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Semi


PRESENTED BY<br />

PUBLISHER


January, 1926<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Si amping - Heaf Treating<br />

|""" ' ' ' ' '" ' I"111" ' m i IH minim" ' ini niiiwmifmii! i i mn ,• , • mi « IN „ .,. mm «,g<br />

Yearly Index—January- to December, 1925 (inclusive)<br />

A<br />

Accidents in Materia] Handling, Causes of—By David S. Beyer. . June 209<br />

Accuracy in Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing, Remarkable '. . . . May 155<br />

Acme F<strong>org</strong>ing Machine, New Sept. 337<br />

Adaptability of Electric Arc Welding—By A. G. Bissell Nov. 409<br />

Aims of American Refractories Institute Tune 219<br />

Alloy Steel Reduces Die Block Costs—By Earl C. Abbe Dec. 432<br />

Alloy Steel Rivet Sets Tune 221<br />

Alloys, Properties of High Resistance—By M. A. Hunter and<br />

A. .Tones Feb. 65<br />

Al-Cu-Fe-Mg Alloy, Heat Treatment of Cast—By Samuel Daniels.Oct. 340<br />

All-Steel Houses in Britain May 187<br />

Aluminum in Non-Ferrous Materials, Detection of Oct! 380<br />

A. D. F. I. Elects President Feb 40<br />

A. E. S. C. Elects Officers Tan. 13<br />

A. G. A. Meets at Atlantic City June 218<br />

American Iron and Steel Instiute Holds 27th Annual Meeting at<br />

New York June 221<br />

American Iron and Steel Institute Program Oct. 365<br />

American Refractories Institute Program April 140<br />

A. S. M. E. Urges Congressional Appropriation for X-Ray Apparatus<br />

'. Mar. 83<br />

A. S. S. T. Prepares for Annual Convention Tuly 268<br />

A. S. S. T. Ready for Annual Convention Sept. 301<br />

A. S. S. T. Sectional Meeting Feb. 69<br />

A. S. S. T. Sectional Meeting Dec. 433<br />

A. S. T. M. Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting May 171<br />

Analysis of Fuel Gas, The Mar. 105<br />

Annealing from Hauck Venturi Oil Burners Sept. 321<br />

Annealing Iron and Steel Electrically—By Harold Fulwider. . . . Nov. 391<br />

Annealing Small Castings with Sawdust May 185<br />

, Appraisal for Cost Purposes, Using an—By A,. W. Hollar Feb. 38<br />

Arc-W


4A F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- tfeai Treating<br />

January, 1926<br />

Heat Treatment of Carbon Steel Die Blocks—By John Oben-<br />

R<br />

406<br />

berger £ov-<br />

Rail Joint Tests M«- 80<br />

346<br />

Heat Treatment of Cast Al-Cu-Fe-Mg Alloy—By Samuel Daniels.Oct.<br />

Railroad Master Blacksmiths' Convention Aug. 289<br />

238<br />

Heat Treatment of High Speed Steel Dies—By C. B. Swander.. July<br />

Rail Steel Reinforcing Bars M»y 154<br />

18(1<br />

Heavy Work, Modern F<strong>org</strong>e Plant for May<br />

Recent Patents Mnr- 106<br />

4(H<br />

High-Frequency Induction Furnace—By Donald F. Campbell... Nov.<br />

Recommended Practices July 235<br />

328<br />

HydroI'neumatM Forming Press Sept.<br />

Recuperation in Carbonizing Steel—By Porter W. Hay Nov. 403<br />

436<br />

I<br />

Recuperator, The Development of the—By E. R. Posnack Mar. 81<br />

Importance of Proper Cleaning Pe£- July 70 Reduction in Varieties of Sheet Metal Ware May 185<br />

Improved Furnace for Vitreous Enameling Feb. May 84 Refractories Institute Meets October 29th Oct, 360<br />

Improvements m Heat Treating Bulletin Kciuipment—By Arthur L. Greene. • vDec. 12(1<br />

Mar.<br />

Refractories Institute, Plans for Organization of the American.. Mar. 107<br />

Increased Use of Gas in y. 1924 Annealing—By Harold Fulwider .... April Nov. 401 Remarkable Accuracy in Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing May 155<br />

Laps—Their Production<br />

Induction Furnace, High-Frequency—By 'Review of 1924—By Donald E. F. H. Campbell... McClelland-Mar. 336<br />

Nov.<br />

Removal of Scale During Rolling, The—By Frank L. Estep. ... Dec. 425<br />

Laps—Their Production<br />

Industrial Engineering, Cour->e in L - : - • • bePt- • \ m* 22 6 Reports on Steel for Cutting Tools Aug. 269<br />

Large F<strong>org</strong>ings, Some Common<br />

Inspecting and Testing Automobile and Prevention—By Defects<br />

Axles—By Leslie'-Aitchison^ K. L. Rolf. ! Mar. 186 Research Committee Receives Reports Dec. 435<br />

per<br />

Install Induction Furnace, and to Prevention—By Leslie^ZAkchison-r . April 424 Research on Sponge Iron Progressing Feb. 62<br />

Large Order for Drop Hammers<br />

Instrument Transformer<br />

By J. Flecher */,•-•' HarT- '.'..April • 391 Research Work Is Improving Cars, How Oct. 380<br />

Large Plate Frame Billet Shear „^,. . .<br />

Iron and Steel Electrical!<br />

r . n jCine ^.^April 87 Resistance Alloys, Properties of High—By M. A.- Hunter and<br />

Latrobe Electric Steel Plant, Enlargement of '. ^,Dec. 7H<br />

Iron and Steel Literature,<br />

A. Jones Feb. 65<br />

Lebanon Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Shop Burned "•'•'• • •••;.. May 114 Retarding Research June 193<br />

Machine Lectures Designed at Carnegie to Salvage Tech, Interesting Old Wire . .'. * Z.. . : * . Aug. . ^.rMay 205 283 Retrospect in Research. A May 165<br />

Machinery Lecture on Sales Heat Building, Insulation, Great Prepares -.-.'.-.-. ::'.'.' ....*. Nov. .Dec. 135 435 Revelations in Deep Etching, Some—By J. Fletcher Harper. ... Mar. 103<br />

Lining Manganese Furnace Steel, Bungs—By Bibliography L. of—By E. Crease E. H. McClelra*0d. '.' . \. . . *#*F«b. . v. 135 . D,ec. 49 Review of Coining-Press Developments—By A. R. Kelso May 173<br />

List Manual of Exhibitors Contactor, at New the Public Auditorium *.-.-.-.' '. .'.-;.... % . .-. 0< t. .Sept. 424 352 Review of 1924 Iron and Steel Literature—By E. H. McClelland. Mar. 87<br />

Literature, Manufacture Review of Nuts, of 1924 Die Performance Iron and Steel—By in—By Arthur E. H..Mc£lellahcu L. Greene,Tuly Mar. 241 18S Review of Pressed Metal Developments Aug. 282<br />

M Manufacture I : - of Steel, Direct Process for—By Henning ;Flodiru . Qfit, 186 371 Rockwell Hardness Tester, New Aug. 284<br />

Material, Economical Handling of—By E. Tonkin. ,-.-::.... .. j,Jfcn. 411 24 Rolling, Removal of Scale During—By Frank L. Estep Dec. 425<br />

Material Handling, Causes of Accidents in—By David* S. Beyer .June 437 209 Rolls Become Rough, Why Hard Chilled—By Harold Harris. . .July 275<br />

Materials Handling by Modern Methods •, . '.'Dec. 431 310 Roll Type of Board Hammer, Four Sept. 329<br />

Material Handling in Upset F<strong>org</strong>e Plant—By D. L. Mathias. . ."May 87 146 Romance of Steel, The—By W. R. Klinkicht Jan. 8<br />

Material and Processes, Defective—By Harry Brearley Oct. 375 Rustless Steel Introduced in Sheffield, A New May 184<br />

Material and Processes, Defective—By Harry Brearley Nov, 394 S<br />

Measure Loads on Stadium During Game Jan. 7 Salesmanship Mar. 77<br />

Measuring Gases in Metals Dec. 435 Samples for Chemical Analysis, Preparation of Dec. 440<br />

Metal Balls, Fabricating Seamless Hollow—By D. L. Mathias. . April 118 Scale During Rolling, Removal of—By Frank L. Estep Dec. 425<br />

Metallography of Steel, Heat Treatment and—By H. C. Knerr..All Issues Seamless Hollow Metal Balls, Fabricating—By D. L. Mathias. . April 118<br />

Metallurgy and Allied Subjects, Books on Nov. 412 Selection of Fuel, Factors Affecting the Oct. 366<br />

Metallurgy and Allied Subjects, Books on Dec. 442 Selection of Fuel Oil Storage Facilities—By R. Kraus July 250<br />

Metals by Direct Stress, Fatigue of—By Paul L. Irwin Aug. 277 Shearing Damages Thick Plates Mar. 106<br />

Metal Stamping and Some of Its Forms—By H. Jay Feb. 46 Sheet Steel Executives, Annual Meeting of May 187<br />

Metal Stamping and Some of Its Forms—By H. Jay Mar. 90 Ship F<strong>org</strong>ings July 240<br />

Metal Statistic* for 1925 May 165 Silicon Steel Engineering Foundation June 218<br />

Method of Casting Soft Center Ingots June 203 Simplifications of Sheet Steel April 117<br />

Methods for Cooling Quenching Oil—By Kenneth B. Millett. . . . July 232 Skilled Mechanic, The July 225<br />

M-.croscopic Examination of Sand June 219 Small Work, Stamping Plant Designed for Jan. 16<br />

Modern F<strong>org</strong>e Plant for Heavy Work May 180 Smoke Detector, Recording Sept. 336<br />

Modern Heat Treating Department, A—By E. L. Wood Sept. 290 Soaking Pit, The Electrically Heated—By T. F. Baily April 121<br />

N<br />

Splitting on a Pressed Steel Draw, To Reduce Nov. 390<br />

National Pressed Metal Society Formed May 153 Stamping Plant Designed for Small Work Jan. 16<br />

New Electrode Control April 120 Stamping Plant Starts Operations Feb. 48<br />

Nickel Deposits on Alloy Steel F<strong>org</strong>ings—By Stanley A. Rich­<br />

Stamping and Some of Its Forms, Metal—By H. Jay Feb. 46<br />

ardson Nov. 407<br />

Nickel in High-Speed Tool Steel Leslie Aitchison. Oct. . Mar. 374 78<br />

Stamping and Some of Its Forms, Metal—By H. Jay Mar. 90<br />

Niles-Bement-Pond Co., New Officers of Leslie Aitchison. . Mar. April 83 114<br />

Standardization of Drawings and Practices July 234<br />

Notes on Duralumin F<strong>org</strong>ing, Some—By H. A. Brearley Whiteley Oct. July 260 375<br />

Standards, Adds More Nov. 393<br />

Nuts, Die Performance in Manufacture of—By Arthur Brearley L. Greene.July Nov. 241 394<br />

Standards for Shafting and Keys Sept. 292<br />

O<br />

Leslie Aitchison. . Mar. 78<br />

Standard Specifications July 234<br />

Oil from Oil-Field Sands, More Leslie Aitchison .. Sept. April 300 114<br />

Steel at Elevated Temperatures, Tests on—By T. McLean Jasper.July 236<br />

Steel Automobile Bodies, Strong, Light, Cheap Mar. 102<br />

Oil Storage Facilities, Selection of Fuel—By R. Kraus July 250<br />

Old Company Establishes New Department Nov. 411 438<br />

Steel Dies, Heat Treatment of High Speed—By C. B. Swander. .July 238<br />

Steel, Direct Process for Manufacture of—By Henning Flodin..Oct. 371<br />

On to Cleveland Sept. 289 40 Steel Electrically, Heat Treating—By E. F. Collins Feb. 41<br />

Open Hearth Committee May 18C Steel, Factors Affecting the Hardness of—By C. W. Holmes. ... Sept. 333<br />

Q Quenching Prospects Protection<br />

Oxvgen<br />

Oxygen Personals Portable Production Proper Physical, Plans Power Practical President Pressed Prevention, Processes, Processes. Production Properties Pickling Pressed Prevention, Millett The—By A. L. for Heat Presses—Their Lance<br />

in<br />

Jones Steel Walker Metal of Hint Acetylene Chemical Organization of for Defective<br />

Cutting,<br />

Defective of Media of Oil. of and Laps—Their Iron Treatment Mesta Draw, Thermo-Couples Automobile Deep for High Meredith 1925 on Society Technical Society Prevention, Some and for Open-Hearth, Holding<br />

Use<br />

and Drawn Generator, To Machine Material Resistance Material Heat Steel Use of Methods Important Formed,<br />

of<br />

Reduce F. Metallurgical Production Society "The Front<br />

High<br />

Locked in Cylinders, King Treating Laps—Their—By<br />

and—By Company, and—By in Industry—By Improved—By American Splitting New Alloys—By<br />

Purity—By<br />

Axles—By for National Needed—By in Electrically-Heated Dies—By P Hardening and—By<br />

Cooling—By The—By Laboratories, Harry<br />

New on Refractories R. a M.<br />

J.<br />

E. Harold D. L T. L. Carbon<br />

J.<br />

W. V. A. C. L.<br />

Crowe<br />

Rolf Kenneth J. Crane Hunter Listing. Fetherston. D. Salt Mathias. Institute". Guyer...Dec. Steel.... Kelly..Nov.<br />

and<br />

Baths, B. and . Dec. Feb.<br />

Jan.<br />

G.<br />

. All Nov. April July Sept. May June Jan. Nov. June Mar. .Jan. .Oct. Issues 232 293 427 213 251 411 17 390 137 201 145 153 212 406 107 14 380 T Y Steel, Steel Steel, Steel Studies Super-Steel Takes Technical Steel Taper Temperature Temperatures, Tempering Tentative Testing Tests Thermocouples Time Timken Tin Tr^e Trade Uniform Upset Use Using Value Welding What Wire With Yes, Tool \\ Westinghouse Worlds elding ardson Can H. tion of L. Steel Parts, Problems F<strong>org</strong>ings, Treaters Rope, on Heat Sampling—By The the F<strong>org</strong>e an Fuel Roller Sheets of S°ler Publications Over High Automobile Bearing, Nickel Walker in Schmid Greatest Draw Steel of—By Making, Reading, Appraisal Society Program Society Can Romance Equipment with the Treatment Products Shall Equipment Non-Destructive Plant, Gear Tests, Purity Bearings, •*• Tests for to at Spring Success, in F<strong>org</strong>ing Be Ring Plating Nickel in a Improved Erect Meredith Elevated Needed, Electric Industry the May Welding Plant Exhibition The Advertised—By Material Annual Hot-Plate for Electrically-Heated Axles, on Makes of—By Oxygen D. Pressure, Company Drop and Sectional Manufacturers Deposits Steel To for Industry, Take Cost Big Convention W. Pressed Temperatures—By Metallography Inspection Locomotive F. Reduce Use!... Heat Qualities Convention F<strong>org</strong>ing Handling W. in Office at Test Purposes—By Brunton Up King Cutting—By Elevated—By Providing Organized R. Meetings on Arc—By Treating—By for Metal—By Variety Building Lynn W Klinkicht of U V Alloy—By . Industry, and—By in—By Salt of—By Ellis .. Reginald of A. Baths, J. T. D. Some—By W. R. Stanley J. D. McLean L. H. L. Crowe L. Hollar. M. Trautschold The Mathias'.'.'.'. C. Mathias. ..'. Rolf Gurney A. Knerr.. .'.'.'.'.'. Jasper.July Protec­ and Martin . Rich­ ' '.'.' . G ' . •-«> .Nov! .Dec. Oct. AI1 Aug. Nov. April oc( Nov. . Oct All May July Sept. July a«L A Jan. Dec Sept j)ec Jan. Feb juiv June Jan 'oct T»n May .Jan. .June t. . Is8ue8 Isues j, Issues 9S? , ' ', 407 179 276 135<br />

236 438 404 217 226 271 390 236 309 441 339 430 in S49 355 354 2fl<br />

146 ' 137 373 14 204 Feb. ^78 345 45 «^2 2 8


^ f 1111 • 11111111111 11111111 • 1111 111 • 1111 • 1111111 • 1111111111 • I • 1111111111 • 1 11111 1 111M11 • 1111 • • I • 111 1111 • 11111 • I • • 111111 f •<br />

E =<br />

| R>i$ng-Si,amping-flcw ir^^ |<br />

I Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., JANUARY, 1925 No. 1 =<br />

P r o s p e c t s f o r 1 9 2 5<br />

T H E time has again rolled around to review business condi­<br />

tions for the past year, and to survey the prospects for the<br />

coming year. While it is usual to write favorably of the busi­<br />

ness outlook at this time, the prospects appear brighter for 1925<br />

than at the beginning of any year since the war.<br />

The uncertainty as to the results of the election was a factor<br />

in holding back business during the past year, but the assurance<br />

given at the election that the majority of the American people are<br />

behind the President for economy and common sense is bound to<br />

influence industry favorably.<br />

The steel industry, which is usually considered as the barome­<br />

ter of business conditions, promises great activity in 1925. The<br />

atmosphere is quite different from that of the past year, and with<br />

the elimination of factors that were working against prosperity<br />

both at home and abroad last year, the outlook is promising indeed.<br />

rrillllllllllllMIUIIIIIIMIIIII I IIIIIIII I llllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllf llllllllllllllllllEIIJJllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllIhT<br />

1


f<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfcunping- Heaf Treating<br />

January, 1925<br />

S o m e Steel P r o b l e m s in t h e D r o p F o r g i n g<br />

Industry*<br />

Close Co-operation and Thorough Understanding Between Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>er and Steel Producer Necessary to Meet Exist­<br />

ing Demands of Consumer of Drop F<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

By MARTIN H. SCHMIDf<br />

IN this discussion 1 will make no attempt to describe to steel for f<strong>org</strong>ings. and in such cases where the<br />

how the steel manufacturer should make his f<strong>org</strong>­ product is purchased in the heat treated condition is<br />

ing steel; neither will I attempt to tell the manu­ also accompanied by requirements as to physical charfacturer<br />

of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings how he should perform acteristics, or at least by hardness limits — usually<br />

various operations about which he knows so much Brinell, Rockwell or Shore. When f<strong>org</strong>ings are speci­<br />

more than I. My objective is the consideration of fied according to chemical analysis alone it is reason­<br />

certain conditions which are of mutual interest, and able to assume that your customer has selected such<br />

a better understanding of which will avoid controversy chemistry range as will give, with satisfactory heat<br />

and promote harmony between these great branches treatment, physical properties sufficiently high to<br />

of industry.<br />

meet stresses determined for the part or parts in ques­<br />

During the past 10 or 15 years the progress in tion. In such instances where f<strong>org</strong>ings are sold on<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ing has been very rapid. The consumers of physical properties alone the manufacturer of f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

your products, particularly the automotive manufac­ is confronted with the problem of selection of an<br />

turers, have made increasingly difficult demands which analysis which will give the desired results in the fin­<br />

have been met through your improvements in methods ished product at the lowest piece cost. He must con­<br />

of fabrication and by your exacting demands from the sider the general characteristics of the material and<br />

steel manufacturer. Fifteen years ago the steel manu­ his decision is influenced by uniformity of quality,<br />

facturer met all requirements by furnishing products tendency toward inherent defects (both surface and<br />

limited to a few standard analyses within liberal lim­ sub-surface), shearing quality, f<strong>org</strong>eability, scalage,<br />

its, and free from pipe and seams. Now he is called response to heat treatment, machinability, etc. The<br />

upon to meet restricted chemistry ranges, not only steel manufacturer should be able to offer sound sug­<br />

freedom from pipe and seams but also segregation gestions for guidance on these points.<br />

and the most minute external and internal imperfections.<br />

Size restrictions, formerly considered impossible,<br />

are now religiously adhered to. There are further<br />

demands—the McOuaid-Ehn test, porosity and<br />

fibre tests, microscopic examination, and looming on<br />

the horizon are magnetic analysis and X-ray-<br />

The closest co-operation and most thorough mutual<br />

understanding will better enable us to satisfactorily<br />

cope with your problems and our problems. The<br />

steel manufacturer must exercise most rigid quality<br />

control on his shipments of material for high grade<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings. Quality, before being controlled, must first<br />

be defined. Rigid inspection means but little if misdirected.<br />

The steel maker must, by most intimate<br />

contact with his customer, ascertain all details connected<br />

with the requirements of material he is to furnish.<br />

Much may be accomplished by a more comprehensive<br />

understanding of details before filling orders.<br />

Likewise, it is necessary for the manufacturer of f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

to study in an exhaustive manner the precise requirements<br />

of his trade. It is essential that inspection<br />

be based upon practical knowledge of the application<br />

of material in the customer's plant and that material<br />

satisfactory for the purpose for which intended<br />

not be needlessly rejected on minor technicalities.<br />

Such is economic extravagance and waste.<br />

Chemical Composition.<br />

The primary consideration in ordering steels for<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings is chemical range. In the majority of cases<br />

this constitutes part of the specifications pertaining<br />

Formerly there were but few analysis types to consider<br />

in meeting a physical specification, but now there<br />

are many types of steel, any of which can readily meet<br />

imposed physical requirements. Production and manufacturing<br />

problems are becoming more and more a<br />

governing factor in the selection of analysis.<br />

If specifications can be standardized to permit overlapping<br />

ranges in carbon of one type of steel for various<br />

parts it will work to the advantage of both buyer<br />

and seller. On f<strong>org</strong>ings for such parts as spindles,<br />

arms, connecting rods, etc., .25 to .30 carbon may be<br />

most satisfactory; for crankshafts, front axles, etc., .27<br />

to .32 carbon preferable; and on shafts .32 to .37 carbon.<br />

As long as reasonable quantities of material are<br />

ordered in all three classifications the steel maker is<br />

enabled to make selective application of heats to best<br />

suit each and every requirement. In alloy steels this<br />

selection should not be based on carbon content alone,<br />

but clue consideration should also be given the various<br />

alloying elements. It is evident that the making of<br />

such specifications are but seldom in the hands of the<br />

manufacturers of f<strong>org</strong>ings—they should come from the<br />

automotive and other manufacturers whom you supply<br />

with f<strong>org</strong>ings. But much may be accomplished if<br />

both producers of f<strong>org</strong>ings and of steel can influence<br />

their customers to adopt this method. The result will<br />

be a more uniform and superior finished product and<br />

less contention in the making.<br />

While the scope of this article will not permit detailed<br />

consideration of the various types of allow steels<br />

* Paper presented at a meeting of the American Drop there F<strong>org</strong>are<br />

two points on which I would like to briefly<br />

ing Institute held at Pittsburgh. October 2 and 3. 1924. dwell—the five point range in carbon and the general<br />

•^Metallurgical Engineer. United Alloy Steel Company. effect of several alloying elements.


January, 1925<br />

In many cases the five point range in carbon is<br />

specified for the purpose of obtaining uniform results<br />

on different furnace heats furnished by the steel manufacturer,<br />

without the necessity of keeping these heats<br />

separate throughout heat treating operations. The<br />

carbon content seems to be considered by many as the<br />

single factor affecting uniformity in response to heat<br />

treatment—the most important influence of such alloying<br />

elements as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese,<br />

etc-, seems entirely overlooked. Frequently<br />

a heat is rejected because it falls a point or two outside<br />

of the specified five point range in carbon, and yet the<br />

combined value of the other hardening elements renders<br />

it more satisfactory for results with prescribed<br />

treatment than many heats strictly within the carbon<br />

range, but with the percentage of alloys falling on<br />

the extremity of the range. For example, consider the<br />

following specifications: Carbon, .30/.35; manganese,<br />

.50/.80; chromium, .45/75; nickel, 1.00/1.50. A heat<br />

analyzing carbon, .29; manganese, .75; chromium, .70;<br />

nickel, 1.40 might be rejected, whereas one analyzing<br />

carbon, .31; manganese, .55; chromium, .50; nickel,<br />

1.10 accepted, though less satisfactory than the rejected<br />

one. By exercising judgment, better and more consistent<br />

results may be obtained with less rejections of<br />

material.<br />

Care Required in Heat Treating.<br />

The proper means of attaining uniform results after<br />

heat treatment is not in the adherence to a five point<br />

range in carbon — it is in treatment classification of<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings by furnace heat lots as received from the steel<br />

manufacturer- A number of f<strong>org</strong>ing companies and<br />

other parts manufacturers now retain the identity of<br />

heats throughout f<strong>org</strong>ing and heat treatment operations,<br />

prescribe definite treatment temperatures and<br />

develop uniformity in treated products that is not otherwise<br />

attainable. Such practice has now almost become<br />

standard in differential ring gear production and<br />

has been the means of minimizing distortion to such an<br />

extent as to almost completely eliminate noisy gears.<br />

Crankshafts have been handled by many manufacturers<br />

in the same manner. The United Alloy Steel Corporation,<br />

treating thousands of tons of bar stock, has<br />

always adhered to this method, although working with<br />

automatic treating furnaces of capacities of nearly<br />

50 tons of treated bars daily.<br />

Alloy Steels.<br />

Of the alloying elements the one probably in most<br />

general use is chromium, appearing as the predominating<br />

influence in chrome steels, chrome-vanadium<br />

and chrome-molybdenum steels, and as a most important<br />

one in chrome-nickel, chrome-nickel-vanadium,<br />

chrome-nickel-molybdenum and various other combinations.<br />

Outside of the so-called structural alloy<br />

steels, it is a tremendous factor in special steels such<br />

as magnet, tool, stainless, high-speed, etc. This element,<br />

from one to two per cent, decreases the tendency<br />

to crystalline growth, giving a fine close grain. It<br />

confers upon steel increased hardness, strength, and<br />

penetrative effect in heat treatment. In higher percentages<br />

it has a marked effect on magnetic properties<br />

and corrosion resistance.<br />

Nickel increases strength, ductility and toughness<br />

of carbon steel, giving finer structure and renders the<br />

steel more susceptible to heat treatment. It is used<br />

in combination with chromium in many ranges covering<br />

wide fields of application.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

While both molybdenum and vanadium are occasionally<br />

used as a sole alloying agent in plain carbon<br />

steel, their greatest value is derived from combination<br />

with chromium or nickel or with both of these elements,<br />

and where their addition most materially enhances<br />

the properties of the steel.<br />

Manganese may be considered a necessary component<br />

of all alloy steels and appears in all specifications.<br />

Its greatest value is an indirect one resulting from<br />

reduction of oxides, and from combination with the<br />

sulphur suppressing the formation of iron-sulphide<br />

and its embrittling effect. The direct effect of manganese<br />

is the increase of physical properties. Excellent<br />

physical characteristics have been developed on<br />

plain carbon steel with approximately \y2 per cent<br />

manganese.<br />

With the exception of high silicon steels, such as<br />

silico-manganese and chrome-silico-manganese (together<br />

with numerous special steel such as valve, rustless,<br />

electrical, etc.) silicon is seldom given consideration<br />

in chemical specifications, yet it is vitally essential.<br />

The use of silicon in the making of alloy steels<br />

is most important on account of its property of deoxidizing<br />

and of eliminating gases (about four times<br />

as active as manganese). It is equally necessary that<br />

the finished product contains a certain minimum quantity<br />

of this element. In most structural alloy steels a<br />

content of .10 to .20 suffices. However, in others it is<br />

most advantageous to hold to .15 minimum with .25 or<br />

even .30 maximum. The higher range of .15 to .25 is<br />

particularly advisable in the carburizing grades of<br />

steel and has been found a most important factor in<br />

contributing to freedom from laminations, ready machinability<br />

with minimum tool chatter, elimination of<br />

distortion in quenching, and superior static and<br />

dynamic properties of the finished product. While no<br />

silicon limits are incorporated in many of your specifications,<br />

the steel maker should have sufficient experience<br />

and information on your requirements to prescribe<br />

proper limits for his melting department.<br />

Inspecting Shipments.<br />

Upon receipt of a shipment of steel from the manufacturer<br />

the material is usually promptly checked for<br />

its various qualities and properties, and as previously<br />

stated, in a much more thorough manner than formerly<br />

necessary when the inspection governing acceptance<br />

was more or less superficial and in the main consisted<br />

of chemistry check, rough dimensional check<br />

and casual observation for pipe and surface imperfections.<br />

On analysis, commercial allowable variations<br />

between laboratories was accepted; rolling tolerances<br />

were less restricted; minute surface defects were ignored.<br />

The present day inspection embraces in most<br />

cases rigid adherence to chemistry limits, due to a large<br />

extent to the refusal of the motor and motor accessory<br />

manufacturers to consider even slight deviations from<br />

specification. Strict dimensional adherence is necessary<br />

because keen competition will not permit of the<br />

least extravagance in raw material. Rejections are<br />

made for even slight surface and internal imperfections<br />

because of the higher standard of requirements by the<br />

motor manufacturer and because of the ever increasingly<br />

severe operations put upon the steel in f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

I do not protest on these conditions but merely cite<br />

them as factors influencing the demand for better<br />

steel. They have served as an impetus toward further<br />

perfection in steel making.


It is quite evident that the proper time to reject<br />

steel is before it is put into f<strong>org</strong>ings — at a time before<br />

the drop f<strong>org</strong>er has put money into processing,<br />

and at a time when the steel manufacturer may salvage.<br />

Furthermore, before f<strong>org</strong>ing, the responsibility<br />

for defects can be definitely established. After f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

there is often difficulty in definitely assigning correct<br />

origin of a defect.<br />

Defects in Rolled Steel.<br />

A brief review of the most prevalent defects in<br />

rolled steel, found by regular bar inspection, may be<br />

of some interest. They are pipe, unsound center and<br />

bursts or ruptures on the inside, and seams, laps, scabs<br />

and livers on the outside, and occasionally evidence<br />

of burning. Pipe is a central defect originating in the<br />

shrinkage cavity in the top of the ingot and is due to<br />

insufficient croppage. Unsound center or excessive<br />

porosity may consist of the segregated and impure<br />

metal immediately beneath this zone, but may also<br />

be characteristic of the heat throughout and due to<br />

improper refining of the metal, or over-oxidation. Pipe<br />

may be usually distinguished by shear tests or fracture<br />

tests, but in some cases may be so faint as to<br />

necessitate a coarse or fine etch on a properly prepared<br />

surface. Secondary pipe which may occur in<br />

material rolled from small-end-up ingots is most difficult<br />

to detect, as perfectly sound steel is found on<br />

either side of it in the bar. For internal flaw in bars<br />

such as unsound or segregated center, shearing tests<br />

are usually inadequate and etch tests are necessary.<br />

Internal ruptures or bursts are more prevalent in<br />

steels of higher alloy content and may be detected by<br />

fracture or etch. Most surface defects on bars are<br />

classed as seams, or scabs and slivers, although the<br />

former cover imperfections of various origins. Defects<br />

known generally as seams may be due to over-fills,<br />

under-fills, rolling laps, rolled in chip marks, guide<br />

scratches, crossed rolls, poor roll surface, etc., or they<br />

may originate in the ingot, elongate in rolling to billits<br />

and persist through the next conversion into bars.<br />

Transverse cracks in the skin of an ingot roll out into<br />

seams in finished bars if not chipped out in the bloom<br />

or billet form. Sub-cutaneous gas pockets form light<br />

sub-surface seams. Scabs and slivers usually may be<br />

attributed to poor ingot surface. The extent to which<br />

these defects in bars give trouble in f<strong>org</strong>ing in most<br />

cases is not difficult to forecast. Guide scratches<br />

which are often mistaken for seams should cause absolutely<br />

no trouble unless unusually deep. Slight<br />

over-fills, if not lapped, do not open in f<strong>org</strong>ing, but<br />

most other forms, unless so light as to scale off in the<br />

heating furnace, are very likely to cause serious trouble<br />

in the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

In man}- cases the above, which may be considered<br />

primary inspection and consisting of check analysis,<br />

dimensional check, examination for soundness and<br />

surface condition, is supplemented by shear inspection<br />

on such types where analysis is such as to make<br />

cold shearing difficult if not hazardous. Recently, tvpes<br />

of steel have been satisfactorily cold sheared where<br />

formerly other than hot shearing was considered out<br />

of the question. The steel plants, through closer temperature<br />

control on the finishing mills, and more definite<br />

regulation of cooling of their product have accom •<br />

plished much in shearing quality.<br />

Case Hardening Test.<br />

As a rule after the steel has been subjected to these<br />

tests it mav be stocked with assurance that "it will<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Si amping - He>af Treating<br />

January, 1925<br />

meet all requirements. However, for special purposes<br />

there are other qualifications which must be<br />

met. A number of specifications are now received<br />

incorporating the McQuaid-Ehn test, of which all<br />

should have a comprehensive idea of its intent and<br />

general features. A thorough explanation of this test<br />

would be quite long and highly technical, but a few<br />

words should be able to convey its purpose together<br />

with the general method of procedure and observations<br />

in its execution- The McQuaid-Ehn test is to<br />

pre-determine whether a particular heat of steel will<br />

give satisfactory results in case hardening. Often, for<br />

some unknown reason, soft spots are encountered in<br />

the case on case hardened parts, characteristic of a<br />

particular heat of steel. The analysis is correct, the<br />

steel is sound, it is satisfactorily free from microscopic<br />

defects. Likewise no fault can be attributed to case<br />

hardening operations, which show satisfactory response<br />

on other heats of steel. The McQuaid-Ehn<br />

test will show conditions characteristic of heats which<br />

will harden satisfactorily and of those in which trou-<br />

14e is encountered. Furthermore, in gears made from<br />

certain heats, distortion after hardening is much greater<br />

than in others, and more difficult to control. This<br />

test enables a forecast on this condition. The mechanical<br />

procedure is as follows : Carburizing of suitable<br />

samples at definitely prescribed temperatures for<br />

a sufficient length of time to obtain a hyper-eutectoid<br />

(approximately 1.00 to 1.10 carbon) case, cooling in<br />

pots after carburizing, polishing and etching these<br />

samples, and finally studying under the microscope.<br />

Microscopic Study.<br />

From a microscopic study the steel is classed<br />

as "normal" steel, which should give satisfactory results<br />

in case hardening, and "abnormal" steel which<br />

may give unsatisfactory results in case hardening.<br />

There are, of course, almost unlimited transitional<br />

stages between "normal" and "abnormal" and their<br />

classification must necessarily depend on experience<br />

and personal judgment. Briefly, characteristics of<br />

"normal" steel are, in the hyper-eutectoid case, large,<br />

well defined, pearlite grains with excessive carbides<br />

or cementite in the form of coarse network around<br />

the pearlite grains and grading down into a core consisting<br />

of large angular grains of pearlite and ferrite.<br />

In "abnormal" steel the hyper-eutectoid case consists<br />

of much smaller and less uniform grains of pearlite<br />

with the excess cementite occurring in smaller envelopes<br />

around the pearlite, and in some cases as<br />

patches of massive cementite. In the most "abnormal"<br />

instances the pearlite breaks down into patches of<br />

cementite and ferrite. The core in such steel shows<br />

much finer grained pearlite and ferrite than in "normal'^<br />

steel, and is often quite banded. The cause of<br />

the "abnormal" condition has been attributed to overoxidized<br />

condition of the steel, but this has not bee i<br />

universally accepted. In checking material for Mc­<br />

Quaid-Ehn characteristics tests may be taken by the<br />

consumer from finish rolled material. The time for<br />

the making of tests by the steel manufacturer should<br />

be when material is in the semi-finished form and before<br />

approving a heat for application on a particular<br />

order- A convenient method of such sampling is in<br />

the form of chips from blooms. Sonv steel manufacturers<br />

have based tests on ladle sample, which I consider<br />

less reliable. The McQuaid-Ehn test, if properly<br />

conducted and interpreted, is a valuable contribution<br />

in quality control, but does not solve all case harden-


January, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

ing troubles, the fault may not and often does not lie<br />

with the steel.<br />

Soundness.<br />

For soundness, in relatively few cases the porosity<br />

or macro-etch test has been used, and this test, at<br />

times offers great advantages in pre-determining the<br />

quality of steel. The chief disadvantages in its appli-<br />

" cation are lack of standardization (acids, acid<br />

strengths, time and temperature factors, etc.) and<br />

lack of ability to properly interpret and put to practical<br />

use the results. In many cases, such as investigations<br />

for internal ruptures, snowflakes, bursts, etc., the<br />

test is infallible. The practical execution of this test<br />

consists in submitting to the action of acid solution<br />

properly prepared surfaces of longitudinal and transverse<br />

sections cut from material submitted for examination.<br />

Of different acids and percentages of dilution<br />

we find for general purposes a 50 per cent hydrochloric<br />

solution preferable, varying the time in accordance<br />

with the nature of the material examined.<br />

The microscope is at times used as a means of establishing<br />

the suitability of heats for certain important<br />

uses. It offers an excellent means for the study of<br />

structure and freedom of steel from sonims, but it<br />

may be abused, and in the hands of the inexperienced<br />

cause more harm than good. It is a very difficult matter<br />

to base the acceptance or rejection of a heat of<br />

steel solely on microscopic examination for impurities,<br />

when the field or fields examined represent such an<br />

infinitesimal portion of the material involved. Furthermore,<br />

no standards are available and any decisions<br />

must necessarily be based on the personal opinions of<br />

the investigators, and such opinions are wide and<br />

varied.<br />

Fibre tests, but rarely used, embrace the study of<br />

fractures made after subjecting material to a sorbitizing<br />

treatment.<br />

X-Ray and Magnetic Testing.<br />

There appears in the near future but slight probability<br />

of the general adoption of magnetic or X-ray<br />

testing for other than special work, where the cost<br />

of the finished product is very great as compared with<br />

steel costs or where a failure would result disastrously.<br />

Magnetic testing has evolved through the defectoscope,<br />

a means of determining defects or flaws;<br />

through the magnetoscope, composition and mechanical<br />

properties. A most valuable feature of such control<br />

is that no material is destroyed or disfigured in the<br />

execution of tests. This method has been put into<br />

practical use on turbine bucket wheels, gears, saws,<br />

elevator cable, rails, etc. While there is at present<br />

neither prospects for the steel manufacturer being able<br />

to run the product of his mills through a defectoscope,<br />

nor a probability that the f<strong>org</strong>ing manufacturer will<br />

so test his vast production, it does appear that apparatus<br />

of this type may be advantageously applied for<br />

special requirements.<br />

X-ray examination has been put to practical usage<br />

for the detection of internal defects, but the time and<br />

expense involved render its scope too limited for<br />

quantity production-<br />

The foregoing has dwelt more particularly in consideration<br />

of stock for f<strong>org</strong>ing purposes. I now wish<br />

to review in a general way a few features in connection<br />

with its processing.<br />

Selection of F<strong>org</strong>ing Steels.<br />

The selection of material for f<strong>org</strong>ings, not the type<br />

of steel, but the form in which it is ordered for any<br />

particular class of work, is of some interest to the<br />

manufacturer of the steel as well as of the f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

The primary considerations are the determination of<br />

such section as will permit proper flow in the dies and<br />

sufficient quantity to avoid shortage in flow to all recesses<br />

of the dies, but avoidance of oversize. Shortage<br />

of metal may result in insufficiency of the flash. The<br />

latter condition is, however, quite serious, as the elimination<br />

of the cushioning effect permits a shock of<br />

such intensity on die faces as to cause breakage or<br />

short life and in addition tremendously increases<br />

stresses in the die impressions such as may ultimately<br />

seriously impair die life if not actually result in the<br />

bursting or rupture of the die.<br />

Excessive metal will result in waste of material;<br />

it may result in dimensional inaccuracy or even in<br />

edge splits of f<strong>org</strong>ings. The surplus of thin metal<br />

squeezed between the dies, and chilling rapidly, forms<br />

a fin, restricting the flow from the impression and making<br />

attainment of accurate dimensions impossible.<br />

The splits in this fin of metal may run into the f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

itself. With a fair knowdedge of the above conditions<br />

the manufacturer of steel is much better qualified to<br />

intelligently discuss occasional complaints on edge<br />

splits, or to combat arguments that his steel gives<br />

shorter die life than a competitors, or is harder to<br />

hold to size. But a slight modification of size or<br />

section may overcome the difficulty.<br />

In deciding upon stock for f<strong>org</strong>ings it must not be<br />

overlooked that the selection of unusual sizes in flats,<br />

or of special sections, means increased costs to the<br />

steel manufacturer with a corresponding increase in<br />

steel prices, and also greater difficulty in obtaining<br />

deliveries.<br />

Shearing the Stock.<br />

Before using under the hammer, stock must be first<br />

sheared to suitable lengths or multiples. It is impossible<br />

on steels of higher alloying content to draw a<br />

definite line as to what analyses will and what will not<br />

satisfactorily cold shear. Such variables as size, condition<br />

of shears, high or low side of range in hardening<br />

elements, and even weather conditions have pronounced<br />

effect. Under most favorable conditions it<br />

may be assumed that standard analyses of Chromevanadium,<br />

chrome-carbon, low-chrome-nickel and 3y2<br />

per cent nickel steels will cold shear in sizes up to<br />

2y2 in. round or square with a carbon content up to .45<br />

maximum. With carbon as high as .50 or .55 these<br />

types can usually be sheared cold with safety in sizes<br />

up to iy in. round or square. These limits I give<br />

more in the nature of a warning than as a recommendation.<br />

A little heating before shearing steel approximating<br />

these limits is by no means an extravagance.<br />

In extremely cold weather much improvement may.<br />

even be effected on certain types of steel by raising<br />

temperatures but slightly, from yard to room temperature<br />

for instance, or just sufficient to relieve the<br />

intense chill from the steel. Requiring special attention<br />

in cold shearing are capacity of shears, their<br />

alignment, condition of knives and hold down.<br />

Trouble in cold shearing may be evidenced in several<br />

forms. The stock may break off sharply, or spall<br />

on the corners it may show a very fine crack across<br />

the sheared surface or it may be strained to such an<br />

extent upon shearing that while no crack is percepti-


le, one opens from a few hours to a few days after.<br />

The latter condition may prove the most serious, as<br />

shear inspection will not reveal the trouble and such<br />

stock may rupture further when brought to f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

heat.<br />

Fins or ragged edges should be avoided in shearing<br />

as they may "lap in" during f<strong>org</strong>ing. Often it is necessary<br />

to grind badly finned edges. This difficulty can<br />

usually be eliminated by closer alignment of shears<br />

and maintenance of proper knife edges.<br />

Heating Requires Attention.<br />

During heating of stock in the furnace at the hammer<br />

much more material is ruined than is generally<br />

assumed. It is a simple matter for the operator to<br />

detect when steel is being burnt, and to immediately<br />

remedy conditions before the loss is great, but it is<br />

not so readily apparent when the over-heating is only<br />

sufficient to cause incipient burning, or to seriously<br />

impair the structure of the steel beyond the point of<br />

reclamation by heat treatment to develop satisfactory<br />

properties. Usually there is no warning during too<br />

rapid heating of "tender" steels, of the ill effects which<br />

such practice produces.<br />

In steels of higher alloying contents, particularly<br />

chrome-nickel, with and without additional elements<br />

such as vanadium, molybdenum, etc., internal defects<br />

will result from rapid heating. The condition becomes<br />

more acute as the carbon content increases. Pre-heating<br />

slowly to a temperature between 600 deg. F. and<br />

1200 deg. F. and then finish heating to f<strong>org</strong>ing temperature<br />

is necessary- This can best be accomplished<br />

by the use of a separate furnace for pre-heating, although<br />

in some cases entirely satisfactory results may<br />

be obtained by pre-heating on the front of the hearth<br />

of the f<strong>org</strong>ing furnace, or "double rowing".<br />

Under-heating is less frequently encountered on<br />

account of handicaps promptly manifested to the hammerman.<br />

The result is decreased production, misalignment<br />

of dies, decreased life of dies and rods, increased<br />

maintenance costs on equipment, and at times<br />

die and rod breakage.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing furnaces should be so designed as to permit<br />

proper time cycle for soaking stock to constant<br />

head and to operate under soft rather than cutting<br />

flame, avoiding direct flame impingement on the<br />

charge and excessive air.<br />

Cold Shuts and Laps.<br />

During f<strong>org</strong>ing operations there are many manners<br />

in which defects may be introduced into f<strong>org</strong>ings, and<br />

controversies as to whether their origin is in the steel<br />

itself or in its fabrication often take place. In some<br />

cases a decision may lie simple, in others almost impossible.<br />

Cold shuts and laps are often claimed to<br />

be seams, f<strong>org</strong>ing bursts, pipe; and vice versa. In<br />

most cases one familiar with the method of f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

should be able to decide whether defects are laps,<br />

shuts or seams. In other cases a careful study of the<br />

flow of metal in the various operations under the hammer<br />

should determine the cause of the trouble. Seams<br />

or laps in rolled bars or billets always exist parallel<br />

to the direction of rolling. If the flow of metal has<br />

been such that the defect must have existed in a direction<br />

other than longitudinal with the rolled product<br />

the evidence is quite conclusive as to its origin. If<br />

surface defects are characteristic of a certain position<br />

in f<strong>org</strong>ings the fault is unlikely to be in the steel — it<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

January, 1925<br />

is improbable that pieces f<strong>org</strong>ed would have defects in<br />

the same spot on the bar, billet or slab.<br />

Enumeration or discussion of all defects encountered<br />

under the hammer is impossible, but a number of<br />

frequent sources of trouble might be briefly considered.<br />

During drawing, fullering or edging operations,<br />

ridges or fins may be formed which fold over and form<br />

laps or shuts during finishing. Excessive working on<br />

the flat of the die or in round sections may produce internal<br />

ruptures, often mistaken for pipe- .Rapid wash<br />

heating may produce similar flaws. Restricted flow<br />

of metal in dies and too rapid heating may cause shattered<br />

hearts, and this may .be aggravated by segregation.<br />

Improper reduction in fullers, edgers, blocking<br />

impressions, or preliminary die f<strong>org</strong>ing, may result in<br />

forcing such large excess of metal through the flash<br />

line in the finishing dies as to result in rupture which<br />

may or may not be revealed in trimming, and often not<br />

discovered until after heat treatment or failure in service<br />

Incorrect distribution of metal for the finishing<br />

impression frequently causes stock in finishing operation<br />

to tend to flow from small to large sections, resulting<br />

in bad distortion of flow lines, poor flash distribution,<br />

and even splits, which are often attributed to<br />

piped steel. Bending operations, with improper gathering<br />

of stock, may produce crinkling or folding on the<br />

concave side of the bend, which produces lapping in<br />

the finished part. Likewise, unsatisfactorily executed<br />

splitting operations may produce tears which may be<br />

lapped in finishing.<br />

Front axle f<strong>org</strong>ings probably embody as many<br />

faults as any f<strong>org</strong>ing produced. Predominating among<br />

imperfections in this part are laps, shuts, flange cracks,<br />

separation along flash line, web ruptures, cross cracks<br />

and shattered centers. Trouble encountered in eyebeam<br />

sections may often be attributed to faulty preliminary<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing operations, resulting in the squirting<br />

of metal from the flanges through the parting line and<br />

out in the flash, leaving shattered flanges. Flaws at or<br />

near the flange and web are often due to improper<br />

flow, resulting from too sharp filleting. Badly strained<br />

condition along the flash line is intensified by cold<br />

trimming. Quite uniformly spaced cross checks have<br />

been encountered practically throughout the length of<br />

the eye-beam section. Steel defects could not exist in<br />

stock in such a direction as to be responsible. The use<br />

of sharp cornered square stock has rendered the material<br />

more susceptible to over-heating or incipient<br />

burning on the four corners while bringing up to f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

heat; heat treatment and stretching have seriously<br />

strained if not lightly ruptured the metal; the final<br />

pickling with its hydrogen impregnation has brought<br />

about the final ruptures or in some cases has merely<br />

rendered visible previously existing ones.<br />

Considerable progress has been made in the study<br />

of flow of metal and in making practical application<br />

of the same in die design. Flow should be smooth<br />

around all corners, avoiding throws into the surface.<br />

Its proper regulation is of vital importance in effecting<br />

increased resistance to stress, shock, vibration, and in<br />

such parts as gears in governing distortion arising in<br />

heat treatment. Coarse etching constitutes a most<br />

satisfactory means of study. Sections, after machining<br />

and grinding free from tool marks, are etched in<br />

a solution of from 50 to 1U0 per cent hydrochloric acid<br />

at approximately boiling temperature for a period usually<br />

from one-half to one and one-half hours, washed<br />

and dried for examination. For photographing, a


January, 1925<br />

coating of lamp black or india ink will bring out the<br />

lines more distinctly.<br />

Trimming the Flash.<br />

The method of trimming the flash, hot or cold, is<br />

dependent upon trimmer capacity, distortion, and nature<br />

of metal and f<strong>org</strong>ing. Hot trimming may be done<br />

with lighter equipment and less power, and is necessary<br />

on certain sections to avoid distortion, and on<br />

other sections of certain types of steel to avoid ruptures<br />

along the flash line. At times f<strong>org</strong>ings are allowed<br />

to become cold before trimming but given a<br />

quick heating only sufficient to materially affect the<br />

flash before trimming. Cold trimming is responsible<br />

in many cases for ruptures along the flash line, which<br />

may open either before or after heat treating. The<br />

shape of a f<strong>org</strong>ing governs the necessity of hot trimming,<br />

cutting along lines parallel with fibre having a<br />

greater tendency to rupture than along ends across<br />

fibre. Separation may be caused by excessively sharp<br />

corners between l<strong>org</strong>ing and flash.<br />

Trimming tears are not limited to the harder steels<br />

but may occur as readily in very soft steel, which, on<br />

account of its extreme ductility, has a tendency to<br />

drag. Assuming that suitable radius has been employed<br />

on the f<strong>org</strong>ing, sharp cutting dies are the best<br />

preventative.<br />

The restriction of cooling rate on f<strong>org</strong>ings is onlynecessary<br />

on a relatively small percentage of types<br />

possessing air hardening properties. Checks, cracks,<br />

bursts, ruptures, etc., may result from rapid cooling,<br />

and in a few types almost invariably occur in some<br />

sections. F<strong>org</strong>ings may be closely packed in boxes<br />

or barrels, free from air and cooled sufficiently slowly,<br />

although at times it is advisable to cool in lime, ashes<br />

or some other slow heat conducting medium. A typical<br />

analysis requiring slow cooling is carbon, .30/.40;<br />

chromium, 1.00/1.50; nickel, 4.00/5.00. While very<br />

slow cooling is not necessary on many other types, it<br />

is advisable to avoid wet floor or ground and draughts.<br />

A thorough consideration of heat treating operations<br />

is a broad subject in itself and cannot be given<br />

in this paper. The annealing operations but rarely<br />

give any difficulties except perhaps in the oil hardening<br />

gear types where great care must be exercised to<br />

obtain a product sufficiently soft and of proper structure<br />

for machining quality- Continuous furnaces have<br />

effected tremendous time saving in annealing such<br />

material and have been able to accomplish more in a<br />

three to six hour cycle than the stationary types in<br />

12 to 24 hour cycle. Quantity of production must<br />

necessarily govern the installation of type of furnace;<br />

sufficient work must be available to make a continuous<br />

furnace what its name implies.<br />

In heat treating operations one of the most important<br />

decisions is on quenching medium which will produce<br />

most satisfactory results. On some ranges of<br />

analysis sweeping recommendations may safely be<br />

made for water quenching, on others equally positive<br />

for oil quenching, but in many cases a knowledge of<br />

size and shape of the part in question is necessary before<br />

classifying. Often a time quench will produce<br />

most satisfactory results, whereas quenching in water<br />

until cold results disastrously.<br />

Assuming that the identity of heat lots from steel<br />

manufacturers is retained, I most firmly advocate making<br />

a preliminary run in heat treatment on a small lot<br />

and based on these results prescribe definite tempera­<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

tures for the balance. This will enable the attainment<br />

of maximum and more nearly uniform results on the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

In this brief review it has been impossible to go<br />

into details in consideration of the various problems<br />

and conditions covered. I hope, however, that it<br />

shows the necessity for even closer co-operation between<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ing and steel manufacturers. A more<br />

thorough mutual understanding between these two<br />

groups makes inevitable an improvement in quality<br />

and reduction in cost.<br />

Measure Loads on Stadium During Game<br />

Added stresses in the steel reinforcement of a concrete<br />

stadium due to the vigorous enthusiasm of the<br />

crowd were measured during a recent game by means<br />

of the carbon resistance strain gages developed by<br />

the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce.<br />

By using these gages it was possible to record automatically<br />

the variations in the loading of the steel when<br />

the crowd all rose in a body or stamped in time to the<br />

band.<br />

Such mass movement, it has long been known, mayincrease<br />

the live load on the structure far beyond that<br />

caused by the people when sitting or standing still or<br />

moving at random, but until recently it has not been<br />

possible to obtain an accurate record of such sudden<br />

changes of stress. In this particular test the live load<br />

when the crowd was still was found to increase the<br />

stress in the steel by about 1,000 pounds per square<br />

inch, whereas 4,000 pounds wrould have been considered<br />

safe. Under the worst conditions occurring during<br />

the course of the game the movements of the crowd<br />

sometimes gave an additional 300 pounds per square<br />

inch.<br />

It is pointed out, however, that the worst conditions<br />

from the point of view of safety arise when the<br />

crowd, in stamping rythmically, happens to strike the<br />

natural vibration period of the structure. It has been<br />

reported that under these conditions the stress has<br />

exceeded the static live load by as much as 150 per<br />

cent.<br />

Tests of impact stresses in other stadiums are being<br />

made from time to time, and the data being accumulated<br />

are expected to be of great value as a guide<br />

in the design of such structures. Great uncertainty<br />

now exists as to the allowance to be made for impact<br />

stresses.<br />

In making the test the concrete was removed from<br />

the reinforcement over short lengths, and th'e gages<br />

were attached directly to the steel. After the test the<br />

holes were concreted over again.<br />

A gage of this type depends for its operation on the<br />

fact that stacks of carbon rings undergo a change in<br />

resistance with change in pressure. It is so arranged<br />

that a small change in the distance between the points<br />

of attachment to the structure causes a change in the<br />

pressures on two of these carbon stacks, the pressure<br />

on one being reduced while that on the other is increased.<br />

The change in distance is caused by a change<br />

in the load carried by the steel.<br />

This gage is connected by three electric wires to<br />

the indicating or recording device, and these wires<br />

may be of any desired length. Changes of load are<br />

followed very rapidly, and those lasting only a fraction<br />

of a second can be recorded as well as changes of<br />

longer duration.


s Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

T h e R o m a n c e o f<br />

*<br />

S t e e l<br />

A Review of the Manufacture of Iron and Steel for F<strong>org</strong>ing and<br />

the Methods of F<strong>org</strong>ing from the Primitive Hammer to<br />

A study of the history of iron and steel manufacture<br />

and methods of f<strong>org</strong>ing carries one<br />

through a series of interesting developments<br />

which trace the march of the world's progress from<br />

the dawn of civilization until the present time. Relics<br />

in our museums tell us the story of a romantic past<br />

filled with strange beliefs and weird rites rivalling the<br />

most vivid of fairy tales.<br />

Hours could be consumed in the unfolding of this<br />

remarkable tale, but as we are particularly interested<br />

in f<strong>org</strong>ing, we will confine ourselves to the outstanding<br />

features of greatest interest to the f<strong>org</strong>ing industry.<br />

FIG. 1—Early form of belly helve hammer, from Agricola's<br />

"De Re Metallica." The water was not only used for<br />

power, but also for heat treating purposes.<br />

No attempt will be made to cover the various<br />

stages of tool steel development, heat treating or<br />

pyrometry as these branches offer such a wealth of<br />

material in themselves that justice could not be done<br />

them in this article. This article, therefore, will embrace<br />

the manufacture of iron and steel for f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

and the various methods of shaping these f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

from the primitive hammer to the present day steam<br />

hammer and press.<br />

In the early ages the ability to make iron f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

imeant power, and the history of those times shows<br />

the Present Day Steam Hammer and Press<br />

By W. R. KLINKICHTf<br />

•Paper presented at a meeting of the American Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Institute held at Pittsburgh, October 2 and 3, 1924.<br />

tEngineer of Tests, Pollak Steel Company, Cincinnati, O.<br />

January, 1925<br />

clearly that axles, knives, etc., were used for arming<br />

men in their battles for existence, against nature and<br />

each other. The Babylonian name for iron meant<br />

t'stone from heaven," which is good proof that the<br />

origin of the first known iron was meteoric.<br />

Meteoric iron is characterized by the absence of<br />

Combined carbon and usually contains considerable<br />

(quantities of nickel and smaller amounts of cobalt.<br />

Nearly all of it is malleable and the examination of its<br />

structure reveals the Widmanstatten lines. It is nowhere<br />

sufficiently abundant to form a basis for a true<br />

Iron Age civilization and, in fact, Archaeologists are<br />

agreed that the mere knowledge of native iron should<br />

not be considered as sufficient to designate using it as<br />

the Iron Age of Civilization, but rather the knowledge<br />

of producing metal from the ores by an understood<br />

process is the criterion by which a nation or tribe is<br />

considered as having passed from the Stone Age into<br />

the Iron Age of Civilization. It was a wonderful discovery,<br />

however, when some low-brow cliff dweller<br />

pn the earth detected the property of malleability<br />

which distinguished native metals from "stones."<br />

It is believed that the three oldest pieces of<br />

wrought iron in existence are a sickle blade found by<br />

Belzoni under the base of a sphinx near Thebes; a<br />

blade probably 5,000 years old found by Col. Vyse in<br />

one of the pyramids and a wedge-shaped piece in the<br />

British museum which is supposed to date back to<br />

3233 B. C.<br />

In Asia Minor, inland from Troy and the Aegean<br />

world, there lived from before the time of Hammurapi,<br />

2000 B. C, a group of white people called the<br />

Hittites who built up a powerful empire. These people<br />

began working iron ore deposits along the Black<br />

Sea before the thirteenth century B. C. and became<br />

the earliest distributors of iron at the time that iron<br />

began to displace bronze in the Mediterranean world<br />

and the east. It was through contact with the<br />

Hittites that iron was introduced into Assyria and the<br />

Assyrian forces were the first large armies equipped<br />

with weapons of iron. A single arsenal in the palace<br />

of Sargon II, who raised Assyria to the height of her<br />

grandeur in 750 B. C, contained 200 tons of iron implements.<br />

Comparatively little is known of the early smiths<br />

or their methods. However an old Egyptian wall<br />

print gives as reliable an idea as can be found. A fire<br />

was built in a depressed place in the ground, a forced<br />

draft being given the flame by an attendant on either<br />

side who worked bellows by standing on them, alternately<br />

throwing their weight from one foot to the<br />

other and pulling up the bellows with ropes as the<br />

weight was shifted, thus permitting the instruments'<br />

to be emptied and filled alternately. It is interesting<br />

to note the method of forcing a fire by means of bellows<br />

was used probably 4,000 years ago.<br />

The ancient smith was held in high esteem by his<br />

fellow-man as his skill was indispensable to their wel-


January, 1925<br />

fare. Probably the first reference to the smith is<br />

found in the book of Genesis, dated about 3875 B C<br />

chapter 4, verse 22, which mentions Tubal Cain, who<br />

was seven generations from Adam, as an "instructor<br />

of every artificer in brass and iron." The art was<br />

shrouded in mystery and great secrecy attended their<br />

work, each smith under sacred oath never to reveal<br />

the secrets of the art, unless it be to a carefully selected<br />

apprentice, who was usually a son or near kinsman.<br />

Some one has stated this is how the name<br />

Smith originated. However, the writer cannot vouch<br />

for this.<br />

Nearly the whole inventory of weapons and implements<br />

of the first iron age, or the period of transition<br />

from the exclusive use of brass to that of iron as<br />

a working metal, has already been found in the celebrated<br />

cemetery near Hallstatt, on Lake Hallstatt in<br />

Austria, in the thousand graves that have been opened<br />

there. The weapons are partly of bronze and partly<br />

of iron, the iron predominating. Axes, knives and<br />

chisels are very numerous.<br />

An interesting allusion to the tempering of<br />

weapons is found in Homer's ninth book of the<br />

Odyssey, written probably some time between 962<br />

and 915 B. C. in which he says:<br />

"And as when armourers temper in the ford<br />

The keen edged pole-axe or the shining sword,<br />

The red-hot metal hisses in the lake;<br />

Thus in his eye ball hiss'd the plunging stake."<br />

This refers to the story of Ullyses's escape from<br />

the giant Cyclops.<br />

Whatever was the first form of iron furnace, there<br />

is no doubt as early as the sixth century B. C. the<br />

Greeks had developed a cylindrical stack furnace.<br />

There are several vase paintings which illustrate this<br />

furnace and in each there is a bellows at the back, the<br />

cylinder being about the height of a man. On top is<br />

what appears to be a receptacle or kettle. This was<br />

probably used for smelting copper or bronze, as the<br />

smith in those days worked in these as well as iron.<br />

According to Aristotle, who wrote in the fourth<br />

century B. C, the Chalybians made iron from sand<br />

ore dug from river banks, washed and put into a furnace<br />

along with stone pyrimachus, meaning firemaker<br />

or coal. He seems further to indicate that cast iron<br />

as well as steel was known in his time as he states:<br />

"Wrought iron itself may be cast so as to be made<br />

liquid and to harden again, and thus it is they are wont<br />

to make steel." He also described the process of<br />

making Indian steel called "Wootz," which was made<br />

in crucibles. "Wootz" was a sort of wrought iron<br />

used for fashioning weapons that were afterwards<br />

hardened into steel. It was the possession of such<br />

improved weapons that facilitated the Hindoo conquest<br />

over the non-Arian tribes of India.<br />

The metal for the famous Damascus weapons was<br />

made at Kona Samundrum, India, and was carried by<br />

Persian merchants to Damascus. The ore was carefully<br />

selected, washed and roasted if necessary, then<br />

reduced with charcoal in small fire clay crucibles and<br />

allowed to cool. Next it was subjected to a tempering<br />

process, consisting of repeated heating while covered<br />

with an iron oxide paste to soften it to suit the<br />

desire of the purchaser, who regularly watched the<br />

operation throughout. The ores used were very free<br />

from both sulphur and phosphorus and contained but<br />

little copper. It appears that a later period metal for<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

the Damascus trade was made also at Toledo, Spain,<br />

and from that time, together with other places of<br />

Spain, supplied the Romans with swords.<br />

Probably the best known relic of ancient manufacture<br />

is the iron pillar still standing' at Delhi, India.<br />

This pillar is covered with carving and bears an inscription<br />

in Sanskrit describing it as a "Triumphal<br />

Pillar of Rajah Dhava, A. D. 310, who wrote his immortal<br />

fame with his sword." The pillar is 16 inches<br />

in diameter and 25 feet long and seems to have been<br />

made up of blooms of wrought iron of about 80 lbs.<br />

each, welded together. Hadfield's analysis of samples<br />

from this pillar showed: Carbon, .08; manganese nil.<br />

phos., .114; sulphus, .006; silicon, .046, and iron by<br />

analysis, 99.72 per cent.<br />

At about the beginning of the eighth century the<br />

iron industry took a fresh start in many European<br />

countries and experienced what we term in modern<br />

phraseology a "revival." When the Moors became<br />

masters of much of Spain in the early part of the century,<br />

they stimulated greatly the manufacture of iron.<br />

So prominent did the iron industry of Spain become<br />

that its ironworkers were sought in other countries,<br />

and on the French side of the Pyrenees, in the mountains<br />

of Germany and along the Rhine, many of their<br />

FIG. 2—A Catalan f<strong>org</strong>e with Italian Trompe, or<br />

water blower.<br />

small f<strong>org</strong>es were erected. The earlv part of the<br />

eighth century seems to have been the period when<br />

the "Wolf Furnaces" or loup furnaces were introduced<br />

into most of the European iron districts. The wolf<br />

furnace was a high bloomery and was simply an enlargement<br />

of the primitive low bloomeries or f<strong>org</strong>es.<br />

•somewhat like a Catalan f<strong>org</strong>e, extending upward to<br />

some ten feet in height in the form of a quadrangular<br />

shaft about two feet wide at the top and bottom and<br />

five feet at the widest part. There was an opening in<br />

front about two feet square called the breast, and the<br />

blast was applied from at least two bellows and nozzles,<br />

both on the same side. The Catalan f<strong>org</strong>e marked<br />

the first distinct advance in iron manufacture and is<br />

responsible for the progress made during that period.


