The Marine Biologist Issue 37

ISSUE 37 JANUARY 2026
ISSN 2052-5273
THE MAGAZINE OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
SUSTAINING
SMALL-SCALE
FISHERIES

2
i n s i d e
ISSUE 37 JANUARY 2026
ISSN 2052-5273
THE MAGAZINE OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
contents
REGULAR
16
THE FUTURE OF
SMALL-SCALE
FISHERIES
03 EDITORIAL
04 IN BRIEF
AN OCEAN OF
SCIENCE
ON THE COVER:
A Haenyeo woman emerging
from the sea in the South
Korean province of Jeju.
© Jung Hyewon (정혜원).
Back cover
Top left and bottom left:
© Ian Georgeson at Ian
Georgeson Photography.
Top right: © Sarah Coulthard,
Newcastle University.
Bottom right: © John Cole.
06 MIXED SIGNALS
How do diatoms deal with
nutrient limitation?
08 A SEA PEN IS KNOWN
BY THE COMPANY
IT KEEPS
Subtle patterns in the deep
sea.
POLICY
10 SAVING THE UNSEEN
HALF OF OUR PLANET
A call for reform of the
International Seabed
Authority.
32
FEATURES
13 UNLIKELY HEROES
FOR CUTTING-EDGE
MARINE RESEARCH
Vintage pencils and cuttingedge
science.
18 ROCK POOLING
NETWORK GOES UK-WIDE
From Fife to Falmouth,
people across the UK are
discovering their local
shores.
14 SEA WOMEN AND
SEAWEEDS
South Korean marine forests
and the unique fishery that
depends on them.
16 NO TREES, NO SEAS
Habitat restoration from
forests to coastal seas.
SECURING THE
FUTURE OF SMALL-
SCALE FISHERIES
20 SHAPING THE ROAD
TO RECOGNITION AND
CHANGE
Future priorities for the
inshore fleet.
30
The Marine Biologist is the Membership
magazine of the Marine Biological Association
@thembauk
The Marine Biological Association
The Laboratory
Citadel Hill
Plymouth
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Editor
Guy Baker
editor@mba.ac.uk
+44 (0)1752 426493
Editorial Board
Guy Baker, Eliane Bastos, Matthew Bunce, Bryony
Caswell, Olivia Elliott, Daniel Martin, Denise Ada
Okpala, Maya Plass, Kateřina Schiffnederová,
Sophie Stafford, Anna Turns, Miranda Wilson.
Membership
Alex Ångevi
membership@mba.ac.uk
+44 (0)1752 426493
www.mba.ac.uk/our-membership
ISSN: 2052-5273
www.mba.ac.uk/our-membership/our-magazine
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January 2026
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l e t t e r f r o m t h e e d i t o r 3
22 VISIONS FOR A
THRIVING INSHORE
FISHING INDUSTRY
IN ENGLAND
A graphic illustration of the
priorities for inshore fishers.
24 BALANCING THE ACT
The task of the Inshore
Fisheries and Conservation
Authorities
26 IN PRAISE OF
SEAFOOD FESTIVALS
Celebrating sustainable
fisheries and our common
connection to the sea.
29 QUAYSIDE
CONVERSATIONS
Fishers share their
experiences.
30 A RIDDLE WRAPPED
IN A MYSTERY INSIDE A
TANGLE OF TENTACLES
Getting to grips with an
octopus bloom.
32 PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS
Do the public value the
small-scale fishing industry?
34 PUTTING SOMETHING
BACK
Community-driven marine
conservation at the Whitby
Lobster Hatchery.
36 PARTNERING FOR
PROTECTION
Scottish creel fishers tackle
wildlife entanglement.
THE VOICE OF
MARINE BIOLOGY
38 THE 22ND MBA
POSTGRADUATE
CONFERENCE
39 NEW: THE JMBA
SOUTHWARD REVIEWS
Authoritative perspectives
on emerging research topics.
40 THE NEW
EDITORIAL BOARD
A diverse and talented team
is helping shape the future
of The Marine Biologist
magazine.
41 MEET THE
MEMBERS
A regular
opportunity to
meet your fellow
MBA members.
42 REVIEWS
For artisanal
fishers,
similar issues
play out the
world over.
SPECIAL
EDITION:
INSHORE AND
SMALL-SCALE
FISHERIES
Underlining the interconnectedness between land, people,
and sea, this special edition focuses on small-scale fishing,
a hard working but deeply valued way of life that faces
mounting pressures. Climate change is also bringing new
challenges, such as the 2025 octopus bloom in Southwest England
which is covered in this edition.
The articles on fishing are brought to you by the Inshore and
Small-Scale Fisheries (ISSF) Consortium, an evolving network
of people working together to help support viable fishing
livelihoods as part of sustainable fisheries, with an explicit
focus on the inshore and small-scale sectors. It consists of
organizations including Newcastle University, the Association
of IFCAs, Blue Marine Foundation, Whitby Lobster Hatchery,
Low Impact Fishers of Europe, Plymouth Seafood & Fishing
Association, the Marine Biological Association, and the Scottish
Creel Fishermen’s Federation. Here, partners of the Consortium
share the work being done to bring fishers together to identify
challenges facing the industry and progress feasible solutions
to secure inshore and small-scale fisheries in England. The ISSF
Consortium’s work is ongoing, and more information can be found
on Newcastle University’s National Innovation Centre for Rural
Enterprise (NICRE) website. 1
Although the focus is on England, for artisanal fishers, similar
issues play out the world over. Half a world away in South Korea,
our cover feature takes a look at people and environment through
the lens of threatened ecosystems and the haenyeo women who
make a living harvesting marine life.
In the latest scientific research, molecular tools give new insights
into diatom nutrition, and subtle ecological patterns among sea
pens are explored in a beautiful evocation of life in the deep sea.
And while we are on the seabed, there are growing concerns
for the legitimacy of an institution that governs half our planet.
A former scientific delegate to the International Seabed Authority
(ISA) lays out the reforms needed if it is to emerge from this crisis
of trust.
Inshore fishing provides food, jobs, cultural pride, and endless
topics for conversation. Like the tide moving up a river, it helps the
sea reach in and influence the land. We hope this edition leaves
you with a fresh appreciation of small-scale fishing, and the role of
fishers in the coastal ecosystem.
Guy Baker Mem.MBA, Editor
editor@mba.ac.uk
LISTEN IN:
The Marine Biologist podcast: Life on the rocks, part 2: The
seashore as a window on the ocean with Professor Stephen
Hawkins. www.mba.ac.uk/our-membership/our-magazine
1. nicre.co.uk/projects/partnership-projects/coastal-fisheries-cluster
January 2026

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CANCER RESISTANCE IN LONG-
LIVED BOWHEAD WHALES
A bowhead whale spyhops off the coast of
the western Sea of Okhotsk. Olga Shpak,
CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Bowhead whales (Balaena
mysticetus) are the second-largest
animal on the planet, weighing
in at 60–80,000 kg. They also have
the longest lifespan of any mammal,
often living more than 200 years.
Longevity and large body mass would
be expected to lead to high rates of
DNA mutations and, ergo, high rates of
cancer. However, this does not occur.
This phenomenon, where there is no
correlation between an organism’s
lifespan or size and its risk of cancer, is
known as Peto’s paradox.
Do bowhead whales have genetic
mechanisms to prevent cancer from
developing? In a recent study published
in Nature, scientists examined how many
oncogenic hits are required in bowhead
whale fibroblasts (connective tissue
cells) to trigger cancer development.
Surprisingly, fewer hits were needed
compared to humans for malignant
transformations to occur, i.e. for the
development of cancer. However,
compared to other mammals, bowhead
whale cells are more efficient at fixing
breaks in DNA. In bowhead whales,
the protein CIRBP (cold-inducible
RNA-binding protein) was found to
be highly expressed. This protein
is responsible for DNA repair after
breakages in the double strands have
occurred. When bowhead whale
CIRBP was overexpressed in human
cells, genome stability was found to
increase. In addition, fruit flies with an
overexpression of CIRBP were found
to live longer and displayed increased
resistance when exposed to radiation.
This protein may contribute to the
longevity and low cancer occurrence
in the bowhead whale, as opposed
to additional genes that control cell
division and thereby suppress tumours.
The research points to the potential for
cancer prevention treatments based
on the evolutionary success of the
bowhead whale.
Source: Firsanov, D., Zacher, M., Tian, X. et
al. 2025. Evidence for improved DNA repair
in the long-lived bowhead whale. Nature. doi.
org/10.1038/s41586-025-09694-5
SHARKS ATTACKED
In the Gulf of California, a pod of orcas (Orcinus orca) known as
Moctezuma’s pod has been caught on camera pulling off a precise hunting
tactic against juvenile great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Footage
from 2020 and 2022 shows five orcas working in sync to flip a young shark
upside-down, triggering a trance-like paralysis called tonic immobility.
Once immobilized, the predators extract the sharks’ energy-rich liver and
share it around, even with calves, before discarding the rest of the carcass.
Dorsal-fin markings confirmed that the same pod was behind both
attacks, marking the first repeated documentation of orcas targeting
juvenile whites in this region. The behaviour looks far from random, with
scientists suggesting it may be a culturally transmitted hunting style. Erick
Higuera Rivas, project director at Conexiones Terramar and Pelagic Life,
and lead author of the research in Frontiers in Marine Science said, ‘This
behaviour is a testament to orcas’ advanced intelligence, strategic thinking,
and sophisticated social learning, as the hunting techniques are passed
down through generations within their pods.’
The findings also raise ecological questions. Warming seas are shifting
shark nursery zones, bringing more juvenile great whites into orca
territory and potentially increasing their vulnerability to these specialized
assaults. Though only a few events have been documented, the pattern
suggests a deliberate strategy that could alter local predator-prey
dynamics. Researchers stress the need for long-term monitoring to see if
Moctezuma’s pod is unique or part of a broader trend.
Source: Higuera-Rivas, J.E., et al. 2025. Novel evidence of interaction between
killer whales (Orcinus orca) and juvenile white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in
the Gulf of California, Mexico. Frontiers in Marine Science, 12. doi.org/10.3389/
fmars.2025.1667683
QUIETLY DOES IT
Noise from shipping and other human activities
in the sea is recognized as a significant threat to
ocean health—and it is on the increase. Panama
and Canada are leading a High Ambition
Coalition for a Quiet Ocean of which 37 countries
representing 50 per cent of the flagged global
shipping fleet are members. Proposed solutions
in the Coalition’s declaration include new
policies to drive the design of quieter ships and
MPAs that protect and restore the natural ocean
soundscape.
Sources: www.foraquietocean.org
www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/hottopics/pages/noise.aspx
© iStock / Denys Yelmanov.
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

i n b r i e f 5
@ AlixSaz, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
IS YOUR RESEARCH
REALLY WORTH IT?
The carbon footprint of international academic conferences
is rarely discussed, even by those travelling expressly to
tackle environmental issues. Since 2023, the Institute of
Science and Technology Austria (ISTA) has been attempting
to quantify the impact of such research activities; work now
published in the journal Magnetic Resonance.
Among the high-impact research activities ISTA looked
at, international conference travel was one of the most
significant. Depending on event location, each conference
participant could be generating in the region of 4–5 tons of
CO 2, the equivalent to 6 months’ research in the lab.
During COVID-19, conferences moved online. But it felt
harder to impart and ingest information, and we struggled
to connect with colleagues and develop ideas. As a result,
numbers of in-person events are returning to pre-pandemic
levels and with them, their climate impact.
What about alternatives to air travel? When looking at
these, ISTA found several ‘hidden’ carbon costs which
are rarely considered, such as building and maintaining
travel infrastructure. Factoring this in triples the footprint
calculation for train travel that you find online. Even so, if
your trip is less than 3,000 km, train travel still produces on
average 85 per cent less CO 2 than flying.
ISTA suggests an alternative: decentralize our
conferences. Local events would be run simultaneously and
connected together virtually, providing a similar in-person
experience but without the hefty carbon footprint.
Source: phys.org/news/2025-11-carbon-footprint-conference.html
FOOTPRINT IN THE SEA
Locating the critically endangered hammerhead sharks Sphyrna
corona, Sphyrna media, and Sphyrna vespertina is extremely
difficult. However, by analysing fragments of environmental
DNA (eDNA) drifting in seawater, scientists can detect where
these elusive species have recently passed.
The technique, trialled in Colombia’s Uramba Bahía Málaga
National Natural Park, bypasses the need for direct sightings or
capture of animals. As described in Frontiers in Marine Science,
all three species were detected in the samples, confirming the
park as a crucial refuge and demonstrating how effective eDNA
can be for surveying hidden shark populations. ‘Our short-term
goal is to locate these three species, as they are likely among
the most critically endangered coastal sharks in the world,’ said
lead researcher Diego Cardeñosa.
This approach offers a lightweight, scalable way to monitor
data-deficient shark populations in remote or turbid coastal
habitats, where traditional surveys are difficult or expensive.
The researchers emphasize, however, that genetics is only part
of the solution, with eDNA complementing, not replacing,
traditional fieldwork. Cardeñosa hopes his work will inspire
greater awareness and appreciation for these often overlooked
sharks, and demonstrate the power of environmental DNA.
Source: Cardeñosa, D. 2025. Ghosts of the current: environmental DNA assays
to detect conservation priority areas for three critically endangered hammerhead
sharks. Frontiers in Marine Science, 12. doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1688088
MESOPELAGIC
FISH ARE MAJOR
CONTRIBUTORS
TO THE OCEAN
CARBON BUDGET
Experiments on one of the world’s most abundant
fish indicate that cold and pressure do not inhibit the
production of ichthyocarbonate (fish carbon).
Fish excrete carbonate minerals to maintain salt and
water balance in their bodies, a process thought to be
significant in the global carbonate budget.
To determine how consistent this process is across
ocean habitats, a study, led by Martin Grosell at the
University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine,
Atmospheric, and Earth Science and published
in the Journal of Experimental Biology looked at
the mesopelagic blackbelly rosefish (Helicolenus
dactylopterus). Lacking a swim bladder, this species
can survive capture at depth and is robust enough to
survive laboratory conditions.
Grosell said, ‘Mesopelagic fish live in deep, cold,
high-pressure environments, and until now, it was
unclear if they produced carbonate like shallow water
fish do—or at what rate’.
The research confirmed that blackbelly rosefish
excrete carbonate minerals at rates comparable to
shallow-water species.
These new findings verify assumptions in climate
and Earth system models. Co-author Amanda Oehlert
said, ‘With mesopelagic fish playing such a significant
role, their contribution to carbonate flux—and how it
might change with warming oceans—deserves greater
attention.’
Sources: news.miami.edu/rosenstiel/stories/2025/07/deep-seafish-confirmed-as-a-significant-source-of-ocean-carbonate.html
agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GB008387
The blackbelly rosefish (Helicolenus dactylopterus). Lophelia II
2010: Oil Seeps and Deep Reefs, Public domain, via Wikimedia
Commons.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

