and Text by: Aylin Erol
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IMPRINT
Publisher
OWL University of Applied Sciences and Arts
IDS Institute for Design Strategies
Emilienstraße 45, D-32756 Detmold, Germany
Editors
Alvaro Balderrama
Prof. Daniel Arztmann
Layout and Graphics
Aylin Erol
Alvaro Balderrama
Proofreaders
Florian Zander
Johanna Götz
Cover
Alvaro Balderrama
Contributions and Illustations
Unless stated otherwise, the illustrations
belong to the respective authors in each
contribution, or to the Editorial Team. The
authors in this report are credited individually
and are responsible for their contribution.
Teaching Department
Façade Construction
Prof. Daniel Arztmann
Contact
IDS Institute for Design Strategies
OWL University of Applied Sciences and Arts
Emilienstraße 45, D-32756 Detmold
E-Mail: ids@th-owl.de
Web: www.th-owl.de/ids
Sustainable Façades volume 5
ISSN (Print) 2943-4459
ISSN (Online) 2943-4467
IMPRINT
Design Strategies IMPULSE – Sustainable Façades vol.5

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Sustainable Façades volume 5
ISSN (Print) 2943-4459
ISSN (Online) 2943-4467