10 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating January, 1925<br />

The first attempt to apply mechanical means to<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing operation was in the form of water wheels<br />

for working the hammer and bellows. This must<br />

have been as early as the fourteenth century as there<br />

are pictures of that period illustrating the method employed.<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>ius Agricola, sometimes styled "the Father<br />

of Metallurgy," was by far the most important author<br />

of the sixteenth century. His great book on this subject<br />

was published after his death by Froben at Basel,<br />

in the vear 1556. This book seems to have been in<br />

preparation during a period of over twenty years. He<br />

apparently completed it in 1550, but did not send it to<br />

press until 1553 and it did not appear until a year after<br />

his death in 1555. He was not merely an author, but<br />

a man of considerable importance in many public affairs<br />

of his time and occupied repeated important posts<br />

of public authority. In his book "De Re Metallica"<br />

he described for the first time scores of methods and<br />

processes which represent the accumulation of generations<br />

of experience. His book was not excelled for<br />

two centuries and its value to the men who followed<br />

in this profession during the centuries can scarcely be<br />

gauged. Illustrations shown in his book indicate that<br />

water was not only used for power, but also for heat<br />

treating purposes.<br />

The blast furnace was gradually developed in Gernianv<br />

during the first half of the fifteenth century and<br />

with this development came the use of cast iron. The<br />

was then worked into a mass, after which it was removed<br />

with tongs and placed on a plate and hammered<br />

with sledges to remove cinder, etc. It was<br />

then reheated and hammered under a tilt hammer into<br />

a bloom which was again reheated and hammered into<br />

a bar.<br />

The tilt hammer was so called because its action<br />

depended upon the shaft or helve being tilted up and<br />

FIG. A—Old-fashioned water driven trip hammer, from<br />

Overmann's "Manufacture of Steel," 1854.<br />

then allowed to fall. The helve was tilted by means<br />

of projections fitted into a drum which was fixed upon<br />

a shaft. When the shaft revolved these projections<br />

caught against the helve, causing it to tilt up for a<br />

moment, but instantly releasing as the projection disengaged,<br />

allowing the helve to drop by gravity. The<br />

/die on the hammer being fixed on one end of the helve,<br />

struck a blow on the stock placed on the anvil underneath.<br />

The rapidity of action depended on the speed<br />

at which the shaft revolved and also on the number<br />

of projections in the drum. The speed varied from<br />

60 to 300 blows per minute.<br />

There were three types of these hammers, viz;<br />

belly, nose and tail hammers, named from the positions<br />

on the helves where the projections on the drum operated.<br />

It was my privilege to witness the operation<br />

of a belt-driven tail hammer in Indiana only a few<br />

weeks ago. This hammer was used in the f<strong>org</strong>ing of<br />

small adz and sledges and was capable of striking<br />

about 500 blows per minute. Of course, the force of<br />

blow and rapidity of action were constant and could<br />

not be varied; stopping the hammer merely consisted<br />

of shifting the belt and allowing the pulley to gradually<br />

lose momentum, eventually stopping the hammer.<br />

Up until the seventeenth century charcoal was<br />

used in the manufacture of pig iron, but the enormous<br />

consumption of wood threatened the destruction of<br />

the forests, so that in the early days of Queen Elizabeth's<br />

reign (about 1558) the cutting of timber trees<br />

was forbidden in certain parts of the country. Thus<br />

iron making in England received a severe setback<br />

until early in the seventeenth century Dud Dudley, a<br />

youth of 20, left Oxford University to take charge of<br />

his father's furnaces and f<strong>org</strong>es. He carried on experiments,<br />

using pit or sea coal instead of charcoal for<br />

smelting iron and was granted a patent by King<br />

James. Dudley's furnace was larger than the average,<br />

haying very large bellows and he thus succeeded<br />

in making about seven tons of pig iron per week.<br />

FIG. 3—The old Oliver footpower hammer.<br />

However, a combination of charcoal iron masters opposed<br />

the innovation, forcing him from one enterprise<br />

first casting of cannon balls took place in Germany, to another so that his discovery was not very profit­<br />

the first cast-iron cannon being made in England in able for him financially. His book "Metallum Mar-<br />

1543.<br />

-tis," published in 1665, gives a full account of his ef­<br />

The method of converting pig iron into wrought forts to substitute coal for charcoal. The production<br />

iron during the fifteenth century is roughly described sof charcoal pig iron has survived until today, the most<br />

as follows: One end of the pig was heated in the notable operation being that of the Salisbury Iron<br />

furnace and as it melted away was gradually pushed Corporation at Lakeville, Conn., where there were at<br />

in until the entire stock was molten. The molten iron various times as many as thirty-one charcoal blast


January, 1925<br />

furnaces. Moldenke states that "Charcoal iron is intrinsically<br />

better than one made from coke because it<br />

is run more carefully, with smaller units, purer ores<br />

and extremely pure fuel."<br />

. The use of anthracite coal in making pig iron was<br />

not attempted until many years later. In 1812 Col.<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Shoemaker hauled nine wagons of anthracite<br />

coal from his mines at Centerville to Philadelphia.<br />

He sold two loads (one to White & Hazard) for the<br />

cost of transportation and gave away the other seven<br />

loads. Many people thought him an impostor attempting<br />

to sell stones as coal. David Thomas was<br />

the first to use anthracite coal in making pig iron at<br />

the Crane Iron Works near Swansea, Wales.<br />

The discovery of iron in the United States was the<br />

result of one of several expeditions sent out by Sir<br />

Walter Raleigh which reported finding ore in several<br />

places in the Carolinas in 1585 Notwithstanding the<br />

fact that iron ore was shipped to England in 1608 and<br />

found to be satisfactory, no iron works was erected in<br />

this country until about 1620. At that time a large<br />

number of skilled workmen were sent to the colonies<br />

to set up three iron works and from correspondence in<br />

existence it would seem the first iron was made at<br />

Falling Creek, Virginia, in 1622. However, in March<br />

of that year the entire group of workmen was massacred<br />

by the Indians and the plant was never rebuilt.<br />

The first permanent and successful iron works in the<br />

colonies was built at Lynn, Mass., in 1645.<br />

The products of the early colonial iron making<br />

were limited to cast iron and wrought iron, the latter<br />

being made direct from the ore, or indirectly from the<br />

pig iron produced in the blast furnace. The chance<br />

selections of ores determined the success of any installation.<br />

Chemical analysis was unknown and the<br />

processes were conducted in a purely empirical way as<br />

regards mining and preparation of the ore and use of<br />

fluxes.<br />

Nail making in the colonies was one of the first<br />

uses to which iron was put. The metal was first<br />

FIG. 5—General view of old Staffordshire helve.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed into strips or rods and these were heated and<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed by hand. A skilled artisan based his reputation<br />

upon the number of nails he could make at a<br />

single heating of the nail rod. During this time many<br />

country people in Massachusetts had little f<strong>org</strong>es in<br />

their chimney corners and made nails in winter evenings<br />

when little else could be done, even the children<br />

being sometimes thus occupied. There were no roll­<br />

ing mills in the country in the seventeenth century<br />

and all work on the original bloom was done by f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

usually under helve hammers, actuated by water<br />

power.<br />

As the industry developed England began imposing<br />

various restrictions until 1750 when she forbade<br />

the building of any more iron works in the colonies<br />

for the production of pig iron and raw bar iron. Joshua<br />

fcagEJiSsaaflfei? '.IIP ffiflHwn<br />

PmSltS'^: /Kn<br />

'• I " mk - -ISIS<br />

FIG. 6—From a painting, "First Steam Hammer in Full<br />

Work." (Autobiography by James Nasmyth.)<br />

Gee recommended that England should always keep a<br />

watchful eye over the colonies to restrain them from<br />

setting up any manufactures which are carried on in<br />

Great Britain. Despite these restrictions the industry<br />

slowly developed and during the revolutionaryr war<br />

the outstanding achievement was the manufacture of<br />

an iron chain nearly a mile long weighing 180 tons.<br />

Its links were made of bars 2y2 inches square, weighing<br />

about 100 lbs each. It was completed in six<br />

weeks, 60 men being employed and 17 f<strong>org</strong>es kept going<br />

day and night. It was stretched across the Hudson<br />

river at West Point, being supported by large<br />

logs about sixteen feet long, sharpened at the ends and<br />

set a short distance apart. The British vessels did<br />

not pass West Point. Two other chains were stretched<br />

across the Hudson during the war, one of which, however,<br />

was destroyed by the British.<br />

With the introduction of the reverberatory furnace<br />

by Thomas and Ge<strong>org</strong>e Cranage in 1766 and the puddling<br />

process by Cort in 1784, great impetus was given<br />

to the manufacture of wrought iron. Larger f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

were in demand than had been made heretofore and<br />

the limitations of the tilt hammer were keenly felt.<br />

While this hammer could make small f<strong>org</strong>ings successfully,<br />

it was an inefficient tool when dealing with<br />

large pieces. The upper tool moved in an arc, and<br />

therefore could not strike even blows on varying thicknesses<br />

of metal, the metal being subjected to a greater<br />

pressure toward the pivoted end of the helve. When<br />

a large piece, which required heavier blows, was<br />

placed on the anvil, it received lighter blows, owing to<br />

the fact that the piece occupied nearly all the space in<br />

which the helve moved. Therefore it became obviously<br />

desirable to obtain a force of impact not only<br />

greater than could be supplied by methods then in use,<br />

but applied vertically, and to meet this demand someone<br />

conceived the idea of attaching rope to a ponderous<br />

mass of iron, lifting it in vertical guides with a<br />

n


12 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating January, 1925<br />

gang of nun and then dropping it from any desired<br />

height within the limits of the machine. This contrivance<br />

was called the Hercules and was a fairly efficient<br />

tool for that period.<br />

lames Watt seems to have been the originator of<br />

the first steam hammer and it was patented by him in<br />

1784. However, no hammers appear to have been<br />

made under his patent and in 1839 Mr. James Nas-<br />

FIG. 7—Kelley's first tilting converter.<br />

myth of the Bridgewater Foundry near Manchester,<br />

England, designed and secured a patent for the steam<br />

hammer. This hammer was designed in response to<br />

an appeal made to Mr. Nasmyth by Mr. Humphries of<br />

the Great Western Company who wanted a large paddle<br />

shaft f<strong>org</strong>ed for their new steamship, the Great<br />

Britain, then under construction. After making a<br />

complete survey of the f<strong>org</strong>e shops in the British Isles,<br />

Mr. Humphries found that none of the f<strong>org</strong>emasters<br />

would undertake the f<strong>org</strong>ing of this shaft because of<br />

the lack of proper equipment and means. However,<br />

the style of propulsion of the steamship w-as later<br />

changed to the screw type, the shaft was not needed<br />

and the idea was abandoned until four years later<br />

when the first steam hammer was built in France according<br />

to Mr. Nasmyth's plans.<br />

With the introduction of the steam hammer, f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

were no longer limited to small sizes, the limiting<br />

factor up to the time of the introduction of steel being<br />

the difficulty in handling large piles under the hammer.<br />

To facilitate the handling of heavier pieces,<br />

swinging jib cranes were installed, with handworked<br />

winches for raising or lowering the load.<br />

The first iron steamboat in the United States was<br />

built in Pittsburgh about 1839. The same year.a sectional<br />

iron canal boat, the Kentucky, came over the<br />

mountains by means of a portage to Pittsburgh and<br />

the next year about 100 boats were made for this<br />

service.<br />

In 1S50 Sir Henry Chads, the captain of H. M. S.<br />

"Excellent," reported that "whether iron vessels are<br />

of slight or substantial construction, iron is not material<br />

calculated for ships of war." Seventeen iron<br />

ships which had then been in process of construction<br />

for fighting purposes were thereupon condemned as<br />

useless for war purposes. However, the destructive<br />

effects of shells and other incendiary projectiles used<br />

by the Russians against allied ships in an attack upon<br />

Sebastopol led to the immediate use of armour notwithstanding<br />

the previous adverse criticism of English<br />

gunnery officers. Our first experience with armoured<br />

war vessels was the engagement between the Monitor<br />

and the Merrimac during the civil war which resulted<br />

in the sinking of the Confederate Gunboat Merrimac<br />

.>n May 11, 1862.<br />

The discover}- of the pneumatic process of making<br />

wrought iron (or Bessemer process as it is called) by<br />

.Mr. William Kelley, in 1846, reads like a page from<br />

fiction. lie and his brother bought the Suwanee Iron<br />

Works, near Eddyville, Ky., where they had imported<br />

about three hundred Chinese, being opposed to Negro<br />

slavery. They were the first employers to bring in<br />

Chinese labor in any numbers. Kelley's business was<br />

the manufacture of wrought iron kettles for customers<br />

in Cincinnati. His iron was refined in what was<br />

called a "finery fire"—a slow, old-fashioned process<br />

which used up large quantities of charcoal. One day<br />

while watching his finery fire he noticed that the iron<br />

was actually heated by the blast of air at the point<br />

where there was no charcoal. The iron at this spot<br />

was incandescent, yet there was no charcoal—notning<br />

but the steady blast of air. The next week he publically<br />

demonstrated the idea, converting some pig iron<br />

into horseshoes and shoeing a horse with the metal.<br />

There were steamboats on the Ohio River with boilers<br />

made of iron that had been refined by Kelley's process,<br />

years before Sir Henry Bessemer of England had made<br />

any experiments with iron. It is no longer questioned<br />

that the pneumatic process was an American and not<br />

a British discovery.<br />

Closely following the pneumatic or Bessemer<br />

process came the Siemens-Martin or Open Hearth<br />

process. As with the Bessemer, the open hearth<br />

method for the manufacture of steel did not originate<br />

with either Dr. Siemens or the Martins, having been<br />

proposed and experimented with by various other inventors<br />

prior to their connections with it, among<br />

whom Josia Marshall Heath was most prominent.<br />

But the process was not made a success until the great<br />

,heat of the Siemens regenerative furnace was applied<br />

to it. It is said that M. Breant of France was the<br />

first to suggest that method of making steel.<br />

With the introduction of steel ingots of increasing<br />

size, many difficulties were encountered in their reduction<br />

under the hammer. Steam hammers up to<br />

120 tons were made, but because of the breakage of<br />

the hammers and the tackle on the ingots due to excessive<br />

vibration, they did not prove unqualifiedly<br />

successful. Along with the advent of the heavier ingots<br />

came the double acting type of hammer. This<br />

alteration enabled a heavier blow to be struck, due to<br />

the increased velocity of the descending hammer thru<br />

admitting steam on the top of the piston. Moreover,<br />

hydraulic and steam-operated jib cranes were used in<br />

place of the hand-worked winches to handle the<br />

heavier ingots.<br />

The hammers which we have heretofore referred<br />

to were used in f<strong>org</strong>ing between plain dies, smooth<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings and various other pieces more or less uniform


January, 1925<br />

in shape, and not many of any particular piece required<br />

at, or in, a given time. In 1890 there began to<br />

be a demand for small f<strong>org</strong>ings of miscellanous shapes<br />

which could not be made under a hammer using plain<br />

dies. This demand lead to the making cif dies with<br />

an impression in each, but as these impressions must<br />

be in line at all times it becomes necessarv to redesign<br />

the hammer to accommodate them. Thus a hammer<br />

known as a board drop hammer came into use which<br />

answered the purpose very nicely and many of these<br />

,are still in use. However, on account of the method<br />

,of operating these hammers, that is, by means of rollers<br />

working in conjunction with a vertical board, the<br />

,size is naturally limited and with the growth of the<br />

automobile industry many larger pieces were required<br />

in greater numbers than could be made under this<br />

jtype hammer. About 1904 the steam drop hammer<br />

.appeared and from that time on the development has<br />

been very rapid until we now have steam drop hammers<br />

up to 160 tons which when operated at 100 lbs.<br />

pressure are capable of striking a blow at the impact<br />

of approximately 9,000 tons.<br />

The first hydraulic press was made in 1795 by<br />

Braman, but there is no evidence to show it was designed<br />

for f<strong>org</strong>ings. It seems this pifss was used<br />

entirely for bailing purposes and it was not until 1847<br />

that a Mr. Fox, recognizing the possibilities of this<br />

type of machine, conceived the idea of fitting tools<br />

into Braman's press and using it for f<strong>org</strong>ing purposes.<br />

Several additional improvements were made<br />

within a few years and in 1861 Mr. Haswell successfully<br />

used a press in railway shops in Vienna for<br />

manufacturing locomotive f<strong>org</strong>ings. fin the manufacture<br />

of large f<strong>org</strong>ings the press was found to be ideal,<br />

the deeper and more uniform penetration obtainable<br />

resulting in an improved quality of material hitherto<br />

unknown.<br />

i JS!<br />

•Hi iHtwii<br />

, WjsSk<br />

/*% Ip<br />

¥ W,<br />

ha/,- fH<br />

" i (.^<br />

.<br />

' "',<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

fekJffl••'?' P •: I'll 1 1 m~<br />

Lib? • '•. . •" - • • « • ';'',s<br />

'.,'-.:,- ^Ps§S*»^SE^^'y •" '•*• '-•'•*•-• '" ^^-'"y^^^. • "'/': '-'V*raLJ-^ .<br />

FIG. 8—The old hand-fed blast furnace.<br />

The superiority- of large pressed f<strong>org</strong>ings is now<br />

universally recognized, many railroad specifications<br />

requiring that for important f<strong>org</strong>ings such as locomotive<br />

driving axles, etc., the reduction from bloom or<br />

ingot shall be made under a press of proper capacity.<br />

In our paper we have traced the growth of the industry<br />

from the early ages and in almost every case<br />

improvements were necessitated by the demand for<br />

larger f<strong>org</strong>ings. As f<strong>org</strong>ings increased in size, new<br />

methods were required for their manipulation and<br />

manufacture until it seemed there would be no limit<br />

to the size of material in demand. However, increased<br />

size meant increased weight and unwieldly equipment,<br />

a severe handicap, especially on moving parts.<br />

In recent years metallurgists have striven to produce<br />

materials of greater strength per square inch, therebyreducing<br />

weight and all the attendant evils. Thus<br />

the alloy steels came into prominence and along with<br />

the alloys came the development of scientific heat<br />

treatment, the hollow boring of large f<strong>org</strong>ings, so that<br />

the cry of today is for lighter f<strong>org</strong>ings of increased<br />

strength, calling a halt on mere bulk and demanding<br />

of each square inch of steel a carrying power undreamed<br />

of by our forefathers.<br />

Now then, we are preserving a niche in the hall of<br />

fame for the producer of a piston rod that won't break<br />

and a die block that won't wear out.<br />

Acknowledgement is made to Mr. J. A. Mathews,<br />

President Crucible Steel Company, and "The Chronology<br />

of Iron and Steel," published by Pittsburgh<br />

Steel Foundries Company, for several items of historical<br />

prominence incorporated in this paper.<br />

General Furnace Co. Takes Over Tate-Jones<br />

Tate-Jones & Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., manufacturers<br />

of gas and oil-fired and electric furnaces, gas<br />

and oil burners and accessories, has made an arrangement<br />

whereby all sales will be handled by the General<br />

Furnace Company, 1015 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia,<br />

Pa. Tate-Jones & Company will continue the manufacture<br />

of equipment.<br />

The General Furnace Company will take over the<br />

Tate-Jones sales force and sales offices. This arrangement<br />

went into effect January 1, 1925.<br />

A. E. S. C. Elects Officers<br />

At the annual meeting of the American Engineering<br />

Standards Committee on December 11, Mr. Charles<br />

E. Skinner, a representative of the American Institute<br />

of Electrical Engineers, was elected chairman for the<br />

vear 1925, and Mr. Charles Rufus Harte, representative<br />

of the American Electric Railway Association, was<br />

elected vice president.<br />

The other members of the executive committee for<br />

the year 1925 ar as follows :<br />

Ralph G. Barrows, U. S. War Department; Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />

K. Burgess. U. S. Department of Commerce; John A.<br />

Capp, American Society for Testing Materials; Coker<br />

F Clarkson, Society of Automotive Engineers; W. A.<br />

E. Doying, The Panama Canal; Stanley G. Flagg, Jr.,<br />

American Society of Mechanical Engineers; E. A.<br />

Frink, American Railway Association. Eng. Division;<br />

C. S. Gillette. U. S. Navy Department; O. P Hood,<br />

U. S. Department of the Interior; Sullivan W. Jones,<br />

American Institute of Architects; Thomas A. Mac-<br />

Donald, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Charles A.<br />

Mead, American Society of Civil Engineers; A. H.<br />

Moore, Electrical Manufacturers Council; A. Cressy<br />

Morrison. Gas Group; Dana Pierce, Fire Protection<br />

Group; F. L. Rhodes. Telephone Group; S. G. Rhodes,<br />

Electric Light and Power Group; C. F. W. Rys, Association<br />

of American Steel Manufacturers; Ethelebert<br />

Stewart, U. S. Department of Labor; Ge<strong>org</strong>e C.<br />

Stone. American Institute of Mining Engineers, and<br />

Albert W Whitney, Safety Group.<br />

13


11 f<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

January, 1925<br />

P r e s s e d M e t a l T e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y N e e d e d<br />

Technical Society Devoted Exclusively to Pressed Metal Problems<br />

Would Do Much to Improve Methods and Products<br />

T H E question as to the value of the various tech-*<br />

nical societies and <strong>org</strong>anizations, devoted to the<br />

interests of one industry or another, is much discussed,<br />

and while some are of the opinion that there<br />

is too much duplication of effort along this line, the<br />

actual accomplishments support the general opinion<br />

that they have rendered a valuable service, not onlyr<br />

to members but to industry in general. Some concerns<br />

feel that they are overburdened by the expense of<br />

their representatives attending the numerous conventions<br />

and meetings held throughout the year, but<br />

with few exceptions the returns more than compensate<br />

for the expense.<br />

While most of our large industries are represented<br />

bv their own societies, or at least take part in the<br />

Activities of some society that can best serve their<br />

needs, it is surprising to note that pressed metal<br />

manufacturers devote little, if any* attention to such<br />

Work. For more than a year F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat<br />

Treating has been quietly advocating the formation of<br />

a pressed metal technical society, but only after a<br />

thorough investigation had been made to determine<br />

whether such a movement was under way elsewhere,<br />

or if the activities of such a society would conflict<br />

with other existing societies.<br />

That the pressed metal industry should be represented<br />

bv a society devoted exclusively to the discussion<br />

of its own problems is borne out by the fact that<br />

Upwards of 5,000 companies are engaged in this work.<br />

O lly a part of this number are commercial manufacturers,<br />

but nevertheless it does not alter the fact that<br />

their problems still remain to lie solved.<br />

The formation of a pressed metal section or division<br />

in one of our large national societies should not<br />

be given serious consideration as such action would<br />

only tend to cause greater confusion to programs that<br />

are already overcrowded with technical papers. Those<br />

who attend the numerous national conventions will<br />

agree that the proper benefit is not derived from the<br />

many interesting papers presented; so much work<br />

being scheduled for the various sessions as to leave<br />

little time for discussion. Even the holding of semiannual<br />

meetings instead of the one annual convention<br />

or the scheduling of simultaneous sessions has not<br />

brought about the desired relief. In view of this condition,<br />

it does not seem advisable to consider joining<br />

forces with any of our existing societies, as the problems<br />

of the pressed metal manufacturer would only be<br />

a secondary consideration to the purpose for which the<br />

parent society was originally formed.<br />

Societies formed 10 years ago were adequate to<br />

serve the needs of its members, but whatever field it<br />

covered at that time has become divided into many<br />

specialized branches. Papers that used to be of interest<br />

to all members now only interest those specializing<br />

in that department with which the paper deals.<br />

*Editor.<br />

—Purposes of Such a Society Are Outlined<br />

By D. L. MATHIAS*<br />

That this condition actually exists is verified by the<br />

tendency of the technical societies to group papers<br />

that deal with specific subjects.<br />

Some of the larger manufacturers of pressed metal<br />

products are inclined to feel that suggestions for forming<br />

a society covering their particular field amount to<br />

an interference with their rights. In several cases<br />

they have gone so far as to say that they do not favor<br />

the <strong>org</strong>anization of a pressed metal technical society<br />

as it would give the small manufacturer the benefit of<br />

their experience, entirely overlooking the fact that<br />

they themselves were once in the embryonic stage.<br />

Perhaps the small concern can give his larger competitor<br />

many valuable pointers in the art of pressing<br />

metal, for it is not at all uncommon for large concerns<br />

to turn down work that may involve preliminary experimental<br />

work or in which failures may be high,<br />

either by quoting high prices or stating their inabilty<br />

to make delivery. The natural result is that the "undesirable"<br />

work is thrown upon the small producer<br />

who must possess a great deal of ability to profitably<br />

handle it. The idea that the large concern has a<br />

"corner" on experience is erroneous, for it is usually<br />

lack of sufficient financial backing rather than the<br />

lack of experience that has held the small concern<br />

down.<br />

Some manufacturer, if desiring to learn competitors'<br />

"secrets," will get them, regardless of the tactics<br />

he must employ. If others think they are withholding<br />

information fro mtheir competitor, they are only deceiving<br />

themselves. Why not get together, then, and<br />

get something in return? Co-operation is absolutely<br />

essential to the success of any business, and the same<br />

is true of any particular industry. The principle of<br />

open-mindedness that is characteristic of most American<br />

industries is responsible for much of their success.<br />

Teamwork is a pre-eminent factor in the successful<br />

administration of industrial activities and dispels<br />

antagonism.<br />

The pressed metal industry's need is for real teamwork<br />

in the free exchange of technical information<br />

and in the common effort to advance the industry by<br />

improving the quality of the product. This can only<br />

be accomplished through the formation of a technical<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization where the pressed metal manufacturer,<br />

the user and those who supply equipment and raw<br />

material can get together and discuss every phase of<br />

the industry.<br />

The purposes for which a pressed metal technical<br />

society should be formed might be outlined as follows:<br />

1—To promote the arts and sciences connected<br />

with the pressing of metals, and the study of subjects<br />

relating to manufacturing, uses and properties<br />

of pressed metal parts.<br />

2—To hold meetings for the reading and discussion<br />

of papers bearing upon processes, equipment,<br />

apparatus, etc., used in practical and research<br />

work connected with the art.


January, 1925<br />

3—To collect, publish and disseminate technical<br />

and practical knowledge for the improvement<br />

of pressed metal practice.<br />

4—To closely unite those engaged in the executive,<br />

technical and practical branches of the<br />

industry.<br />

5—To collect worth-while ideas and improved<br />

methods for its members.<br />

6—To disseminate information as to the accomplishments<br />

and possibilities of pressed metal.<br />

Much credit should be given to technical societies<br />

for their part in building up our great industrial system.<br />

Almost without exception their meetings are<br />

open to all who may care to atttend, where executives<br />

and artisans meet on common ground to discuss the<br />

numerous problems encountered.<br />

Like the proverbial chain, industrial plants are no<br />

stronger than the individuals in charge of the various<br />

departments. Some men enter into their work with a<br />

venturesome spirit, because the dominating idea in<br />

their minds is the achievement of success. To others,<br />

work is a drudgery, and they labor merely because it<br />

is essential to existence.<br />

The success of any concern depends entirely upon<br />

the initiative and self-confidence of the operating<br />

officials. Such men are always seeking to increase<br />

production or to cut production costs by improving<br />

conditions and adopting new methods. Behind all<br />

this there is an inspiration that tends to foster greater<br />

accomplishments. It is association with other men<br />

prominent in their particular field, at their plant or at<br />

meetings and conventions, that broadens the mind. The<br />

discussion of experiences in the numerous phases of<br />

their respective trade or profession serves as an inspiration,<br />

and tends to stimulate a greater interest in<br />

their work.<br />

The convention offers great opportunities for the<br />

man who has little time to visit other plants; and<br />

the contact with others in his particular profession is<br />

decidedly beneficial. It is upon such occasions that<br />

real accomplishments are achieved through the expression<br />

of opinion and experiences of the country's<br />

greatest engineers and scientists. New acquaintances<br />

are made and old friendships strengthened, thus developing<br />

a broader influence that will reflect favorably<br />

upon the service rendered to industry.<br />

The friendly co-operation between the various<br />

companies during the World War was an important<br />

factor in bringing it to a victorious conclusion, due in<br />

a large measure to the noble work of our many societies<br />

and the friendly relationship created at their<br />

meetings. Any mind is bound to become stagnant if<br />

constantly engaged in the daily routine grind of the<br />

shop, or if engaged in research or development is apt<br />

to lose sight of the fact that others may be working<br />

along the same line. By working co-operatively much<br />

duplication of effort can be eliminated. Many of the<br />

industries' largest problems have been solved in this<br />

manner that would otherwise have been passed over<br />

untouched, due to the enormous expense and time<br />

required.<br />

The art of pressing metal is comparatively in its<br />

infancy, but the remarkable results that have been<br />

prising designer ahead. achieved how In has so spite little far of the indicate of knowledge these possibilities that accomplishments the it average has of pressed a great engineer it is metal. future sur­ or<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Whenever anyone suggests the use of pressed metal,<br />

he associates it with toys or novelties and gives it<br />

little if any further consideration. The advantages of<br />

pressed metal over parts produced by other methods<br />

are well known to the pressed metal manufacturer,<br />

but facilities for demonstrating this to prospective<br />

users are limited and slow in bringing results.<br />

As the use of pressed metal is extended to heavier<br />

work, more powerful presses and better die steels will<br />

be required. The mild or low carbon steels of today<br />

will be replaced with harder and stronger alloy steels<br />

as the demand for stronger and better wearing parts<br />

increases, necessitating smaller draws and more frequent<br />

annealing, thus adding to the difficulties of the<br />

pressed metal engineer.<br />

In view of the many advantages to be gained<br />

through the formation of a pressed metal technical<br />

society, it is to be hoped that the year 1925 will witness<br />

a move in this direction, and that before another<br />

year rolls by it will be on the way to occupy a position<br />

among our other leading societies.<br />

In March of last year Henry L. Doherty & Company<br />

announced the acquisition, through Combustion<br />

Utilities Corporation, of the Surface Combustion<br />

Company, Inc., industrial furnace engineers and manufacturers.<br />

Combustion Utilities Corporation has just announced<br />

the consolidation of the personal and activities<br />

of its appliances and industrial furnace departments<br />

with those of the Surface Combustion Company',<br />

Inc. The greater <strong>org</strong>anization continuing under<br />

the name of the Surface Combustion Company,<br />

Inc., will be the Utilization Division of Combustion<br />

Utilities Corporation.<br />

Under the consolidation Henry O. Loebell continues<br />

as president of the Surface Combustion Company,<br />

Inc.; E. E. Basquin, vice president and general<br />

manager, W. M. Hepburn, vice president; Frank H.<br />

Adams, treasurer, and E. M. Doig, secretary. Paul J.<br />

Nutting, formerly in charge of Toledo Appliance Division<br />

of Combustion Utilities Corporation, becomes<br />

vice president in charge of production. C. B. Phillips,<br />

former sales manager Toledo dvision, becomes vice<br />

president and sales manager of the Stock Furnace Division,<br />

which will include all the well-known "improved"<br />

and "utility" appliances, and the "Blue Line"<br />

furnaces. F. Wr. Manker, previously in charge of<br />

Combustion Utilities large furnace department, becomes<br />

vice president and will be associated with Mr.<br />

Hepburn in the large furnace division.<br />

The Surface Combustion Company, Inc., sales and<br />

general offices will be continued at 366-368 Gerard<br />

avenue, New York, and all production at Toledo.<br />

In commenting on this consolidation Mr. Loebell<br />

said: "This consolidation unites in one unit the utilization,<br />

engineering and sales personnel of these two<br />

<strong>org</strong>anizations, so well known 'Wherever Heat is Used<br />

in Industry.' It brings to all industries the skilled<br />

services of the largest family of combustion engineers,<br />

whose skill is exemplified in equipment for the utilization<br />

of fuel with the utmost economy, but which<br />

makes for easier control. Wre will continue to f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

ahead and force progress in efficient fuel utilization in<br />

industry ment, industry and by in a its providing well great rounded strides a complete <strong>org</strong>anization forward."<br />

line of furnace to assist equip­ all<br />

15


It.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

January, 1925<br />

S t a m p i n g P l a n t D e s i g n e d for S m a l l W o r k<br />

New Plant of the Acklin Stamping Company at Toledo, Ohio,<br />

Designed to Handle a Wide Variety of Small Work—<br />

T H E use of pressed metal parts is gaining momentum<br />

as the various engineers are beginning to<br />

recognize their many advantages. Absolute uniformity<br />

from piece to piece, lightness of weight, and<br />

the fact that such parts require little, if any, machining<br />

after they come from the press are only a few of the<br />

reasons why pressed metal is gaining in popularity.<br />

The facilities of many plants are inadequate to<br />

handle this class of work to meet present day competition,<br />

having been built some years ago and enlarged<br />

from time to time by an addition here and there. What<br />

advantages the original plant may have possessed<br />

have been lost by the numerous enlargements until<br />

it can no longer produce work at a profit. This is<br />

particularly true in a plant doing a jobbing business,<br />

where a great variety of work must be handled. Such<br />

a plant must be laid out with a view- to expediting<br />

orders received on short notice.<br />

The Acklin Stamping Company, Toledo, Ohio, recently<br />

moved into their new plant at Nebraska Avenue<br />

and the New York Central Railroad. The building<br />

is of modern fire proof construction, consisting of<br />

brick, steel and glass, 600 ft. in length by 150 ft. wide<br />

and located on a 16 acre site, which allows ample room<br />

for expansion. The building is divided into three bays,<br />

each 50 ft. in width, the center bay being served by a<br />

10-ton crane.<br />

The presses are lined up in comparatively small<br />

groups, with separate drives for each group, thereby<br />

removing the danger of departmental shut-down. The<br />

small and medium sized presses are located in the<br />

north bay; the heavy press equipment is located in<br />

the center bay where it is served to advantage by the<br />

crane. The heavy presses have individual drives, and<br />

are also equipped with stationary jib cranes attached<br />

to their frames to facilitate handling of large dies and<br />

bolster plates.<br />

In the south bay are also located the tumbling,<br />

grinding, annealing and welding rooms, so located as<br />

to reduce the trucking of parts in process to a minimum.<br />

These rooms are completely closed so as to<br />

eliminate noise, dust, and heat, from the rest of the<br />

plant. In the same bay is located the space for die<br />

storage, in which is kept the innumerable dies made<br />

for the customer's work.<br />

The balance of the south bay is taken up with a<br />

space provided for steel storage'and receiving. This<br />

end of the building is served with a side track running<br />

Ample Room Provided for Future Expansion<br />

the entire length, above which is a three-ton monorail<br />

for unloading coal and loading scrap, etc. Incoming<br />

steel is taken from the floor of the car direct into the<br />

steel storage space. Here are located shears of various<br />

sizes for cutting the stock to size from standard<br />

sheets on requisition from the press room. Considering<br />

the variety of work handled in a jobbing business,<br />

this is an important part of the service, for not all jobs<br />

are of sufficient size or nature to warrant the purchase<br />

of special sizes of strip steel. The raw material is<br />

delivered to the press room on lift trucks by means of<br />

a gasoline tractor.<br />

In the west end of the building is a section devoted<br />

entirely to the manufacture of pressed steel steering<br />

wheel spiders for automobile use. The equipment in<br />

this department consists of the proper sizes of presses<br />

so arranged as to eliminate the handling of parts to<br />

a minimum between operations. In addition there is<br />

the equipment for melting the alloys from which the<br />

hub of the spider is cast, as well as a motor driven<br />

turn table used in the casting operation. The special<br />

machining, tapping, etc., required for special designs<br />

is also handled in this department.<br />

On the east end are located the general offices, as<br />

well as 16,000 square feet for the die shop. Here is<br />

a variety of equipment which enables approximately<br />

60 die makers to turn out new production dies and<br />

tools, as well as to take care of maintenance on old<br />

production equipment.<br />

As the Acklin Stamping Company is practically engaged<br />

in a jobbing business, the new plant has an<br />

ideal layout for handling a wide variety of work. The<br />

arrangement also assists in expediting orders which<br />

are received on short notice. Among other parts produced<br />

are the majority of those required in automobile<br />

and truck construction, and many others for stove and<br />

furniture use, as well as electrical devices.<br />

In 1911, Grafton M. Acklin resigned as general<br />

manager of the Toledo Machine and Tool Company,<br />

selling out his interest in that concern. He founded<br />

the Acklin Stamping Company for the benefit of his<br />

two sons, James M. Acklin and W. Collord Acklin,<br />

who have been active in the management of the firm<br />

since that time. At a still later date a third son, Donald<br />

R. Ackhn, went into the firm.<br />

Associated in the firm with the Acklin brothers are<br />

Duane T. Anderson as chief engineer; F. Cyril Greenlull,<br />

production manager and Harold Jay as sales engineer.


January, 1925<br />

FIG. 1—Small presses.<br />

FIG. 2—Die shop.<br />

Pickling of Iron and Steel<br />

The pickling of iron and steel is an important industrial<br />

undertaking and many of the technical problems<br />

involved are of live interest in the Pittsburgh<br />

region. Since there is no book on the subject, and<br />

adequate information is not readily found, the Technology<br />

Department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh<br />

has compiled a list of references to the scattered<br />

literature in journals and patent specifications. During<br />

1924, this bibliography appeared serially in two<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

FIG. 3—Medium presses.<br />

FIG. 4—Die shop.<br />

FIG. 5—Steel storage.<br />

FIG. 6—Center bay.<br />

local journals—"The Blast Furnace and Steel Plant,"<br />

and "F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating." The library<br />

has now published the material in pamphlet form and<br />

copies are available for distribution free (by mail, 5<br />

cents).<br />

The list, which was compiled by Victor S. Polansky,<br />

contains more than 300 references classified under various<br />

headings, such as: Machines and Equipment,<br />

Pickling in Acid Solutions, Pickling in Salt Solutions,<br />

Electrolytic Pickling, Inhibitors and Accelerators, Recovery<br />

of Spent Liquors, and Effect of Pickling.<br />

17


118<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

HEAT TREATMENT and METALLOGRAPHY of STEEL~| j<br />

J<br />

January, 1925<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER III—METALLOGRAPHY<br />

PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS*<br />

ONE of the oldest methods of testing steel is the<br />

fracture test, in which the piece is broken, and<br />

the exposed surface, or so-called "grain", carefully<br />

examined. This is still widely used, and to the skilled<br />

observer yields a surprising amount of information as<br />

to the fineness or coarseness of true grain, presence of<br />

blowholes, flaws, or inclusions, overheating or underheating<br />

in heat treatment, approximate carbon content,<br />

etc. However a highly trained eye is needed, the<br />

results are limited at best, and the indications may<br />

readily be misleading. For example, a piece of steel<br />

may show a very different "grain", depending upon<br />

whether it is broken byr gradual bending, or nicked<br />

and broken by a sudden blow. The real grain structure<br />

of metals is generally so small that it is invisible<br />

to the naked eye, and can be revealed only by the<br />

compound microscope.<br />

In an effort to get more accurate information from<br />

studyr of the fracture, an early scientific investigator<br />

used the microscope to examine fractures, but little<br />

was gained, because the surface of the break was too<br />

irregular to permit focusing a microscope of high<br />

power, and a clear image could not be obtained. Moreover,<br />

the act of breaking a piece of metal will generally<br />

distort or destroy at that point, the very structure<br />

which it is desired to examine. Pioneers in Metallog-<br />

*The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the<br />

following references for information contained in this section,<br />

and to recommend them to the student for further reading: (5)<br />

"The Preparation of Metallographic Specimens," H. M. Boylston,<br />

A.S.S.T. Handbook; (6) Circular of the Bureau of Standards,<br />

No. 113—"Structure and Related Properties of Metals"; (7)<br />

"Introduction to Physical Metallurgy." Rosenhain; (8) "The<br />

Metallography & Heat Treatment of iron and Steel," Sauveur.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factory,<br />

United States Navy Yard. Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright. 1924, by H. C. Knerr.<br />

raphy (Sorby in England, Martens in Germany, Osmond<br />

in France) soon found that the best way to<br />

study the microscopic structure, or "microstructure"<br />

of metals, was to prepare a "section", by grinding a<br />

small flat surface, polishing it to remove all scratches,<br />

and etching it with an acid or other reagent to reveal<br />

the individual grains and constituents. Later it was<br />

found that this process of polishing and etching could<br />

be applied, to larger sections for the purpose of revealing<br />

characteristics large enough to be seen without<br />

the aid of a microscope, that is the "macrostructure."<br />

Taking the specimen for metallographic examination<br />

requires particular care and judgment, for it must<br />

truly represent the part under examination, and the<br />

structure must not be altered in cutting or preparing<br />

the specimen. A record should be made of the position<br />

of the specimen in the piece, and the relation of<br />

the prepared surface to the direction of f<strong>org</strong>ing or<br />

rolling. A sketch is helpful. In most cases a longitudinal<br />

section yields more information than a transverse<br />

section as it shows the effects of elongation due<br />

to working. For a microsection the specimen should<br />

not be larger than necessary, and may in many cases<br />

be quite small. A section y2 inch square or round is a<br />

good size. It is much easier to polish four pieces l/t<br />

inch square than one piece 1 inch square. The height<br />

dimension (perpendicular to the prepared surface)<br />

should also be about y2 inch, for convenience in handling.<br />

If the specimen is too high it is difficult to hold<br />

it true in grinding and polishing, and a rounded surface<br />

results. The polished surface must be true and<br />

flat, otherwise it will be impossible to focus uniformly<br />

at high magnifications, and parts of the image will be<br />

blurred.<br />

When the sample is not too hard or tough, specimens<br />

are generally cut out with a hack saw. Brittle<br />

material may be nicked on an emery wheel and broken<br />

with a hammer. A thin alundum or carborundum<br />

disk wheel about 3/32 in. thick, running in water to


January, 1925<br />

prevent heating, is very useful in cutting hard or<br />

tough specimens. Distortion of the metal and heat<br />

must be avoided. Each specimen should be marked<br />

to identify it.<br />

Very small specimens may be held or mounted in<br />

various devices for convenience in handling and to insure<br />

flatness of the surface, and also to prevent rounding<br />

of the edges. The writer has found a set of metal<br />

clamps, such as is illustrated in Fig. 18, quite useful<br />

for holding specimens of a variety of shapes and sizes.<br />

These are cheaply and easily made from square or<br />

rectangular bar stock, and small machine screws.<br />

Several small specimens may be polished at one time<br />

in such a clamp. After examination the specimens<br />

may be removed, and the clamp used again. The<br />

specimen should be allowed to extend slightly beyond<br />

the face of the clamp at the start, so as to avoid<br />

grinding away too much of the clamp. The clamps<br />

are worn away on the grinding surfaces in time, but<br />

are readily replaced. Specimens, such as fine wire,<br />

thin sheet, turnings and even filings, may be imbedded<br />

in some low melting alloy, in sealing wax, or in a<br />

composition made of litharge (PbO) and glycerine<br />

mixed to a thick paste. The latter sets and forms a<br />

very hard surface, which does not interfere with the<br />

polishing of the specimens (ref. 6). The mounting<br />

material is held in a small container consisting of a<br />

short section of tube or gas pipe, or in a gas pipe cap,<br />

Fig. 19. The outside diameter of the container should<br />

be about y2 or y in. The following low melting alloys<br />

or fuse metals are suggested by various authorities.<br />

Any of them will melt in boiling water:<br />

Campion an d<br />

Metal Ferguson<br />

Bismuth<br />

50*<br />

Lead<br />

30<br />

Tin<br />

25<br />

Zinc<br />

3<br />

Cadmium<br />

Ref.<br />

(5)<br />

•Parts by weight.<br />

Rose<br />

%<br />

50<br />

28<br />

22<br />

(6)<br />

Wood<br />

%<br />

50<br />

25<br />

13<br />

12<br />

(6)<br />

Ordinary tin-lead solder may be used where it is known that<br />

its melting temperature will not affect the specimen.<br />

Specimens may be copper-plated to assist in protecting<br />

the edges of the polished surface. Directions<br />

for doing this are given in ref. (6). The writer has<br />

found, however, that the presence of other metals often<br />

has a tendency to interfere with the etching of the<br />

specimen, and therefore, prefers to use a clamp or<br />

holder of the same metal as the specimen (steel for<br />

steel or iron, aluminum for aluminum, etc.) and avoid<br />

the use of fusible alloys or plating.<br />

Polishing.<br />

Polishing is done in several steps:<br />

1. Grinding or filing to produce a flat surface.<br />

2. Rough polishing.<br />

3. Fine polishing.<br />

The work may be performed by hand, but it generally<br />

pays to provide motor driven grinding and polishing<br />

wheels. These may be mounted either vertically<br />

or horizontally. Various types are on the market,<br />

some of which are illustrated in Fig. 20. Many<br />

laboratories construct their own.<br />

After cutting off the specimen and, if necessary,<br />

placing it in a clamp or holder, the face to be polished<br />

is first ground perfectly flat, on a medium fine, medium<br />

hard grinding wheel, running at about 1200 rpm. The<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

specimen is held in the fingers and is kept cool by<br />

frequently dipping it in water, or running a small<br />

stream on it. The flat side of the wheel is used. Pressure<br />

should be light and a good cutting action insured.<br />

For soft metals, a file may be used instead of<br />

grinding. The file should be placed flat on the table<br />

or held in a vise, and the specimen moved back and<br />

forth along it.<br />

It is well to remove 1/32 in. or 1/16 in. of metal<br />

in the first grinding or filing operation, or more, if<br />

necessary, to get down to metal which has not been<br />

distorted in cutting or breaking off the specimen.<br />

When this has been done, and the surface is perfectly<br />

flat, the edges may be slightly rounded so that they<br />

will not catch in subsequent polishing papers and<br />

clothes. Where sharp edges are called for they should<br />

be protected by the clamp or holder, as they will<br />

otherwise be unavoidably rounded to some extent in<br />

polishing, and this will prevent a clear focus.<br />

The next operation is rough polishing. This may<br />

be done on a medium fine grade of emery cloth or<br />

paper, laid on a flat slab, such as a piece of plate glass.<br />

(Grade numbers vary with different makes. French<br />

No. 1 is recommended by Boylston, ref. 5. The<br />

FIG. 18.—Clamps for holding specimens. FIG. 19.—Tube and<br />

gas cap holder. FIG. 21.—Mounting device for use with<br />

upright microscope.<br />

writer has found an American grade 00 satisfactory<br />

The student can choose a suitable grade by trial. Cutting<br />

should be fairly rapid, but the marks distinctly<br />

finer than those left by the grinding wheel or file.)<br />

Instead of emery cloth, Turkish emery flour, may<br />

be used—grade FF, spread wet on a flat disk covered<br />

with cloth, such as 12 ounce canvas duck. The<br />

specimen should be held so that the new polishing<br />

marks run at right angles to the grinding or file marks,<br />

and rough polishing continued until all the old marks<br />

are removed.<br />

After each successive grinding and polishing operation,<br />

and before going to the next finer grade, the<br />

specimen should be thoroughly cleaned (washed in<br />

running water, if necessary), to remove all of the<br />

coarser abrasive material. If this is neglected, deep<br />

scratches may result, which will greatly lengthen the<br />

process.<br />

Rough polishing is often done in several stages, as<br />

by following the No. 1 French emery with Nos. 0, 00<br />

and 000. At each stage the specimen is turned through<br />

90 degrees, and polished until all the preceeding<br />

scratches are removed. Polishing on successive<br />

stages of emery paper, may well be done by hand, on<br />

19


20 f<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

a plate glass slab, as each step takes only a minute or<br />

two. The paper should not be used after it ceases<br />

to cut freely. Pressure should be light. It is easy to<br />

spoil a well ground specimen, by rounding its surface,<br />

in rough polishing.<br />

Final polishing is done on a flat metal disk, covered<br />

with broadcloth, wet with a mixture of polishing<br />

powder and water, and revolving at about 600 revolutions<br />

per minute. The specimen is pressed gently<br />

on the revolving disk, and given a slight eliptical motion<br />

near the end of the operation, to eliminate<br />

streaks resulting from the motion of the wheel. It<br />

is often a good plan to stop the wheel, add some fresh<br />

polishing powder, and rub the specimen a few times<br />

on the broad cloth by hand, as a final operation.<br />

If steel specimens are rough polished down to No.<br />

000 French emery, the final polish may be obtained<br />

in a single operation, using levigated alumina powder<br />

(AljOs). Some prefer to stop the rough polishing at<br />

an earlier stage, and use two steps in final polishing—<br />

the first being done with white reground tripoli powder<br />

or alundum powder 65 F, and the last with levigated<br />

alumina grade No. 3, or with "superfine" magnesia<br />

powder. A different disk is used for each grade<br />

of powder. Jewelers' rouge was formerly used by<br />

many as a final polishing powder, but is rapidly going<br />

out of favor because it has a persistent tendency to<br />

leave scratches, stains the clothing and fingers and<br />

does not cut so freely as alumina.<br />

The finally polished surface should have a mirrorlike<br />

finish, practically free from even microscopic<br />

scratches. There should be no smearing or buffing<br />

action in any of the polishing operations. A free cutting<br />

action should be maintained throughout. The<br />

polished specimen should be carefully washed and<br />

dried. The surface may be wiped with a clean soft<br />

chamois skin, but should not be touched with the fingers.<br />

Specimens may be wrapped in cotton or soft<br />

January, 1925<br />

tissue paper, or placed in a dessicator until ready for<br />

etching and examination. Hard specimens are usually<br />

easier to polish than soft ones.<br />

A polishing disk having a horizontal face (axis<br />

vertical) is believed to be the more convenient, and<br />

easier to keep clean, as it can be covered with a lid<br />

when not in use. A good grade of broad cloth is<br />

stretched over the face of the disk, by means of a brass<br />

ring. The fine polishing powder has a tendency to<br />

work through the cloth and form lumps underneath.<br />

This may be prevented by heating the disk, spreading<br />

on its surface a molten mixture of equal parts resin<br />

and beeswax, and pressing the cloth flat down on this.<br />

When the disk cools, the cloth is firmly cemented to<br />

its surface.<br />

Levigation of Polishing Powder.<br />

The grinding wheels, emery cloth and paper, and<br />

coarser polishing powders can be purchased from various<br />

supply houses, ready for use. The aluminum oxide<br />

is obtainable from a chemical supply house, as AL03<br />

—CP (Chemically Pure), but usually must be refined<br />

and cleaned before being used for fine polishing. This<br />

process is called "levigation", and is performed as follows<br />

:<br />

Instructions for Levigation of Aluminum Oxide<br />

Polishing Powder for Final Polishing of<br />

Metallographic Specimens.<br />

Step No. 1. Place about 25 cc. of aluminum oxide<br />

(APO,—CP) in a 2,500 cc. (2y to 3 quarts), bottle.<br />

Add 2,000 cc. (about 2 quarts) of water and 8 cc.<br />

nitric acid (UNO,, cone). Shake well and let stand<br />

for three or more days.<br />

No. 2—Siphon off and discard solution.<br />

No. 3—Add 2,000 cc. water to remaining powder.<br />

Shake well and let stand for at least 24 hours. Siphon<br />

off water and again add 2,000 cc. water, shake and al-<br />

FIG. 20.—Left—Wysor combined grinding and polishing machine, single spindle type. The grinding wheels for roughing,<br />

medium and finishing are of carborundum or alundum and are attached at the ends of the horizontal shaft. The polishing<br />

discs are of brass with c.oth covers, easily replacable, and are mounted on the head of the vertical spindle. The<br />

drive is by horizontal shaft with friction wheel, readily disengaged by means of a cam. The speed of the discs is controlled<br />

by shifting the shaft contact. Polishing is done first, with a canvas covered disc and emory flour, and then with<br />

a broadcloth disc and tripoli powder, and finally w.th broadcloth disc and alumina or jeweler's rouge. Tin cases are provided<br />

for holding the discs when not in use. Right—Sauveur grinding and polishing machine—An electric motor with<br />

elongated spind.es carries at one end an Alundum wheel for grinding and at the other a cloth-covered disc for polishing<br />

providing four surfaces of graduated fineness. The polishing powders are mixed with water and applied to the various'<br />

discs which by is means the speed of brushes recommended Sheet for metal this shields work.<br />

catch any surplus water thrown off during driving. Worn polishing<br />

cloths are quickly replaced. The motor is entirely (A. protected H. Thomas from Co.) grit and dust and runs quietlv - bout 1200 r D m '*


January, 1925<br />

low to settle for 24 hours or more. Repeat this washing<br />

a third time to get rid of all traces of nitric acid.<br />

No. 4—Finally, add 2,000 cc. water to the powder,<br />

shake well and let stand for 15 or 20 minutes. At<br />

the end of this time the coarser part of the powder<br />

will have settled to the bottom of the bottle, but the<br />

fine powder will remain in suspension. Siphon off<br />

this "emulsion" of fine powder into a clean bottle and<br />

let stand until all the powder settles and the water is<br />

practically clear. This water may now be siphoned<br />

off and the fine polishing powder remains.<br />

No. 5—The remaining coarse powder may again be<br />

shaken up with 2,000 cc. water and allowed to settle<br />

for 20 minutes, whereupon a second lot of fine powder<br />

will remain in suspension, and may be siphoned off<br />

and allowed to settle as before.<br />

Distilled water should be used in all operations if<br />

available, otherwise filtered water. Accuracy in measuring<br />

quantities is not essential. The levigated powder<br />

is shaken up with enough water to make a fluid,<br />

and kept in a small stoppered glass bottle. In use,<br />

the bottle is shaken, and a few drops of the water,<br />

carrying some of the powder in suspension, is sprinkled<br />

on the polishing disk. It is very important to keep<br />

the polishing powder, the polishing wheel, and the<br />

finer grades of emery paper perfectly free from dust<br />

and dirt. One or more specks of grit may produce<br />

many scratches in a specimen, which will take a long<br />

time to remove. In case a specimen gets scratched in<br />

final polishing, it is best to go back to a coarser grade<br />

of emery and repolish. It does not pay to attempt<br />

to remove pronounced scratches in the final polishing<br />

operation.<br />

The polished surface must, of course, be truly<br />

parallel to the focal plane of the microscope, or, what<br />

is the same thing, parallel to the stage. This is automatically<br />

taken care of in the inverted microscope.<br />

In case an inverted microscope is not available, specimens<br />

may be mounted by means of a device such as<br />

illustrated in Fig. 21. The specimen is placed with<br />

its polished face down on a flat surface, protected by<br />

a sheet of clean paper, inside of a short tube, having<br />

parallel ends. A piece of plastic wax is placed on top<br />

of it, and a microscope slide, or other small flat piece,<br />

pressed down until it rests on the ring. The wax<br />

attaches the specimen to the slide, which is then placed<br />

on the stage of the microscope. Sauveur has patented<br />

a magnetic specimen holder, which is convenient for<br />

similar purposes, illustrated in ref. 8, Fig. 9.<br />

Etching.<br />

Under the microscope, a well polished specimen<br />

shows a perfectly smooth, bright surface, except that<br />

non-metallic inclusions, such as slag, oxides or manganese<br />

sulfide, are plainly revealed. Fig. 22. It is<br />

therefore well to examine for non-metallic inclusions<br />

before etching.<br />

The grain structure in a polished specimen is hidden<br />

by an extremely thin layer of metal which has<br />

been "smeared", or flowed over the surface in final<br />

polishing. (This smearing action cannot be completely<br />

avoided, owing to the nature of metals, as explained<br />

in Rosenhain, ref. 7, Chapter II, but it must be kept<br />

at a minimum, as discussed under polishing.)<br />

The'surface layer is removed and the structure of<br />

the metal revealed by "etching", that is, by attacking<br />

the metal with a solvent, such as an acid. After the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

surface film is removed, the constituents and the various<br />

grains are differently attacked by the reagent.<br />

If the sample is pure metal, or a solid solution, such<br />

as carbonless iron, individual grains are attacked differently,<br />

according to their "orientation", that is, the<br />

arrangement of their crystalline planes. This will<br />

make some grains appear dark and others bright. The<br />

grain boundaries will also become clearly marked. If<br />

there are different constituents such as iron and iron<br />

carbide (cementite), certain of them will stand out in<br />

FIG. 22.—(a) Polished specimen, unetched. (b) Same after<br />

etching. (lOOx.)<br />

relief, and whether they are bright or dark will de<br />

pend not only upon their actual condition, but also<br />

upon how the light strikes them. Certain etching reagents<br />

affect certain constituents in distinctive ways.<br />

A great variety of etching reagents has been developed<br />

for different purposes, but for all ordinary work,<br />

a very few will be found sufficient.<br />

Perhaps the most useful for etching steel, is a dilute<br />

solution, from 1 per cent to 10 per cent, of nitric<br />

acid (UNO,) in alcohol. A 2 per cent solution is<br />

recommended. (Add 2 cc. concentrated nitric acid,<br />

sp. gr. 1.42, to 98 cc. ethyl (grain) alcohol, 95 per<br />

cent.) This should be kept in a bottle having a glass<br />

stopper. When ready to etch, a glass dish about 2 in.<br />

to 3 in. in diameter is filled to a depth of about l/^ in.<br />

with the reagent and the specimen dipped in, polished<br />

face down, moved about gently, without being allowed<br />

to touch the bottom. It is observed every few seconds<br />

to note the progress of the attack. (The surface<br />

becomes slightly dull.) High carbon steel etches<br />

rapidly, sometimes in two or three seconds, low carbon<br />

steel more slowly. It is better to under etch than<br />

over etch. When etching has progressed far enough<br />

the specimen is rinsed in water to remove the acid,<br />

and then in alcohol (95 per cent) to remove the water,<br />

and carefully dried, with a clean soft chamois, or in<br />

a warm place or a draft of warm air. If examination<br />

under the microscope now shows that etching has<br />

been insufficient, the process may be repeated.<br />

Another widely used etching reagent is the following:<br />

5 grams of picric acid, CgH^NO^OH, chemically<br />

pure, is dissolved in 95 cubic centimeters ethyl alcohol,<br />

95 per cent. The solution must be kept in a well<br />

stoppered glass bottle.<br />

Cementite (carbide of iron), the hardest constituent<br />

of steel, remains bright after etching in the usual<br />

etching reagents, and may therefore sometimes be<br />

21


22<br />

mistaken for ferrite (iron jwhich also remains bright<br />

under certain conditions. If the polished specimen is<br />

immersed in a boiling solution of sodium picrate for<br />

5 or 10 minutes, the cementite will be colored brown<br />

or black, but the ferrite will be unaffected. This affords<br />

a sure method of identifying cementite. The<br />

reagent may be prepared as follows: Dissolve 24.5<br />

grams of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH,<br />

C. P.) in 73.5 cc. water, and dissolve 2 grams picric<br />

acid in this (Ref. 8).<br />

Heaf tinting is an interesting method used to distinguish<br />

certain constituents, especially phosphorus<br />

FIG. 23.—Sulphur Print. FIG. 24.—Deep etching—segregation.<br />

FIG. 25.—Deep etching—stresses. (Rawdon ref. 6.)<br />

in cast iron. The specimen is first etched very lightly<br />

in dilute nitric or picric acid, to remove the surface<br />

film, but not to firing out the grain structure strongly,<br />

and washed and dried. It is then slowly heated on an<br />

electric hot plate, a bath of molten solder, or the like.<br />

The air causes colored oxide films to appear on the<br />

surface. These colors change as oxidation progresses,<br />

but the parts rich in phosphorus color more rapidly,<br />

and will therefore reach a purple or blue color while<br />

the other portions are still yellow, brown, or red. The<br />

specimen is cooled at this point and examined. (Ref. 8.)<br />

A list of etching reagents for various purposes is<br />

given in A. S. S. T. Handbook, data sheets T-7 to T-22.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Rapid Method of Polishing.<br />

January, 1925<br />

The following method of preparing metal specimens<br />

for microscopic examination, described by Mr.<br />

H. B. Pulsifer, Assistant Professor of Metallurgy, Lehigh<br />

University, ("Chem. and Met. Engineering,"<br />

November 5, 1923), is believed worth mentioning here.<br />

He states that this method is not only quicker, but<br />

due to the relief polishing effects, brings out greater<br />

details, at moderate magnifications, than the more<br />

elaborate methods of preparation. He does not recommend<br />

it for magnifications higher than about lOOx,<br />

because the relief obtained is too deep for the focal<br />

plane of the more powerful objectives. His method is<br />

as follows:<br />

The surface is first prepared with a file. The file<br />

marks are ground off with flour emery on a wet wheel,<br />

then the emery marks are removed with tripoli. This<br />

surface is now given a fairly prolonged etch, in the<br />

usual picric or nitric acid solution, which dissolves off<br />

all mechanically flowed surface metal and the deeper<br />

scratches. The specimen is then rubbed by hand, on<br />

a thick layer of wet, levigated tripoli, until smooth.<br />

The etching is repeated with a short attack, and the<br />

surface again smoothed on the board with gentler<br />

passes. A final etching should then display the structure<br />

to advantage. The entire operation should take<br />

3 to 8 minutes.<br />

Dessicator.<br />

Wrhen it is necessary to preserve specimens for<br />

some time, after polishing or etching, they must be<br />

protected from moisture. They may be kept in a dessicator,<br />

which is a glass vessel having an air tight lid,<br />

and containing a quantity of un-slacked lime or calcium<br />

chloride to absorb the moisture from the air in<br />

the container. Specimens wrapped in tissue paper<br />

often remain uncorroded for days or even weeks, without<br />

the use of a dessicator. Specimens as a rule become<br />

corroded much more rapidly after they have<br />

been etched. It is therefore better not to etch until<br />

ready to examine. Slight corrosion may often be removed<br />

by repolishing on the disk with alumina.<br />

PART 2—MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION<br />

While the microscopic examination of metals gives<br />

us the best insight into their characteristics, the effects<br />

of various alloying elements, and the changes<br />

which take place in heat treatment, a preliminary examination<br />

of the grosser structure, such as can be seen<br />

with the unaided eye or with a simple magnifying<br />

glass, is very useful. This is called "macroscopic"<br />

examination. It is usually made for the purpose of<br />

revealing chemical or physical non-uniformity, segregations,<br />

flaws, persistent ingot or casting structure,<br />

lines of flow in f<strong>org</strong>ing or forming, internal flaws,<br />

fractures, cavities, blow holes, welded areas, etc. As<br />

in the study of microstructure, the exact method of<br />

preparing and treating the specimen will vary with<br />

the characteristic it is desired to bring out. The<br />

area to be examined is of course much larger than for<br />

a microsection, and frequently includes the full cross<br />

section or longitudinal section of the piece. Fine polishing<br />

is not necessary—it is generally satisfactory to<br />

prepare a flat surface by sawing, grinding or machining<br />

(using light finishing cuts to avoid distorting the<br />

structure unduly) and rough polishing on fairly fine<br />

emery cloth.


January, 1925<br />

Sulfur Printing.<br />

Segregation of sulfur is a defect frequently found<br />

in steel. An analysis of the full section of the piece<br />

may show the average sulfur content to be not excessive,<br />

but if most of the sulfur present has collected<br />

in certain areas (as at the center of the ingot), the<br />

content at these areas will be unduly high, and the<br />

metal at these parts consequently weak and unreliable.<br />

This condition is readily detected by the process<br />

known as "sulfur printing". In a dark room, a sheet<br />

of photographic printing paper is immersed in a solution<br />

of 2 per cent sulfuric acid (H,SO,j) in water, until<br />

it becomes saturated, and is then placed face up on a<br />

flat slab such as a piece of plate glass. The roughly<br />

polished specimen is pressed down on the paper and<br />

held for 10 to 30 seconds, taking care to avoid slipping.<br />

The paper will be darkly stained at the areas high in<br />

sulfur. The print should be fixed in "hypo", and<br />

washed and dried, in the same manner as an ordinary<br />

photographic print. Matte finish paper is better than<br />

glossy, as it is very difficult to prevent slipping- on the<br />

latter. For large pieces, the paper may be pressed<br />

down on the specimen. (Fig. 23, sulphur print.)<br />

Deep Etching.<br />

Macroscopic features of interest, especially chemical<br />

non-uniformity or segregation of impurities, are<br />

often revealed by a rapid and deep attack with a<br />

strong, hot acid (boiling or nearly so). The portions<br />

rich in impurities are attacked most severely, so that<br />

a relief pattern is produced. The kind of acid used<br />

does not matter greatly,, so long as the action is strong<br />

and rapid. Concentrated or 50 per cent hydrochloric<br />

acid is perhaps the most commonly used, but 50 per<br />

cent nitric, or 20 per cent sulfuric, may alsobe employed.<br />

Etching should be continued until the surface<br />

is deeply attacked, sometimes as long as 30<br />

minutes. See Fig. 24, rail head, cracked in service.<br />

This process is also used to locate high internal<br />

stresses, such as may occur in severely cold worked<br />

material, and which might cause failure in service.<br />

Hardened steel balls, for instance, when deeply<br />

etched with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid, may<br />

split open along the planes of stress or weakness, Fig.<br />

25. Minute cracks, such as are sometimes produced<br />

in grinding hardened steel, may also be revealed by<br />

deep etching.<br />

Non-Uniform Grain Structure.<br />

Macroscopic variations in grain structure (areas of<br />

coarse and fine grain, etc.), may be shown by light<br />

etching with the common reagents, but one of the best<br />

is a solution of 1 to 2 grains of ammonium persulfate<br />

[(NH4)2S208] to 10 cc. water. (Ref. 6.) This is<br />

particularly useful in studying welds. Fig. 26.<br />

Magnetic Process.<br />

An ingenious and valuable way of locating minute<br />

cracks or fissures in steel is described by Rawdon,<br />

(Ref. 6). The roughly polished specimen is magnetized<br />

and then immersed in a light oil, such as kerosene,<br />

containing very fine iron dust in suspension— cast<br />

iron mud", such as is obtained from lapping disks,<br />

may be used. The leakage of magnetic flux across<br />

slight discontinuities in the roughly polished surface,<br />

causes iron particles to be attracted to those locations,<br />

marking them clearly. Loose particles of iron are re­<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

moved by bathing the specimen in alcohol or clean<br />

kerosene. Fig. 27, (a) before dipping, (b) after dipping.<br />

An acidulated alcoholic solution of cupric chloride<br />

(with various modifications), may be used to show<br />

segregation of certain constituents, notably phosphorus.<br />

Various formulas are used—Stead's reagent<br />

being one of the commonest, as follows: Cupric chloride,<br />

Cu CP—10 grams, magnesium chloride, Mg CP—•<br />

40 grams, hydrochloric acid. HC1 —10 cc, alcohol, 1000<br />

cc. Dissolve the salts in the least possible quantity<br />

of hot water, and make up to 1000 cc. with alcohol.<br />

Apply the solution in a thin layer to the polished and<br />

cleaned surface of the specimen, for about one minute.<br />

FIG. 26.—Non-uniform grain.. FIG. 27.—Magnetic method.<br />

FIG. 28.—Segregation—Stead's Deagent. (Rawdon ref. 6.)<br />

Copper will be deposited on the purer portions. Th<br />

liquid may be shaken off and a fresh layer applied.<br />

Wash the specimen in boiling water and then with<br />

alcohol, to dry it. See Fig. 28.<br />

Macrographic specimens are photographed with an<br />

ordinary camera specially adapted for close work, or<br />

for magnifying up to about three diameters.<br />

(Every student is advised to get a copy of ref. 6,<br />

which contains a great deal of valuable and interesting<br />

information. It may be obtained from the Superintendent<br />

of Documents, Government Printing Office,<br />

Washington, D. C, for 25 cents cash, or money order.<br />

23


24 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

E c o n o m i c a l H a n d l i n g o f M a t e r i a l *<br />

Material Handling, Comparison of the Electric Truck and Gaso­<br />

line Tractor and the Design of Tote Boxes, Racks<br />

T H E F<strong>org</strong>e Department as usual, when a department<br />

of a manufacturing plant, was placed in the<br />

farthest corner of the property, away from the<br />

main buildings. The heat treat was added later near<br />

the machining departments as at that time most of the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings were heat treated after being rough machined.<br />

The steel shed is located next to the f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

shop with a 5-ton overhead crane which serves to unload<br />

cars, the shears under the shed and to deliver<br />

most of the heavy stock to hammers. The grinders<br />

and punch presses for cold trimming are in the f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

shop, the die room and f<strong>org</strong>e department machine shop<br />

are at one end, the tumbling room, inspection department<br />

and die storage at one side and the shipping department<br />

at the other end of the building.<br />

The steel yard under the crane is 57 ft. wide by 352<br />

ft. long, has held 3,000 tons steel stacked at random<br />

leaving no room to get around. At present racks are<br />

being built which will increase the capacity of the yard<br />

over 100 per cent allowing space for railroad track to<br />

run full length of shed and room to get around each<br />

pile for inspection or checking purposes. The racks<br />

are built of pipe placed in a concrete base. The pipes<br />

have about 4 ft. centers. The racks are laid out to<br />

take steel 20 ft. long leaving an open space of 4 ft. between<br />

each end of piles and vacant space has been left<br />

for steel that comes cut in short lengths and other<br />

wide enough to stack without racks.<br />

Stock for f<strong>org</strong>ings. Most of the heavier stock is<br />

delivered by crane to the large hammers in the row<br />

next to the steel shed, the stock being placed on skids<br />

under the crane slides over to the hammers. The balance<br />

of the stock is delivered on tote racks by electric<br />

lift trucks direct to the hammers and upsetting machines,<br />

the heaters working the stock from the racks<br />

into the furnaces.<br />

The flashings are handled in wheel barrows, a<br />

wheel barrow being placed at each hammer. When<br />

hammerman handles flash after f<strong>org</strong>ing is trimmed, he<br />

throws it in the wheelbarrow, if the flash and f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

are pushed through the trimming press together. The<br />

checker when counting f<strong>org</strong>ings throws the flash into<br />

the wheel-barrow. One laborer on an average handles<br />

the flash from six hammers.<br />

After the stock is f<strong>org</strong>ed or upset the f<strong>org</strong>ings are<br />

handled in different ways, depending on the size and<br />

shape. Stock up-set for hammers is loaded on tote<br />

racks by the operator ready to move to the hammers.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings such as transmission gears, spiders, bevels<br />

and other small parts are counted into the tote box<br />

by the checker at the hammer. Levers, windshields<br />

and long light weight f<strong>org</strong>ings are placed on tote racks<br />

as checked. These f<strong>org</strong>ings are moved in tote boxes<br />

and racks by two electric lift trucks from the hammers<br />

and upsetting machines to the punch presses,<br />

and Trailers Comprehensively Discussed<br />

By E. TONKINf<br />

January, 1925<br />

tumbling room, inspecting department and to the shipping<br />

platform. At each operation that may be required<br />

on the f<strong>org</strong>ing, the operator works from the<br />

loaded container performing the operation, then placing<br />

the piece in an empty container. In this way,<br />

handling of f<strong>org</strong>ings except in performing some operation<br />

is eliminated. In addition to the two electric lift<br />

trucks used for moving racks and boxes there are hand<br />

lift trucks with same capacity and lift as the electric<br />

trucks located at the trimming presses, tumbling room<br />

and inspection department for use of operators to<br />

move containers short distances in case no electric<br />

trucks are available.<br />

The heavier f<strong>org</strong>ings such as truck gears and steering<br />

knuckles are counted by the checker into tractor<br />

trailers equipped with boxes. Crankshafts are loaded<br />

on special crankshaft tractor trailers. Axles both<br />

front and rear are also loaded on special axle tractor<br />

trailers. These trailers are moved by the gasoline<br />

tractor. The gears are taken to the punch presses<br />

if there is a center to punch out, then to the heat treat<br />

where they are worked from the trailers into the<br />

furnaces for heat treating, after heat treating and testing<br />

they are pickeled. From the pickling tank they<br />

are loaded directly into trailer and moved back to<br />

inspection department. The crankshafts go from the<br />

hammer to the upsetting machine then to the heat<br />

treat. At the heat treat they are loaded from trailers<br />

into furnaces, then from furnace to furnace, to testing,<br />

pickling, centering, straightening and as inspected, are<br />

loaded on trailers ready to ship. The axles are moved<br />

to the bulldozer for stretching to length after which<br />

they go to the heat treating; from the trailers they are<br />

loaded into furnaces, heat treated, and tested as loaded<br />

onto trailers then moved to f<strong>org</strong>e shop for straightening<br />

and inspection. An inspector works with the<br />

straightening gang and loads the axles as inspected.<br />

In this way all the heavy f<strong>org</strong>ings are delivered to<br />

shipping platform on trailers ready for shipping gang<br />

to load.<br />

The loading of cars is done by piecework. Thirtytwo<br />

and one-half cents per ton for automobile gears,<br />

levers, windshields and small parts. Twenty-four<br />

cents per ton for truck gears, knuckles and medium<br />

sized f<strong>org</strong>ings and 15c per ton for axles and crankshafts.<br />

These prices include openng the car doors,<br />

cleaning out the cars, placing and fastening the truck<br />

plates and closing the doors after the car is loaded.<br />

The loading gang consists of three men with one electric<br />

lift truck. One man looks after the gang and lines<br />

up the material to be loaded according to his list, while<br />

the other two, one of these driving the electric truck<br />

move the tote boxes, racks and trailers into the car.<br />

1 hese two men count the f<strong>org</strong>ings off at the same time<br />

being checked by the gang leader. The rate of pay is<br />

*Paper presented at a meeting of the American Drop divided F<strong>org</strong>­ among the three according to their responsiing<br />

Institute held at Pittsburgh. October 2 and 3. 1924. bilities The checker gets 36 per cent of tonnage, the<br />

tEngineer of Production, Union Switch & Signal Co. truck driver 33 per cent and the laborer gets 31 per


January, 1925<br />

cent. Time sheets are made out daily, if the car is not<br />

loaded in one day an estimated amount is used. When<br />

the net weight is received from the scales a correction<br />

is added to or taken from the next'day's time.<br />

The tote boxes, racks and trailers. After building<br />

many kinds of containers and purchasing ready mades<br />

outside, standard types which will not overload the<br />

electric trucks have been adopted which will stand up<br />

to the heat of hot f<strong>org</strong>ings and rough usage received<br />

in a f<strong>org</strong>e shop as per the blue prints attached.<br />

The tote racks are made up of 5-in. channel, two<br />

pieces 4 ft. 7 in. long each are bent in a U shape forming<br />

legs liy in. high 28 in. apart, two pieces each 6 ft.<br />

0 in. long are bent the same way forming standard 12<br />

GASOLINE TRACTOR. SHOIV//MC DOUBLE ACTING HOOK<br />

STAAJDARD TRAILER EQUIPPED FOR. CI2ANK3HAETS<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

in. high 4 ft. 0 in. apart, all the bends being made on<br />

the flange edges. The channels for standards are laid<br />

across the channels for legs, backs together, and the<br />

webs riveted. The legs have 33-in. centers, the standards<br />

20-in. centers, in addition to this the outside of<br />

the legs are tied together with y, in. x 2 in. bars riveted<br />

on the web of each leg 6 in. from floor. On account<br />

of the channels being bent on the flange edges,<br />

the hot f<strong>org</strong>ings rest on the edge of the flange of the<br />

channel leaving an air-space between the hot f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

and the web which prevents warping of the racks from<br />

the heat. Labor and material for racks costs $6.00,<br />

weighs 135 lbs. and is light enough to handle shore distances<br />

by hand if no electric truck is near.<br />

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26 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

The tote boxes have cast iron sides and bottom<br />

with verv thin section well ribbed and cored hides to<br />

cut down weight, and also to let scale off f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

drop through. One pattern is used for side castings<br />

making them interchangeable. The sides are bolted<br />

t nto the bottom which has two 5-in. channel legs same<br />

as on the tote racks bolted onto it. These legs have<br />

24-in. centers instead of 33-in. as the racks, and have<br />

the legs tied together with Vin. x 2-in. bars across<br />

outside. The size of the tote box inside is 28>2-in.<br />

square by 12-in. deep. Labor and material costs S18,<br />

weight is 375 lbs.<br />

The tractor trailers have a 3-in. x 4-in. angle iron<br />

frame 32 in. wide by 72 in. long welded at corners 19<br />

in. high, mounted on four cast iron wheels with 5 in.<br />

finished face. The front wheels are 12 in. dia. and the<br />

rear 18 in. Wheels have roller bearings and Alennte<br />

lubrication. Tongue has ring in end to couple on tiactor<br />

or for use by hand. There is a double acting hook<br />

in back of frame for making up trains of trailers. 1 lie<br />

trailer weighs 970 lbs. and can be moved by hand<br />

when loaded. Cost, $159.00.<br />

For axles the trailers have two 5-in. channels with<br />

ends bent up for standards 8 in. high, 36 in. apart,<br />

bolted across the frame. For crankshafts the trailers<br />

have two 5 in. channels with ends bent up for standards<br />

24 in. high, 74 in. apart, bolted lengthwise on<br />

the frame. The standard box is 18 in. deep, 29 in. wide,<br />

66 in. long, inside, is bound by three iron bands, and<br />

is made of \y>-in. maple.<br />

Before purchasing the gasoline tractor all f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

to be heat treated or pickeled were hauled to the heat<br />

treat which is 1,100 ft. from the f<strong>org</strong>e shop with 5<br />

per cent grade part way by two electric trucks with<br />

two men each. On account of this long heavy haul<br />

the upkeep was high and they were out of service<br />

for repairs quite often. Now one gasoline tractor with<br />

one man does this work, moves trailers in the shop<br />

and each morning hauls castings off the foundry floor<br />

and delivers all switch f<strong>org</strong>ings to the main building<br />

with time to spare. While the tractors look bulky,<br />

it is surprising how they can get around in the shop.<br />

The tractor comes equipped with solid rubber tires<br />

and brakes. The other equipment added was a double<br />

acting hook, bolted onto the draw bar so the driver<br />

can drop the tongue of a trailer in it without leaving<br />

the seat. With this hook the trailer can be pulled or<br />

pushed.<br />

Summary of savings by use of tote boxes, racks,<br />

trailers and tractor.<br />

Yes, Steel Can Be Advertised*<br />

By Lynn Ellis<br />

Funny how principles run true to form. Sugar,<br />

steel or peanuts—they are all quite the same. Keep<br />

them in bulk and advertising doesn't seem possible.<br />

Yet look at Domino, Planters'. Armco.<br />

Get about that far and the average steel man begins<br />

to get violent. Armco seems to be a goat-getter as<br />

well as a go-getter. From a steel man's point of view<br />

there is apparently something sacred about the old<br />

rules. Any independent who doesn't slash prices<br />

when the going is bad and make it up by charging all<br />

•Reprinted from Printers Ink, November 13. 1924.<br />

lanuarv, 1925<br />

the traffic will bear in a seller's market is open to suspicion.<br />

Yet the Youngstown Pressed Steel Company has<br />

broken a lot of these old rules in the last four years,<br />

borne some little criticism for doing it, and is in a fair<br />

way of again proving that "bulk and barter" produce<br />

less restful sleep than "principle and printers' ink."<br />

This company moved up from Youngstown into a<br />

fine big $1,000,000 plant at Warren, Ohio, just in time<br />

to feel the crunching sag of business toward the end<br />

of 1920. It had, and has, two main divisions. One<br />

makes heavy steel stampings for other manufacturers.<br />

The other makes fire-proofing materials for building<br />

construction—metal lath, corner bead, channels, expanded<br />

metal, and sd on. Both lines were pretty flat<br />

when 1921 opened.<br />

Up to that time stampings had been regarded as<br />

the company's bread and butter. About 90 per cent<br />

of the business had been with automotive and agricultural<br />

implement manufacturers. No two industries<br />

could have been much deader, though the consumers'<br />

strike had hit everybody.<br />

In the fireproofing division there was a collection<br />

of very slow and very old-fashioned metal lath machinery.<br />

With prices on the down grade "YPS" could<br />

not compete and make much profit. Costs were too<br />

high.<br />

All in all, it took a rosy optimism, or else a courage<br />

born of desperation, to dig up an advertising appropriation<br />

and out of it pay an agency service fee.<br />

Talking to the company's president an agency executive<br />

said: "Mr. Galbreath, before I say I want this<br />

account I want to know if your company will adopt a<br />

policy of using advertising. I don't mean an advertising<br />

program. I mean a policy of advertising. That<br />

implies, since you are a steel man, that you may have<br />

to bend a lot of other policies to meet this one. If<br />

you're game to do that when we can show you the<br />

way, you're on. We'll make it a test case. We'll see<br />

if steel can be advertised."<br />

The Campaign Gets Started.<br />

Mr. Galbreath said, "Shoot. The first job is to get<br />

some new stamping business. We make and carry<br />

in stock some few parts for farm implements — seats,<br />

lever latches, weight boxes, gong wheels, etc. Not<br />

much immediately ahead of us there. We stamp a<br />

lot of stuff from dies owned by motor car plants.<br />

They're all down and what little business there is<br />

comes on a cut-throat margin. But pressed steel made<br />

the automobile possible, and the automobile in turn<br />

made pressed steel. Can't we do the same thing for<br />

some new lines of industry?"<br />

He outlined a service they could render—examining<br />

castings that might be redesigned, or "redeveloped,"<br />

into pressed steel—making the dies turning out steel<br />

parts at lower weight and cost, with greater strength,<br />

with reduced costs in machining, less breakage in<br />

transit, lower freight. So, beginning in April, 1921, a<br />

very Jew industrial papers told executives this story.<br />

The "before and after" treatment was used in illustrations<br />

and copy. A new slogan, "Press It From Steel<br />

Instead," gave the theme in a nutshell.<br />

The advertising took hold. Manufacturers in all<br />

sorts of lines were lying awake nights to figure ways


January, 1925<br />

of meeting the buyers' strike, to cut costs or to add<br />

reasons for maintaining old prices. Inquiries rolled<br />

in. By August, seven development engineers were<br />

busy figuring — just figuring, for orders were very,<br />

very slow. But by the first of the next year they began<br />

to come. Gasoline pumps, washing machines,<br />

steel wheels, stoves — all sorts of new applications.<br />

The ice broken, competitors of the first man in each<br />

line were easier to land.<br />

Each new job suggested a new mailing list, or a<br />

new publication to use. Salesmen in the field studied<br />

every casting they saw that might be worked over. A<br />

"black book" of photographs proved convincing to<br />

the manufacturer who was being driven to lower costs.<br />

To shorten a long story, a new volume — close to<br />

50 per cent of the total for 1922 — was literally dug<br />

out of the big depression. Not only that, but this new<br />

business, secured by a new type of service, proved<br />

easier to hold by continued service. It struck and<br />

repeated, and the repeat orders mounted to higher and<br />

higher percentages compared with the original orders.<br />

The eggs began to be spread around comfortably<br />

among a number of baskets. It was easier breathing.<br />

Redevelopment was not a brand new idea in the<br />

pressed steel industry, but it had been more or less a<br />

side issue. Mr. Galbreath made it the main issue. He<br />

advertised it when every advertising dollar was a dollar<br />

added to deficit. He built a needed service. His<br />

salesmen demonstrated service. His engineers and<br />

plant came through with service.<br />

The business for 1924, on a lower price per pound,<br />

will be considerably higher than the boom business<br />

of 1920. Two-thirds or more will have come from<br />

advertising and selling service instead of steel alone.<br />

That's one of the modern principles that always proves<br />

out.<br />

But, after all, stamping is just a job business. The<br />

"YPS" executives looked rather skeptical when it was<br />

pointed out, in 1921, that the stamping division could<br />

never go so far as the fireproofing division, which then<br />

represented only about a third of the grand total volume.<br />

The real fun, and the campaign in which modern<br />

principles had a real chance to prove themselves, lay<br />

in bringing the fireproofing sales up to practically even<br />

terms with pressed steel.<br />

It was a year and a half after the new note was<br />

struck on "redevelopment" before "YPS" made its<br />

first significant move on fireproofing. Fifteen cities<br />

had been furnishing the bulk of the volume. Into<br />

those cities the metal lath industry poured a young<br />

army of salesmen to bid on every big job. Prices were<br />

shaved until there was often nothing left for the dealer,<br />

and sales were made direct to the contractor. It<br />

was not so hard on concerns which also had a widespread<br />

small-town dealer business at longer prices.<br />

It was hard on "YPS" because the loyal dealer list was<br />

pitifully short and produced little volume.<br />

After a long debate one night in August, 1922,<br />

"YPS" suddenly announced a flat price in city and<br />

country alike, coupled with a 100 per cent dealer protection<br />

policy. That meant a higher price in the city<br />

and a lower price in the country. Competition was a<br />

bit upset by this fire in the rear, but dealers responded<br />

with enthusiasm, and immediately orders came piling<br />

in by mail.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Improved machinery and a prompt source of sheets<br />

and strips from the parent concern, the Sharon Steel<br />

Hoop Company, put "YPS" in position to meet prices<br />

and maintain a profit. Dealers liked the fair-play<br />

policy and distribution increased. But the salesmen<br />

were still selling products instead of products plus.<br />

Then Mr. Galbreath let out another lap. Some little<br />

time before, the Commissioner of the Associated<br />

Metal Lath Manufacturers, Wharton Clay, had visualized<br />

to the industry the tremendous possibilities in getting<br />

just a little metal lath into every frame house.<br />

A strip here and there in corners to prevent plaster<br />

cracks, and some more to give fire protection back of<br />

stoves, over the furnace, etc.,—at an additional cost<br />

of only 2 per cent—spelled a possible hundredfold increase.<br />

The industry already had given up talking one<br />

metal lath against another and was talking metal lath<br />

construction. Later on it went further, and agreed<br />

to concentrate its advertising on fire and crack prevention,<br />

including a one-hour fire rating for metal lath<br />

and plaster on wood studding and more or less to the<br />

exclusion of suspended ceilings, two-inch solid partitions<br />

in office buildings, back plastered stucco exteriors,<br />

etc. In short it undertook to build volume out of<br />

small jobs.<br />

"YPS" went further. It put on a modest campaign<br />

in a woman's magazine or two—enough to show good<br />

faith—then went to the dealer in town and country<br />

with this new story of a field for him to work. The<br />

sales force was geared up to sell every small dealer the<br />

idea of stocking a little lath and pushing the fire and<br />

crack prevention idea to the householder. Dealers<br />

were supplied with attractive folders for distribution.<br />

A "Better Homes" booklet was offered in magazine<br />

advertisements. The directors hitched up their belts<br />

and decided to stay with it until a full line of products,<br />

a fair dealer policy and a constructive selling idea were<br />

given a chance to demonstrate.<br />

Today, the "YPS" fireproofing salesman is turning<br />

in a steadily increasing volume per square mile of territory.<br />

Dealers are working. Even with a much lower<br />

price per yard, this year's volume in dollars will<br />

nearly double that of 1920. The "YPS" percentage of<br />

all sales in the industry has also increased. And even<br />

the most hide-bound, old-time salesmen on the force<br />

are selling a Big Idea—products plus.<br />

"YPS" is advertising the idea to dealer, architect<br />

and consumer. One of the smallest concerns in the<br />

industry, it has taken the lead in crystallizing an idea<br />

which is on the verge of national acceptance. With<br />

standardized units and high quality in the product, a<br />

loyal and growing dealer <strong>org</strong>anization and a sales<br />

crew tuned up to the ideas expressed in the advertising,<br />

modern marketing principles are again working<br />

out in the steel business.<br />

The advertising has not been at all reckless—something<br />

less than 2 per cent on net volume in both divisions.<br />

But it has furnished a keynote by which policies,<br />

product and service have been raised to new high<br />

levels. Further visions of a line of specialties—the<br />

sort of article that can be built into an "own-brand"<br />

business, and already expressed in coal chute doors<br />

and basement sash, are coming closer to realization.<br />

27


28 f<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Correspondence Course in Heat Treatment<br />

and Metallography of Steel<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating has arranged<br />

with Mr. Horace C. Knerr, Director of the Course in<br />

Heat Treatment and Metallography of Steel being<br />

given at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa., to offer<br />

through this publication, a correspondence course, covering<br />

the same subject.<br />

This course will run for about one year. It will<br />

include a complete set of lessons covering the topics<br />

as outlined below, examination papers for each lesson,<br />

marking and returning papers, personal instruction<br />

by letter where needed, a series of laboratory exercises<br />

to be performed by the student, and a set of<br />

metal specimens for metallographic study. The equipment<br />

required will be simple, and will be such as many<br />

men have available in the plant in which they are employed.<br />

The course is intended for those who wish to study<br />

the treatment, structure and properties of steel in<br />

their spare time. Fundamental principles will be emphasized.<br />

The charge for the complete course will be $25.00.<br />

For further information write to the Editor, F<strong>org</strong>ing-<br />

Stamping-Heat Treating, Box 65, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Outline of Course<br />