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a n o c e a n o f s c i e n c e
MIXED SIGNALS
How do diatoms cope when multiple nutrients are limited? Ellen Harrison explains.
Diatoms are single-celled microalgae whose distinctive
two-part cell wall, made from silica, gives them their
name (Fig. 1). They inhabit all the world’s oceans (and
soils and freshwater) from the poles to the tropics, are
incredibly diverse in form, and are responsible for around 20
per cent of the photosynthesis on Earth.
Diatoms evolved around 200 million years ago. Their
genomes incorporate plant-like, animal-like, and bacterial
genes, making them interesting model organisms to study.
Even though they seem like simple single-celled microbes,
the difference in the genetic make-up of the two moststudied
species of diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum and
Thalassiosira pseudonana, is similar to that found between
humans and sea squirts.
Diatoms can survive long periods of low nutrients and
unfavourable conditions, rapidly responding to the return
of nutrients and increasing their cell numbers by orders of
magnitude in several days. At the MBA’s Algal Microbiome
and Ecophysiology group, we have been using new molecular
biology techniques to understand this ‘bloom and bust’ cycle.
Ocean warming will alter the way nutrients are supplied from
the deep ocean, and humans are changing nutrient inputs into
coastal waters. Diatoms are a major component of the marine
food web, particularly in vulnerable regions such as at the poles.
Our work therefore provides crucial information for predicting
how marine food webs will change with the changing climate.
A lot of previous research has focused on how
diatoms cope with limitation by one nutrient at a time,
particularly the macronutrients nitrogen and phosphorus.
In certain ocean regions, phytoplankton growth can also
be limited by the micronutrients iron, manganese, silica,
zinc, cobalt, and vitamin B12. There is increasing evidence
that phytoplankton can be co-limited by two or more nutrients
at once. Experiments have shown that regardless of latitude
or temperature, net phytoplankton growth was enhanced by
adding multiple nutrients.
We looked at the model diatom species P. tricornutum and
investigated its ability to cope with simultaneous limitation by
nitrogen and phosphorus. A common coping strategy for low
phosphorus conditions among phytoplankton is to secrete
an enzyme called alkaline phosphatase, which allows them
to scavenge phosphorus that would otherwise be locked in
organic materials.
A seemingly unique diatom ability is the use of calcium
signalling to coordinate their response to phosphate resupply.
Calcium signalling is used by all eukaryotes (organisms whose
cells possess a nucleus), including humans, to allow cells to
translate external stimuli into useful information or actions. In
There is increasing evidence
that phytoplankton can
be co-limited by two or more
nutrients at once
a
c
Figure 1. The diversity of diatoms: a. Coscinodiscus granii cell showing
two cell wall valves. b. A chain of Chaetocerous cells. c. A mixture of
centric and pennate diatoms from a natural diatom population in the
polar Southern Ocean. © MBA.
the case of diatoms that have been starved of phosphorus,
the resupply of phosphate triggers a rapid influx of Ca 2+
(calcium ions) into the cell, setting off a sequence of events
that results in changes in gene expression (in which genes are
‘turned on or off’), allowing the cells to quickly take advantage
of the new nutrients. One of the first changes in diatom cells
after they are resupplied with phosphate is an increased
capacity to acquire nitrogen.
What happens to these low phosphate coping strategies if
the diatoms are grown under conditions of low phosphorus
and nitrogen (co-limitation)? To study calcium signalling in
diatoms we have engineered them to produce a biosensor
that fluoresces when calcium ions flow into the cell (see
Box). We grew P. tricornutum in different nutrient regimes,
including nitrogen and phosphorus co-limitation, and used
a specialized microscopy set-up to resupply phosphate and
record any calcium ion signals. We saw that co-limited cells
no longer showed rapid calcium ion elevations in response
to phosphate resupply but were still capable of calcium ion
signalling when shocked with low salinity water (80% ASW,
Fig. 2a & b). If we resupplied the co-limited cells with nitrate,
the calcium ion-phosphate sensing response was restored
within 2 hours (Fig. 2c). This was an exciting discovery which
b
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a n o c e a n o f s c i e n c e 7
Figure 2. Dynamic control
of phosphorus-Calcium
ion signalling by nitrogen
availability. a. Co-limited
diatoms do not show calcium
ion signal when resupplied
with phosphate (+Pi) compared
to when cells are only limited
by phosphorus. b. Within 2
hours of resupplying nitrate,
at least 75% of the co-limited
cells have started responding
to phosphate resupply again.
The use of novel molecular
biology techniques has
allowed us to investigate
how individual diatom cells
respond to low-nutrient
environments
indicates that diatoms can rapidly recover from severe nutrient
stress, possibly contributing to their success as major bloomforming
phytoplankton.
We also studied the effect of co-limitation on other
phosphorus limitation coping strategies. Alkaline phosphatase
production was reduced in co-limited diatoms. This is important
because alkaline phosphatase activity is often used in
oceanographic studies as an indicator of phosphorus limitation.
We also found that phosphate uptake was much reduced in colimited
diatoms compared to phosphorus-limited cells, whereas
nitrogen uptake was maintained. This suggests that when they
are co-limited, diatoms prioritize nitrogen over phosphorus,
with phosphorus acquisition and sensing machinery effectively
switched off under co-limitation.
Phytoplankton are responsible for the oxygen in every
other breath we take and contribute significantly to ocean
carbon cycling. Despite this, there is much to discover about
what controls their growth and population dynamics. The
use of novel molecular biology techniques has allowed us
to investigate, at high resolution, how individual diatom cells
respond to low-nutrient environments. In the future, we would
like to understand how widespread this strategy is amongst
different diatoms, and phytoplankton more generally. This
will help in our efforts to predict how natural phytoplankton
populations will respond to the changing climate and altered
nutrient patterns. l
• Ellen Harrison (ellhar@mba.ac.uk)
Further reading
Falciatore, A. et al. 2020. Diatom molecular research comes
of age: model species for studying phytoplankton biology
and diversity. The Plant Cell, 32(3), 547-572.
Bowler, C. et al.2008. The Phaeodactylum genome
reveals the evolutionary history of diatom
genomes. Nature, 456(7219), 239-244.
Browning, T.J. and Moore, C.M. 2023. Global analysis
of ocean phytoplankton nutrient limitation reveals high
prevalence of co-limitation. Nature Communications,
14(1), 5014.
Harrison, E., Meeda, Y., Gaikwad, T., Wheeler, G. and
Helliwell, K. 2025. Nitrogen status exerts dynamic control
over phosphorus sensing and acquisition via PSR1 in
colimited marine diatoms. Science Advances, 11(35).
10.1126/sciadv.adw8260
How do genetically encoded
calcium ion biosensors work?
We coated tungsten beads with DNA containing the
genetic sequence needed to make the proteins of the
biosensor. The beads were then fired at a very high
pressure, in a vacuum, into Phaeodactylum tricornutum
cells on an agar plate. We then spread the cells on new
agar plates with antibiotics to pick those which had
correctly integrated the new genes into their genomes.
When calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) enter the cell, they bind to
the biosensor protein, changing its shape so that it is
excited by defined wavelengths of light on a fluorescence
microscope (see figure). The panel on the right shows
a P. tricornutum cell expressing the genetically encoded
Ca 2+ biosensor, before and after calcium ions have entered
the cell.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

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A SEA PEN IS KNOWN BY
THE COMPANY IT KEEPS
Sea pens and sponges on the
floor of the Whittard Canyon in the
Northeast Atlantic.
© National Oceanography Centre.
Subtle patterns emerge in the dark and silence of the deep sea. By Irene Susini.
In the stillness of the deep sea, life doesn’t shout. It doesn’t
shimmer or swarm like it does in coral reefs or kelp forests.
Instead, it arranges itself quietly—in patterns, in spacing, in
presence and absence. Look closely, and these patterns reveal
a story waiting to be uncovered.
A ‘forest’ on the canyon floor
Far offshore in the Northeast Atlantic, hidden beneath thousands
of metres of water, lies the Whittard Canyon—a vast valley carved
deep into the seafloor. At first, its folds seem barren, a quiet
world of sediment and shadow. But look again, and a different
scene begins to emerge: delicate, feather-like corals rising from
the mud, scattered across the canyon floor like the first tender
shoots of spring.
These are sea pens—graceful, feather-like colonies formed
by hundreds, sometimes thousands, of tiny polyps growing
together around a central stalk. Anchored in soft seabed mud,
they sway gently in the current, thriving in the deep ocean’s
quiet darkness. They may appear solitary, standing alone in the
gloom, but whether surrounded by other sea pens or by entirely
different creatures, a curious pattern of connection begins to
unfold. And the deeper you look, the more you start to wonder:
could there be order in this seeming randomness?
Mapping the unseen
To study sea pens is to follow patterns written softly into the
seafloor. Using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and 3D
photogrammetry, we captured high-resolution images of the
canyon floor. But we weren’t just cataloguing species—we were
mapping associations. Every sea pen, every neighbour, became
a data point in a living map.
Slowly, a picture came into focus—less a scatter of life, more a
seafloor ‘suburb’.
As it turns out, sea pens weren’t scattered randomly across
the seabed. Instead, they formed clusters—not dense thickets,
but loose gatherings, like neighbours nodding politely
across garden fences. More intriguingly, these clusters often
included another resident: tube-dwelling anemones, their long,
retractable tentacles emerging from burrows just centimetres
away.
Elsewhere, sea pens shared the seafloor with tall and imposing
stalked glass sponges. But unlike the loose groupings seen
among sea pens and anemones, these neighbours kept their
distance. Where sponges were present, sea pens were still
around, but rarely close. It was as if an unspoken rule of personal
space was in effect.
What the patterns suggest
Patterns in nature are rarely accidental. In shallow ecosystems,
we’ve come to recognize a complex web of interactions—
competition, cooperation, defence, and attraction. In the deep
sea, these dynamics are harder to see, but no less present.
Our findings suggest that sea pens are not merely passive
occupants of the seafloor. They may be selecting neighbours,
responding to subtle sediment conditions, or actively avoiding
competition. Their frequent association with anemones could
reflect a shared preference for fine, stable sediment. Their
tendency to space themselves away from sponges may point
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a n o c e a n o f s c i e n c e 9
to spatial competition—or perhaps even chemical deterrence—
though this remains to be tested.
What is clear is that sea pens respond not only to their
environment, but also to each other—and to the species around
them.
Why the fine scale matters
Sea pens are recognized as indicators of Vulnerable Marine
Ecosystems (VMEs), and their presence can trigger protections
under international conservation agreements. But what does
it mean to protect a species if we don’t fully understand how
it lives—how it arranges itself, who it associates with, or what it
avoids?
Our work shows that fine-scale spatial patterns—on the order
of centimetres—matter. Within a single transect, a sea pen’s fate
might hinge on whether it grows beside a friendly anemone or a
domineering sponge.
This narrative isn’t just a fascinating natural record—it carries
real conservation weight. Knowing not just where sea pens exist,
but how they ‘choose’ their places—and who they live near—is
critical for meaningful protection.
Conservation decisions are often made on broad scales. Yet
life in the deep sea unfolds on a much smaller stage. To protect
these fragile habitats, we need to learn the language of clusters,
distances, and invisible boundaries.
The devil’s in the detail: searching for meaning
As our vision of the deep grows sharper, so do the questions.
Why do sea pens cluster? Is it for stability—anchoring more
securely in soft sediment? To improve feeding, as currents
weave between neighbours? Or perhaps to boost reproductive
success?
What draws sea pens and anemones into such close
company? Is it simply a shared preference for the same seabed,
or is there something more—some quiet benefit to being near
one another?
To protect these fragile
habitats, we need to
learn the language of
clusters, distances, and
invisible boundaries.
And what do these patterns mean for survival? Could
groups be more resilient than loners, holding ground against
disturbance in ways we don’t yet understand?
To begin answering these questions, we’ll need more than
sharper images—we’ll need new ways of listening. The tools are
already evolving. ROVs and photogrammetry have shown us
where these animals are and how they align. Next might come
layers of chemistry, sediment cores, even time-lapse views—
watching, perhaps, as a sea pen grows, disappears, or holds its
place in the shifting dark.
Final thoughts: reading between the lines
In the end, it comes back to that opening idea: the deep sea
doesn’t shout. It whispers. The story is there, but you have to look
closely. The sea pens showed us that life in the deep sea is not
solitary. It’s social. Structured. Selective.
A sea pen is known by the company it keeps.
And in learning about its company, we learn how to protect
the whole. l
• Irene Susini (irene.susini@plymouth.ac.uk; irenesusini3@gmail.com)
www.linkedin.com/in/irene-susini-482539111
Further reading
Susini, I., Van Audenhaege, L., Price, D.M. et al. 2025. Fine-scale
spatial organisation of deep-sea sea pens in a NE Atlantic
submarine canyon conservation area. Scientific Reports, 15,
29332. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-13327-2
Diagram showing the factors that may influence the spatial patterns of sea pens in relation to other sea pen species, tube-dwelling
anemones, and stalked sponges.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

10 fp eo al ti cu yr e
SAVING THE UNSEEN HALF
OF OUR PLANET
Without reform, the International Seabed Authority faces a crisis of trust. By Carlos Garcia-Soto.
When I first arrived at the Marine Biological
Association as a young researcher, I thought
I already knew the ocean. From the windows of
the laboratory, Plymouth Sound looked orderly:
tides rising and falling, plankton nets going out, data coming
in. But it was here, under the patient guidance of scientists
like Robin D. Pingree, that I learned how little we truly see.
Beneath the surface lies another world—vast, unseen, and still
largely unknown.
Years later, that same curiosity has taken me from coastal
currents to the deep ocean, from microscopes to multilateral
meetings. What I have discovered is that invisibility is not only
ecological; it is also institutional. Half of our planet—everything
below 200 metres depth—is governed by an organization that
very few people have heard of, yet whose decisions will shape
the future of the ocean for centuries: the International Seabed
Authority, or ISA.
The unseen half of the planet
The deep ocean covers nearly half the Earth’s surface. Its
plains, mountains, and canyons host extraordinary life:
coral forests that have grown for millennia, glowing fish
that communicate with light, and sediments that lock away
immense stores of carbon. Scientists estimate that less than
Will we repeat at
4,000 metres the
same mistakes we
made on land?
0.01 per cent—and possibly as low as 0.001 per cent—of the
deep-sea floor has been visually explored.
At the same time, technological advances and the
demand for critical minerals—cobalt, nickel, manganese—
have turned this remote environment into the next
industrial frontier. Mining companies and several coastal
states are now seeking licences to extract minerals
from the seafloor. Most planned seabed mining would
take place between 4,000 and 5,500 metres below the
surface—roughly the altitude of Mont Blanc in reverse—
where polymetallic nodules carpet the abyssal plains of
the Pacific. The ISA, created under the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, was meant to manage
these activities ‘for the benefit of all humankind’. Yet it faces
growing pressure to move faster—to issue licences before
robust environmental rules are agreed.
That tension between protection and exploitation lies at
the heart of the current debate. Thirty exploration contracts
are already in place, but no binding mining code yet
exists. The Authority’s Council meets regularly in Kingston,
Jamaica, to negotiate the details, often behind closed
doors. Scientists and civil-society observers may attend, but
they cannot vote or intervene directly. The process, in many
respects, belongs to another era—before transparency
became the norm; before we understood how fragile deepsea
ecosystems truly are.
A crisis of trust
During the years I served as a Spanish scientific delegate
to the ISA (2013–2019), I witnessed how difficult it is for any
intergovernmental body to evolve once trust begins to erode.
Decisions about the ocean’s most hidden spaces depend
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

p o l i c y 11
Left: A crab with a coral in the genus Epizoanthus on its back
makes its way across a spectacular and unexpectedly densely
packed field of ferromanganese nodules blanketing the seafloor
of Gosnold Seamount.
Image courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration, 2021 North Atlantic
Stepping Stones: New England and Corner Rise Seamounts.
on credibility: the belief that evidence is independent, that
procedures are fair, and that outcomes serve the common good.
When that belief falters, legitimacy itself begins to unravel.
In July 2021, the Pacific island state of Nauru invoked a
legal clause that forced the ISA to complete regulations for
exploitation activities within 2 years. The deadline expired
in 2023 without agreement, leaving the door open for
applications under provisional conditions. Norway’s decision
in 2024 to authorize exploratory deep-sea mining within its
national waters has further intensified the debate. The world
now faces a pivotal question: will we repeat at 4,000 metres
the same mistakes we made on land?
Three reforms for a credible future
In my recent World View article in Nature (The seabed mining
authority needs reform), I outlined three initial and actionable
institutional reforms—among other deeper proposals—that
could restore balance to the ISA’s dual mandate and help
it earn public trust. These are not technical details; they are
foundational conditions for legitimacy.
Below: An orange shrimp swims above a sedimented seafloor
covered with scattered manganese nodules at a depth of
4,850 meters.
Image courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration, 2021 North Atlantic
Stepping Stones: New England and Corner Rise Seamounts.
NOAA Ocean Exploration, 2025 Beyond the Blue.
1. Transparency. All environmental impact assessments
should be made fully public before any mining licence is
approved. Contractors and sponsoring states must be named,
while reviewers remain anonymous. Comments, responses,
and revisions should be published in full, allowing everyone—
from scientists to citizens—to follow the evidence trail.
2. Science independence. Environmental thresholds should
be embedded in every contract, and assessments must be
subject to independent scientific review. When limits are
exceeded—for instance, if sediment plumes spread beyond
defined boundaries—activities should pause automatically,
pending reassessment.
3. Public oversight. An independent panel combining
scientists and civil-society representatives should issue
binding opinions on key questions: how to design impact
studies, when to grant a licence, and when to halt operations.
The ISA Council would be obliged to provide a reasoned
written response before proceeding.
These measures would not paralyse decision-making;
they would strengthen it. Reform is not delay—it is the only
path to legitimacy.
Beyond rules: rebuilding legitimacy
The deeper lesson of the ISA debate is that global
governance is judged today not only by results, but by the
integrity of the process. Institutions earn trust not from their
mandates, but from their openness. Legitimacy begins when
people can see how evidence informs decisions.
Transparency is not a threat to diplomacy; it is its modern
foundation. Independent science is not an obstacle to
progress; it is the engine that keeps progress credible. And
public participation does not weaken authority; it reminds it
whom it serves.
These are principles that extend far beyond the ISA.
From climate conferences to biodiversity summits, global
institutions are facing the same demand: to be seen, to be
accountable, and to listen.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

12
12 p o l i c y
The headquarters of the International Seabed Authority,
Kingston, Jamaica. @ James A.R. McFarlane, CC BY-SA 3.0
via Wikimedia Commons.
Working now in Spain, I often think back to the tides
of Plymouth and to the scientists who taught me that
understanding the ocean begins with humility. The same is
true for governance. The deeper we look, the more we realize
how much remains unseen—and how essential it is to act
before we disturb what we barely understand.
The surface has its champions.
The deep ocean is still searching for one. l
• Carlos García-Soto (carlos.soto@ieo.csic.es) Spanish National Research
Council (CSIC), Spain.
@CGarciaSoto_IEO
@cgarciasoto.bsky.social
Why this matters
The deep ocean is more than a repository of minerals. It
is a living system that connects every part of our planet—
regulating climate, supporting fisheries, storing carbon, and
inspiring awe.
To govern it wisely is not a technical task, it is an ethical one.
If we can protect the half of Earth that lies beyond national
borders, we may yet prove that humanity can manage the
global commons with fairness and foresight.
Further reading
Bell, K.L.C. et al. 2025. How little we’ve seen: a visual coverage
estimate of the deep seafloor. Science Advances 11, doi: 10.1126/
sciadv.adp8602
Garcia-Soto, C. 2025. The seabed mining authority needs reform.
Nature 646, 9. doi:10.1038/d41586-025-03145-x
Purser, A. et al. 2016. Association of deep-sea incirrate octopods
with manganese crusts and nodule fields in the Pacific Ocean.
Current Biology 26, R1268–R1271. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.052
JMBA welcomes submissions of original
research and reviews on all aspects of
marine biology.
Members of the Marine Biological
Association are entitled to a 20% discount on
the Article Processing Charge (APC) for gold
open access publication in JMBA.
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January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

f e a t u r e s 13
UNLIKELY
HEROES
FOR
CUTTING-
EDGE
MARINE
RESEARCH
The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) Survey has
rediscovered a surprising but essential tool for one
of today’s most important environmental archives:
pencils manufactured over a century ago.
The CPR Survey is the longest-running and most
geographically extensive marine ecological survey
in history. Over its nearly century-long operation, the
survey has provided invaluable data used to track
environmental, climatic, and biodiversity trends.
The CPR instrument, towed behind ships of opportunity,
collects plankton on a moving roll of custom-made silk.
Back at the lab, plankton are identified and recorded by a
team of analysts. The silks are archived, serving as biological
snapshots in time, allowing scientists to look back in history.
Each sample is marked with a unique identifier that must
stand the test of time. This is where the pencils come into
their own.
The pencil trials
What began as a routine order for consumables ended up
turning into a pencil investigation. We discovered that the
A.W. Faber-Castell 9100 ½ pencils used to mark the silks’
identifier were no longer manufactured—so the trials for
comparable pencils began.
We looked at the manufacturer’s current pencil selection,
other manufacturers, and at different types of marking
devices such as chinagraphs and fabric pens. Each underwent
rigorous testing on sample silks to assess quality and longevity.
Some crumbled. Some scratched. Some
smudged. In addition, as CPR samples
can be used for molecular work, there
was a need to ensure that any newly
introduced materials could not
impact these results.
After a couple of years of testing,
the team concluded that none of the
tests on the new pencils were fully
successful and so a hunt began: were
there any of the original pencils still in
The original—and
best—permanent graphite
pencil. © MBA.
circulation? The pencils, manufactured in Germany during the
1920s, are now considered vintage or antiques. We searched
in vintage stores, pencil clubs, and forums; anywhere boxes
could be collecting dust in a corner. And the searches were
fruitful: we found collectors, sellers, and dealers in the UK,
Germany, and the US, enabling us to build up our stocks.
We checked these 1920 vintage pencils to ensure that they
worked as intended. The century-old tools didn’t just work—
they outperformed their modern counterparts.
‘Modern pencils are designed for notebooks or digital
scanning. But on our silks—a medium with its own
sensitivities—only the original pencils made clean, lasting
impressions that stood up to time, humidity, and handling,’
said Plankton Analyst Gemma Brice.
A legacy of precision, preserved by tradition
The marks left on the silks must endure so that researchers
can return to them decades later and read every stroke as
clearly as the day it was made.
Nearly a hundred years after the project started, the CPR
survey proudly uses these same pencils; not out of nostalgia,
but because they work best, and consistency is essential
in running a successful time series. In a world fixated on
innovation, sometimes progress means embracing what
already excels.
Director of CPR Survey David Johns said, ‘We’re proud to
bridge a nearly hundred-year-old tradition with the future of
ocean science.’
Why every cog counts
In science, every component matters. From the ocean towing
vessels to the humble pencil tip, all must be reliable. The
tiniest detail—like a pencil’s graphite—can determine whether
decades of data remain legible and scientifically valuable.
As researchers around the globe continue
analysing plankton records, they do so
thanks to this century old pencil—an
unassuming yet crucial cog
in the global machine of
marine science. l
www.cprsurvey.org
Marking the silk
from a continuous
plankton recorder.
© MBA.
www.mba.ac.uk January 2026

14
f e a t u r e
The floating buoy
Haenyeo use as a
resting place and
to store their catch.
© Christophe
Vieira.
SEA WOMEN AND SEAWEEDS
In South Korea, a traditional freediving fishery and kelp forests face a parallel decline. By Christophe Vieira.
On the rugged coastlines of Jeju Island, Korea, a
silent, beautiful drama is reaching its final act. It
is the story of the Haenyeo—the ‘sea women’—a
cultural heritage recognized by UNESCO for the
unique tradition of freediving to harvest marine life. For
centuries, these women have plunged into the deep, holding
their breath for minutes at a time; their work a physical and
spiritual link to the sea.
But their numbers are dwindling. The average age of a
Haenyeo is now over 70, and a new generation of women,
facing the physically demanding and dangerous nature of the
work, is choosing different paths. As the final generation of
Haenyeo performs what I like calling their ‘final sumbisori’—the
whistling sound they make to expel carbon dioxide after a long
dive—a part of Korea’s living cultural history is fading away.
Parallel to this human story, another, less-visible, heritage
is also under threat: Korea’s marine biodiversity. Under the
waves, vast forests of marine macroalgae—seaweeds—form
the foundation of the coastal ecosystem, providing habitat,
food, and nurseries for countless species. They are silent
giants, essential to the health of the ocean. Yet, like so many
ecosystems worldwide, they face unprecedented pressures
from human impact, including pollution, climate change, and
habitat destruction. The delicate web of life they sustain is at
risk of collapse.
My recent work, a critical taxonomic study published in the
Journal of Phycology, sought to shed new light on this natural
heritage. For decades, the understanding of a specific group
of brown algae (the Dictyoteae tribe) in Korea was clouded
by historical misidentifications. Early taxonomists, starting
with Okamura in 1913, often assigned European or American
names to Korean species. Our study, using modern molecular
tools, revealed that we had the story wrong. What was thought
to be an exotic flora was, in fact, a largely endemic East Asian
diversity, with most species found only in Korea or Japan.
This taxonomic revision culminated in the description of
three new species. In a field where species are often given
A mural depicting haenyeo women at work. © Christophe Vieira.
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

f e a t u r e 15
The name Dictyota haenyeosa was chosen for
a species of remarkable beauty: an alga with
an incredible blue iridescence that glows like
a halo in the dark sea. We dedicated this most
beautiful of species to the Haenyeo women
themselves. © Christophe Vieira.
obscure Latin names, we chose a different path—a poetic
one. We named these new species to honour the Haenyeo—a
symbolic act that connects two precious, and threatened,
national heritages.
This act of naming is more than a gesture; it is an attempt to
engrave an endangered cultural heritage into the permanent
annals of scientific taxonomy. In doing so, it serves as a
stark reminder of the fragile state of both the Haenyeo and
marine biodiversity.
This is a story of a race against time. My study, a painstaking
3-year effort, documented just nine species and described
three new ones. It is a testament to how slow our scientific
effort is, compared to the pace of biodiversity loss. While
a new generation of researchers continues this vital work,
our findings underscore a sombre truth: we are not doing
enough. Just as the final generation of Haenyeo is now
working the waters, many species are facing their final act. The
names we give them may one day stand as little more than
epitaphs, marking the diversity that once was.
This article is a reminder that we have beautiful heritages,
both human and natural, that are dying. I am not like Sir David
Attenborough, who still holds out hope that we can reverse the
tide. My work with the Haenyeo and their marine environment
suggests that the fate of both is inextricably linked, and for
both, we may be approaching a point of no return. l
• Christophe Vieira (cvcarp@gmail.com)
The final generation of Haenyeo. © Christophe Vieira.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