I. INTRODUCTORY<br />

1—An Ancient Craft and a Modern Science<br />

2—Physical Metallurgy<br />

3—Principles of Chemistry and Physics<br />

4—Physical Properties of Steel<br />

II. MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL<br />

1—Processes of Manufacture<br />

(a) Ores and Materials<br />

(b) Pig Iron<br />

(c) Wrought Iron<br />

(d) Crucible Steel<br />

(e) Bessemer<br />

(f) Open Hearth<br />

(g) Electric<br />

(h) Miscellaneous<br />

2—Mechanical Treatment<br />

(a) Hot Working<br />

(b) Cold Working<br />

III. METALLOGRAPHY<br />

1—Microscopic Examination of Metals<br />

(a) The Metallurgical Microscope<br />

(b) Preparation of Specimens, Polishing, Etching<br />

(c) Photomicrography<br />

2—Macroscopic Examination<br />

(a) Deep Etching<br />

(b) Sulphur Printing<br />

(c) Flaws<br />

(d) (a) Pure Segregations Metals<br />

3—Structure (b) Alloys of Metals<br />

(c) Wrought Iron<br />

(d) Steel, Low, Medium and High Carbon<br />

(e) Cast Iron, etc.<br />

(f) Alloy Steels<br />

(g) Impurities<br />

icro-Constituents of Steel<br />

(a) Ferrite<br />

(b) Cementite<br />

(c) Pearlite<br />

(d) Austenite<br />

(e) Martensite<br />

(f) Troostite<br />

(g) Sorbite<br />

• •<br />

5—Critical Points of Steel—Their Manifestations<br />

IV. PYROMETRY<br />

1—Heat and Temperature<br />

2—Methods of Measuring Temperature<br />

(a) Melting, Freezing, Boiling Point<br />

(b) Expansion<br />

(c) Electrical Resistance<br />

(d) Thermo-electric<br />

(e) Optical<br />

(f) Radiation<br />

3—Thermocouples<br />

4—Galvanometers and Millivoltmeters<br />

5—Potentiometers<br />

6—Calibration<br />

7—Temperature Recorders<br />

V. THERMAL ANALYSIS<br />

1—Methods of Determining Critical Points<br />

2—Heating and Cooling Curves<br />

(a) Time-Temperature Curves<br />

(b) Inverse Rate Curves<br />

(c) Difference Curves<br />

VI. THEORY OF HARDENING<br />

1—Nature of Critical Points<br />

(a) Crystallization<br />

(b) Solid Solution<br />

(c) Transformation<br />

2—Constitution Diagrams<br />

3—Slip Interference Theory<br />

VII. HEAT TREATMENT<br />

1—Purposes of Heat Treatment<br />

(a) Tool Steels<br />

(b) Structural Steels<br />

2—Annealing, Normalizing<br />

3—Hardening, Tempering<br />

4—Carburizing, Casehardening<br />

5—Alloy Steels<br />

(a) Effects of Alloys<br />

(b) Treatment<br />

6—High Speed Steel<br />

7—Equipment Used in Heat Treatment<br />

(a) Fuels<br />

(b) Furnaces<br />

(c) Quenching Equipment<br />

(d) Pyrometers<br />

(e) Temperature and Atmosphere Control<br />

8—Miscellaneous and Special Treatments<br />

VIII. INSPECTION AND TESTING<br />

January, 1925<br />

1—Chemical Analysis<br />

2—Physical Testing<br />

(a) Tensile Tests: Tensile Strength, Yield Point, Proportional<br />

Limit, Elongation, Reduction of<br />

(b) Area, Modulus of Elasticity<br />

Hardness Tests: Brinell, Shore Scleroscope,<br />

(c) Rockwell Hardness Tester, etc.<br />

(d) Impact Tests: Oharpy, Izod, etc.<br />

(e) Fatigue Tests<br />

(f) Magnetic Testing<br />

X-Ray Examination<br />

3—Metallographic Inspection<br />

4—Inspection During Fabrication<br />

5—Specifications


January, 1925<br />

Crossword Puzzle<br />

Give your brain a little exercise on this puzzle.<br />

It contains no words of more than five letters, practically<br />

all of which are frequently used by technical men.<br />

Solution of the puzzle will appear in the February<br />

issue.<br />

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IO<br />

13<br />

16<br />

Z4<br />

29<br />

35<br />

3B<br />

41<br />

Z 3 4<br />

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H //<br />

s 6<br />

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L. • •<br />

I I<br />

• •<br />

• -' 32 J3<br />

M-5C<br />

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f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

7<br />

• /.:.<br />

M-57<br />

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• /.'.'<br />

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• -W<br />

9<br />

g?a<br />

HORIZONTAL<br />

1. Incapable of reflecting light.<br />

S. Strength or energy.<br />

10. Knowledge gained from books or experience.<br />

12. Part of a jib crane.<br />

13. A grain.<br />

14. A wooden fixture having a brass foot rail as an accessory<br />

(now almost extinct).<br />

IS. To immerse in a liquid.<br />

16. One dimension of a tubular object, (ab.)<br />

17. A tool used for cutting out blanks.<br />

19. Commissioned officer in the army, (ab.)<br />

20. Bachelor of Laws, (ab.)<br />

22. That which forms part of a track.<br />

23. That which binds together.<br />

25. A prefix signifying again.<br />

27. Chemical symbol for selenium.<br />

29. Chemical symbol for rubidium.<br />

31. A metal pin for uniting plates.<br />

34. Point of the compass.<br />

35. An age or period of time.<br />

36. A device to catch or entrap.<br />

37. A perforated block of metal used in conjunction with a<br />

fastening device (sometimes used to designate inmates of an<br />

asylum).<br />

38. To shut with force.<br />

40. A system of rules or regulations.<br />

41. An alloy of iron and iron carbide.<br />

42. Measure of capacity in the metric system.<br />

VERTICAL<br />

1. Roughly f<strong>org</strong>ed or rolled mass of steel or wrought iron.<br />

2. Burden.<br />

3. Skill or science.<br />

4. Chemical symbol for cerium.<br />

6. A prefix signifying before or against.<br />

7. A bar of wood or metal also a measure of length.<br />

8. To wind.<br />

9. Void or exhausted.<br />

11. Receptacle for liquids.<br />

17. A small tool for cutting or bending rods.<br />

18. Apparatus for lifting.<br />

20. A long slender piece of metal.<br />

21. A single unit.<br />

24. A machine for shaping metal.<br />

26. Used for heating and drying.<br />

28. An instrument; also a measure of length.<br />

30. A piece of metal used as a fastener.<br />

32. Not out.<br />

33. English translation (ab.).<br />

34. Bare.<br />

37. Used to express negation.<br />

39. A pronoun of the first person.<br />

40. Highly carburized iron (ab.).<br />

INIIIIIIIIIIIIIjjIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllM^<br />

RECENT PATENTS<br />

'iiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin<br />

1,515,778. Method and apparatus for heat generation<br />

and control. Ralph W. E. Leach of Boston, Mass.<br />

In an apparatus of this kind, the combination with<br />

a housing providing a fuel combustion chamber and a<br />

retort chamber in communication with the latter, of<br />

material containers located within said retort chamber<br />

and around which pass the products of combustion<br />

from said retort chamber, a fuel supporting grate in<br />

said combustion chamber, an air-tight compartment<br />

beneath said grate, means for returning a predetermined<br />

proportion of products of completed combustion<br />

after discharge from said retort chamber into said<br />

air-tight compartment to pass thence upwardly<br />

through the fuel bed supported by said grate, and an<br />

air delivery means having discharge means arranged<br />

beneath a portion of the area of said grate for delivering<br />

air to support combustion of fuel mixed with<br />

returned products of completed combustion sufficient<br />

to reheat said returned products of completed combustion<br />

and regulate the resultant of the additional<br />

fuel burned to the desired temperature degree and at<br />

maintained desired volume.<br />

1,515,794. Process of making steel ingots free<br />

from blowholes. Isaac M. Scott of Wheeling, W. Va.,<br />

and Samuel Peacock of Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

The process of producing steel ingots free from<br />

blow holes and contaminating oxides which consists<br />

in mixing iron oxide With molten pig iron to eliminate<br />

a portion of the carbides and any compounds of<br />

silicon present; refining the molten metal thus produced<br />

by subjecting it to the action of reducing gases;<br />

and adding ferrosodium to the refined product in a<br />

quantity sufficient to remove all oxides and occluded<br />

gases present.<br />

1,516,059. Process and apparatus for making expanded<br />

metal. Edward T. Redding of Swissvale,<br />

Pa., assignor to Consolidated Expanded Metal Companies,<br />

a corporation of Pennsylvania.<br />

The process of producing a substantially flat sheet<br />

of metallic fabric from a previously formed sheet of<br />

Golding fabric which consists in turning over the end<br />

portions of the sheet of Golding fabric approximately<br />

into the plane of the sheet to be formed and in passing<br />

the sheet through rolling means to turn over the<br />

strands and connecting bridges.<br />

29


30 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

January, 1925<br />

jj j , 11 j i r jjji ^ij ni i • •. n 11 f ui i j i u i ljjji ti • u iij c ^xiiii ^ jm ^ in ijjj Liitiu 11 ujj ^ j j n jj iij p»j jj, j j j , 111 u> 11 j ^^mjji^ii iiif i irujJJiirn ^jij 11 ijjjxiiiyM 111 u 111 airtn i i j Ji i i^i jju j j j ij j 111 i/ih.'llllillllilllllllllllllllllIllIllllllllllllllllllMl'IIHIIIIIIIUUIlllllllJIUJllllllllKJ<br />

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W I T H T H E E Q U I P M E N T M A N U F A C T U R E R S<br />

'rjii4M,iMirFFtrriiiiiiiiipii4rirhiirrrTfriiii^iFPirrr7rrij lut-iiii nii-idii ,Fki-iiid:iiiirifiriMrriiEiitiiFtuiii-iiii^iMA;rqii! iiirirfjiMiriiMiiilMru^tirritidiiiiiMiiiiMF^<br />

AJAX HEADING MACHINE<br />

The Ajax Manufacturing Company,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio, have designed a heavy<br />

duty continuous motion heading machine.<br />

with the primary purpose of producing<br />

machines of ruggcdncss and durability.<br />

The heads of rivets, carriage bolts and<br />

track bolts are formed without flash and<br />

do not require trimming. In filling out<br />

the corners of square and hex-headed machine<br />

bolts, however, a washer shaped<br />

flash is thrown out around the bottom of<br />

the head, which is afterwards trimmed<br />

off cold in a vertical trimming press.<br />

These machines will produce rivets or<br />

bolts up to and including the size of<br />

their rating from stock at the usual f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

temperatures of from 1500 deg. to<br />

1800 deg. F. When operating on stock<br />

below the scaling temperatures, commonly<br />

known as "semi-hot," the machine<br />

is capable of. heading work up to threefourths<br />

of its normal rated capacity.<br />

The general arrangement has been improved<br />

by transferring the die slide operating<br />

mechanism from the left to the<br />

1 * ffiSsJ<br />

creased and the quality of the products<br />

improved.<br />

The headerslide, of increased length, is<br />

maintained in perfect alignment by the<br />

"V-type" ways, roll lubricated, in which<br />

it operates. The dieslide is top-suspended<br />

so that its bearings are not subjected to<br />

an accumulation of scale, and its front<br />

side liner is adjustable to take up wear<br />

so as to assure square shearing of the<br />

stock.<br />

With the hand feed machine, rods<br />

heated to four or five feet in length are<br />

fed into the machine against the stock<br />

gauge by the operator by hand, the machine<br />

shearing off a blank, heading and<br />

ejecting at the rate of from 14,000 to<br />

18.000 counts per 10 hours.<br />

With the automatic roll feed, mill length<br />

rods are heated in a long furnace set<br />

about three feet from the front of the<br />

machine. The operator need only start<br />

the rod into the rolls, which feed it into<br />

the machine, so that a piece is produced<br />

on each revolution. Outputs vary from<br />

30,000 to 50,000 counts per 10 hours, de-<br />

1 * X ^ l<br />

^^•k ^ T^Sk C ^ J t ^ ^ l<br />

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^ y<br />

FIG. 1- -Ajax continuous heading machine.<br />

right hand side, making it possible for<br />

the operator to feed the stock, watch the<br />

quality of holts or rivets as they come<br />

through the discharge port, which is on<br />

the left, and adjust the stock gauge, all<br />

from one position. This arrangement<br />

leaves the left hand side of the machine<br />

clear, materially expediting the setting<br />

of dies and tools. By thus facilitating<br />

the operation of the machine and the<br />

supervision of production, outputs are in-<br />

pending on the length and size of rivets<br />

produced.<br />

All sizes of machines can be furnished<br />

either belt driven through countershaft<br />

or direct gear motor driven through safety<br />

friction clutch coupling.<br />

The automatic roll feed mechanism is<br />

operated from an adjustable crank pin at<br />

the end of the crankshaft. The eccentricity<br />

of this pin is changed by means<br />

of an adjusting screw so that the rolls<br />

iniiiiiiiiiii ihiiiiiiim n « iniiimimmii mn urn<br />

feed the correct amount of stock to produce<br />

any given length bolt or rivet. The<br />

rachet arm is fitted with two dogs, staggered<br />

to give refinement of feed.<br />

The feed rolls which carry the heated<br />

bar stock consist of rings with the circumference<br />

grooved to suit the various<br />

sizes of stock. They are mounted in<br />

holders on the roll shafts so as to be<br />

easily changed for different sizes of stock<br />

FIG. 2 (Above)—Top-suspended die slide<br />

of Ajax heading machine. (Below)—<br />

Top-suspended headerslide.<br />

and adjusted laterally for different shear<br />

center distances. The roll pressure is<br />

controlled by removable weights mounted<br />

on the bearings of the upper roll shafts<br />

which are movable vertically.<br />

With direct motor drive a safety friction<br />

clutch coupling cushions the motor<br />

from shocks and protects both the machine<br />

and motor from damage should<br />

anything prevent a complete revolution<br />

of the crankshaft.<br />

The steel bed is of the ribbed type with<br />

continuous housings for the crankshaft<br />

bearings. It is extremely heavy and its<br />

deep sections and liberal flanges make it<br />

so rigid between crankshaft and backing<br />

plate that it is not necessary to pack up<br />

excessively behind the heading tool to<br />

bring rivet or bolt heads down to the<br />

proper thickness. This eliminates the<br />

pounding of the head tool on the dies<br />

on idle strokes and increases the life of<br />

both accordingly.<br />

The crankshaft is of special analysis<br />

steel f<strong>org</strong>ing of the single throw, two<br />

main bearing type with cylindrical cheeks,<br />

and large journal and eccentric pin diameters.<br />

All toggle pins are large and of<br />

alloy steel.<br />

The headerslide, Fig. 2, is top-suspended<br />

from "V-type" bearings. It is especially


January, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

long for steadiness and the "V-type" timing for different shear center disbearings<br />

maintain it in perfect align- tances.<br />

ment, eliminating the difficulty from The toolholders are of the extension<br />

eccentricity of bolt and rivet heads which type and of special analysis steel casting.<br />

is experienced with plain bearings. The Two lengths arc furnished as standard<br />

trough ways of the bed, in which the equipment, so as to keep the heading<br />

headerslide bearings operate, are above tools as short and stiff as possible, thus<br />

FIG. 3—Spindle arrangement of Holmes bolt threader.<br />

the scale line. They are roll lubricated<br />

from two reservoirs and drain at the<br />

front, so that good lubrication with clean<br />

oil is maintained. The bearings on the<br />

headerslide and the ways in the bed are<br />

both removable for realignment.<br />

The die slide, Fig. 2, is top-suspended<br />

from plain bronze faced bearings. Its<br />

great length and liberal side bearing<br />

areas keep it in alignment for long service.<br />

A wedge liner on the crankshaft<br />

side, adjustable without removing any<br />

parts, makes it possible to keep the moving<br />

die back tight on the cutter, so as to<br />

shear the stock squarely.<br />

The breast plate is a heavy, special<br />

analysis steel f<strong>org</strong>ing with a large rectangular<br />

cutter holder which takes the<br />

direct wear of the dies. The new type<br />

rectangular cutter with semi-circular cutting<br />

grooves in two edges has proved<br />

most satisfactory in service, and is economical<br />

to manufacture.<br />

The ejector is of the walking beam<br />

type operated from a cam on the inside<br />

of the flywheel. The cam is adjustable to<br />

control the time of kick-out and offset<br />

any wear.<br />

The stock gauge can be adjusted by<br />

means of the hand wheel while the machine<br />

is running. The hand wheel is convenient<br />

to the operator as he watches<br />

the product being headed so that adjustments<br />

can be made quickly, for a slight<br />

variation in the stock diameter so that<br />

this all cam heads gauge on the will is headerslide be adjustable properly filled which to change out. actuates the The<br />

minimizing heading tool costs. An adjusting<br />

wedge back of the toolholders<br />

provides an effective means for fine adjustment<br />

of the tool, and, in case the machine<br />

is stalled on center by the tool<br />

mashing a rivet against the face of the<br />

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dies, the wedge can be driven down and<br />

the tool released.<br />

SIX SPINDLE BOLT THREADER<br />

A bolt threader of entirely new design<br />

has been developed by Holmes Engineering<br />

Company, Oshkosh, Wis., who have<br />

been assisted by Graham Bolt & Nut<br />

Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., in completing<br />

the design.<br />

The machine was designed for rapidly<br />

threading bolts up to Y% in. in diameter<br />

and from 1 in. to 12 in. long. Only bolts<br />

having square, hexagon or clipped heads,<br />

or square or oval shanks can be threaded.<br />

The operator loads and knocks out the<br />

bolts, but all other operations are fully<br />

automatic, including conveying the bolts<br />

into skip boxes. Under actual working<br />

conditions, it was found practicable to<br />

cut threads on smaller sizes of bolts at<br />

the rate of 60 per minute, without undue<br />

fatigue to the operator, and on the larger<br />

sizes a speed of 50 bolts per minute was<br />

steadily maintained. Slower feeds of 30<br />

or 40 bolts per minute can be instantly<br />

shifted to in order to take care of threads<br />

of unusual length and for operators unaccustomed<br />

to the machine. Several<br />

changes of cutting speeds are arranged<br />

for to take care of cutting bolts of various<br />

sizes as no chaser speed is used<br />

greater than 30 feet per minute.<br />

The six tilted spindles are placed at an<br />

angle of 30 deg. from vertical to permit of<br />

the use of self-clamping slots, to provide<br />

ample lubrication of working parts, free<br />

washing away of chips, and to facilitate<br />

ejection of threaded bolts into the conveyor.<br />

Sixty quarts of cutting lubricant<br />

flow through the spindles every minute.<br />

Twelve synchronized cams are employed,<br />

six to start the bolts and six to<br />

close the die heads, but as these cams<br />

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IS ° - - '*-<br />

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f *-> ^-rfMtmawWfc'iWmm


32 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

the design has been clearly demonstrated. to various kinds of work may be easily<br />

The lower set of counterweights start the applied by securing them to the body<br />

bolls and the upper set close the die with the two screws provided. For the<br />

heads. In the photograph of the rear inspection of small pieces and specimens<br />

view of the machine, the left hand spindle the microscope may be attached to the<br />

I':'-;. •r^f»,HH(**J11 ^tmk^<br />

*""**'*-wmm%?: 1<br />

FIG. 5—Zeiss microscope fitted for laboratory use<br />

^^^^^••^^^^^^•^^•i^^&V<br />

has received and is cutting a bolt, the column of a stand, the knee of which is<br />

second spindle is being entered, and the adjustable by rack and pinion.<br />

die head of the third spindle is just clos­ The microscope for structure testing<br />

ing.<br />

may be illuminated by daylight or by<br />

A complete change of set up can be means of an electric lamp. In this case,<br />

made in 10 minutes, and if the set up is the source of light is a low current incan­<br />

merely from length to length, the change descent lamp consuming 0.4 amp., the<br />

can be made in one minute on all six voltage<br />

spindles.<br />

being 4. The current may be<br />

A NOVEL MICROSCOPE<br />

Carl Zeiss of Jena. Germany, offers a<br />

microscope entirely different from usual<br />

lines, so as to meet the demands of both<br />

the scientific laboratory and of the shop,<br />

and to make it suitable for objects of the<br />

most diversified shapes. The instrument<br />

is sufficiently rigid and easy to apply so<br />

that it may be given into the hands of<br />

the foreman for the inspection of work<br />

during any stage of finishing or for making<br />

tests in connection with the heattreating<br />

department, whereby valuable<br />

information about annealing periods,<br />

hardening temperatures, carbonizing me­<br />

dia, etc.. may be obtained.<br />

The microscope may be used for inspecting<br />

shafts, cylindrical pieces, shoulders<br />

and fillets in crank shafts, bent<br />

shafts, eccentrics and plain surfaces.<br />

Other attachments for adapting the tool<br />

-<br />

"<br />

January, 1925<br />

work of various shapes, and that the use<br />

of this instrument will open up a new<br />

field of research.<br />

The microscope is not confined to the<br />

examination of test pieces and specfmens,<br />

but shows defects of material used<br />

in the finished product. It gives valuable<br />

information regarding the manufacturing<br />

processes and the changes in<br />

structure caused by faulty heat treatment,<br />

cutting or grinding operations. In order<br />

to produce the grain the metal is first<br />

cut by planing, milling or sawing and the<br />

surfaces to be inspected are lapped and<br />

polished until all scratches disappear.<br />

Care should be taken not to heat the<br />

metal unduly when cutting or grinding.<br />

The grain is then produced by the use<br />

of etching reagents, which act differently<br />

on the various components and thus<br />

make them distinguishable under the<br />

microscope.<br />

For laboratory use the microscope is<br />

furnished with base, bellows, shutter,<br />

plate holders, condenser lens and lamp.<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Scherr, 143 Liberty Street, New<br />

York, is exclusive American representative<br />

for this instrument.<br />

FIG. 7—Procunier double jaw quick change chuck.<br />

furnished by a storage battery or taken<br />

from a 110 or 220 volt current by interposing<br />

a reducing rheostat.<br />

It will be readily seen from the illustrations<br />

that the microscope tills a distinct<br />

need in the shop for inspecting<br />

FIG. 6—Carl Zeiss portable microscope and equipment.<br />

QUICK CHANGE CHUCK<br />

William L. Procunier, 18 South Clinton<br />

Street, Chicago, 111., has recently placed<br />

on the market a new "double jaw" quick<br />

change chuck. By adapting this tool on<br />

a single spindle drill press it can be converted<br />

into a semi-multiple spindle press,<br />

as it is not necessary to stop the machine<br />

to change tools in the chuck. When the<br />

operator lifts up a sleeve or collar, it<br />

allows two balls to slide out of the<br />

pocket of the collet, allowing it to drop<br />

in the operator's hand, and a different<br />

one may be inserted in the chuck without<br />

moving the work out of alignment.<br />

There are several different types of<br />

collets which will handle all classes of<br />

tools, such as taper shank drills, and<br />

reamers, machine taps, round button dies<br />

and blanks, which can be made to suit<br />

special requirements. The collets as well<br />

as the chuck are of hardened steel and<br />

ground throughout, assuring durability and<br />

accuracy.


January, 1925<br />

BEAUDRY UTILITY HAMMERS<br />

Beaudry Company, Inc., Everett, Mass.,<br />

has recently brought out a utility hammer<br />

for shops where there is not sufficient<br />

blacksmithing done to warrant a<br />

large investment Jn a power hammer.<br />

FIG. 8—Beaudry utility hammer.<br />

These hammers are built in three sizes<br />

only, 25, 50 and 100 lbs. weight of ram,<br />

and for their size have an exceptionally<br />

long stroke and may be operated at a<br />

very high rate of speed. Being self-contained<br />

and cast in one piece, they require<br />

no extensive foundation and in manycases<br />

may be bolted direct to the floor<br />

without any other support.<br />

The ram or hammer head is of steel<br />

and has external elliptical-shaped tracks.<br />

Two steel spring arms, with steel rollers<br />

at the lower extremites and a helical<br />

spring at, the top, operate upon the<br />

curved tracks and lift and throw the<br />

ram, which, with increased speed of hammer,<br />

acquires increased travel and force<br />

or blow. Full stroke can be had on varying<br />

thicknesses of stock ana no change<br />

of adjustment is necessary excepting for<br />

unusually heavy or special work.<br />

The hammer is started, stopped and<br />

regulated by a foot treadle extending<br />

around the base of machine. By varying<br />

the pressure on the treadle, any desired<br />

speed or force of blow may be obtained.<br />

The ram is carefully machined and fitted<br />

to heavy guides and is adjustable on its<br />

connecting rod for varying heights above<br />

the dies. It has an adjustable taper gib<br />

for taking up wear. These hammers may<br />

be worked to equal advantage from all<br />

sides, the anvil clearing the main frame<br />

casting, allowing bars of any length to<br />

be worked either way.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

As regularly furnished, these hammers Exhaustive tests at the experimental<br />

may be operated by an overhead belt laboratories of the manufacturers, over a<br />

running at any angle or by a motor at­ long period and on various types of dip<br />

tached to the frame as shown. They tanks and inflammables, have proved this<br />

may be turned into a motor-drive at any new automatic extinguisher to be abso­<br />

time without any mechanical change exlutely dependable in operation. In test<br />

cept for the bolting on of the motor after test, the release has operated in less<br />

bracket and the attaching of the motor. than 10 seconds, extinguishing the fire before<br />

it has a possibility of spreading to<br />

SMALL FIRE EXTINGUISHER the overhead construction or surrounding<br />

To meet the demand for a small fire-<br />

room. The 100 gallons of Firefoam genextinguisher<br />

for isolated small dip tanks,<br />

erated by the device is discharged in ap­<br />

the Foamite-Childs Corporation, Utica,<br />

proximately one minute.<br />

N. Y., has just developed a small auto­<br />

The automatic extinguisher is capable<br />

matic Foamite extinguishei operating on<br />

of extinguishing a fire in a dip tank hav­<br />

the same principle as their large engine<br />

ing 30 square feet of exposed surface,<br />

system.<br />

with the necessary margin of safety. It<br />

is leak-proof against the evaporation of<br />

This device, in outward appearance, is<br />

the chemical solutions, as all openings<br />

a 22-in. red enameled cube, fitted with a<br />

are upward and covered with stoppers<br />

three-point suspension for nanging over<br />

when the device is in the set position.<br />

the risk. The interior contains a tumbler<br />

Its operation and maintenance are very<br />

with a capacity of six gallons of each of<br />

simple. It is only necessary to set the<br />

the- two Foamite- solutions. The tumbler<br />

Lowe release and refill the extinguisher<br />

is set eccentrically on trunnions, and pre­<br />

after the fire.<br />

vented from rotating by the Lowe release.<br />

At the first flash of fire, the heat<br />

actuated device, operated on a rate of<br />

AIR-CUSHIONED HELVE<br />

HAMMERS<br />

A new helve hammer, radically different<br />

in design from other hammers of this<br />

class, is an addition to the line of the<br />

Beaudry Company, Inc., Everett, Mass.<br />

The hammer has no rubber bumpers,<br />

being cushioned entirely by air, which is<br />

ideal for cushioning purposes and is the<br />

least expensive.<br />

The hammer consists of a well designed,<br />

semi-enclosed frame, upon the<br />

rear of which is an adjustable yoke supporting<br />

the helve at its pivoted end.<br />

Within the frame is the air compressor<br />

cast in one piece with the helve actuating<br />

cylinder, the piston of which connects<br />

with the helve. A rotary valve<br />

operated by the treadle, is located between<br />

the two cylinders for controlling the<br />

blow.<br />

FIG. 9—Fire extinguisher for dip tanks.<br />

rise principle, causes the release to trip<br />

the trigger holding the tumbler. The<br />

tumbler rotates, permitting the two solutions<br />

to combine in the mixing chamber<br />

and expand to eight times their volume in<br />

Firefoam.<br />

The Firefoam generated has unusual<br />

extinguishing value, and drops directly<br />

from the mixing chamber to the dip tank.<br />

By cutting off the supply of oxygen<br />

necessary to support combustion, it puts<br />

the fire out and keeps it out. As the<br />

blanket of Firefoam stands up long after<br />

the fire is extinguished, there is no possibilitv<br />

of reflash.<br />

FIG. 10—Beaudry air-cushioned helve<br />

hammer.<br />

33<br />

The construction of the machine permits<br />

the operator to deliver the lightest<br />

tap or heaviest blow at full speed, which<br />

means practically doubling the daily production.<br />

The force of the blow is regulated<br />

as heretofore by simply more or less<br />

pressure on the foot treadle. This varia-


,u F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

tion does not change the speed of the<br />

hammer, but simply the force of the blow<br />

and enables the operator to obtain light,<br />

quick blows which are so essential to<br />

finishing any f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

The helve is designed for belt or motor<br />

drive. When belt driven, tight and loosepulley<br />

and belt shifter form part of theunit,<br />

the belt being shifted to the loose<br />

pulley only for long stops. When motor<br />

driven, the tight pulley is replaced by a<br />

gear engaging the pinion of the motor<br />

which is supported upon a bracket secured<br />

to the hammer frame which allows<br />

the hammer to be placed in any location<br />

desired, independent of line shafts. The<br />

crankshaft runs in bronze ring-oiling bear-<br />

iiiihiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiinii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiimmuiiio<br />

PERSONALS<br />

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM<br />

Walter X. Crafts has recently become associated<br />

with the American Chain Company, as works manager<br />

of the Reading Steel Casting Company, Reading, Pa.<br />

For the past live years he has been general manager<br />

of the Canadian Electric Steel Company, Ltd., of<br />

Montreal, and during the war period was general superintendent<br />

of the Toronto plant of the British F<strong>org</strong>ings,<br />

Ltd., the largest producer of electric furnace steel<br />

for shells.<br />

Dr. Zay Jerferies was the speaker at the monthly<br />

meeting of the Pittsburgh Chapter, American Society<br />

for Steel Treating at the Fort Pitt Hotel, Pittsburgh,<br />

Tuesday. December 2. his subject being "More About<br />

Steel" Dr. Jeffries is head of the research bureau of<br />

the Aluminum Company of America. Cleveland.<br />

Y E. Hillman, director of research at the Crompton<br />

e\: Knowles Loom Works. Worcester. Mass., delivered<br />

a paper on the evening of December 19 on "The Evolution<br />

of the Blast Furnace and the Manufacture of<br />

Pig Iron from Iron Ore" at a joint meeting of the<br />

American Society for Steel Treating and the American<br />

Chemical Society at the rooms of the Providence Engineering<br />

Society. Providence, R. I.<br />

Martin H. Schmid, metallurgical engineer of the<br />

United Alio}- Steel Corporation. Canton, Ohio, has<br />

been appointed assistant general manager of sales of<br />

the alloy divison of the company, effective December<br />

1. He was graduated from Lehigh University in 1907<br />

with the degree of mechanical engineer and for two<br />

years was engaged in power plant work.<br />

E. B. Rogers, formerly superintendent of the Samson<br />

Tractor Company. Janesville, Wis., has been appointed<br />

superintendent of the Midwest F<strong>org</strong>ings Company.<br />

Chicago Heights, 111., succeeding R. C. Rowan,<br />

who resigned to engage in other business.<br />

Dr. Waldemar Dryssen has been appointed chief<br />

engineer of the furnace equipment department and<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>e and hammer welding department of the<br />

Blaw-Knox Company. Blawknox, Pa.<br />

FIG. 11—Air compressor and actuating<br />

cylinder of Beaudry hammer.<br />

January, 1925<br />

ings, thereby insuring efficient lubrication.<br />

When adjusting the dies for different<br />

thicknesses of work four nuts are loosened<br />

on the pivot yoke and the hand wheel on<br />

the top of the machine is turned the<br />

proper amount to raise or lower the yoke<br />

after which the four nuts are tightened.<br />

The connecting rod of the helve is adjusted<br />

by a turnbuckle. These adjustments<br />

the operator makes without help.<br />

The pivot of the helve consists of hardened<br />

steel centers, easy of adjustment,<br />

and affords means for entirely eliminating<br />

side play of the dies so that they may<br />

always register with each other, thereby<br />

giving perfect alignment, which makes<br />

them very satisfactory for the work.<br />

John H. Hall, Metallurgist of the Taylor-Wharton<br />

Iron & Steel Company, High Bridge, N. J., and G. R.<br />

Hank, superintendent of the same company, gave addresses<br />

on the subject of manganese steel before the<br />

members of the Industrial Club, Bethlehem, Pa., at a<br />

recent gathering.<br />

Marcus A. Grossman is affiliated with the United<br />

Alloy Steel Corporation, Canton, Ohio, in charge of<br />

the research division.<br />

Charles Kachel, for 14 years superintendent of the<br />

Bossert Corporation, Utica, N. Y., has retired from the<br />

sheet metal stamping business and will make his home<br />

in Miami, Fla. He expects to <strong>org</strong>anize a sales <strong>org</strong>anization<br />

in that city.<br />

Henry W. Darling, for more than 30 years treasurer<br />

of the General Electric Company, has resigned<br />

and on January 1 will be succeeded by R. S. Murray,<br />

who has been assistant treasurer of the company since<br />

1910. In accepting the resignation of Mr. Darling as<br />

treasurer, the Board of Directors elected him a vice<br />

president with such duties as shall be assigned to him<br />

by the president.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Urick, 40 years old, superintendent of the<br />

open-hearth department of the Duquesne steel works,<br />

Carnegie Steel Company, Pittsburgh, was found dead<br />

in the attic of his home in Duquesne, Pa. Mr. Urick<br />

according to a report to the coroner's office, hanged<br />

himself.<br />

W. Lucien Scaife, aged 71, a former manufacturer<br />

of Pittsburgh, died in his home December 5. He formerly<br />

was chairman of the board of directors of the<br />

Scaife Foundry & Machine Company, Pittsburgh, and<br />

was one of the first trustees of Carnegie Institute of<br />

Technology.<br />

L. Leslie Helmer, general manager of the Cumberland.<br />

Md., works of N. & G. Taylor Company,<br />

Philadelphia, manufacturers of tin plate, died of<br />

typhoid fever at his residence on December 24, aged<br />

47 years. John M. Read, formerly assistant general<br />

manager, has been advanced to the position of general<br />

manager.


January, 1925<br />

Arc Welding and Cutting Manual, by General Electric<br />

Company staff; cloth; 127 pages, 8xl0y>. This<br />

has been given the designation Y-2007 and was issued<br />

to acquaint the uninformed in a general way with<br />

some of the applications of arc welding, and to provide<br />

a simple and logical method by which one may<br />

acquire a certain familiarity with the manipulation of<br />

the electric welding arc and its characteristics.<br />

The volume is profusely illustrated with photographs,<br />

diagrams and charts explanatory of the text.<br />

It is divided into three parts, the first devoted to general<br />

information on arc welding, the second to a training<br />

course for operators, and the third giving a number<br />

of applications for arc welding. The manual<br />

should prove very valuable in practically all industries<br />

and trades. It is being distributed at a nominal<br />

price.<br />

Structural Metallography, by H. B. Pulsifer; cloth;<br />

210 pages, 6x8^4; 146 illustrations; published by the<br />

Chemical Publishing Co., and distributed by F<strong>org</strong>ing-<br />

Stamping-Heat Treating. Price $5.00, postpaid.<br />

The purpose of this rather abundantly illustrated<br />

book is to give beginners an introductory text, which<br />

shall present as clearly as possible the principles, the<br />

scope and significance of metallography.<br />

One of the aims of this book is to provide students<br />

with illustrations of metal structures, to explain how<br />

these structures can be discovered and pictured, to<br />

tell something about their origin and to summarize<br />

the property changes dependent on structure.<br />

A list of texts and articles covering the most important<br />

and comprehensive contributions on the subject<br />

of metallography is included. Contents: 1—Introduction,<br />

2—Metal Structures and Testing, 3—The Solidification<br />

of Metals, 4—Smoothing and Etching Metal<br />

Surfaces, 5—Photomicrography, 6—Some Properties<br />

of Metals and Simple Structures, 7—The Pure Metals,<br />

8—The Iron-Carbon Series, 9—The Iron-Carbon Series<br />

(continued), Iron and Steel Castings, 10—Transformations<br />

and Treatments, 11—Worked Metal and<br />

12—The Major Alloys.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

•niiinliiriitiiti(iin)fiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiri(tiiiiiiiiiiitiirtiiiJiiiititrinaiiiuiiiMtirijiiiiiiMtifi(njtiii(iiiitniuiMttiriiuiiifiriHatiitMijiiifiiiiiriiirittiirrtrttttt((tf(iiftrfti<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

inmniiiiminiiiiiiiiiiiMiM<br />

The Collins Manufacturing Company, Lewistown,<br />

Pa., is running full at its local plant, with production<br />

on a basis of about 1,300 doz. axes per week. The<br />

company recently succeeded to the plant and business<br />

of the Mann Axe & Tool Company, Mann's Narrows,<br />

Pa.<br />

The Pressed Steel Tank Company, Milwaukee,<br />

manufacturer of steel barrels, drums and other containers,<br />

acetylene cylinders, annealing pots, pressure<br />

tanks, etc., has issued $500,000 first (closed) mortgage<br />

serial gold bonds, the proceeds to be used to facilitate<br />

the enlargement of production and business generally.<br />

The plant is situated in West Allis and consists of six<br />

acres with buildings of 200,000 sq. ft. of floor space.<br />

Fixed assets were appraised March 15, 1924 at $1,257,-<br />

535. Herman O. Brumder is president.<br />

The Gibb Instrument Company, Bay City, Mich.,<br />

has changed its name to the Gibb Welding Machines<br />

Company. The change is in name only and not in personnel,<br />

and was made to better describe the company<br />

and its products.<br />

The Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing and Manufacturing Company,<br />

Inc., Endicott, N. Y., have under construction a<br />

new brick building 50 x 130 feet.<br />

The Parish Manufacturing Company, Chestnut<br />

Street, Reading, Pa., manufacturer of automobile axles,<br />

frames, etc., has acquired about 10 acres near the<br />

northern city limits, and contemplates the early erection<br />

of a new plant to increase its present output about<br />

50 per cent. The company is occupying the former<br />

shops of the Philadelphia and Reading Railway Company.<br />

The Continental Axle Company, Edgerton, Wis.,<br />

affiliated with the Highway Trailer Company, same<br />

city, is erecting a steel foundry as an addition to its<br />

automobile, truck, tractor and trailer axle and spring<br />

works. The portions of the plant badly damaged by<br />

fire some time ago also are being repaired and inquiry<br />

is being made for some new machinery. J. W. Menhall<br />

is general manager.<br />

Allen Specialty Company, Chicago, has changed its<br />

name to the American Automotive Accessories Corporation,<br />

and increased its stock from $100,000 to<br />

$200,000.<br />

The United States Stamping Company, Moundsville,<br />

W. Va., manufacturer of enameled wares, is remodeling<br />

its plant Xo. 2, which will be devoted exclusively<br />

to the manufacture of a single coat gray<br />

ware.<br />

The Painter-Bundy Tool Company, Box 1162, Fort<br />

Worth, Texas, has been incorporated with capital<br />

stock of $150,000 to manufacture drilling and fishing<br />

tools. Its main plant is at Fort Worth and branch<br />

plant at Wichita Falls, Texas. Special attention will<br />

be given to a new rotary bit and core drill. M. A.<br />

Bundy is president.<br />

The Murray Body Corporation, Detroit, has been<br />

formed with a capital of $12,300,000 to take over and<br />

consolidate the R. G. Wilson Body Company, J. C.<br />

Widman Company, and the Towson Body Corporation,<br />

all operating local plants for the manufacture of<br />

closed automobile bodies. The new company will be<br />

affiliated with the J. W. Murray Manufacturing Company,<br />

Detroit, manufacturers of automobile sheet steel<br />

products, of which J. W and J. R. Murray are heads.<br />

The corporation will operate four individual plants,<br />

and has plans for expansion. Allen Shelden will be<br />

president and Gordon Fairgreaves, heretofore manager<br />

of the Towson ^Body Company, general manager. A<br />

bond issue of $4,000,000 is being arranged.<br />

The Hughes Steel and Equipment Company, now<br />

at Allegan, Mich., will move to Holland, Mich., where<br />

it will occupy the former Gunsey Willow Company<br />

factory. The Hughes company manufactures steel<br />

factory furniture.<br />

35


36 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

The Horni Signal Manufacturing Corporation,<br />

Newark, X. J., care of Isador Stern, 20 Branford<br />

Place, registered agent, has leased the building at 153-<br />

55 Frelinghuysen Avenue, for a new plant to manufacture<br />

traffic signal lamps and other electric signal devices.<br />

The company was chartered recently with a<br />

capital of $500,000 by Paul P Horni and Charles Milbauer.<br />

The last noted has been elected president.<br />

Standard Guage Steel Company, Beaver Falls, Pa.,<br />

manufacturer of finished steel specialties, announce the<br />

removal of its Chicago office to 547 Webster Building,<br />

327 S. LaSalle Street, in charge of S. A. Dinsmore,<br />

district sales manager.<br />

The Ford Motor Company is adding departments<br />

for manufacturing truck radius rods and running board<br />

brackets to its Hamilton, < >., plant. This plant has<br />

been manufacturing Ford wheels chiefly and daily production<br />

is 12,000 wheels. The company is understood<br />

to be planning an assembly plant in Hamilton just east<br />

of the present site.<br />

nniiiiiiiiiniiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiminiiiiiiiiiunimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

VNHiiHHHnHnnniiiHiainiiiinaiBiiiiiirriiiiiiiiriiiiijiirrriiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiTiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiuFHiiitjiiiiiiiMiMiiijMriMiiiiiiMiiiijriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiijftiiuiijni&cni<br />

Power Transmission Machinery — W A. Jones<br />

Foundry and Machine Company. Catalog Xo. 31. Covers<br />

shaft hangers, pillow blocks, couplings, collars,<br />

belt tighteners, mule stands, bench legs, etc.; all items<br />

are well illustrated, listed, dimensioned, tabulated, etc.<br />

The very latest data on a completely rounded out line<br />

of quality transmission appliances.<br />

Sprocket Wheels and Chain Belting — W. A. Long<br />

Foundry and Machine Company. Catalog No. 32.<br />

Covers a full line of sprocket wheels and chain belting,<br />

as well as chain tighteners, elevator boots, buckets,<br />

bolts, hand wheels, etc., illustrations, listing prices and<br />

complete specifications on all items shown.<br />

Electric Hoists — Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist<br />

Company, has issued a catalog illustrating and describing<br />

the floor operated hoists that this company makes.<br />

The various types and forms are briefly portrayed with<br />

excellent illustrations showing the hoist in operation<br />

and a view of the product itself. Data, price lists and<br />

dimensions are included in the catalog.<br />

Welding and Cutting Apparatus — Oxy-acetylene<br />

and oxy-hydrogen welding and cutting apparatus are<br />

described and illustrated in a catalog issued bv the<br />

Burdett Manufacturing Company. Chicago. 111. Torches,<br />

mixers, tips, regulators and other accessories are<br />

shown and the many uses of the products are also<br />

tabulated.<br />

Electric Furnaces — The Electric Heating Apparatus<br />

Company, Newark. N. J., has published a pamphlet<br />

describing its line of electric furnaces. The<br />

work is well illustrated with many views of installations<br />

and the characteristics and dimensions of the<br />

various types of furnaces are listed.<br />

Electric Ovens — The F. A. Coleman Companv,<br />

Cleveland, recently issued a folder describing and<br />

illustrating one of its installations at the plant oi the<br />

Ferro Machine & Foundry Company. Cleveland. The<br />

oven is of the continuous electric type for drying pasted<br />

and blackened cores.<br />

January, 1925<br />

Welding Eelectrode — The General Electric Company,<br />

Schenectady. N. Y., has issued a booklet describing<br />

a new type of welding electrode. Details are<br />

given on electrode construction and characteristics.<br />

Results of tests on welded cast iron specimens and<br />

deposited metal specimens are described, and oscillograms<br />

demonstrating arc stability are reproduced. Instructions<br />

for the use of the electrodes are given as are<br />

specifications of standard sizes.<br />

Rotary Furnaces — The W. S. Rockwell Companv,<br />

has published a pamphlet describing rotary furnaces<br />

with automatic charging and discharging mechanism<br />

for continuous heat treating of metal products of size<br />

and shape which will permit a slow rolling action,<br />

The special features of this system when used for the<br />

heat treatment of castings in malleable iron, steel and<br />

various alloys also is described and illustrated.<br />

Tumbling Mills — Whiting Corporation, Harvey,<br />

111. Catalog Xo. 174. Three standard types of tumbling<br />

mills are described and illustrated and also small<br />

tumblers for brass work, dry and water cinder mills.<br />

A cleaning department layout for an average gray iron<br />

foundry of 50 tons capacity is given.<br />

Hydraulic and Hydro-Pneumatic Presses — Metalwood<br />

Manufacturing Company, Leib and Wight<br />

Streets, Detroit. Catalog, 88 pages, 8y2xl\ in. A<br />

wide variety of hydraulic and hydro-pneumatic arbor<br />

and forcing presses, broaching, forcing and forming<br />

presses, straightening presses, metal forming presses,<br />

vulcanizing presses and plastic material forming presses<br />

are described and illustrated. Capacities, dimensions<br />

and other essential data are given. Information<br />

is given on the Hele-Shaw pump unit and accumulators<br />

and other accessory equipment. There are more<br />

than 100 illustrations.<br />

Welding and Cutting—Bastian Blessing Company,<br />

Chicago, 111. Catalog No. 32. Covers "Rego" welding<br />

and cutting equipment of all kinds, and is fully<br />

illustrated.<br />

Electrical Equipment for Cranes — General Electric<br />

Bulletin Xo. 48732. This is an attractive, 35-page<br />

leaflet, well illustrated with photographs, diagrams,<br />

tables and charts. It discusses the subject thoroughly,<br />

with particular reference to crane motors and control,<br />

brakes, etc. Information is given on operating characteristics,<br />

and types of standard motors are listed,<br />

together with other valuable data.<br />

CCL Apparatus — "Measuring C02 Electrically" is<br />

the title of Catalog No. 32 recently issued by the<br />

Brown Instrument Company, Philadelphia, Pa. The<br />

principle of operation of the electric C02 meter is given<br />

together with a description of the various units entering<br />

into the construction of complete apparatus. Numerous<br />

types of indicators and recorders suitable for<br />

different applications of the meter are illustrated and<br />

described.<br />

Heat Insulation — "High Temperature Insulation"<br />

is the title of a booklet compiled by Celite Products<br />

Company, Chicago, 111. The subject of heat insulation<br />

as applied to industrial equipment is covered in a comprehensive<br />

manner.<br />

Arc Welding Generators — The Allan Manufacturing<br />

and Welding Company, Buffalo, N. Y., have<br />

mailed out leaflets showing various types of generators<br />

and transformer arc welders. Short descriptions tell<br />

the story of the products.


umiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i mini iiiiiuiiiiiiiii iiiiii:<br />

I rarging-Sraniping-BGarlipa^ |<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., FEBRUARY, 1925 No. 2 =<br />

A v o i d i n g W a s t e i n t h e S h o p<br />

EFFICIENT operation depends upon a number of factors and it would be<br />

no small task to decide which is the most important. A well laid out<br />

plant with modern equipment would naturally give the impression that<br />

it is the last word in efficiency, but how often is this advantage offset by a<br />

poor <strong>org</strong>anization or incompetent men?<br />

Incompetency is reflected in the amount of waste materials and the rejection<br />

of defective products. In some cases the nature of the product may be<br />

such that any attempt at economizing in material would increase the manufacturing<br />

cost beyond the saving effected in materials. Any plant handling<br />

large quantities of material should give serious consideration to preventing<br />

and minimizing waste.<br />

Inadequate inspection of raw materials often leads to an excessive waste<br />

during manufacturing operations, and if defective products are allowed to<br />

pass final inspection, will result in dissatisfied customers.<br />

Many large plants have <strong>org</strong>anized a special department to make a study<br />

of manufacturing methods for the purpose of preventing excessive waste, salvaging<br />

scrap and to increase efficiency wherever possible. For example, the<br />

substitution of upset f<strong>org</strong>ings for parts formerly machined from bar stock<br />

greatly reduces material and machining costs. By carefully designing blanking<br />

dies with reference to the width of the stock, a considerable amount of<br />

stock can be saved.<br />

The heat treating department is frequently overlooked when the question<br />

of manufacturing efficiency is up for discussion. Good tool steels are<br />

ruined by inadequate heat treating facilities, with the result that many hours'<br />

time are lost through the idleness of expensive equipment caused by faulty<br />

tools.<br />

These are just a few examples of how efficiency may be increased. By<br />

careful planning, it is possible in many other ways to decrease manufacturing<br />

costs and reduce material waste to a minimum.<br />

niiiiiiuiiiiiiiii mn i iiiiiiiiii iiiliiiiilin iiiiiuiiiiiiiii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii r<<br />

37


38 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

February, 1925<br />

U s i n g a n A p p r a i s a l for C o s t P u r p o s e s<br />

An Appraisal for Cost Purposes Is Essential in the F<strong>org</strong>ing In­<br />

dustry Because of the Large Investment Required—<br />

Great Variety of Equipment Necessary<br />

T H E majority of appraisals are made with the intention<br />

of using the reports for making financial<br />

statements, for adjusting accounting records or<br />

perhaps for disposing of assets, with little or no consideration<br />

for their possibilities in cost work. In the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing industry these possibilties stand out strongly,<br />

particularly because of the large investment required<br />

nnd also because of varying types and sizes of equipment<br />

used. With such equipment it is absolutely<br />

necessary to establish some sort of hourly rates for<br />

both overhead and profit. In our plant we use the<br />

hourly machine rate system, which we believe is the<br />

most accurate yet devised, and for this work an appraisal<br />

properly reported is of great additional value.<br />

One of the first items encountered in distributing<br />

overhead is depreciation, carried as an item of cost in<br />

our hourly overhead rate per hammer. It is impossible<br />

to correctly distribute the total depreciation of<br />

a f<strong>org</strong>e plant over the various departments and thence<br />

to different groups of hammers according to some<br />

arbitrary percentage basis and it therefore becomes<br />

necessary to compute depreciation separately on<br />

buildings and appurtenances, machinery, furnaces,<br />

power plant equipment, cranes and all other classes<br />

of equipment per department and per group.<br />

The next problem we have in properly allocating<br />

certain expenses to different department and production<br />

centers is establishing percentage bases per department<br />

and per hammer group for those items<br />

which vary in accordance with asset valuation or in<br />

accordance with some percentage made up with asset<br />

valuation as a factor. Here again the appraisal furnishes<br />

a basis for obtaining the correct relation of<br />

values per department and per production center, as<br />

it is clearly an error to base any figuring of this nature<br />

on book records showing actual purchase prices of<br />

machines. For cost purposes there is no reason why<br />

a hammer purchased in 1916 should carry lower overhead<br />

and interest rates than one of the same type and<br />

size purchased in 1924 at a considerably higher price.<br />

The last use we have in mind, but by no means<br />

the least, is for the purpose of figuring interest on<br />

investment as a basis for profit rates per hammer per<br />

hour. The averaee jobbing f<strong>org</strong>e plant is selling service<br />

or use of certain types of equipment—steam hammers,<br />

board hammers or upsetters—rather than material<br />

plus labor and overhead, and the profit estimated<br />

per job should certainly bear some relation to<br />

the interest on investment required to carry the individual<br />

hammer or upsetter together with its corresponding<br />

share of auxiliary equipment and departments.<br />

This is especially true in a plant using all<br />

three types of equipment. Steam hammers require<br />

a boiler plant, coal storage, coal handling apparatus.<br />

etc.. representing a much higher investment than<br />

board hammers of similar sizes, while upsetters are<br />

*Assistant to General Manager. Dominion F<strong>org</strong>e & Stamping<br />

Company.<br />

By A. W. HOLLAR*<br />

very expensive in themselves and their values stand<br />

out prominently in an appraisal even without their<br />

share of the repair and other departments. In the<br />

matter of profit it is also well to consider both those<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings made by two or more operations in different<br />

units and those made from different grades of steel<br />

with varying base prices. In the case of multiple<br />

operations in different production centers the error<br />

in figuring profit on a percentage of cost is multiplied<br />

|by the number of production centers involved. The<br />

question of different profits on different grades of steel<br />

can be discussed at length, but we shall content ourselves<br />

with asking whether you are interested mainly<br />

in obtaining profit in proportion to the direct material<br />

cost or in proportion to the service your equipment<br />

renders.<br />

It was for the purpose of checking cost figures<br />

and assuring ourselves of the correct relation of our<br />

production centers with respect to each other, that we<br />

recently ordered a new appraisal. In addition to the<br />

standard form submitted by the appraisal company<br />

we requested a report designed to take care of our<br />

requirements for cost work. This extra report means<br />

only a little more clerical work in the office of the<br />

appraisal company and not very much extra field<br />

work, providing, of course, the field men receive complete<br />

instructions upon their arrival on the job. A detailed<br />

outline with all necessary notes as to individual<br />

cases was given to the field manager and the following<br />

is a copy of that portion applying to land, sidings<br />

and buildings:<br />

Land—Two plots, one north and one south side Seminole<br />

Street.<br />

Railroad Sidings—Coal sidings Nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6. Oil<br />

siding Xo. 2. Stock sidings Nos. 1, 7 and crossover.<br />

Wide gauge tracks (boiler plant).<br />

Buildings—Construction, by buildings. Outside crane<br />

runway from Building No. 4 to be included with<br />

Building No. 4. Tunnel and pits to be included<br />

with buildings wherever possible.<br />

Plumbing and Sewerage—By buildings as much<br />

as possible, balance lump sum.<br />

Heating Piping—Radiation per building to be<br />

shown separately in value and square feet heating<br />

surface. Main heating lines, returns and<br />

connections to be lump sum.<br />

Electric Lighting and Wiring—Lighting per building.<br />

Trunk lines and connections to be lump<br />

sum.<br />

Sprinkler and Fire Protection Piping—Per building.<br />

Balance (outside lines, etc.) lump sum.<br />

Ventilating System—Per building.<br />

As will be noted, we have two separate sections of<br />

land, one being vacant and the other section being<br />

entirely used by our various buildings and storage<br />

spaces. The two values are given separately, making<br />

it easy to charge the proper land value to each build-


February, 1925<br />

ing in accordance with the floor space occupied. The unoccupied<br />

section is charged to our general department.<br />

The railroad sidings are valued and grouped together<br />

in such a manner that they are readily charged<br />

to the department served. The values of buildings<br />

and their appurtenances are given in the same manner<br />

as in any appraisal and it should not be difficult<br />

to charge each building to the department served, or<br />

in the case of two or more departments occupying<br />

the same structure it should not be difficult to charge<br />

each department in proportion to the floor space occupied.<br />

If the amounts involved are large it is advisable<br />

to pay particular attention to such items as trunk<br />

lines and connections for electric light wiring; and<br />

main lines, returns and connections for heating piping.<br />

The main heating lines (trunk lines, returns and connections)<br />

are chargeable to the boiler plant as they<br />

are a part of the investment required to supply heat<br />

to the various buildings. The same idea applies to<br />

trunk lines for electric lighting. They are chargeable<br />

to the electrical power plant. Under heating piping<br />

the radiation per building in square feet of heating<br />

surface was requested for the purpose of establishing<br />

a basis for distributing that portion of boiler plant<br />

chargeable to heating.<br />

On land, railroad sidings and buildings, the appraisal<br />

company furnished a report in accordance<br />

with outline given above, but did not make any attempt<br />

at departmentalization. It is a simple matter<br />

for us to divide up these items by departments and<br />

we do not feel it worth while to have the appraisal<br />

company go to this expense. The important work is<br />

allocating machines to various departments regardless<br />

of their location in the plant and in reporting other<br />

items of equipment, such as transmission, piping and<br />

wiring in such a manner that each department can be<br />

charged with its correct share. The following are a<br />

few examples of equipment requiring special notation:<br />

Continuous annealing furnace located in our upsetter<br />

department is noted as belonging to the heat treating<br />

department; motor generator and frequency changer<br />

sets in the electrical department used for operating<br />

blower motors are noted as belonging in furnace department;<br />

one 5-ton electrical crane charged one half<br />

to upsetters and one-half to steam hammers; and another<br />

crane of the same size charged entirely to the<br />

stock handling department. On power wiring the<br />

main feed lines to starters are charged to the electrical<br />

department, while the balance remains in the department<br />

served. Furnace air and fuel oil lines (feed<br />

lines) are charged to furnace department, balance, departmental.<br />

All trucks, boxes, trays, etc., are noted<br />

as belonging in the stock handling department.<br />

The final summary or extra report as referred to<br />

previously furnished by our appraisal company shows,<br />

therefore, land in two plots, railroad sidings in four<br />

values, buildings and appurtenances by buildings and<br />

equipment per department. The equipment per department<br />

is not merely one total, of course, but is<br />

tabulated as machinery, foundations, motors, transmission,<br />

belting, power wiring, piping, cranes and<br />

hoists, etc. When this summary was received it remained<br />

for us to distribute the land in accordance<br />

with the area occupied, place the sidings in proper<br />

departments and charge each department with its<br />

proportionate share of buildings in order to arrive at<br />

the investment represented by each of the following<br />

departments: No. 11 steam hammer, No. 22 board<br />

hammer, No. 33 upsetters, No. 66 heat treat, straight­<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

en, No. 44 cold trim, No. 55 grind and tumble, No. 77<br />

die and blacksmith, No. 88 stock handling, No. 46 furnace<br />

department (oil tanks and blowers), No. 45 boiler<br />

plant, No. 70 repair department, No. 78 electrical department,<br />

No. 99 general.<br />

Although this work is more or less new, our appraisers<br />

followed instructions very carefully as evidenced<br />

by the fact that only 3 per cent of the total<br />

equipment is charged to general and not more than 13<br />

per cent of our total valuation is represented by the<br />

general department after adding its share of land and<br />

buildings.<br />

From this asset distribution, yearly departmental<br />

depreciation can be figured, using individual rates<br />

which both appraisers and auditors now generally<br />

agree will apply on the various items. Following are<br />

itemized values of one production department and<br />

their corresponding depreciation figures after certain<br />

similar items were grouped together for the purpose<br />

of saving time.<br />

VALUE<br />

Land<br />

Sidings<br />

$ 1,657<br />

Buildings and appurtenances 34,730<br />

Machinery<br />

Non-productive machinery<br />

158,177<br />

Machinery foundations 10,928<br />

Motors 2,972<br />

Mechanical transmission 1,694<br />

Belting . . 339<br />

Electric power circuit<br />

Power piping 9,010<br />

Water mechanical piping<br />

High pressure air piping<br />

Low pressure air piping<br />

Fuel oil piping<br />

236<br />

Lubricating oil piping<br />

Exhaust and blower piping<br />

Permanent tools<br />

377<br />

Furnaces 10,757<br />

Cranes and hoists 3,916<br />

Overhead tracks and trolleys<br />

Tanks<br />

Testing equipment<br />

Fire apparatus<br />

Trucks and scales<br />

165<br />

Benches, tables and racks<br />

Stock and scrap trays<br />

Tote boxes and barrels<br />

OfHce furniture<br />

Office mechanical devices<br />

Factory furniture<br />

Restaurant equipment<br />

Trucking equipment<br />

Rolling stock<br />

Departmental value $235,119<br />

YEARLY DEPRECIATION<br />

Land<br />

161<br />

Sidings •<br />

Buildings and appurtenances $ 695<br />

Machinery 9,491<br />

Machinery foundations 656<br />

Furnaces<br />

Non-productive machinery<br />

645<br />

Mechanical transmission 85<br />

Belting •••<br />

Motors<br />

Electric power circuit<br />

14B<br />

Power piping<br />

Low pressure air piping<br />

451<br />

Minor and fuel oil piping 31<br />

Departmental Rolling Cranes, Trucking Permanent Benches, Furniture stocks hoists tables depreciation and equipment tools fire and and apparatus tanks tracks racks $ 12,423<br />

205 16<br />

39


40 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Under "value" the entire number of classifications<br />

are purposely shown and it will be noticed, as explained<br />

earlier, electric power circuit, fuel oil piping<br />

and trays and barrels are not shown in this productive<br />

flepartment, but are charged respectively to the electrical,<br />

furnace and stock handling departments.<br />

The next step is to divide the three f<strong>org</strong>ing department<br />

assets into groups or production' centers.<br />

Because of the class of our work our three types of<br />

units are made up of steam hammer, press, foundations<br />

and furnace; board hammer, foundation and<br />

furnace; upsetter, foundation, motor and furnace.<br />

There are several units charged with two furnaces<br />

and in the case of board hammers all presses are<br />

grouped in the cold trim department, whether physically<br />

located there or in the board shop. Here again<br />

the appraisers noted to which unit each press, foundations,<br />

furnace and upsetter motor belonged, making<br />

it easy to arrange the items together. The land,<br />

buildings and miscellaneous equipment in these three<br />

departments can be distributed over the groups on<br />

percentage bases and depreciation figured in the same<br />

manner as before. These depreciation figures per<br />

group and per department can be used in overhead<br />

distribution as desired, but since there has been considerable<br />

public discussion on this point, we will be<br />

glad to explan our system to anyone interested, as our<br />

overhead rates contain only earned depreciation and<br />

therefore automatically take care of irregular operation.<br />

The results of the asset distribution as outlined<br />

above furnish plenty of information for the ourpose<br />

of charging different departments with expenses<br />

which vary in accordance with asset value, but in<br />

order to arrive at hourly interest rates per hammer<br />

it is necessary to distribute the indirect or non-productive<br />

departments so that the entire value may be<br />

borne by production centers. Our steam hammers,<br />

board hammers and upsetters constitute our producing<br />

departments and therefore they must receive their<br />

share of all the other departments in proportion to<br />

availability. This distribution is obtained by what is<br />

known as the step methods. First, the electrical department<br />

is charged to all others on the basis of connected<br />

horsepower. The boiler plant is divided into<br />

one portion for manufacturing and another for heating.<br />

The value for manufacturing is charged on the<br />

basis of service rendered (a percentage figured out<br />

by our engineering department on the basis of steam<br />

used per hour by each department) and the heating<br />

is distributed in accordance with square feet of radiation.<br />

The remaining departments, including die and<br />

blacksmith, are taken care of in a similar manner with<br />

the exception of cold trim, which is charged entirely<br />

to the board shop.<br />

The indirect departments now shown with the<br />

steam hammers, boards and upsetters can be charged<br />

to their respective groups by the use of various percentages.<br />

For instance, that portion of the electrical<br />

department charged to upsetters can be distributed<br />

on the basis of connected horsepower per upsetter<br />

group, while in the steam and board shops it can be<br />

charged on the basis of weight produced per hour per<br />

group. After the total investment has been distributed<br />

to the production centers the interest is figured on<br />

the total of each group and is then divided by the<br />

number of probable yearly hours per group. One of<br />

our production centers made up of two hammers of<br />

February, 1925<br />

the same size has a total reproductive valuation of<br />

$230,000 after complete distribution has been made as<br />

outlined. On a single shift basis each of these machines<br />

should run 1,550 hours per year, making 3,100<br />

hours for the group. At 6 per cent the interest per<br />

year is $13,800, which when divided by 3,100 hours<br />

results in an hourly rate of $4.45 for this particular<br />

size and type of machine. The exact multiple of this<br />

figure to use must of course be left to the individual,<br />

.but by comparing possible yearly sales with total investment<br />

it will be found that 6 per cent on the investment<br />

is equivalent to a little over one-half that per<br />

cent on sales.<br />

A. D. F. I. Elects President<br />

Mr. S. 1. Marshall, president and treasurer of the<br />

Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing & Manufacturing Company, Endicott.<br />

X. V.. was elected president of the American<br />

Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Institute for the ensuing year at a meeting<br />

of the institute held at<br />

the Seaview Country Club,<br />

Absecon, N. J., January 6<br />

and 7.<br />

Mr. Marshall has been<br />

active in the work of the institute<br />

during the past year<br />

and it was largely through<br />

his efforts that the many<br />

splendid papers presented<br />

at the Industrial Meeting<br />

held in Pittsburgh last October<br />

were secured.<br />

In 1915, Mr. Marshall <strong>org</strong>anized<br />

the Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

& Manufacturing Company,<br />

and for 10 years prior<br />

S. J. Marshall t0 tHat was secretary and<br />

treasurer of the Globe Malleable<br />

Iron & Steel Company. He was also connected<br />

with H. II. Franklin Manufacturing Company of Syracuse<br />

for three and a half years.<br />

The retiring president, Mr. M. E. Pollak, president<br />

of the Pollak Steel Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, devoted<br />

a great amount of effort to revive interest in<br />

the work of the Institute, which was re<strong>org</strong>anized early<br />

last year. That his efforts were successful is indicated<br />

by the substantial increase in membership during<br />

his presidency. The office of the institute is located<br />

at 1001 Union Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. Mr.<br />

W. T. Johnson is secretary, Mr. Donald McKaig,<br />

treasurer, and Mr. J. M. Wright, general counsel.<br />

Quenching Media for Heat Treating<br />

The Bureau of Standards, Washington, is determining<br />

the predominating factors in aqueous quenching<br />

solutions, so that predictions can be made as to<br />

the solution and its concentration. Motion pictures<br />

of samples, during actual quenching, on which regular<br />

cooling curves are being obtained, have been taken<br />

by using a suitable glass quenching tank. Apparatus<br />

is now being designed and built for pressure quenching<br />

as a means of getting increased rates of cooling<br />

for given solutions, and for making emulsions of oil<br />

and water without the use of air.


February, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

H e a t T r e a t i n g S t e e l Electrically<br />

Use of Electric Heat Does Not Call for New Methods of Applica­<br />

tion—Practically All Uncertainties Connected with<br />

THOUSANDS of tons of steel are produced annually<br />

for use where particularly severe conditions<br />

have to be met. In order that steel (castings included)<br />

may possess the best physical qualities of<br />

which it is capable, some form of heat treatment is<br />

usually necessary. Results from untreated, high<br />

priced, high grade steels may be no better than low<br />

grade steels, properly heat treated.<br />

These changes, although governed by the same<br />

definite laws, must be obtained by giving to such steel<br />

its own best cycle of heat treatment.<br />

Improvement of the physical properties of steel is<br />

generally secured by heating to or through the critical<br />

range. Hence, location of the critical points in the<br />

thermal scale is necessary. In general, quenching<br />

from temperatures much higher than the critical range<br />

will give a hardened steel but with a coarser grain<br />

than if the quenching had occurred more closely to the<br />

critical point; and of course it is understood that the<br />

finer the grain, the stronger the steel.<br />

It is evidently important, then, to apply and abstract<br />

heat according to heating and cooling curves<br />

of the steel under treatment — giving due consideration<br />

to the critical temperatures. Otherwise the value<br />

of the steel will not be completely available.<br />

Heat Generation in Electric and Fuel<br />

Fired Furnaces.<br />

Proper Application of Heat Are Removed<br />

By E. F. COLLINS*<br />

In the electric furnace, heat generation can be kept<br />

nicely balanced against heat absorption by the charge.<br />

The importance of this fact cannot be over-emphasized,<br />

since the problem of heat absorption is of first<br />

importance in all heating furnaces. It goes without<br />

saying that efficient generation or development of<br />

heat units by chemical oxidation means little, unless<br />

the Btu. released are in a minimum constant proportion<br />

to the Btu. absorbed in doing useful work. Hence<br />

the rate of heat generation and heat absorption must<br />

be skillfully controlled to guarantee proper heat absorption<br />

with time.<br />

All Btu. that fails to be absorbed by the charge is<br />

simply wasted, no matter how efficient the burners<br />

and resulting combustion may be, and in this lies a<br />

very definite handicap where rate of generation to absorption<br />

cannot be properly governed as with fuel firing.<br />

If the heating fluid be the product of combustion,<br />

as in a fuel fired furnace consisting largely of CO,,<br />

water vapor and nitrogen, then currents and eddies<br />

exist in the combustion chamber, due to changes in<br />

densities depending in part on variation in temperature.<br />

These gases have a continuous flow and practical<br />

results are obtained by removing as much heat<br />

as possible from such streams while they are passing<br />

through the furnace to the stack. This aim is accom-<br />

plished more or less satisfactorily by designs which allow<br />

the charge to be swept and enveloped so far as<br />

possible by the stream of hot gases.<br />

Complete and properly regulated envelopment is<br />

necessary to a uniform or high rate of heat absorption,<br />

which in turn is dependent upon heat conductivity<br />

of the charge, its mass and the area of surface contact.<br />

If only parts of the body lie in the stream or if<br />

the streams vary in velocity or temperature, we may<br />

expect non-uniform heating of that body. It should<br />

be remembered that in fuel-fired furnaces, especially<br />

where forced draft is used, that these currents of hot<br />

gases have a cyclonic violence and continuously shift<br />

as erratically.<br />

The foregoing brings up some points of practical<br />

importance in the quenching and heating process.<br />

The careful operator should, therefore, for the best<br />

results be furnised with an electric furnace. Pyrometer<br />

or temperature control, secured automatically,<br />

may be used to limit and control the temperature of<br />

the heating chamber to values of 25 deg. to 100 deg.<br />

above the temperature to which the charge is to be<br />

heated, thus securing a floating effect while the charge<br />

is passing its critical points and so avoiding excessive<br />

strains and distribution in heating. For it must be<br />

remembered that negative and positive expansions<br />

lie adjacent to each other at the critical temperatures<br />

and, therefore, heating at a high rate at or near criticals<br />

is to be avoided, especially where variable section<br />

are encountered in the steel part under heat treatment.<br />

Non-simultaneous passing of the criticals for each section<br />

will produce warpage and, with too wide differences,<br />

cracks and ruptures, in the process of heating<br />

just as surely as will improper quenching.<br />

Electric Heat-Treating Furnaces.<br />

It is being rapidly and conclusively demonstrated<br />

that electric heat offers advantages equal to or greater,<br />

in reheating and general heat treatment of steel, than<br />

those secured in melting and refining. A striking expansion<br />

in the use of the electric resistance furnace for<br />

the heat treatment of steel has taken place in the<br />

past five years and progress in the demands of industry<br />

is sure, hence forth, to require the "over all"<br />

economy and high quality which accompany the use<br />

of electric heating for such processes as, (1) annealing;<br />

(2) carburizing; (3) hardening; and (4) tempering<br />

or drawing of steels.<br />

It is being daily demonstrated that the electric furnace<br />

for reheating, when properly designed and used<br />

on steels having uniform characteristics such as may<br />

be had from the electric melting furnace, can show<br />

an advance in uniformity and quality over the usual<br />

steel product of the present day fuel-fired furnace.<br />

Furthermore, furnaces are available for any and all<br />

tonnage requirements and of such simple and dependable<br />

design that their continuity of operation equals<br />

"Consulting Engineer, Industrial Heating Department, Gen­<br />

that of any fuel-fired furnace, while the advantage of<br />

eral Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.<br />

41


42 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

low upkeep cost usually is on the side of the electric<br />

furnace. To this may be added automatic control of<br />

temperatures, duplication of heating cycles, reduction<br />

in defective heat-treated parts, and usually many other<br />

influencing factors which work in the direction of a<br />

reduced "over all" cost of production in favor of the<br />

electric heat-treating furnace.<br />

The Metallic Resistor Furnace.<br />

Important heat-treating processes, in which the<br />

metallurgist should be interested, and for which the<br />

metallic resistor electric furnace is peculiarly adapted,<br />

will be enumerated and briefly described so that the<br />

working field for such type of furnace may be clearly<br />

indicated. We may, for convenience, consider elec-<br />

February, 1925<br />

the carbon content, and the spread of the critical range<br />

varies likewise.<br />

The committee of the American Society of Testing<br />

Materials has recommended the following range in<br />

temperatures:<br />

Carbon Content Annealing Temp. Range<br />

Per Cent Degrees Fahr.<br />

Less than 0.12 1607 to 1697<br />

0.12 to 0.25 1544 to 1598<br />

0.30 to 0.49 1399 to 1544<br />

0.50 to 1.00 1454 to 1499<br />

The length of time steel should be held at the annealing<br />

temperature varies with the size and shape of<br />

the piece. It is important that the piece be heated<br />

through uniformly at the annealing temperature.<br />

Where quality of output is the watchword, modern<br />

heat treatment is not attempted without first carrying<br />

out correct annealing treatments as a proper foundation<br />

for subsequent processes.<br />

- 70<br />

nS't.<br />

0 —57^<br />

--_ r — 7SC J^c- 77S°C<br />

T<br />

f<br />

7.


February, 1925<br />

Case Hardening With Electric Furnace.<br />

Case hardening, applied to low carbon (below 0.25<br />

per cent) dies, is merely the outgrowth of the old<br />

cementation process, as used in making crucible steel.<br />

Here, however, instead of carburizing the metal<br />

through and through, the process ceases after carburizing<br />

to a greater or lesser depth below the surface.<br />

The modern case hardening operation is not as simple<br />

as the crucible process. A furnace should be available<br />

whose heat is easy to regulate and maintain at a<br />

fixed uniform distribution during the whole carburizing<br />

process. It should be equipped with a pyrometer,<br />

and automatic regulation of temperature is a valuable<br />

asset. Carburization may be effected in several ways<br />

but we will restrict ourselves to the pack hardening in<br />

boxes containing the carburizing material with which<br />

the parts to be treated are surrounded. For practical<br />

purposes, work is usually heated to at least 1560 deg.<br />

F., and may even be brought to temperatures of 1850<br />

to 1900 deg. F. High temperature gives speed to the<br />

process but is objectionable, due to coarsening the<br />

grain of the steel and a tendency to distort the work.<br />

A good carburizing temperature (1560 deg. F.), has<br />

the advantage of altering the core but little, unless the<br />

process is unduly prolonged. The time of exposure<br />

depends upon the size of the work, the depth of carbon<br />

penetration desired, the per cent of carbon required<br />

in the case, the carburizing agent used, the temperature<br />

used, etc. Published tests on a ^-inch steel blank<br />

(carbon 0.15 per cent), show the following results of<br />

penetration with temperature and a carbon content on<br />

the surface of 0.85 to 0.90 per cent with a penetration<br />

of 0.050 inches for a particular carburizer:<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat "Beating<br />

that carbon is in solid soluton with the iron, and from Time of Exposure<br />

such assumption explains all heat-treating phenomena. in Hours Penetration in Inches for Deg. F.<br />

All theories concerning hardening, however, are<br />

1550° 1650° 1800°<br />

united as to the necessity of heat control. Hence the<br />

J4 008 .012 .030<br />

electric furnace may be used successfully for heating<br />

1 018 .026 .045<br />

high-carbon steel dies which are to be hardened by<br />

quenching. No doubt can exist in the mind of the operator<br />

of the electric furnace as to the exact time when<br />

the die block, be it large or small, has reached an<br />

absolutely uniform temperature throughout; wherefore,<br />

other things being normal, successful hardening<br />

can only be thwarted by improper quenching.<br />

2 035 .048 .060<br />

3 045 .055 .075<br />

4 052 .061 .092<br />

6 :. .056 .075 .110<br />

8 062 .083 .130<br />

High temperature and long exposure tend to render<br />

work brittle, partly because of prolonged exposure<br />

to high temperature and partly because of relative in­<br />

The electric furnace is ideally suited for annealing, crease in cross section of hardened area compared to<br />

in the ordinary tool room. It is likewise suited to any the soft core.<br />

heating requirements where the charges do not re­ The above remarks lead one to the conclusion that<br />

quire more than 1,800 deg. F. Some of its advantages the electric furnace has important advantages for the<br />

over fuel-fired unmuffled furnaces are as follows: (1) carburization stage of the case hardening process,<br />

radiant heat; (2) satisfactory heat distribution; (3) where it is evident that close regulation and control of<br />

automatic control of temperatures if desired, (4) prac­ temperature, as well as uniform delivery and distributically<br />

non-oxidizing atmosphere, if desired; (5) tion of heat, are essential for the best results. Uni­<br />

small amount of heat given off to the room; (6) no formity of product requires that each part of the<br />

products of combustion or obnoxious gases given off charge be subjected as nearly as possible to the same<br />

to heating chamber or room; (7) ratio of heat genera­ heat cycle, whether it be near the center of the cartion<br />

to heat absorption by charge correctly mainburizing box or near its outer walls. It has already<br />

tained; (8) uniform and complete penetration of heat been stated that the electric furnace, with its auto­<br />

through the charge without overheating of corners, matic control, will bring each part of a charge of<br />

fins or surfaces; (9) ability to repeat desired heat material to the same temperature through the control<br />

cycles, giving uniformity of product; (10) a reduction. by a surface couple on that charge. Furnaces may be<br />

generally, in labor; (11) a better overall economy and designed to give practically the same heat in each car­<br />

the production of higher quality product at the same burizing box constituting the furnace charge, even<br />

or slightly higher cost or the same quality at a lesser though the control is actuated from a pyrometer on a<br />

overall cost.<br />

single box. In other words, uniform heating conditions<br />

exist throughout the heating chamber.<br />

Remarks already made concerning the use of the<br />

electric furnace for hardening high-carbon steel dies<br />

apply equally to heating for the quench of carburized<br />

dies.<br />

Tempering and Drawing.<br />

The temper should be drawn on all hammer dies,<br />

to relieve strains and to give resilliency or spring, resulting<br />

in better wearing qualities. An oil or air tempering<br />

bath electrically heated is a most satisfactory<br />

tool, and the hardened dies should immediately go<br />

into it even before the die is quite cooled from the<br />

hardening operation. The temperature of the oil bath<br />

should be about 400 deg. F. In other words, hardened<br />

steel is "tempered" by being reheated to about 400<br />

deg. F., where it loses considerable brittleness and yet<br />

little of its hardness, making it suited for dies and<br />

metal cutting tools; reheated to 480 deg. F., it is less<br />

brittle and suited for use in rock drills, stone cutting<br />

tools, etc.; at 525 deg. F., it is suited to dental and<br />

surgical instruments, hack saws, etc.; at 570 deg. F.,<br />

the maximum usually employed, it may be used for<br />

wood saws, springs, etc. Sudden cooling after tempering<br />

does not effect hardness or softness of steel;<br />

hence, when taken from the oil bath, it may cool either<br />

rapidly or slowly.<br />

Electric furnaces for heat treating drop f<strong>org</strong>ed dies<br />

and metal cutting tools are usually of the box type.<br />

These furnaces operate at temperatures up to and including<br />

1850 deg. F., and may be obtained with automatic<br />

control as previously described.<br />

A furnace suited to heating large dies and cutters<br />

at temperatures not exceeding 1850 deg. F., with automatic<br />

temperature control, by test has shown the fol-<br />

43


44 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

lowng performance, compared with a similar oil-fired<br />

furnace on the same work :<br />

Electric<br />

Dimensions heating<br />

chamber ... 30" x 36" x 22" High<br />

Average temperature<br />

held 1450 Deg F.<br />

Fuel or power to<br />

hold at 1400 deg.<br />

F 8.04 Kwh.<br />

Cost per hour to<br />

hold 1400 deg. F.<br />

at $1.25 $0.10<br />

Amount of steel<br />

heated per hr. . . 84 pounds<br />

Fuel or power for<br />

heating steel .. . 13.35 Kwh.<br />

Cost fuel or power<br />

per hour $0,167<br />

Cost per pound<br />

heating steel.... $0,199<br />

Oil Fired<br />

28" x 24" x 20" High<br />

1400 Deg. F.<br />

1.65 gal. per hr.<br />

at $0.06 $.099<br />

84 pounds<br />

1.9 gal per hour<br />

$0,134<br />

$0,317<br />

February, 1925<br />

or tunnel type, of either vertical or horizontal construction.<br />

All furnaces may be well heat lagged without<br />

danger to refractories and at the same time secure<br />

low thermal capacity resulting in quick heating.<br />

As an exhibit demonstrating the inherent suitability<br />

of electric heat for almost entirely eliminating the<br />

decarburization and scaling of 1.10 carbon steel during<br />

heat treatment, an instructive record of carefully<br />

observed results is shown in Curves Figs. 1 and 2.<br />

The parts on which these observations were made<br />

were of 1.10 carbon steel round, y in. diameter and 2<br />

in. long.<br />

The furnaces used were (1) a gas furnace fired with<br />

city gas and, (2), an electric metallic resistor furnace<br />

of the direct heat type.<br />

The temperature to which steel was heated ranged<br />

from about 14130 deg. F. to about 1550 deg. F., and<br />

work was quenched following its heating, to harden.<br />

Fig. 2 (d)<br />

FIG. 2—Gas furnace and electric furnace. Tests for surface and under surface decarburization with 1.10 carbon steel.<br />

These results may be surprising to those who base<br />

their calculations solely on relative Btu. costs for oil<br />

and electricity. Were the upkeep costs included, the<br />

difference in favor of electric furnaces would increase,<br />

since, in the past six years, the upkeep of this furnace<br />

has been practically nothing.<br />

The foregoing applies to the electric furnace for<br />

heating processes in producing drop f<strong>org</strong>ed dies and<br />

metal cutting tools. A much greater field for the electric<br />

furnace lies in the heat treatment of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

Here we meet again the annealing, hardening by<br />

quenching, case hardening, and tempering or drawing<br />

processes. The metallic resistor furnace is here again<br />

ready to demonstrate its superiority in heating processes<br />

involving 1850 deg. F. or less. The designs of<br />

furnaces must comply with methods of handling a production<br />

having volume and tonnage. Electric heat can<br />

be utilized with practically all types of furnaces, such<br />

as car bottom type, pusher type, conveyor type, box<br />

Scale in Electric vs. Gas.<br />

Let us first look at Curve Sheet b, Fig. 1, where<br />

diameters, after hardening, are shown for different<br />

temperatures and for different spaces of time, beginning<br />

with five minutes in the furnace. Observations<br />

were made for a heating period of five minutes, increasing<br />

by 10 minutes up to 110 minutes.<br />

The original dimensions of round 1.10 C. steel stock<br />

were 0.751 in. diameter by 2 in. long before heating.<br />

The decreased diameter after quenching is assumed<br />

to indicate the amount of scale formed and which is<br />

snapped off in the quench. Note that this decrease in<br />

diameter is about equal at approximately 1430 deg. F.<br />

in the gas furnace, and at 1560 deg. F. in the electric<br />

furnace with equal time of heating, while almost twice<br />

as much scale is formed in the gas furnace at 1560 deg.<br />

F., as in the electric under the same conditions.


February, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

Hardness in Electric vs. Gas.<br />

The hardness rises to a maximum for work done<br />

in the electric furnace when a temperature of 1425 deg.<br />

F. is used (see Fig. 1), and a slight falling-off occurs<br />

at increased temperatures, due perhaps to the<br />

increased solution of "hard carbide" and to the formation<br />

of greater amounts of "austenite". There is no<br />

decrease of hardness for long periods of heating, which<br />

means that the decarbonization is almost inappreciable.<br />

To be sure, we note that hardness occurs in a<br />

shorter period with higher temperature, but this is not<br />

the maximum hardness obtainable. We see that 20<br />

minutes is required for maximum hardness for 1430<br />

deg. F., whereas, for lower temperatures, the work was<br />

heated for a longer period. The reason that the gas<br />

heated stock does not reach an equally high degree of<br />

hardness may be due to the effect of some decarburization.<br />

In no case could there be detected with the micro-<br />

" scope any measurable area of totally decarburized surface<br />

metal, except those heated to 1560 deg. F. in the<br />

gas furnace for the longer periods. Hence to get an<br />

exact comparison on the cross section, Rockwell hardness<br />

numbers were determined (1) at the surface; (2)<br />

at a depth of ^-in. and 3/16-in. below the surface; and<br />

(3) at the center.<br />

In the electric furnace, the maximum hardness is<br />

practically constant, even through the long periods of<br />

heating. The adjacent underlying zone is always<br />

shown to be less hard. At 1560 deg. F. an exception<br />

is noted in that the interior metal increases in hardness<br />

and ultimately exceeds the surface hardness. This<br />

may be explained as resulting from surface decarburization<br />

shown as shaded area in Fig. 2, a, c and d.<br />

In the gas furnace, the surface decreases in hardness<br />

as does the underlying stock at 1480 deg. F.,<br />

but at a greater rate. In much greater quantity we<br />

find decarburizaton over that in the electric furnace,<br />

yet at lower temperatures. The decrease in diameter<br />

corresponds to the area on the curve and under the<br />

horizontal.<br />

Finally, we note that, in the gas furnace, the decrease<br />

of diameter and increase of decarburization<br />

have reached surprisingly high values at a temperature<br />

of 1560 deg. F.<br />

Here the "overall" cost of metal heating when done<br />

electrically may be touched upon briefly. Let us see<br />

what the cost of the heat treating operating really is,<br />

in proportion to the total cost of manufacture. A few<br />

representative products in table form run about as<br />

follows: Electricity 1 per cent per kwh.:<br />

•0<br />

ti 03<br />

&i2<br />

1-Die<br />

2— "<br />

3— "<br />

4— "<br />

5- "<br />

6- "<br />

7—Gear<br />

8- "<br />

9- "<br />

10— "<br />

11- "<br />

S3<br />

$1,380<br />

1,138<br />

638<br />

782<br />

795<br />

785<br />

234<br />

263<br />

338<br />

391<br />

die block 110<br />

-- v.-<br />

$13.50<br />

12.00<br />

5.03<br />

9.45<br />

10.53<br />

8.66<br />

13.00<br />

15.00<br />

21.00<br />

26.00<br />

1.75<br />

-'S 2-5<br />

4.16<br />

3.70<br />

1.50<br />

2.92<br />

2.43<br />

2.67<br />

3.70<br />

4.44<br />

6.25<br />

7.60<br />

0.65<br />

Average<br />

0)<br />

£ et O — H.<br />

.30<br />

.32<br />

.23<br />

.37<br />

A3<br />

.30<br />

1.50<br />

1.77<br />

1.80<br />

1.90<br />

0.60<br />

.86<br />

The average cost of electricity for the heat treatment<br />

of these parts is thus .86 of one per cent of the<br />

total factory cost. Assuming that the cost of oil for<br />

doing the same heating were only one-half this<br />

amount, costs would be equalized if an advantage of<br />

.43 of one per cent were realized by the electric process.<br />

Whether that advantage comes from increased<br />

quality, increased production, decreased floor space,<br />

better working conditions, ability to duplicate results,<br />

temperature control, uniformity of product, decrease in<br />

rejects, decrease in labor, or some other element entering<br />

into the total cost of production, matters not.<br />

Fortunately for electric heating, when these conditions<br />

are all taken at their increased value, due to the electric<br />

process, the balance is in increasing numbers<br />

found to be on the side of the electric.<br />

Summary.<br />

The author feels that no comment is necessary to<br />

lead one to decide from the above the relative merits<br />

of each furnace for metallurgical work.<br />

There has been no attempt in this paper to put<br />

forth any new heat-treating process. Well known and<br />

accepted process specifications have in part been described<br />

only that the completeness with which the<br />

electric furnace is able to meet such conditions might<br />

be more clearly presented.<br />

The use of the electric furnace does not call for<br />

new methods of manipulation of present heating processes,<br />

but rather fits itself into standard and generally<br />

accepted heat-treating requirements admirably, removing<br />

practically all uncertainties connected with the<br />

proper application of heat; and eliminates almost entirely<br />

the handicaps inherent in fuel-fired furnaces.<br />

Test Sheets for Welding Qualities<br />

Certain lots of sheets which give unsatisfactory<br />

welds, apparently on account of the evolution of gas<br />

as the molten weld metal freezes, are encountered by<br />

manufacturers of oxy-acetylene welded sheet steel<br />

products. The Bureau of Standards, Washington, is<br />

analyzing satisfactory and unsatisfactory sheet steel,<br />

submitted by a tube manufacturer, to determine if<br />

there is any difference in the gas content of these two<br />

grades of welding steels. Similar samples have been<br />

promised by a manufacturer of welded steel barrels.<br />

Bell Laboratories Formed<br />

The Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., was <strong>org</strong>anized<br />

on January 1, 1925, for the purpose of carrying<br />

on development and research activities. The newcompany<br />

is jointly owned by the American Telephone<br />

& Telegraph Company and the Western Electric Company,<br />

Inc., and has taken over the personnel, buildings<br />

and equipment of the research laboratories of<br />

these two companies, which were formerly operated<br />

as the Engineering Department of the Western Electric<br />

Company.<br />

Laboratory space in the form of a new building<br />

covering: almost a quarter of a city block will be added<br />

to the 400,000 sq. ft. at present in service in the group<br />

of buildings at 463 West Street, New York City. At<br />

the date of incorporation, the personnel numbered approximately<br />

3,600, of whom about 2,000 are members<br />

of the technical staff.<br />

45


46 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

February, 1925<br />

M e t a l S t a m p i n g a n d S o m e o f Its F o r m s<br />

Uniformity in Shape and Design, Rapid Rate of Production, Com­<br />

paratively Low Cost and Elimination of Machine Work<br />

T H E art of metal stamping is an old one, although<br />

it is only in recent years that it has taken its logical<br />

place in industry. It is an important factor<br />

now in the manufacturing of this country, but present<br />

development and experimental work will make its<br />

use far reaching in the future.<br />

To describe it in an elementary w^ay — the art of<br />

metal stamping is the process of cutting and forming<br />

shapes from flat stock — steel, brass, copper, aluminum,<br />

and other metals — by means of dies or tools<br />

designed for the work and operated in various types<br />

of punch presses.<br />

It is safe to say that the average layman has no<br />

conception of the extent to which metal stampings<br />

are used in our every day life. The insignificant little<br />

collar button is a metal stamping, and going to the<br />

other extreme we have the pressed steel freight car.<br />

Cooking utensiles, telephones, bicycles, automobiles,<br />

adding machines, electrical and radio devices, washing<br />

machines, and an almost unlimited number of other<br />

articles have pressed metal parts or metal stampings<br />

in some form or other.<br />

The advantages of the metal stamping are many.<br />

Innumerable shapes or forms may be manufactured in<br />

quantities at a rapid rate and at a comparatively low<br />

cost. With the properly designed tool equipment<br />

parts may be made in unlimited quantities, each one<br />

uniform in shape and design; and where required, to<br />

remarkably close limits.<br />

In recent years the engineer and designer have<br />

given first thought to the stamping where before a<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed or cast part may have been used. This is particularly<br />

true where a saving in weight is desirable,<br />

for in most instances the stamped part, though equally<br />

strong, is lighter than a corresponding cast or f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

form. And this reduction in weight means a lowering<br />

of costs and a further saving in packing and shipping<br />

expense. Light gauged metals may be ribbed and<br />

formed so as to make a very strong construction. A<br />

similar result is obtained in a drawn or shell shaped<br />

part due to the shape and the fact that the action of<br />

the drawing dies has a tendency to toughen the metal.<br />

Most stamped shapes may be so designed that little or<br />

no machining will be required before use. It does<br />

not necessarily follow that all cast parts may be produced<br />

as stampings, but there have been many that<br />

have been redesigned at a tremendous saving and for<br />

the same reason this form of construction is being considered<br />

more and more.<br />

Manufacturers of electrical goods and stoves were<br />

perhaps among the first to make use of stampings to<br />

any great extent, but it was the automobile that<br />

brought the industry to its present prominence. Here<br />

was a product for which there was an increasing de-<br />

Are Among Advantages of Metal Stampings<br />

By H. JAY*<br />

mand and yet a need for lower costs to put machines<br />

within the reach of everyone. Starting with a very<br />

few pressed parts at first we find the present car design<br />

an example of pressed metal engineering carried<br />

to its fullest possibilities. The late war also brought<br />

many opportunities for pressed metal development.<br />

The demand then was for huge quantities of material<br />

to be produced almost over night. Steel helmets,<br />

booster casing, fuse sockets, etc., were among some<br />

of the parts that would never have been produced in<br />

the quantities and designs required if it hadn't been<br />

for this most versatile method of manufacture.<br />

FIG. 1—Common type of blanking die for cutting a<br />

little dog or plunger.<br />

And it is readily seen why the automobile engineer<br />

has turned to the stamping for use in his highly productive<br />

field. The cast brake drum and axle housing,<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ed windshield bracket and clutch and brake<br />

pedals, with very little change in design, can and<br />

have been produced as stampings on a very economical<br />

basis and at a decided saving in weight. Fenders,<br />

oil pans, hoods, bodies, frames, hub caps, parts for the<br />

motor clutch and transmission are all some form of<br />

pressed metal. Producing these parts with such ra­<br />

*Sales Engineer, The Acklin Stamping Company, Toledo, pidity and at such a saving in material and labor, the<br />

Ohio. Paper presented to the Seniors in Mechanical Engineering advantages from a cost and production viewpoint are<br />

at Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania.<br />

apparent.


February, 1925<br />

Given a stamped part to produce, the first problem<br />

is to make the proper selection of tools and material.<br />

This selection is dependent upon the probable number<br />

of pieces required, the finish if any, tolerances, shape,<br />

etc. The tool and die design is an important link in<br />

the chain, for improperly designed tools means expensive<br />

upkeep and poor workmanship and slow production.<br />

Under almost identical conditions the same<br />

kind of metal will act differently in one drawn part<br />

than it will in another, so that the tool designer's<br />

work is an important one. This is one reason why the<br />

art is so interesting — and costly at times to those<br />

working on a competitive basis—for each job is practically<br />

a new problem in itself.<br />

There are so many different classes of stamping<br />

work that it would be rather difficult to attempt to<br />

describe all of them at one sitting. Some forms, such<br />

as the collar button, shoe eyelet, etc., are produced<br />

entirely automatically, the raw stock being fed into<br />

the press at one end and after passing through successive<br />

steps in the die, coming out a finished piece.<br />

Other parts of a nature that would not permit automatic<br />

control are put through various press operations<br />

at a surprising rate. Some of the larger types — automobile<br />

frames and freight car ends, for example, are<br />

handled by cranes in hydraulic presses of upwards of<br />

3 or 4,000 tons capacity. A study of a few of the common<br />

forms of pressed metal parts and the design of<br />

the dies or tools might be interesting.<br />

The simplest form of tool is the blanking die for<br />

cutting flat pieces, such as washers or gusset plates.<br />

The tool operated in a punch press consists of two portions;<br />

the male part generally called the punch and<br />

the female portion the die — although it is common<br />

practice to refer to the complete tool as a die. The<br />

stock to be cut quite naturally is placed between the<br />

punch and the die and as the punch descends the shearing<br />

action between the two cuts the blank.<br />

FIG. 2—Where a clean square edge is desired, the rough<br />

blank is put through a shaving or burnishing operation.<br />

Fig. 1 shows a common type of blanking die for<br />

cutting a little dog or plunger. The punch holder C<br />

is mounted in the ram of the press and to it is fitted<br />

the punch A. The die B is mounted on the die shoe<br />

D which in turn is held stationary on the bed of the<br />

press. The stock E is feed from right to left and at<br />

each stroke of the press a blank is cut falling through<br />

the die and the bed of the press. The wastage between<br />

blanks is kept to a minimum by means of the<br />

stop G which properly locates the stock between each<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

cut. A certain amount of clearance is allowed between<br />

the punch and the die to obtain the best cutting action.<br />

This clearance is dependent upon the metal thickness,<br />

being approximately 15 thousandths of an inch on<br />

a side in this case for steel one-quarter inch thick.<br />

This clearance is all in the die, the punch corresponding<br />

to the outline of the blank desired. For this reason<br />

the stock clings to the punch as it ascends after each<br />

stroke, but it is removed by the stripper plate F, located<br />

in a fixed position around the punch. A blank<br />

FIG. 3—Compound die for piercing and blanking in<br />

a single operation.<br />

cut in this manner is apt to be distorted somewhat<br />

due to the shearing action, but this distortion may be<br />

removed by flattening between two surfaces mounted<br />

in a press in the same manner as in blanking.<br />

It is evident that in blanking stock, in the manner<br />

just described, a clean cut, square edge cannot be obtained<br />

due to the clearance in the die. The stock in<br />

being cut is sheared clean and true for about one-third<br />

of the thickness and then practically torn apart for<br />

the remainder. The thumb sketch in Fig. 1 shows<br />

this condition in a slightly exaggerated way. This<br />

ragged condition on the edge of the cut blank becomes<br />

more pronounced as heavier stock is used, but it is not<br />

objectionable for ordinary use. Where a cleaner or<br />

more square edge is necessary for the sake of obtaining<br />

accuracy in an assembly of stamped parts, a shaving<br />

or burnishing operation is added. The tool for this<br />

purpose is somewhat similar to a plain blanking die;<br />

the essential difference being in the decreased clearance.<br />

A shaving operation cuts away a few thousands<br />

of stock; whereas a burnishing operation sharpens a<br />

blanked edge by ironing out the metal by brute force<br />

between a closely fitting punch and die, although removing<br />

a certain amount of stock. The part shown<br />

in Fig. 2, being cut from five-eighths thick stock, came<br />

47


is<br />

from the blanking die quite ragged; but a burnishing<br />

operation leaves an edge that was quite comparable<br />

with an expensive machining operation.<br />

Another type of flat work is a reinforcement plate<br />

for holding an automobile hood latch in place. This<br />

part is used in the construction of a popular make of<br />

Oo-OOol<br />

FIG. 4—Progressive die used for piercing, countersinking<br />

and blanking.<br />

automobile and is required in large quantities. A compound<br />

type of die is used, this being one that blanks<br />

the piece and pierces all the holes in one operation—a<br />

finished piece being produced with each stroke of the<br />

press.<br />

In Fig. 3 showing the complete die, the upper portion<br />

contains a cutting edge A, which corresponds to<br />

the outline of the blank allowing clearance as in the<br />

plain type of blanking die. The punches B for the<br />

small holes are also in this portion of the die and<br />

after being properly located are held in place by the<br />

punch holder. This punch holder may be readily removed<br />

so that duplicate punches may be inserted as<br />

wear and breakage occur.<br />

FIG. 5—Forming die. In addition to shaping the part, it<br />

shears off part of the stock to give a sharp knife-like edge.<br />

The lower portion consists of the shoe D on which<br />

is mounted the plug E which serves as a punch for the<br />

blank and in addition is the die for the small punches<br />

above. The stripper F removes the strip from the<br />

punch as the press ascends and the knock-out pad G<br />

removes the stamping from the small punches.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

February, 1925<br />

This is a very practical type of die for quantity<br />

production for it is capable of producing upwards of<br />

15,000 pieces daily. To operate satisfactorily the small<br />

holes should be located far enough away from the<br />

edge of the blank — at least once and one-half metal<br />

thickness — so that the die construction will not be<br />

weakened.<br />

Another type of small stamping is the little plate<br />

that serves as the catch for an automobile door lock.<br />

The countersinking required for the wood screws<br />

eliminates the possibility of using the compound type<br />

of die previously described, so that a progressive or<br />

step type is used as shown in Fig. 4. The material,<br />

hot rolled strip steel, is fed into the first operation die<br />

from right to left in strips wide enough for the blank<br />

and allowing sufficient stock on the sides to hold the<br />

strip together after the blank is cut. Otherwise, small<br />

pieces of scrap falling off the strip would clog up the<br />

die and slow up production. A and B are indexing<br />

gauges used in starting the strip which is handled to<br />

the best advantage in eight to 10 foot lengths. A is<br />

held in place on the first stroke of the press, locating<br />

the material for the first step, the piercing of the two<br />

small holes by the punches C. A is then released<br />

and the stop B locates for the countersinking on the<br />

next stroke of the press by the punches D. Then in<br />

the next stroke the blank is cut with the punch E,<br />

roughly gauging from a stop at F and accurately locating<br />

the stock with little pins in the punch which<br />

fit into the countersunk holes before the blank G is<br />

actually cut. At each successive stroke thereafter one<br />

blank is cut, falling through the die and out of the<br />

way, and the piercing and countersinking are performed<br />

on two other portions of the strip.<br />

To finish the plate it is put through another tool<br />

shown in Fig. 5. This is known as a forming die and<br />

in addition to shaping the part actually pinches off a<br />

bit of the stock to give the sharp knife edge required.<br />

After the stamping is formed it is carried up with the<br />

punch on the up stroke of the press and is removed by<br />

a striper plate not shown in the sketch. The press<br />

being inclined the stamping falls away from the tool<br />

of its own accord in time to permit the insertion of<br />

the next blank. A set of tools of this type is suitable<br />

for large production on a very economical basis. The<br />

first operation is capable of producing approximately<br />

20,000 pieces in a 10-hour day and the second operation<br />

approximately 12,000, at a combined cost of considerably<br />

under a cent per piece including material.<br />

(Continued next month.)<br />

Stamping Plant Starts Operations<br />

The Geometric Appliance Corporation, 27 Sixth<br />

fr. ' • Vrooklyn, N. Y., incorporated August 20,<br />

1924, with a capital of $200,000. The company started<br />

business January 2, 1925, and will specialize in the<br />

scientific heat treatment of metals by a special process,<br />

and the manufacture of patented hair curlers,<br />

can openers, surgical instruments and other metal<br />

stamping and die work. Thomas H. Ross, president,<br />

has patented several products to be manufactured,<br />

and has developed the new heat treating process after<br />

-5 years of experimentation. Ge<strong>org</strong>e Macaulay is vice<br />

president, and Ge<strong>org</strong>e E. Nace, secretary-treasurer.


February, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

B i b l i o g r a p h y o f M a n g a n e s e S t e e l<br />

(Bibliographies accompany several of the references<br />

mentioned below. See the second, eleventh, and twelfth<br />

references under Hadfield; the second reference under<br />

Hibbard; and references under Burnham, Desch, Hopkinson,<br />

Mars, and Ruemelin.)<br />

Books and Periodical Literature.<br />

LAcier au manganese, 1908. (In Le Genie civil, v.<br />

52, p. 288-290.)<br />

Angerer, V. Designing Manganese Steel Track<br />

Work. 1915. (In Railway Age Gazette, v. 59, p. 341-<br />

342.)<br />

Gives brief history and uses of manganese steel in railroad<br />

work.<br />

Armstrong, P. A. E. Manganese Steel Welding.<br />

1916. (In Electric Railway Journal, v. 47, p. 1144-1146.)<br />

Describes the Strohmenger process for welding manganese<br />

steel.<br />

Arnold, J. O., and Read, A. A. Chemical and Mechanical<br />

Relations of Iron, Manganese, and Carbon.<br />

1910. (In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 81,<br />

p. 169-185.)<br />

Arnold, J. O., and Read, A. A. Chemical Relation of<br />

Carbon and Iron. 1894. (In Journal of the Chemical<br />

Society, v. 65, p. 788-801.)<br />

Gives analysis of manganese steel, p. 798-801.<br />

Barrett, W. F. On the Physical Properties of a<br />

Nearly Non-Magnetisable (Manganese) Steel. 1887.<br />

(In Report of the British Association for the Advancement<br />

of Science, v. 58, p. 610.)<br />

Barrett, W. F., and others. Researches on the Electrical<br />

Conductivity and Magnetic Properties of Upwards<br />

of One Hundred Different Alloys. 1902. (In Journal<br />

of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, v. 31, p. 674-<br />

732.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1903. (In Minutes of Proceedings<br />

of the Institution of Civil Engineers, v. 151, pt. 1,<br />

p. 498-499.)<br />

Includes 18 varieties of manganese alloys.<br />

Barton, Larry J. Manganese Steel Made in Electric<br />

Furnace. 1922. (In Iron Age, v. 109, p. 4-8, 109.)<br />

Discusses melting practice for castings, use of manganese<br />

steel scrap, deoxidizing with manganese ores, and heat treatment.<br />

Beliaeff, Sergius S. Cored Structure in Quenched<br />

Manganese Steel. 1922. (In Chemical and Metallurgical<br />

Engineering, v. 27, p. 1086.)<br />

Sample quenched in water from 1850° F., was etched with<br />

3 per cent nital to develop its structure.<br />

Bidwell, Ge<strong>org</strong>e L. Beater Rolls and Hydration<br />

Problems. 1922. (In Paper, v. 30, No. 7, p. 53-54, 56.)<br />

The same. 1922. (In Paper Trade Journal, v. 74,<br />

pt. 2, No. 15, p. 191, 193.)<br />

Discusses the use of manganese steel beater and washer<br />

bars in paper manufacture.<br />

Blue, A. A. Carbonizing Manganese Steel. 1921.<br />

(In F<strong>org</strong>ing and Heat Treating, v. 7, p. 413-415.)<br />

Deals with the advantages of using higher manganese content<br />

in steels for carbonizing purposes.<br />

Blue, A. A. Distortion Produced in Casehardening.<br />

1922. (In American Machinist, v. 56, p. 915-916.)<br />

Deals with the effect of casehardening on manganese steel.<br />

•Technical Librarian, Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

By e. h. McClelland*<br />

Brearley, Harry. Case-Hardening of Steel; an Illustrated<br />

Exposition of the Changes in Structure and Properties<br />

Induced in Mild Steels by Cementation and Allied<br />

Processes. Ed. 2. 1921. Longmans.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 78-79, 144.<br />

Bronson, C. B. Heat Treatment as Applied to Railroad<br />

Materials. 1919. (In Journal of the American<br />

Steel Treaters' Society, v. 1, p. 336-341.)<br />

Deals with manufacture, heat treatment, and tests of manganese<br />

steels.<br />

Burgess, Charles P., and Aston, James. Observations<br />

upon the Alloys of Iron and Manganese. 1909. (In<br />

Electrochemical and Metallurgical Industry, v. 7, p. 476-<br />

478.)<br />

Burnham, Thomas H. Special Steels; a Concise<br />

Treatise on the Constitution, Manufacture, Working,<br />

Heat Treatment and Applications of Alloy Steels;<br />

Chiefly Founded on the Researches Regarding Alloy<br />

Steels of Sir Robert Hadfield, and with a Foreword by<br />

Him. Pitman. 1923. (Pitman's Technical Primer<br />

Series.)<br />

"List of papers by Sir Robert A. Hadfield on manganese<br />

steel," p. 167-168.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 91-100.<br />

Campbell, Howard. Grinding Manganese-Steel Castings.<br />

1923. (In American Machinist, v. 58, p. 783-786.)<br />

Presents some interesting methods and equipment.<br />

Campredon, Louis. Proprietes physiques et mecaniques<br />

des aciers extra-doux ou fers fondus. 1890.<br />

(In Le Genie civil, v. 17, p. 276-277, 358-359.)<br />

Discusses the physical and mechanical properties of manganese<br />

steel.<br />

Carpenter, H. C. H., and others. Seventh Report to<br />

the Alloy Research Committee: On the Properties of a<br />

Series of Iron-Nickel-Manganese-Carbon Alloys. 1905.<br />

(In Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,<br />

v. 69, p. 857-1041.)<br />

Gives a summary of the work of previous investigators, and<br />

describes preparation, heat treatment, and chemical, mechanical,<br />

and micrographical properties of the alloys.<br />

Carr, Bradley Sayre. Manufacture of Manganese<br />

Steel Castings. 1918" (In Machinery, v. 25, p. 182.)<br />

Abstract of article in "Armour Engineer."<br />

Cast-Steel Wheel with Manganese Tread and Flange.<br />

1916. (In Electric Railway Journal, v. 48, p. 69-71.)<br />

The same. 1916. (In Foundry, v. 44, p. 457-460.)<br />

Chicago's Experience with Solid and Insert Manganese<br />

Special Track Work. 1914. (In Electric Railway Journal,<br />

v. 43, p. 970-980.)<br />

History of experience in the use of manganese steel, with<br />

accounts of individual installations.<br />

Cone, Edwin F. High-Manganese Steel for Locomotives.<br />

1924. (In Iron Age, v. 114, p. 824-825.)<br />

Davis, Z. T Manganese Steel Cutting. 1923. (In<br />

Journal of the American Welding Society, v. 2, No. 3,<br />

p. 31-33.)<br />

Dejean, M. P. Sur la classification des aciers au<br />

nickel et des aciers au manganese. 1917. (In Comptes<br />

rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l'Academie des<br />

Sciences, v. 165, p. 334-337.)<br />

49


50 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Ucsch, Cecil H., and H'hyle, Samuel. The Influence<br />

of Manganese on the Corrosion of Steel. 1914. (In<br />

West of Scotland Iron and Steel Institute, v. 21, p. 176-<br />

191.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1914. (In Journal of the Iron<br />

and Steel Institute, v. 90, p. 386.)<br />

Discusses corrosion of manganese steels in 5 per cent<br />

sodium chlorid solution.<br />

Contains a bibliography of 18 references.<br />

Difficulties in the Manufacture of Manganese Steel<br />

Castings. 1914. (In Electric Railway Journal, v. 43, p.<br />

1221-1222.)<br />

Diller, H. E. Casting Manganese Steel. 1924. (In<br />

Foundry, v. 52, p. 245-249, 298-302.)<br />

Describes method of casting, testing and working.<br />

Diller, H. E. Specializes Manganese Steel. 1923.<br />

(In Foundry, v. 51, p. 891-897.)<br />

The same. 1923. (In Iron Trade Review, v. 73, p.<br />

1672-1677.)<br />

Dubois, R. Recherche des causes de la desagregation<br />

du ferro-manganese expose a l'air libre. 1901. (In Bulletin<br />

de l'Association Beige des Chimistes, v. 15, p. 281-<br />

286J<br />

Discusses the action of weathering on ferro-manganese.<br />

Dupuy, Eugene L., and Portcvin, Albert M. Thermo-<br />

Electric Properties of Special Steels. 1915. (In Journal<br />

of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 91, p. 306-335.)<br />

Test results made on four special manganese steels, p.<br />

331-332.<br />

Garrison, F. Lynwood. New Alloys and Their Engineering<br />

Applications. 1891. (In Journal of the Franklin<br />

Institute, v. 132, p. 54-65, 111-129, 223-240.)<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 127-129, 223-228.<br />

The same, abstract. 1891. (In Journal of the Iron<br />

and Steel Institute, v. 40, p. 302-309.)<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 305-306.<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e, Howard H. Correct Welding Procedure Retains<br />

Qualities of Manganese Steel. 1924. (In Electric<br />

Railway Journal, v. 63, p. 611-613.)<br />

Use of arc welding prolongs life of manganese steel special<br />

work from one to five years.<br />

Gilbert, N. J. Effect of Certain Elements on the<br />

Properties of Steel. 1919. (In Journal of the American<br />

Steel Treaters' Society, v. 1, p. 349-359.)<br />

Compares properties of manganese steels with other steels.<br />

Grard, Charles Albert Marie. L'acier; aviation—<br />

automobilisme; constructions mecaniques sanctions de la<br />

guerre. 1919.<br />

Deals with the properties, f<strong>org</strong>ing, and heat treatment of<br />

common and special steels.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 208-211.<br />

Groos, A., and Varinois, Maurice. Traite theorique<br />

et pratique de cementation; trempe, recuit et revenu.<br />

Ed. 2, rev. and enl. 1921.<br />

Manganese steel is discussed, p. 33-34.<br />

Guillet, Leon. Aciers au manganese. 1903. (In<br />

Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement pour lTndustrie<br />

Nationale, v. 105, p. 421-448.)<br />

The same, abstract translation. 1904. (In Stahl und<br />

Eisen, v. 24, pt. 1, p. 281-285.)<br />

Lengthy article on the mechanical properties, critical points<br />

and metallography of manganese steel.<br />

GuUlet, Leon. Les aciers speciaux; preface de Henrv<br />

Le Chatelier. 2v. in 1. 1904-05.<br />

Includes researches on the structures and physical properties<br />

of manganese steel, p. 47-77.<br />

February, 1925<br />

Guillet, Leon. Nouvelles recherches sur les aciers au<br />

manganese. 1904. (In Revue de metallurgie, v. 1,<br />

memoires, p. 89-91.)<br />

Further researches on manganese steels, and states that<br />

these steels cannot be used without quenching, as the hardness<br />

of troostite-martensite structure is insufficient for practical<br />

purposes.<br />

Guillet, Leon. Quaternary Steels. 1906. (In Journal<br />

of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 70, p. 1-141.)<br />

Treats of the constitution, mechanical properties and influence<br />

of treatment on manganese steels, p. 6-7, manganesechromium<br />

steels, p. 101-109, manganese-silicon steels, p. 109-<br />

114. Contains numerous photomicrographs.<br />

Guillet, Leon. Recherches sur les aciers au manganese.<br />

1903. (In Le Genie civil, v. 43, p. 261-264,<br />

280-282.)<br />

Hadfield, Robert A., and others. Contribution to the<br />

Study of the Magnetic Properties of Manganese and of<br />

Some Special Manganese Steels. 1917. (In Proceedings<br />

of Royal Society of London, Series A, v. 94, p.<br />

65-87.)<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. Experiments Relating to the<br />

Effect on Mechanical and Other Properties of Iron and<br />

Its Alloys Produced by Liquid Air Temperatures. 1905.<br />

(In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 67, p. 147-<br />

255.)<br />

Contains a bibliography of 76 references, p. 206-210. Includes<br />

consideration of various alloys containing manganese.<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. Heating and Cooling Curves of<br />

Manganese Steel. 1913. (In Journal of the Iron and<br />

Steel Institute, v. 88, p. 191-202.)<br />

Hadfield, Robert A., and Friend, J. Newton. Influence<br />

of Carbon and Manganese upon the Corrosion of<br />

Iron and Steel. 1916. (In Journal of the Iron and Steel<br />

Institute, v. 93, p. 48-76.)<br />

Considers manganese steel.<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. Iron Alloys with Special Reference<br />

to Manganese Steels. 1893. (In Transactions<br />

of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, v.<br />

23, p. 148-196.)<br />

Hadfield, Robert A., and Hopkinson, B. Magnetic<br />

and Mechanical Properties of Manganese Steel. 1914.<br />

(In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 89, p.<br />

106-137.)<br />

Hadfield, Robert A., and Hopkinson, B. Magnetic<br />

Properties of Iron and Its Alloys in Intense Fields.<br />

1910. (In Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers,<br />

v. 46, p. 235-306.)<br />

Discusses magnetic properties of alloys in general, p. 253-<br />

258, and iron manganese alloys, p. 263-269.<br />

Hadfield, Robert A., and others. Magnetic Mechanical<br />

Analysis of Manganese Steel. 1921. (In Proceedings<br />

of the Royal Society of London, Series A, v. 98,<br />

p. 297-302.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1921. (In Journal of the Iron<br />

and Steel Institute, v. 103, p. 462.)<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. Manganese-Steel Rails. 1914.<br />

(In Transactions of the American Institute of Mining<br />

Engineers, v. 50, p. 327-339.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1914. (In Engineer, v. 118, p.<br />

564.) S<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. Manganese-Steel, with an Abstract<br />

of the Discussion upon the Papers; ed. by James<br />

Forrest. 1888. Institution of Civil Engineers.<br />

Treats of manganese in its application to metallurgy.—<br />

Some newly discovered properties of iron and manganese. Reprinted<br />

from the "Minutes of proceedings of the Institution<br />

of Civil Engineers."


February, 1925<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. On Manganese Steel. 1888.<br />

(In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 33, p<br />

41-82.)<br />

Gives history, manufacture and properties of manganese<br />

steel. Contains a bibliography, p. 76-77.<br />

Hadfield, Robert A. Results of Heat Treatment on<br />

Manganese Steel and Their Bearing upon Carbon Steel.<br />

1894. (In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, v. 45,<br />

p. 156-180.)<br />

"Bibliography," p. 177-180.<br />

Hall, John H., and others. Heat Treatment of Cast<br />

Steel. 1920. (In Transactions of the American Institute<br />

of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, v. 62, p<br />

353-396.)<br />

Treats of high-manganese carbon steel, p. 381-388.<br />

Hall, John H. Manganese Steel. 1915. (In Journal<br />

of the Society of Chemical Industry, v. 34, pt. 1, p.<br />

57-60.)<br />

The same. 1915. (In Journal of Industrial and Engineering<br />

Chemistry, v. 7, p. 94-98.)<br />

The same, condensed. 1915. (In Foundry, v. 43,<br />

p. 138-139.)<br />

Discusses properties, manufacture, moulding, etc., of manganese<br />

steel.<br />

Hall, John H. Manganese Steel Castings. 1913.<br />

(In Iron Age, v. 91, pt. 1, p. 712-713.)<br />

Treats of foundry methods and heat treatment.<br />

Hall, John H. Pearlitic and Sorbitic Manganese<br />

Steels. 1922. (In Iron Age, v. 110, p. 786-788.)<br />

Treats of castings of about 1 per cent manganese, some<br />

of the literature on the subject and their heat treatment and<br />

properties.<br />

Hand, S. A. Manganese Steel and Methods of Machining<br />

It. 1921. (In American Machinist, v. 54, p.<br />

43-45.)<br />

Discusses briefly the heat treatment and methods of<br />

grinding.<br />

Harbord, Frank William, and Hall, J. W Metallurgy<br />

of Steel. Ed. 7, rev. 2 v. 1923. Griffin. (Metallurgical<br />

Series.)<br />

Treats of manganese steel, v. 1, p. 400-403.<br />

Hibbard, Henry D.- Discovery of Manganese Steel.<br />

1922. (In Blast Furnace and Steel Plant, v. 10, p. 450.)<br />

The same. 1922. (In Brass World and Platers'<br />

Guide, v. 18, p. 339.)<br />

The same. 1922. (In Iron Trade Review, v. 71,<br />

p. 39.)<br />

Research Narrative No. 35, of the Engineering Foundation.<br />

Hibbard, Henry D. Manufacture and Uses of Alloy<br />

Steels. 1915. (In United States Bureau of Mines.<br />

Bulletin No. 100.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 22-34.<br />

"Bibliography," p. 34-36.<br />

The same. 1916. (In Railway Review, v. 58, p.<br />

281-284, 304-305, 345-346, 371-375, 680-683, 840-844.)<br />

Manganese steel, p. 371-375.<br />

Heat Treatment of Manganese Steel. 1924. (In<br />

Engineering, v. 118, p. 411.)<br />

Hilpert, S., and others. Ueber die magnetischen<br />

Eigenschaften von Nickel und Manganstaehlen. 1912.<br />

(In Stahl und Eisen, v. 32, pt. 1, p. 96-104.)<br />

The same. 1912. (In Zeitschrift fuer Elektrochemie,<br />

v. 18, p. 54-64.)<br />

The same, translation. 1912. (In Journal of the<br />

Iron and Steel Institute, v. 86, p. 302-310.)<br />

Discusses the influence of heat treatment on magnetic properties<br />

of manganese steels.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Hopkinson, B., and Hadfield, Robert A. Research<br />

with Regard to the Non-Magnetic and Magnetic Conditions<br />

of Manganese Steel. 1914. (In Transactions of<br />

the American Institute of Mining Engineers, v. 50, p.<br />

476-500.)<br />

"Bibliography," p. 494-497.<br />

Howe, Henry M., and Levy, Arthur G. Are the Deformation<br />

Lines in Manganese Steel Twins or Slip<br />

Bands? 1915. (In Transactions of the American Institute<br />

of Mining Engineers, v. 51, p. 881-896.)<br />

Howe, Henry M. Heat-Treatment of Steel. 1893.<br />

(In Transactions of the American Institute of Mining<br />

Engineers, v. 23, p. 466-541.)<br />

Presents results of experiments on toughening manganesesteel<br />

by sudden cooling, p. 467-476. •<br />

Howe, Henry M. Manganese-Steel. 1891. (In<br />

Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical<br />

Engineers, v. 12, p. 955-974.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1891. (In Journal of the Iron<br />

and Steel-Institute, v. 40, p. 309-311.)<br />

Gives results of tests and various uses of manganese steel.<br />

Howe, Henry M. Manganese Steel. 1893. (In<br />

Tournal of the Franklin Institute, v. 135, p. 114-128,<br />

191-200.)<br />

Howe, Henry M. Metallurgy of Steel, v. 1. 1895.<br />

Manganese steel is discussed, p. 48, 361-365.<br />

Hozvc, Henry M. Note on Manganese-Steel. 1893.<br />

(In Transactions of the American Institute of Mining<br />

Engineers, v. 21, p. 625-631.)<br />

Howe, Henry. M. Role of Manganese. 1917. (In<br />

Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials,<br />

v. 17, pt. 2, p. 508.)<br />

The same. 1917. (In Engineering and Mining Journal,<br />

v. 104, p. 467-468.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1917. (In Iron Age, v. 100, pt.<br />

l.p. 239.)<br />

The same, condensed. 1917. (In Iron Trade Review,<br />

v. 60, p. 1401-1402.)<br />

Discusses mechanical properties of manganese steel.<br />

Improved Manganese Steel. 1915. (In Machinery,<br />

v. 21, p. 450.)<br />

Improved steel possessing the characteristic hardness of<br />

the regular manganese steel, but which contains less manganese.<br />

Jacobs, F. B. Grinding Manganese Steel Castings.<br />

1921. (In Foundry, v. 49, p. 767-770.)<br />

Discusses the method and reasons for grinding.<br />

Johnson, F. E. Manganese Steel. 1910. (In Journal<br />

of the Association of Engineering Societies, v. 45,<br />

p. 175-183.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1911. (In Engineering Review,<br />

v. 24, p. 173.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1911. (In Foundry, v. 37, p.<br />

243-244.)<br />

Paper read before the Utah Society of Engineers.<br />

Johnson, R. M. Manganese Steel Grinding. 1920.<br />

(In Grits and Grinds, v. 11, No. 10, p. 2-8.)<br />

The same. 1920. (In Foundry, v. 48, p. 659-661.)<br />

The same. 1920. (In Iron Trade Review, v. 66, p.<br />

999-1001.)<br />

Killing, Erich. Beitraege zur Frage der Manganausnutzung<br />

im basischen Martinofen. 1920. (In Stahl<br />

und Eisen, v. 40, pt. 2, p. 1545-1547.)<br />

Discusses experiments on conditions necessary to secure<br />

the most effective use of the manganese additions.<br />

51


52 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Lake, E. F. Manganese Steel and Some of Its Uses.<br />

1907 (In American Machinist, v. 30, pt. 1, p. 700-702.)<br />

Discusses its advantages over carbon steel for rails, vaults,<br />

etc.<br />

Laic. E. F Effect of Mass on Heat Treatment.<br />

1919. (In Proceedings of the Steel Treating Research<br />

Society, v. 2, No. 2, p. 11-19. 31.)<br />

Discusses mechanical properties of manganese steel as influenced<br />

by various heat treatments, p. 14.<br />

Ledebur. A. Ueber Manganstahl. 1893. (In Stahl<br />

und Eisen, v. 13, p. 504-507.)<br />

Levin, M'., and Tammann, G. Lleber Mangan-Eisenlegierungen.<br />

1905. (In Zeitschift fuer An<strong>org</strong>anische<br />

Chemie, v. 47. p. 136-144.)<br />

The same, abstract translation. 1908. (In Revue de<br />

metallurgie, v. 5, pt. 1, memoires. p. 537-539.)<br />

Gives results of experiments of the heating and cooling<br />

curves of manganese-iron alloys.<br />

Machine Shop without Cutting Tools. 1909. (In<br />

American Machinist, v. 32, pt. 2, p. 893-897.)<br />

Deals with appliances used in building burglar proof safes<br />

of manganese steel which can only be machined by grinding.<br />

McKcc, Walter S. Manganese-Steel Castings in the<br />

Mining Industry. 1916. (In Transactions of the American<br />

Institute of Mining Engineers, v. 53, p. 437-450.)<br />

The same, condensed. 1915. (In Iron Age v 96<br />

pt. 2, p. 1362-1365.)<br />

The same, without discussion. 1915. (In Iron Trade<br />

Review, v. 57. p. 1077-1081.)<br />

Considers their characteristics, some of their uses, foundry<br />

practice and heat treatment.<br />

McKce, Walter S., and Blake. J. M. Manganese<br />

Steel Castings in the Mining Industry. 1921. (In Transactions<br />

of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy<br />

and of the Mining Society of Nova Scotia, v. 24<br />

p. 188-195.)<br />

Gives the chemical and physical properties, heat treatment<br />

and uses.<br />

McKcc, Walter S. The Manufacture of Manganese<br />

Steel Castings. 1917. (In Transactions of the American<br />

Foundrymen's Association, v. 25, p. 403-426.)<br />

The same. 1917. (In Foundry, v. 45, p. 141-146.)<br />

The same. 1917. (In Iron Trade Review, v. 60, p<br />

413-418.)<br />

Discusses the difficulties encountered in making alloy castings,<br />

and application of manganese steel to various kinds of<br />

work.<br />

Making Manganese Steel bv the Open-Hearth Process.<br />

1919. (In Iron Trade Review, v. 65, p. 1701-1705.)<br />

Making Manganese Steel Castings Machineable<br />

1912. (In Foundry, v. 40, p. 271.)<br />

Method of softening the castings by heat treatment.<br />

Manganeisenhaltige I.egierungen und Ihre Herstellun"und<br />

Yerwendung. 1912. (In Elektrochemische Zeitschrift,<br />

v.19, p. 131-133.)<br />

Includes use of ferromanganese, etc., in manganese steel.<br />

Manganese Steel for Burglar-Proof Safes. 1899.<br />

(In Journal of the Franklin Institute, v. 147, p. 491.)<br />

Manganese Steel Products. 1909. (In Iron Age v<br />

84, pt. 1," p. 984-987.)<br />

Deals with the progress of the Potter process of rolling<br />

manganese steel.<br />

Manganese Steel Track-Work Specifications. 1915.<br />

(In Electric Railway Journal, v. 45, p. 1118.)<br />

February, 1925<br />

Manufacture of Manganese Steel Castings. 1913.<br />

(In Iron Trade Review, v. 52, p. 1404-1411.)<br />

Discusses the practice of the Edgar Allen American<br />

Steel Co.<br />

Mars. G. Die Spezialstaehle; Ihre Geschichte, Eigenschaften,<br />

Behandlungen und Herstellung. Ed. 2, rev.<br />

1922.<br />

Contains bibliographical foot-notes.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 287-331.<br />

Mesnager, A. Essais d'aciers speciaux sur les chemins<br />

de fer et tramways. 1921. (In Le Genie civil, v.<br />

79, p. 155.)<br />

Discusses advantages of Hadfield steel (12 per cent manganese)<br />

for railway parts exposed to heavy wear.<br />

Metcalf, William. Steel; a Manual for Steel Users.<br />

1900. Wiley.<br />

Treats of the properties of steel, effect of impurities, theory<br />

and methods of hardening, tempering, annealing, etc. Manganese<br />

steel, p. 33-35.<br />

Mukai, Tctskichi. Studien ueber chemisch-analytische<br />

und mikroskopische Untersuchungen des Manganstahls.<br />

Friedberg. 1892.<br />

Not in Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.<br />

New Track Appliances. 1913. (In Railway and<br />

Engineering Review, v. 53, p. 955-957.)<br />

Committee report to the Roadmasters' and Maintenance<br />

of Way Association on manganese steel appliances.<br />

Onnes, Kamerlingh, and others. On the Influence of<br />

Low Temperatures on the Magnetic Properties of Alloys<br />

of Iron with Nickel and Manganese. 1921. (In Proceedings<br />

of the Royal Society of London, Series A, v.<br />

99, p. 174-196.)<br />

Osmond, F Sur la cristallographie du fer. 1900.<br />

(In Annales des mines, v. 196, memoires, p. 110-165.)<br />

Discusses the structure of manganese steel, p. 138-139.<br />

Pennington, H. R. Welding Frogs and Crossings<br />

with Manganese Steel. 1922. (In Railway Review, v.<br />

70, p. 153-157.)<br />

The same. 1922. (In Engineering and Contracting,<br />

v. 57, p. 152-154.)<br />

Discusses the qualities of manganese steel and methods of<br />

using it in welding operations.<br />

Portevin, A., and Le Chatelier, Henry. Sur les aciers<br />

au manganese. (In Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des<br />

seances de TAcademie des Sciences, v. 165, p. 62-65.)<br />

Gives results of the effect of very slow cooling on manganese<br />

steels of different percentages of manganese.<br />

Potter, W S. Manganese Steel. 1909. (In Journal<br />

of the Western Society of Engineers, v. 14, p. 212-<br />

240.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1909. (In Iron Trade Review,<br />

v. 44, p. 584-587.)<br />

Deals with the physical properties and heat treatment, and<br />

gives results of a series of tests to determine the coefficient of<br />

fr.ct.on between chill cast and steel-tired wheels, and Bessemer<br />

and manganese steel rails.<br />

Potter, W S. Manganese Steel, with Especial Reference<br />

to the Relation of Physical Properties to Micros<br />

ructure and Critical Ranges. 1914. (In Transactions<br />

jyhe75Amencan Institute of Mining Engineers, v. 50, p.<br />

Recent Solid Manganese Steel Crossings. 1915. (In<br />

Electric Railway Journal, v. 45, p. 711-712 )<br />

for*pTcia7tracdk worT"^1"6 °f man*— ^l "stings


February, 1925<br />

Revillon, L. Les aciers speciaux. (1907.) Masson.<br />

(Encyclopedic scientifique des aide-memoire.)<br />

Concise review of their physical and chemical properties,<br />

methods of working and uses.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 65-82, also of nickel-manganese,<br />

manganese-silicon and manganese chromium steels.<br />

Rhodes, J. B. A Development of a High-Grade Alloy<br />

Steel at Low Cost. 1915. (In Journal of the American<br />

Society of Naval Engineers, v. 27, p. 911-915.)<br />

The same. 1915. (In Iron Age, v. 96, p. 1553-1554.)<br />

Discusses high grade castings and f<strong>org</strong>ings of a manpanese-copper-nickel<br />

steel showing superior static properties<br />

and developed at a low cost.<br />

Roberts, H. W. Relative Life of Manganese and<br />

Open-Hearth Rail on Curves. 1918. (In Electric Railway<br />

Journal, v. 52, p. 697.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1918. (In Engineering and<br />

Contracting, v. 50, p. 479.)<br />

Gives results of tests showing manganese rails to wear<br />

about seven times as long as open-hearth.<br />

Rolled Manganese Steel Rail. 1908. (In Railroad<br />

Age Gazette, v. 45, p. 1536-1538.)<br />

Rouelle, Jean Baptiste Celestin. L'aciers; elaboration<br />

et travail. 1922. (Collection Armand Colin. Section de<br />

chimie.)<br />

Outlines methods of manufacturing steel and special steels,<br />

and deals with testing, heat treatment, shaping and working.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 87-89.<br />

Rudhardt, Paid. Les metaux utilises la technique<br />

moderne et leur traitement rationnel. Ed. 2. 1920.<br />

Treats very briefly of manganese steel, p. 153.<br />

Ruemelin, G., and Fick, K. Beitraege zur Kenntnis<br />

des Systems Eisen-mangan. 1915. (In Ferrum, v. 12,<br />

p. 41-44.)<br />

Discusses the physical and chemical properties, and contains<br />

numerous foot-note references.<br />

Sauveur, Albert. Manganese Steel and the Allotropic<br />

Theory. 1914. (In Transactions of the American Institute<br />

of Mining Engineers, v. 50, p. 501-514.)<br />

Sauveur, Albert. Metallography and Heat Treatment<br />

of Iron and Steel. Ed. 2. 1916. Sauveur.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 343-346.<br />

Schneider et Cie. L'acier au manganese. 1909. (In<br />

Revue de metallurgie, v. 6, memories, p. 551-561.)<br />

Treats of the properties and applications.<br />

Schuler, E. J. Manganese Special Work Welding.<br />

1924. (In Engineering and Contracting (Railways), v.<br />

61, p. 419-420.)<br />

Selleck, Theodore G. Practical Talks on Case-Hardening.<br />

1919. (In Journal of the American Steel Treaters'<br />

Society, v. 1, p. 325-335.)<br />

Gives table of carbonizing efficiency of various steels, including<br />

manganese, p. 335.<br />

Shaner, E. L. Making Manganese Steel by the Open-<br />

Hearth Process. 1920. (In Foundry, v. 48, p. 63-66.)<br />

Discusses how steel containing 12 per cent manganese is<br />

made by open hearth process.<br />

Sirovich, G. Deoxidation of Steel by Silico-Manganese.<br />

1919. (In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,<br />

v. 99, p. 662.)<br />

Brief abstract from Metallurgia Italiana, 1918, v. 10, p.<br />

353-357.<br />

Spring, La Verne Ward. Non-technical Chats on<br />

Iron and Steel and Their Application to Modern Industry.<br />

1917. Stokes.<br />

Treats of manganese steel, p. 235-236.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Springer, J. F. Manganese Steel. 1910. (In Cassier's<br />

Magazine, v. 39, p. 99-116.)<br />

Deals with properties and tests of manganese steels.<br />

Stadler, A. Einfluss des Mangans auf die mechanischen<br />

und strukturellen Eigen schaften niedriggekohlten<br />

Flusseisens gewoehnlicher Handelsqualitaet. 1913. (In<br />

Zeitschrift fuer An<strong>org</strong>anische Chemie, v. 81, p. 61-69.)<br />

Stone, S. R. Manganese Steel for Machinery Parts.<br />

1913. (In Iron Age, v. 91, pt. 1, p. 140-142.)<br />

Discusses the variety of service in which such castings have<br />

been used to advantage.<br />

Stoughton, Bradley. The Metallurgy of Iron and<br />

Steel. Ed. 3. McGraw. 1923.<br />

Discusses manganese steel, p. 435-437.<br />

Strauss, Jerome. Characteristics of Some Manganese<br />

Steels. 1923. (In Transactions of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, v. 4, p. 665-708.)<br />

Gives a brief history of iron-manganese alloys, and discusses<br />

the mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties, and shows<br />

the relation of microstructure to mechanical properties in a<br />

series of steels.<br />

Strauss, Jerome. Properties of Manganese Steels.<br />

1920. (In Proceedings of the Steel Treating Research<br />

Society, v. 2, No. 11, p. 14-19, 47.)<br />

Short review of the physical and mechanical properties as<br />

influenced by various heat treatments.<br />

Strong, J. B. Manganese Construction in Track<br />

Work. 1920. (In Official Proceedings of the St. Louis<br />

Railway Club, v. 25, No. 5, p. 47-55.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1920. (In Engineering and Contracting,<br />

v. 54, p. 499.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1920. (In Railway Review, v.<br />

69, p. 928.)<br />

Strong, J. B. Rolled Manganese Steel Rails. 1909.<br />

(In Railway and Engineering Review, v. 49, p. 214-215.)<br />

I<br />

Taritqi, N. Neues Verfahren zur Venvertung stark<br />

Siliciumhaltiger Eisen- und Mangan-Mineralien. 1913.<br />

(In Chemiker-Zeitung, v. 37, p. 511-512.)<br />

Way Engineer. Welding Manganese Steel. 1916.<br />

(In Electric Railway Journal, v. 48, p. 27-28.)<br />

Brief discussion of P. A. E. Armstrong's and W. S. Potter's<br />

articles.<br />

Welding Manganese Steel. 1923. (In Journal of<br />

the American Welding Society, v. 2, No. 6, p. 39-56.)<br />

Questions asked the bureau of information of the American<br />

Welding Society on electric welding of rails, and giving<br />

the opinion of competent engineers on the subject.<br />

Wickhorst, M. H. Tests of Manganese Steel Rails.<br />

1918. (In American Railway Engineering Association,<br />

v. 19, p. 472-491.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1918. (In Iron Age, v. 101, pt.<br />

1, p. 560-561.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1918. (In Railway Age, v. 64,<br />

p. 162.)<br />

Gives a report of the behavior of manganese steel rails<br />

under service conditions.<br />

Zerhansen, F R. How Manganese Steel Castings<br />

are Made. 1914. (In Foundry, v. 42, p. 132.)<br />

The same, abstract. 1914. (In Machinery, v. 20, p.<br />

831.)<br />

Details of molding, melting and pattern making.<br />

53


54 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

February, 1925<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER III—METALLOGRAPHY<br />

PART 3 — STRUCTURE OF METALS*<br />

Pure Metals.<br />

A pure metal of almost any kind, whether iron,<br />

gold, copper, tungsten, etc., when polished, etched and<br />

examined under the microscope, looks very much like<br />

Fig. 29. (If cold worked, the network will be more<br />

or less elongated.) In fact, the various pure metals<br />

look so much alike, under the microscope, that it is<br />

difficult to tell them apart.<br />

All metals are crystalline. This fact has a great<br />

deal to do with their physical properties. When a<br />

molten metal solidifies, its atoms arrange themselves<br />

in orderly groups, somewhat like a crowd of soldiers<br />

assembling for parade, and tend to form themselves<br />

naturally into small solid bodies of regular geometrical<br />

shape, such as cubes, octahedrons')-, etc. Such<br />

bodies are called "crystals", and the mass which they<br />

make up is said to be "crystalline" A crystal grows<br />

from a small beginning, by the building on of more<br />

atoms from the adjacent liquid, each atom taking its<br />

regular place in the pattern, like bricks in a wall. The<br />

pattern taken by iron atoms is cubical, and the crystals<br />

of iron, if allowed to grow without outside interference,<br />

would be cubes. But, during solidification, many<br />

crystals start to form at different points, all according<br />

to the same pattern, but each choosing its own direction<br />

for its lines of formation. Each crystal continues<br />

to grow until it meets one of its neighbors, and its<br />

boundaries are therefore determined by chance, rather<br />

than bv the natural tendency of the crvstal.<br />

*The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the<br />

following references for material contained in this section, and<br />

to recommend them to the student for further readine. Ref. 7<br />

(Rosenhain) Chapter IV. Ref. 8 (Sauveur) Chapter IV.<br />

fAn octahedron is an eight sided solid.<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factory,<br />

United States Navy Yard. Philadelphia. Pa.<br />

Copyright, 1924, by H. C. Knerr.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