16 f e a t u r e
© James Bowden.
NO TREES,
NO SEAS
Are we missing a hidden connection between
oceans and forests? By Sam Manning.
A
lone, diminutive oak sapling shivers in the
southwesterly wind, malnourished in the thin,
exposed soils of the post-mining landscape so
familiar to Cornwall’s north coast. These valleys
were once adorned with temperate rainforest, 90 per cent of
which has been lost to centuries of metal and peat extraction:
Kernow’s Klondike. This blasted, open landscape of heathland
is now a shifted baseline, considered emblematic of Cornwall’s
character and identity, much like the marine ecosystems
for which it is cherished. However, new research may be
suggesting that without the return of Britain’s forests, our seas
may never recover from their increasingly denuded state.
A neglected relationship?
In 2025, the Woodland Trust published Environmental
Links Between Oceans and Forests, a scoping review by
Dr Benjamin Phillips consolidating global research on
the chemical and biological connections between these
two ecosystems. In many cases, the research treads old,
well-studied territory, such as ocean surface temperature
predicting inland forest growth and forest fire intensity, and
forest fires triggering mass plankton blooms and subsequent
negative carbon sequestration feedback loops. Or that over
25 per cent of nutrient inputs into Canadian old growth
forests are derived from salmon returning from the ocean.
However, the publication also begins to shed light on a
potentially astonishing relationship between forests and
the sea. In Japan, which boasts 68 per cent forest cover, in
stark contrast to the UK’s naked 13.6 per cent, and where
historically, seafood, ranging from oysters to seaweeds, have
formed an integral part of the nation’s diet, new science is
showing that the numbers of trees on land may be a limiting
factor to the number of fish in the ocean.
One study suggests that fulvic acids derived from forest
soils are essential for increasing the amount of bioavailable
iron in estuaries and can be up to 10 times higher in the
coastal vicinities of river catchments with relatively higher
forest cover. This correlates with higher biomass of plankton,
which require bioavailable iron to absorb phosphates and
other critical nutrients. Plankton underpin the ocean’s food
webs, are a titanic carbon store, and produce half the world’s
oxygen. Another paper, which studied 22 different Japanese
estuaries, suggested catchments with higher forest cover
(particularly those higher than 75 per cent), had above
average numbers of IUCN Red List fish species. Seabirds,
too, are revealed to be a vital part of this systemic ecosystem
exchange: in a study of Palmyra Atoll, plankton and manta
ray populations were found to be dependent on ‘seabird
vectored nutrient inputs’, or guano, from species such as white
tern and red-footed boobies.
The bibliography identified a mere 270 papers globally,
with the majority originating in North America and Asia.
Whilst this highlights the distinct lack of research in this
field, it also identifies a potential new scientific frontier for
how we can understand Earth’s natural ecosystems and
approach their restoration.
In Cornwall, this research is inspiring a wave of activism
and renewed focus on forest restoration. The ‘No Trees, No
Seas’ campaign, a grassroots environmental coalition led
by Plant One Cornwall, is drawing parallels between the
90 per cent loss of forest cover and the ca. 80 per cent loss
of vital vegetative marine habitats such as seagrass. Their
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

f e a t u r e 17
© Dan Smale
message is simple: to save our seas, we need more trees.
No Trees, No Seas is attempting to create a unified vision
for the restoration of Cornwall’s damaged environment, one
based around the idea of the ‘flowscape’, the interconnected
system of chemical exchange between forest catchments and
sea that has been broken by human activity. The campaign
claims that by restoring forests on land—and consequently
their ability to hold and store water—pollutants and sediment
run-off can be arrested, supporting the growing restoration
of seagrass and kelp habitats in Cornwall’s coastal waters.
Salmon populations may also be revived through the
restoration of their native forest habitat. The Woodland Trust
is also pushing forward with research into this area, studying
links in the UK between forest cover and marine datasets
such as plankton biomass and fish populations. If a scientific
connection can be made here, then the return of our forests
that campaigns like No Trees, No Seas are calling for may be
essential in the struggle to revive our collapsing fish stocks
and ocean ecosystems.
Cape Erimo, Hokkaido, Japan
A dense young forest sways in the sea wind. Sixty years
ago, this landscape resembled that of modern Cornwall,
deforested in the early 20th century for mining, farming, and
logging. By 1950, the deforestation had led to an almost
total collapse of Cape Erimo’s once abundant fish stocks,
prompting a radical restoration response. Utilizing the ‘Goda
method’, locals used seaweed to restore lost soil structure
and facilitate mass tree planting to restore the coastal and
upper-catchment forests. By 1994, fish landings were up by
20 times their number just 40 years earlier. Further south, in
Kesennuma Bay, Shigeatsu Hatakeyama, a fisherman known
affectionately as ‘Grandpa Oyster’, was rallying the fishing
community and establishing the NGO whose name translates
as ‘the forest is longing for the sea, the sea is longing for
the forest’. His story of the forest and ocean as lovers, pulled
apart by humanity, galvanized action in response to similar
collapses in oyster stocks associated with deforestation
in the river catchment above. This led to an alliance
of fishermen buying land to reforest in order to safeguard
their livelihoods—a model that could be replicated in the UK.
Science and nature restoration from other nations may be
illuminating a path we can follow to restore degraded land
and seascapes like those in Britain, that focuses on ecosystem
functionality and systemic reciprocity.
The No Trees, No Seas campaign plans to call for the
creation of the UK’s first ‘Fish Forest’ in 2026, modelled on the
Japanese ‘Uotuski-rin’ designated protection (Fish-bearing
forest), in which forest catchments are protected, not just for
their material value, but for their essential contribution to the
functionality of the wider ecosystems, particularly the ocean.
Japan has over 1,000 such designated sites and has done
since at least the 17th century.
In Japan, they have an ancient proverb: ‘If you want to catch
a fish, plant a tree’. l
• Sam Manning (sambmanning@gmail.com) is a forest ecologist and
environmental writer.
Download the ‘Environmental Links Between Oceans and Forests’ review
here: www.rainforestrecovery.org.uk/news/oceans-and-forests-a-newdiscovery
Learn more about the No Trees, No Seas campaign at www.plantone.co.uk
Further reading
Lavergne, E., Kume, M., Ahn, H., et al. 2022. Effects of forest
cover on richness of threatened fish species in Japan.
Conservation Biology, 36, e13847. doi.org/10.1111/
cobi.13849
Matsunaga, K., Nishioka, J., Kuma, K. et al. 1998. Riverine
input of bioavailable iron supporting phytoplankton growth
in Kesennuma Bay (Japan). Water Research, 32: 3436-3442.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(98)00113-4
McCauley, D.J., DeSalles, P.A., Young, H.S. et al. 2012. From
wing to wing: the persistence of long ecological interaction
chains in less-disturbed ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 2, 409.
doi:10.1038/srep00409
Iwasaki, S. 2021. Fishers-based forest planting initiatives in
Japan: lessons learned. Regional Studies in Marine Science,
45, 101839. doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2021.101839
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

18 f e a t u r e
ROCK POOLING NETWORK
GOES UK-WIDE
From Cornwall to Scotland, The Rock Pool Project
is extending its reach. By Laura Coles.
For generations, families have explored rock pools
along Britain’s coasts, marvelling at crabs, anemones,
and starfish in miniature marine worlds. What began
as a seaside pastime has become a powerful tool for
conservation and community engagement. With its national
network launched in November 2025, The Rock Pool Project
now invites people across the UK to discover and help protect
life on their local shores.
A national network for coastal discovery
Building on years of success in Falmouth and Plymouth, The
Rock Pool Project unveiled seven new regional hubs across
the UK, stretching from East Sands in Scotland to Kilve Beach
in Somerset. The full network also includes Beadnell Haven
(Northumberland), Menai Bridge (Wales), Shoeburyness
(Essex), Ovingdean (East Sussex), and Lee-on-the-Solent
(Hampshire).
Each hub hosts free, monthly events led by volunteers,
giving communities hands-on opportunities to explore their
shores and record the species they find. These records feed
directly into national biodiversity databases, helping scientists
monitor the health of Britain’s coastal ecosystems.
The Big Rock Pool Challenge:
competition meets conservation
At the heart of The Rock Pool Project’s approach lies the Big
Rock Pool Challenge—a friendly competition that transforms
coastal exploration into citizen science. Participants race to
discover and identify as many species as possible, earning
points for each record and bonus points for rarer finds.
This gamified format does more than entertain. It builds
species identification skills, increases ecological literacy,
and connects people to their local marine life. Every record
submitted contributes to open-access databases such as
iNaturalist, ensuring that the data can be used by researchers,
conservationists, and policymakers.
The Menai Bridge Hub volunteer team at their
volunteer pilot launch event. © Laura Coles.
Rock poolers recording finds during a BioBlitz Battle at East Sands,
St Andrews. © Laura Coles.
Dr Ben Holt, CEO and founder of The Rock Pool Project,
explains: ‘By setting up hubs across the UK, we can inspire
many more communities to discover the incredible life hidden
in their local rock pools and empower them to help protect
these amazing coastal ecosystems.’
Citizen science with scientific impact
The Rock Pool Project’s events are carefully designed to
meet scientific standards for data collection. Volunteers and
participants are trained to recognize common intertidal
species and to use digital tools for accurate recording. Data
gathered through the Big Rock Pool Challenge already
supports research into biodiversity shifts, invasive species, and
the impacts of climate change on intertidal ecosystems.
Rock pools, though small in scale, offer a window
into broader environmental change. Their sensitivity to
temperature, salinity, and wave exposure makes them
valuable indicators of shifting ecological conditions. By
mobilizing hundreds of citizen scientists, The Rock Pool
Project strengthens the UK’s coastal biodiversity monitoring
network.
Building coastal communities
Beyond the science, the project’s success lies in its community
spirit. Events are inclusive, family friendly, and designed
to engage people of all ages and backgrounds. For many,
kneeling beside a rock pool and discovering its inhabitants is
the beginning of a lifelong connection to the sea.
Each regional hub is led by a local coordinator supported
by trained volunteers. These volunteers receive instruction in
marine identification, digital recording, and event facilitation,
ensuring that the programme remains both scientifically
valuable and welcoming to newcomers.
January 2026
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f e a t u r e 19
with their local coasts while generating valuable data for
conservation.
The Marine Biological Association brings scientific
rigour to the partnership, ensuring that citizen-gathered
data contributes meaningfully to national research and
conservation priorities. This collaboration between community
engagement, institutional expertise, and dedicated
funding, links local action to national impact—an example
of the partnerships needed to meet today’s environmental
challenges.
Four-lined polycera (Polycera quadrilineata), recorded during
the Menai Bridge Hub’s volunteer pilot event. © Louis Tapster,
@unorthodox_sketch.
‘We’re looking for volunteers to help us deliver monthly
events throughout 2026,’ says Dr Holt. ‘Whether you’re a
marine enthusiast, community organizer, or simply someone
who loves the coast, there’s a role for you.’
Partnerships for the future
Funding from ScottishPower Foundation and the National
Lottery Heritage Fund has made the expansion possible,
and allows The Rock Pool Project to connect more people
Get involved
With nine active hubs now operating nationwide, The Rock
Pool Project invites everyone, from seasoned naturalists to
first-time explorers, to take part. Each rock pool explored adds
to our understanding of Britain’s coasts and strengthens the
connection between people and place.
Marine conservation begins with curiosity. By recording the
life found in our rock pools, volunteers are not only collecting
valuable scientific data, they are also helping to ensure that the
next generation inherits thriving, resilient coastal ecosystems. l
• Laura Coles (lcoles@therockpoolproject.co.uk), National Expansion Lead
for the Big Rock Pool Challenge.
@therockpoolproject
Anyone interested in joining a local event or volunteering can
find full details at www.therockpoolproject.co.uk
The first authoritative illustrated reference
guide to the world’s ghost sharks
A marvelously illustrated look at the life
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www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

20 s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
SHAPING THE ROAD TO
RECOGNITION AND CHANGE
Emily Bulled examines the priorities for inshore and small-scale fisheries in England.
@ Caroline Chapple chapplecartoons.co.uk
Sustainable fisheries provide many benefits to society,
which are recognized and valued by the British
public. They not only support food security and
coastal employment but often play a significant role
in the cultural heritage and social fabric of seaside towns,
as well as contributing to the environmental stewardship
of marine areas. Despite these benefits, behind the big
headlines, a quiet story is unravelling: the rapid decline
of the UK inshore fishing fleet. New long-term analysis of
Inshore fishers and other stakeholders gathered in Whitby (pictured)
and Poole to identify challenges and priorities for the sector.
Seafish data from Newcastle University reveals this trend,
with acute loss amongst small-scale (under 10-metre) boats,
and disparities that vary regionally, often with steep losses
in rural areas.
Safeguarding a sustainable fleet that is diverse, resilient,
rich in societal benefit, and widely distributed across our
coastline, requires explicit and urgent action that is tailored
towards the needs of our inshore fisheries and those who
depend upon them. In autumn 2024, the Inshore and
Small-Scale Fisheries (ISSF) Consortium led two workshops,
in Poole and Whitby, to work towards addressing the
loss of the inshore fleet. One hundred and twenty
participants, including 53 fishermen, came together to try
and understand the reasons behind these declines and
identify solutions that were feasible to maintain thriving and
sustainable fishing livelihoods. The discussions, over 3 days,
identified many challenges, which were channelled into the
following seven priority opportunities to be considered to
secure inshore and small-scale fisheries in England.
A seat at the table
The need for inshore and small-scale fishers to feel heard
and to be able to contribute meaningfully to decision making
was identified as the number one priority. Fishermen from
the workshops felt they were not recognized as qualified to
participate in discussions impacting their livelihoods. Even if
they were able to input, they felt that decisions were being
made for them rather than with them.
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 21
The conversations identified the need for small-scale
inshore fishermen to come together and share their
knowledge, expertise, and experiences through a coordinated
national representation. And for this national body to have a
seat at the table when designing the solutions.
Effective regulation of all sea users
Discussions in Poole and Whitby identified a number of
factors that were said to be threatening access to stocks
and fishing grounds inshore. This included, but was not
limited to, larger offshore and foreign vessels fishing
in inshore waters, and competition with recreational
fishers and wind farm developments. Small-scale fishers,
especially, are heavily
dependent on local waters;
they cannot move further
offshore in adverse weather
due to safety considerations,
limiting the space in which
they can fish.
Many solutions were
identified that could provide
opportunities for change.
Excluding larger foreign
vessels from all areas
within 12 nautical miles
of the shore could reduce
competition for the same
space. Co-location of fishing
in wind farm areas through
co-design and appropriate
consultation could also
help, as well as providing
fair compensation to fishers
when construction does occur.
Health and safety regulations
that match vessel type and size
In England, fishermen shared that recent health and safety
regulations for small-scale vessels were very restrictive and
didn’t consider the realities of an inshore fisherman’s working
circumstances. This, coupled with the costs of complying
with these regulations and loss of days at sea waiting for
inspections, can significantly impact smaller vessels when
days at sea are already limited by weather.
Fishermen expressed the need to be involved in the
development of health and safety policies from the outset
to ensure their feasibility. Financial support to purchase
health and safety equipment would also be useful for smaller
boats, since smaller businesses are impacted most by high
compliance costs.
Better access to grants for
small fishing businesses
Often, the online application processes for government
grants to develop and support fishers’ businesses can
be complex, or the applications require payments of
costs upfront that then need to be claimed back. This is
considerably more challenging for small-scale boats that work
single-handedly, with only one crew member, or that lack
land-based staff.
There is a need to better communicate the financial
opportunities available, provide more support to fishermen
with these applications, and simplify grant application
processes so they can be more readily accessed.
Support for and facilitation of diversification
With a warming climate and changing stocks, the ability
to diversify and adapt what they catch could not be more
necessary for inshore and small-scale fishermen. Discussions
in the workshops highlighted that fishing opportunities are
bound by licensing regulations that are too restrictive, meaning
that most small-scale fishermen are very limited when it comes
to what they can fish for. Vessel and gear modifications to
allow fishermen to exploit different stocks are also often too
expensive for small business owners.
The workshops identified the need for licence conditions to
be more adaptable and flexible, to allow fishermen to quickly
change their target species when a stock is doing well. Financial
support for these vessel modifications could also ensure that
fish resources can be exploited at sustainable levels more fairly.
Invest in training and recruitment into
fishing careers
In England, fewer young fishers entering the industry is
resulting in a rapidly ageing workforce. An increasingly
challenging financial and regulatory environment means that
fishing is no longer a viable livelihood for many. Young people
cannot go to sea until they are 18 (and require expensive
health and safety qualifications), meaning that it is difficult for
them to try out fishing.
Better availability of free or funded training, taster sessions,
or apprenticeships could support youngsters to get into the
industry. School sessions that educate people about fishing,
or the provision of a minimum guaranteed wage to make
the entry into the industry more viable, could also provide
opportunities for change.
Improved public awareness and positive
perception of the fishing industry
Inshore and small-scale fisheries contribute significantly to the
national benefit, whether through coastal employment, local
seafood supply, sustainability benefits, or cultural heritage. Today,
these contributions can go unrecognized, and there is a need for
increased public awareness and celebration of their importance.
Fish festivals play a vital role in changing perspectives, and
finding more ways to get the public to learn and understand the
realities of fishing should be central to the solution. l
• Emily Bulled (emily.bulled@association-ifca.org.uk), Communication &
Engagement Manager, Association of IFCAs.
@ Caroline Chapple chapplecartoons.co.uk
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

22 s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
VISIONS FOR A THRIVING
INSHORE FISHING INDUSTRY
IN ENGLAND
In autumn 2025, the Inshore and Small-Scale Fisheries
Consortium ran workshops in Poole (south coast of
England) and Whitby (east coast of England) (for detail, see
The road to recognition and change, page 20). Participants
were asked to describe their visions for a thriving inshore
fishing industry. The key points were drawn live by graphic
recorder Caroline Chapple, who accompanied the workshops.
Vision developed by participants on the first day of the Poole workshop.
January 2026
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 23
Vision developed by participants on the first day of the Whitby workshop.
There are many commonalities between the two vision
pieces, despite fishermen originating from different parts
of the country. The pieces now form part of the Pride in our
Seas II – England 1 national portrait exhibition, which remains
on tour in 2026. l
1. https://nicre.co.uk/media/1rzjhuvi/pride-in-the-seas-ii-englandcompressed.pdf
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

24
24 s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
BALANCING
THE ACT
Robert Clark explains how the
regional Inshore Fisheries and
Conservation Authorities (IFCAs)
work to secure sustainable
inshore fisheries in England.
Fishing boats in
the outer harbour,
Folkestone.
Tim Sheerman-
Chase, CC BY 2.0
<https://creative
commons.org/
licenses/by/2.0>,
via Wikimedia
Commons.
The inshore and small-scale fisheries sector is under
pressure from declining fleet numbers, environmental
change, competition from larger vessels, regulatory
complexity, and ecological stress on stocks and habitats.
To address these challenges, England’s Inshore Fisheries and
Conservation Authorities (IFCAs) have statutory responsibility for
managing inshore fisheries with sustainability and conservation
objectives, while balancing competing interests (commercial,
recreational, conservation). Their work is supported at the national
level by the Association of Inshore Fisheries and Conservation
Authorities (AIFCA). Recently, collaborative research and
engagement efforts such as the ISSF/Coastal Fisheries Cluster
(NICRE) have helped to surface systemic problems, identify
priorities, and build consensus across stakeholders.
The role and functions of IFCAs
The Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 (MaCAA) introduced
a new framework for managing the sustainable exploitation of
sea fisheries resources, to further the conservation objectives of
Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs) and provide greater access
to the marine environment. This Act of Parliament created the
IFCAs and is fundamental to their work.
Each of the 10 IFCAs in England covers a defined coastal
district out to 6 nautical miles. In performing their duties, IFCAs
must balance social and economic benefits of fishing, protection
and recovery of the marine environment, the needs of different
fishing sectors, and sustainable development considerations.
They must also further the conservation objectives in MCZs
and other protected areas (e.g. European Marine Sites, SSSIs
extending into marine waters) within their jurisdiction.
IFCAs create and enforce fisheries byelaws (seasonal closures,
gear restrictions, spatial closures, catch or size limits) specific to
their districts.
In co-operation with other organizations, IFCAs conduct
or commission research and survey work including habitat
mapping, stock assessments, fishery monitoring (e.g. landings,
effort, gear use), and underwater imagery, to inform the evidence
base for fisheries management. Along with local knowledge
from fishers, this evidence underpins adaptive management:
adjusting measures in response to new information, trends, or
environmental change.
A central part of IFCA work involves engaging with fishers
and other stakeholders to design and implement appropriate
and supported management measures. IFCAs operate under a
co-management ethos, seeking to include user input (especially
from small-scale fishers) in decision making. Public consultations,
workshops, stakeholder committees, and meetings help align
local knowledge with regulatory needs.
While IFCAs have considerable responsibilities, there are
several challenges, including but not limited to: funding and
capacity constraints, increasing duties, data deficiencies and stock
uncertainty, and transboundary and connectivity issues. At the
same time, IFCAs must balance conflicting stakeholder demands
all while maintaining visibility and legitimacy. IFCAs rely on local
authority contributions and DEFRA’s area-based grants and in view
of the issues outlined, delivering all tasks effectively is a challenge.
Nonetheless, academic and policy reviews find that IFCAs have
contributed significantly to more locally responsive, accountable,
and conservation-oriented management of inshore fisheries in
England.
The role of AIFCA (Association of Inshore
Fisheries and Conservation Authorities)
Each IFCA is regionally focused, and there is a need for
coordination, representation, and knowledge sharing at the
national level. That is the domain of AIFCA.
The principal objective of AIFCA is to provide representation
and support for the 10 regional IFCAs. AIFCA advocates for
IFCAs in national policy, government consultations, and funding
negotiations. The AIFCA helps coordinate national objectives,
consistency in approach, and best practice sharing across IFCAs
consistent with the IFCA vision.
In short, AIFCA plays an essential bridging role: between local
and national government, between regional IFCAs, and between
the IFCA network and external stakeholders.
The Inshore and Small-Scale Fisheries
(ISSF) work and its significance
In recent years, growing concern about the decline of smallscale
fishing led to a collaborative project that brought together
academia, IFCAs, fisheries associations, conservation NGOs,
and other stakeholders. The aim is to deepen collective
understanding of the drivers behind fleet decline, and to identify
interventions that might support sustainable fisheries livelihoods.
The IFCAs and AIFCA have been active participants in the
work of the ISSF Consortium in England. This work is packaged
under the Coastal Fisheries Cluster led by Newcastle University
and supported by NICRE. 1 The work has included national
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 25
workshops (Poole and Whitby, autumn 2024), research outputs
(policy briefs, reports), photography exhibitions (‘Pride in our
Seas’), and regional engagement events planned for 2026.
The consortium's key findings, priorities, and recommendations—
many of which are covered in this special edition—were shared
with parliamentarians, policy makers, and stakeholders at a
Parliamentary event hosted by AIFCA in March 2025.
The consortium emphasizes that securing small-scale fisheries
is not just about ecological sustainability: social, economic, and
cultural dimensions must weigh equally.
Bringing it all together
The consortium’s work helps to amplify the voices of small-scale
fishers, while the priorities identified point directly to areas
where IFCAs and AIFCA can act, for example, adjusting health
and safety regulations, streamlining regulatory burdens, targeted
support or grants for small vessels, and enhancing capacity
building. It also strengthens the rationale for co-management,
stakeholder inclusion, and adaptive regulatory frameworks
tailored to small-scale operations.
The national convening and workshop approach helps build
shared understanding and consensus across regions, which
AIFCA and IFCAs can leverage to coordinate cross-district
responses to shared challenges.
To secure inshore and small-scale fisheries in England
effectively, the institutional system works at multiple levels
(see Box). In practice, success depends on integration: IFCAs
need good science, fisher buy-in, enforcement capacity, and
1 nicre.co.uk/projects/partnership-projects/coastal-fisheries-cluster
How the system works
• IFCAs are the frontline managers, implementing
local regulation, enforcing compliance, engaging
stakeholders, and adapting to changing ecological and
social conditions.
• AIFCA acts as the national coordinator, advocate, and
capacity multiplier; it elevates local experience into
national policy space, supports consistency, and enables
economies of scale in functions otherwise out of reach
for individual IFCAs.
• Collaborative research and stakeholder engagement
initiatives such as the ISSF feed evidence, legitimacy,
and direction into both IFCA-level and national-level
decision-making. They help to identify shared priorities,
check assumptions, and mobilize stakeholder consensus.
adaptive authority. AIFCA needs effective representation and
resource leverage. The ISSF-style work must remain grounded in
fishers’ realities.
This system faces constraints: funding, data gaps, enforcement
limits, shifting marine ecosystems, but by combining local
legitimacy, national coordination, and evidence-based
engagement, there is good potential to sustain and restore a
viable inshore fisheries sector. l
• Robert Clark FMBA (robert.clark@association-ifca.org.uk), Chief Officer
Association of IFCAs.
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january 2026

26 i n s h o r e a n d s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
IN PRAISE OF SEAFOOD
FESTIVALS
A platform to celebrate sustainable fisheries and our common connection to the sea. By Sarah Coulthard.
Local commercial fisheries are often touted as the
‘life blood’ of coastal communities. They are deeply
valued by people who live, work in, or visit coastal
towns, forming an important part of coastal life and
tourist experience (see article on page 32). However,
the nature of coastal towns is changing in ways that can
sometimes obscure the contribution that an active fishery
can make to people and place. Fewer boats in harbours,
more recreational uses of the marine space, restricted
public access to busy and multi-use ports, and the influx
of second homeowners resulting in high visitor-to-resident
ratios, risk a disconnection between people and the sea.
Renewed effort is needed if fishing is to remain at the heart
of coastal living, as a flourishing and contributing sector.
Celebrating local fisheries
Aligning coastal tourism with fishing heritage and culture
maximizes the opportunities an active fishery can offer. A
compelling example is the Whitby Lobster Hatchery and
Marine Discovery Centre (see article on page 34), which
enables visitors to see and experience the town’s fishery
and its sustainability and heritage. Another vehicle that
serves to connect people with the sea, via fisheries and
the seafood they produce, is fishing and seafood festivals.
Globally, there are many examples of well-planned
festivals that are clearly connected to the local fishery
and its products, from bluefin tuna festivals in Taiwan to
celebrating the mussel in Denmark.
Last summer, the Inshore and Small-Scale Fisheries (ISSF)
consortium was active in seafood festivals throughout
England, supported by the ‘Pride in the Seas II’ national
portrait exhibition. Curated by researchers at Newcastle
University, the large, striking images of fishermen with their
boats attracted hundreds of people as part of festivals in
Whitby, North Shields, Cromer, and Hastings. Here, the
public could talk with fishermen directly and learn about
the nature of fishing these days and some of the challenges
faced.
Far more than just an income
Fishing is a cherished way of life that is passed down from
one generation to the next. But across the UK, the number
of active fishermen is less than half what it was in the 1970s,
and with the average age of a fisherman now at 44, the
future of the industry rests on finding ways to support those
still at sea while encouraging new entrants.
Fishing matters to coastal communities, and achieving
sustainable fisheries means fishing families living well,
Local Hastings fishermen discuss challenges and solutions with members of the ISSF consortium. Concerns included the lack of fish and pressure
from larger boats fishing offshore, seal depredation (eating catch and damaging nets), and health and safety rules poorly matching the reality of
small fishing businesses.
January 2026
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t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 27
Like so many others, Mark, a fisherman from Hastings, made the painful decision to sell his boat and step away from the sea. His story is the
latest exhibit to feature in Pride in the Seas II and will be familiar to countless fishermen along our coasts. Mark’s story © Caroline Chapple,
chapplecartoons.co.uk
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