This action has been very clearly illustrated by<br />

Rosenhain (Ref. 7) as shown in Fig. 30. The progressive<br />

steps, (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), represent the<br />

gradual growth of 7 crystals, which finally meet, as<br />

in (e), so that their outlines or a section through them<br />

would look like (f). For simplicity, Rosenhain has<br />

shown only a single layer of blocks, all in one plane.<br />

In a mass of liquid, the little blocks would build up in<br />

layers as well as in rows, and the layers of one crystal<br />

would not be parallel to the layers of its neighboring<br />

crystals. The direction of the lines or planes of formation<br />

of a crystal is called its "orientation". We seldom<br />

find two crystals in one specimen oriented alike.<br />

What one sees in a polished and etched specimen<br />

of a pure metal under the microscope, is a slice or<br />

cross section through a mass of these solid, irregular<br />

crystals. The network of lines represents merely the<br />

boundaries of the crystals.<br />

Crystals occur in many kinds of material in nature,<br />

and we are used to thinking of them as bodies of<br />

regular and symmetrical shape. It should be kept in<br />

mind that it is the internal construction and not the<br />

external shape, that makes a body a crystal.<br />

Crystals which have formed under such conditions<br />

that they have been able to assume the shape natural<br />

to their type (such as perfect cubes, for instance), are<br />

called "idiomorphic" crystals. Those which have been<br />

hindered in their growth, so that they have taken their<br />

shape from their surroundings (as in most metal specimens),<br />

are called "allotriomorphic" crystals. Metallurgists<br />

have adopted a shorter term than the latter,<br />

which is equally good, and call these imperfect crystals<br />

simply "crystalline grains", or just "grains".<br />

This should not be confused with the term "grain",<br />

sometimes applied to metals, especially wrought iron,<br />

because of the fibrous appearance of the fracture,<br />

which resembles the grain of wood. In this sense<br />

metal has no real grain, although the distribution of<br />

certain inclusions, impurities or flaws, often produces


February, 1925<br />

a condition which amounts to almost the same thing.<br />

Hot or cold working also tends to set up a condition<br />

resembling the grain of wood, by tending to orient the<br />

grains parallel to the direction of working.<br />

When a mass of molten metal, such as a newly<br />

poured ingot, cools slowly, crystals start to form at<br />

those points which first reach the freezing temperature<br />

FIG. 29a—(Above) Pure gold, cast, lightly etched. (50x.)<br />

29b—(Below) Gold containing 0.20 per cent lead. (lOOx.)<br />

(Andrews.)<br />

of the pure metal. This is generally at the inner surface<br />

of the mold. These crystals grow inward, until<br />

they meet other crystals, and may attain quite a large<br />

size, see Fig. 31. Hot working breaks up these large<br />

crystalline grains, and if properly done, entirely eliminates<br />

this ingot structure, reducing the metal to a<br />

mass of crystalline grains of microscopic size, oriented<br />

in all directions. If the molten metal solidifies fairly<br />

rapidly, crystals start to form at a great number of<br />

points, and do not have time to grow far, so that the<br />

crystalline structure is also fine in this case.<br />

The crystals of metals have the peculiar property<br />

of being able to grow while the metal is in a solid<br />

state. This may take place much below the melting<br />

point, although a fairly.high temperature is usually<br />

necessary. Such grain growth is due to the absorbtion<br />

of some of the crystals by their neighbors, so that<br />

the total number of crystalline grains is reduced as<br />

their average size is increased. In passing across the<br />

boundary from the crystal which is being absorbed,<br />

into the one which is absorbing it, the atoms take the<br />

orientation of the growing crystal, and become a part<br />

of it. The arrangement or pattern of the atoms of iron<br />

undergoes changes at certain temperatures. This<br />

causes modifications in the crystalline state and cor­<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

responding changes in the structure and properties of<br />

the metal. These points will be discussed more fully<br />

further on, but are mentioned here to make it clear<br />

that the history of a specimen, its rate of cooling and<br />

its mechanical and thermal treatment, must be taken<br />

into consideration when studying its grain structure<br />

under the microscope.<br />

When a pure metal is lightly etched, the grain<br />

boundaries are at first revealed, giving the appearance<br />

of a network, as shown in Fig. 29a, but if the<br />

etching is somewhat deeper, the areas enclosed by the<br />

lines take on a different appearance, some being dark<br />

and others light, with variations between. Moving the<br />

specimen so as to change the direction in which the<br />

light strikes it, will cause the grains to change in brilliance,<br />

bright ones becoming dark, and dark ones<br />

bright. This is due to the different orientation of the<br />

grains. Deeper etching has removed the smooth layer<br />

from the surface of the grains, and exposed the very<br />

minute facets produced by the crystalline structure.<br />

These facets result from the lines or planes along<br />

which the atoms have arranged themselves in crystallizing.<br />

They are therefore parallel to each other in<br />

any one crystal, but those of different crystals lie at<br />

different angles to the polished surface of the specimen.<br />

This causes some of the crystalline grains to<br />

reflect more light into the microscope than others,<br />

and therefore to appear brighter. Changing the angle<br />

at which the light strikes them, causes them to reflect<br />

a greater or less amount into the microscope.<br />

FIG. 30.—Illustrating progressive stages in growth of crystalline<br />

grains. (Rosenhain.)<br />

Fig. 32 shows a photomicrograph of a specimen oi<br />

nearly pure iron, lightly etched (the black specks are<br />

non-metallic inclusions). Fig. 33 shows a similar material<br />

in which the lustre due to the different orientation<br />

of various grains has been brought out by deeper<br />

etching.<br />

55


50 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat 'Beating<br />

Alloys.<br />

The faceted surface of etched grains is clearly illustrated<br />

in Fig. 34, which shows an exceptionally large<br />

formation.<br />

So far we have discussed pure metals. It is well<br />

known that the addition of small amounts of certain<br />

elements to a pure metal (as for instance of carbon to<br />

iron), causes great changes in its properties. From<br />

the metallurgists standpoint, such additions are classified<br />

as "impurities" or "alloying elements", according<br />

to whether their influence on the metal is good or bad.<br />

When the metal is molten, these foreign materials<br />

either dissolve in the metal without chemical change, or<br />

combine chemically with a small part of it, This chemical<br />

compound then dissolves in the molten metal. In either<br />

case we have an ordinary liquid solution.<br />

When the liquid cools and solidifies, the added<br />

element or the chemical compound which it has<br />

formed, may remain dissolved in the crystals of the<br />

original metal as a "solid solution", or it may be rejected<br />

and form a seperate constituent between the<br />

grains of the original metal. ( iften both of these effects<br />

take place, some of the foreign element remaining<br />

in solid solution and the balance being rejected as a<br />

seperate constituent.<br />

FIG. 31.—Crystal growth in a slowly cooled ingot, showing<br />

large grains which form planes of weakness. (Stoughton.)<br />

A solid solution has the same characteristic qualities<br />

as a liquid solution, which were discussed in Chapter<br />

I, the only difference being that the mass is solid<br />

and. in metals, crystalline. The solvent and solute<br />

may vary in proportion, and are so completely merged<br />

that they cannot be distinguished under the highest<br />

magnification. The appearance under the microscope<br />

of a solid solution is >imilar to that of a pure metal,<br />

although the alloy may have a tendency to increase<br />

or decrease the size of the grains.<br />

In case the added element or its compound is rejected<br />

from solution, during the process of solidification,<br />

its presence is quite evident under the microscope<br />

as illustrated in Figs. 29b, 35 and 36.<br />

Eutectics.<br />

The insoluble material, whether element or compound,<br />

is not as a rule, rejected in a solid mass between<br />

the crystalline grains, but unites mechanically<br />

with a certain amount of the metal to form what is<br />

known as a "eutectic alloy' A "eutectic" allov (meaning<br />

"most fusible), is one that has the lowest melting<br />

point of any combination of the two materials. The<br />

eutectic constituent of any pair of materials always<br />

February, 1925<br />

has a definite composition and a definite melting point.<br />

(Freezing and melting point are equivalent). This<br />

will be further discussed in Chapter VI.<br />

Complex Alloys.<br />

An allov containing only two elements, such as lead<br />

and tin, or iron and carbon, is called a "binary alloy",<br />

and the whole range of alloys between two such elements<br />

is known as a "binary system". Where there<br />

FIG. 32.—Photomicrograph of nearly pure iron, lightly etched<br />

(500 diameters). (By Huester, in author's laboratory.)<br />

FIG. 33.—Nearly pure iron more deeply etched than Fig.<br />

32, showing light and dark effect due to different orientation<br />

of the grains. FIG. 35.—Alloyed material or impurity<br />

rejected to grain boundaries. (Aluminum—copper alloy.)<br />

FIG. 36.—Alloyed material (carbon constituent in low carbon<br />

steel) rejected as islands between grains. 500x.<br />

are three elements the alloy is called "ternary", and<br />

if four, "quaternary". Alloys of more than two or<br />

three elements are referred to as complex alloys. Such<br />

alloys follow, in general, the same laws as have been<br />

discussed for simple or binary alloys.<br />

Iron Carbon Alloys.<br />

Iron forms a great variety of alloys, both simple<br />

and complex. They are so numerous and so important


February, 1925<br />

that metallurgy is often divided into two great classes—"ferrous",<br />

including all the alloys of which iron is<br />

the major constituent, and "non-ferrous", including<br />

all the rest. The most important ferrous alloys are<br />

those of iron and carbon. Alloys of iron containing<br />

from about .05 per cent to 1.70 per cent carbon are<br />

classed as steel, and those containing from about 2.25<br />

per cent to 5.0 per cent as cast iron. These boundaries<br />

are approximate, and it is in fact, quite difficult<br />

to draw any sharp distinction between the commercial<br />

products known as iron, steel and cast iron.<br />

Iron forms a chemical compound with carbon,<br />

whose formula is Fe3C, and which therefore contains<br />

6.67 per cent carbon by weight. This, in the solid<br />

state, is a hard, brittle, crystalline substance. It is<br />

known as "iron carbide" or "cementite", and is chiefly<br />

responsible for the hardening qualities of steel. As<br />

carbon is added to liquid iron, this carbide is formed,<br />

and it will go into solution in increasing amounts<br />

with increasing temperature, up to about 1823 deg. C.<br />

(3313 deg. F.) at which the molten iron will take up<br />

FIG. 34.—Faceted surface of deeply etched grain, highly magnified.<br />

(Gulliver.)<br />

6.67 per cent of its weight of carbon, and would therefore<br />

consist entirely of liquid cementite.<br />

The cooling and solidification of such a solution,<br />

with the accompanying crystallization of various constituents,<br />

is a rather complex matter, the discussion<br />

of which will be taken up in Chapter VI. It will suffice<br />

at this stage to describe the effects of small, and<br />

gradually increasing amounts of carbon, upon the<br />

structure of iron carbon alloys, and also the effects of<br />

certain other alloys and impurities.<br />

Wrought Iron.<br />

In describing the manufacture of wrought iron it<br />

was shown that this material consists of practically<br />

carbonless iron, containing included particles of slag,<br />

which are rolled out to thread-like inclusions during<br />

the process of hot working. Before the structure of<br />

metals was studied under the microscope, it was generally<br />

supposed that wrought iron was fibrous, like<br />

wood, and that this characteristic gave the metal many<br />

valuable properties. If a piece of wrought iron is bent<br />

and broken, it certainly shows a fibrous appearance.<br />

However, examination of properly prepared longi­<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

tudinal and transverse sections under the microscope,<br />

reveals the fact that the metal itself is not fibrous but<br />

crystalline, and that the fibrous appearance is due to<br />

the elongated particles of slag. Fig. 37 shows a longitudinal<br />

section (parallel to direction of rolling),<br />

through a specimen of wrought iron. The crystalline<br />

grains are practically carbonless iron (ferrite), and the<br />

dark streaks are slag particles, which, as will be noted,<br />

sometimes run right through the crystalline grains.<br />

Fig. 38 shows a transverse section (across direction of<br />

rolling), through the same specimen, the slag particles<br />

FIG. 37.—Wrought iron, longitudinal section, showing grain<br />

structure. Black streaks are slag inclusions. (500x.) FIG.<br />

38.—Same as Fig. 37, but transverse section. 500x. (By<br />

Huester, author's laboratory.)<br />

in this case being seen endwise. The grains themselves<br />

are not elongated but are about as wide one<br />

way as another. It will be noted that, aside from the<br />

streaks of slag, the microstructure of wrought iron is<br />

practically the same as that of the nearly pure iron<br />

shown in Fig. 32. The presence of the slag streaks is,<br />

in fact, the distinguishing characteristic of wrought<br />

iron, under the microscope.<br />

Steel.<br />

Specimens of nearly pure iron (not wrought iron)<br />

were shown in Figs. 32 and 33. The presence of less<br />

57


58 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

than about 0.05 per cent of carbon in iron is not evident<br />

in its microstructure, for this amount is apparently<br />

held in solid solution by ferrite at room temperature.<br />

It should be mentioned here that in the present discussion<br />

we are considering specimens which have been<br />

allowed to cool slowly from above the critical temperature,<br />

so as to eliminate such effects on the structure<br />

as would be caused by quenching the metal or by cold<br />

working.<br />

FIG. 39.—Steel containing about 0.20 per cent carbon, annealed.<br />

(500x.) FIG. 40.—Steel containing about 0.40 per<br />

cent carbon, annealed. (500x.) (By Downes, in author's<br />

laboratory). FIG. 41.—Steel containing about 60 per cent<br />

carbon, annealed. (500x.)<br />

A slowly cooled steel specimen which contains<br />

about 0.20 per cent carbon will show grains of ferrite,<br />

interspersed with small dark areas, as in Fig. 39. If<br />

the carbon content is about .40 per cent it will be<br />

noted that the dark areas represent about y2 of the<br />

total area (Fig. 40) and if 0.60 per cent they will cover<br />

about 2/3 of the entire area, the ferrite grains now<br />

having the appearance of a net-work between the darker<br />

areas I Fig. 41). If the carbon content is .85 to .90<br />

per cent the entire area will be composed of the dark<br />

constituent. See Fig. 42. Close examination of the<br />

February, 1925<br />

dark constituent will show that it is made up of many<br />

thin layers or laminations of two different materials,<br />

so that it resembles mother-of-pearl. This constituent<br />

is called "pearlite". An exceptionally large and clear<br />

example is shown in Fig. 43. The smooth light areas<br />

are free ferrite.<br />

Pearlite is composed of alternate layers of ferrite<br />

and cementite. Above certain temperatures, all the<br />

carbide or cementite in steel goes into solid solution in<br />

FIG. 42 Steel containing about .90 per cent carbon, annealed.<br />

(500x.) FIG. 43.—Exceptionally large formation of pearlnc.<br />

'H. (500x.) >,juux.,» Smooth omootn white wmte islands are _ free ferrite grains. ,<br />

FIG 44.—Steel containing about 1.20 per cent carbon, annealed.<br />

(500x.)<br />

the ferrite, as will be described later. At lower temperatures<br />

its solubility decreases, and it finally separates<br />

out completely, in thin curved plates, combining<br />

mechanically during its separation with alternate<br />

layers or plates of ferrite, and in such a proportion<br />

that the amount of carbon in the pearlite is about 0.85<br />

per cent to .90 per cent. This fact affords a convenient<br />

means of estimating the carbon content in a<br />

piece of plain carbon steel. The specimen is first heated<br />

to a fairly high temperature, above the critical<br />

range, say to 1650 deg. F. and slowly cooled, as by


February, 1925<br />

letting it cool down with the furnace. It is then polished<br />

and etched. The carbon content may now be<br />

estimated within say, plus or minus .05 per cent in<br />

low carbon steels or .10 per cent in high carbon steels<br />

by estimating the proportion of pearlite present in the<br />

microsection, and applying the following simple formula:<br />

P X -85 _ c<br />

100<br />

where P = per cent pearlite in area<br />

C = per cent carbon.<br />

All the carbon present in slowly cooled steel containing<br />

not over .85 to .90 per cent carbon is in the pearlite.<br />

If the carbon content is greater than .90 per cent,<br />

the excess will be rejected to the grain boundaries of<br />

the pearlite as a net-work of free cementite, as shown<br />

in Fig. 44. In this case, an estimate of the carbon content<br />

may be made with the aid of the following formula<br />

:<br />

.85 P 6.67 Cm<br />

+ = C<br />

100 100<br />

where P<br />

Cm<br />

C<br />

= per cent pearlite in area.<br />

per cent cementite in area.<br />

= per cent carbon in the steel.<br />

(It will be remembered that cementite contains 6.67<br />

per cent carbon.)<br />

These rules apply only to annealed steels and do<br />

not apply to alloy steels which contain carbide forming<br />

elements, such as chromium, tungsten, etc., as in<br />

these less than .85 per cent will be needed to make<br />

the steel all pearlite. A detailed discussion of methods<br />

of estimating the amounts of certain constituents<br />

in steel and iron, from their microstructure, is given<br />

by Sauveur—Ref. 8.<br />

Typical structure of cast steel is illustrated in Fig.<br />

45, which shows part of three large grains. The carbon<br />

content of this specimen was about .40 per cent.<br />

Note that the ferrite has been rejected partly to the<br />

grain boundaries and partly within the grains themselves,<br />

along the crystalline planes. The dark constituent<br />

is pearlite. Steel having this structure is<br />

comparatively weak and brittle and must be refined<br />

by heat treatment or hot working to give it the best<br />

properties.<br />

Ordinary steel may be regarded as an alloy of two<br />

elements, iron and carbon, and therefore as a binary<br />

alloy. In addition to iron and carbon, all commercial<br />

steels contain traces of certain other elements, such<br />

as phosphorus, sulphur, silicon and manganese, but<br />

in amounts so small that they are not regarcjed as<br />

alloys. Phosphorus and sulphur are classed as impurities,<br />

because of their tendency to cause brittleness,<br />

weakness and unreliability, and they are seldom allowed<br />

to exceed about .05 per cent. Silicon and manganese<br />

are introduced as scavengers during manufacture,<br />

because of their deoxidizing action and their<br />

ability to take up gases. Manganese also has the<br />

property of combining with sulphur to form the compound,<br />

manganese sulfide MnS, which is less harmful<br />

to the steel than sulphur. Ordinary steels usually<br />

contain from a trace to .30 per cent silicon and .30<br />

per cent to .80 per cent manganese.<br />

The properties of such steels are determined mainly<br />

by their carbon content, and they are therefore<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

called "carbon steels''. Carbon steels may be classified<br />

roughly as follows:<br />

CARBON<br />

Ingot Iron<br />

Less than .05% (practically carbonless steel)<br />

.05 to .15. . .Very mild or dead soft steel.<br />

.15 to .30.. .Mild or machinery- steel.<br />

.30 to .60. .Medium carbon or f<strong>org</strong>ing steel.<br />

.60 to 1.20. . .Tool steel, various grades.<br />

.25 and over. Very high carbon or extra hard steel<br />

FIG. 45.—Cast steel containing about .40 per cent carbon.<br />

Note coarse grains and ingotism. (lOOx.) (By Huester, in<br />

author's laboratory.) FIG. 49.—Malleable iron (partly<br />

malleablized). Black areas graphite; white, ferrite; gray,<br />

pearlite. (lOOx.)<br />

These classifications are of a general nature only.<br />

In specifying steel for any particular purpose, the carbon<br />

content must be held between closer limits, especially<br />

in the three latter classes.<br />

Steels to which certain elements have been added<br />

in sufficient quantities to have a pronounced effect in<br />

improving the physical properties, are called "alloy<br />

steels" Some of the commoner alloying elements<br />

used for this purpose are nickel, chromium, vanadium.<br />

tungsten, molybdenum and also silicon and manganese.<br />

(The last two in much larger amounts than in<br />

59


(HI<br />

ordinary carbon steel.) When one such alloy is added<br />

the steel is referred to by the name of the alloying<br />

element, such as "nickel steel", or "chromium steel",<br />

etc. Such steels are ternary alloys, and their properties<br />

vary with the amount of carbon present as well as<br />

with the amount of the alloying element. Two alloying<br />

elements are often used, making a quaternary<br />

alloy (there being present four important elements in<br />

all—iron, carbon and the two alloys). Examples of<br />

FIG. 46.—White cast iron. (SOOx.) Bright areas, carbide;<br />

dark areas, pearlite. FIG. 47.—Gray cast iron, polished<br />

but not etched. Dark areas, graphite plates. (lOOx.) FIG.<br />

48.—Same specimen as Fig. 47, etched. Black areas, graphite;<br />

white, ferrite; gray, pearlite and phosphide eutectic<br />

(lOOx.)<br />

this nature are "chromium-vanadium steel", "nickelchromium<br />

steel", etc. Steels containing three or more<br />

alloys are manufactured for special purposes, especially<br />

for high grade tools.<br />

Each alloying element has important and characteristic<br />

effects upon the properties of the steel, and upon<br />

its behavior under heat treatment. They either go into<br />

solid solution with the ferrite, or combine with some<br />

of the carbon present to form carbides, or both. They<br />

therefore, as a rule, produce no new constituent which<br />

can be distinguished under the microscope from the<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

February, 1925<br />

usual constituents of carbon steel. Their influence so<br />

far as the microstructure is concerned, lies chiefly<br />

in their effects upon the structure produced in the<br />

steel by heat treatment. This matter will be taken<br />

up in Chapter VII.<br />

Cast Iron—White.<br />

Cast iron contains much more carbon than steel,<br />

generally from 2.50 to 4.00 per cent. When the metal<br />

FIG. 50— (a) Manganese sulfide globules (gray) in low carbon<br />

steel. (500x.) (b) Manganese sulfide inclusions elongated<br />

by rolling. (500x.) FIG. 51.—Intercrystalline quenching<br />

cracks, due to high sulphur. (SOOx.)<br />

is molten, the carbon goes completely into solution<br />

in the iron (either as carbon or the carbide Fe3C). If<br />

the metal is cooled fairly rapidly to the solid state,<br />

the carbon separates from solution in the form of carbide,<br />

Fe3C, as in steel, some of it forming pearlite<br />

with a portion of the iron, and the rest forming a net<br />

work or ground mass of cementite. This produces the<br />

extremely hard and rather brittle material known as<br />

white cast iron," from the white and shining appearance<br />

of its fracture. The microstructure of a piece<br />

of white cast iron is shown in Fig. 46. The bright<br />

areas are cementite and the dark areas pearlite:


February, 1925<br />

Gray.<br />

If, however, the metal is allowed to cool and solidify<br />

slowly, some of the carbide will decompose into<br />

iron and graphite, according to the formula, Fe3C =<br />

3Fe + C. (Graphite is one of the forms of the element<br />

carbon) and the graphite will be distributed<br />

through the mass in the form of tiny curved plates<br />

or flakes. This is ordinary "gray cast iron". If a piece<br />

is broken, the fracture will follow along the graphite<br />

plates, as they have little tenacity. This produces the<br />

characteristic gray appearance and accounts for the<br />

comparative brittleness and lack of Juctility of ordinary<br />

cast iron. The presence of silicon promotes the<br />

formation of graphitic carbon.<br />

Some of the carbon usually remains in the combined<br />

state, producing cementite and pearlite. If<br />

the specimen is polished but not etched, the graphite<br />

only will be revealed as shown in Fig. 47. Etching<br />

will then bring out the pearlite. See Fig. 48.<br />

Malleable.<br />

If white cast iron is given a suitable long annealing<br />

treatment, some or all of the carbide will break<br />

down into iron and graphite, but in this case the<br />

graphite will collect into small, nearly round globules,<br />

which have not the weakening effect that the graphite<br />

plates have in gray cast iron. The presence of silicon<br />

aids this reaction. Carbon produced in this way is<br />

called "temper carbon". Some of the carbon is usually<br />

oxidized out in the process. The metal now consists<br />

of a mass of ferrite grains, interspersed with<br />

particles of graphite and is comparatively ductile and<br />

malleable. It is called malleable iron.<br />

Fig. 49 shows the microstructure of a partly malleablized<br />

specimen, The free carbide has decomposed,<br />

leaving rounded masses of graphite (black), surrounded<br />

by carbonless iron or ferrite (white) which are, in<br />

turn, imbedded in a ground mass of pearlite (gray).<br />

Such material is stronger but not so malleable as fully<br />

malleablized iron.<br />

Impurities.<br />

Macroscopic examination as a means of studying<br />

impurities has been discussed. More minute study of<br />

certain impurities under the microscope is often valuable.<br />

Phosphorus.<br />

The small quantity of phosphorus which is present<br />

in steel forms the phosphide of iron, Fe3P, which goes<br />

into solid solution with the ferrite, and is therefore not<br />

visible in the microstructure. Carbonless iron will<br />

take up as much as 1.7 per cent phosphorus in this<br />

way. Cast iron may contain relatively large quantities<br />

of phosphorus and more than the ferrite can take up.<br />

The presence of carbon tends to throw the phosphorus<br />

out of solution, causing it to form a ternary eutectic<br />

of iron carbide (Fe3C) iron phosphide (Fe3P) and iron<br />

(ferrite), somewhat resembling pearlite in appearance.<br />

This constituent can be recognized and studied under<br />

the microscope by the method of heat tinting, described<br />

in the section on etching.<br />

Sulphur.<br />

Sulphur has a strong tendency to combine chemically<br />

with manganese, at high temperatures, forming<br />

manganese sulfide, MnS. One of the purposes of<br />

adding manganese to steel is to take up the sulphur<br />

in this way. The manganese sulfide separates out in<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

the form of small round globules, some of which<br />

float to the top of the ingot while others are entrapped<br />

when the metal solidifies. Hot working elongates the<br />

globules in the direction of f<strong>org</strong>ing or rolling. They<br />

may be recognized under the microscope, by their gray<br />

color, Fig. 50 a and b. These small particles have little<br />

effect on the strength of steel, unless they are present<br />

in excessive quantities. From the atomic weights<br />

it is evident that 55 parts of manganese are required<br />

to combine with 32 parts of sulphur. Actually more<br />

FIG. 52.—Banded or ghost line structure. (lOOx.) (a) Probably<br />

due to phosphorus, (b) Probably due to sulphur.<br />

FIG. 53.—Solid non-metallic impurities. Very "dirty" steel.<br />

Longitudinal section through rolled bar. Polished but not<br />

etched. (lOOx.)<br />

mangane'se is needed to insure that all the sulphur<br />

is taken up. In case there is excess sulphur, it combines<br />

with some of the iron, forming iron sulfide,<br />

FeS. This is yellow or brown in color, low in strength,<br />

and tends to form a film or envelope around the ferrite<br />

grains, thereby greatly weakening the metal. The<br />

low melting point of this material (FeS) is the probable<br />

cause of the well known brittleness ("red shortness")<br />

of steel high in sulphur when heated to f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

temperature. Such steel is also likely to crack in heat<br />

treatment. Fig. 51 is a photomicrograph of a piece<br />

(,l


62 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

which cracked apparently from this cause. It was<br />

found to be high in sulphur in the vicinity of the<br />

crack, due to segregation.<br />

Segregation.<br />

Small quantities of impurities, such as are generally<br />

found in good steel, have no serious effect on the<br />

physical properties so long as the steel is homogeneous,<br />

that is, uniform in composition throughout. But<br />

impurities have a tendency to collect in certain portions<br />

of an ingot or casting on cooling, and these<br />

portions may then contain so large a proportion of<br />

impurities as to be very weak and unreliable. F<strong>org</strong>ing,<br />

rolling or heat treating, or the strains of service<br />

are likely to cause a fracture to start at such a weak<br />

point which will spread through the piece until failure<br />

occurs. Quite often these segregated areas are<br />

associated with the size and form of the grains in the<br />

original ingot, and are greatly elongated when the<br />

metal is rolled or f<strong>org</strong>ed. This latter condition is<br />

known as "banded" or "ghost line" structure. Examples<br />

are shown in Fig. 52. Segregations of Phosphorus<br />

and sulphur tend to produce such a condition,<br />

and it is often accompanied by local decarburization.<br />

Metal showing this type of structure is likely to fail<br />

in service.<br />

Sonims.<br />

Molten steel is never entirely free from small particles<br />

of slag or other non-metallic impurities such as<br />

oxides, or grains of sand, etc., which remain suspended<br />

in the metal in much the same way that particles<br />

of dust float about in the air. The term "solid nonmetallic<br />

impurities" used to describe these inclusions,<br />

has been abbreviated to the word "sonims". Steel of<br />

good quality contains few sonims, but some times<br />

they are present in great numbers, in which case the<br />

steel is said to be "dirty". Sonims, like other impurities,<br />

frequently segregate, causing local points of<br />

weakness. It is not advisable to use such steel where<br />

resistance to repeated stress is called for, as in the<br />

working parts of engines, for example.<br />

Sonims are most readily detected in specimens<br />

which have been polished but not etched. A final gentle<br />

polishing by hand is advisable to remove any surface<br />

film of metal which may have been smeared over<br />

the inclusions when polishing on the disk. An example<br />

is shown in Fig. 53. Sometimes the sonims fall<br />

out in polishing, leaving pits.<br />

Minute flaws or fissures, such as tiny blowholes<br />

which have been flattened out but not welded up in<br />

rolling, are an occasional source of weakness in steel,<br />

and may sometimes be detected in a carefully polished<br />

but unetched specimen.<br />

Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing Enlarges Plant<br />

The Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing & Manufacturing Company,<br />

makers of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings, Endicott, N. Y., have contracted<br />

for a brick building, 50x130 feet, for heat treating<br />

and die storage, and a 50x96-foot steel addition<br />

to their present f<strong>org</strong>e shop. Three heat treating furnaces<br />

have been purchased and the Binghamton Foundry<br />

& Construction Company will supply' the steel for<br />

the die storage racks. Two or three board hammeis<br />

will also be added to the f<strong>org</strong>e shop equipment. These<br />

additions will require an expenditure of from $50,000<br />

to $60,000.<br />

February, 1925<br />

Research on Sponge Iron Progressing<br />

Experimental work in the production of' sponge<br />

iron, conducted by the Department of the Interior at<br />

the Seattle, Wash., experiment station of the Bureau<br />

of Mines, has advanced to the point where it is believed<br />

that industrial applications of the process can<br />

be safely considered for the production of sponge iron<br />

as a metallurgical reagent for the precipitation of copper,<br />

lead, and numerous other metals from solution.<br />

In those regions remote from larger iron and steel<br />

making centers and where electric energy can be had<br />

at a comparatively cheap rate, sponge iron can also be<br />

converted into iron and steel products by melting in<br />

the electric furnace.<br />

If a piece of iron oxide is completely reduced at<br />

such a low temperature that no sintering or fusion<br />

takes place, then the piece of metallic iron formed has<br />

the same size and shape as the original piece of oxide.<br />

On account of the removal of oxygen, the structure is<br />

finely porous, exposing a large surface of iron, and<br />

the apparent density is less than that of the original<br />

iron oxide. The material is called "sponge iron."<br />

When sponge iron is used as a metallurgical reagent<br />

in the precipitation of metals from a solution,<br />

the precipitation reaction takes place with greater<br />

speed than if the precipitating reagent is a massive<br />

form of iron, such as scrap or pig iron, and hence the<br />

use of sponge iron proportionately increases plant<br />

capacity'. Sponge iron is likely to be of increasing importance<br />

in the hydrometallurgy of low-grade copper<br />

and complex ores. Its production insures a permanent<br />

and reliable source of metallic iron—a very important<br />

consideration to the Pacific region, in view of the<br />

small scrap iron supply and great distance from ironproducing<br />

centers. It is probable that the future success<br />

of large-scale leaching and precipitating processes<br />

for copper and lead depends largely upon a supply of<br />

cheap sponge iron.<br />

In the process developed through the co-operation<br />

of the Bureau of Mines and the University of Washington,<br />

almost any type of iron ore can be used for the<br />

production of sponge iron. Experiments at the Seattle<br />

station showed that similar results are obtained<br />

with magnetite, hard and soft hematite, limonite, and<br />

sintered hematite. It is probable that sponge iron<br />

will be made from such by-product materials as flue<br />

dust, pyrite cinder, various slags of high-iron content,<br />

and iron-oxide sludge.<br />

The process developed by the Bureau of Mines<br />

consists of passing a mixture of iron ore and coal<br />

through a rotating kiln heated at one end to a temperature<br />

sufficient to convert iron oxide to metallic<br />

iron, then discharging and cooling the product and<br />

passing it through a magnetic separator to remove<br />

the sponge iron from the residual coke and siliceous<br />

material.<br />

During the past year a furnace using the Bureau<br />

of Mines process was operated commercially at Silver<br />

City, Utah, producing about three tons of sponge iron<br />

daily. Further tests of the process on a fairly large<br />

commercial scale are much to be desired, to give the<br />

data necessary for further refinements in kiln and improvements<br />

in economy of operation.<br />

Details of these investigations are given in Serial<br />

2656, by Clyde E. Williams, Edward P. Barrett and<br />

Bernard M. Larsen, copies of which may be obtained<br />

from the Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines,<br />

Washngton, D. C.


February, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

P r o p e r t i e s o f H i g h R e s i s t a n c e<br />

*<br />

A l l o y s<br />

This Paper Contains a Summary of the Important Physical Con­<br />

stants of the Well Known High Resistance Alloys<br />

T H E recent advances in the art of electrical heating<br />

have stimulated research in the field of high-resistance<br />

alloys. In the last 10 years many new<br />

combinations of the metals have been suggested as<br />

resistor materials and some of them have rendered<br />

very satisfactory service. The new alloys are for the<br />

most part binary and ternary mixtures of the more<br />

common metals. A review of the literature discloses a<br />

considerable amount of information on the specific resistances<br />

of these alloys and also on their temperature<br />

coefficients between room temperature and 100 deg. C.<br />

Little information will be found, however, on the same<br />

electrical properties at the high temperatures at which<br />

the material is required to operate.<br />

The present paper gives, in an attempt to supply<br />

this need, a summary of these important physical constants<br />

for some of the well-known high-resistance alloys.<br />

The attempt to use ,the high-resistance alloys as<br />

elements in base-metal thermocouples for the measurement<br />

of temperature was only a natural ste2 in the<br />

development. In the second division of the paper<br />

some old and some new information has therefore been<br />

included on the electromotive forces which may be expected<br />

from various combinations of these materials.<br />

Theoretical Considerations.<br />

It has already been stated that high-resistance alloys<br />

are produced by alloying metals with one another<br />

in binary or ternary combinations. It does not follow,<br />

however, that all such combinations give materials of<br />

high specific resistance.<br />

When two or more metals are melted together they<br />

may behave on freezing in two characteristically different<br />

ways. When in the molten state the constituents<br />

of the alloy are of course minutely dispersed in<br />

one another. On freezing they may remain minutely<br />

dispersed so that even in a microscopic section the constituents<br />

cannot be differentiated. These combinations<br />

are known as "solid solutions." The second class of<br />

alloys comprises those which on freezing permit the<br />

two or more constituents to freeze separately from one<br />

another. They no longer remain in solution in the<br />

solid state. The microscope can distinguish the separate<br />

constituents. These alloys form what is known<br />

as "eutectic mixtures" with one another. The metals<br />

may, however, in certain concentrations form intermetallic<br />

compounds with one another and the compound<br />

thus formed may dissolve and subsequently<br />

freeze either as a solid solution or as a eutectic mixture<br />

with the pure metal which is present. Since these<br />

intermetallic compounds are in general hard and brittle<br />

materials no great concentrations can be carried<br />

*A paper presented at the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting of<br />

the American Society for Testing Materials, held at Atlantic<br />

City, N. J., June, 1924.<br />

tRussell Sage Laboratory, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute;<br />

also Research Division, Driver Harris Co.<br />

tRussell Sage Laboratory, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.<br />

That Are Used for High Temperatures<br />

By M. A. HUNTERf and A. JONES*<br />

in any alloy which has subsequently to be reduced to<br />

wire.<br />

The electrical properties of these two classes of<br />

alloys are very different from one another. In a solid<br />

solution the electrical resistance of the resulting alloy<br />

bears no relation to the resistances of the components.<br />

It is in all cases very materially higher than either.<br />

The temperature coefficient of electrical resistance is<br />

also changed. Whereas the individual constituents<br />

have temperature coefficients approximately equal to<br />

0.004 per deg. C, the temperature coefficient of the<br />

solid solutions drops very rapidly with increasing con-<br />

I 5<br />

f<br />

.„ |4-1 -. £<br />

rS<br />

A<br />

S$F<br />

G<br />

•tfitf P<br />

f*><br />

200 400 600 800 1000<br />

Temperature, deg. Cent.<br />

FIG. 1 — Showing the variation of Electrical resistance of<br />

nickel and certain nickel alloys at various temperatures.<br />

Values plotted are given in Table I, chemical compositions in<br />

Table II.<br />

centrations of the added component. In some cases<br />

it drops to zero and may even in special cases become<br />

negative. In eutectic mixtures, however, no such radical<br />

variations are produced. The electrical resistances<br />

of these alloys approximate in the main to the mean of<br />

the electrical resistances of the components while the<br />

temperature coefficient, if it drops at all, does so to<br />

only a slight degree.<br />

It is therefore evident that high-resistance alloys<br />

belong in the class of solid solutions. It is further to<br />

be noted that such combinations will yield alloys with<br />

temperature coefficients which are considerably lower<br />

than the pure metals from which they are made.<br />

•<br />

63


M Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Materials Used for High-Resistance Alloys.<br />

The metallic combinations which are commerciallyavailable<br />

for high-resistance materials are made in<br />

general from nickel, iron or copper, melted in binary<br />

or ternary combinations with manganese or chromium.<br />

All of these metals are comparatively cheap, are available<br />

in sufficient quantity for commercial production<br />

and resist oxidation satisfactorily over the range of<br />

temperature which limits their use. For the purpose<br />

of classification we may divide the various alloys into<br />

three groups:<br />

Group A. — Materials of high resistance available<br />

for units running at temperatures below 500 deg. C.<br />

Group B. — Materials of high resistance for units<br />

running at temperatures above 500 deg. C.; and<br />

Group C.—Materials having special properties other<br />

than high resistance used in units at room temperature.<br />

Temperature,<br />

deg. Cent.<br />

20<br />

200<br />

500<br />

600<br />

700<br />

900<br />

1000<br />

February, 1925<br />

Grade C and Grade D. Intentional additions of manganese<br />

in the two latter affect to a considerable degree<br />

the electrical properties of the material.<br />

The specific resistance of nickel can be increased<br />

by the addition of metals which form solid solutions<br />

with it. The commonest additions are copper and<br />

iron. Among the nickel-copper alloys are monel and<br />

Advance, the former having a preponderating amount<br />

of nickel, the latter of copper. Among the nickel-iron<br />

alloys used, the most important are Alloy No. 141 and<br />

Alloy No. 193, the former having an excess of nickel,<br />

the latter an excess of iron.<br />

The variations in resistance of samples of these<br />

materials at various temperatures and their specific<br />

resistances at 20 deg. C. are given in Table 1. The<br />

chemical compositions of the wires used in these observations<br />

are given in Table II.<br />

The values given in Table I, with the exception of<br />

TABLE I—VARIATION IN RESISTANCE OF A NUMBER OF MATERIALS WITH TEMPERATURE<br />

Expressed as the ratio of resistance at the various temperatures to resistance at 20 deg. C.<br />

For complete chemical compositions, see Table II.<br />

Electrolytic<br />

Nickel<br />

1.00<br />

1.45<br />

2.07<br />

2.86<br />

3.69<br />

4.00<br />

4.31<br />

4.62<br />

4.93<br />

5.24<br />

5.64<br />

Grade A<br />

Nickel<br />

1.00<br />

1.43<br />

2.06<br />

2.83<br />

3.52<br />

3.87<br />

4.15<br />

4.44<br />

4.73<br />

5.04<br />

5.38<br />

Grade C<br />

Nickel<br />

1.00<br />

1.36<br />

1.90<br />

2.58<br />

3.02<br />

3.26<br />

3.49<br />

3.73<br />

3.96<br />

4.22<br />

4.50<br />

Specific Resistance at 20 deg. C, Ohms per Mil-Foot<br />

58.6 64 84<br />

Grade D<br />

Nickel<br />

1.00<br />

1.29<br />

1.68<br />

2.10<br />

2.31<br />

2.46<br />

2.62<br />

2.78<br />

2.94<br />

3.13<br />

3.32<br />

117<br />

Monel<br />

1.000<br />

1.160<br />

1.215<br />

1.255<br />

1.295<br />

1.340<br />

1.385<br />

1.435<br />

1.485<br />

1.550<br />

1.630<br />

268<br />

Advance<br />

1.000<br />

0.9992<br />

0.9995<br />

1.002<br />

1.006<br />

1.020<br />

1.039<br />

290<br />

Alloy<br />

No. 141<br />

TABLE 11.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF THE MATERIALS REPORTED IN TABLE I.<br />

1.00<br />

1.40<br />

1.93<br />

2.54<br />

3.20<br />

3.96<br />

4.78<br />

4.94<br />

5.06<br />

5.20<br />

5.33<br />

124<br />

Alloy<br />

No. 193<br />

The analysis given for alloy No. 193 is an approximate analysis only. The other values given are t<br />

samples used to obtain the results detailed in Table I.<br />

Material Nickel Copper Iron Carbon Manganese Silicon Chromium<br />

Electrolytic Nickel 99.80 0.25 0.15<br />

Grade A Nickel 98.85 0.24 0.65 0.08 0.08 0.03<br />

Grade C Nickel 96.15 0.40 0.89 0.22 2.10 0.18<br />

Grade D Nickel 94.10 0.16 0.74 0.08 4.75 0.13<br />

Monel 68.10 27.66 2.40 1.16 1.50 0.11<br />

Advance 44.00 54.00 0.45 ... 1.16<br />

Alloy No. 141 69.33 0.16 28.86 0.22 1.30 0.13<br />

Alloy No. 193 30.00 .... 67.00 0.22 1.00 .. 2<br />

Group A.—Alloys for Use Below 500° C.<br />

The alloys in this group have nickel as their major<br />

component. Nickel alone has usually been considered<br />

to be unsatisfactory by reason of its low specific resistance<br />

at room temperature. Nickel has, however,<br />

two valuable properties which render it useful as a resistor<br />

material. It resists oxidation at elevated temperatures<br />

better than any of the commoner metals.<br />

It has further a high temperature coefficient of electrical<br />

resistance, the effect of which on the electrical<br />

resistance at high temperature is indicated in subsequent<br />

tables.<br />

Nickel can be obtained commercially in several<br />

grades. The purest obtainable is electrolytic nickel<br />

and following in order of lesser purity are Grade A,<br />

1.000<br />

1.093<br />

1.198<br />

1.292<br />

1.365<br />

1.425<br />

1.472<br />

1.504<br />

1.538<br />

1.585<br />

530<br />

those for Advance, are plotted as a function of the<br />

temperature in Figs. 1 and 2. These curves are characteristic<br />

of the various grades of nickel and monel<br />

metal. Slight variations in composition will of course<br />

change the actual values for the resistance at any temperature,<br />

but the trend of the curve remains the same.<br />

The change in slope of each curve is due to the fact<br />

that at the corresponding temperature the metal is<br />

changing from the magnetic to the non-magnetic condition.<br />

The transformation points as obtained from<br />

the curves are as follows:<br />

Grade A Nickel 350 Deg. C.<br />

Grade C Nickel 320 Deg. C.<br />

Grade D Nickel 275 Deg. C.<br />

Monel Metal 93 Deg. C.


February, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

TABLE III.—VARIATION IN RESISTANCE OF ALLOYS OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM WITH TEMPERATURE<br />

Expressed as the ratio of resistance at the various temperatures to resistance at 20 deg. C.<br />

Temperature,<br />

deg. Cent. N(J_ s<br />

Nichrome III I Nichrome IV<br />

No. 6 No. 1 No. 4 No. 11* No. 10 No. 13 Mean B D1<br />

20 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000<br />

300 1.055 1.034 1.047 1.037 1.057 1.040 1.039 1.043 1.034 1.027 1.026 1.025<br />

400 1.066 1.047 1.063 1.051 1.068 1.051 1.053 1.056 1.046 1.036 1.032 1.036<br />

500 1.073 1.060 1.071 1.063 1.075 1.060 1.063 1.066 1.060 1.045 1.041 1.042<br />

600 1.071 1.058 1.074 1.061 1.074 1.058 1.062 1.065 1.055 1.036 1.034 1.032<br />

700 1.072 1.060 1.077 1.062 1.077 1.063 1.065 1.068 1.056 1.032 1.030 1.028<br />

800 1.074 1.066 1.088 1.068 1.086 1.072 1.073 1.075 1.063 1.033 1.031 1.028<br />

900 1.082 1.076 1.100' 1.094 1.096 1.083 1.083 1.088 1.074 1.038 1.032 1.030<br />

1000 1.097 1.090 1.118 Specific Resistance 1.104 1.112 at 20 deg. 1.098 O, Ohms 1.099 per Mil-Foot 1.103 1.090 1.049 1.046 1.040<br />

604 604<br />

564<br />

567 599 595 553 575 620 629 633<br />

Percentage of Chromium<br />

14.10 14.45 15.40 15.60 15.70 15.80 16.20 17.47 18.18 18.70 18.95<br />

•Plotted in Fig. 3 as typical of Nichrome III. ' Plotted in Fig. 3 as typical of Nichrome IV.<br />

The values given for Advance in Table 1 indicate a<br />

peculiar property in this metal. The temperature coefficient<br />

is negative over the lower ranges of temperatures,<br />

increases slowly between 200 and 400 deg. C.<br />

and rapidly thereafter. Not all samples of Advance,<br />

however, give negative temperature coefficients in the<br />

lower range. The presence of impurities in the metal<br />

may yield a material with a low positive coefficient<br />

over this lower range. But the rapid rise in temperature<br />

coefficient in the higher ranges of temperature is<br />

general in all cases.<br />

Alloy No. 141 is peculiarly susceptible to heat treatment.<br />

A sample of the material when slowly cooled<br />

after annealing gives a much lower specific resistance<br />

and a higher temperature coefficient than one which<br />

has not been so treated. The values reported in Table<br />

I are for the second heat on wire which was slowly<br />

cooled after being taken up to 1000 deg. C. After this<br />

treatment the wire appears to be stable for further<br />

cycles of heat. Slight variations in the impurities also<br />

20<br />

300 .<br />

400<br />

500 ,<br />

600 .<br />

700 .<br />

800 .<br />

900 .<br />

1000 .<br />

have a very considerable effect. Therefore, while this<br />

alloy is excellent as a high-resistance material, it is<br />

difficult to reproduce in commercial production.<br />

Alloy No. 193, as will be seen from Table I, is an<br />

exceedingly good resistor up to 500 deg. C. and has<br />

received in consequence wide application. The resistance-temperature<br />

curve for this material is plotted in<br />

Fig. 2.<br />

Group B.—Materials Available for Temperatures<br />

In Excess of 500° C.<br />

The second group includes all those alloys which<br />

are essentially combinations of nickel, iron and<br />

chromium in various proportions. Most of these alloys<br />

have been worked under a patent granted to Marsh<br />

in February, 1906, which has now expired. These<br />

alloys are remarkable in that they possess very high<br />

specific resistances and resist oxidation at high temperatures<br />

to a very rrtarked degree. The specific<br />

resistances and temperature coefficients at room tern-<br />

TABLE IV. — VARIATION IN RESISTA MCE OF NIC1 SEL-IR1 UN- CHROMi UM ALLU Yb WITH 11 iMftKj VlUKfc,<br />

Expressed as the ratio of resistance at the various temperatures to resistance at 20 deg. C.<br />

For complete chemical com] positions, see table V.<br />

*<br />

Temp erature,<br />

N ichrome<br />

Nichrome II Other Alloys<br />

deg. Cent. No. 2 No. 3 No. 8 No. 12 No. 9 No. 7* No.lf No. 2 No. 3 No.4J<br />

1 000<br />

1 091<br />

1 113<br />

1 126<br />

1 132<br />

1 142<br />

1 152<br />

1.165<br />

1.182<br />

633<br />

10.75<br />

1.000<br />

1.086<br />

1.104<br />

1 120<br />

1 125<br />

1 133<br />

1 141<br />

1 154<br />

1.172<br />

640<br />

10.90<br />

1.000<br />

1.092<br />

1.110<br />

1.125<br />

1.129<br />

1.134<br />

1.141<br />

1.154<br />

1.171<br />

1,000<br />

1.071<br />

1.089<br />

1.102<br />

1.106<br />

1.111<br />

1.118<br />

1.130<br />

1.148<br />

1.000<br />

1.073<br />

1.090<br />

1.105<br />

1.108<br />

1.115<br />

1.124<br />

1.136<br />

1.150<br />

Specific Resistance at 20 deg. C, Ohms per Mil-foot.<br />

689<br />

11.05<br />

665<br />

Percentage<br />

11.45<br />

654<br />

of Chromium<br />

11.70<br />

1.000<br />

1.065<br />

1.081<br />

1.092<br />

1.096<br />

1.102<br />

1.113<br />

1.127<br />

1.142<br />

663<br />

12.05<br />

1.000<br />

1.037<br />

1.050<br />

1.063<br />

1.059<br />

1.059<br />

1.063<br />

1.069<br />

1.078<br />

668<br />

19.5<br />

1.000<br />

1.038<br />

1.050<br />

1.062<br />

1.058<br />

1.057<br />

1.059<br />

1.065<br />

1.072<br />

•Plotted in Fig. 3 as typical of Nichrome. trotted in Fig. 3 as typical of Nichrome II. ^Plotted in Fig. 2.<br />

683<br />

17.95<br />

1.000<br />

1.048<br />

1.061<br />

1.075<br />

1.076<br />

1.079<br />

1.084<br />

1.090<br />

1.098<br />

686<br />

31.35<br />

1.000<br />

1.120<br />

1.154<br />

1.182<br />

1.208<br />

1.227<br />

1.247<br />

1.266<br />

1.284<br />

622<br />

21.10<br />

65


66 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

perature have been known for some time but information<br />

on these points at the temperatures of operation is<br />

meager or entirely lacking. It has generally been assumed<br />

that the temperature coefficient of the alloy was<br />

uniform throughout the whole range of temperatures<br />

used, an assumption which, as will be seen from the<br />

following tables, is very far from the truth.<br />

For convenience in classification the alloys are divided<br />

into three sub-groups:<br />

1. Nickel-chromium alloys.<br />

2. Nickel-iron-chromium alloys.<br />

3. Iron-chromium alloys.<br />

17<br />

1.6<br />

.15<br />

2 1.3<br />

12<br />

p<br />

1.0<br />

/<br />

/<br />

4<br />

/<br />

t —<br />

\ v/<br />

&<br />

\ A 4 Y<br />

£!<br />

V<br />

sf<br />

0><br />

f^<br />

,\^y> ^<br />

* Alii %**'<br />

200 400 600 600 1000<br />

Temperature, deg. Cent.<br />

FIG. 2—Showing the variation of electrical resistance of several<br />

alloys at various temperatures.<br />

Alloy No. 193 and Monel values plotted are given in Table I,<br />

chemical compositions in Table II.<br />

Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloy.—Values plotted are for Alloy<br />

No. 4, Table IV; for chemical composition see Table V.<br />

Iron-Chromium Alloy.—Values plotted are for Alloy No. 1,<br />

Table VI; for chemical composition see text.<br />

Nickel-Chromium Alloys.<br />

The simplest and best combination is the binary<br />

alloy of nickel and chromium. Alloys containing as<br />

high as 25 and 30 per cent of chromium have been made.<br />

It is commercially practicable to make alloys containing<br />

15 and 20 per cent of chromium. In general it may<br />

be said that the resistance to oxidation bears a direct<br />

relation to the amount of chromium in the wire. This<br />

is certainly true for chromium contents up to 20 per<br />

cent and probably holds for higher percentages. For<br />

temperatures below 1000 deg. C. alloys of the Nichrome<br />

III class containing 15 per cent of chromium<br />

have given good service. For the range between 1000<br />

deg. C. and 1100 deg. C. alloys of the Nichrome IV<br />

class, containing 18 to 20 per cent of chromium, are<br />

February, 1925<br />

advisable. While these alloys may be used for short<br />

periods at temperatures above 1100 deg. C. their life<br />

under these conditions is exceedingly short.<br />

The variations in resistance of some of these nickelchromium<br />

wires and their specific resistances at room<br />

temperatures are given in Table III. Typical resistance-temperature<br />

curves are plotted in Fig. 3. These<br />

results indicate an interesting peculiarity which seems<br />

to be inherent in all nickel-chromium wires. In the<br />

case of the Nichrome III alloys (15 per cent chromium)<br />

the resistance-temperature curve rises at a uniform<br />

rate up to 500 deg. C. From 500 to 700 deg. C,<br />

the curve runs practically parallel to the temperature<br />

axis, indicating a zero temperature coefficient over this<br />

range. Above 700 deg. C. the resistance rises sharply<br />

again. In the Nichrome IV series (18 to 20 per cent<br />

chromium) the same general trend is followed except<br />

that between 500 and 700 deg. C. the wire has a marked<br />

negative temperature coefficient. This can be readily<br />

seen in Fig. 2 on which the values for the two representative<br />

nickel-chromium wires are plotted.<br />

The reason for this change in slope of the resistance<br />

temperature curve at 500 deg. C. is not at present understood.<br />

It is not a magnetic transformation point<br />

since the materials themselves are non-magnetic at<br />

room temperatures. In the absence of a better explanation<br />

we may conclude that it is due* to a change<br />

in the molecular configuration of the elements in the<br />

wire.<br />

Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys.<br />

Of all the alloys in this class, the alloy known as<br />

Nichrome has received the most extended application.<br />

This alloy contains approximately 60 per cent of<br />

nickel, 26 per cent of iron and 12 per cent of chromium.<br />

TABLE V.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF THE NICK­<br />

EL-IRON-CHROMIUM ALLOYS REPORTED<br />

IN TABLE IV.<br />

All values are per cent.<br />

Alloy Nickel Iron Chromium Manganese<br />

Nichrome<br />

No. 2 59.29 28.70 10.75 1.54<br />

No. 3 59.02 27.86 10.90 1.54<br />

No. 8 59.57 26.97 11.05 1.69<br />

No. 12 .... 61.75 24.97 11.45 1.19<br />

No. 9 62.00 24.35 11.70 1.46<br />

No. 7 61.20 24.88 12.05 1.44<br />

Nichrome II<br />

No. 1 .... 19.5<br />

No. 2 69.35 10.53 17.95 1.58<br />

Other Alloys<br />

No. 3 53.58 13.77 31.35 0.00<br />

No. 4 27.62 48745 21.10 0.85<br />

It has a higher specific resistance than a straight nickel-chromium<br />

alloy and a somewhat higher temperature<br />

coefficient. It resists oxidation satisfactorily at temperatures<br />

up to 900 cleg. C. For temperatures in excess<br />

of this, it should be replaced by a nickel-chromium<br />

alloy substantially free from iron.<br />

Nichrome II is a nickel-iron-chromium alloy of intermediate<br />

composition. It has less iron and more<br />

chromium than Nichrome.<br />

Attempts have been made from time to time to<br />

diminish the nickel content of this class of materials.<br />

But under these conditions, to maintain the high re-


February, 1925<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat 'Beating<br />

sistance to oxidation it becomes necessary to increase<br />

proportionately the chromium content.<br />

tent is relatively high. The alloys withstand oxidation<br />

fairly well but they are inferior to the nickel-<br />

The electrical properties of this group of alloys are chromium alloys. Another radical objection observed<br />

given in Table IV. The chemical compositions of the was that the wire under continued heating tended to<br />

wires used in these observations are given in Table V. increase permanently in length.<br />

Typical resistance-temperature curves are plotted in<br />

Fig. 3.<br />

+40<br />

TABLE VI. — VARIATION IN RESISTANCE OF IRON-<br />

CHROMIUM ALLOYS WITH TEMPERATURES<br />

Expressed as the ratio of resistance at the various<br />

temperatures to resistance at 20 deg. C.<br />

Temperature,<br />

deg. Cent. No. 1* No. 2<br />

20 1.000 1.000<br />

300 1.129 1.132<br />

400..- 1.175 1.174<br />

500 1.225 1.235<br />

600 1.278 1.283<br />

700 1.316 1.322<br />

800 1.338 1.341<br />

900 1.357 1.355<br />

1000 1.375 1.365<br />

•Plotted in Fig. 2 as typical of iron-chromium alloy. The specific<br />

resistance at 20 deg. C. of alloy No. 1 was 583 ohms per<br />

mil-foot.<br />

Iron-Chromium Alloys.<br />

The iron-chromium alloys have up to the present<br />

received but little attention. Some of these materials,<br />

however, have been introduced on the market so that<br />

some mention should be made of them. The alloys<br />

contain approximately 7 per cent of iron and 22 per<br />

.. '16<br />

g 1.12<br />

^ S 1.08<br />

CO c<br />

CO<br />

c '£<br />

CO W<br />

1 ° 1-04<br />

1.00<br />

Temperature, deg. Cent.<br />

Hi' ^<br />

Hicbro*<br />

ej><br />

l^V£ hromt<br />

ZOO 400 tOO 800<br />

tf_<br />

1000<br />

FIG. 3 — Showing the variation of electrical resistance of<br />

nickel-chromium and nickel-iron-chromium alloys at various<br />

temperatures.<br />

Nichrome III.—Values plotted are Alloy No. 11, Table III;<br />

chromium, 15.70 per cent.<br />

Nichrome IV.—Values plotted are for Alloy D, Table III;<br />

Chromium, 18.95 per cent.<br />

Nichrome.—Values plotted are for Alloy No. 7, Table IV; for<br />

chemical composition see Table V.<br />

Nichrome II.—Values plotted are for Alloy No. 1, Table IV;<br />

for chemical composition see Table V.<br />

cent of chromium, the high content of chromium being<br />

necessary to overcome the tendency of the iron to<br />

oxidize. The silicon content sometimes runs as high<br />

as 2 per cent. From the manufacturer's standpoint the<br />

material is hard to draw, especially if the silicon con­<br />

67<br />

1000<br />

Temperature, deg. Cent.<br />

FIG. 4 — Showing thermal electromotive forces of various<br />

metals and alloys against standard platinum.<br />

Observations on the electrical properties of two of<br />

these wires are given in Table VI. The chemical compositions<br />

of the two wires are as follows:<br />

Iron, per cent<br />

Chromium, per cent.<br />

Nickel, per cent<br />

Silicon, per cent<br />

Carbon, per cent<br />

No. 1<br />

75.10<br />

22.06<br />

0.87<br />

1.67<br />

0.18<br />

No. 2<br />

74.62<br />

22.23<br />

1.17<br />

1.24<br />

0.65<br />

The values obtained for wire No. 1 are plotted in<br />

Fig. 2.<br />

Group C.—Materials With Special Properties.<br />

The third class of alloys to be considered includes<br />

those materials that have some special properties<br />

which render them useful under restricted conditions.<br />

The fact that pure nickel has a remarkably high temperature<br />

coefficient of electrical resistance is made use<br />

of in the' construction of resistance thermometers.<br />

Again, the fact that advance and manganin have remarkably<br />

low temperature coefficients is applied in the<br />

construction of precision resistances.<br />

Electrical Properties of Pure Nickel.<br />

Two samples of nickel wire were obtained directly<br />

from electrolytic sheet. A section cut from the sheet<br />

was rolled to wire. The material was therefore not<br />

contaminated by impurities which usually enter during<br />

melting. From these wires the following results were<br />

obtained:<br />

olytic Nickel<br />

No. 1<br />

No. 2<br />

Specific<br />

Resistance,<br />

Microhm cm.<br />

7.55<br />

7.60<br />

Temperature<br />

Coefficient,<br />

per deg. Cent.<br />

0.00559<br />

0.00553<br />

Temperature coefficient is expressed in ohms per deg. C. per<br />

ohm at 20 deg. C, over the range from 20 to 50 deg. C. The<br />

coefficient for No. 1 is equivalent to a value of 0.00629 per ohm<br />

at 0 deg. C.


8 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating February, 1925<br />

Temperature.<br />

deg.<br />

Cent.<br />

300<br />

400<br />

500<br />

f,(KI<br />

700<br />

800<br />

900<br />

1000<br />

TABLE VII-THERMAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES OF VARIOUS METALS AND ALLOYS AGAINST<br />

STANDARD PLATINUM<br />

Cold Junction, 20 deg. C.<br />

N'icke l-Chromium Alloys<br />

10% Cr<br />

8.35<br />

11.78<br />

15.27<br />

18.61<br />

21.99<br />

25.17<br />

28.30<br />

31.23<br />

Alloys Positive to Platinum<br />

15% Cr<br />

6.20<br />

8.88<br />

11.72<br />

14.56<br />

17.39<br />

20.42<br />

23.50<br />

26.53<br />

20% Cr<br />

4.20<br />

6.18<br />

8.47<br />

10.76<br />

13.34<br />

16.07<br />

18.80<br />

21.68<br />

Iron<br />

3.30<br />

4.28<br />

5.12<br />

6.06<br />

7.34<br />

8.82<br />

10.20<br />

11.58<br />

Iron<br />

Chromium<br />

Alloy<br />

25% Cr<br />

3.25<br />

4.86<br />

6.52<br />

8.11<br />

9.87<br />

11.58<br />

13.50<br />

15.47<br />

It is, however, not feasible to produce such material<br />

on a commercial scale. The metal must be melted in<br />

large quantities, cast into ingots, f<strong>org</strong>ed and drawn<br />

into wire. The effect of manganese additions used<br />

for deoxidation at the end of the melting operation<br />

was found to be as follows:<br />

Manganese Added, Temperature<br />

Per cent Coefficient<br />

0.25 0.00460<br />

0.63 0.00452<br />

100 0.00357<br />

The time of melting is a material factor. A succession<br />

of small melts were made in an electric furnace.<br />

For the first melt the furnace required 45 minutes<br />

to reach the melting point of nickel. The second,<br />

third, and fourth melts required progressively shorter<br />

times; the last melt was cast 12 minutes after the introduction<br />

of the cold charge. The following results<br />

were obtained from the separate melts:<br />

Time of Specific<br />

Melting, Resistance, Temperature<br />

Melt No. Minutes Michormcm. Coefficient<br />

1 45 9.75 0.00448<br />

2 20 8.80 0.00462<br />

3 8.67 0.00484<br />

4 8.64 0.00484<br />

5 12 9.12 0.00490<br />

An analysis of the material from melt No. 5 showed<br />

the following constituents: Nickel 99.22 per cent, manganese<br />

0.59 per cent, iron 0.14 per cent, copper 0.03<br />

per cent, and carbon 0.00 per cent. This material<br />

should be somewhat purer than those from the four<br />

preceding melts, since it was exposed for a shorter<br />

time to furnace gases and crucible lining.<br />

TABLE VIII.—THERMAL ELECTROMOTIV<br />

Temperature,<br />

deg. Cent.<br />

300<br />

400<br />

500<br />

600<br />

700<br />

800<br />

900<br />

1000<br />

Ni90%.<br />

Cr 10%,<br />

with<br />

Alumel<br />

11.45<br />

15.74<br />

20.15<br />

24.50<br />

28.85<br />

32.93<br />

37.00<br />

40.80<br />

Iron<br />

with<br />

Advance<br />

14.30<br />

20.10<br />

26.20<br />

32.30<br />

38.80<br />

45.30<br />

51.55<br />

57.90<br />

Cold Junction<br />

Ni 90%,<br />

Cr 10%,<br />

with<br />

Advance<br />

19.35<br />

27.60<br />

36.25<br />

44.90<br />

53.45<br />

61.65<br />

69.65<br />

77.60<br />

A<br />

4.38<br />

5.20<br />

5.96<br />

6.72<br />

7.58<br />

8.48<br />

9.56<br />

10.62<br />

All. ays Negat ive to Platinum<br />

Nickel Alloy! • 1<br />

D<br />

4.38<br />

4.78<br />

5.14<br />

5.46<br />

5.80<br />

6.14<br />

Alumel<br />

3.10<br />

3.96<br />

4.88<br />

5.89<br />

6.86<br />

7.76<br />

8.70<br />

9.57<br />

Copper -Nickel All oys<br />

Advance Advance Advance<br />

(60% Cu, + +<br />

40% Ni) 15% Cr 10% Cr<br />

11.00<br />

15.82<br />

21.08<br />

26.24<br />

31.46<br />

36.48<br />

41.35<br />

46.32<br />

3.60<br />

5.22<br />

7.10<br />

9.24<br />

11.53<br />

13.78<br />

15.70<br />

17.12<br />

4.64<br />

6.74<br />

9.10<br />

11.62<br />

14.38<br />

17.32<br />

20.50<br />

23.76<br />

These experiments indicate the conditions to be observed<br />

in order to secure nickel wire with the highest<br />

possible temperature coefficient of electrical resistance.<br />

The nickel should be the purest available. The additions<br />

of manganese (or magnesium) must be as small<br />

as is compatible with subsequent f<strong>org</strong>eability. The<br />

time taken to melt should be a minimum in order that<br />

the molten material should be exposed for as short a<br />

time as possible to the effect of the furnace gases. If<br />

these conditions are met, a high-grade nickel wire can<br />

be produced.<br />

Materials With Zero Temperature Coefficients.<br />

Advance and manganin have been mentioned as<br />

alloys which have special applications as materials for<br />

precision resistances by reason of the fact that they<br />

have temperature coefficients which approximate to<br />

zero over restricted ranges of temperature.<br />

Advance contains as major constituents approximately<br />

55 per cent of copper and 45 per cent of nickel.<br />

An alloy containing these materials only has a pronounced<br />

negative temperature coefficient at 20 deg. C.<br />

The material as commercially produced, however, contains<br />

small amounts of impurities such as iron, manganese,<br />

carbon and silicon which are present either in<br />

the raw materials used or are taken up during the<br />

melting. The general effect of these impurities is<br />

to increase the temperature coefficient of the material.<br />

The extent of this change, as produced by the above<br />

impurities, is now under consideration and will be reported<br />

on at a later time.<br />

Manganin is a ternary alloy having as its major<br />

constituents 84 per cent of copper, 12 per cent of<br />

E FORCE OF VARIOUS COMBINATIONS<br />

20 deg. C.<br />

Ni 85%,<br />

Cr 15%,<br />

with<br />

Advance<br />

17.20<br />

24.70<br />

32.80<br />

40.80<br />

48.85<br />

56.90<br />

64.80<br />

72.85<br />

Ni 80%,<br />

Cr2C%<br />

with<br />

Advance<br />

15.20<br />

22.00<br />

29.55<br />

37.05<br />

44.80<br />

52.55<br />

60.15<br />

68.00<br />

Nichrome<br />

with<br />

Advance<br />

13.90<br />

20.40<br />

27.40<br />

34.55<br />

41.90<br />

49.25<br />

57.60<br />

64.20<br />

Ni 90%,<br />

Cr 10%,<br />

with<br />

Advance<br />

+ 15% Cr<br />

11.95<br />

17.00<br />

22.37<br />

27.85<br />

33.52<br />

38.95<br />

44.00<br />

48.35


February, 1925<br />

manganese and 4 per cent of nickel. The effect of<br />

small variations in these constituents is at present under<br />

investigation. It is interesting to note that the<br />

condition of the surface of the wire modifies its temperature<br />

coefficient to a pronounced degree. Wire<br />

made from material of the composition given above<br />

has a negative coefficient over the range from 20 to<br />

50 deg. C. If, however, the wire has been superficially<br />

oxidized either by exposure to moist air or heat, the<br />

manganese is selectively oxidized leaving a metallic<br />

skin of copper on the wire. If this superficial skin is<br />

more than a few thousandths of an inch in thickness,<br />

the wire takes on an appreciable positive temperature<br />

coefficient. As in the case of the advance wire, the<br />

presence of small amounts of impurities in manganin<br />

appears to modify this temperature coefficient. These<br />

phenomena are, however, still being studied and will<br />

not be further discussed here.<br />

Thermal Electromotive Forces of Alloys.<br />

The fact that the various alloys described in the<br />

preceding section give widely varying electromotive<br />

forces renders certain combinations exceedingly useful<br />

as base-metal thermocouples for the measurement<br />

oi" temperature.<br />

The combinations of iron and advance (constantan)<br />

and of chromel (10 per cent of chromium in nickel)<br />

with alumel (1 to 2 per cent of aluminum in nickel)<br />

are already well known and widely used. The former<br />

gives an e.m.f. of approximately 58 millivolts at 1000<br />

deg. C. and the latter approximately 41 millivolts. The<br />

thermal e.m.f.'s of these materials and of other alloys<br />

of nickel or iron and chromium are given in Table VII,<br />

in which alloys that are positive to a sample of pure<br />

platinum chosen as a standard and alloys that are<br />

negative to the same sample of platinum are listed separately.<br />

The values given in this table have been<br />

plotted in Fig. 4. The alloys of advance (copper 55<br />

per cent, nickel 45 per cent) with chromium, whose<br />

thermal e.m.f.'s against platinum are given in the last<br />

three columns of Table VII, were made with the view<br />

of obtaining a material that would be more resistant to<br />

oxidation than the old advance wire. Among the<br />

nickel-chromium alloys, the 90 per cent nickel-10 per<br />

cent chromium combination gives the highest electromotive<br />

force, but the 80-20 material is good and of<br />

course resists oxidation to a greater degree.<br />

An examination of Table VII reveals some suggestive<br />

combinations for securing electromotive forces<br />

considerably in excess of that given by the first two<br />

well-known couples. Some of these combinations are<br />

given in Table VIII.<br />

Acknowledgment.<br />

The authors desire, in conclusion, to express their<br />

appreciation of the assistance given during the progress<br />

of the work by the technical staff of the Driver-<br />

Harris Company.<br />

D'Arcambal Addresses Pittsburgh Chapter<br />

At a meeting of the American Society for Steel<br />

Treating, held in the William Penn Hotel, Pittsburgh,<br />

January 6, A. H. D'Arcambal, metallurgical engineer,<br />

Pratt & Whitney Company, Hartford, Conn., delivered<br />

an address on the "Hardening of Small Tools," illustrated<br />

with a number of interesting lantern slides.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

A. S. S. T. Sectional Meeting<br />

The American Society for Steel Treating held its<br />

winter sectional meeting at the Hotel Sinton, Cincinnati,<br />

Ohio, January 15 and 16, and the attendance was<br />

the best that has been recorded at one of these sectional<br />

meetings. Other chapters besides the Cincinnati<br />

Chapter were well represented.<br />

O. N. Stone, assistant chief engineer of the Van<br />

Dorn & Dutton Company, Cleveland, spoke at the<br />

first session. His subject was "Gearing as a Medium<br />

of Industrial Power Transmission." The speakers for<br />

the afternoon session were R. G. Guthrie, G. W. Quick<br />

and S. J. Rosenberg. Mr. Guthrie, metallurgist of the<br />

industrial gas department of the People's Gas Light<br />

& Coke Company, Chicago, took for his subject,<br />

"Sample Preparation for High Power Photo-Micrography,"<br />

while G. W. Quick and S. J. Rosenberg, Bureau<br />

of Standards, Washington, gave a paper entitled,<br />

"Wear and Wear Testing."<br />

Julian A. Pollak was toastmaster at the informal<br />

banquet held on Thursday night, and the address of<br />

welcome was delivered by Fred A. Geier of the Cincinnati<br />

Milling Machine Company. President W. S.<br />

Bidle of the A. S. S. T. responded, and a technical<br />

paper was delivered by R. H. Smith, vice president of<br />

the Lamson & Sessions Company, Kent, Ohio.<br />

On Friday, the steel treaters inspected many of<br />

the machine plants in and around Cincinnati.<br />

Crossword Puzzle<br />

Solution of crossword puzzle which appeared in<br />

the January issue of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

B L A c\hMf o r C E<br />

L O r e M t ^ b o o M<br />

O A tMb /} rMd J P<br />

O dWp u N CH^L T<br />

mMb ABrjH° oWy<br />

• /T/7 / ±w[£> A/pM<br />

P W R EMoMs £->77<br />

R B^R 1 V e rmin E<br />

E o /v|/v E TW u T<br />

S L n m^nMc o D E<br />

S T E elMl/ T E R<br />

Ford Engineering Laboratory<br />

The Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Mich., has<br />

completed what is said to be the finest laboratory in<br />

the country. It is designed for chemical, metallurgical<br />

and affiliated industrial research and experiments,<br />

comprising practically one room in a new building<br />

202x804 feet, approximately two city blocks in length.<br />

The total glass area of the new laboratory proper<br />

aggregates 64,000. sq. ft., or equivalent to 40 per cent<br />

of the total floor space. The mechanical installation<br />

consists of complete equipment for the construction<br />

of an entire automobile, with chemical research apparatus,<br />

physial test machines, equipment for metallurgical<br />

research and investigations, drafting room facilities,<br />

etc. Xo piping or wiring is exposed in the laboratory;<br />

all power lines are under the floor in conduits,<br />

with feed wires fed up through the floor to individual<br />

motor drives. The building will also contain<br />

a comprehensive reference library.<br />

69


70 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Improved Furnace for Vitreous Enameling<br />

In the vitreous enameling of metal parts one thing<br />

that has often impressed the thoughtful operator is<br />

the very considerable loss of heat due to opening the<br />

doors of a furnace while charging and removing the<br />

work. It is quite certain, too. that aside from the consequent<br />

loss of heat, this periodic opening of the doors<br />

causes a fluctuation in furnace temperature which may<br />

be harmful as well as slowing up the operation of fusing<br />

the enamel, to say nothing of the discomfort and<br />

delay in removing the work from the fork and the<br />

length of time when there is nothing in the furnace.<br />

Possibly these things prompted the development<br />

by Mr. C. C. Armstrong of the Armstrong Manufacturing<br />

Company, Huntington, West Virginia, of an<br />

electrically operated furnace for enameling comparatively<br />

flat pieces whereby the opening and closing of<br />

charging doors is eliminated through the medium of<br />

a conveyor which carries the work through the furnace<br />

from the charging end and discharges it at the<br />

opposite end. It is more accurate to say that the doors<br />

Conveyor type furnace for vitreous enameling.<br />

are continuously open rather than not being opened<br />

at all. That is, they are adjusted to open only sufficiently<br />

to allow the passage of the work in and out<br />

of the furnace, depending upon the height of the pieces<br />

being fired.<br />

The furnace proper does not differ materially from<br />

the ordinary electrically heated enameling furnace.<br />

The heating chamber is 9 ft. 8 in. long, 30 in. tall and<br />

32 in. in width.<br />

The conveyor is built up from a number of nichrome<br />

"burning bars" 30 in. in length, 1 in. wide by<br />

H in. thick. These blades are fastened vertically in<br />

pairs to cast nichrome links and stand 3y in. apart.<br />

The chain is completed by the use of. connecting links<br />

made from 3/16 in. by y in. nichrome bars which are<br />

movably attached to the cast links by means of nichrome<br />

pins 4g in. in diameter. Three complete<br />

chains support the knife edged nichrome burning bars,<br />

one in the center and one at either end. The conveyor<br />

chain on its passage through the furnace slides over<br />

three nichrome bars 2 in. wide by y2 in. thick extending<br />

from end to end of the heating chamber and supported<br />

on cross bars that rest on a ledge built into the<br />

side walls of the furnace under the side heating ele­<br />

February, 1925<br />

ments and in the center on small piers about 12 in.<br />

apart Resting on these same cross bars are two<br />

nichrome plates 10 in. wide, by 3/16 in. thick, extending<br />

the length of the furnace, which cover the heating<br />

elements under the conveyor and protect them from<br />

anything falling on them. The conveyor returns beneath<br />

the furnace through a well insulated tunnel and<br />

over an idler sprocket. The chains and bars comprising<br />

the conveyor are carried over cast steel sprockets<br />

mounted at each end of the furnace, which are made<br />

in the form of a drum to prevent the parts falling<br />

through and to help prevent heat losses.<br />

The set of three of these sprockets (which are 26<br />

in. in diameter), at the discharge end of the furnace<br />

is driven by an electric motor through a speed reducing<br />

mechanism and a speed change box with nine<br />

changes of speed so that the conveyor can be made to<br />

travel at will to allow work to remain from \y2 to 3yi<br />

minutes in its passage through the heating chamber.<br />

The set of sprockets engaging the conveyer at the<br />

charging end is an idling set and is carried on bearings<br />

adjustable longitudinally by spring tension to<br />

compensate for the change in the length of the chain<br />

due to its change in temperature.<br />

The centers of the driving and idling sprockets<br />

over which the conveyor works are 42 in. beyond<br />

either end of the furnace to allow for proper charging<br />

and discharging on a convenient flat surface. At the<br />

discharge end of the furnace well below the center<br />

of the sprockets driving the conveyor is located an<br />

auxiliary conveyor working at double the speed of the<br />

main conveyor on which the work falls as it leaves<br />

the main conveyor after passing through the furnace.<br />

This auxiliary conveyor is constructed of a reinforced<br />

asbestos belt 31 in. in width. This belt is 10 ft. in<br />

length and is covered for 5 ft. of its length next to the<br />

furnace by an insulated tunnel, which serves as a<br />

cooling chamber, giving the work an opportunity to<br />

cool somewhat before it approaches the outer air temperature.<br />

This cooling chamber also serves to retard<br />

the loss of heat through the slightly raised door at<br />

the rear end of the furnace.<br />

In addition to being protected by the usual thickly<br />

insulated doors counterweighted in the usual manner,<br />

there is attached to each door a hood which is adjustable<br />

with the door for height, and which entirely covers<br />

the main conveyor at the discharge end of the furnace<br />

and leaves at the charging end of the furnace<br />

only room enough for feeding in the work to be burned.<br />

Because of its comparative light construction and<br />

its nearly complete protection from contact with the<br />

outside air, the loss of heat due to the passage of the<br />

main conveyor through the furnace has been found to<br />

be relatively unimportant. The temperature of the<br />

furnace is automatically controlled by a Leeds and<br />

Northrup Controlling and Recording Instrument<br />

which makes and breaks the full load of 105 kw. The<br />

power is 250 volts, 60 cycle, 3 phase. Two persons<br />

are required for the operation of the furnace—one to<br />

place pieces on conveyor and one to remove them<br />

from the auxiliary conveyor.<br />

The furnace has been in operation for several<br />

months, enameling steel shells .035 in. thick measuring<br />

7V% in. square by 2%. in. tall. The furnace easily handles<br />

these pieces on first coat work at the rate of<br />

600 pieces per hour. On second and third white coats<br />

and on firing decals the rate is 800 pieces per hour.