28 i n s h o r e a n d s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
The Whitby Fish & Ships festival in May saw the first ever Fisherman
Olympics with tug of war and rope splicing as popular events. Whitby’s
own George Lamplough (pictured) faced off against Bally Philp from
the Scottish Creel Fishermen’s Federation in the splicing competition.
Although Bally won this round, George went on to win the overall
event. He comments, ‘My condolences to team Scotland; Bally was a
fantastic competitor … I look forward to adding to England’s trophy
collection next year’.
with secure livelihoods. Festivals bring that appreciation
and cultural value alive, and make it visible, collectively
understood, and celebrated. They connect us in ways
that aren’t always quantifiable, with a value that surely far
exceeds the economic gains from the additional tourist
trade. We need more of these events to take place around
our coast. l
• Dr Sarah Coulthard (Sarah.Coulthard@newcastle.ac.uk), Newcastle
University.
We are very grateful to Mark for consenting for his interview to
be visualized through the artwork of Caroline Chapple and to
Edward Ross, who conducted the interview in summer 2025
as part of his dissertation research at Newcastle University. The
consortium gratefully acknowledges funding from the Esmée
Fairbairn Foundation and the Association of IFCAs, enabling
the exhibition roadshow around our coastline.
Chef and author C. J. Jackson of Billingsgate
Seafood Training School ran highly popular
(and delicious) cooking demonstrations
throughout the Hastings Seafood, Wine &
Music Festival as part of her ‘Classroom on the
Coast’ initiative, accompanied by her latest
book, Great British Seafood Revival.
Further reading
Claesson, S. et al. 2005. Fishing heritage festivals, tourism,
and community development in the Gulf of Maine. In: Peden,
J.G. and Schuster, R.M. (comps., eds). Proceedings of the 2005
Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium. U.S. Forest
Service, Northeastern Research Station, pp. 420-428. doi.
org/10.2737/NE-GTR-341
Jessica Lin, Y.C. and Bestor, T.C. 2020. Embedding food in
place and rural development: Insights from the Bluefin Tuna
Cultural Festival in Donggang, Taiwan. Journal of Rural Studies
79: 373-381.
January 2026
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 29
QUAYSIDE
CONVERSATIONS
Reflections from Whitby fishermen, documented
by Sarah Coulthard, November 2025.
We sit down, crowded into the snug of a pub in
Whitby, a town on the east coast of Yorkshire that
still boasts an active fishing industry, but one that
is heavily dependent on crab and lobster. The
conversation starts about recent catches. Pictures on mobile
phones are shown around of lobsters landed, large ones, tiger
ones, green ones… then we start to talk about the realities of a
fishing life in the town.
John opens the conversation: ‘Fishing is what Whitby was
built on, but it’s been left in the past now. People try to grow
Whitby, but they forget about the fishing. People want to keep
the image of fishing…’
Chris: ‘they’d probably like to see a cobble [a traditional
small wooden fishing boat] sailing once a day with a bunch of
fishermen in oil skins all singing…. But for fishermen, it’s their
whole life’
David: ‘It’s not instilled into you—you’ve got to want to
fish, you’ve got to get up at stupid o’clock every morning,
and then do it again and again…. You’ve got to have a good
crew to do it’.
Matt: ‘That’s why I go on my own, because I get more
freedom then, less people reliant on me, and getting a good
crew is getting harder and harder…’
David: ‘I started at 12 years old. All summer I’d fish for my
father who went to sea, and I’d follow and I wanted to do it, and
the lads around me wanted to do it too, but it’s not like that any
more. You can go on an oil rig in the North Sea and earn twice
as much money now. You’ve got a minimum wage these days.
A paid share on a boat is less attractive. You used to have lads
coming through and fishing was all they wanted to do, but now
they’ve put in all these rules and regulations that make it so
hard…. You’ve got expenses, insurances, bureaucracy, landing
dues … it’s all on the shoulders of the skipper’.
Chris: ‘It’s come to the stage now where we won’t have any
fishermen in a few years’ time …’.
David: ‘It’s collapsing, and do you know why? It’s an arms
race here with crab pots and boats. Your crew see what you
could earn and want their own boats; we’re all fishing against
each other. With windfarm compensation fishermen are buying
more and more pots. But it’s plateauing now and it’s going
to go down. All the top men are selling up…. We need a pot
limitation measure here [one is under consultation with the
local NEIFCA]. Boats work thousands of pots. We used to work
the pots every day, but some boats just leave their pots soaking
for weeks at end and then lose them in rough seas. We wanted
an 800 [per boat] pot limit’.
John: ‘I work fewer pots, but if I wanted to build and grow,
there’s no space for me when others have got thousands.
It should be 800 per boat, and out to 12 miles… or you’ll
have a million pots behind the 6-mile line [the limit of IFCA
jurisdiction]. I can’t go to my traditional fishing grounds as
many fishermen have come out of trawling and moved into
potting. Out there, there’s just fleet after fleet after fleet—they’re
just killing it with too much gear. Further out, people have been
© Sarah Coulthard.
pushed off their grounds due to a new pipeline coming in. They
get compensation to move off their grounds but then come
inshore and fish on top of me. I didn’t get a grant or anything to
help. I’m just a single lad [single-handed boat], I’ve got a family
at home; this is my livelihood. There have been times when
someone’s shot a fleet of pots on top of me, and I’m going out
in weather I shouldn’t be going out in because I’ve only got a
little boat, but I’m having to fish in deeper waters. It’s scary’.
Matt: ‘I might haul one fleet of 15 pots, get 11 or 12 big
decent lobsters, but the next minute there’s another and much
bigger boat right next to me shooting the same grounds. We’re
being squeezed together’.
David: ‘The thing that would make the biggest difference to
sustaining fisheries is to restrict the EU longliner and netting
vessels. I’ve worked nets, and we used to work them like we do
pots, but there’s now 30, 50 miles of net. One of them broke
down and it was everywhere on Facebook. They’d been left for
weeks. Do you know what happens in a left net? They cause
carnage. A proper fisherman would not leave his gear. You
work and tend your gear and take it home’. l
This is just a small insight into some of the challenges faced,
many of which are reflected in the Inshore and Small-Scale
Fisheries priorities, distilled through the Whitby and Poole
workshops in 2024.
• Dr Sarah Coulthard (sarah.coulthard@ncl.ac.uk), Newcastle University.
1
All names are pseudonyms to protect the anonymity of fishermen as per
Research Ethics approval Reference 61502/2023 Newcastle University.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

30
t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
A RIDDLE WRAPPED IN A
MYSTERY INSIDE A TANGLE OF
TENTACLES
Bryce D. Stewart and Olivia
Langmead get to grips with
a bloom of octopus.
A common octopus
(Octopus vulgaris)
peers from its lair in
the English Channel
off South Devon.
© Olivia Langmead.
A
strange creature, with shadows pulsing across its
indeterminate form, sat hunched on the seabed
above eight tentacles and among sea fans and
sponges. This was clearly an octopus, but it was
much larger than the species normally found in UK waters, and
something was different about it. As the diver approached,
it lifted off the seabed to reveal the claws and antennae of a
lobster in its grip, which flapped feebly as the octopus injected
its venom and swam off in a cloud of ink, no doubt to consume
its prize in solitude.
This was the scene filmed by one of us at the Mewstone
off Plymouth last October, and it encapsulated the bloom
of octopus off the south-west UK coast in 2025, in all its
complexity. The species in the frame was the common
octopus, Octopus vulgaris, although it is not normally common
in British waters, instead preferring the warmer climes of
southern Europe, the Mediterranean, and the north coast of
Africa. But in 2025, numbers of common octopus exploded
off the south-west coast of the UK in a phenomenon not
previously seen since 1950 and only recorded twice in history
before that.
A new project, led by the Marine Biological Association in
collaboration with Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML), the
University of Plymouth, and an independent consultant and
funded by DEFRA, Plymouth City Council, and Devon County
Council, is unravelling the mystery behind why these octopus
blooms occur and the effects they are having on marine
ecosystems and fisheries.
Not surprisingly, there is a link with climate change. During
both last year and the years of the previous octopus blooms,
the seawater temperature has been unusually warm compared
to the average at the time. But much of last year and the year
before took things to new levels, with temperatures being
classified as a ‘marine heatwave’. Modelling of ocean currents
by scientists at PML has also suggested that baby octopus
arrived on our shores in the plankton after hatching in places
like the Channel Islands and the northern coast of France.
But while divers have marvelled at the sight of these strange,
beautiful, intelligent, and previously rare creatures, the reaction
of the fishing industry has been mixed. The first sign of these
octopus was the effects of them raiding fishermen’s shellfish
pots, just leaving the odd lobster claw or hollowed out crab
carapace. But fishermen are nothing if not innovative, with
some starting to target octopus directly for the lucrative
January 2026
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 31
A screen grab from
footage of a common
octopus dispatching a
lobster off Plymouth, UK.
© Olivia Langmead.
export market. However, while some fishermen made good
money for a while, catches of their traditional species such as
brown crabs, lobsters, and scallops dropped off by as much
as 50 per cent in 2025, presumably due to octopus predation.
With octopus numbers dropping off in winter as well, many
fishermen are now left with very little to catch at all.
So what does the future hold? Given the link with climate
change, and reports from both divers and fishermen of
octopus breeding, along with the recent appearance of young
octopus, it seems likely that they are now here to stay. This is
just one more example of how the ocean is rapidly changing,
but it also highlights how scientific understanding can help us
both predict and adapt to a transforming underwater world. l
© Olivia Langmead.
• Dr Bryce Stewart (bryste@mba.ac.uk), Senior Research Fellow at the MBA
and Associate Professor at the University of Plymouth.
@bd-stew.bsky.social
linkedin.com/in/bryce-stewart-9aa9bb31/
• Dr Olivia Langmead (olivia.langmead@gmail.com)
linkedin.com/in/olivia-langmead-38b54141
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

32 s p e c i a l i s s u e : s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
Inshore fishing boats on the beach at
Cromer, Norfolk on the East coast of
England. © Phoebe Lewis.
PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS
New research reveals the societal value of English crab
and lobster fisheries. By Phoebe Lewis, Ainsley Hatt,
and Sarah Coulthard.
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 33
Sustainable commercial fisheries play a vital role
in coastal life around England, yet their societal
contributions are often hard to quantify, and risk
being under-recognized in policy and management
frameworks. New research led by Newcastle University,
and funded by Natural England, has explored how the
public perceive the value of these fisheries and what those
perceptions reveal about their wider societal importance.
Exploring societal contributions
The study focused on crab and lobster fisheries in three
English towns: North Shields (Tyne and Wear), Whitby
(North Yorkshire), and Cromer (Norfolk). The work sought
to capture how residents and visitors perceive the wider
contributions of their local fishing fleets to the town and to
local life. Using stakeholder interviews and surveys of 510
members of the public (234 residents and 278 tourists)
conducted in summer 2024, the project developed a
wellbeing-based framework that looks beyond economic
indicators to include cultural identity, community cohesion,
and the ways people relate to, and interact with, their local
fishing industry.
Preliminary results suggest that public perceptions
of these fisheries are largely positive and indicate that
they are viewed as both a source of food and a defining
feature of an area's identity. For example, 99 per cent of
respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement
that the local fishing industry and infrastructure are
important to the cultural heritage and identity of the area.
Similarly, 90 per cent of those who had interacted with the
fishery (by visiting fishing sites such as harbours, watching
boats at work, or speaking with fishers) said it had a
positive impact on their day.
Beyond cultural connections, survey respondents also
perceived these fisheries to be an important component of
the local coastal economy, linking it to tourism, hospitality,
and local supply chains. Given this perceived importance,
84 per cent of residents agreed that more should be done
by the government to protect the fishing industry in their
area, and 83 per cent of all respondents said they would be
very concerned if the fishing industry no longer existed in
their area.
These results point toward a strong sense of social and
cultural attachment to fisheries and their role in attracting
visitors to an area—with many respondents commenting
that the presence of the fishery makes the area unique and
is a reason for visiting or even moving to an area. They also
suggest that fishing fleets contribute to a broader notion
of community wellbeing that may not be fully captured by
conventional economic measures.
At the same time, early analysis highlights important
knowledge gaps. While 99 per cent of all respondents
agreed that the UK should produce its own seafood and
reduce reliance on imports, many expressed uncertainty
about what species are locally landed or where they could
find them. Despite this, 91 per cent of visitors considered
locally sourced seafood an important part of their coastal
holiday. This contrast between strong public demand and
limited understanding suggests that greater visibility
and communication could help bridge the gap between
interest and access. Improved education and clearer
information about seafood provenance, sustainability,
and regional fisheries could strengthen public confidence
and enable people to make more informed choices that
support local economies.
Reflections for policy and governance
Although the research is ongoing, it raises important
questions for the implementation of the UK Fisheries Act
2020 and its national benefit objective, which commits to
ensuring that fishing delivers social and economic benefits
to the nation. How the public understand, perceive,
and experience the benefits that flow from fisheries is
fundamental to the successful delivery and receipt of those
benefits. This research also opens up important space to
consider how uneven rates of decline in the fishing fleet
across England translate into societal loss, where active
fishing boats are no longer working in harbours. Together,
these insights will be valuable for developing more socially
responsive Fisheries Management Plans.
© Phoebe Lewis.
Greater visibility and
communication could help
bridge the gap between
interest and access
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January 2026

34 s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
While sustainability has always encompassed social,
economic, and environmental factors, social aspects are
often less visible in discussions about fisheries. Bringing
public attitudes and experiences into the picture can
help make these social dimensions, such as wellbeing,
heritage, and sense of place, more tangible and useful in
decision-making.
The crab boat Impulsive unloading the day's
catch of crabs and lobsters at East Beach, Cromer.
Kolforn, CC BY-SA 4.0, <creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
What’s next?
This research forms part of a wider effort to better
understand the societal contribution of England’s inshore
fisheries. While the findings presented here are preliminary,
they point toward opportunities to integrate social
evidence into policy and to enhance dialogue between
industry, academia, and the wider public.
As work continues, the aim is not to draw fixed
conclusions but to contribute to a more nuanced
conversation—one that recognizes small-scale fisheries
as part of the living fabric of coastal communities,
and seeks to ensure that their social and cultural
contributions are considered in decisions about the future
of the sea. l
• Phoebe Lewis (P.Lewis4@newcastle.ac.uk)
• Ainsley Hatt (A.Hatt2@newcastle.ac.uk)
• Sarah Coulthard (Sarah.Coulthard@newcastle.ac.uk),
Newcastle University
PUTTING
SOMETHING
BACK
The Whitby Lobster Hatchery is strengthening
connections between fisheries and communities.
By Joe Redfern, Phoebe Lewis, and Sarah Coulthard.
The Whitby Lobster Hatchery, based in the Whitby
Marine Discovery Centre CIC on the North Yorkshire
coast, is a leading example of community-driven
marine conservation. Established by the charity North
Sea Conservation, the hatchery was created to support the
sustainability of local lobster populations and to promote
wider public understanding of the links between fisheries,
conservation, and coastal livelihoods.
Origins and purpose
North Sea Conservation was formed in 2022 with the aim of
maintaining a healthy balance in marine ecosystems across
the North Sea. The hatchery emerged as one of its first major
initiatives, in response to growing concerns about the longterm
health of inshore lobster stocks that underpin many
commercial fisheries in the region.
The project combines conservation, research, and
education at one site. It operates on the principle that
sustainability relies not only on scientific management of
marine resources, but also on strong connections between
Tiny juvenile lobsters soon to be released into the wild. © Olivia Brabbs.
And they're off! Whitby’s Lobster Hatchery released more than 20,000
juvenile lobsters back into the North Sea in 2025. © Olivia Brabbs.
January 2026
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 35
By connecting scientific institutions with a working fishery,
the hatchery acts as a bridge between local knowledge and
academic research, strengthening the evidence base for
sustainable fisheries.
Engaging the public: lobster hatchery release. © Olivia Brabbs.
fishers, researchers, and the wider community.
The importance of this initiative was highlighted as the
hatchery’s inaugural season came in the midst of the mass
mortality events in the North East of England, which began
in 2021 and saw thousands of dead crabs and other sea life
wash up on the shores north of Whitby. It was, and remains,
of great concern for local coastal communities—many fearing
the incident marked the end of the crustacean fishery along
the coast. Whilst government investigations have been
inconclusive regarding the causes of the mortality events, the
charity became a symbol of hope for the fishery’s future.
Conservation in practice
Local fishers play a central role in the hatchery’s operations.
Each year, with special dispensation from the MMO, they
donate berried hens (egg-bearing female lobsters) caught
as part of their normal fishing activity. The hatchery incubates
the eggs and rears the larvae through their most vulnerable
stages before releasing them back into local waters.
This process helps to increase juvenile survival and
strengthen natural recruitment to the local stock. Since
opening, the hatchery has successfully reared and released
tens of thousands of juvenile lobsters along the North
Yorkshire coast, contributing directly to the sustainability and
resilience of the inshore fishery.
Research and collaboration
Scientific research is an integral part of the hatchery’s work.
Partnerships with Newcastle, York, and Hull Universities have
supported student placements, dissertation projects, and
collaborative studies focused on lobster biology, welfare, and
aquaculture techniques.
Recent work has investigated stress and behaviour in
captive lobsters, using physiological indicators such as heart
rate to inform best practice for animal care and handling. The
hatchery’s facilities provide a controlled environment for such
applied research, linking academic enquiry with the practical
realities of fisheries management.
Education and public engagement
The hatchery’s position within the Whitby Marine Discovery
Centre makes it uniquely placed to engage the public
in marine science and sustainability. More than 30,000
visitors pass through the centre each year, providing a
direct opportunity to showcase the links between marine
conservation, the local fishing industry, and the wider coastal
environment.
Interactive displays and guided tours allow visitors to see the
hatchery’s operations first-hand, from larval rearing through to
the release of juvenile lobsters, and to learn how these efforts
contribute to the long-term health of the fishery.
Education programmes are central to this outreach. Over
3,000 school pupils participated in visits and workshops during
the 2024–25 academic year, learning about marine ecosystems,
sustainable fishing, and the importance of local stewardship.
The hatchery also supports citizen science projects and
community volunteering, encouraging people to take an active
role in monitoring and caring for their marine environment.
Through this work, the hatchery is helping to reconnect
people with the sea—not only as a place of recreation or
tourism, but as a living system that supports community
identity, local economies, and environmental resilience. By
highlighting the interdependence between fishers, scientists,
and the public, it demonstrates how hatcheries can act as a
vehicle for shared benefits, linking conservation outcomes with
cultural and educational value.
A model for integration
The Whitby Lobster Hatchery illustrates the potential of
integrated marine management at a local scale: where
scientific knowledge, traditional fishing practices, and public
engagement align to deliver shared environmental and social
benefits. As part of a growing network of community-led
marine projects across England, it shows how fisheries can
be understood not just as sources of food and employment,
but as pathways for learning, collaboration, and long-term
stewardship of the sea. l
• Joe Redfern (Joe@shellfish.org.uk), Whitby Lobster Hatchery.
• Phoebe Lewis (P.Lewis4@newcastle.ac.uk), Newcastle University.
• Sarah Coulthard (Sarah.Coulthard@newcastle.ac.uk), Newcastle University.
whitbylobsterhatchery.co.uk
Whitby Marine Discovery Centre fosters links with the wider coastal
environment. © Olivia Brabbs.
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

36 s pe ce uc ir ai l n g e dt iht e i ofn u: tsu mr ae l ol -f ssc ma la e l lf- is ch ae lr e i ef si s h e r i e s
PARTNERING FOR
PROTECTION
Creel fishers in Scotland are advancing safer gear for marine life.
By the Scottish Creel Fishermen’s Federation (SCFF).
Scotland’s creel (pot) fishery has earned recognition as one
of the UK’s most environmentally sustainable fisheries.
With generally low bycatch, negligible seabed impact,
and a strong tradition of community-based stewardship,
creel fishers already operate with one of the lightest footprints in
the commercial fishing sector. But no method is without impact,
and the Scottish Creel Fishermen’s Federation (SCFF) recognizes
the need to address one risk in particular: entanglement of large
marine wildlife in creel ropes.
The problem: floating rope and wildlife
entanglement
Entanglement of basking sharks (Cetorhinus maximus), minke
whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), and other wide-ranging
marine species in static fishing gear—especially where floating
rope is used—can lead to serious injury, impaired movement,
and, in some cases, death. Through the work of the Scottish
Entanglement Alliance (SEA), interviews with fishermen have
shown that where entanglement type was known, the majority
occurred in the loops of rope which connect the creels together
on the seabed.
Although incidents are relatively rare, Scotland’s west coast
creel fishery overlaps with key foraging and migration routes for
protected species, making even small-scale risks a significant
conservation and welfare concern.
Figure 1. Typical configuration of creels in Scotland. Usually, around
50–60 creels are joined together in this way. (Leaper et al. 2022).
A promising solution: negatively buoyant rope
In partnership with the Scottish Entanglement Alliance,
SCFF has participated in a series of field trials to assess the
performance of rope which lies on the seabed, thereby
reducing loops of rope that float up into the water column
that may entangle animals.
January 2026
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s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s 37
The health of our fishery
depends on the health of our
seas. If there’s something
we can do to reduce harm
to marine life, we’ll do it—
provided it’s practical.
SCFF Member,
Skye-based creel fisher.
it just became part of the routine. There wasn’t much of a
difference at all.’
From an ecological standpoint, this modification represents a
compelling win: it reduces entanglement risk without requiring
major changes to gear layout or fishing methods.
By using sinking rope in the groundline, the loops that are responsible
for the majority of entanglements are eliminated. © Seafish.
Creel vessels across Scotland tested the rope over a range
of seabed, tidal, and depth conditions. The feedback was
consistent: the rope was in most instances workable, safe, and
operationally comparable to standard (floating) rope.
A trial participant and SCFF fisher in Loch Carron said, ‘We
were surprised how well the gear handled. After a few hauls,
Incentivizing change: beyond subsidies
Despite its promise, widespread adoption of sinking rope faces
a barrier: cost. Negatively buoyant rope is more expensive than
floating rope. For small-scale operators, especially in remote
areas or island communities, switching out entire fleets of rope
represents a non-trivial investment.
Traditionally, this might be addressed through public
subsidies. However, subsidies alone can lead to short-term
compliance without long-term change, particularly if they are
withdrawn or poorly targeted. The SCFF believes that in the long
term, a more sustainable and effective approach also needs
fisheries management incentives.
‘Subsidies can help get things off the ground,' said Bally Philp,
SCFF National Coordinator, ‘but for lasting change, we need to
link better practice to better fishing opportunities’.
This could include preferential access to sensitive fishing
areas, additional gear or quota allocations, or eligibility for
low-impact certification schemes for those adopting sinking
rope. By embedding the uptake of safer gear into the reward
www.mba.ac.uk
January 2026

38 s e c u r i n g t h e f u t u r e o f s m a l l - s c a l e f i s h e r i e s
structure of fisheries management, behavioural change
becomes self-sustaining.
Evidence from other regions supports this model. In North
America and Australia, incentive-based fisheries governance
has been shown to produce higher long-term compliance and
innovation compared to simple subsidy models.
A sector-led approach
What makes this initiative stand out is that it is industry-led
and science-informed. SCFF members are not waiting for
regulation—they are trialling solutions now. By taking ownership
of the issue, the creel sector is showing that environmental
responsibility can emerge from within the fishing community,
not just from top-down regulation.
‘We want to be part of the solution. This isn’t about boxticking—it’s
about keeping our fishery strong and our seas safe
for the future’, said an SCFF member from Argyll.
But because of the real costs in time and money of changing
gear, uptake at scale won’t happen automatically.
Why not a mandate?
Mandating sinking rope use across the board is impractical.
Geographic, technical, and cultural differences mean a onesize-fits-all
approach would cause disproportionate economic
hardship and likely resistance. Enforcement would also be very
difficult. A flexible, incentive-based approach is both more
equitable and more likely to succeed.
Fisheries management incentives that reward behavioural
change through the existing management framework will help
align conservation outcomes with long-term business viability.
Crucially, this approach supports voluntary, bottom-up uptake
rather than top-down enforcement. Fishers are more likely to
innovate and invest when they see clear, durable benefits—not
just for the environment, but for their own enterprises.
We believe the creel sector can continue to lead on
sustainable fishing—by embracing innovation, working
constructively with regulators and researchers, and protecting
the marine species that share our waters.
Scotland has the opportunity to become a global leader in
best-practice shellfish fisheries. This kind of practical, evidencebased
innovation is one small but meaningful step on that
journey—we’re proud to be part of it. l
• Alistair ‘Bally’ Philp (coordinator@scff.scot) Scottish Creel Fishermen’s Federation.
scff.scot
Further reading
Calderan, S., Cisternino, B., De Noia, M., Leaper, R., MacLennan,
E. and Philp, B. 2025. Successful collaborative trials of simple
gear modifications to reduce entanglement of whales and other
megafauna in Scotland’s static pot (creel) fisheries. ICES Journal
of Marine Science, 82(6). doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsae157
MacLennan, E., Hartny-Mills, L., Read, F.L., Dolman, S.J., Philp,
A., Dearing, K.E., Jarvis, D. and Brownlow, A.C. 2021. Scottish
Entanglement Alliance (SEA)—understanding the scale and
impacts of marine animal entanglement in the Scottish creel
fishery. NatureScot Research Report 1268.
Marine Scotland 2021. Future fisheries: management strategy
- 2020 to 2030. Available at: www.gov.scot/publications/
scotlands-future-fisheries-management-strategy-2020-2030
22ND MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
POSTGRADUATE CONFERENCE
MAKING WAVES: CONNECTING EARLY
CAREERS IN MARINE SCIENCE
Hosted by Newcastle University
15–17 April 2026
We are delighted to announce that the 22nd MBA
Postgraduate Conference will be hosted at
Newcastle University. Join us as we celebrate
and showcase the outstanding work being
carried out by postgraduate and early-career marine scientists.
This year’s theme, ‘Making Waves: Connecting Early Careers
in Marine Science’, highlights the importance of visibility,
collaboration, and community within marine science.
The conference will feature:
l oral presentations from postgraduate students and earlycareer
researchers,
l poster sessions showcasing emerging research across all
areas of marine science,
l keynote talks from inspiring invited speakers, and
l networking events and social activities to build new
connections and collaborations.
All talks and presentations will be streamed online.
Whether you are presenting your work, attending talks,
or simply looking to meet fellow marine scientists, we look
forward to seeing you in Newcastle for an
engaging and inspiring conference.
Please scan the QR code for more
information and to purchase tickets. l
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y 39
THE JMBA SOUTHWARD
REVIEWS
Honouring the marine biological legacy of Eve and Alan Southward.
The Southward Reviews is a new series of invited
reviews in the Journal of the Marine Biological
Association (JMBA) named in honour of the renowned
Marine Biological Association (MBA) marine biologists
Dr Eve Southward and Professor Alan Southward. Southward
Reviews are touchstones for the marine biology community,
offering thought leadership that shapes research direction
and understanding.
Eve Southward (1930–2023) was a pioneering marine
biologist renowned for her science conducted at the MBA. An
expert in a range of marine invertebrates including the gutless
tubeworms Siboglinidae (formerly called Pogonophora),
Eve advanced understanding of chemosynthetic symbioses
in hydrothermal vent fauna. Eve described many new
species and authored over 140 scientific publications. She
helped establish long-term intertidal surveys and studied
the ecological impacts of the 1967 Torrey Canyon oil
spill, influencing global oil-spill response practices. Eve’s
dedication, enthusiasm, and skill left an enduring legacy in
marine biology at the MBA and beyond.
Alan Southward (1928–2007) was a groundbreaking
marine biologist who spent his career at the MBA.
Renowned for his work on barnacle taxonomy and intertidal
ecology, he established long-term monitoring of marine
ecosystems, linking species distribution changes to sea
temperature shifts, now foundational for climate change
studies. His research included recovery from oil spills and
zooplankton time series. Alan’s contributions profoundly
shaped marine biology, providing critical baselines for
understanding environmental impacts.
The first JMBA Southward Review was published early
this year and written by Professor Peter Holland FRS from
the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford. In
his Southward Review ‘Why sequence the genome of every
species? A view from evolutionary biology’, Professor Holland
argues that sequencing all species’ genomes is crucial for
understanding evolutionary processes, biodiversity, and
adaptation. He highlights how genomic data reveal evolutionary
relationships, identify genetic diversity, and inform conservation
strategies. Comprehensive sequencing (such as with the Darwin
Tree of Life project) enables insights into speciation, ecological
interactions, and responses to environmental change. The
review emphasizes the potential of global genome projects
to transform evolutionary biology, offering tools to address
fundamental questions and support biodiversity preservation
amid accelerating anthropogenic impacts.
The JMBA, founded in 1887, is a peer-reviewed publication
covering all aspects of marine biology. It publishes original
research and reviews, and in 2022, JMBA merged with
Marine Biodiversity Records, expanding its focus on species
records and global biodiversity data. The journal serves as a
key platform for advancing knowledge of marine organisms,
ecosystems, and their role in human wellbeing.
The Southward Reviews embody the spirit of curiosity,
rigour, and long-term vision that defined Eve and Alan
Professor Peter Holland FRS
delivers the first JMBA Southward
Review at the MBA’s laboratory in
Plymouth. © MBA.
Southward’s many contributions to marine biology. By
providing authoritative perspectives on emerging and
foundational topics, this series will ensure that their legacy
continues to inspire new generations of marine biologists.
The inaugural review by Professor Peter Holland FRS sets a
high standard for the JMBA Southward Reviews. l
Further reading
Dando P.R., et al. 2024. Obituary: Eve Caroline Southward
(née Judges) 1930–2023. Journal of the Marine Biological
Association of the United Kingdom. 104:e66. doi:10.1017/
S0025315424000018
Dando, P.R. 2008. Alan J. Southward (1928–2007). Nature, 451,
28. doi.org/10.1038/451028a
Holland, P. 2025. Why sequence the genome
of every species? A view from evolutionary
biology. Journal of the Marine Biological
Association of the United Kingdom. 105:e97.
doi:10.1017/S0025315425100556
www.darwintreeoflife.org/
www.mba.ac.uk January 2026