February, 1925<br />

The loss due to improper firing is practically negligable,<br />

amounting to under y2 of one per cent in the experience<br />

thus far. Larger shells, 20^ in. square by 4<br />

in. in depth, are handled with satisfactory speed, the<br />

production of these pieces at this time has not been in<br />

sufficient volume to determine accurately what can be<br />

expected in the way of output.<br />

It will be apparent that the furnace is remarkably<br />

successful, both from the standpoint of rapidity of<br />

operation as well as the almost entire absence of loss<br />

due to improper firing. Once the proper speed of the<br />

conveyor and the proper heat of the furnace is found<br />

for a certain part, the results are entirely uniform.<br />

The furnace was built and installed by the Electric<br />

Furnace Construction Company, 1015 Chestnut Street,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Solving the Problem of Die Costs<br />

The shop management frequently encounters difficulties<br />

in satisfying the demand for both economy<br />

and time saving in production. In some cases, for<br />

example, the necessarily limited demand for a product<br />

will not warrant the expense attached to the machining<br />

of a steel die for quantity production; at. the same<br />

time, the demand may be sufficient to make the method<br />

of built-up construction not only very expensive<br />

but a time losing proposition as well.<br />

In instances of this kind, the difficulty can be solved<br />

at times by making the dies of cast iron rather than<br />

of steel. In this manner the high cost of machining<br />

is greatly reduced and at the same time a die is produced<br />

that will take ample care of the manufacturing<br />

needs. This is true particularly of the larger size dies.<br />

An example of the above is shown in the accompanying<br />

illustration of a cast iron die designed and<br />

manufactured by the Buffalo F<strong>org</strong>e Company, of Buffalo,<br />

for stamping the steel hearths used with their<br />

general repair f<strong>org</strong>es. The object here was to keep<br />

the cost of the die as low as possible. The f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

hearth in question has an overall size of 24 in. x 30<br />

in. and is rectangular in shape. The depth is 5y in.<br />

On two opposite sides is a cut-out section to allow<br />

long bars to lay across the f<strong>org</strong>e and at the same time<br />

to rest in the fire. The four upper corners of the<br />

hearth have a 3 in. radius, while the bottom corners<br />

have a \y2 in. radius.<br />

It has been the practice up to very recently to make<br />

these hearths or bowls of built-up construction. The<br />

great amount of labor and time entailed, however,<br />

made this procedure a costly one. The first operation<br />

under this method was to shear the plate, then notch<br />

the corners and recess the cuts in the side. Followed<br />

by flanging of the sides for the box forming and then<br />

the riveting of angle irons to reinforce the edges. In<br />

the center of the hearth was placed a steel plate, also<br />

for reinforcing purposes.<br />

By employing a die, however, all of the individual<br />

operations are eliminated; a single down stroke of the<br />

press produces the finished hearth. The new forming<br />

die is built-up of six castings made of close grain iron;<br />

three castings comprise the female section and three<br />

the male. The castings for the latter consist of a flat<br />

plate 2 in. thick with the punch fastened to it with<br />

eight bolts, while the pressure ring fits over the punch.<br />

The female section consists of a flat plate \y2 in. thick<br />

to which the forming die itself is fastened. The ejector<br />

plate fits inside the die. The reason for building the<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat 'Beating<br />

die in two sections was due to difficulties in machining<br />

when made in one solid casting. A one-piece section<br />

could only be machined with a vertical mill and this<br />

required the expenditure of considerable time and labor.<br />

By building it in two sections, the machining<br />

operations entailed were of the simplest kind. Another<br />

advantage to be noted is the ease with which<br />

this die can be enlarged if desired without discarding<br />

any of the old castings.<br />

At each corner there is a steel insert fastened in the<br />

die; these inserts were bored and turned in the lathe<br />

and pack hardened. The die was then put on a boring<br />

mill and the corners bored out and the recess cut<br />

for the steel insert. These inserts are held in place<br />

by two bolts each. Because of the great wear and<br />

strain on the corners of the die, it was deemed advisable<br />

to have these inserts in order to prolong the<br />

life of the apparatus. After the inserts were fitted,<br />

the die was put on the planer and the sides finished.<br />

It should be mentioned here as well that there are two<br />

steel inserts in the die at the point where the cut-out<br />

One piece pressed steel f<strong>org</strong>e hearth.<br />

sections in the sides of the hearth are placed. The<br />

sides of this bowl are made 5 deg. taper in order to<br />

facilitate stacking; the stock used is heavy gauge<br />

pickled steel plate.<br />

A single acting press is used for this operation;<br />

pneumatic air cushions operating with an air pressure<br />

of 40 lbs. are used beneath the press to keep the<br />

stock from wrinkling. It is estimated that this die<br />

will be good for 1000 pieces before repairs are necessitated.<br />

In addition to now having a die at a reasonable<br />

cost, which will save considerable time and labor<br />

charges in production, the manufacturer is now enabled<br />

to produce a hearth that is not only more durable<br />

than the older design, but one that is vastly<br />

improved in appearance as well.<br />

Orders received by the General Electric Company<br />

for the three months ending December 31 totalled<br />

$80,009,978, an increase of 7 per cent over the same<br />

quarter in 1923, according to figures made public by<br />

Owen D. Young, chairman of the board of directors.<br />

For the year 1924, orders totalled $283,107,697, as<br />

compared with $304,199,746 for 1923, a decrease of 7<br />

per cent. ,„<br />

71


•mtiimnmimin iiiimniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniLMiiniiiminiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiii<br />

TRADE NOTES<br />

r»imnmi[»iiTiirrf»tniiiiiiii:iL!Tnuiij iimmOTniimmmiiiiiiimiiiinmiiimilimnm<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating wishes to announce<br />

the appointment of F R. Jones and L. R.<br />

Sales as western representatives, with offices at room<br />

1014 Garrick Theater Bldg.. Chicago. 111.<br />

* * *<br />

Maxon Premix Burner Company announced the<br />

consolidation of the Maxon Premix Burner Comparand<br />

the Maxon Furnace & Engineering Company, the<br />

consolidated companies to be operated under the<br />

name of the Maxon Premix Burner Company, Muncie.<br />

Ind. Branch offices will be retained at Pittsburgh<br />

and Chicago and another opened in the east in the<br />

near future.<br />

* * *<br />

The Hughes Tool Company, Houston, Tex., manufacturers<br />

of oil well tools and sunnlies, has increased<br />

its capital stock from $300,000 to $2,000,000, in order<br />

to meet the increase in business, and have also announced<br />

a $1,700,000 stock dividend, effective immediately.<br />

The plant of the company was practically<br />

doubled in 1923 and material increases were made in<br />

1924. The program for 1925 includes the operation<br />

of a branch plant at Oklahoma City, Okla., now under<br />

construction, besides increases in its other activities.<br />

* * *<br />

The Anderson Foundry & Machine Company was<br />

recently taken over by the Anderson Engine & Foundry<br />

Company, Anderson, Ind., the main product being<br />

the manufacture of oil engines. The officers and directors<br />

of the new company are E. W. Conney, president<br />

and general manager, formerly with the National<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e & Tool Company, Irvine, Pa.; Bert McBride,<br />

treasurer, president of the Continental National Bank,<br />

Indianapolis; directors: F. C. Hesch, vice president<br />

Titusville F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Titusville, Pa.; I. L. May,<br />

president May Supply Company, Anderson, Ind.; J.<br />

E. Greene, president Matthew Addy Company, Cincinnati<br />

; Luther F Pence, Anderson, and Emerson E.<br />

McGriff, Portland, Ind.<br />

* * *<br />

Remington Typewriter Company has absorbed the<br />

Noisless Typewriter Company of Middletown, Conn.,<br />

and in so doing retires five officers of the latter company.<br />

These are : President C. W Colby, Vice Presidents<br />

H. S. Duel and Arthur Hebart, Secretary Joseph<br />

Merriam, and Treasurer E. H. Russell. The Middletown<br />

plant will continue to be operated, but supervision<br />

will be by officers of the Remington company, of<br />

which B. F. Winchell is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Marion Electric Corporation. Marion. Ind.,<br />

are planning changes and improvements in their recently<br />

purchased building at Eleventh and Adams<br />

Streets, Marion, Ind. The Marion company manufactures<br />

household heating appliances such as curling<br />

irons, hot plates, grills, etc. All of its punch press,<br />

plating, polishing and other machinery is electrically<br />

operated.<br />

K * * *<br />

Announcement is made that J. O. Heinze, formerly<br />

with the Heinze Electrical Company, Lowell, Mass.,<br />

and at one time an engineer with the General Motors<br />

Companv, Detroit, will build a plant to manufacture<br />

tractors at Bessemer, Ala., 13 miles south of Birmingham.<br />

A tract of 200 acres has been purchased and<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat 'Beating<br />

February, 1925<br />

the construction of the plant will be started at once.<br />

The tractor will have three wheels and the engine<br />

will be of the four-cylinder type.<br />

* * *<br />

The Moline Implement Company, Moline, 111., has<br />

been incorporated with a capital of 30,000 shares of<br />

no par common stock, and has purchased from the<br />

Moline Plow Companv the latter's plow factory, assets<br />

and goodwill. The new corporation starts operation<br />

with assets of about $3,000,000 and with practically<br />

no indebtedness.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles T- Graham, vice president of the Graham<br />

Bolt & Nut'Company. Pittsburgh, Pa., has purchased<br />

a controlling interest in the Gould Coupler Company<br />

and the Gould Storage Battery Company, Depew,<br />

N. Y.<br />

* * *<br />

The Xeverslip Door-Holder Company, 13161 Auburn<br />

Avenue, Detroit, has been <strong>org</strong>anized with capital<br />

stock of $50,000 to manufacture garage door holders<br />

and other hardware products. A site was purchased<br />

and a building 40x40 ft. was erected to be used<br />

for office and assembling. Contracts for stampings<br />

and dies were placed with the Saginaw Stamping &<br />

Tool Company, Saginaw, Mich., and with the American<br />

Bolt Corporation, Detroit, for rods. Production<br />

will begin about February 1. Dedrick F. Stearns is<br />

president.<br />

* * *<br />

The name of the New England Heat Treating<br />

Service Company, Inc., with offices at 112 High Street,<br />

Hartford, Conn., has been changed to the Stanley P.<br />

Rockwell Company. This is a change in name only;<br />

the same management will continue as heretofore. Mr.<br />

S. P. Rockwell is president and Mr. W. D. Fuller,<br />

vice president. The company will represent the Wilson-Maeulen<br />

Company, American Gas Furnace Company,<br />

Rodman Chemical Company and Duraloy Company.<br />

It will conduct laboratories for chemical, physical<br />

and metallographical investigations.<br />

* * *<br />

The Dixie Metal Products Sales Company, Inc.,<br />

with main office and factory at Birmingham, Ala.,<br />

was incorporated for $50,000, $25,100 being paid in, to<br />

manufacture and sell to jobbers the following products:<br />

radiator cabinets and shields, hot air register<br />

cabinets, roof flashings, door handles, etc. D. A.<br />

Thomas is president, D. D. Bentley, vice president,<br />

and J. M. Chapman, secretary.<br />

* * *<br />

The Detroit Die Casting Company, 442 Jefferson<br />

Avenue East, Detroit, plans to manufacture die castings<br />

of various metals, small stampings, dies, tools,<br />

jigs, etc.. having purchased the department of the Detroit<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Company which was devoted to this<br />

line. Its factory at 274 Iron Street, a large modern<br />

building, is in full operation. The officers of the company<br />

are the same as those of Davis, Kraus & Miller,<br />

Inc., 440 Jefferson Avenue, Detroit, manufacturers of<br />

automobile trimmings, of which C. H. Davis is president,<br />

Lovell R. Kraus, vice president, and Hugh Miller,<br />

secretary. E. Martin Tallbert is general factory<br />

manager. All purchases for the die casting company<br />

will be made by Davis, Kraus & Miller, Inc.<br />

* * *<br />

The Sani-Safe Manufacturing Corporation, 608<br />

Lexington Bldg., Baltimore, recently <strong>org</strong>anized to<br />

manufacture metal boxes of 24-gage galvanized sheets,


February, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 73<br />

will buy paint-spraying equipment, dies, presses, cabinet<br />

locks, rivets and screws. William E. Smith is<br />

one of the principals.<br />

* * *<br />

affiliated with these companies for approximately 25<br />

years.<br />

T * *<br />

A. T. Rankin, formerly New England representa­<br />

The Marion Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Marion, Ind., tive of the Amco Manufacturing Company, has joined<br />

is said to be considering plans for a one-story addi­ the sales force of the Oakes Company of Indianapotion,<br />

to be used primarily as a heat treating building,<br />

lis, manufacturers of automobile accessories, and will<br />

and for one crane runway. It is purposed to break have charge of the territory embracing the Middle<br />

ground early in the spring. The cost is reported in Western States.<br />

excess of $25,000.<br />

* + *<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e H. Grundy, manager of the steel sales for<br />

The Herbrand Company, Fremont, Ohio, manu­ Peter A. Frasse & Company, New York, will go to<br />

facturer of f<strong>org</strong>ings, etc., has awarded a general con­ Hartford, Conn., to take charge of the tool steel and<br />

tract to the Steinle & Wolf Constrution Company, hot rolled alloy steel department in the old plant of<br />

Fremont, for a one-story steam-operated power plant the Frasse Steel Company, recently sold to the Union<br />

with capacity at 500 hp., for service at its proposed Drawn Steel Company, Beaver Falls, Pa. Under the<br />

new plant.<br />

terms of the sale, Peter A. Frasse & Company did not<br />

* * *<br />

dispose of this part of the manufacturing business,<br />

The Parish Manufacturing Corporation, Reading, but will continue to anneal and certify tool steel and<br />

Pa., manufacturer of pressed steel automobile frames heat treat alloy steel as well as distribute these prod­<br />

and chrome nickel steel specialties, have increased their ucts and the cold drawn products of the Union Drawn<br />

facilities approximately 100 per cent. The new plant<br />

is 200x580 ft., with a 70xl40-ft. wing. The company<br />

specializes in the manufacture of automobile frames,<br />

heat treated. H. S. Lewis is vice president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Standard F<strong>org</strong>ings Company, Chicago, has recently<br />

been <strong>org</strong>anized for the production of car and<br />

locomotive axles and f<strong>org</strong>ings. Ge<strong>org</strong>e E. Van Hagen<br />

has been made president; E. W. Richey, vice president<br />

and manager of sales; L. C. Ryan, vice president and<br />

treasurer; A. C. Stockton, secretary, and James A.<br />

Cook, assistant manager of sales. The company has<br />

acquired the plant of the Laclede Steel Company, East<br />

St. Louis, 111.<br />

* * *<br />

The Freyer-Carrol Corporation, 427-33 East Avenue,<br />

Perth Amboy, N. J., has been <strong>org</strong>anized to build<br />

commercial bodies and cabs and to do general blacksmithing<br />

work. John A. Carrol is secretary.<br />

Steel Company through the New York, Philadelphia,<br />

and Buffalo warehouses.<br />

* * *<br />

G. V. Bellows has been made manager of maintenance<br />

at the Lansing, Mich., plant of the Auto<br />

Body Company. He succeeds Arthur H. Leonard,<br />

resigned.<br />

* * *<br />

Eugene Colfax Beck, works manager of the Cleveland<br />

Twist Drill Company, Cleveland, has resigned<br />

after 25 years' service with that <strong>org</strong>anization.<br />

* * *<br />

J. L. Price, formerly connected with the Chicago<br />

Pneumatic Tool Company, as secretary and treasurer<br />

and director, has severed his connections with that <strong>org</strong>anization<br />

to become vice president and general manager<br />

of the Btendix Corporation and president of the<br />

Bendix Brake Corporation.<br />

* * *<br />

William Ruddy has returned to Detroit after 18<br />

iiiiHiiiiMii!i[iiiriFiii[iii]iiiiEiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiii«]Tiiiirr!iiiii[tFfri)CTfiiij{iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirit[iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriririiiiiEjiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiutrr!i(]iiiMiuiiiiiiiiiiitiitniiitici<br />

months in Paris, where he was engaged in remodel­<br />

PERSONALS<br />

iiiiNiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiM iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii<br />

Mr. John A. Succop has been appointed district<br />

sales manager of the Philadelphia branch office recently<br />

established by the Colonial Steel Company at<br />

522 Drexel Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. This will supersede<br />

the arrangement formerly in effect with Eining<br />

the factory of Andre Citroen and introducing<br />

American methods.<br />

* * *<br />

Donald N. Watkins has resigned his position as<br />

superintendent of the blooming mills at the South<br />

Side plant of the Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation,<br />

Pittsburgh, and has joined the sales force of the General<br />

Refractories Company in its Chicago office. Mr.<br />

wechter & Wyeth as selling agents.<br />

Watkins was formerly editor of Blast Furnace and<br />

* * *<br />

Mr. D. A. Stewart has recently become associated<br />

with the Heppenstall F<strong>org</strong>e & Knife Company as<br />

Steel Plant.<br />

* * *<br />

John M. Read, formerly assistant general mana­<br />

salesman in the Pittsburgh District. For the past two<br />

ger, has been appointed general manager of the works<br />

years he was connected with the Union Electric Steel at Cumberland, Md., for the N. & G. Taylor Company,<br />

Corporation, and prior to that he was for 13 years dis­ Philadelphia, manufacturers of tin plate. He suctrict<br />

sales manager for the Sizer F<strong>org</strong>e Company of ceeds L. Leslie Helmer, who died recently. Mr. Read<br />

Buffalo, N. Y., in the Pittsburgh District.<br />

has been connected with the Taylor Company for the<br />

*<br />

Irvin E. McGowan<br />

* *<br />

has been made metallurgist<br />

past 15 years.<br />

* * *<br />

and chief chemist for the Sparta Foundry Company, Ge<strong>org</strong>e S. Evans, for the past five years metallui-<br />

Sparta, Mich., manufacturer of individually cast pisgist and superintendent of all the foundries of the<br />

ton rings. Mr. McGowan has been engaged in metal­ Griffin Wheel Company, Chicago, has resigned to go<br />

lurgical work for the past 17 years, ten of which were with the Mathieson Alkali Company.<br />

spent in the blast furnace industry.<br />

* * *<br />

* * *<br />

O. P. Hanchette, a welding engineer, has been<br />

John B. Cornell has resigned as treasurer of the added to the staff of the Burke Electric Company,<br />

Niles-Bement-Pond Company and Pratt & Whitney Erie, Pa. Mr. Hanchette will be connected with the<br />

Company, 111 Broadway, New York. He has been Cleveland office at 7820 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland.


74 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

James S. O'Rourke has been made vice president<br />

in charge of sales of the Murray Body Corporation of<br />

Detroit, the new concern formed by the consolidation<br />

of the C. R. Wilson Body Companv, Towson Body<br />

Company and J. K. Widman & Company, all of Detroit.<br />

Previous to his connection with the Murray<br />

Body Corporation, Mr. O'Rourke was general sales<br />

manager of the J. W. Murray Manufacturing Co.<br />

* * *<br />

C. B. Starr has joined the Robert June Engineering<br />

Management Organization of 8835 Linwood Avenue,<br />

Detroit, Mich. He was assistant mechanical engineer<br />

with the Duff Manufacturing Company of<br />

Pittsburgh, Pa., and later served in the capacity of<br />

sales engineer with the Detroit office of the Wayne<br />

Tank & Pump Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e T. P Klix has resigned as chief engineer of<br />

the C. R. Wilson Body Company, Detroit, to join the<br />

American Body Company, Buffalo. O. J. Crowe, who<br />

has been associated with the purchasing department<br />

of the Wilson Body Company for the last ten years,<br />

goes with Mr. Klix as director of purchases for the<br />

Buffalo concern.<br />

* * *<br />

J. H. Frantz, vice president of the American Rolling<br />

Mill Company, Middletown, Ohio, has been elected<br />

a director of the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago &<br />

St. Lous Railroad Company, succeeding William H.<br />

Lee of St. Louis, retired because of advanced age.<br />

* * *<br />

Russell Huff, chief engineer of Dodge Bros, since<br />

1915, now has the title of director of engineering.<br />

Clarence Carson, formerly assistant chief engineer,<br />

has been appointed chief engineer. Mr. Huff is also<br />

a member of the board of directors of Dodge Bros.<br />

* * *<br />

Prof. Michael I. Pupin was elected president of the<br />

American Association for the Advancement of Science<br />

at its seventy-ninth annual meeting held in Washington,<br />

D. C, recently.<br />

* * *<br />

E. W. Harrison of Philadelphia, long identified<br />

with the steel industry, has resumed his connection<br />

with the American Tube & Stamping Company,<br />

Bridgeport, Conn., after a trip abroad and a long vacation.<br />

Mr. Harrison will act as director of sales promotion<br />

and will have offices in the Franklin Trust<br />

Bldg., Philadelphia, after March 30.<br />

* * *<br />

Oscar W. Loew will assume charge of advertising<br />

and sales promotion for the Truscon Steel Company,<br />

Youngstown, Ohio, effective February 1.<br />

» * *<br />

Mr. T. E. Barker, president and manager of the<br />

recently formed Accurate Steel Treating Company,<br />

Chicago, and who is well known in steel treating<br />

circles, has been awarded a founder's membership in<br />

the American Society for Steel Treating. He was<br />

the first chairman of the Chicago Section of the Steel<br />

Treating Research Society in 1917-1918, and for two<br />

years national president of the American Steel Treaters<br />

Societv, and from 1920 to 1921 first vice president<br />

of the American Society for Steel Treating.<br />

* *. *<br />

Announcement has been made by the Detroit Steel<br />

Products Company, Detroit, Mich., of the appointment<br />

of L. T. Miller as purchasing agent to succeed<br />

T. F. Thornton, who recently resigned to take the<br />

presidency of the Roehm Steel Rolling Mills, Detroit.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

February, 1925<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Burkhardt, president of the Champion<br />

Welding Company, Buffalo, died recently in a sanitarium<br />

in Detroit.<br />

* * *<br />

L. Leslie Hammer, general manager of the N. & G.<br />

Taylor Company, Cumberland, Md., manufacturers of<br />

tin plate, died of typhoid fever at the age of 47 years.<br />

He started work'with the Taylor Company many<br />

years ago as a chemist in the open hearth department.<br />

In 1903 he was made superintendent of the<br />

black plate department and in 1916 became general<br />

manager, also being elected to the board of directors,<br />

becoming assistant secretary-treasurer.<br />

* * *<br />

Daniel Gray Reid, romantic figure of the tin plate<br />

industry and one of the outstanding personalities who<br />

guided the modern steel business in this country<br />

through its formative period, died at his home in New<br />

York. January 17th. Death was due to pneumonia,<br />

but Mr. Reid' had been in ill health since 1918.<br />

* * *<br />

Jonathan R. Jones, a veteran of the steel industry,<br />

and one of the best known figures in the eastern section,<br />

died in Philadelphia, January 3. Although active<br />

until recently, Mr. Jones had been in ill health for the<br />

past two years.<br />

* * *<br />

Frederick C. Riddile, aged 59, general manager of<br />

the Edgewater Steel Company, Pittsburgh, died December<br />

21, in the Columbia Hospital after a week's<br />

illness.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles M. Whitmore, head of the production department<br />

of Crompton & Knowles Loom Works,<br />

Worcester, Mass., died recently at his home.<br />

* * *<br />

Robert A. Bruce, formerly head of the research<br />

department at the Hydraulic Steel Company, Cleveland,<br />

died recently in New York, at the age of 53.<br />

* * *<br />

Harry R. Kimmel, chief .hemist of the Marion<br />

Steam Shovel Company, Marion, Ohio, died January<br />

19 at Kalamazoo, Mich., aged 46 years. He was a<br />

graduate of the Case School of Applied Science,<br />

Cleveland.<br />

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TRADE PUBLICATFONS<br />

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Feed Water Heaters—A new information leaflet<br />

has just been published by the Griscom-Russell Company,<br />

describing the well-known G-R instantaneous<br />

heater for supplying hot water for boiler feed, heating<br />

systems, industrial processes, etc. This leaflet concisely<br />

outlines the applications, special advantages<br />

and construction specifications of the heater and includes<br />

a complete table of sizes, capacities and<br />

dimensions.<br />

Coal Meters—The Republic Flow Meters Company,<br />

Chicago, has issued a bulletin describing a device<br />

for measuring the volume of coal passing to a<br />

combustion chamber. The meter is based on the fact<br />

that equal volumes of coal have equal weight, within<br />

narrow- limits, regardless of the size of the pieces.<br />

Full description, engineering data and illustrations<br />

are supplied.


February, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 75<br />

Blowers—B. F. Sturtevant Company, Boston 36,<br />

Mass. "Gaso-Fan," a new type of portable blower, is<br />

described in a leaflet just published.<br />

Power Presses—The Niagara Machine & Tool<br />

Works, Buffalo, N. Y. Various presses made by this<br />

company are described in this folder. The arch press,<br />

the trimming press, the inclinable press, double crank<br />

press and the squaring shears are all briefly described<br />

and illustrated.<br />

Rodograph—The Bridgeport Brass Co., Bridgeport,<br />

Conn., has issued under the name of Bridgeport<br />

Ledrite Rod-O-Graph a chart from which may be calculated<br />

the gross weight of any number of pieces to<br />

be cut from rods. The shapes may be round, hexagon,<br />

octagon or square. A table of decimal equivalents<br />

accompanies the chart, being printed on the<br />

same page. The sheet is of cardboard and is 9y2x<br />

I9y2. A brass eyelet for hanging is provided. Copies<br />

may be obtained upon request.<br />

Blowers—L. J. Wing Manufacturing Company,<br />

352 West Thirteenth Street, New York City. Bulletin<br />

No. 26A, "Wing Type EM Blower for Burning<br />

with Economy Small Anthracite, Screenings and<br />

Slack," describes and illustrates the advantages of<br />

this type of blower.<br />

Welding and Cutting Equipment—Putting the information<br />

from its large catalog into a booklet that<br />

can be enclosed with a letter, the Bastian Blessing<br />

Company, Chicago, has presented a compact presentation<br />

of the subject of welding and cutting by the use<br />

of gas.<br />

Welding Flux—The Chemical Treatment Company,<br />

New York, has issued a pamphlet describing a<br />

chemical compound fused at high temperature to insure<br />

complete solution. Its purpose is to furnish a<br />

flux for welding iron and steel which will produce a<br />

soft, ductile weld that can be machined easily.<br />

Universal Turret Lathe—Warner & Swasey Company,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio, has issued a catalog describing<br />

one of its turret lathes. Every point of construction<br />

and operation is covered by description and illustration<br />

and samples of output are shown.<br />

Furnace Gas Recorder—Measuring C02 in the flue<br />

gases of steam generating plants as a check on losses<br />

in combustion is discussed in a catalog of the Brown<br />

Instrument Company, Philadelphia. Attention is<br />

called to lack of study and care in eliminating losses<br />

in combustion and suggestions are made for bettering<br />

conditions in this respect. Methods of applying<br />

the recorder and illustrations of typical installations<br />

are presented.<br />

Electric Crane Equipment—A bulletin by the General<br />

Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y., discusses<br />

at some length the various electrical devices used on<br />

cranes. This includes motors and control, brakes and<br />

accessories. Information is given on operating characteristics<br />

and types of standard motors are listed,<br />

with much valuable data.<br />

Sheet Metal Equipment for Schools—Niagara Machine<br />

& Tool Works, Buffalo. Circular No. 103.<br />

Issued to promote sheet metal working courses in<br />

vocational schools. Five plans of sheet metal shops<br />

for large, medium and small classes, one for composite<br />

shop in which sheet metal working is combined with<br />

some other subject, and another for a general shop,<br />

where several subjects are taught, are given. Floor<br />

plans of the shops are shown, and the equipment<br />

recommended is listed and illustrated.<br />

Transmission Machinery—The W. A. Jones Foundry<br />

& Machine Company, Chicago, has issued two<br />

catalogs, one covering power transmission machinery,<br />

and the other sprocket wheels and chain belting. Both<br />

are illustrated and contain engineering data of use to<br />

machine shop engineers.<br />

Sheet Metal Machinery—Magee Sheet Metal Machinery<br />

Company, 3916 Vermont Avenue, Detroit.<br />

Catalog No. 5. The company's wiring and edging machine<br />

is described and illustrated, and several pages<br />

are devoted to the assembling machines, which is<br />

known also as seaming machine or double-seamer.<br />

The wiring and edging unit will complete an operation<br />

which may be run on the edge of a piece ,f sheet<br />

metal in one pass, regardless of the contour or size of<br />

the sheet, or whether it is pressed or flat. Six attachments<br />

for nine operations, wiring, hemming, CJ-ing,<br />

hook-lock, X-lock, Y-lock, Z-lock, plain-lock and<br />

square edge, are described and illustrated. The change<br />

from one gage to another is made by changing rolls<br />

of the attachment.<br />

Automatic Rotary Heat Treating Furnaces—W.<br />

S. Rockwell Company, 50 Church Street, New York.<br />

Bulletin No. 261 describes the automatic rotary furnace<br />

and quenching, coating or coloring tanks. The<br />

equipment is intended for the heat treatment of metal<br />

products, the size and shape of which permit of a slow<br />

rolling action and continuous steam movement. The<br />

furnace is internally fired and has a revolving horizontal<br />

cylinder with a refractory, metallic or combination<br />

spiral lining. Provisions for uniformly applying<br />

heat to the individual piece and for gradually<br />

heating each piece in its automatic stream movement<br />

through the furnace are advantages stressed. Illustrations<br />

are numerous and include installations for<br />

heat treatment of f<strong>org</strong>ings and castings.<br />

Refractories—There has just been issued by the<br />

Botfield Ref:actories Company, 778 Swanson Street,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa., a very useful pocket-size booklet of<br />

interest to all users of fire brick. It contains a number<br />

of helpful fire brick construction suggestions.<br />

Among these are, the proper method of laying fire<br />

brick for thin but firm joints; how to coat furnace<br />

walls and other fire brick construction to protect the<br />

brick and prolong its life; and the method of filling<br />

up holes and depressions with an inexpensive patching<br />

mixture, saving many dollars of new construction<br />

costs; how to lay single ring arches, in which any<br />

one ring or part of fire brick can be replaced without<br />

removing other rings.<br />

Twist Drill Speeds—The Cleveland Twist Drill<br />

Company has issued booklets describing the easy application<br />

of the slide rule principle to determine safe<br />

and economical cutting speeds for drills. In addition<br />

to the tabular presentation of speeds, the jacket of the<br />

scale presents useful hints on the operation of drills.<br />

Oil Circuit Breakers—A new 32-page bulletin,<br />

bearing the number 47495.1, has been issued by the<br />

General Electric Company describing four improved<br />

types of oil circuit breakers. The bulletin is well illustrated<br />

by photographs, tables and diagrams, and details<br />

covering construction, operation, characteristics,<br />

etc., are fully covered. The circuit breaker tvpes described<br />

bear the designations FH-103, FH-203, FH-206<br />

and FH-209, all for controlling and protecting circuits<br />

of large capacity. The capacities of these oil circuit<br />

breakers vary from 2.000 amperes at 15,000 volts and<br />

500 amperes'at 35,000 volts, to 4,000 amperes at 7,500<br />

and 15,000 volts, and 800 amperes at 35,000 volts.


-'«', F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

T H E C L A S S I F I E D<br />

Li S TINC'NEW AND SECOND.HAND MATERIAL^,<br />

. |opi?$RTVNfWES-.SERVI.CE;ETC.<br />

^ j _ ^<br />

POSITIONS WANTED<br />

POSITIONS WANTED<br />

Positions Wanted and Help Wanted advertising<br />

inserted under proper headings<br />

free of charge. Where replies are keyed<br />

to this office or branch offices, we request<br />

that users of this column pay postage for<br />

forwarding such replies. Classified ads can<br />

be keyed for the Pittsburgh, New York or<br />

Chicago offices.<br />

EXECUTIVE—Young man 29 years of age, tech­ WANTED—Position as manager or superintendnical<br />

graduate with seven years' practical exent of drop f<strong>org</strong>e plant; 16 years' experience,<br />

perience in machine design and engineering, thor­ covering actual shop practice and including all<br />

oughly acquainted with shop and foundry methods. phases of office and sales work. Can furniBh<br />

Ooupled with this I have served three years as best of references. At present employed; avail­<br />

branch manager of large midwestern manufacturable on short notice. Box JPC, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

ing company, having complete supervision of office Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

WANTED<br />

and sales force. Desire to associate with progressive<br />

manufacturing or sales <strong>org</strong>anization in capa­<br />

FORGE SHOP superintendent wishes to connect<br />

with a reliable concern offering better opporcity<br />

of responsibility, where duties of an executive tunities; 40 years old, having practical experience<br />

Will the advertiser of Box 147 kindly call at POSITION nature will be WANTED—Drop required, preferably f<strong>org</strong>e in or the die business sinker in die room and hammer shop; can estimate and<br />

this office for some replies to his advertisement.<br />

end. foreman; Prefer 24 locality years' of experience, Philadelphia 12 years or New as York. fore­ do all classes of work and handle large force of<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

man but and not superintendent; essential. Highest know how references. to handle Box men men. Can give A-l references. Box B 0, care of<br />

OPPORTUNITY is open for experienced oil burn­ and OPS, get care production; of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat also A-l die designer. Treating. Box 8, F<strong>org</strong>ing and Heat Treating.<br />

er salesman. We are looking for a capable man care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

SITUATION WANTFD—Young executive, 84<br />

to manage, develop, build and equip small and POSITION WANTED—Inspector and expe­<br />

years of age, married, several years' praotlcal<br />

large oil fired furnaces. Must have knowledge to diter, with eight years' experience In ex­ experience drop f<strong>org</strong>e, foundry and machine shop<br />

suggest to customers designs for particular condipediting and inspecting of materials and ma­ Practice; thoroughly conversant with modern<br />

tions. Must know oil combustion, application of chinery for by-product coke plants, power usiness and production methods, also general<br />

industrial and boiler plants. Should know low houses, bla-st furnaces, rolling mills, wheel and cost accounting, purchasing, sales, finance and<br />

pressure burners, vacuum or pressure oil feed. To mills, etc. At present am connected with one credit, administration and <strong>org</strong>anization. Not an<br />

a man who can qualify and partially finance him­ of the large steel companies in the Pittsburgh "efficiency expert," but with very efficient methods<br />

self will offer a generous share or profits in an district on construction. As this work Is about that produce results. At present production mana­<br />

established business in Philadelphia. Write Box completed will be open for another position ger and assistant general manager of large shop<br />

HHK, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating, about August 1. I prefer a position which having f<strong>org</strong>e shop, grey iron foundry and machine<br />

Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

will keep me on the road a major portion of shops. Box DDK, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat<br />

WANTED—Experienced POSITIONS hammersmith, WANTED or helper,<br />

time. Box F S H T, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamp­ Treating.<br />

on ehape work for steam f<strong>org</strong>ing hammer. State ing-Heat Treating.<br />

POSITION WANTED as assistant superintendent<br />

POSITION age, experience WANTED and salary as drop desired f<strong>org</strong>e hi superintend­<br />

first letter. YOUNG EXECUTIVE, 82 years of age, married,<br />

or general foreman of drop f<strong>org</strong>e plant; 87<br />

Box ent, 1111, general care foreman of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat or foreman for drop Treat­ f<strong>org</strong>e 12 years' practical experience in die and f<strong>org</strong>e years of age, having had 18 years' experience, in­<br />

plant, ing. where the services of a first-class man with shop, wishes to connect with reliable firm as supercluding executive positions for the last eight years.<br />

23 years of practical experience would be appreintendent or general foreman. Thoroughly con­ Have had the best up-to-date practical experience<br />

ciated. Can handle men and get the very best reversant with modern methods of production, hav­ in die and tool design, also estimating on small<br />

sults as to production. If you are interested would ing held positions of general foreman and superin­ f<strong>org</strong>ings to 3,000 lbs. Steam hammer work with<br />

be glad to have you write, or personal interview WANTED—By tendent for past technically four years. educated Can give man, A-l position refer­ direct supervision of entire plant in my last posi­<br />

if you wish. Box C L O, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stampence. as factory, Box R production H, care of or Ohioago works Office, manager F<strong>org</strong>ing- with tion. Have always been successful in handling<br />

ing-Heat Treating.<br />

a Stamping-Heat drop f<strong>org</strong>e plant Treating. where present results are not large force of men. Best references can be fur­<br />

POSITION WANTED—Hardener and steel treat­<br />

FOREMAN satisfactory. die room, Thoroughly drop f<strong>org</strong>e experienced dies, wants and to connished. Box R R R, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stampinger,<br />

35 years of age, 12 years' experience in die versant make with a change; all details at present of drop general f<strong>org</strong>ing, foreman foundry, in Heat Treating. * *<br />

and tool hardening, carbonizing and general heat machine, a large plant steel in fabricating Canada, but and resides mechanical in Detroit; manu­ WANTED—Position as foreman of drop f<strong>org</strong>e by<br />

treating, 4 years' experience as foreman. Box facturing has two assistants plants, modern and about methods 60 men of under production him; practical drop f<strong>org</strong>e man; oyer 20 years' ex-<br />

W O L, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating. costs, twenty <strong>org</strong>anization, years' experience, management five years and as administra­ foreman'. Senence, 6 Tears as foreman; up to date on pro-<br />

WANTED—Position as annealing foreman; 15<br />

WANTED—Position tion Box based DK, care on inside of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat and as actual foreman experience of f<strong>org</strong>e Treating. Loca­ shop uction methods and oan handle men. At pres­<br />

years as foreman in one plant of sheet and tintion At and present salary general secondary foreman to of future f<strong>org</strong>e possibilities<br />

and blackent employed; available on short notice. Box<br />

plate company. Location no object. Box F B Y, Available smith department on short of notice. large ateel Box plant; F O B 34 , yean care of<br />

818, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Staniping-Heat Treating.<br />

age; F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat 15 years' practical Treating. experience, past 6 yeara POSITION WANTED—By mechanic and execu­<br />

A GENERAL FOREMAN of a drop f<strong>org</strong>e depart­<br />

as foreman; thoroughly experienced in f<strong>org</strong>e and tive, age 50, with over 30 years of tool room<br />

ment manufacturing carpenter and ball pien blacksmith department of steel mills, open hearth experience and of an inventive frame of mind;<br />

hammers and a general line of tools, desires a and HARDENER blast furnaces; and steel business treater. 29 education years of Box age competent to design and make all kinds of diet,<br />

change; 15 years' practical die sinking experience 0 16 I E, years' care experience of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat in tool hardening, Treating carbonis­ tools, jigs and fixtures, and have made a study<br />

and 5 years as general foreman. Box H S, care ing and heat treating; has had six years' experi­ of compounding dies and tools for economical pro­<br />

of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

ence as foreman. Box W H 8. care of F<strong>org</strong>ina- duction; have had a jobbing shop business of<br />

FORGE SHOP FOREMAN desires position with<br />

Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

my own; previously in the east, but location no<br />

possible advancement. Experienced in all kinds<br />

Patents<br />

object. Good reference. W. W. W., 18 Rldenour<br />

of hammer f<strong>org</strong>ings, tool dressing, hardening and Trademarks, Copyrights<br />

Street, Orafton Heights, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

heat treating; also competent of designing dies,<br />

10 Years' Active Practice<br />

WANTED—By technically educated man. position<br />

tools, fixtures and furnaces for economical opera­<br />

E. G. SIGGERS<br />

as factory manager, works manager or industrial<br />

tion. Box L G E, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat<br />

Patent Lawyer<br />

engineer with progressive manufacturing plant.<br />

Treating.<br />

Suite 30, N. U. Building<br />

Experienced in manufacturing of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings ana<br />

POSITION WANTED as superintendent of a<br />

Wajhiicgtom, D. C<br />

electrical appliances; capable, aggressive and tact­<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>e plant; 40 years of age, with 16<br />

ful. Box H A R, care of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat<br />

years' experience in f<strong>org</strong>ing, heat treating, dies, Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

Treating.<br />

SALES drop or lng-Bumping-Heat tools on handling F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat f<strong>org</strong>e Cleveland all f<strong>org</strong>e and REPRFSENTATIVE modern man a labor company large district. desires methods saving Treating. plant. as — connection Box Treating. equipment Practical of representative production; Box M I W, Lwith and drop E care U first up , in capable of care to Detroit F<strong>org</strong>- ohus date of<br />

POSITION PRODUCTION miscellaneous industry, accept liable position manufacturer engaged Stamping-Heat am partment, Box SO physics take University. chine lathe Treating.<br />

old, lork, manufacturing with years at a up A and <strong>org</strong>anization. shop reasonable taking present graduate firm and with for WANTED—Would of R drop mechanical experimental assembly MANAGER age, for several My chemistry; in B, in machine reliable stampings Treating. f<strong>org</strong>e a New five a sheet of compensation experience care student technical similar of work. Box public years and York or firm engineering like large metal shop of department can G six desires foundry in capacity. in F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat<br />

to City. 8 schools, graduate, Would has corporation<br />

course. do automobile years, Prtt G, the connect if a been satisfied care a metal I engineering at little Institute, work. like or position a am doing Applicant and I of in New student parts to intend tool drawing; 26 stamping F<strong>org</strong>ing- with the actively bench, Would secure years York with room. New ma­ and dere­ in is to


ajlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllHIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIJ:<br />

| Foigi^-SUping-IWlading I<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., MARCH, 1925 No. 3 =<br />

S a l e s m a n s h i p<br />

VOLUME of business or satisfied customers. Under which<br />

heading do you list your salesmen? The comment that "he<br />

is a born salesman" is often the result of the number of sales<br />

secured rather than satisfied customers, who can attest to the<br />

reliability of the company he represents.<br />

The company who possesses an enviable reputation, acquired<br />

by years of conscientious effort, should consider the conservative<br />

salesman, who has a thorough knowledge of the properties and<br />

usefulness of his merchandise, and not the smooth-tongued "order<br />

getter" so frequently encountered.<br />

Manufacturers endeavor to produce a product that will serve<br />

the requirements of the majority of users. The prospective customer<br />

frequently requires an article of special construction and it<br />

is the salesman who has the ability to correctly analyze the situation<br />

and convey this information to his employer who wins the<br />

respect and confidence of his customer. Such a man is not a salesman,<br />

he is an engineer, a sales engineer.<br />

Each individual in an <strong>org</strong>anization has to meet the requirements<br />

of his position. His success depends on his ability to produce.<br />

The customer knows what he wants, and while he may not<br />

be informed of the latest developments and improvements, is usually<br />

willing to listen to information relating to the required product.<br />

If you would have your customers become boosters, the business<br />

twins, common sense and diplomacy, should always be used<br />

when approaching prospective buyers.<br />

TillllllllllliiiiiiHMniiiiiiiiiiiiMiMllllllllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllIll IIIMI1II1IIII |l|||||||||||||IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIllll>ltllllll!lllllllltl>!7


78 f<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heaf Treating<br />

March, 1925<br />

L a p s — T h e i r P r o d u c t i o n a n d P r e v e n t i o n<br />

The Author of This Paper Discusses in a Very Comprehensive<br />

Manner Defects Experienced in Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Practice,<br />

IX dealing with the practical aspects of the actual<br />

manufacture of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings, it is probably better<br />

to consider some of the typical operations involved,<br />

and the technical points connected with them, than<br />

to attempt an exhaustive examination of the methods<br />

of manufacture of two or three drop f<strong>org</strong>ings selected<br />

from the almost innumerable patterns produced by the<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>er at one time or another. There is also no<br />

doubt that a great deal of information can be gained<br />

from the observation of the failures and defects that<br />

are incidental to the making of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings. Certain<br />

types of defect occur at one time and another in a very<br />

large variety of parts, and a careful consideration of<br />

such failures, the manner of their incidence, the conditions<br />

which appear to produce them, and the most satisfactory<br />

methods of avoiding them, provide a large<br />

bulk of information which is of the greatest possible<br />

value. For this reason it is proposed to consider in<br />

this lecture one typical class of defect which occurs<br />

time after time during the manufacture of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

The drop f<strong>org</strong>er has many names for members<br />

of this class of defect that vary but slightly among<br />

themselves, and which can really be classed together<br />

under one single heading, because the main characteristics<br />

of all the defects are the same. These individual<br />

defects include laps, folds, galls and cold shuts. For<br />

purposes of easy references they are referred to collectively<br />

in the title as laps.<br />

The types of defect under consideration may be<br />

produced under a considerable variety of conditions.<br />

and in the course of many operations, which are apparently<br />

diverse. The defects may arise from the<br />

treatment given to the material by the drop f<strong>org</strong>er<br />

himself, or they may be found in the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

as the result of defects initially present in the material<br />

which is being treated. The problem of distinguishing<br />

between the two sources of defect is not<br />

always simple, though it is generally capable of accurate<br />

solution. It very frequently leads to discussions,<br />

which are apt to become acrimonious, between<br />

the maker of the material and the man who works it<br />

into shape. It is not expected that the present discussion<br />

of these defects will lead definitely and completely<br />

to the cessation of all such differences of opinion regarding<br />

their origin, but it is thought that a careful<br />

consideration of them may lead the drop f<strong>org</strong>er to<br />

take adequate steps to reduce to the minimum those<br />

defects for which he is mainly or solely responsible.<br />

For this reason it is proposed to consider first of all<br />

the laps that arise during the operations of drop f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Those due to initial steel defects will be taken<br />

up later. After considering in some detail various examples<br />

of the production of laps, it may be possible<br />

to draw some fairly general conclusions as to the<br />

causes which operate most powerfully in producing<br />

Such as Laps, Folds, Galls and Cold Shuts<br />

By LESLIE AITCHISON, D.Met., B.Sc, F.I.C.<br />

these defects. First of all several ways of producing<br />

laps will be considered in comparative detail.<br />

The operation of bending is one that may very<br />

readily lend itself to the formation of one of the family<br />

of defects which are called laps. The actual defect<br />

may be produced when the steel is subject to simple<br />

bending outside the dies, or as a result of the way<br />

in which the bent bar has to accommodate itself within<br />

the dies when it is submitted to die f<strong>org</strong>ing. The<br />

former cause can be demonstrated quite clearly by<br />

means of simple diagrams. It is advisable, however,<br />

in order to render the matter as clear as possible to<br />

make a brief reference to some of the well-known definite<br />

principles which apply to all cases of bending.<br />

If the bar is bent the portion of the metal which<br />

forms the outside of the bend, i.e., the convex side, is<br />

put in tension, while the metal on the inner or concave<br />

side of the bend is put in compression. Somewhere<br />

between the two surfaces is a layer of metal which is<br />

under neither tension nor compression. Under ideal<br />

conditions this unstressed layer (or neutral axis as it<br />

is called) lies symmetrically between the convex and<br />

the concave surfaces, but this only holds good so long<br />

as the material is stressed elastically. Clearly this<br />

condition does not apply to the permanent bends that<br />

have to be produced by a drop f<strong>org</strong>er. When the material,<br />

which at the time of working is very plastic, is<br />

c r 3<br />

•\<br />

FIG. 1—Showing how laps are formed by bending.<br />

A. Original bar.<br />

B. Theoretical bend.<br />

C. Kink formed in bend.<br />

FIG. 2—Section from a defective bend due to kinking.<br />

FIG. 3—Showing diagrammatically the method of<br />

avoiding kinking.<br />

bent, it can flow comparatively easily. Its elastic properties<br />

are negligible. It will readily be realized, therefore,<br />

that the material on the outside or convex surface<br />

of the bar will be elongated and will appear to flow<br />

towards the middle of the bend. Unless there is considerable<br />

flow towards the most distorted part, there<br />

is a powerful tendency towards necking at the bend,<br />

just as occurs when a tensile test piece of ductile<br />

metal is fractured. The reduction of area which occurs<br />

during the tensile test is imitated to some extent<br />

*Lecture delivered before the Association of Drop F<strong>org</strong>ers<br />

by the behavior of the plastic metal that is being bent.<br />

and Stampers. Birmingham. England. March 26th. 1924. and<br />

The steel (in the volume that is most particularly af­<br />

reprinted from the Journal of the Association.<br />

fected by the bend) tends, however, to neutralize this


March, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 79<br />

reduction of area on the outer portion of the bend. To<br />

avoid the extensive reduction of area on the outer side<br />

of the specimen, which would eventually lead to the<br />

rupture of the metal on this side of the article, the<br />

metal on the concave surface which is already under<br />

compression tends to flow across the bar towards the<br />

convex face, thus providing metal to compensate for<br />

the deficiencies of the material that are produced by<br />

the plastic flow on the convex surface. The metal on<br />

the inner surface is already under compression and is<br />

predisposed to flow. It is also sufficiently plastic to<br />

flow easily, and as a result it tries to travel in a general<br />

way towards the convex surface. The probability<br />

of this type of flow can readily be seen by bending the<br />

bar in the cold. The metal must have some moderate<br />

supply of ductility, as otherwise bending experiments<br />

are rather absurd. If such a bar is bent it will be found<br />

that the metal flows evenly on the convex face and for<br />

a short time evenly on the concave face. Very soon<br />

crinkles appear on the concave side and spread into<br />

the bar more and more as the bending is increased.<br />

Naturally some material is in this instance being<br />

pushed outwards, i.e., towards the radius of the bend.<br />

This means that towards the inwards, apices of the<br />

crinkles there is a stress tending to drive the metal<br />

inwards, i.e., towards the convex face. In the cold<br />

bar the metal is too rigid to flow far, but in the hot,<br />

easily deformed metal, this stress operates and does<br />

actually drive the metal towards the convex face.<br />

The nature of the action here described can be understood<br />

easily by a reference to the drawings in Fig.<br />

1. The original bar is shown in Fig. 1A. In Fig. IB<br />

is shown the theoretical way in which the metal might<br />

be expected to flow during the bending. In Fig. 1C<br />

is shown what very often does occur and what always<br />

occurs if the conditions are suitable. This figure indicates<br />

very clearly that a kink forms on the concave<br />

side of the bar by reason of the way in which the<br />

metal flows from this position towards the convex<br />

side in order to neutralize the deficiency of the metal<br />

in the part which is being stretched.<br />

Fig. 2 shows an actual section from a bend made in<br />

this way and indicates the defect that has been produced<br />

upon the inner surface of the bent article.<br />

How can this kink be avoided? The best method<br />

undoubtedly is to arrange not to bend a uniform section.<br />

The kinking can be prevented fairly definitely<br />

by increasing the diameter of the bar at the point<br />

where it is to be bent. If a kneecap of metal is put<br />

onto the bar on the inner side, more metal is available<br />

to flow across the canvex side during bending. This<br />

prevents the excessive flow of the metal at one place<br />

that eventually leads to a kink. Similarly, if there is<br />

an accumulation of metal on the outer surface there is<br />

more material to extend plastically than in a plain bar.<br />

The outer surface can then be deformed without creating<br />

a marked deficiency at any one place and therefore<br />

without calling for the flow of metal from the concave<br />

to the convex surface. Both these actions are shown<br />

in Fig. 3. The most reliable method is to combine the<br />

two actions, thus giving an excess of metal on both<br />

faces, but particularly on the convex side.<br />

If a bar has kinked in the way already described,<br />

the defect may or may not be subsequently incorporated<br />

in the f<strong>org</strong>ing. There is as great a probability that<br />

it will be, as that it will not be, for the eventual position<br />

of the defect is very considerably governed by the<br />

amount of metal that is extruded from the pattern during<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing in the dies. The location of the defect is<br />

also affected by the quantity of metal on both sides<br />

of the bend — convex and concave — as will be shown<br />

later. It is perfectly possible, however, to produce<br />

the same type of defect in the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing from a<br />

bar which has not kinked during preliminary f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

This is likely to arise in several ways, but two definite<br />

examples can be examined. Both of them really arise<br />

from the same cause, which is, put briefly, a shortage<br />

of metal in the bar at the time that it is introduced<br />

between the dies.<br />

Imagine that an article containing a corner like that<br />

shown in Fig. 4A is to be made. The dies for the corner<br />

will be approximately as shown in Fig. 4A, and it<br />

can be assumed that a bent bar has been prepared.<br />

As soon as this bar is placed between the dies, work<br />

will be done upon it, and the tendency of the metal<br />

will be to flow towards the corner X. As the metal in<br />

the bar will always attempt to flow in this direction,<br />

the movement of this convex surface will tend to draw<br />

the remainder of the metal after it away from the concave<br />

corner, just as has already been described. At<br />

this side X, the excess of metal is extruded from the<br />

impression. The general action of the dies is therefore<br />

to decrease the radius at the corner, which is<br />

FiG.4 Fic.e<br />

FIG. 4 (A)—The pattern in the dies showing form of corner.<br />

(B) The defect in the resulting f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

FIG. 5—Outline of typical crankshaft.<br />

FIG. 6—Diagram of type of defect produced in the<br />

crankshaft at X.<br />

equivalent to making the bend more severe, or to<br />

bending the bar through a larger angle. The effects<br />

produced are therefore quite similar to those that have<br />

already been described with a plain bar. If there is<br />

sufficient metal in this portion of the bar to fill the<br />

dies completely and to make each, portion of the die<br />

do its share of work, it is probable that the dies will<br />

be kept properly filled. Under these conditions there<br />

will be an excess of metal to be extruded both at<br />

the point X and at the point Y. If on the other hand<br />

there is any deficiency of metal it will become most<br />

evident at the point Y, which is the concave side of<br />

the bend. From the position Y the metal will flow<br />

towards the position X and will draw in and kink and<br />

form a gall at Y, as shown in Fig. 4B, in just the same<br />

way as occurs in the simple bending outside the dies.<br />

This action may occur in a bar which is quite free<br />

from any initial kink or shut, the actual operation of<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing being quite sufficient to cause it to take place.<br />

The obvious remedy for the production of this type of<br />

defect is to have sufficient metal on the bar, in the<br />

part that is likely to form a gall, and consequently to<br />

avoid the sucking action of the metal towards the convex<br />

side of the pattern.<br />

This explanation of the spontaneous production<br />

of a gall when f<strong>org</strong>ing a bar that is initially free from


XI > f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat TJeafing<br />

defects, indicates also why the kink produced in a bar<br />

may be sometimes found as a gall in the resulting<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing and sometimes be found in the scrap outside<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing. The eventual position of the kink<br />

will be decided by the excess of metal so that some<br />

adequate extrusion has to occur at the position Y,<br />

then the kink will be found generally in the scrap. If<br />

there is not sufficient excess then the kink is likely to<br />

be found as a gall in the f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Another interesting example of the same kind of<br />

occurence can be found in the f<strong>org</strong>ing of a single<br />

throw crankshaft, which may be taken as typical<br />

though the action is not by any manner of means confined<br />

to such parts. The manufacture of the crankshaft<br />

shown diagrammatically in Fig. 5 can be considered.<br />

It can be imagined that the greater part of<br />

the roughing has been accomplished and that the bar<br />

has been transferred to the dies for final f<strong>org</strong>ing. It<br />

is very probable that this crankshaft might be made<br />

in open ended dies because of the comparatively great<br />

length of the driving end. It is also possible that test<br />

piece extensions had to be incorporated, which would<br />

again lengthen the shaft and make the use of the<br />

open ended dies still more probable. During f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

it is clear that whereas the metal is constrained and<br />

prevented from flowing very readily around the portion<br />

of the dies indicated by a, b and c, there is freedom of<br />

movements at the points d and e. When the dies<br />

begin to work the steel and deform it, the tendency<br />

will be for a much larger movement outwards at a and<br />

e than is possible in any other position. It is not difficult<br />

therefore, to imagine that the pushing outwards<br />

of the metal at the two ends of the shaft tends to be<br />

compensated for by the sucking in of the metal at<br />

other places, and it is in fact frequently observed that<br />

galls are formed at the positions X and Y on the shaft.<br />

This is undoubtedly due to the action as described<br />

which is in itself exactly similar to the action described<br />

in connection with kinking during bending.<br />

The type of defect that occurs is well shown by the<br />

illustration in Fig. 6.<br />

(To be continued)<br />

Rail Joint Tests<br />

Pebbles placed on a street car rail more than<br />

doubled the stresses set up in the rail when cars ran<br />

over it during tests made by the Bureau of Standards.<br />

These tests were made for the purpose of determining<br />

the stresses to which rail joints are subjected in<br />

actual service, and were among the tests on which<br />

progress reports were made to the Committee on<br />

Welded Rail Joints at a meeting held at the Bureau<br />

of Standards on February 16, 1925.<br />

The tests on joints in service were made bv clamping<br />

onto the joint an electric telemeter, or strain<br />

gage, of a type invented by the Bureau of Standards.<br />

and with it recording automatically the changes in<br />

stress when a car went over the joint. In one case<br />

the gage showed a tensile stress of 2,000 pounds per<br />

square inch when the rail was clear, and 5,000 pounds<br />

per square inch when pebbles were put on the track.<br />

Other tests reported to the committee were planned<br />

to measure the strength of joints in various ways. All<br />

types of welded joints are being thus tested, and it<br />

is the purpose of the committee to improve each of<br />

these types rather than to prove that any one type<br />

of joint is the best.<br />

March, 192S<br />

Tests now in progress include measurements of<br />

the bending strength under steady load, being made<br />

at Purdue University; measurements of the blow required<br />

to break the joint, being made at the University<br />

of Illinois; and tensile tests and repeated impact<br />

tests being made at the Bureau of Standards. Metallurgical<br />

examinations of the joints are also being made<br />

at the Bureau of Standards and at Purdue. One of<br />

the objects of welding the joints is to provide a continuous<br />

return path for the electric current and lessen<br />

the damage done by electrolysis of nearby pipes and<br />

other buried metal objects by currents straying from<br />

the line.<br />

The proposal to use the otheograph developed by<br />

the General Electric Company in connection with the<br />

tests was brought up. This instrument has been used<br />

successfully on a track the company uses for testing<br />

new electric locomotives, the speeds attained running<br />

as high as 106 miles per hour.<br />

Doubt was expressed, however, as to the ability<br />

of the device to stand the tremendous poundingcaused<br />

by flat wheeled cars and corrugated tracks<br />

which represent the worst extreme of electric railway<br />

service. It was reported that a blow with an eightpound<br />

sledge made a reading on the otheograph as<br />

high as did the heaviest locomotive with which it had<br />

been used. A 400-pound hammer is used with the repeated<br />

impact machine in which the welded joints are<br />

being tested.<br />

Questions regarding the methods of making joints<br />

for test were taken up, and it was judged best to have<br />

each type of joint made by a welder experienced in<br />

that particular type. Evidence was presented to<br />

show that any welder was likely to make the best<br />

joints of the type to which he was most accustomed<br />

without regard to the merits of the joints.<br />

In the afternoon the committee went out to see<br />

the machine being used by the Bureau of Standards<br />

for the repeated impact tests. This machine has a<br />

400-pound hammer which is raised about six inches<br />

off the joint and allowed to drop. The racket is tremendous.<br />

The machine has been housed in a shack<br />

in the woods, and it has proved difficult to keep a man<br />

on the job for any length of time, five having been<br />

employed since the test was started.<br />

This committee is sponsored by the American<br />

Bureau of Welding, in co-operation with the American<br />

Electric Railway Association, and is composed of<br />

representatives of electric railways, manufacturers of<br />

welding equipment, and others interested in the subject.<br />

Dr. Ge<strong>org</strong>e K. Burgess, director of the Bureau<br />

of Standards, is chairman of the committee, Mr. E.<br />

M. T. Ryer of the Third Avenue Railway System,<br />

New York City, is vice chairman, and Mr. W. Spraragen<br />

of the American Bureau of Welding is executive<br />

secretary. The program of tests has for its object the<br />

finding of ways to make the best possible joints of all<br />

types. It is being supported largely by voluntary<br />

contributions from those concerned with the making<br />

and using of such joints.<br />

Gas Association Plans Laboratory<br />

An appliance testing laboratory, to be located at<br />

one of the plants of the East Ohio Gas Company,<br />

Cleveland, has been planned by the American Gas Association.<br />

Researches and reports on gas-burning appliances<br />

will be conducted by a staff of chemists, utilization<br />

engineers and others.


March, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 81<br />

T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e R e c u p e r a t o r<br />

Desire to Protect Our Natural Resources and the Importance of<br />

Greater Fuel Economy Has Served to Stimulate Interest<br />

TUT-ANKH-AMPLN, the famous Egyptian king,<br />

lived in a remarkable age. The recently unearthed<br />

relics prove this and serve as striking evidence<br />

of the advanced state of civilization of a people living<br />

3,000 years ago.—many centuries before the Dark<br />

Ages. Their pottery, vases and innumerable goldembedded<br />

objects, their works of art and their utilitarian<br />

articles, demonstrate conclusively that the<br />

Egyptians were highly skilled in the arts and sciences,<br />

—that they were not ignorant of ceramics and metallurgy,<br />

and apparently possessed a working knowledge<br />

of practical methods for the application of heat.<br />

Prehistoric Metallurgy.<br />

Egyptologists, archaeologists, paleontologists and<br />

other antiquitarians have taught us through their discoveries<br />

that ages before the time of King "Tut" there<br />

existed peoples with varying degrees of civilization.<br />

As far back as 4,000 years before the era of<br />

that powerful Pharaoh, human beings knew enough<br />

about metallurgical processes to enable them to successfully<br />

smelt copper and tin ores, and to fabricate<br />

metallic implements. For even in the Bronze Age<br />

did they know the value of fire, and how to harness<br />

its energy for their own use. The practical application<br />

of heat constitutes one of the oldest industries<br />

known to mankind.<br />

Early Furnace Development.<br />

The methods employed for utilizing the heat of<br />

the flame were always very simple and crude—in fact<br />

it was only during comparatively recent times that<br />

they have taken the form of what might be called<br />

furnaces. The aim of those who built furnaces was<br />

solely to produce sufficient heat to melt their metals<br />

or to enable them to be worked into various forms<br />

for manufacturing purposes. Only several decades<br />

ago the success of an installation was measured entirely<br />

by its ability to obtain the required temperatures.<br />

The matter of fuel economy was relatively<br />

unimportant then, as the state of our natural resources<br />

and the extent of industrial competition did not warrant<br />

efforts in that direction. The science of metallurgy<br />

was not sufficiently advanced to require of a<br />

furnace close temperature regulation.<br />

Recent Developments.<br />

It is merely a matter of recent years that it has<br />

become necessary to direct any attention towards the<br />

conservation of fuel and the production of certain<br />

caloric effects demanded by our constantly increasing<br />

knowledge of metallurgy, such as high flame temperatures,<br />

elimination of oxidation, uniform furnace<br />

temperature, etc. To accomplish these objects, engineering<br />

research and inventive skill have devised<br />

innumerable ingenious methods, such as oil burners<br />

and atomizers, pulverized fuel systems, means for<br />

producing radiant heat, electric heating units, gas<br />

•Mechanical Engineer, New York, N. Y.<br />

in Heat Recovery Through Recuperation<br />

By E. R. POSNACK*<br />

producers, stokers, insulating materials, refractories,<br />

improvements in general furnace design, and systems<br />

for the preheating of the combustion air, among many<br />

others.<br />

Each of these has its particular field of usefulness,<br />

and has contributed its share towards the economical<br />

and diversified utilization of fuels for industrial heating<br />

purposes. However, there is unquestionably no<br />

tine method that affords as many simultaneous advantages,<br />

as to the requirements of both economy<br />

and metallurgy, as the efficient preheating of air by<br />

the utilization of the waste heat in the stack gases.<br />

Heat Recovery.<br />

A brief word of explanation about air preheating<br />

and waste-heat salvage will be rather appropriate<br />

here. To burn any kind of fuel, large quantities of<br />

air are required. It has been generally recognized<br />

that if this air could be raised to a high temperature<br />

and injected into the furnace in this preheated state,<br />

instead of cold, higher furnace temperatures would<br />

be attained, thus widening and improving the field<br />

of metallurgical operations. It is also a well-known<br />

fact that of all the fuel used in a furnace, only a very<br />

small fraction performs useful work, the remainder being<br />

lost in various ways. By far the greatest part<br />

of this loss is effected in the stack. In other words,<br />

the smoke, or burnt gases, carry out and waste a<br />

tremendous amount of fuel energy — considerably<br />

more than is required to melt or heat the product.<br />

The joint and practical application of these two established<br />

facts—the establishment of a method of<br />

diverting this potentially useful heat from a waste<br />

channel to a production source— is the essence of the<br />

term, "utilization of the waste heat in the stack gases<br />

to preheat the air required for combustion".<br />

The Regenerator.<br />

About 70 years ago an engineer by the name of<br />

William Siemens, realizing that the future industrial<br />

world was to be built on a foundation of iron and<br />

steel, bethought himself of the commercial possibilities<br />

of an improved furnace system that would facilitate<br />

the economical attainment of the comparatively<br />

high temperatures required for the melting of iron.<br />

His alluring dreams materialized into an ingenious<br />

invention, the Regenerator, embodying a method of<br />

reclaiming the waste heat in the stack to preheat the<br />

combustion air. Today the name Siemens is synonomous<br />

with iron, and inseparably connected with<br />

steel. The development of the Siemens Regenerator<br />

is considered one of the most notable events in the<br />

history of industrial furnaces.<br />

The regenerator now serves countless furnace installations<br />

— not only the large open-hearth and the<br />

gigantic reheating furnaces, but it is also an integral<br />

part of innumerable glass melting installations. It<br />

has progressed from the steel melting to the steel<br />

working" industry, and expanded into the glass melting<br />

field.