40
t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y
NEW EDITORIAL BOARD
In 2025, we recruited seven new members to the editorial
board. The first meeting of the expanded board in October
represented a milestone in the development of The Marine
Biologist magazine.
The purpose of the editorial board is to provide strategic
guidance and advice to the editorial team. With the talents of
experienced scientists, journalists, magazine editors, and
science communicators—most of whom are MBA members—
the magazine will be better able to represent the views and
aspirations of the membership and be held to the highest
standards for its quality of content and production values.
The process has been a welcome opportunity to get to know
MBA members and the benefits of working more closely
together will undoubtedly ripple out across the Association.
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS:
ELIANE BASTOS
PhD Researcher at the University of
Bath (UK)
Eliane’s research in Ocean Literacy has a
particular focus on exploring how
children understand their relationship
with the ocean. She is interested in
approaches that are inclusive and attend
to the complex, diverse ways humans
relate to the ocean. This informs her
contribution to the Editorial Board.
MATTHEW BUNCE FMBA
Marine affairs consultant
Matthew is a former Reuters news
correspondent whose marine
experience spans global insurance,
news reporting and editorial, global
risk and security consulting, policy
(including international development),
and fisheries.
BRYONY CASWELL
Honorary researcher at the University of
Exeter (UK)
Bryony is also an artist with a passion for
marine life. She lectured in marine
biology/palaeontology for 18 years,
researching benthic responses to human
activities and climate change.
OLIVIA ELLIOTT
Olivia is a former secondary science
teacher now gaining experience and
volunteering in creating environmental
STEM resources, nature restoration
projects, and marine ecology
research and analysis. She is seeking
a career in conservation whilst on
maternity leave.
DANIEL MARTIN
Research Professor at CEAB-CSIC
(Spain)
Dani specializes in the taxonomy and
ecology of benthic invertebrates,
particularly polychaetes (segmented
worms). He is passionate about
advancing marine biodiversity
knowledge and keen to contribute his
expertise to the objectives and success
of The Marine Biologist magazine.
DENISE ADA OKPALA FMBA
Postgraduate Teaching Fellow at
University College London
Denise has a keen interest in sustainable
development of developing
economies, especially in Africa, where
her focus is on climate change
adaptation and promoting resilience
and capacity-building in vulnerable
communities. Denise also brings diverse
perspectives and narratives to the
Editorial Board.
KATEŘINA SCHIFFNEDEROVÁ
At the University of Essex, Kateřina
investigates PCBs in harbour porpoises.
She is passionate about science
communication and sharing research
that supports marine conservation with
wider audiences.
SOPHIE STAFFORD
Natural history communications
specialist
Sophie is a passionate conservation
communicator with over 25 years’
publishing experience across
commercial and charity sectors. She was
the Editor of BBC Wildlife Magazine and
has shaped compelling stories for
clients including WWF, the Natural
History Museum, London, and the
California Academy of Science.
ANNA TURNS
Environmental journalist and
Senior Environment Editor at
The Conversation
Anna’s remit includes climate,
biodiversity, and ocean. Her most recent
BBC radio series, Secrets of the Sea,
highlights six innovative responses to
problems in the marine environment,
from offshore mussel farming to
seagrass restoration.
MIRANDA WILSON
Content editor for Science Journal for Kids
Miranda is a former scientist and high
school educator. She is currently a
content editor for Science Journal for
Kids, which aims to bring research into
classrooms around the world.
GUY BAKER
(Editor, The Marine Biologist) and
MAYA PLASS (Head of Engagement at
the MBA) sit ex officio on the
editorial board.
For further details, contact the editor:
editor@mba.ac.uk
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

t h e v o i c e o f m a r i n e b i o l o g y 41
MEET THE MEMBERS
A regular opportunity to find out more about members of our community.
My role
As Research and Development Officer, I lead research on sharks
and rays along Cameroon’s 402 km coastline. My work involves
surveying fisheries markets and landing sites for sharks and
rays. I am seeking opportunities to build my laboratory skills and
develop my capacity for techniques like eDNA to understand
human impacts and inform conservation. I also coordinate
regulatory efforts and mentor other early career researchers to
build a stronger conservation community.
My typical day
My days are dynamic. I usually start on the coast, collecting
eDNA, tissue samples, and bycatch statistics to monitor shark
and ray biodiversity landed. I also engage with local fishing
communities to understand human-wildlife conflicts, and teach
good release practices to reduce shark bycatch. Back in the
office, I analyse data using bioinformatics tools such as R, write
reports, and develop conservation strategies. As a PhD candidate,
I also dedicate time to my own research. A key part of my role
involves mentoring rising researchers and collaborating with
policymakers and international colleagues, to advance evidencebased
conservation.
Name: Wongibe Poupezo Dieudonne
MBA Membership category: Postgraduate Member
Position: PhD candidate in Wildlife Resource
Management. Voluntary Research and
Development Officer at the Center for Tropical
Research Cameroon (CTR-Cam)
Institution: University of Bamenda, Cameroon
Marine biology journey highlight
A key highlight has been leading pioneering research on sharks
and rays along Cameroon’s coast, using innovative methods like
eDNA, toxicology, and genetic connectivity, to drive conservation
efforts for these vulnerable and understudied species.
www.linkedin.com/in/wongibe-dieudonne-3a6876196/
My role
I investigate the ecology and biology of an endemic black coral
species found in temperate mesophotic ecosystems of New
Zealand’s South Island. As co-founder of Seammetry, I aim to
document and analyse dynamic changes in marine habitats
through 3D technologies.
My typical day
As a final-year PhD student, most of my time is spent writing up
data chapters, but I have to say my fieldwork in Fiordland was
absolutely incredible! The combination of the fiords’ scenery
and hands-on research with shallow-dwelling mesophotic
corals made for an unforgettable field experience.
Marine biology career highlight
Before starting this PhD, I gained valuable research experience
in both academic and professional settings across the
UK, Italy, and the Caribbean. I also became a professional
SCUBA diver, which has been invaluable for conducting
underwater fieldwork.
www.linkedin.com/in/miriam-pierotti-327663a3/?locale=en_US
seammetry.org
Name: Miriam Pierotti
MBA Membership category: Postgraduate Member
Position: PhD candidate and co-founder of
Seammetry.org
Institution: Te Herenga Waka, Victoria University of
Wellington (New Zealand)
www.mba.ac.uk January 2026

42
r e v i e w s
REVIEWS
MBA members review the latest marine biology
books, films, and podcasts.
MBA
member
discount
with this
publisher
BLUE PLANET: RECONTACT
Authors: Jeff Barber and 11 others
ISBN: 978-1649880026-0 and 978-
164988027-7
Format: hardcovers or pdf: Player’s
Guide 328 pages, Moderator’s Guide
361 pages, QuickStart 82 pages.
Published by: Gallant Knight Games/
Biohazard Games
Blue Planet Recontact is a tabletop
roleplaying game (RPG) dealing with themes of
non-human sentience, marine conservation, anti-colonialism, and
resistance to corporate exploitation. As well as the books, to play you’ll
need to buy several 10-sided dice or download a dice-rolling app.
The game showcases Poseidon—an ocean planet with tiny
landmasses—and strives to be hard science fiction, even incorporating
a chapter in the Moderator’s Guide entitled Oceanography for
Gamers. This is not the idealized paradise of the Avatar movies.
Instead, superstorms, dangerous predators, and even fungusanalogues
which biodegrade plastics all complicate the characters’
lives. When reading, if you find yourself thinking ‘That’s not realistic’, it
is generally a feature, not a bug. For example, Poseidon’s biochemistry
is inexplicably compatible with Earth’s—that’s one of several
scientific mysteries to be solved in-game. The biggest handwave is
undoubtedly the hopepunk backstory to justify the inclusion of five
species of genetically engineered cetaceans and an ‘aquaform’ human
amongst the player character options. You can play a sperm whale!
This game is all about the setting, not oodles of complicated rules.
For instance, the Player’s Guide has 63 pages about cetacean biology,
history, and culture, yet only 25 pages detailing game mechanics. The
skills are deliberately broad in scope, narrowing to a specialism, such
as Science Marine Biology Fieldwork. Players are encouraged to
negotiate a wide application, such as your Marine Biology skill also
meaning you can swim or deal with bureaucracy.
The Moderator’s Guide is awash with plot hooks, secrets, and
skullduggery in which to entangle characters, plus a guide to 12
different styles of game. Fancy a storyline about scientific fieldwork?
Emergency Response Teams? A misfit ‘found family’ running a charter
company?
Lovely though the full-colour maps are, some printer-friendly blackand-white
versions would have been nice, mainly because the choice
of green symbols on the mostly blue maps makes those features very
hard to see (they’re clearer in the digital editions). Also, bizarrely,
despite the water-world setting, there is no map of the major ocean
currents.
Not sure? Try the ‘pay what you want’ QuickStart pdf. It explains the
premise, summarizes the rules (pp. 38–52), and includes an adventure
(which only the moderator should read) with four ready-made
characters.
Finally, to quote the Player’s Guide: ‘We offer hope that even
something as inconsequential as a roleplaying game might inspire
others to become better stewards of the oceans and to act with
greater compassion to their fellow humans.’
• Amanda Kear Mem.MBA
NO ISLAND TOO FAR: SEARCHING
FOR SEABIRDS ON REMOTE
SPECKS OF LAND
Author: Michael Brooke
ISBN: 9781784275921
Format: Hardback, 280 pages
Published by: Pelagic Publishing
was looking forward to absorbing seabird
I stories but I found the opening chapters of No
Island Too Far lacking in the richness I hoped for.
The narrative seemed over-indulgently dense,
and it struck me that it may be a good thing for
the reader to hop over some chapters rather
than power through, much like some of the
author’s island visitations themselves.
As it progressed, however, the book began to
fluently knit together seabird science, personal
tribulations, and the vagaries of travel to remote
destinations in the days when it was much more
difficult to achieve. As a seabird specialist and
fan of weird, wonderful, and far-flung places, I
was hopeful for this to continue.
My disappointment was thusly significant
as I arrived at page 162, to find the following
sentence in the chapter covering the Falkland
Islands: ‘As in villages in distant parts of
Scotland, Stanley’s wind has […] blown away
any slender pretty girls.’ I had to read this
multiple times to determine if I had missed
some subtle nuance or alternative meaning,
failing to believe that any author or publisher
would be comfortable printing this kind of lazy,
thoughtless wording about women: hardly
refreshing in a world where inclusive research
and work environments are vital to conservation.
I will leave any reader who wishes to read this to
judge for themselves, but I cannot recommend
this book to MBA members or anyone else.
• Richard Hall Mem.MBA
January 2026
www.mba.ac.uk

r e v i e w s 43
MBA
member
discount
with this
publisher
REEFS OF TIME: WHAT
FOSSILS REVEAL ABOUT
CORAL SURVIVAL
Author: Lisa S. Gardiner
ISBN: 9780691247335
Format: Hardback, 288 pages
Published by: Princeton University Press
leaching’, ‘stressed’, ‘tipping point’.
‘BWe hear grim news about coral
reefs weekly now. But what’s the real
story behind our ocean’s crucial limestone cities? Reefs of Time
interweaves palaeoecology, geology, marine biology, and
human history to explore what fossils can tell us about today’s
reefs and their future.
Early chapters introduce the fundamentals of coral
production and its known geologic history, starting in
rocks three billion years old from central Canada. Gardiner
then examines historic influences on reef growth, survival
‘shutdowns’, and decline; from turtles and macroalgae, to ice
ages, sea levels, and acidification.
There are limitations to learning from fossils—well-protected
reefs don’t recover like they used to and reef health today isn’t
pretty—but the book doesn’t wallow in gloom. Gardiner’s tone
is pragmatic. She notes that corals are ‘both amazingly resilient
and terribly vulnerable’. The book culminates with present-day
restoration efforts: audio technology being used to lure coral
larvae to artificial reefs; first-responders re-attaching coral after
storms; novel reef design and management; and the search to
find and protect refugia used by coral larvae to wait out a crisis.
Gardiner’s writing style is engaging and warm, and she
contextualizes scientific information nicely within anecdotes.
The writing was slightly repetitious in places and could have
been more concise early on, where fieldwork descriptions
and extended explanations somewhat confuse the narrative.
However, Gardiner successfully makes a complex topic
accessible to a wide audience and produces an enjoyable read.
• Emma Seal
SHRIMP AND PRAWN
WELFARE IN THE WILD-
CAUGHT FISHING INDUSTRY
Author: Ren Ryba, Shannon M Davis,
Tse Yip Fai, Peter Singer
ISBN: 9781032907222
Format: Paperback, 133 pages
Published by: CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group
There is much literature exploring
whether crustaceans are conscious and can suffer from
pain. In the UK, the Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022
considers as sentient any decapod crustacean, but does not
include other crustacea.
Ryba et al. evaluate the size of the global capture
fisheries and aquaculture for prawns and shrimps. This is
the context for a discussion concerning the welfare of the
animals caught or raised in farms. A chapter evaluates the
evidence for and against the notion that prawns and shrimps
are conscious and can suffer pain. This has been actively
researched and there are two main views for and against
the idea of consciousness in crustaceans. Most animals of all
degrees of complexity have mechanisms that allow them to
detect noxious or dangerous stimuli, but this is not evidence
for consciousness. Even in humans, consciousness is not yet
fully understood, so it seems a stretch to conclude that much
simpler animals could be sentient.
Given this controversy, the author’s presentation is fair,
leaning towards prawns and shrimps having sentience.
Really, there is no need to decide whether an animal is
conscious to be concerned about its conservation. All
organisms are marvels of evolution, and destroying them
needlessly can never be moral. There must be a balance
where the needs of people for food and income are set
against the welfare of the animals being exploited. The book
explores this dilemma.
• Prof Paul Hart FMBA
PARROTFISH OF THE GREAT
BARRIER REEF: RAINBOWS
UNDER THE SEA
Author: Michelle Brayshaw
ISBN: 9781032964287
Format: Hardback, 243 pages
Published by: CRC Press (Routledge, Taylor
& Francis Group)
Michelle Brayshaw, artist and visual arts
educator, presents an exceptional field
guide to the parrotfish species living within
the Great Barrier Reef. An artist first and
now studying a hybrid Master of Research
in Science and Visual Art, Brayshaw writes
with the scrupulous attention to detail of a
researcher and the presentation and reflections of an artist.
The book begins with a brief introduction to parrotfish and
their role on the reef. It then presents 23 chapters, each a
detailed record of the appearance, behaviour, and habitats
of a specific species of parrotfish. Each species
entry includes details on the terminal, initial, and
juvenile stages of the species, with a particular focus
on their colour variations—both as a response to
changing light effects underwater and the rapid
colour changes that many parrotfish exhibit on a
cellular level. These chapters are accentuated with
extensive photography—all taken by Brayshaw
herself. Many entries also include some of
Brayshaw's art, shedding a poetic light onto each of
these beautiful fish.
What makes this book special is Brayshaw's
personality and experience, which runs through it.
The narrative does not read like many traditional
field guides. Instead, you feel the author's
connection to the species that inhabit the waters
around her hometown, and you feel as if you are
reading someone's field notebook. The attention
to detail is astounding, and this book is gold dust for anyone
who wants to better identify parrotfish species.
• Vicky Pollington, Associate Member
www.mba.ac.uk January 2026

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