82 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat "Beating<br />

In our age of industrial development and engineering<br />

research, 70 years is a rather long period of time.<br />

Great scientific revolutions and discoveries have taken<br />

place in briefer intervals. And it was 70 years ago<br />

that Siemens conceived the idea of his regenerator.<br />

One could justly ask, "Hasn't the regenerator,<br />

since its inception, undergone any radical change or<br />

improvement?" The answer would be that the regenerator<br />

of today is essentially and fundamentally<br />

the same as it was at its introduction into industry,<br />

although there have been changes in the details of<br />

its design, and additions and refinements in the form<br />

of improved supplementary apparatus. One might<br />

then be prompted to inquire, "Is the regenerator the<br />

only device of its kind in the industrial field? Have<br />

there been no further developments in the utilization<br />

of waste-heat and in methods of preheating air for<br />

industrial furnace operation?" The answer to this<br />

would be that their have been numerous ideas and<br />

inventions along these lines, notably in the salvaging<br />

of waste heat for power purposes, as in waste-heat<br />

boilers and blast furnaces; for the preparatory heating<br />

of stock in preheating chambers; and especially<br />

for the preheating of the combustion air.<br />

Simplified Regeneration.<br />

Developments in this last-mentioned category are<br />

of infinitely greater significance than the progress<br />

made in any of the other groups, for the reason that<br />

the method of air preheating lends itself to a more<br />

diversified and wider field than the others. In this<br />

class, of which the Siemens regenerator is the original<br />

member, there are two general methods employed for<br />

raising the temperature of the air—by the passage<br />

of the inlet air along the walls of the furnace, and by<br />

the system of recuperation or simplified regeneration<br />

—one of the most outstanding developments of industrial<br />

furnace research engineering.<br />

The Recuperator In Europe.<br />

It was about 20 years ago that the recuperator<br />

was first introduced into Europe. To say that it found<br />

a ready market there would be putting it very mildly<br />

indeed. One company alone has erected over 10,000<br />

recuperative installations — not merely recuperative<br />

units, but complete furnaces embodying the recuperative<br />

principle. And this company is not alone in the<br />

field as there are many large competitive <strong>org</strong>anizations<br />

doing an extensive business. The recuperative furnace<br />

is now the rule there and not the exception. The<br />

contagious adoption of this new method of heat conservation<br />

by manufacturers in every European country<br />

has been due mainly to the shortage of fuel, rendering<br />

the use of efficient combustion methods imperative<br />

to their industrial existence.<br />

The situation in America was different. Endowed<br />

with great natural fuel resources, this country was<br />

under no such restraint as to fuel consumption as was<br />

imposed upon Europe. Hence to many manufacturers<br />

the matter of fuel economy was relatively unimportant,<br />

so that progress in this direction was rather slow.<br />

Production, not economy, was the keyword.<br />

Introducing Recuperation In America.<br />

That this condition could not last forever was quite<br />

evident. Post-war conditions, keen manufacturing<br />

competition, and the general awakening to the realization<br />

that our fuel supply was not limitless—these combined<br />

to set our industrial leaders thinking. Thus<br />

March, 1925<br />

science, in its mission of cultivating the fields of industry<br />

with the seeds of production and the fertilizing<br />

agents of efficiency, was summoned to spread its stimulating<br />

and beneficial influence over the neglected soil<br />

in our territories of combustion and industrial furnaces.<br />

Its task, however, was a difficult one, for it<br />

encountered large tracts of barren lands of ignorance,<br />

covered with the weeds of industrial inertia — that<br />

stubborn resistance to change from the proved to the<br />

improved.<br />

Proving the Improved.<br />

The quality of inertia, although apparently not<br />

very conducive to industrial progress, is — paradoxically<br />

enough -— not entirely a negative influence. When<br />

the improved becomes the proved, when the inertiaafflicted<br />

individual can be convinced that the new is<br />

better than the old, then all the energy spent in accomplishing<br />

this result is well worth the effort, for<br />

he will then follow the new path as persistently as he<br />

clung to the old one.<br />

It soon began to dawn upon the American manufacturer<br />

that the recuperator was fundamentally simple<br />

in design, self-evident in principle, and positive<br />

in its operation. He could not deny that a blueprint<br />

showing the detail of a plain, cast-iron open-ended pipe<br />

required no further substantiation to prove that water<br />

could be made to flow through it than the drawing itself.<br />

He now began to realize that the recuperator<br />

was equally obvious in its workability.<br />

As difficult a task as the introduction of the recuperator<br />

actually proved to be, it finally hit its stride<br />

in this country. In the short period of a little over a<br />

year, when it first wedged its way into American industry,<br />

it has grown with amazing rapidity. When<br />

the improved became the proved, when Missourians<br />

were shown and the skeptical convinced, when results<br />

of actual installations became available, then the characteristic<br />

American enthusiasm expressed itself in no<br />

uncertain terms. If the development of the recuperator<br />

in Europe may be descriptively compared with<br />

Contagion, then its spread throughout this country<br />

promises to become analogous to a conflagration.<br />

The Recuperator In America.<br />

An excellent proof of the sudden popularity of the<br />

recuperator in the United States is the appearance<br />

within the last year or so, of numerous large and extensive<br />

advertisements offering this form of equipment.<br />

Whatever industrial furnace advertising had<br />

been done previously made no mention at all of recuperation<br />

or related apparatus. Now we find that<br />

many nationally-known technical periodicals and trade<br />

journals carry advertising matter that constitute conclusive<br />

evidence of the growing popularity of this new<br />

method of heat conservation. These "ads" are all of<br />

the display type, occupying frontcover and mid-section<br />

positions, being full and double-page in size, and<br />

prominently displayed in colors. They are the most<br />

conspicious and largest of all industrial furnace advertisements,<br />

for they offer a product of great interest<br />

and inestimable value to every user of heat for industrial<br />

purposes — a product whose many sales features<br />

render it peculiarly adaptable to advertising — and<br />

selling.<br />

From a perusal of these advertisements it will be<br />

noticed that there are, at the present time, but four<br />

companies offering recuperative equipment. It will


March, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating S3<br />

also be observed that these four concerns are rather<br />

prominent industrially and financially, and of the type<br />

that would not venture into "fly-by-night" propositions.<br />

They have all built up large and powerful industrial<br />

furnace <strong>org</strong>anizations — and the recuperator<br />

has in every case served as the nucleus. It is no small<br />

recommendation for the recuperator when it can boast<br />

of such adherents and active participants in its exploitation,<br />

as the largest public utility company in<br />

America, and perhaps the greatest internationallyknown<br />

corporation specializing in combustion equipment,<br />

among others.<br />

Field For Recuperation.<br />

When such <strong>org</strong>anizations can place their financial<br />

resources behind a proposition of this sort, it must be<br />

taken for granted that their investments have been<br />

prompted by good, sound business judgments and that<br />

the elements of chance and speculation are entirelylacking.<br />

They have convinced themselves that the<br />

recuperator has great commercial possibilities, and<br />

that it is destined to become an indispensable part of<br />

every industrial furnace. They see in the recuperator<br />

the key to a new and virgin industrial field of great<br />

fertility — one hitherto untouched. They know that<br />

the principles of recuperation are scientifically sound<br />

and thoroughly proven. Theyr understand that it has<br />

a most unusually attractive sales appeal — one that<br />

can be easily understood, appreciated and visualized<br />

by the most untrained mind — for what is more obvious<br />

and impressive than the picture of dollars going up<br />

as smoke through a stack? They know that it constitutes<br />

the means for entering the lucrative field of<br />

industrial furnaces, a field whose immensity can only<br />

be comprehended when we consider that every piece<br />

of iron, steel, glass, brass and the innumerable other<br />

substances that are always about us, above us, beneath<br />

us, upon our very person—that the bridge, the<br />

typewriter, the door knob, the locomotive and the pin—<br />

that these and an infinite variety of other objects must<br />

all undergo some form of heat treatment and must all<br />

pass through some furnace at some stage in their<br />

manufacture. And they have learned that the furnace<br />

business is a big business.<br />

They have discovered that the path of the recuperator<br />

leads into the very strongholds of industries that<br />

many furnace builders have hitherto found impenetrable<br />

— that it is the means of access to the steel<br />

industry with its f<strong>org</strong>e, annealing, heat-treating, carburizing,<br />

sheet and pair, and innumerable other furnaces;<br />

to the glass industry with its pot furnaces, day<br />

and continuous tanks, and revolving pots; to the nonferrous<br />

industry with its brass and aluminum melting,<br />

and copper and brass heat-treating furnaces; to the<br />

enameling industry with its kitchen-ware, flat-ware,<br />

and sanitary-ware furnaces; and even to the hitherto<br />

untouched ceramic, chemical, and cement industries.<br />

With recuperation opening up a field of such alluring<br />

potentialities, it might appear strange that there<br />

are only four companies exploiting this device. This<br />

can be explained by the fact that the recuperator is<br />

an innovation here, having made its formal debut into<br />

industrial society hardly more than a year ago, as<br />

already stated. Every industry must have its pioneers,<br />

and these <strong>org</strong>anizations are the pioneers of the American<br />

recuperative furnace industry. Their task has<br />

been a difficult one, starting in an unfriendly territory,<br />

and overcoming the obstacles of ignorance and pre­<br />

judice in their missionary work. Whatever educational<br />

and development expense there was, has been<br />

borne by them.<br />

They have convincingly demonstrated the recuperator<br />

to be a vitiating and stimulating impetus to the<br />

metallurgical and other fuel-consuming industries. The<br />

land is now clear, and the industries are in a receptive<br />

mood. The opportunity for the improved recuperator<br />

is here.<br />

A. S. M. E. Urges Congressional Appropriation<br />

for X-Ray Apparatus<br />

The Boiler Code Committee of the American Society<br />

of Mechanical Engineers has requested the<br />

American Engineering Council to favor the appropriation<br />

now before Congress for the Watertown<br />

Arsenal which would provide for a 600,000-volt X-ray<br />

apparatus to test heavy materials.<br />

Modern development in X-ray analysis has made<br />

it possible to reveal defects in material and in jointed<br />

construction hitherto beyond detection by any method<br />

short of a test to destruction. It is impracticable for<br />

even a large industry to support the laboratory and<br />

other apparatus necessary for the testing of 'heavywork.<br />

The limited number of applications to this<br />

kind of work in a single establishment would make<br />

the overhead per job prohibitive. The availability of<br />

powerful appartus of this kind and of a corps of<br />

trained and expert observers and operators at Watertown<br />

Arsenal affords to industry an opportunity to<br />

have such tests made at a reasonable cost and to contribute<br />

to the maintenance of an <strong>org</strong>anization which<br />

is of great utility if not a necessity to the Ordnance<br />

Department.<br />

The present installation at Watertown has been<br />

used in this way by industry to great advantage, and<br />

such use will increase as the possibilities of the process<br />

and its availability become better known. Its usefulness<br />

is, however, restricted by lack of ability to penetrate<br />

the heavier materials in use, and it is very desirable<br />

for industry, as well as for the work of the government,<br />

that a 600,000-volt apparatus be provided.<br />

A request for an appropriation for such a purpose<br />

is now before Congress, and the A. S. M. E. Boiler<br />

Code Committee, realizing the importance of such<br />

facilities to the manufacturers of boilers and other<br />

pressure vessels to which its codes and their interpretations<br />

apply, is deeply interested in seeing that the<br />

application receives favorable consideration of the appropriation<br />

committees in both houses.<br />

New Officers of Niles-Bement-Pond Co.<br />

At the recent annual meeting of the Niles-Bement-<br />

Pond Company, Edward A. Deeds was elected chairman<br />

of the executive committee. Col. Deeds is well<br />

known in industrial circles as former vice president<br />

of the National Cash Register Company and the<br />

founder and president of the Dayton Engineering<br />

Laboratories Company and the Domestic Engineering<br />

Company. He is a member of the American Society<br />

of Mechanical Engineers and of the Society of Automotive<br />

Engineers.<br />

Other officers elected are: R. K. LeBlond, chairman<br />

of the board of directors; J. K. Cullen, president;<br />

C. L. Cornell and S. V. Etherington, vice presidents;<br />

S. Jay Edwards, treasurer; Charles K. Seymour, secretary.


84 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

March, 1925<br />

I m p r o v e m e n t s in H e a t T r e a t i n g E q u i p m e n t<br />

Heat Treating Facilities of the Buffalo Bolt Company Designed to<br />

Assure Accuracy and Uniformity of Product—Under­<br />

T ( ) the World War and growing use of the automobile<br />

can be credited much of the commanding<br />

position occupied by the heat treating industry of<br />

today. The war brought about government contracts<br />

that demanded for their fulfillment heat treating methods<br />

of exacting accuracy and uniformity. To meet<br />

these requirements, heat treating equipment in general<br />

underwent some remarkable changes, such as, improved<br />

refractories, better combustion devices, and the<br />

use of more accurate instruments for the control of<br />

heat.<br />

These high standard specifications are universal in<br />

industry of today. In order to comply with them,<br />

therefore, with the minimum number of rejections, at<br />

the greatest speed and at minimum cost, the manufacturer<br />

has found it necessary to employ the most<br />

up-to-date equipment. That heat treating, undertaken<br />

with improved equipment, pays, is proven by the number<br />

of manufacturers who are putting forward greater<br />

effort in this direction. For example, one concern has<br />

directed a great deal of attention to ways and means<br />

of effecting small changes in their standard heat treating<br />

equipment in order to obtain more efficient operation.<br />

To date several improvements have been made<br />

which have resulted not only in appreciable economies<br />

in production, but also in a better heat treated product.<br />

These improvements, to be described here, have<br />

been made in the heat treating processes employed by<br />

the Buffalo Bolt Company of North Tonawanda, N.<br />

Y., in the manufacture of bolts and nuts. The features<br />

themselves come under four separate headings, and<br />

can be best appreciated by a detailed description of<br />

their character and use. One of the most interesting<br />

of these improvements is that of a cooling emulsification<br />

tank used in connection with a small oil burning,<br />

heat treating furnace. This tank contains the emulsication<br />

solution for cooling off the bolt and nut after<br />

furnace heating and preparatory to blueing. It is<br />

five feet square in size and 12 inches deep, while its<br />

location, as shown in the accompanying photograph, is<br />

directly at the discharge end of the furnace. Capacity<br />

is approximately 1,500 lb. of small size bolts and nuts<br />

per hour.<br />

ground Storage and Cooling Tanks Used<br />

By ARTHUR L. GREEN*<br />

emulsion to be drained off during the removal of each<br />

work.<br />

These quenching tanks therefore are now connected<br />

by means of a drain and return pipe to an underground<br />

tank which acts as a reservoir. After cooling<br />

the charge, a valve is opened on the drain pipe and the<br />

emulsion flows by gravity into the underground tank.<br />

The bolts and nuts are now removed. Following this,<br />

the drain valve is turned off, and a valve on the return<br />

pipe is opened; the solution, still at boiling temperature,<br />

is now forced back into the quenching tank by<br />

compressed air. The whole procedure of emptying<br />

and refilling the tank takes but one to two minutes.<br />

This lost time is made up, however, in the increased<br />

speed with which the bolts and nuts are removed. In<br />

a day's work (9-2/3 working hrs.), these quenching<br />

tanks are emptied and refilled about 18 times. This<br />

represents about 27,000 lbs. of work handled by one<br />

of these tanks per day.<br />

Another advantage accrues here in the saving of<br />

emulsion. Formerly, when an annealing process took<br />

place and where, in consequence, no emulsion was<br />

required for cooling, it was the custom to let the<br />

solution in the tank run out. Then when a heat treating<br />

operation took place requiring a blueing process,<br />

a new emulsion was poured into the tank. Now, however,<br />

the emulsion is simply run into the reservoir<br />

tank when not being used and forced back into the<br />

tank when wanted. Thus the newly designed tank<br />

saves considerable quantities of the emulsion, increases<br />

the number of heat treating periods per day,<br />

and in addition makes possible the removal of every<br />

bolt and nut in the tank.<br />

A positive feed device effected on the small, rotary<br />

furnaces just referred to, is another feature inaugurated.<br />

These furnaces have an internal worm cylinder<br />

made of a high heat resisting alloy steel. No insulating<br />

material is used on the inside of the furnace as<br />

the movement of the bolts and nuts in the furnace soon<br />

wears the lining out, necessitating frequent relining.<br />

There is used, however, an insulating material, made<br />

of silocel, inside the furnace shell itself. There are<br />

eight turns of worm to the cylinder length of six feet;<br />

With the method formerly employed, the emulsifi-<br />

the worm itself is two inches in depth. The barrel of<br />

cation was left in the tank during removal of the work.<br />

the cylinder, it will be noted, is on an incline; in the<br />

The disadvantage of this arose from the fact that some­<br />

old type furnaces, this incline was the sole means emtimes<br />

a number of bolts and nuts were left inadvertentployed<br />

to insure the feed of the work through the<br />

ly in the tank. Then when another size bolt or nut<br />

furnace.<br />

was treated in the furnace, there would result a mix­ The advantages found to accrue with the worm feed<br />

ture of the products. This in turn sometimes resulted device can be enumerated as more positive feed, bet­<br />

in a jamming of the automatic threading machines ter production and more uniform heat treating. This<br />

with consequent slowing up of production and possible type feed insures the ejection of every bolt without<br />

injury to the machines themselves.<br />

waste of time after heat treating. In the older type<br />

furnace with the gravity feed, instances are known<br />

In order to avoid all future possibilities of this na­ where the bolt instead of moving through the furnace<br />

ture, the present tank was designed to permit the toward the discharge end, would work back toward<br />

the entrance. Another disadvantage connected with<br />

•Buffalo Bolt Company.<br />

employment of the gravity feed here, is the loss of


March, 1925<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 85<br />

FIG-1—Showing brine circulating tank with standpipe and oil hardening tank in foreground. Six water-jacketed plates at<br />

the rear of the brine circulating tank are used for cooling alloy steel and hot heading dies. Note the water pipe connections<br />

to these plates. The operator is shown cooling a long reamer in the standpipe. In the rear of these tanks,<br />

placed alongside the wall, is a battery of small oil burning furnaces.<br />

FJG- 2— One end of the heat treating room showing battery of three large rotary furnaces. Note the method of feed of the<br />

bolts into the basket containers. The center furnace is provided with automatic heat control apparatus which maintains<br />

the temperature within 5 deg. of the mean temperature desired.<br />

PIG. 3—Cooling emulsification tanks are used in connection with small oil burning, heat treating furnaces. These furnaces<br />

are equipped with internal worm feed. In front of the tanks are seen the drain pipes for removing the emulsification.


86 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat "Beating<br />

time met with in removing the last few bolts and nuts<br />

of any one charge. With no new stock entering the<br />

furnace, the time element taken for final removal was<br />

considerable.<br />

A unique method is employed at this plant for<br />

maintaining their brine solution at a low and even<br />

temperature. Underneath the brine dipping tank in<br />

the heat treating room is a 15,000 gallon concrete tank.<br />

By means of this underground tank, through which<br />

the brine is circulated, the saline solution is kept at<br />

practically a uniform temperature throughout the<br />

year; the variation in the temperature of the solution<br />

during the extremes of summer and winter weather is<br />

never more than eight to ten degrees.<br />

Brine circulation is maintained by a small, motor<br />

driven, brass centrifugal pump. The brine solution<br />

is forced from the underground tank by the pump and<br />

into the dipping tank through a 12-inch standpipe. The<br />

solution enters this standpipe through a series of small<br />

holes spaced equally over the entire area of the pipe.<br />

In this manner the brine enters in all directions and<br />

thereby insures uniform and equal cooling of a tool<br />

when held in the standpipe. ()nly long reamers,<br />

broaches, large dies, etc., however, are cooled in the<br />

standpipe itself; the small work is cooled in the tank.<br />

The inflow of brine into the floor tank is regulated by<br />

means of a valve on the standpipe, while the excess is<br />

taken care of by an overflow pipe. Through this system<br />

of recirculation, uniform cooling and hardening<br />

is assured at all times.<br />

An accessory to this brine circulating tank used<br />

for cooling alloyed steel and hot heading dies, is had<br />

in a series of six water jacketed plates placed above<br />

and to the left of the tank proper. Each pair of plates<br />

is connected to the brine circulating tank, as shown<br />

in the accompanying photograph, by a supply and return<br />

pipe. The method of cooling usually recommended<br />

for these dies is placement on the floor. The danger<br />

in using this method, however, arises from non-uniformity<br />

in cooling. When this occurs there is bound<br />

to be variations in the hardening process.<br />

The bottom plate of each pair is stationary. By<br />

means of a small pulley arrangement, the upper plate<br />

is raised, and the die placed between the two plates.<br />

The brine is then allowed to circulate through both<br />

pairs of plates. By this means the die is cooled from<br />

both ends, and therefore more uniformly. Due to<br />

the method of circulating the brine, the temperature<br />

of the cooling plates is also kept constant.<br />

Next to this brine circulating tank is the tank used<br />

for oil hardening all non-shrinkable tool steel, such as<br />

rolled thread dies; for oil hardening alloy steels such<br />

as hot header tools, and cold header tools made of<br />

chrome nickel; and for oil hardening chrome vanadium<br />

steels and chisel tools. The construction features here<br />

consist of a series of coil pipes placed at the bottom<br />

of the tank through which brine circulates for cooling<br />

the oil. In order to cool the oil uniformly, a circulating<br />

system is used to keep the oil in motion. This is<br />

done by means of two pipe sections, each having eight<br />

perforations. One section is placed lengthwise at the<br />

bottom of the tank and directly over the brine circulating<br />

coils, while the other, also placed lengthwise, is at<br />

the top of the tank and just below the level of the oil<br />

surface. The bottom pipe has a suction effect which<br />

draws in the cooled oil from over the coils. The oil<br />

now passes through a small circulating pump and<br />

March, 1Q25<br />

thence is forced by the pump into the upper pipe and<br />

out into the tank again. In this way the oil is kept<br />

in a continual revolving motion over the cooling coils.<br />

The improvements described in the foregoing have<br />

a wide application in the heat treating field. They<br />

can be applied with advantage from an operating angle<br />

and at very slight expense. The department head must<br />

remember, however, that work of this kind requires<br />

thoroughness of detail and study, but once the right<br />

medium has been found, tangible savings in production<br />

costs will begin.<br />

Electric Ovens Used on Floating Foundry<br />

The United States Steamship Medusa, the~first<br />

naval vessel to be designed and built as a repair ship,<br />

is using electric heat for drying molds and baking<br />

ci ires.<br />

This ship, which has a displacement of 10,000 tons,<br />

contains equipment for turning out castings for<br />

Electric mold drying oven, heating<br />

capacity SO Kw.<br />

any repair<br />

job aboard our warships,<br />

with the exception<br />

of the large<br />

main propelling engine<br />

castings.<br />

Besides the foundry,<br />

the following<br />

shops are included:<br />

pipe shops, plating<br />

shop, sheet metal<br />

shop, optical shop,<br />

gyroscope repair<br />

shop, paint shop,<br />

blacksmith shop,<br />

boiler shop, ma-<br />

chine e sh< shop, sail makers' shop and pattern shop.<br />

The melting equipment consists of a 3y2 and a 1ton<br />

cupola, and four 700-lb. brass crucible furnaces.<br />

In an installation of this sort where only a limited<br />

amount of raw materials can be carried, it is essential<br />

that the casting be as nearly perfect as possible. The<br />

job must be done right the first time. In order that<br />

rejections due to imperfectly baked cores be eliminated,<br />

an electric oven has been installed for this process.<br />

This oven, built by the Westinghouse Electric<br />

& Manufacturing Company, is 7 ft. by 7 ft. 10 in. by 7<br />

ft. 6 in. high. Double doors are provided. A truck<br />

on rails is used for handling large cores, and shelves<br />

in the upper part of the oven take care of the smaller<br />

cores. On each side of the oven are mounted five 2.5k\v.<br />

Westinghouse Type C oven heaters. A blower<br />

driven by a one-sixth hp. motor is mounted on the top<br />

of the oven for exhausting fumes and gases from the<br />

oven.<br />

The oven is equipped with graphic recording<br />

automatic temperature control apparatus.<br />

The mold drying oven is similar to the core bake<br />

oven, the only difference being that the stationary<br />

shelves are omitted. The handling truck completely<br />

fills this oven.<br />

The use of electric heat for marine applications is<br />

growing rapidly, due to its convenience, safety, controllability<br />

and the fact that fuel storage-space is<br />

saved. In addition, aboard the Medusa the use of<br />

electric heat for baking cores and drying molds decreases<br />

the number of rejected castings, a point of<br />

paramount importance.


March, 1925<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 87<br />

R e v i e w o f 1 9 2 4 I r o n a n d S t e e l L i t e r a t u r e<br />

IN this issue an attempt has been made to list the<br />

more important publications of 1924, together with<br />

certain publications dated 1923 but not available<br />

for inclusion in the list compiled near the end of that<br />

year.<br />

Where possible, the compiler has examined the publications<br />

listed, but in some cases the publications were<br />

not accessible and the only information regarding them<br />

was in technical journals and publishers' lists, which,<br />

unfortunately, are not always either accurate or complete.<br />

Prices are sometimes particularly hard to verify<br />

promptly, certain sources of information occasionally<br />

differing very widely. The prices here given are, therefore,<br />

probably in some cases incorrect. German prices,<br />

quoted in marks, refer to the "goldmark", equivalent to<br />

10/42 of a dollar.<br />

Much of the best information on ferrous metallurgy,<br />

is found in bibliographies and articles in technical and<br />

trade journals. The best guide to this scattered material<br />

is the "Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute", two current<br />

volumes of which are listed below. A "Bibliography<br />

of Manganese Steel", compiled by the Technology Department<br />

of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, and published<br />

in the Februarys, 1925, issue of F<strong>org</strong>ing,Stamping-Heat<br />

Treating, is now being reprinted for free<br />

distribution by the Library.<br />

GENERAL<br />

Geology, Ores, Mining.<br />

L'Association miniere d'Alsace et de Lorraine. Note<br />

sur l'industrie miniere en Alsace et en Lorraine, 1922-23.<br />

105 pp. 1924. The Association, Metz.<br />

Bayley, W. S. Magnetic Iron Ores of East Tennessee<br />

and Western North Carolina. 252 pp. 1923. Nashville,<br />

Tenn. (Tennessee—Division of Geology. Bulletin 29.)<br />

Prepared in co-operation with the U. S. Geological Survey,<br />

the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, and the<br />

Geological Survey of Tennessee.<br />

Colony, R. J. Magnetite Iron Deposits of South-<br />

Eastern New York. 161 pp. University of the State<br />

of New York, Albany.<br />

Oglebdy, Norton & Company. Lake Superior Iron<br />

Ores. 31 pp. 1924. Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Analyses, with guarantees for 1924.<br />

Pickands, Mather & Company. Cargo Analysis, Lake<br />

Superior Iron Ores. 19 pp. 1924. Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Societe d' Etudes pour I'Utilisation des Gisements de<br />

fer suisses. Untersuchungen zur Klaerung der Frage<br />

der elektrischen Venhuettung Schweizerischer Eisen<br />

erze. 48 pp. Verlag Stahleisen, Duesseldorf. $1.20.<br />

Metallurgy, Testing.<br />

Akademische Verein Huette. Huette; manuel de<br />

l'ingenieur metallurgiste. Translated from the second<br />

German Edition by Charles Hermann. 1062 pp. Ch.<br />

Beranger, Paris. 60 fr.<br />

Bagnall-Wild, R. K. Notes on Iron and Steel. 52 pp.<br />

H. M. Stationery Office, London. 1 sh. 6 d.<br />

Bicheroux, F. Principles de siderurgie. Ch. Beranger,<br />

Paris.<br />

*Tec'hnology Librarian, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh<br />

By e. h. McClelland*<br />

Calorizing Company. The Calco Handbook of Recuperation.<br />

1924. The Company, Pittsburgh. $3.<br />

Loose-leaf volume dealing with combustion, and the possibilities<br />

in fuel economy with the equipment manufactured by the<br />

publishers.<br />

England—Research Department, Woolwich. Properties<br />

of Medium Carbon Steel with High Manganese Content.<br />

H. M. Stationery Office, London. (Report No. 61.)<br />

Fremont, C Essai mecanique des tubes acier. 52 pp.<br />

1923. 25 rue de Simplon, Paris.<br />

Galassini, Alfredo. Elementi di tecnologia meccanica<br />

e di siderurgia. Ed. 2. 725 pp. Soc. tip. ed. Nazionale,<br />

Turin. 80 lire.<br />

Harbord, F W., and Hall, J. W Metallurgy of Steel.<br />

Ed. 7. 2 vols. Charles Griffin & Co., London. 32 sh.<br />

each.<br />

Vol. 1. Metallurgy, by F W. Harbord. 545 pp.<br />

Vol. 2. Mechanical Treatment, by J. W. Hall. 553 pp.<br />

The standard British work. In volume 1 the matter relating<br />

to the production of steel in the electric furnace has been largely<br />

rewritten, and the sections dealing with special and high-speed<br />

steels, heat treatment, etc., have been brought into line with latter-day<br />

practice and much extended. Vol. 2 has been practically<br />

rewritten throughout. Hitherto the work has been published in a<br />

single volume.<br />

Harper, L. F. Iron. 23 pp. 1923. (New South<br />

Wales. Department of Mines. Geological Survey.<br />

Bulletin 4).<br />

Brief survey of resources, early attempts at manufacture, and<br />

present status of the industry.<br />

Hermanns, Hubert. The Planning, Erection and Operation<br />

of Modern Open Hearth Steel Works. 307 pp.<br />

1924. Ernest Benn, London. 42 sh.<br />

Considerable attention to American practice.<br />

Heyn, E. Theorie der Eisenkohlenstoff-Legierungen.<br />

Julius Springer, Berlin.<br />

Iron and Steel Engineer. Monthly. Vol. 1-date.<br />

January 1924-date. Association of Iron and Steel Electrical<br />

Engineers, Pittsburgh. $5 a year.<br />

A new journal, superseding the A. I. & S. E. E. Monthly Issue.<br />

Devoted to the interests of the steel-mill engineer.<br />

Iron and Steel Institute. Carnegie Scholarship Memoirs.<br />

Vol. 13. 294 pp. 1924. The Institute, London.<br />

Iron and Steel Institute. Journal. Vol. 108, 534 pp.<br />

1923. Vol. 109, 679 pp. 1924. The Institute, London.<br />

Koegler, F. Taschenbuch fuer Berg und Huettenleute.<br />

1493 pp. 1924. Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.<br />

21 m.<br />

Kommers, J. B. Comparative Tests of New Billet<br />

Steel and Rerolled Steel Reinforcing. 1924. Univ. of<br />

Wisconsin—Engineering Experiment Station, Madison,<br />

Wis. 30 cents.<br />

Korevaar, A. Combustion in the Gas Producer and<br />

the Blast Furnace; a New Theory. Crosby Lockwood<br />

and Son, London. 15 sh.<br />

Krug, Karl. Die Praxis des Eisenhuettenchemikers.<br />

Ed. 2. 1923. Julius Springer, Berlin. $1.70.<br />

Ledebur, A. Handbuch der Eisenhuettenkunde. Ed.<br />

6, revised by Hans Freiherr von Jueptner. Part 1. Einfuehrung<br />

in die Eisenhuettenkunde. 556 pp. 1923.<br />

Arthur Felix, Leipsic. $4.


88 Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

Mathcsius. Walther. Die Physikalischen und chemischen<br />

Grundlagen des Eisenhuettenwesens. Ed. 2. revised.<br />

483 pp. 1924. Otto Spamer, Leipsic. 30 m.<br />

Written from the standpoint of the engineer.<br />

Osann, Bernhard. Lehrbuch der Eisenhuettenkunde.<br />

Vol 1. Roheisenerzeugung. Ed. 2 923 pp. 1923.<br />

W. Engelmann, Leipsic.<br />

Parke.^burg Iron Company. Parkesburg Tubes Are<br />

Real Charcoal Iron Boiler Tubes. 52 pp. 1923. Parkesburg,<br />

Pa.<br />

Booklet (with above title on cover) illustrating and briefly<br />

describing manufacture of boiler tubes.<br />

Pavloff, M. A. Calcul du lit de fusion des hauts-fourneaux;<br />

translated from the second Russian edition bv<br />

L. Dlougatch. 178 pp. 1924. Dunod, Paris. 22 fr.<br />

Pavloff, M. A. Metallurgy of Iron (in Russian). 180<br />

pp. 1924. Scientific Technical Dept, Leningrad.<br />

Pulsifer, H. B. Structural Metallography. 210 pp.<br />

1924. Chemical Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.<br />

Savioa, U. Metallurgia generale e siderurgia. Ed. 2.<br />

535 pp. 1923. U. Hoepli, Milan. 30 lire.<br />

Schwarz, M. von. Eisenhuettenkunde. Vol. 1. Das<br />

Roheisen. G. J. Goeschen, Berlin. (Sammlung Goeschen,<br />

v. 152.)<br />

Sticr, A. Die Stahle in den Metall-V<strong>org</strong>aengen. 148<br />

pp. Max Jaenecke, Hannover. 2.70 m.<br />

Thomas, W. Norman. Effect of Scratches and of<br />

Various Workshop Finishes upon the Fatigue Strength<br />

of Steel. H. M. Stationery Office, London. 3 sh. (Aeronautical<br />

Research Committee Reports and Memoranda,<br />

No. 860.)<br />

Verein dcutscher Eisenhuettenleute. Gemeinfassliche<br />

Dariestellung des Eisenhuettenwesens. Ed. 12. 661 pp.<br />

1924. Verlag Stahleisen, Duesseldorf. 12 m.<br />

Economics, Statistics, Directories, History.<br />

American Society for Steel Treating—Pittsburgh<br />

Chapter. Who's Who in the Pittsburgh Chapter. American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, n.p. (1924.) Pittsburgh.<br />

Directory of local membership.<br />

Andresen Companv, Inc. Directory Giving List of<br />

Companies Operating Blast Furnaces, Steel Plants, Rolling<br />

Mills and Allied Industries; F<strong>org</strong>ing and Stamping<br />

Plants in the United States and Canada, together with<br />

List of Executives and Operating Officials. 242 pp.<br />

1924. Pittsburgh. $5.<br />

Ashton, Thomas Southcliffe. Iron and Steel in the<br />

Industrial Revolution. 265 pp. 1924. Longmans,<br />

Green & Co., London. 15 sh.<br />

History of the iron industry in England, 1700-1815.<br />

Birkctt. M. S. Ferrous Metals of the British Empire.<br />

165 pp. Ernest Benn. London. 21 sh. (Resources of<br />

the Empire Series, Vol. 8, Part 1.)<br />

General information regarding the iron and steel industry of<br />

the British Empire. One of a series of volumes under the general<br />

editorship of the Federation of British Industries.<br />

Boucher. John N. William Kelly; a True History<br />

of the So-Called Bessemer Process. 257 pp. 1924. The<br />

Author, Greensburg, Pa.<br />

"Not only the romance of the life of William Kelly, but also<br />

the early history of manufacturing of iron and steel, Andrew<br />

Carnegie's life work, and finally Pittsburgh, as the iron and steel<br />

citv; are told more or less in detail." American Industries, Nov.,<br />

1924, p. 33.<br />

March, 1925<br />

British Iron and Steel Companies, 1924. n.p. 1924.<br />

Business Statistics Companv, Ltd., Cardiff. 2 sh. 6 d.<br />

Pamphlet listing securities of iron and steel companies. Gives<br />

very brief financial statement and is apparently limited to the<br />

more important companies in the British Isles.<br />

Burchard, Ernest F.. and Davis, H. W. Iron Ore,<br />

Pig Iron and Steel in 1922. Published January 25, 1924.<br />

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.<br />

Advance publication^of pp. 341-376 of the United. States Geological<br />

Survey's "Mineral Resources of the United States, 1922,<br />

Part 1.<br />

Johannscn, Otto. Geschichte des Eisens. 246 pp.<br />

1924. Verlag Stahleisen, Duesseldorf. 20 m.<br />

Metal Industry (London). Metal Industry Handbook<br />

for 1924. 293 pp. 1924. London.<br />

Information regarding properties and treatment of metals and<br />

alloys. The 1924 edition contains for the first time a section<br />

dealing with cast-iron and steel. Much of the information is in<br />

the form of tables.<br />

Metal Statistics, 1924. Annual ed. 17. 528 pp. 1924.<br />

American Metal Market Co., New York. $1.<br />

Mineral Industry; Its Statistics, Technology and<br />

Trade During 1923. ' Vol. 32. 887 pp. 1924. McGraw-<br />

Hill Book Co., New York. $12.<br />

On pages 332-385 Edwin F. Cone reviews the steel industry<br />

for 1923.<br />

National Federation of Iron and Steel Manufacturers.<br />

Statistics of the Iron and Steel Industries, 1922. 90 pp.<br />

(1924.) The Federation, London. 5 sh. 6 d.<br />

Figures for various countries extending over several years,<br />

but in most cases ending with 1922.<br />

Niebuhr, Hcinrich. Die Re<strong>org</strong>anisation der englischen<br />

Eisenindustrie. 138 pp. 1923. Walter de Gruyter &<br />

Co., Leipsic. 4.50 m.<br />

Ryland's Coal, Iron, Steel, Tinplate, Metal, Engineering,<br />

Hardware and Allied Trades Directory. Ed. 17.<br />

1924. Eagland & Co., London. £2 2 sh.<br />

Selwyn's Iron and Steel Code. 426 pp. James Selwyn<br />

& Co., London. £6 6 sh.<br />

Electrometallurgy and Other Applications<br />

of Electricity.<br />

Allgemeine Elektricitaets-Gesellschaft. Elektrizitaet<br />

im Eisenhuettenwerk. 240 pp. 1923. Berlin.<br />

Borchcrs, W Die elektrische Oefen; Erzeugung von<br />

Waerme aus elektrischer Energie und Bau elektrischer<br />

Oefen. Ed. 4, revised. 238 pp. 1923. Wilhelm Knapp.<br />

Halle a. S.<br />

Russ, E. F Die Elektrostahloefen. 471 pp. 1924.<br />

R. Oldenbourg, Munich. $3.75.<br />

"As a compilation of data on electric furnaces or as a reference<br />

book useful to a patent attorney the volume can hardly<br />

be excelled. Electrical World, June 14,'1924, p.1247.<br />

Sisco, Frank T. Manufacture of Electric Steel. 304<br />

pp. 1924. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. $3.<br />

Discusses both acid and basic processes and deals with practical<br />

operation of furnaces.<br />

Foundry Practice, F<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Corbishley, Harold. Iron Foundry Practice; a Technical<br />

Volume Covering Broadly the Modern Practice<br />

in Iron Founding of Special Value to Students and Apprentices.<br />

271 pp. 1924. Funk & Wagnalls Co., New<br />

York. $2.<br />

Faraday Society. Fluxes and Slags in Metal Melting<br />

and Working. 1924. The Society, London. 7 sh. 6 d.<br />

A valuable collection of papers.


March, 1925 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 89<br />

Galassini, Alfredo. Corso di fonderia. 688 pp. 1924.<br />

Soc. tip. ed. Nazionale, Turin. 75 lire.<br />

Jones, Lynn C. F<strong>org</strong>ing and Smithing; a Book for<br />

Schools and for Blacksmiths. 211 pp. 1924. Century<br />

Co., New York. $1.50.<br />

Elementary text on practical methods.<br />

Mehrtens, J. Deutsches Giesserei-Taschenbuch. 479<br />

pp. 1923. R. Oldenbourg, Munich.<br />

Needham, W. Roland. Foundry Work. 146 pp.<br />

1924. Blackie and Son, London. 2 sh. 6 d.<br />

A primer, written especially for apprentice molders. The<br />

wording and illustrations are of the simplest character.<br />

Osann, Bernhard. Leitfaden fuer Giessereilaboratorien.<br />

Ed. 2, revised. 1924. Julius Springer, Berlin.<br />

Patek, P. Gesenkbau; Elemente fuer das Schmieden<br />

unter Presse und Hammer. 62 pp. A. Hartleben, Vienna.<br />

Penton's Foundry List. 1925 Ed. 700 pp. 1924.<br />

Penton Publishing Co., Cleveland. $25.<br />

A directory of American foundries.<br />

Wilson, John McC. Pattern-Making. 140 pp. 1924.<br />

3 sh. 6 d.<br />

A useful little work, attempting to treat those subjects which<br />

a beginner should require in the first five years of his training.<br />

Refractories.<br />

American Electrochemical Society. Refractories for<br />

Electric Furnaces. Ed. 2, 94 pp. The Society, Columbia<br />

University, New York. $1.<br />

"The original edition of this book was a report of the proceedings<br />

of the Electric Furnace Association and included papers<br />

presented at one of its meetings together with stenographic record<br />

of the discussion. Additional papers, specially prepared, have<br />

been included in the present edition." Chemical and Metallurgical<br />

Engineering, July 28, 1924.<br />

Ennos, F. R., and Scott, Alexander. Refractory Materials,<br />

Fireclays; Analyses and Physical Tests. 84 pp.<br />

1924. H. M. Stationery Office, London. 3 sh. (Special<br />

reports on the mineral resources of Great Britain.<br />

Vol.28).<br />

Refractories Manufacturers Association. Brands of<br />

Fire Brick and Other Refractories. Ed. 5. 48 pp.<br />

1924. 2202 Oliver Building. Pittsburgh.<br />

Trade names of refractories, with a list of manufacturers in<br />

the United States and Canada.<br />

Corrosion, Galvanizing.<br />

Calcott, William Stansfield, and Whetzel, J. C. Monograph<br />

on Corrosion Tests and Materials of Construction<br />

for Chemical Engineering Apparatus. 182 pp. 1923.<br />

D. Van Nostrand Co., New York. $3.<br />

Reprinted from vol. 15, pt. 1 of the Transactions of the American<br />

Institute of Chemical Engineers. The greater part of the<br />

book is a report by Calcott and Whetzel, on laboratory corrosion<br />

tests by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company. The latter<br />

is a paper by Harold F. Whittaker, on "Materials of Construction<br />

for Chemical Apparatus." The reprint is provided with an index.<br />

Cuinat, H. Manuel de ferblanterie-zinguerie, cuiverie<br />

et tolerie. 295 pp. J. B. Billiere et fils, Paris.<br />

12 fr.<br />

Massenz, A. Ricettario pratico di metallurgia. Finitura<br />

e preservazione delle superfici metalliche. Ed. 2, revised.<br />

384 pp. U. Hoepli, Milan. 16 lire.<br />

Polansky, Victor S., comp. Pickling of Iron and<br />

Steel; a Bibliography. 44 pp. 1924. Carnegie Library<br />

of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh. Free.<br />

List of more than 300 references, classified under such headings<br />

as: Machines and Equipment, Pickling in Acid Solutions,<br />

Pickling in Salt Solutions, Electrolytic Pickling, Inhibitors and<br />

Accelerators, Effect of Pickling, and Recovery of Spent Liquors<br />

Appeared serially during 1924 in "The Blast Furnace and Steel<br />

Plant, and "F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating."<br />

Structural Steel.<br />

Dencer, F W Detailing and Fabricating Structural<br />

Steel. 511 pp. 1924. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New<br />

York.<br />

Steel manufacturers will find material on the f<strong>org</strong>e shop and<br />

on rust prevention, and brief information on shop inspection.<br />

Schaefer, Rudolf. Die Konstruktion Staehle and ihre<br />

Waermebehandlung. 370 pp. 1923. Julius Springer,<br />

Berlin. 15 sh. 6 d.<br />

Skelton, R. A., & Company. Structural Steel Handbook,<br />

No. 19. The Company, London. 5 sh.<br />

Stahlwcrks-Verband A. G., Duesseldorf. Eisen im<br />

Hochbau. Ed. 6, revised. 582 pp. 1924. Julius Springer,<br />

Berlin. 12 m.<br />

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UNITED STATES BUREAU OF STANDARDS<br />

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No. 484. Preparation and Properties of Pure Iron<br />

Alloys. Pt. 4: Determination of the Critical Ranges<br />

of Pure Iron-Carbon Alloys by the Thermoelectric<br />

Method, by J. F Berliner. 347-356 pp. 1924. 5<br />

cents.<br />

Technologic Papers.<br />

No. 246. Wet Process Enamels for Cast Iron, by<br />

R. R. Danielson and H. P. Reinecker. 695-735 pp.<br />

1923. 10 cents.<br />

No. 252. The Nick-Bend Test for Wrought-Iron,<br />

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pp. 1924. 10 cents.<br />

No. 258. Strength of Steel Tubing under Combined<br />

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243-276 pp. 1924. 15 cents.<br />

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Trade Information Bulletins.<br />

No. 186. Trade Organizations in French Metallurgy,<br />

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No. 237. Italy's Foreign Trade in Iron, Steel and<br />

Nonferrous Metals in 1923, by A. A. Osborne. 6 pp.<br />

1924.<br />

No. 265. Austrian Iron and Steel Industry and Trade,<br />

by E. M. Zwickel. 19 pp. 1924.


90 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

March. 1925<br />

M e t a l S t a m p i n g a n d S o m e o f Its F o r m s<br />

Uniformity in Shape and Design, Rapid Rate of Production, Com­<br />

paratively Low Cost and Elimination of Machine Work<br />

A S most of us know the electric flat iron is made<br />

up of a cast iron base or bottom covered by a<br />

top which protects the heating elements. This<br />

top is a metal stamping, the making of which presents<br />

an interesting combination of blanking, piercing and<br />

ill awing dies.<br />

This top shown in the various stages of manufacture<br />

in Fig. 6 is drawn from flat stock, generally bright<br />

cold rolled strip steel to take a good nickle finish. To<br />

obtain the desired shape the blank is first put through<br />

a forming die as in Fig. 7 which draws the metal to a<br />

depth of three-quarters to seven-eighths of the finished<br />

depth with a flat flange all around. This is followed<br />

by a trimming operation on the flange as in Fig. 8<br />

leaving just the proper amount of stock all around the<br />

FIG. 6—Various stages in the manufacture of an electric<br />

flat-iron top.<br />

Are Among Advantages of Metal Stampings<br />

By H. JAY*<br />

PART II<br />

piece so that when it is put through the "finish shape"<br />

die. Fig. 9, the edge will be square and even and free<br />

trom wrinkles. It is not practical to attempt to make<br />

the entire draw in one operation because irregularities<br />

in the drawing qualities of the steel, die wear, and<br />

other conditions, would leave a very much wrinkled<br />

and irregular edge which would be expensive to finish<br />

by machining.<br />

In designing the tools for an irregularly shaped<br />

drawn part such as the flat iron top, the customary<br />

procedure is to complete the finish shape die first.<br />

This die corresponds exactly in shape to that of the<br />

finished top. The reducing die is then practically<br />

finished before any work is done on the blanking die<br />

for the shape of the blank cannot be predetermined<br />

and must be "found" by experiment. There is also a<br />

*Sales Engineer, The Acklin Stamping Company, Toledo,<br />

Ohio. Paper presented to the Seniors in Mechanical Engineering<br />

at Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania.<br />

certain amount of experimental work necessary in determining<br />

the shape of the trimming die.<br />

With the finished shape die completed, the blank<br />

is found by cutting a hand made blank of the approximate<br />

shape required, based on previous experience on<br />

similar work. A record of this shape is made and the<br />

hand made blank is put through the reducing die. The<br />

FIG. 7—Forming die used in the first drawing operation<br />

of the electric flat-iron top.<br />

FIG. 8—Die used for trimming edge of the partly formed top.<br />

amount of stock left in the flange after this operation<br />

should be sufficient to allow a trimming cut all around<br />

leaving enough so that the stamping will come from<br />

the finish shape die with an even and true edge. The<br />

condition of the stamping made from the first trial<br />

blank indicates where it is necessary to add or take off


March, 1925<br />

stock on the next blank and so the procedure is repeated<br />

until the exact shape is found. A duplicate of<br />

each trial blank is kept so that the one that is found<br />

satisfactory is used as a template in making the blanking<br />

die. Minor changes and adjustments in the reducing<br />

and trimming dies improve the appearance of the<br />

finished stamping. The amount of "cut and try" work<br />

required varies of course with the shape of any irregular<br />

piece but patience and careful attention to this<br />

portion of the die construction is rewarded with better<br />

workmanship obtained in the finished stamping.<br />

The flatiron top although complete in shape must<br />

now be pierced for the handle supports and for the<br />

terminals on the heel of the iron. These operations<br />

are performed in dies similar to those shown in Fig.<br />

10 and Fig. 11, respectively. These are fast running<br />

operations and are performed in presses somewhat<br />

smaller than those used for the major operations.<br />

The construction of the tools described for the<br />

flat iron top is practically standard. The blanking<br />

Fig. 10<br />

RIG. 9—Completing the drawing in the "finish shape" die.<br />

FIG. 10—Die for piercing holes for handle supports.<br />

die for the first operation is shown in Fig. 12. The<br />

stock is handled in strips of width equal to the long<br />

dimension of the blank and in lengths of multiples of<br />

the short dimension allowing for scrap between blanks.<br />

The strip in being feed through the die is held up<br />

against the gauge A. The cut is made as the punch B<br />

travels downward until the stock is sheared between<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

the punch and the die C. The lower portion of the die<br />

being cut away the blank falls freely through the die<br />

and the bed of the press. The construction of this<br />

die is simple, yet it is a type that is very substantial.<br />

The punch made from tool steel is mounted in a cast<br />

iron punch holder D. Similarly the die is mounted on<br />

Tic. 12<br />

FIG. 11—Die for piercing terminal holes.<br />

FIG. 12—Blanking die for first operation on flat-iron top.<br />

a cast iron shoe E. The die itself is a composite f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

— the upper portion being hardened is made of<br />

tool steel and the lower portion of wrought iron for<br />

strength. With this built up construction expensive<br />

materials are used only where the wear is greatest and<br />

a saving is made on the rest of the material without<br />

sacrificing strength.<br />

The second operation, the forming die is shown in<br />

detail in Fig. 7. The construction of this die is somewhat<br />

heavier than that of the blanking die because of<br />

the heavier blow required to form the part. The<br />

blanks rest on the plug A and the draw ring B, being<br />

located by small pins set in the latter part. As the<br />

punch C descends the metal is held firmly on the draw<br />

ring which working against spring pressure below<br />

presents sufficient resistance to counteract the tendency<br />

for the edge of the blank to wrinkle. As the punch<br />

continues to ascend it forms the metal over the plug<br />

leaving a flat flange and the stamping properly formed<br />

for three-quarters to seven-eighths of its depth.<br />

The trimming die, Fig. 8, is similar in construction<br />

to the blanking die. The stamping rests in a pad D<br />

which is recessed to correspond to the shape of the<br />

part produced in the first forming die in an inverted<br />

position. This assures the proper location before the<br />

flange is trimmed by the punch C and the die B. The<br />

pad ejects the stamping from the die on the up stroke<br />

by spring pressure. The ring of scrap left on the<br />

91


92 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tiearing<br />

turned up between the punch and the die and leaves<br />

FIG. 13- -Gear shift control base for automobile<br />

transmission case<br />

an even and true edge. The tool steel die is subject<br />

to considerable abuse due to the heavy blow of the<br />

punch. The die is therefore built up of a number of<br />

pieces, any one of which may be replaced at much<br />

less expense than if it were made of one solid. The<br />

labor in shaping and fitting a die of this sort runs<br />

high so that the cost of replacement must be considered.<br />

A more difficult form of drawn part is the conical<br />

shaped stamping shown in Fig. 13, being the gear shift<br />

rfl<br />

FIG. 14—Die for first draw on gear shift control base.<br />

control base mounted on top of an automobile transmission<br />

case. The upper portion of this part is symmetrical<br />

but the lower portion blends into an irregularly<br />

shaped rectangular form before flattening out<br />

into a flange or base.<br />

The determination of the blank for a shape of this<br />

sort is most difficult, but it can be estimated quite<br />

March, 1925<br />

accurately. The area of the blank required corresponds<br />

approximately to the surface area of the finished<br />

stamping allowing for scrap. It is apparent<br />

that the blank will be a modified rectangle, but inasmuch<br />

as the exact shape cannot be found until the<br />

drawing dies are finished, the estimate is based on a<br />

circular blank.<br />

A section is laid out corresponding to the conical<br />

and to the diagonal of the<br />

lower portion. The area of a part of this cross section<br />

may be found by splitting it up into horizontal sections.<br />

The upper portion being cone shaped its area<br />

is readily determined. The portion below may be<br />

considered a cylinder which area may be easily computed<br />

as well as that of the flat flange. The summation<br />

of these areas gives the area of the approximate<br />

blank required. The check on this computation is<br />

made when the drawing dies are completed and before<br />

the blanking die is made. Some variation would be<br />

found in a difficult part like this, although the more<br />

FIG. IS—Fifth reducing operation for gear shift control base.<br />

symmetrical a part may be, the easier it is to make<br />

an accurate estimate of the blank size.<br />

A tapered shape is among the more difficult to<br />

draw and in this particular part it is complicated by<br />

the irregularities of the base. A good set of tools<br />

will produce a part of uniform thickness throughout<br />

and with a surface free from draw rings, the mark of<br />

successive drawing operations. The experience of the<br />

tool designer plays a big part here for only the proper<br />

selections of drawing operations will produce best results.<br />

The blank size for a cylindrical shell may be figured<br />

approximately from the formula<br />

D = \/d2 + 4dh<br />

ivhere D is the diameter of the blank, d the diameter<br />

of the shell and h the height of the shell. This method<br />

does not take into consideration the "stretch" of the<br />

metal in drawing or the thickness or quality of the<br />

metal. Variations in the details of the die construction<br />

may vary the result, but for all practical purposes this<br />

formula is sufficiently accurate.


March, 1925<br />

To continue with the cone shaped stamping — in<br />

making the part the blanks are first cut — from hot<br />

rolled pickled strip steel .093 thick. A mild steel with<br />

good drawing qualities is essential. The first draw is<br />

performed in a die as shown in Fig. 14. The action<br />

of this die is similar to the first drawing die described<br />

for the flat iron top. This drawing operation is followed<br />

by four reducing operations which gradually<br />

bring the part to the depth required and reduce the<br />

diameter. The fifth reducing operation, shown in Fig.<br />

15, leaves the part ready for the stamping or finish<br />

shape operation. The shape is roughly that of a cone<br />

and the irregularities at the bottom are beginning to<br />

appear. Fig. 16 shows the stamping operation, this<br />

being the last of the major operations. If the tools<br />

FIG. 16—Last operation which forms the irregularities at<br />

the bottom on the gear shift control base.<br />

have been properly designed, the flange will be flat and<br />

free from wrinkles and the sides of the drawn portion<br />

will be even and smooth.<br />

When steel, even that of the best of drawing qualities,<br />

is put through a number of drawing operations<br />

the action of the dies on the metal has a tendency to<br />

harden and toughen it. This would make further<br />

drawing very difficult so that an annealing operation<br />

after the first and third reducing operations is necessary.<br />

The minor piercing, trimming and hole cutting<br />

operations necessary to complete the part, are performed<br />

on dies similar to those already described. Fig.<br />

17 shows the complete sequence of operations.<br />

The stamping industry as a whole has reached the<br />

point where certain elementary or standard types of<br />

dies are universally used. All of the dies previously<br />

described are comparatively simple in design and construction,<br />

but where a number are to be used in sequence<br />

to produce a part, the ingenuity of the designer<br />

comes into play. The shape of the part to be<br />

made, the material specified, and the probable produc­<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 93<br />

tion, must all be taken into consideration in designing<br />

the details of these so-called standard dies and the<br />

selection of the proper types.<br />

For mass production there are few methods of<br />

manufacture that are as economical as stamping. An<br />

FIG. 17—Sequence of operations on the gear shift control base.<br />

apparent excessive number of operations may be handled<br />

so rapidly that in the end the comparative cost<br />

is low. The combination fuse socket and holder, Fig.<br />

18, made during the war, required 11 different handlings<br />

but was produced from copper at a cost that<br />

was surprisingly low.<br />

A recent design that is unique and a fine example<br />

of the adaptability of pressed metal is the automobile<br />

steering wheel spider shown in Fig. 19. The construction<br />

consists of five stamped parts and a core of<br />

die cast alloy. The four arms are identical in shape,<br />

being formed to a box cross section. The ends are<br />

formed and countersunk to permit assembly to the<br />

wood rim. These arms being mitered at the other end,<br />

FIG. 18—Showing the various operations in drawing a<br />

combination fuse socket and holder.<br />

fit snugly together when assembled and closed over<br />

on the flange of the drawn hub. The core is cast with<br />

a key-way to fit any size of shaft.<br />

For the majority of cars it has long been customary<br />

to use malleable iron steering wheel spiders. At


94 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

the best the malleable spider cannot compare with<br />

the stamped form for it is a difficult shape to mould<br />

and require- more handling per pound of material<br />

than a solid part taking the same sized mould. The<br />

loss due to twisting in annealing and delects that are<br />

not apparent on the surface is great. On the other<br />

FIG. 19—Automobile steering wheel spider consisting of four<br />

stamped arms and a drawn hub. The core is die cast with<br />

a key-way to fit the shaft.<br />

hand, the stamped spider with all its minor operations<br />

is very economical to produce. It may twist all out of<br />

shape in an accident, but will not break and endanger<br />

the driver. The surface of the sheet metal used for<br />

the pressed steel spider lends itself to a variety of<br />

finishes at little preliminary expense.<br />

The manner in which metal can be handled is<br />

perfectly fascinating. Properly controlled, it actually<br />

seems to flow and will take most any shape imaginable.<br />

In making the muffler head*. Fig. 20, and the<br />

four wheel brake dust shield. Fig. 21, the metal .065<br />

to .093 inch thick is turned inside out without distroying<br />

its physical qualities. Other interesting<br />

shapes are the speedometer case. Fig. 22, the steering<br />

gear mast jacket cowl bracket, Fig. 23, and the sector<br />

for the control rods, Fig. 24.<br />

* ["he operations in the manufacture of this part were described<br />

in an article entitled. "Manufacture of a Stamped<br />

Muffler Head." appearing in the August, 1923, issue of Forcing<br />

Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

March, 1925<br />

The only limitations on the use of pressed metal<br />

seem to be the ability of the specialists in the industry.<br />

Welding methods now in use and those that are being<br />

developed open up new fields, for a combination of<br />

stamped parts properly assembled makes very good<br />

construction.<br />

To the student engineer, pressed metal work offers<br />

a verv interesting future in any of three phases, production,<br />

engineering, and sales. Most users of metal<br />

stampings are large quantity producers so the production<br />

man has no end of opportunities to show his<br />

worth. From an engineering viewpoint the work<br />

would be extremely interesting. With some of the<br />

tool designers today the art seems to be a gift or the<br />

result of long time contact with the work. With the<br />

proper technical ground work, the young engineer<br />

should find in the study of tool and die design through<br />

practical experience and association with experienced<br />

designers, an absorbing and profitable future. The<br />

present day automobile design is perhaps the best example<br />

of pressed metal engineering carried to the<br />

limit. Quite naturally other industries will adapt their<br />

designs to this most practical method of manufacture<br />

so the opportunities for redevelopment work arc tm-<br />

FIG. 20 (Left)—Muffler head, a rather difficult piece of<br />

pressed metal work.<br />

FIG. 21 (Right)—Four wheel brake dust shield.<br />

limited. For the many plants in the country that<br />

specialize in pressed metal work, there is a real need<br />

for the sales engineer. There are verv few fixed rules<br />

to apply to the making of a pressed part that is at all<br />

out of the ordinary, so that engineering and selling are<br />

closely associated. Each problem being a new one in<br />

many respects, the work of a sales engineer cannot<br />

help but be interesting.<br />

Several Interesting Pressed Metal Shapes<br />

FIG. 22 (Left)-Speedometer case. FIG. 23 (Right)-Steering mast cowl bracket. FIG. 24 (Right)-Control rod sector.


March, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER III.<br />

METALLOGRAPHY — Continued<br />

PART 4<br />

MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF STEEL<br />

IN the preceding part of this chapter the crystalline<br />

I nature of metals and alloys and the microstructure<br />

of iron-carbon alloys in their "normal" state (that<br />

is, slowly cooled from a temperature of about 1,650<br />

deg. F.), was briefly considered.<br />

It was shown that pure iron consists of minute<br />

crystalline1 grains which look very much like the<br />

grains of any other pure metal, and it was explained<br />

that these grains of iron may hold in solid solution<br />

certain other elements such as nickel, without a noticeable<br />

change in their appearance. Iron, in its normal<br />

state, with or without one or more elements in solid<br />

solution is called "ferrite" (from the latin name of iron,<br />

ferrum). See photomicrograph, Fig. 32.<br />

Cementite and Pearlite.<br />

It was explained that when small quantities of carbon<br />

are added to iron, a chemical compound, Fe3C,<br />

iron carbide, is formed. This carbide goes into solid<br />

solution in the iron grains above certain temperatures*,<br />

but upon slow cooling to room temperature, it<br />

separates out as a hard brittle constituent known as<br />

"cementite". Cementite is an extremely hard substance,<br />

being about as hard as glass, and nearly as<br />

brittle. When the cementite separates from solid solution<br />

in the manner just described, it forms small thin<br />

curved plates, and combines mechanically with a cer-<br />

*Note: There is some question whether the carbide goes<br />

into solution as Fe3C, or whether it dissociates into atoms of Fe<br />

and C on dissolving. For present purposes we may consider that<br />

the Fe3C goes into solution as such.<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factorv,<br />

United States Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright, 1925, by H. C. Knerr.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

tain amount of ferrite, in alternate plates, in such a<br />

way as to resemble mother-of-pearl. This duplex constituent<br />

is called "pearlite" and is illustrated in Fig.<br />

43.<br />

It should be borne in mind that pearlite is not a<br />

chemical compound, but a mechanical mixture of<br />

peculiar characteristics. One of these peculiarities is<br />

that its chemical composition is practically always the<br />

same, that is, in a plain carbon steel the proportion<br />

of carbide to ferrite in normal pearlite is such that<br />

the pearlite contains approximately 0.90 per cent of<br />

carbon, by weight.<br />

If the carbon content of the steel is less than about<br />

.90 per cent all of the carbon will be present as carbide<br />

in grains of pearlite and these pearlite grains will<br />

be surrounded by grains or a network of free ferrite.<br />

See Figs. 39 to 41 inclusive. But if the carbon content<br />

is greater than 0.90 per cent the excess carbide<br />

will be rejected as a network around the pearlite<br />

grains, as shown in Fig. 44. Pearlite is softer and<br />

more ductile than cementite, but not so soft and ductile<br />

as ferrite. This brief review is given for the<br />

sake of clearness.<br />

Austenite.<br />

It was mentioned in Part 3 of this chapter that<br />

the arrangement of the atoms (atomic pattern) in the<br />

crystalline grains of iron undergoes a change when the<br />

metal is heated above a certain temperature, and that<br />

this brings about important changes in the properties<br />

and microstructure of the metal. This is called a<br />

"transformation", or an "allotropic change". To distinguish<br />

between these two forms or conditions of<br />

iron, the one below the transformation point is called<br />

"alpha" iron (from the Greek letter a) and the one<br />

above the transformation "gamma" iron (from the<br />

third letter of the Greek alphabet).<br />

Gamma iron will take carbide (or carbon) into<br />

solid solution, whereas alpha iron will not. (It is<br />

for this reason that the carbide separates out as


?6 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

cementite when a piece of steel is slowly cooled from<br />

a high temperature. This will be discussed further<br />

in Chapter VI.)<br />

The solid solution of carbon or carbide in gamma<br />

iron is given the name "Austenite"*. The composition<br />

of austenite may vary, and it may contain other<br />

elements in solid solution such as nickel, manganese,<br />

etc., as well as carbon. The presence of such elements<br />

in solid solution in the austenite tends to hin-<br />

FIG 51—AUSTENITE. Steel containing 1.25 per cent carbon,<br />

12 per cent manganese. Quenched in water from<br />

1920 deg. F. (1050 deg. C.) (lOOx.) (H. J. Huester, in<br />

author's laboratory.)<br />

FIG. 55—PEARLITE. Carbon 0.90 per cent. Slowly cooled<br />

from 1500 deg. F. Brinell hardness 180. (lOOx.)<br />

FIG. 56—MARTENSITE. Same steel as in Fig. 55, quenched<br />

in water from 1450 deg. F. Brinell 600. (lOOx.)<br />

der the transformation of gamma iron back to alpha<br />

iron on cooling. If there is a sufficient quantity of<br />

such retarding elements present the change may be<br />

entirely prevented, especially if the piece is rapidly<br />

cooled, and we may obtain austenite at room temperature.<br />

A photomicrograph of austenitic steel is shown<br />

in Fig. 54. This specimen is relatively high in both<br />

March, 1925<br />

carbon and manganese. It will be seen that the structure<br />

consists of simple crystalline grains, and resembles<br />

that of ferrite or other pure metal, since the alloying<br />

elements are held in solid solution.<br />

Austenite is rarely, if ever, met with in ordinary<br />

structural or tool steels. In carbon steels it can be<br />

produced only by extremely rapid cooling, from a rather<br />

high temperature, as by quenching small pieces in<br />

ice water, and the carbon content should be well over<br />

1 per cent. Certain special alloy steels, such as the<br />

high manganese steel used for rail crossings (Hadfield<br />

steel), are austenitic, even when slowly cooled.<br />

The properties of austenite will vary with the<br />

amount of carbon and other alloying elements present,<br />

but in general it is relatively soft and ductile, although<br />

it can be machined only with great difficulty. Austenitic<br />

steels are non-magnetic.<br />

FIG. 57—MARTENSITE AND TROOSTITE. Carbon 0.95"<br />

per cent. Quenched from 2000 deg. F. in oil. (lOOx.)<br />

(T. W. Downes.)<br />

Martensite.<br />

One of the most well known facts about steel is<br />

that it may be hardened by heating it above a certain<br />

"critical" temperature and quickly cooling it, as by<br />

quenching in water. We would naturally expect this<br />

remarkable change in physical properties to be accompanied<br />

by a corresponding change in microstructure,<br />

and such is the case.<br />

Fig. 55 shows the microstructure of a piece of annealed<br />

steel (slowly cooled from above the critical<br />

temperature) containing about 0.90 per cent carbon.<br />

It consists entirely of pearlite. The Brinell hardness in<br />

this condition was about 180. After heating to approximately<br />

1500 deg. F. and quenching in water, the Brinell<br />

hardness of this specimen was 600, and its structure was as<br />

shown in Fig. 56. It will be seen to consist of small needlelike<br />

particles on a dark background, and to be quite different<br />

from either pearlite, ferrite or austenite. This<br />

structure is known as "Martensite."t Martensite is<br />

the hardest state of steel. It is not so hard as cementite,<br />

but steel never consists entirely of the chemical<br />

compound cementite, whereas it frequently consists<br />

entirely of martensite. The appearance of martensite<br />

varies in different specimens, and depends<br />

somewhat upon the method of etching and other cir-<br />

•After Sir William Roberts-Austen, a noted English MetaltNamed for A. Martens, distinguished German Metallurgist.lurgist.


March, 1925<br />

cumstances. It etches rather slowly, but faster than<br />

austenite. The typical structure of martensite consists<br />

of small, hard needles running in three general<br />

directions, at about 60 degrees with each other. It is<br />

very well illustrated in the lighter portions of Fig. 57.<br />

(The dark spots are another constituent, which will<br />

be discussed presently.)<br />

If the steel is of sufficiently high carbon content,<br />

and is cooled fast enough to retain some austenite,<br />

then a mixture of austenite and martensite may result,<br />

as shown in Fig. 58. This photomicrograph is<br />

taken at exceptionally high magnification (2200X)<br />

and shows needles of martensite (dark) in a ground<br />

mass of austenite (white). In this case the martensite<br />

needles have etched more rapidly than the<br />

austenitic matrix in which they are imbedded, and<br />

FIG. 58—MARTENSITE IN AUSTENITE. Carbon 0.70<br />

per cent. Very rapidly quenched. (2200x.) (F. W. Lucas,<br />

Western Electric Company.)<br />

therefore appear dark. Steel which consists partly of<br />

austenite and partly of martensite is not so hard as<br />

the same steel when it is entirely martensitic. Since<br />

it requires faster cooling to retain austenite than to<br />

form martensite, the fastest cooling does not always<br />

produce the hardest steel.<br />

Troostite.<br />

If the cooling is a little slower than that which<br />

would produce a structure consisting entirely of martensite,<br />

dark, rounded patches will be distributed<br />

through the ground mass of martensite as shown in<br />

Fig. 57. These dark patches are a constituent known<br />

as "Troostite."* Troostite etches much more rapidly<br />

than martensite, and therefore appears dark on a<br />

martensitic background. If etching is brief the martensite<br />

may not be visibly attacked, and will appear<br />

white, or structureless, as in Fig. 59, in which the<br />

dark spots are troostite. This constituent is slightly<br />

softer and more ductile than martensite. The slower<br />

the rate of cooling in quenching, the more troostite<br />

will be present. This is illustrated in (a), (b) and<br />

(c) of Fig. 59, which were taken at different points in<br />

the same specimen, (a) having been the most rapidly<br />

cooled, and (c) the most slowly cooled portion. When<br />

the cooling is still slower, the structure may consist<br />

*After the French Chemist, Troost.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 9,<br />

entirely of troostite as shown in Fig. 60. It is often<br />

somewhat difficult to distinguish between finely divided<br />

martensite, shown in Fig. 56a, and an area consisting<br />

of troostite, as in Fig. 60. It may be that each<br />

of these consists partly of martensite (white needles)<br />

and partly of troostite (dark background). The<br />

rapidity with which troostite etches is one of its distinguishing<br />

characteristics.<br />

FIGS. 59a, 59b, 59c—TROOSTITE IN MARTENSITE.<br />

Carbon 0.90 per cent. Showing areas unevenly quenched<br />

in same piece. Hardness decreases with increasing troostite<br />

(dark). (lOOx.)<br />

Sorbite.<br />

If the cooling through the critical range is slower<br />

than would produce troostite, still another constituent<br />

may be found which consists of a mass of very<br />

finely divided, rounded or curved particles, as illustrated<br />

in Figs. 61 and 62. This is known as Sorbite.f<br />

It etches faster than martensite, but more slowly than<br />

troostite, and therefore appears lighter than the latter.<br />

It is softer and more ductile than troostite, and is, in<br />

fact, the constituent generally desired in structural<br />

tAfter Sorby, English Metallurgist.


tiri Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tiearing<br />

steels where a good degree of tensile strength and<br />

toughness or ductility are required.<br />

If carbon steel is cooled through the critical range<br />

quite slowly, as by allowing a large f<strong>org</strong>ing to cool in<br />

air. or a small piece to cool in the furnace, the grains<br />

of austenite will be converted into grains of pearlite<br />

(with separation of ferrite or cementite ll the carbrn<br />

is below or above (>0 per cent respectively I and we<br />

FIG. 60—TROOSTITE. Carbon 0.70 per cent. Quenched<br />

in oil from 1500 deg. F. (lOOx.) (T. W. Downes.)<br />

FIG. 61—SORBITE. Carbon 0.45 per cent. Quenched in<br />

oil. Small particles of free ferrite. (lOOx.) (T. W.<br />

Downes.)<br />

FIG. 62—SORBITE. Carbon 0.90 per cent. Quenched in<br />

oil. (500x.) Same specimen as in Figs. 55 and 56.<br />

FIG. 63—SPHEROIDIZED PEARLITE. Carbon 1.12 per<br />

cent. Long anneal at 1350 deg. F. (650x.) (A. W. F.<br />

Green.)<br />

t<br />

will again have the structure shown in Fig. 55 or<br />

Figs. 40 or 44.<br />

It should be kept clearly in mind that above the<br />

critical temperature, steel consists of grains of austenite.<br />

In cooling, this austenite is converted into<br />

martensite, troostite or sorbite, as the case may be.<br />

These constituents do not have a distinct "grain" structure,<br />

or if they do, it is very different in appearance<br />

March, 1925<br />

from that of austenite or ferrite, and is too minute to<br />

be revealed under the microscope at ordinary magnifications.<br />

But some traces of the grain boundaries of<br />

the original austenite grains still persist, and can often<br />

be revealed by careful methods of etching and close<br />

examination. Troostite begins to form at these austenite<br />

grain boundaries, as is plainly shown in Fig.<br />

57, and to some extent in Fig. 59 (a) and (b). If the<br />

austenite grains were large and coarse (due to excessive<br />

heating above the critical temperature) the physical<br />

properties of the piece will be impaired, even<br />

though the martensite, troostite or sorbite obtained<br />

after quenching may not show the coarsening.<br />

Tempering Constituents.<br />

Martensitic steel may be heated about 250° C (480'<br />

F) without much change in its microstructure or its<br />

hardness, but heating above this temperature causes<br />

the martensite to break down into troostite in increasing<br />

amounts up to about 400 deg. C (750° F), when it<br />

will have changed entirely into troostite. The increase<br />

in amount of troostite will be accompanied by<br />

more rapid (darker) etching, and by a decrease in the<br />

hardness and an increase in the ductility of the steel.<br />

Heating to still higher temperatures will cause the<br />

troostite to change gradually into sorbite, up to about<br />

600° C (1110° F), where the change to sorbite will be<br />

complete. This will be accompanied by a further decrease<br />

in hardness and increase in ductility, but the<br />

etching will be slower. The change from troostite to<br />

sorbite is a gradual one and there is, in fact, no clear<br />

dividing line between these two constituents.<br />

Sorbite may be regarded as a transition stage between<br />

troostite and pearlite. Its structure is coarser<br />

and more granular than that of troostite, but has not<br />

the distinct laminated appearance of pearlite. Moreover,<br />

sorbite may have a carbon content considerably<br />

more or less than 0.90 per cent without any visible<br />

separation of excess cementite or ferrite, as would occur<br />

in pearlitic steel. Sometimes small particles of<br />

excess cementite or ferrite are visible in sorbitic steel,<br />

as is the case in Fig. 61.<br />

If heating is continued for a sufficient time, at a<br />

temperature slightly below the critical range, preferably<br />

between 600° and 700° C (1110°-1290° F) the cementite<br />

will collect in small rounded particles embedded in<br />

a ground mass of ferrite, as illustrated in Fig. 63. In<br />

this condition, steel is even softer and more ductile<br />

than in the pearlitic condition, and is most readily machineable.<br />

This treatment is called "spheroidizing."<br />

Hot and Cold Working.<br />

The effect of hot working in refining the grain<br />

structure, discussed in Chapter II, is clearly illustrated<br />

in Fig. 64, a, b, c, which shows progressive stages in<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing of an ingot of crucible steel for files, down<br />

to the bar. In Fig. 65, a, b, c, the effect of cold working<br />

in elongating the grain structure is illustrated.<br />

PART 5. — CRITICAL POINTS OF STEEL —<br />

THEIR MANIFESTATIONS<br />

In Parts 3 and 4 of this chapter it was mentio<br />

that the arrangement or crystalline pattern of the<br />

atoms of iron undergoes profound changes at certain<br />

temperatures, and that these changes in crystalline<br />

state are accompanied by modifications in the


March, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating oo<br />

properties and microstructure of the metal. A<br />

temperature at which changes of this nature take place<br />

has been referred to as a "critical" temperature. The<br />

remarkable ability of steel to harden upon heating and<br />

sudden cooling has been shown to be connected with<br />

such critical temperatures.<br />

Sudden changes of the physical characteristics of<br />

materials when heated through certain temperatures<br />

are not unfamiliar. A common example is the melting<br />

of ice. This occurs at 0 deg. C. (32 deg. F.).<br />

If a piece of ice is cooled below 0 deg. C. (32 deg.<br />

F.) and is then gradually heated, its temperature will<br />

rise, as heat is applied, up to 0 deg. C. Here no further<br />

increase in the temperature of the ice will take<br />

place, but it will begin to melt, and the temperature<br />

will remain constant at 0 deg. C. until all of the ice<br />

has changed into water. A further supply of heat<br />

will then cause the temperature of the water to rise.<br />

During the transformation of ice into water, a considerable<br />

amount of energy will be absorbed in the form<br />

of heat.<br />

This phenomenon may be illustrated graphically,<br />

as in Fig. 66. Temperature is layed off on a vertical<br />

scale, and heat units horizontally. A "curve" or<br />

"graph" is plotted, in which any point, such as "P",<br />

shows the temperature, "t", when a given amount of<br />

heat has been added, such as "h". Supposing that the<br />

point A represents the beginning of the experiment,<br />

the sloping line AB will represent the increasing temperature<br />

of the ice, as heat is added, up to 0 deg. C.<br />

(32 deg. F.). The line will then remain horizontal,<br />

as additional heat is supplied, from B to C until all<br />

of the ice has changed to water. Further addition of<br />

heat will raise the temperature of the water, as shown<br />

by the line CD.<br />

If the process is now reversed by taking away heat,<br />

that is, by cooling the water, the curve will retrace its<br />

path. The temperature of the water will decrease<br />

from D to C. It will then begin to freeze and the<br />

temperature will remain constant at 0 deg. C. from C<br />

to B until all of the water has changed into ice. Further<br />

cooling will lower the temperature of the ice,<br />

along BA. We thus see that the transformation is a<br />

reversible one.<br />

Either on heating or cooling, therefore, we have<br />

ice at the point B, at 0 deg. C, and water at the point<br />

C, also at 0 deg. C. The properties of ice and water<br />

are of course very different. Here we have one substance,<br />

the chemical compound H20, which has two<br />

different sets of properties at one temperature. These<br />

differences in properties are caused by a change in the<br />

arrangement of the molecules or atoms of the substance<br />

which takes place at the critical temperature.<br />

During such a change, energy is always either given<br />

off or absorbed.<br />

Time-Temperature Curve.<br />

If we arrange our experiment so that heat is supplied<br />

or taken away at a uniform rate (as by heating<br />

the substance in an electric furnace or allowing it to<br />

cool in air) we may plot units of time, such as minutes<br />

or seconds, in place of heat units in our curve or<br />

graph. This is called a "time-temperature curve." Time<br />

is easier to measure than heat units, therefore this<br />

method is usually adopted when studying critical<br />

points.<br />

The temperature at which changes of crystalline<br />

state takes place in iron may be compared in many<br />

,ways to the melting point of ice. Important modifications<br />

occur in the characteristics of the material,<br />

heat is given off or absorbed, and the change is reversible.<br />

These critical points are far below the melting<br />

point of iron, and it does not change from the solid<br />

state. If a piece of practically pure iron is heated at<br />

a uniform rate, from room temperature up to a bright<br />

yellow heat, and a time-temperature curve taken, the<br />

curve will show two distinct humps or points of irregularity,<br />

one taking place at about 768 deg. C. (1414<br />

FIG 64—HOT WORKING, (a) Crucible steel, 1.20 per<br />

cent carbon, as cast in 4x4 in. ingot, (b) Same, after<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing down to 2^x254 in. billet, (c) Same, after f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

down to bar. Finishing temperature about 1350 deg.<br />

F. (All 125x.) (A. W. F. Green.)<br />

deg. F.) and the other at about 900 deg. C. (1652 d<br />

F.) as illustrated in Fig. 67. When the piece is allowed<br />

to cool the points will again manifest themselves,<br />

as shown in the cooling curve, Fig. 67.<br />

If a piece of steel containing about 0.20 per cent<br />

carbon is used instead of pure iron, three critical points<br />

will be observed, and the heating and cooling curves<br />

will look like Fig. 68. The presence of carbon has<br />

caused a new critical point, at about 725 deg. G on<br />

the heating curve, and the upper critical point, which


100<br />

was formerly at about 900 deg. G. has been lowered<br />

to about 840 deg. C. Also, these two points appear at<br />

somewhat lower temperatures on the cooling curve<br />

than the}- did on the heating curve. The intermediate<br />

critical point remains at about 768 deg. C.<br />

It is therefore evident that the presence of carbon<br />

has a decided influence in determining the critical<br />

points of steel. Since the critical points are closely<br />

connected with the changes of structure and properties<br />

FIG. 65—COLD WORKING, (a) Annealed steel, carbon<br />

about 0.40 per cent, (b) Same after severe cold rolling.<br />

(c) Steel similar to that in (a), but heat treated to sorbitic<br />

state and then cold drawn into wire. All longitudinal<br />

sections (500x.)<br />

that take place in hardening, and since these points<br />

are influenced by the amount of carbon present and<br />

also by other elements, as will be discussed later, a<br />

careful study of the nature and occurrence' of these<br />

points throws a great deal of light on the behavior of<br />

steel in hardening.<br />

Symbols for Critical Points.<br />

For convenience in referring to the critical points<br />

of steel, they are designated by certain symbols.<br />

These were originated by French investigators and<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

March, 1925<br />

are abbreviations of French terms. As the critical<br />

points are manifested by an arrest of temperature in<br />

the heating or cooling curves they are indicated by<br />

the letter "A", from the French word "arret", meaning<br />

arrest or stop. The arrests on heating are referred to<br />

by the symbol "Ac", in which "c" stands for the<br />

French word "chauffage", heating. The arrests on<br />

the cooling curve are known as "Ar" points, "r" standing<br />

for the French word "refroidissement", or cooling.<br />

The points are numbered 1,2, 3, in the order in which<br />

they take place on heating. The Ar3 point, therefore,<br />

which occurs on the cooling curve, is the reverse of<br />

the Ac3 point, which occurs on heating, and so on.<br />

Critical Point Diagram.<br />

Suppose that a chart is made in which the carbon<br />

content is laved off horizontally and temperature vertically,<br />

as in Fig. 69. Each vertical line on the diagram<br />

will represent steel of a certain carbon content,<br />

and on this line we may mark the critical points of<br />

that particular steel as found by heating or cooling<br />

curves. The points for steels of various carbon contents<br />

would be marked similarly on the vertical line corresponding<br />

to the carbon content and at a height corresponding<br />

to the temperature at which they occur.<br />

Lines would be drawn connecting the corresponding<br />

points for the various steels. This is called a "critical<br />

point" diagram.<br />

The Ar points generally occur at about 20 deg. to<br />

40 deg. G lower than the corresponding Ac points, in<br />

a piece which is cooled at a moderate rate of speed.<br />

This is due to a "lag" in the transformation of the<br />

metal, a certain amount of time being necessary to<br />

complete the change. The lag also occurs on heating,<br />

so that the Ac points will appear higher if heating is<br />

more rapid. If heating and cooling were extremely<br />

slow, the Ac points and their corresponding Ar points<br />

would (theoretically, at least) take place at the same<br />

temperature. The presence of certain alloying elements<br />

greatly increases the lag or gap between the<br />

Ac and Ar temperatures. For simplicity, only the Ac<br />

points are plotted in the chart, Fig. 69, at the temperatures<br />

at which they occur in plain carbon steel on<br />

very slow heating.<br />

Since the presence of carbon is necessary to produce<br />

the Acl point, carbonless iron has no such point.<br />

The point Ac3 occurs at lower temperatures with increasing<br />

carbon, up to a carbon content of about 0.90<br />

per cent, where it joins or merges with the Acl point.<br />

The latter point (Acl) remains practically constant<br />

with increasing carbon content and follows a horizontal<br />

line at about 725 deg. G (1337 deg. F.).<br />

The critical point Ac2 remains constant at about<br />

/68 deg. G (1414 deg. F.) with increasing carbon content<br />

until it coincides with the Ac3 point, which has<br />

come down to this temperature for a carbon content<br />

of approximately 0.35 per cent. From here the Ac2<br />

point follows the Ac3 point, until both run into Acl<br />

at 0.90 per cent carbon. All three points then occur<br />

together in steels having a carbon content higher than<br />

0J0 per cent giving a horizontal line on the diagram<br />

which is known as Acl, 2, 3. This point is often so<br />

pronounced that, under favorable conditions, a piece<br />

of slowly cooled tool steel may be seen to glow a<br />

brighter red as it passes through Arl, 2, 3.<br />

Heating and cooling curves taken with very sensitive<br />

instruments on steels whose carbon content is<br />

over 0.90 per cent will reveal another critical point<br />

just above the Acl, 2, 3 point for steel having some-


March, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping - Heat Treating 101<br />

what more than 0.90 per cent carbon and which rises<br />

rapidly with increasing carbon content, as shown in<br />

the chart. This is known as the Acm point, and will<br />

be discussed later.<br />

The range of temperature which lies between the<br />

upper and lower critical points, namely, between the<br />

lines Acl and Ac3—Ac 2, 3 or between Acl, 2, 3 and<br />

g eoo<br />

^ 7°o<br />


lllj<br />

slower rate. If the length of the specimen is accurately<br />

measured and plotted against temperature, a<br />

curve resembling Fig. 70 will be obtained. Abrupt<br />

changes in electrical resistance, specific heat and<br />

other properties of iron also take place at the A3 point.<br />

Changes at A2.<br />

At ordinary temperatures iron (or steel) is magnetic,<br />

but on being heated through the Ac2 point very<br />

nearly all of the magnetic properties are lost and the<br />

metal becomes practically non-magnetic. On cooling<br />

through Ar2 the magnetic properties are restored.<br />

Certain other slight changes in properties take place<br />

at A2 but they are unimportant in comparison with<br />

the magnetic change.<br />

Changes at A2, 3.<br />

In steels whose carbon content is between about<br />

0.35 per cent and 0.90 per cent the same changes take<br />

place at A2, 3 as occur in lower carbon steels at A2<br />

and A3 separately.<br />

On beating through Ac2, 3 there is a sudden contraction,<br />

accompanied by a loss of magnetism, and the<br />

other changes which take place at A2 and A3. On<br />

cooling, these changes are reversed.<br />

Changes at Al.<br />

The point Al is dependent upon the presence of<br />

carbon. The intensity of the temperature arrest and<br />

of the other phenomena which take place at this point<br />

increases with increasing carbon content, up to 0.90<br />

per cent, where this point merges with Ac2, 3. At<br />

Acl there is a momentary contraction on heating, a<br />

partial loss of magnetism and changes in electrical resistance,<br />

specific heat, etc. These changes are reversed<br />

on cooling through Arl.<br />

Changes at Al, 2, 3.<br />

The changes which take place in steels of lower<br />

carbon content at Al, A2 and A3, take place simultaneously<br />

at the point Al, 2, 3.<br />

Changes at Acm.<br />

No marked changes of properties occur at the /Vein<br />

point. Structural changes do take place, however,<br />

which must be taken into consideration in the heat<br />

treatment of steel.<br />

The underlying causes of the various critical<br />

points, the structural changes which take place at<br />

these temperatures and their important bearing on<br />

the heat treatment of steel will be discussed in Chapter<br />

VI.<br />

ulir > iiinrh h :ui>: : i -rr >i. : > Hr I n 11' o i i. in jbr < I ir. 11 r ^fiii : 11 o I<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

iiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiifiiijiijiiiutiiiiiiiiiiiiijtrLiJUiiiiiiii^stitJinijifiiiiiiijiiitiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiciiiiissiiiiiiiiiiiiiJttiiiiiiiiiiffiiiiiEiitfiiiiiriiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiicMiiiiiiiiiiiititi<br />

June 22-26—Annual meeting of the American Society<br />

for Testing Materials at Chalfonte-Haddon Hall,<br />

Atlantic City, X. J. Secretary-treasurer, G L. Warwick.<br />

Engineers' Club Building, 1315 Spruce Street,<br />

Philadelphia. Pa.<br />

September 14-18—Annual convention of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, and Seventh National<br />

Steel Exposition, to be held at the Public Auditorium,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary. W H. Eisenmann, 4600<br />

Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

March, 1925<br />

Steel Automobile Bodies Strong, Light, Cheap<br />

All-steel automobile bodies are lighter, stronger,<br />

roomier and cheaper than composite bodies having<br />

wood framing and metal panels. They are free from<br />

squeaks, afford better vision of the road and scenery,<br />

take a superior finish with less preliminary work and<br />

permit marked economies in quantity production,<br />

says an abstract of a paper describing the methods<br />

of building these all-steel bodies prepared by Edward<br />

G. Budd and J. Ledwinka, of Philadelphia, and printed<br />

in the February number of the Journal of the Society<br />

of Automotive Engineers. The paper was delivered<br />

as an address at the annual meeting of the society in<br />

Detroit the latter part of January.<br />

Steel has 40 times the strength to resist breakage<br />

that wood has and, in bending, may be stressed seve.i<br />

times as much as wood, hence the cross-sectional area<br />

of steel members may be only a small fraction of that<br />

of wood members having equal strength. This makes<br />

for lightness of construction and reduction of the size<br />

of frame members, thereby affording more space in<br />

the interior of the bod}- for the passengers and reducing<br />

the amount of obstruction to vision.<br />

Whereas joints between sills and posts in a woodframe<br />

body are weakened by the cutting away of a<br />

large part of the wood and consequently require reinforcing<br />

with irons and the use of glue and screws,<br />

corresponding joints in the pressed-steel body are<br />

strengthened by flanges and riveting and the formation<br />

of a box section. Such joints are not loosened<br />

by shrinkage and'vibration and do not become noisy.<br />

Steel members lend themselves readly to riveting and<br />

welding, which methods of fastening may produce the<br />

strength of continuous or integral metal. This is important<br />

because space limitations often prevent proper<br />

use of screws, braces and stiffeners in wood bodies so<br />

that they are sometimes weakest in the plans of greatest<br />

stresses.<br />

Side panels and the rear panel of closed bodies<br />

are formed in one piece from floor to roof, including<br />

the formation of the rear window, thus avoiding the<br />

expensive and objectionable horizontal joint at the<br />

belt line and making it possible to assemble the entire<br />

side structure of the body in one piece for shipment<br />

as a unit. The panels may be joined together along<br />

their vertical lines by in-turned flanges, leaving an<br />

open joint, or the panels can be welded so as to avoid<br />

the open seam.<br />

A factor of great economy in original manufacture<br />

has been the design of removable upholstery,<br />

which is also a great advantage in case of repairs.<br />

The development of methods of working sheet metal<br />

by which stampings can be produced that are correct<br />

as to contour and free from surface defects has made<br />

it possible for finishing to be done without filling or<br />

rubbing and without the use of many preliminary coats<br />

of paint. It is the practice of some car manufacturers<br />

to finish the bodies with three coats of japan, without<br />

any filling and rubbing, and to bake the japan on at<br />

a high temperature. The steel body is also especially<br />

adaptable to the use of lacquers for getting hard finish<br />

with various colors.<br />

When sections of y, in. or less in thickness are to<br />

be joined by means of an electric-arc weld, the edges<br />

need not be beveled, but they should be separated a<br />

small amount instead.


March, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

S o m e R e v e l a t i o n s b y D e e p E t c h i n g *<br />

Deep Acid Etching Brings Out Such Defects as Fine Hair-Line<br />

Cracks and Solid Non-Metallic Inclusions That Are Not<br />

Ordinarily Visible Under the Microscope<br />

By J. FLETCHER HARPERf<br />

This article discusses the acid etching of f<strong>org</strong>ings and castings for the purpose of inspecting t<br />

soundness and fitness for use of the materials under examination. The author draws certain conclusions<br />

as to the advantages of this method of inspec^on. Chief among the advantages are the identification<br />

of the presence of fine hair-line cracks and solid non-metallic inclusions. These will be opened up<br />

into deep pits or slots as a result of the acid etching. To a considerable extent it is possible to identify<br />

the method of manufacture by which the particular specimen under examination had been manufactured<br />

in the steel mill.<br />

T H E text of this article embraces some experiments<br />

conducted by the writer prior and subsequent to<br />

the work done by Hoffman and WaringJ on the<br />

deep etching of rails, published in 1919. Although<br />

some of our readers may not agree with all of the<br />

points brought out in the present paper, it is hoped<br />

that what is given may be of help as a method of<br />

solving some of the so-called steel mysteries.<br />

In the early part of 1918, our companv was suddenly<br />

confronted with a number of rejected f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

These f<strong>org</strong>ings consisted chiefly of shafts which were<br />

made of 3.00 to 3.50 per cent nickel steel, and subject<br />

to our specification class "FS-D", which has<br />

the following requirements:<br />

Elastic limit of 50,000 lbs. per sq. in..<br />

Ultimate strength 80,000 lbs. per sq. in.<br />

Elongation in 2 in.—25 per cent.<br />

Reduction of area—45 per cent.<br />

We had been producing these f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

for a considerable period of time and had no<br />

difficulty in meeting the specifications with<br />

a standard heat treatment. These defective<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings, however, were revealing conditions<br />

such as are shown in Table 1. It will be<br />

observed that in all but one instance the materials<br />

met the specification for elastic limit<br />

and tensile strength, but were low in elongation<br />

and reduction of area. To cope with<br />

the situation, we altered the temperature of<br />

annealing, the temperature of quenching and<br />

the temperature of tempering, but with no<br />

better results. Chemical analyses were made<br />

of these materials, and in all cases the composition<br />

of the steel was as specified. Microscopic<br />

examinations revealed good structures<br />

with the exception of some minor inclusions<br />

and cracks in certain sections, but<br />

otherwise entirely free from defects. The<br />

photomicrographs of the defective areas of<br />

some of the steels examined are shown in<br />

Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4.<br />

*A paper presented before the Cleveland Chapter,<br />

American Society for Steel Treating and reprinted<br />

from the Transactions of the Society.<br />

tResearch Engineers, Manufacturing Department,<br />

Allis Chalmers Manufacturing Company,<br />

Milwaukee, Wis.<br />

tHoffman and Waring on "The Deep Etching<br />

of Rails" presented before the annual meeting of<br />

the American Society for Testing Materials, June,<br />

1919.<br />

103<br />

Upon casual examination of these photomicrographs<br />

it would appear that the difficulty was due to<br />

dirty steel and that the results of the physical tests<br />

bore out this conclusion. These, however, are a few<br />

of the worst photomicrographs which were taken.<br />

Hundreds of samples were examined, some of which<br />

showed only a minor number of sonims (solid non-metallic<br />

impurities), others showed a major number of<br />

sonims in one section and a minor number of sonims<br />

in an adjacent section, and still others were entirely<br />

free from inclusions. It was at this point of our investigation<br />

that our first work on deep etching with<br />

FIG. 1—Photomicrograph of a 3.50 per cent nickel steel etched with picric<br />

acid, lOOx. With the exception of the inclusions, this structure is quite<br />

scatisfactory. FIG. 2—Photomicrograph of a similar piece of steel<br />

showing miner sonims and a large fissure, lOOx. FIG. 3—Photomicrograph<br />

of a 3.50 Der cent nickel steel, unetched, lOOx. FIG. 4—Photomicrograph<br />

of the same specimen, etched, showing a large fissure and<br />

numerous sonims.


llll Foiling Stamping- HeatTieating<br />

acids started. Deep etching was accomplished by<br />

heating a piece of steel of definite size for a given time.<br />

in a solution of concentrated hydrochloric acid.<br />

It was found that by duplicating deep acid-etching<br />

conditions as nearly as possible in each text, we were<br />

able to make excellent comparisons between samples.<br />

In these etching tests it was noted that steels of different<br />

analyses varied in solubility and that the rate<br />

of solubility varied according to the amount of mechanical<br />

work which had been done upon the piece.<br />

Different annealing temperatures on the same steel<br />

caused differences in solubility. It was noted that<br />

steels made by the acid open hearth, basic open hearth<br />

or electric furnace methods could be distinguished one<br />

from the other, due to differences of solubility of steels<br />

of similar analysis. It was with great ease that samples<br />

taken from f<strong>org</strong>ings made from sand-cast and<br />

chill-cast ingots could be distinguished. These points<br />

are brought out simply to show the wide range and<br />

the possibilities of comparison of similar samples subjected<br />

to the deep acid etch. Figs. 5, 6, 8 and 9 show<br />

the results of some deep etching tests made on bars<br />

cored from f<strong>org</strong>ings. Fig. 5 shows a bad surface condition<br />

with considerable pitting following the acid<br />

etch. The physical test properties of this specimen<br />

is shown in Table 1, text 1064. The elastic limit,<br />

elongation and reduction of area are below the specifications.<br />

Photomicrographs of this specimen are<br />

shown in Figs. 3 and 4. It will be noted that these<br />

three different methods of test lead to the<br />

same verdict, that is, that the steel was<br />

dirty and contained many sonims.<br />

Fig. 6 shows a specimen with less pronounced<br />

pits than those of Fig. 5. In order<br />

to establish whether or not these pits were<br />

in the center of the specimen, as well as on<br />

the surface, the same specimen was cut<br />

transversely and longitudinally and then<br />

deeply etched. After etching, the specimens<br />

were closely examined and it was found that<br />

where a fissure or pit existed on one segment<br />

there was a corresponding pit on the<br />

matching segment. Pitting occurred on interior<br />

sections as well as on the surface.<br />

Fig. 7 shows a bar of rolled wrought iron<br />

after it has been deeply etched. The rough<br />

fluted condition of the surface is due to the<br />

fact that the slag lines or inclusions in the<br />

bar have been eaten away by the acid, thus<br />

revealing the piling.<br />

Fig. 8 shows a sound bar of steel after<br />

it has been deeply etched. With the .exception<br />

of the fissure at the extreme upper end<br />

of the bar. this specimen shows no pitting or<br />

fissures. The crack at the top of the bar<br />

was produced by mechanically breaking the<br />

specimen, which upon deeply etching was<br />

enlarged to a fissure. Such hair line cracks<br />

which open up as fissures during deep acid-<br />

etching may be produced by extreme internal<br />

stress, or by impact. It has always been<br />

found that these fissures occur at right<br />

angles to the line of stress in the material<br />

and are apparently always intercrystalline as<br />

compared with intracrystalline cracks which<br />

are inherent in the material due to conditions<br />

of manufacture.<br />

March, 1925<br />

Some time subsequent to making these tests we<br />

were having difficulty in hardening certain areas of a<br />

gas engine cam shaft. These soft areas always appeared<br />

in the same location on the shaft regardless of<br />

the method or condition of heat treatment. Deep<br />

etching of numerous specimens cut from different<br />

cam shafts revealed the conditions as shown in Fig.<br />

10. The parting line of the f<strong>org</strong>ing die was at the<br />

part of this cam which was giving difficulty in hardening.<br />

In the f<strong>org</strong>ing of a cam shaft, clue to the nature<br />

of^its shape, the material flows in a horizontal direction<br />

until it meets the closed faces of the die, or until<br />

the flash chills. The material then flows perpendicularly<br />

upward and downward to fill the die. If ample<br />

curvature is not provided, or the dies are not brought<br />

down with the minimum thickness of flash, a number<br />

of fiber-like ends of worked-material are left on the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing at the parting of the dies. The mechanical<br />

working of steel between dies tends to move nonmetallic<br />

particles toward the parting line of the die,<br />

resulting in a concentration of these inclusions at the<br />

point where the best metal is wanted. Further examination<br />

of these specimens showed that it was evident<br />

that the trimmer die was not functioning properly<br />

and was tearing the metal in shearing, resulting in<br />

voids or fissures at the parting line of the dies. To<br />

properlv carburize and harden such material is of<br />

course quite impossible.<br />

FIG. 5—Photograph of a deeply etched bar showing many deep pits on the<br />

surface. FIG. 6—Photograph of a deeply etched bar showing fewer<br />

surface pits and cracks. Fig. 7—Photograph of a deeply etched rolled<br />

wrought iron bar showing a very rough surface resulting from the<br />

etching away of the elongated slag inclusions. FIG. 8—Photograph of a<br />

deeply etched sound bar showing an absence of pits and cracks with<br />

the exception of a minor fissure at the top of the bar which was caused<br />

by mechanically breaking the bar. FIG. 9—Photograph of a deeply<br />

etched bar showing very deep surface pits; photomicrograph of this<br />

bar is shown in Fig. 3.


March, 1925 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating 105<br />

Fig. 11 shows a deeply etched hardened cam which<br />

contains many grinding cracks resulting from the use<br />

of an improper grade of grinding wheel or an improper<br />

feed and speed of grinding. These results can also<br />

be produced by the use of proper grinding equipment<br />

if the structure of the material contains excess free<br />

cementite near the surface.<br />

It has been found that only in rare cases could<br />

surface cracks be produced by deep etching alone and<br />

then only on materials containing high internal stresses<br />

due to drastic heat treatments. Similar cracks usu-<br />

TABLE I<br />

PHYSICAL TESTS OF DEFECTIVE<br />

Elastic Ultimate Per Cent Red.<br />

Test No. Limit Strength Elongation Area<br />

lbs per sq. in. lbs. per sq. in. in 2 in.<br />

Required 50000 80000 25 45<br />

1065<br />

57000 95000 14 17<br />

1065 C. 62800 92700 18.5 28<br />

1065 A. 52900 85900 21 27<br />

1288 B. 55800 86520 6 10<br />

1075 A. 56900 82000 15 21<br />

1064<br />

48550' 85150 15 24<br />

FORGINGS<br />

Fracture<br />

Angular<br />

Angular<br />

Angular<br />

Angular<br />

Angular<br />

Angular<br />

ally appear upon aging such hardened material, due<br />

to the fact that the material has many internal stresses<br />

which are relieved upon long standing or aging. Deep<br />

etching accelerates these aging cracks.<br />

Summary.<br />

In summing up the advantages and the applications<br />

of deep etching with acids to the examination of the<br />

materials of construction, we find that this method<br />

will reveal:<br />

1. That steels of varying chemical analysis will<br />

show varying rates of solubility in the acid.<br />

FIG. 10—Photograph of a deeply etched cam. It will be noted that<br />

deep lines appear on this material at the parting line of the die.<br />

FIG. 11—Photograph of a deeply etched hardened cam containing<br />

many grinding cracks due to the use of an improper grinding wheel,<br />

and improper feed or speed.<br />

2. That steel with heterogeneous composition will<br />

have a relatively rougher surface condition due to the<br />

differences in solubility of the different parts of the<br />

specimen. Sonims and cracks will produce pits and<br />

slots.<br />

3. That the same steel varies in solubility when<br />

given varous heat treatments.<br />

4. That it is possible, to a certain extent, to identify<br />

the method of manufacture of steels of similar analysis<br />

due to their varying rate of solubility in the acid<br />

etch. The fact that there are differences in rates of<br />

solubility of these steels may lead to the explanation<br />

of the differences in physical properties of acid open<br />

hearth, basic open hearth and electric furnace steel of<br />

apparently identical composition.<br />

5. That f<strong>org</strong>ings made from chill-cast and sandcast<br />

ingots show a marked difference in cleanliness and<br />

a slight difference in solubility.<br />

6. That incipient cracks in all cases of defectve<br />

steel examined, were intracryrstalline and in all directions<br />

although tending to be elongated in the direction<br />

of the mechanical work.<br />

7. That cracks occurring in steel due to mechanical<br />

strain appear in a direction perpendicular to the<br />

stress in the material and in all cases examined, were<br />

intercrystalline.<br />

The Analysis of Fuel Gas<br />

All of the many industries engaged in producing<br />

fuel or utilizing it in any way find that gas analysis<br />

is an essential accompaniment to their work. In the<br />

operation of gas producers, the percentage of carbon<br />

monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen, and<br />

hydrocarbons must be determined. The same determinations<br />

must be made for byr-product coke oven<br />

gas, retort gas, water gas, carburetted water gas,<br />

and natural gas. When gas is sold to consumers<br />

a very complete check on the composition of the<br />

gas is necessary. The analysis must be made<br />

rapidly and accurately, for it is used in controlling<br />

manyr industrial operations and determining<br />

their efficiency' as well as to indicate to the consumer<br />

what he is buying.<br />

Circular No. 12 of the Engineering Experiment<br />

Station of the University of Illinois, entitled<br />

"The Analysis of Fuel Gas," gives a description<br />

of the apparatus developed at the University<br />

of Illinois for the purpose of analyzing<br />

fuel gas, and contains a synopsis of the methods<br />

which are best adapted to this type of apparatus.<br />

These methods are listed in the order of procedure<br />

necessary for carrying out the analysis. A<br />

comprehensive review of methods to be used with<br />

other types of apparatus is included in the appendix<br />

of the circular.<br />

The Mid-West F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Chicago, is<br />

enlarging its works at Chicago Heights. 111., by<br />

the addition of a 50 x 120 ft. manufacturing plant.<br />

40 x 70-ft. building for steel storage, and 40 x 120<br />

ft. warehouse. Additional equipment also is to<br />

be included in the expansion program. The company<br />

manufactures agricultural implement parts<br />

and commercial f<strong>org</strong>ings. Jay L. Hench is vice<br />

president.


106 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

Shearing Damages Thick Plates<br />

Recent experiments carried out by the Lukens<br />

Steel Company to show the injurious effects of<br />

punching upon thick boiler plate, are described in the<br />

December 16. 1924, issue of "Power" in an article entitled<br />

"Why A. S M. E. Code Prohibits Punching and<br />

Shearing."' That the practice of punching holes full<br />

>ize in thick plates strained and embrittled the adjacent<br />

metal so that subsequent working or bending<br />

was much more likely to produce cracks and rupture<br />

was shown conclusively by these experiments.<br />

—Courtesy "Power."<br />

The accompanying photograph shows the result of<br />

similar tests made with sheared plates. The specimen<br />

at the top was machined. It withstood bending,<br />

as shown, without cracks. The section in the middle<br />

was sheared and bent with the shearing fin inside,<br />

bending being stopped when cracks appeared. It will<br />

be noticed that this section withstood considerably<br />

less bending than the machined specimen. When a<br />

sheared section was bent with the fin on the outside,<br />

the appearance of cracks stopped the bending at the<br />

point shown by the lower specimen. While the A. S.<br />

M. E. has always prescribed the planing of sheared<br />

edges to facilitate calking, the bad effects here shown<br />

would fully justify such a rule apart from any question<br />

of calking. The most injurious effect of shearing is<br />

most noticeable in thick plates (those shown are one<br />

inch thick), but thinner plates are also affected.<br />

Car Door Company Formed<br />

Temporary operations have been started at the<br />

Midland Steel Products Company, Cleveland, by the<br />

Youngstown Steel Car Door Company, a subsidiary<br />

of the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company. An<br />

order for car doors received from the Chicago, Burlington<br />

& Quincy railroad has been booked, and plates<br />

and heavy sheets made by the Youngstown Sheet &<br />

Tube Company are used in the manufacturing process.<br />

J. A. Campbell is president of the new company.<br />

Steel furniture shipments in January are reported<br />

by the Department of Commerce at $1,653,284, compared<br />

with SI.611,075 in December and with §1,592,338<br />

in January, 1924. With the exception of last March<br />

and April, each of which was less than y2 per cent<br />

above the current figure, January shows the largest<br />

total since March, 1923.<br />

March, 1925<br />

Bumiiiiiiiiiii mi iiiiiiiiiiini in mm" m iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini<br />

RECENT PATENTS<br />

i „,„ niiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii: I "' '" ' ' " ' I<br />

1,525,644—Annealing furnace. Chauncey E. Frazier,<br />

Washington, Pa.<br />

In an annealing furnace the combination with a<br />

leer chamber of a firebox overlying said leer chamber,<br />

a plurality of tunnel flues extending longitudinally<br />

beneath said leer chamber, a series of side-wall flues<br />

and transverse bottom flues connecting said fire-box<br />

with said tunnel flues, the side-wall flues toward the<br />

intake end of said leer connecting with one of said<br />

tunnel flues and the side-wall flues more remote from<br />

the intake end connecting with another of said tunnel<br />

flues, a chimney with which said tunnel flues communicate,<br />

and means for varying the draft conditions<br />

in the streams of flame and gas which flow from the<br />

fire-box to the chimney through the said severally<br />

connected sets of side-wall flues.<br />

* * *<br />

1,525,51c?—Method of making chromium containing<br />

alloys. William H. Smith of Cleveland and<br />

Charles M. Campbell of East Cleveland, Ohio, assignors<br />

to Pioneer Alloy Products Company of Cleveland,<br />

Ohio.<br />

The process of producing alloys of chromium with<br />

one or more iron-group metals which contain the<br />

steps of melting the chromium and iron-group metals<br />

in a preliminary furnace, at a comparatively low temperature<br />

beneath an electrically conducting, carbonfree<br />

slag, transferring the molten alloy to an induction<br />

furnace and there raising it to a pouring temperature<br />

under neutral conditions.<br />

* * *<br />

1,525,519—Mold for chromium alloys. William<br />

H. Smith of Cleveland and Charles M. Campbell of<br />

East Cleveland, Ohio, assignors to Pioneer Alloy<br />

Products Company of Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

A mold for chromium alloy wherein the metal<br />

contacting surfaces consist substantially of magnesite.<br />

* * *<br />

1,526,532—Alloy steel. Arthur C. Davidson of<br />

Bronxville, N. Y., assignor to D. Co., Inc., of New<br />

York, N. Y.<br />

Alloy steel comprising zirconium in combination<br />

with iron, tungsten, chromium and vanadium between<br />

the limits of the proportions specified.<br />

* * *<br />

1,526,583—Annealing furnace. Herbert Charles<br />

Beasley of Chicago, 111., assignor to Coonley Manufacturing<br />

Company of Chicago, 111.<br />

The method of annealing articles which comprises<br />

utilizing the heat stored in an annealed article to heat<br />

articles to be annealed while said articles are in an<br />

oxidation-preventing atmosphere.<br />

* * *<br />

1,527,088—Method of making iron-chromium alloys.<br />

Ezekiel J. Shackelford and William B. D. Penniman<br />

of Baltimore, Md., assignors to Radiac Metals,<br />

Ltd., of Masterton, N. Z.<br />

The method of making iron-chromium alloys<br />

which comprises successively reducing quantities of<br />

chrome ore in contact with a slag over a molten body<br />

of iron and steel, removing the slag periodically and<br />

supplying new slag material, of the same reducing<br />

character, and oxidizing the carbon from the resulting<br />

chromium alloy by supplying a non-carbon charge<br />

after removing the reducing slag until the carbon is<br />

lowered to a permissible content.


March, 1925<br />

Correspondence Course in Heat Treatment<br />

and Metallography of Steel<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating has arranged<br />

with Mr. Horace C. Knerr, Director of the Course in<br />

Heat Treatment and Metallography of Steel being<br />

given at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa., to offer<br />

through this publication, a correspondence course,<br />

covering the same subject.<br />

This course will run for about one year. It will<br />

include a complete set of lessons covering the topics<br />

as outlined below, examinations papers for each lesson,<br />

marking and returning papers, personal instruction<br />

by letter where needed, a series of laboratory exercises<br />

to be performed by the student, and a set ofmetal<br />

specimens for metallographic study. The equipment<br />

required will be simple, and will be such as<br />

many men have available in the plant in which they<br />

are employed.<br />

The course is intended for those who wish to study<br />

the treatment, structure and properties of steel in<br />

their spare time. Fundamental principles will be emphasized.<br />

The charge for the complete course will be $25.00.<br />

For further information write to the Editor, F<strong>org</strong>ing-<br />

Stamping-Heat Treating, Box 65, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Outline of Course<br />

I. INTRODUCTORY<br />

1—An Ancient Craft and a Modern Science<br />

2—Physical Metallurgy<br />

3—Principles of Chemistry and Physics<br />

4—Physical Properties of Steel<br />

II. MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL<br />

1—Processes of Manufacture<br />

(a) Ores and Materials<br />

(b) Pig Iron<br />

(c) Wrought Iron<br />

(d) Crucible Steel<br />

(e) Bessemer<br />

(f) Open Hearth<br />

(g) Electric<br />

(h) Miscellaneous<br />

2—Mechanical Treatment<br />

(a) Hot Working<br />

(b) Cold Working<br />

III. METALLOGRAPHY<br />

1—Microscopic Examination of Metals<br />

Etching<br />

(a) The Metallurgical Microscope<br />

(b) Preparation of Specimens, Polishing,<br />

(c) Photomicrography<br />

2—Macroscopic Examination<br />

(a) Deep Etching<br />

(b) Sulphur Printing<br />

(c) Flaws<br />

(d) (a) Pure Segregations Metals<br />

3—Structure (b) Alloys of Metals<br />

(c) Wrought Iron<br />

(d) Steel, Low, M edium and High Carbon<br />

(e) Cast Iron, etc.<br />

(f) Alloy Steels<br />

(g) Impurities<br />

4—Micro-Constituents of Steel<br />

(a) Ferrite<br />

(b) Cementite<br />

(c) Pearlite<br />

(d) Austenite<br />

(e) Martensite<br />

(0 Troostite<br />

(g) Sorbite<br />

*This series of articles, covering the subjects as outlined, is<br />

used as a text in the course given at Temple University.<br />

Foiging-Stamping- Heat "Beating<br />

S—Critical Points of Steel—Their Manifestations<br />

IV. PYROMETRY<br />

1—Heat and Temperature<br />

2—Methods of Measuring Temperature<br />

(a) Melting, Freezing, Boiling Point<br />

(b) Expansion<br />

(c) Electrical Resistance<br />

(d) Thermo-electric<br />

(e) Optical<br />

(f) Radiation<br />

3—Thermocouples<br />

4—Galvanometers and Millivoltmeters<br />

5—Potentiometers<br />

6—Calibration<br />

7—Temperature Recorders<br />

V. THERMAL ANALYSIS<br />

1—Methods of Determining Critical Points<br />

2—Heating and Cooling Curves<br />

(a) Time-Temperature Curves<br />

(b) Inverse Rate Curves<br />

(c) Difference Curves<br />

VI. THEORY OF HARDENING<br />

1—Nature of Critical Points<br />

(a) Crystallization<br />

(b) Solid Solution<br />

(c) Transformation<br />

2—Constitution Diagrams<br />

3—Slip Interference Theory<br />

VII. HEAT TREATMENT<br />

1—Purposes of Heat Treatment<br />

(a) Tool Steels<br />

(b) Structural Steels<br />

2—Annealing, Normalizing<br />

3—Hardening, Tempering<br />

4—Carburizing, Casehardening<br />

5—Alloy Steels<br />

(a) Effects of Alloys<br />

(b) Treatment<br />

6—High Speed Steel<br />

7—Equipment Used in Heat Treatment<br />

(a) Fuels<br />

(b) Furnaces<br />

(c) Quenching Equipment<br />

(d) Pyrometers<br />

(e) Temperature and Atmosphere Control<br />

8—Miscellaneous and Special Treatments<br />

VIII. INSPECTION AND TESTING<br />

107<br />

1—Chemical Analysis<br />

2—Physical Testing<br />

(a) Tensile Tests: Tensile Strength, Yield Point, Proportional<br />

Limit, Elongation, Reduction of<br />

Area, Modulus of Elasticity<br />

(b) Hardness Tests: Brinell, Shore Scleroscope,<br />

Rockwell Hardness Tester, etc.<br />

(c) Impact Tests: Oharpy, Izod, etc.<br />

(d) Fatigue Tests<br />

(e) Magnetic Testing<br />

(f) X-Ray Examination<br />

3—Metallographic Inspection<br />

4—Inspection During Fabrication<br />

5—Specifications


ins<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping- Heat "Beating<br />

March, 1925<br />

Plans for Organization of "The American<br />

The Great Lakes Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Ecorse,<br />

Detroit, Mich., has acquired the properties and busi­<br />

Refractories Institute"<br />

ness of the Detroit F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, which has<br />

operated a plant on Mt. Elliott Avenue that was or­<br />

It is announced that tentative plans have been made<br />

ganized 20 years ago by the late Hugo Scherer.<br />

for the <strong>org</strong>anization of a bureau to be named "The<br />

* * *<br />

American Refractories Institute." One of the main<br />

purposes of this institute will be to provide a satis­ The Progressive Tool & Die Company has filed<br />

factory mean- for contact between representatives articles of incorporation at Mishawaka, Ind., for the<br />

from all the industries that use and manufacture re­ purpose of manufacturing tools, dies and machinery.<br />

fractories, in order that their various economic and The incorporators are J. W. Hess, Mishawaka; M. R.<br />

technical problems with respect- to heat-resisting ma­ Moore, South Bend, Ind., and Frank R. Smith, Mishterials<br />

may be thoroughly considered and that efforts awaka.<br />

may be made for the solution of these problems.<br />

* * *<br />

According to the announcement, it is proposed to<br />

maintain a research laboratory, wherein outstanding<br />

problems will be studied. These problems will be<br />

those of the consumer as well as those of the manufacturer.<br />

The E. L. Essley Machinery Company, Chicago,<br />

has completed negotiations with the Nazel Engineering<br />

& Machine Works, Philadelphia, for the exclusive<br />

sale of that company's air hammer.<br />

* * *<br />

It is generally conceded that there is a real need The Hudson Motor Car Company is negotiating<br />

for an <strong>org</strong>anized establishment of the type of the pro­ the purchase of the stamping plants of the Clayton &<br />

posed institute. It is therefore pleasing to learn that Lambert Manufacturing Company, a Detroit concern<br />

there is every indication that the project will receive that supplies the Hudson company with stampings<br />

the joint whole-hearted co-operation of consumers and and other accessories.<br />

manufacturers of refractories. Endorsement of the<br />

* * *<br />

undertaking has in fact been given by a large number<br />

of men in the field of refractories technology. This<br />

interest has been manifested by applications for membership<br />

from a considerable number of industrial executives.<br />

The <strong>org</strong>anizing committee of the institute<br />

is now inviting the especial attention of men who use<br />

refractories, in accordance with the fundamental idea<br />

of making the institute a service bureau for consumers<br />

as well as for producers of refractories. The membership<br />

dues will be nominal, inasmuch as it will be<br />

necessary to provide for only the actual operating expenses<br />

of the institute.<br />

A meeting is to be held in Pittsburgh, Pa., on<br />

April 14. when final plans for incorporation of the Institute<br />

will be discussed. Representatives of industrial<br />

firms that use refractories are invited to attend this<br />

The Gibb Welding Machines Company, Bay City,<br />

Mich., has appointed the Welding Service & Sales<br />

Company, Donovan Bldg., Detroit, as its representative<br />

in the Detroit district.<br />

* * *<br />

The Youngstown Pressed Steel Company, Warren.<br />

Ohio, is filling a number of orders for fireproofing<br />

building products for the Berger Manufacturing Company,<br />

Canton, Ohio, whose plant was recently damaged<br />

by fire. Replacement of considerable stock<br />

which was ready for shipment at the time of the fire<br />

has become necessary. Officials of the Youngstown<br />

Pressed Steel Company state that business is expanding<br />

and indications point to steady demand.<br />

* * *<br />

meeting, in order to become acquainted with the plans<br />

that have been made.<br />

The Phoenix Horseshoe Company, Chicago, which<br />

recently purchased the horseshoe department of the<br />

Macdonald C. Booze, senior incumbent of the American Steel & Wire Company, which was located<br />

Multiple Industrial Fellowship on Refractories. Mel­ in the Schoenberger plant, PittsDurgh, will probably<br />

lon Institute of Industrial Research. Pittsburgh, has move the machinery as well as many employes to its<br />

been appointed temporary secretary of the <strong>org</strong>anizing works at Cleves, Ohio, which operates under the name<br />

committee of "The American Refractories Institute." of the Cincinnati Horseshoe Company. There the<br />

Further particulars regarding the coming meeting will manufacture of the Juniata line of horseshoes will be<br />

be furnished by him upon request.<br />

continued.<br />

* * *<br />

miiiniiitiiiiiHiiiniiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiliiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiilliliiliiiliiiiliiiillliillliillllilllM<br />

The Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing & Manufacturing Company,<br />

Inc., manufacturer of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings, Endicott, N. Y.,<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

irawmiiBminmiiiflmiiiit nuniMiiuiimi inifinmiiiniiiMiit n HiMimiiiimiiinmiinimnnifHmimimmmnnimiitiupuiuiuiiwiiHJD<br />

is planning additions to its f<strong>org</strong>e plant. Orders for<br />

furnaces for the new heat treating department have<br />

been placed as well as for steel work for the die<br />

Addition to the plant of the Federal Enameling &<br />

Stamping Company. McKees Rocks, Pa., is being con­<br />

storage.<br />

* * *<br />

sidered and probably will be undertaken in the fall. The Mullins Body & Tank Company, Milwaukee,<br />

An office building will be put up this spring on Char- manufacturer of steel bodies, dump bodies, tanks, metiers<br />

Avenue, McKees Rocks.<br />

chanical hoists, etc., has leased the former plant of<br />

* * *<br />

the American Bearings Company at Forty-seventh<br />

C. I". Williams Company, Bloomington, 111., is Avenue and Rogers Street, in West Allis for imme­<br />

erecting a new building covering 30,000 square feet diate occupancy. Orders have been placed for con­<br />

of floor space, for the manufacture of the Williams siderable new plate and sheet working equipment,<br />

"Oil-O-Matic" burners. The construction work is car­ electric welders and other machinery, but further purried<br />

out by the Austin Company, engineers and buildchases are to be made. C. J. Mullins is general<br />

ers, Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

manager.


March, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping - Heat Treating 109<br />

The Mercury Body Corporation, Louisville, Ky.,<br />

whose principal output during the past three years<br />

has been all-steel bodies for Chevrolet, Ford and Star<br />

chasses, plans to devote more capacity to specially designed<br />

passenger and commercial bodies for all makes<br />

of cars, trucks and tractors. D. C. Harris, previously<br />

treasurer of the Mengel Body Company, Louisville,<br />

has assumed active management, having been elected<br />

president and member of the board of directors. At<br />

the annual meeting D. C. Harris was elected president,<br />

W. R- Tischendorf, vice president, and Donald Mc­<br />

Donald, secretary and treasurer.<br />

* * *<br />

The Igo Manufacturing Company, Kenosha, Wis.,<br />

with $150,000 capital stock, has been <strong>org</strong>anized in<br />

Wisconsin by the owners of the Igo Manufacturing<br />

Company of Chicago, manufacturers of automobile<br />

bumpers and other automobile accessories and equipment,<br />

which is abandoning its plant at Chicago<br />

Heights and transferring the operation to Kenosha.<br />

A long-term lease has been taken on two buildings of<br />

the Bain Wagon Company works in Kenosha, with<br />

an option of 100 per cent additional floor space as<br />

needed.<br />

* * *<br />

The Acme Steel Goods Company, Chicago, 111., is<br />

planning a hot strip mill of the most modern type.<br />

Contract for building has been awarded to the E. W.<br />

Bliss Company, Brooklyn, N. Y.<br />

miiiiiiiiiiiiii "iiiiiiiiiiiii in n n nun mi iiiiiii iu uiiiwiiuihib<br />

P E R S O N A L S<br />

nimiiiiiiifliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiffl<br />

W. H. Wiewel, formerly assistant general sales<br />

manager for the United Alloy Steel Corporation, Canton,<br />

Ohio, has been made New York district sales<br />

manager for the Standard Seamless Tube Company,<br />

Pittsburgh. He succeeds B. F. Dart, who resigned,<br />

effective February 1.<br />

* * *<br />

Arthur T. Clarage, son of the late E. T. Clarage,<br />

founder and first president of the Columbia Tool Steel<br />

Company, Chicago Heights, 111., has been elected<br />

president of that company, succeeding A. R. Waters,<br />

retiring. Mr. Waters was one of the founders of the<br />

company and has been active as general manager and<br />

president since the company was formed in 1904.<br />

* * *<br />

Henry Harnishfeger, president of the Harnishfeger<br />

Corporation, until recently known as the Pawling &<br />

Harnischfeger Company, Milwaukee, departed January<br />

27 for New York to sail on a Mediterranean cruise of<br />

six months.<br />

* * *<br />

Walter F. Brumm has joined the sales force of the<br />

Inland Steel Company at Kansas City, Mo. Mr.<br />

Brumm has been with the National Enameling &<br />

Stamping Company, Granite City, 111., and previously<br />

vas in the St. Louis office of the Bethlehem Steel<br />

Company and the Cambria Steel Company.<br />

* * *<br />

C. A. Brangham has become associated with the<br />

sales department of the Newton Steel Company,<br />

Youngstown, Ohio. Mr. Brangham formerly was<br />

identified with the Trumbull Steel Company, Warren,<br />

Ohio.<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e S. Adams, for the past six years service<br />

engineer for the Bock Bearing Company, Toledo, became<br />

chief engineer March 1. In his new position he<br />

succeeds L. W. Close, who has resigned to enter another<br />

line of business.<br />

* * *<br />

W. R. Quinn has been appointed Pacific coast agent<br />

with headquarters in San Francisco by the Combustion<br />

Engineering Corporation, New York. Mr. Quinn<br />

was formerly manager of the fuel oil department. His<br />

address will be 1132 Shotwell Street, San Francisco.<br />

* * *<br />

Harold F. Welch has been appointed New York<br />

district sales manager for the Niles-Bement-Pond<br />

Company, 111 Broadway, New York. He was affiliated<br />

with the company's railroad department in<br />

that district. M. P. Kirk was appointed assistant sales<br />

manager, subordinate to E. L. Leeds. Mr. Kirk was<br />

formerly the company's representative in the Cincinnati<br />

district, where he is now being succeeded by<br />

Elmer Gates of the Rochester office.<br />

* * *<br />

M. F. Findley, district sales manager at Chicago<br />

for the past nine years for the West Leechburg Steel<br />

Company, Pittsburgh, has been transferred to Detroit<br />

to take charge of the Michigan territory. He succeeds<br />

A. J. Artnan, who has been transferred to Cleveland<br />

to take charge of an office recently opened there.<br />

L. W. Briggs, formerly assistant to Mr. Findley at<br />

Chicago for the past four or five years, has been promoted<br />

to succeed the latter as district sales manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Earl Wallis, editor of the National Safety<br />

News, and director of publicity for the National Safety<br />

Council, has resigned from those capacities. His new<br />

connection will be as publicity counsellor for the<br />

Reincke-Ellis Company, Chicago, an advertising <strong>org</strong>anization.<br />

* * *<br />

Carman T. Fish, for the past two years associate<br />

editor of the National Safety News, succeeds Mr.<br />

Wallis as editor. Mr. Fish previously was associate<br />

editor of The Inland Printer.<br />

* * *<br />

William Larimer Jones, Jr., has been made a director<br />

of the Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation<br />

Pittsburgh, by recent action of the board of directors.<br />

W. L. Jones is the son of William Larimer Jones,<br />

president of the corporation.<br />

* * *<br />

William H. Klocke, recently elected vice president<br />

and general manager of the Kleiner Manufacturing<br />

Company, Richmond Hill, N. Y., manufacturer of<br />

pressed f<strong>org</strong>ings, had been chief engineer for 20 years<br />

of the E. W. Bliss Company, Brooklyn, N. Y., builder<br />

of machine tools.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e B. Mitchell, who has been general manager<br />

of sales, Union Drawn Steel Company, Beaver<br />

Falls, Pa., for the past two years, was on February 1<br />

elected vice president of the company. He will continue<br />

to have charge of sales.<br />

* * *<br />

Marshall Post, former manager of the American<br />

Steel Foundries plant in Sharon, Pa., has been named<br />

general manager of the Birdsboro Foundry & Machine<br />

Company, Bird-boro, Pa. Mr. Post recently was mana-


110 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

ger of the American Steel Foundries plant at Chester,<br />

Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

E. J. Kulas has been elected president of the Otis<br />

Steel Company. Cleveland. Ohio, to succeed Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />

Kartol, resigned.<br />

* * *<br />

II. li. Jones, formerly chief engineer of the Susquehanna<br />

Collieries Company at Lykens, Pa., has resigned<br />

to join the engineering staff of the Fuller-<br />

Lehigh Company, manufacturers of pulverized fuel<br />

equipment at Fullerton, Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

Lyman W. Close, for several years chief engineer<br />

of the Hock Rearing Company, Toledo, Ohio, and<br />

David R. Feemster. who for about 11 years has been<br />

connected with the same companv handling special<br />

work in connection with the sheet metal department,<br />

have left the Bock Bearing Company and engaged in<br />

business under the name of the Lydia Machine Products<br />

Company, Toledo Factories Bldg., Toledo, Ohio,<br />

and have installed complete equipment for the manufacture<br />

of dies and the production of all kinds of<br />

sheet metal stampings.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles F. Brandt has resigned as vice president<br />

and general manager of the Racine Manufacturing<br />

Company, Racine, Wis., manufacturers of metal automobile<br />

bodies and other sheet metal automotive products.<br />

Morrill Dunn, vice president McCord Manufacturing<br />

Company, Chicago, which owns the controlling<br />

interest in the Racine company, has assumed charge<br />

of the plant as general manager.<br />

* * *<br />

John P Moriarty, for the past 10 years superintendent<br />

of the rolling mill department of the Timken<br />

Roller Bearing Company, has resigned and will become<br />

identified with the United Alloy Steel Corporation.<br />

* * *<br />

Karl (). Peterson, president of the Crescent Tool<br />

Company, Jamestown, N. Y., manufacturer of<br />

wrenches and tools, has left for a sojourn in California.<br />

During his absence Marvin Peterson will act<br />

in his capacity.<br />

* * *<br />

E. Y. Crane, of the E. W Bliss Company, Brooklyn.<br />

X. Y., addressed the Providence Engineering Society,<br />

Providence. R. I., on the evening of February<br />

20 on the subject, "The Place of the Power Press in<br />

Industry."<br />

* * *<br />

A. F Dohn was elected president of the Atlas<br />

Steel Corporation at a directors' meeting held February<br />

6. at wdiich the new name, Atlas Alloy Steel Corporation.<br />

Dunkirk, X. Y., was adopted in place of<br />

Atlas Steel Corporation. Mr. Dohn has been with the<br />

Atlas Steel Corporation since 1916, first as sales manager,<br />

then as vice president and general manager.<br />

Prior to 1916 he was in business for himself for one<br />

year, selling machinery and steel, and as buyer for<br />

export houses. Before that he was with the Buffalo<br />

Gasoline Motor Companv 14 years, rising to the position<br />

of vice president.<br />

* * *<br />

H. E. Xichols. vice president and treasurer of the<br />

new Atlas Company, was treasurer in 1918 of the old<br />

Atlas Crucible Steel Corporation, having previously-<br />

March, 1925<br />

been with the Niagara Falls Power Company. Frank<br />

B. Lounsberry is vice president and metallurgist, having<br />

come from the Halcomb Steel Company, Syracuse,<br />

X. Y. W D. Myers, secretary, was formerly with the<br />

Electric Alloy Steel Company and the Brier Hill Steel<br />

Companv. Assistant Treasurer Walter Bould was<br />

formerly with the Cyclops Steel Company. Charles<br />

P Burgess is assistant to President Dohn.<br />

* * *<br />

W. F. Scully, formerly president of the Advance<br />

Furnace & Engineering Company of Springfield,<br />

Mass.. has rejoined the <strong>org</strong>anization of the Gilbert &<br />

Barker Manufacturing Company as manager of furnace<br />

and factory sales. Mr. Scully was with the Gilbert<br />

& Baker Manufacturing Company from 1910 to<br />

1920. leaving in the latter year to <strong>org</strong>anize the Advance<br />

Furnace & Engineering Company. The patents,<br />

patterns, records, etc., of the Advance Company<br />

have been purchased by the Gilbert & Barker Manufacturing<br />

Company, who will be in a position to supply<br />

repair parts for Advance Company equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

A. S. Taylor, formerly sales engineer for the<br />

I'nited Alloy Steel Corporation, Canton, Ohio, is now<br />

with the Central Steel Company, Massillon, Ohio, in<br />

the same capacity.<br />

OBITUARY<br />

Prof. Frederick Crabtree, aged 52, head of the Department<br />

of Mining and Metallurgy in the School of<br />

[Engineering at Carnegie Institute of Technology, and<br />

a prominent consulting engineer of this city, died in<br />

St. Petersburg, Fla., February 14. He was born in<br />

Bramley, York, England, February 1, 1867, the son<br />

of Joseph and Isabella Crabtree. He came to this<br />

country when a young man and was educated in the<br />

schools of Lawrence, Mass. In 1889 he graduated<br />

from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, receiving<br />

a B.S. degree in chemistry. He was consulting<br />

engineer for the Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation<br />

and many other prominent industrial <strong>org</strong>anizations<br />

in this district. He was president of the Engineers'<br />

Society of Western Pennsylvania last year. He<br />

was a member of the American Institute of Mining<br />

and Metallurgical Engineers, American Iron and<br />

Steel Institute, American Electro Chemical Society,<br />

American Society of Steel Treating Engineers and the<br />

British Iron and Steel Institute.<br />

* * *<br />

Dr. Xathaniel Shepard Keith, widely known for his<br />

researches in electrometallurgy, died suddenly at his<br />

home in Philadelphia, January 27, of heart disease, at<br />

the age of 86 years.<br />

* * *<br />

David E. Williams, connected with the bolt and<br />

nut industry for almost half a century, died in Cleveland<br />

February 16.<br />

* * *<br />

Hiram A. Xeel, superintendent, Michigan Steel<br />

Casting Company, Detroit, died at his home in that<br />

city February 18, age 36.<br />

* * *<br />

W. J. Patterson, head of W. J. Patterson & Com<br />

panv, sales representative on the Pacific Coast for<br />

steel interests, died February 9 at his home in San<br />

Rafael, Calif. He was a prominent figure in steel<br />

circles in the Pacific Coast and intermountain states.<br />

He was manager of sales for the Midvale Steel & Ord-


Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 11 0-a<br />

R O D M A N<br />

P R O D U C T S<br />

Sealright<br />

C a r b o<br />

Case Hardening Compounds<br />

Longer life and uniform quality.<br />

A luting material that does not corrode the<br />

containers. It prolongs their life indefinitely.<br />

Quenching Oil<br />

A faster oil with uniform quenching char­<br />

acteristics.<br />

R O D M A N CHEMICAL C O M P A N Y<br />

VERONA, PA.<br />

Detroit, 408 Manistique Street<br />

St. Louis, 2024 Railway Exchange Bldg.<br />

Pacific Coast Representatives:<br />

Waterhouse & Lester Company<br />

San Francisco and Portland<br />

New England Heat Treating Service Co., Inc.<br />

112 High Street, Hartford, Conn.<br />

Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating


Ill F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating March, 1925<br />

nance Companv and the Cambria Steel Company in<br />

the intermountain and Pacific Coast states until sale<br />

of those companies to Bethlehem Steel Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Harry R. Kimmel, chief chemist of the Marion<br />

Steam Shovel Company, Marion, Ohio, died suddenly<br />

at Kalamazoo, Mich., on January 19, at the age of 46<br />

years. He was a graduate of the Case School of Applied<br />

Science, Cleveland, and prominent in Cleveland<br />

social and fraternal circles.<br />

* * *<br />

Benjamin F Esger, president and general manager<br />

of the Michigan Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Pontiac, Mich.,<br />

died recently.<br />

rainiHi'iiiiun iuiii:iiiiiiiiiiiiin>uiiiiiiii>'u"3iiii!iiiiiiimiiiii!iiuiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiimiiiiintmiiini<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

«MiniimMini:iir tonooitr


yiiirililllliliililliililliiililliHliiiiiiliililiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiliiiiiiiiililliliiiiiiiilliiiliiiiiiiiiiliiiimiiiiiiii mini liilliiiiliiiiiiiiiiilinililiili:<br />

| rDrgmg-Sramping-floai HPaJing !<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., APRIL, 1925 No. 4 =<br />

F o s t e r i n g S u g g e s t i o n s<br />

FOSTERING suggestions from employes for the improvement of manufacturing<br />

processes or equipment should be encouraged, but the methods<br />

followed by many executives in dealing with these suggestions offer<br />

little inducement to those who are conscientious enough to further the interests<br />

of their employer.<br />

The major porblems in production efficiency are usually left to the various<br />

operating officials, but because of the fact that their time is occupied by<br />

such work, they have little, if any, time to devote to details. The employe<br />

who, day after day is engaged on the same work, whether it is operating a<br />

machine or assembling, is in a better position to see an opportunity for improvement<br />

than his superior. However, unless he is confident that his efforts<br />

to improve production will be rewarded, he is reluctant to give the company<br />

by which he is employed advantage of his observations.<br />

One of the reasons why so many suggestion plans have failed is because<br />

those who make suggestions or offer ideas which have been accepted and put<br />

into use, feel that they have been inadequately rewarded. Another reason is<br />

a tendency on the part of those higher up to condemn ideas, only to offer<br />

them as their own some time later, when they think the originator has f<strong>org</strong>otten<br />

his suggestion. In either case, the indifference of the employer to<br />

give proper recognition to conscientious workmen, either by a reasonable<br />

reward for valuable suggestions, or by eliminating unjust practices, is bound<br />

to react to their disadvantage.<br />

Many ideas are offered that possess little, if any, merit, or on which the<br />

cost of putting into effect would offset any saving over the method in use.<br />

Nevertheless, every suggestion that is advanced should be given careful consideration,<br />

and every effort made to gain the confidence of the individual<br />

making the offer. If his first suggestion is not accepted he will at least feel<br />

that it was received in good faith and will not hesitate to make others when<br />

the occasion arises.<br />

The individual who knows that his efforts are appreciated will feel that<br />

he has an interest in the company besides earning his daily bread, and will<br />

continually strive to give his best. Like a "satisfied customer," a satisfied<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization is worth having and is bound to reflect in success.<br />

^•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••^••••••^••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••IBIIIIIIIII,llllllllliaiiailiaillllR:-<br />

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114 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating April, 1925<br />

L a p s — T h e i r P r o d u c t i o n a n d P r e v e n t i o n<br />

The Author of This Paper Discusses in a Very Comprehensive<br />

Manner Defects Experienced in Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Practice,<br />

L A P S may be and very frequent!}- are formed during<br />

the operation of rolling a drop f<strong>org</strong>ing. A<br />

typical case to imagine is the reduction and drawing<br />

out of a valve stem. The principal occurrence<br />

which produces laps in this operation is the extrusion<br />

between the swages of a scrap fin that is too thin and<br />

flabby. In Fig. 8A the kind of fin which may readily<br />

give rise to a lap is shown in a somewhat exaggerated<br />

form. During the rolling of the bar and the working<br />

of the dies, this fin is first of all extruded as in 8A, and<br />

then when the bar is turned through 90 deg., the fin<br />

is folded over and hammered down onto the drawn<br />

out bar, thus producing a most definite lap, as shown<br />

in Fig. 8B. In Fig. 7 is shown an actual section<br />

through a lap which has been produced in this way.<br />

In order to avoid the occurrence of defects formed<br />

in this way, it is important to employ swages of the<br />

right form. Above everything else it is important that<br />

the deformation shall be such as does not lead to the<br />

extrusion of thin fins at each blow. This can be accomplished<br />

by the. use of tools of a shape that deform<br />

the bar approximately to the section shown in Fig. 9A.<br />

When the bar, of the form shown in Fig. 9A, is turned<br />

through 90 deg. and submitted to the next blow, it<br />

takes the shape shown in Fig. 9B, the original form<br />

of 9A being indicated by dotted lines. Deformation of<br />

this kind does not lead to the extrusion of a thin fin<br />

between the dies, and consequently there is practically<br />

no likelihood of any fin being turned over as the bar<br />

is rotated. There is of course a possibility that a dangerous<br />

fin may be produced even with this form if the<br />

swages do not register properly. In fact with such<br />

conditions it is almost certain that fins of considerable<br />

danger will be formed with all forms of swages and<br />

converted into laps sooner or later.<br />

It will be appreciated, of course, that the extrusion<br />

of a thin fin between the dies is very greatly increased<br />

by working the metal at an unnecessarily high temperature.<br />

If the metal is so weak that it flows exceedingly<br />

easily, it is difficult to avoid pushing out a thin<br />

fin of scrap metal from the swages, and consequently<br />

it is difficult to avoid incorporating such a fin during<br />

rolling. The metal should be kept reasonably still<br />

and with a moderate resistance to deformation if the<br />

formation of laps is to be avoided.<br />

Connected with the rolling operation is a defect<br />

which cannot legitimately be classed as a lap, but<br />

which nevertheless is of distinct importance. It is<br />

important to take it here, because the likelihood of<br />

its formation arises very directly in consequence of<br />

the adoption of the most suitable form of swagin^ tool.<br />

In Fig. 10A is shown diagrammatically the way in<br />

which the stresses come upon the bar which has been<br />

Such as Laps, Folds, Galls and Cold Shuts<br />

By LESLIE AITCHISON, D.Met., B.Sc, F.I.C.<br />

PART II<br />

turned accurately through 90 deg. since it received the<br />

last blow. It is evident that the principal forces from<br />

the two swages are in line with each other and pass<br />

.through the center of the bar. In Fig. 10B is shown<br />

what may and does often happen if the blow is not<br />

delivered at the correct time. It is evident from the<br />

sketch that the bar has been rotated through more<br />

than 90 deg. (turning through less than 90 deg. has<br />

the same effect) and that consequently the blows from<br />

the upper and the lower dies do not act in directions<br />

that are in line with each other.<br />

Under these conditions the bar is subjected to<br />

stresses which definitely tend to pull the bar apart,<br />

and it is quite usual for the material to split under<br />

these conditions. Most generally, though not always,<br />

FIG. 7—Macrosection through lap produced during rolling.<br />

the split appears to start from the center of the bar,<br />

and in fact it is the defect which starts in the center<br />

which is of the greatest importance. By continuing<br />

the rolling action it is actually possible to produce a<br />

hole right down the bar, but under ordinary swaging<br />

conditions it is more usual to produce a defect in the<br />

middle of the bar which then spreads out to the exterior,<br />

causing a split down the whole length. The<br />

resulting defect is shown by the section of the bar<br />

given in Fig. IOC. The remedy for such an action is<br />

obviously the turning of the bar through as nearly as<br />

possible the correct angle between the delivery of successive<br />

blows and also the avoidance of a circular section<br />

of the bar until the latest stages of swaging.<br />

One very prolific source of trouble due to the for­<br />

•Lecture delivered before the Association of Drop F<strong>org</strong>ers mation of laps operates very definitely during the f<strong>org</strong>­<br />

and Stampers, Birmingham. England. March 26. 1924 and ing of H section connecting-rods, levers and the like.<br />

reprinted from the Journal of the Association.<br />

This type of action is worth very careful consideration


April, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating 115<br />

because it involves conditions and operations which<br />

are common to the production of many types of f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

The type of section which is immediately to be<br />

considered is shown in Fig. 11A and it can be imagined<br />

that this section is to be _ made from the rough bar<br />

which will be to all intents and purposes quite rectangular<br />

in the part which is to form the H section.<br />

In the roughing operation metal cannot readily be<br />

made to flow upwards. Sections can be reduced by<br />

roughing, but they cannot be increased, and to rough<br />

out an H section is a comparatively difficult operation<br />

and requires special tools. It is fairly safe, therefore,<br />

to assume that the rough bar will be rectangular. Its<br />

thickness will be something between the thickness of<br />

the web A and the depth of the flange B. When the<br />

metal is put between the dies, that portion which lies<br />

in the middle of the bar, and which will eventually<br />

form the web of the H section, will receive the first<br />

blows and will therefore be subject to a definite force<br />

driving the metal outwards and also consequently<br />

tending to drive it upwards. The result is that after<br />

the first blow the metal will have taken a shape something<br />

like that shown in Fig. 1 IB. At the points X,<br />

X1, etc., metal will have come up against the dies and<br />

will, therefore, be more or less held in these positions.<br />

Any extra metal that is to flow upwards to form the<br />

side flanges will have to pass by this place of construction.<br />

As a result of the retention of the metal at<br />

the points X and X1, the excess of metal from the web<br />

will flow upwards and fill the dies to create the flanges,<br />

and of course some of it will flow outwards and form<br />

the scrap. Nevertheless, in view of the constriction<br />

of the metal at the sides and particularly near to the<br />

edge of the dies where the scrap has to exude, there<br />

is a tendency for a reverse movement, as shown diagrammatically<br />

at the point Y in the Fig. 11C. So<br />

much has had to be moved in this example, that the<br />

effort of getting it away has been almost too great,<br />

and the back pressure, as it may be described, produced<br />

by the sides of the die impression has been sufficient<br />

to cause this extra metal to squirt backwards and be<br />

trapped by the falling die.<br />

This, however, is not the only or the most usual<br />

way in which the trouble may occur in the corner of<br />

an H section. Exactly the same kind of defect may<br />

be produced as has been described earlier in the production<br />

of a gall in a crankshaft. Mention has already<br />

been made of the way in which the dies at the<br />

positions X, X1, etc., hold the metal and more or less<br />

trap it. There is no sort of movement of metal along<br />

the face of the die. Movement must go on within<br />

the mass, if at all, and if the metal is held tightly at<br />

the positions X and X1, freedom of movement is very<br />

considerably curtailed. Consequently when the scrap<br />

flows out between the dies it tends to produce the same<br />

sucking action as has been referred to previously in<br />

connection with bending. The result is that the metal<br />

is sucked in at the corner joining the flange and web,<br />

and a gall such as has been described previously is produced.<br />

The two types of defect in the H section are<br />

therefore not quite the same. They are produced in<br />

different ways; one due to an excess and the other<br />

to a deficiency of material and the resulting form of<br />

these defects is different. This can be seen from the<br />

two sections in Figs. 12A and 12B, the former showing<br />

that produced by an excess of metal, and the latter<br />

that produced by a deficiency.<br />

Good opportunities for the production of laps occur<br />

during the roughing down of a bar or billet. In general<br />

the defects are more likely to occur when square<br />

or rectangular sections of bars or billets are being<br />

hammered, but they are not by any manner of means<br />

confined to these sections. During roughing the edges<br />

of the section may readily be turned over and hammered<br />

down onto the surface adjoining. This particular<br />

action need not be enlarged upon seriously, as<br />

it is easy to recognize and not particularly difficult to<br />

avoid.<br />

A very important case arises, however, in connec<br />

tion with roughing down, which is not by any means<br />

so easy to meet, and occurs particularly where the<br />

rough bar is made to contain a comparatively sharp<br />

change of section. Any f<strong>org</strong>ing which has a compartively<br />

big end joined to a relatively small sectioned<br />

stem, can be taken as typical. A connection rod or a<br />

brake lever are quite good and satisfactory examples.<br />

The effect of this sudden change of section can be<br />

made most clear by a series of diagrams. In Fig. 13a<br />

is indicated the original rougher section, which, at<br />

the corner A, is shown to be quite sharp. When this<br />

FIG. 8—Showing formation of thin fin followed by its incorporation<br />

in f<strong>org</strong>ed bar by rolling. FIG. 9—Showing form<br />

of swages that are used to avoid fins. FIG. 10—Diagrammatic<br />

indication of production of defect by offsetting of<br />

swages.<br />

is put into the dies the highest part of the big en<br />

may possibly come first into contact with the dies, and<br />

there will be a general movement of the corner A, as<br />

indicated by Fig. 13b. Additional work by the dies<br />

tends to make the excess of metal from the smaller<br />

section of the rough move towards A in the opposite<br />

direction. The next stage, therefore, is shown in Fig.<br />

13c. The final step in the process is that shown in<br />

Fig. 13d, where these two surfaces have met and have<br />

produced a definite shut in the surface of the article.<br />

As a matter of fact, the net effect of the action is almost<br />

the same as if a gall had been formed in the<br />

sharp corner at A and then by the process of f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

had been made to flow along the rod for a certain distance.<br />

The shut is not formed in quite this way,<br />

though the result is very similar. The action really<br />

consists in the formation of a lap, as shown, because<br />

two pieces of metal moving in opposite directions come<br />

together and pile up against each other.<br />

This is not a particularly difficult trouble to avoid<br />

if the cause of its occurence is clearly understood. The<br />

real root of the trouble may be taken to be the suddenness<br />

of the change of section at A. If this sudden<br />

change of section is replaced by a suitably large fillet,<br />

any such defects as have been described will not be<br />

produced. They will not occur, firstly because the


116 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

metal will be tending to glow in the same direction all<br />

the time much more uniformly, and secondly because<br />

there will be no fixed corner or cavity at A. which is<br />

moved more or less bodily along the dies. In the<br />

absence of these two causes, the formation of laps in<br />

this manner is comparatively unlikely to take place.<br />

no u<br />

FIG. 11—(a) Cross section of finished articles, (b) Cross section<br />

after first blow, (c) Laps formed at junction of web<br />

and flange. FIG 12—Sections through defects produced<br />

in connecting rods in different ways.<br />

Another way in which the defect can be avoided is bycausing<br />

the excess of metal which is present at and<br />

near to the corner A. to flow away in other directions.<br />

instead of causing the metal to flow along the stem,<br />

as has occurred in the example quoted, it can be made<br />

to flow at right angles to this direction and consequently<br />

to free itself from the dies without moving at<br />

all in the direction of A. If this is done there is less<br />

tendency for the corner to be forced along and to<br />

meet the wave of metal proceeding from the shank of<br />

the pattern towards the virtual cavity at A.<br />

A very prolific source of the conditions which lead<br />

to the production of laps is the operation of splitting<br />

a bar or billet. The defects may arise in several ways,<br />

and of course different methods of splitting will give<br />

rise to different types of defect. It has been mentioned<br />

in earlier lectures that splitting by itself is a distinctlyundesirable<br />

operation and that it should be avoided<br />

whenever possible. If a billet must be split, there is<br />

no doubt that it is far better to start by punching a<br />

hole through the metal in the position which would<br />

otherwise constitute the bottom of the track of the<br />

parting tool. This does avoid various kinds of defect.<br />

Suppose, however, that this has not been done and<br />

that splitting has been carried out in a way that very<br />

often happens. The first kind of defect which may<br />

readily arise is that produced by the rag which accumulates<br />

near to the bottom of the parting tool. This<br />

more or less consists of thin layers of metal that have<br />

been loosened by the parting tool and forced along in<br />

front of it. It is also possible that the tool may tear<br />

the sides of its track and make small laps as it goes<br />

along. All such eventualities should be looked after<br />

at the time that the f<strong>org</strong>ing is laid out and precautions<br />

then taken both to reduce the formation of rag to a<br />

minimum and also to ensure that it is either removed<br />

before f<strong>org</strong>ing, or else that it is forced out entirely<br />

with the scrap.<br />

The second kind of defect which may be produced<br />

from the splitting operation can be illustrated readily<br />

by reference to the f<strong>org</strong>ing of a T piece. It is assumed<br />

April, 1925<br />

again that the very desirable hole has not been drifted<br />

through prior to the parting operation. When the bar<br />

or billet has been split and then turned back, two<br />

positions are more likely to be defective than others.<br />

In Fig. 14A is shown the first condition where the<br />

arms of the cross pieces have been bent back as far<br />

as they should go. In the nature of things the point<br />

from which the two side pieces diverge will not become<br />

perfectly flat, but will be kinked in. At the point X<br />

in Fig. 14A, there is everything ready for the formation<br />

of a gall. It is almost entirely a matter of the<br />

amount of extra metal that is to be extruded from the<br />

dies during the final f<strong>org</strong>ing, which will decide whether<br />

or not this gall is going to be incorporated within the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing, or is going to be pushed outside with the<br />

scrap. In Fig. 14A the dotted lines show the final<br />

form, when the gall at X is incorporated in the f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

A second possibility arises when the arms are<br />

bent back too far. This is shown diagrammatically in<br />

Fig. 14B, and the two points Y and Y1 are those at<br />

which defects may most readily be produced. The<br />

point X is not likely to be entirely immune from trouble<br />

even here, so that under these circumstances three<br />

defective places may readily occur. The formation of<br />

the defect at the point, Y and Y\ is merely another<br />

example of kinking during bending, such as has already<br />

been described. In Fig. 14B the dotted lines<br />

show the final f<strong>org</strong>ing where defects have occurred at<br />

X, Y and Y1. These troubles are considerably more<br />

important than the formation of the rag, and they<br />

really constitute the most probable source of defects<br />

that accompany the practice of splitting.<br />

A.<br />

A*-<br />

V f<br />

Fig. 16 Fig.IS<br />

FIG. 13—Diagrammatic representation of different stages in<br />

the development of defect due to unduly sharp curves in<br />

rough bar. FIG. 14—Diagram showing formation of defects<br />

in f<strong>org</strong>ing a split billet. FIG. 15—Method employed<br />

to eliminate defect shown in Firg. 14. FIG. IS—(a) The<br />

billet prepared prior to turning back to avoid defects, (b)<br />

The bar after bending and prior to f<strong>org</strong>ing. FIG. 16—Diagrammatic<br />

representation of effects of uneven splitting of<br />

a billet.<br />

The avoidance of all troubles of the kinds shown<br />

in Figs. 14A and 14B can be secured best by a proper<br />

lay-out of the work during preliminary f<strong>org</strong>ing. It is<br />

important to secure first that there shall be the least<br />

likelihood of a sharp corner at X to act as the nucleus<br />

of a gall. This can be secured chiefly by means of


April, 1925<br />

punching a clean hole through the bar or billet prior<br />

to splitting. Secondly, it is necessary to provide<br />

against kinking at Y and Y1 during bending. For<br />

this purpose the usual precaution of piling up the metal<br />

is adopted. In this case the excess of metal must be<br />

on the concave side of the bend. This result is the<br />

preparation of a bar like that shown in Fig. 15A. When<br />

this bar is opened out prior to f<strong>org</strong>ing it has the form<br />

shown in Fig. 15B. In such a blank there is no kink<br />

at Y and Y1 and no embryonic gall at X.<br />

Another trouble that may arise as a result of the<br />

splitting operation is the uneven distribution of metal<br />

between the two dies. If the split has not been made<br />

perfectly true and in a straight line, the piece that is<br />

turned back for subsequent f<strong>org</strong>ing will not be symmetrical<br />

in respect of the profile of the pattern as<br />

shown in Fig. 16. As a result there will be an excess<br />

of metal in one side of each die and a deficiency in the<br />

other. This will interfere with the satisfactory flow<br />

of the metal during f<strong>org</strong>ing and will very frequently<br />

result in the formation of a lap in much the way that<br />

has been described for kinking during bending.<br />

There is no doubt that the dangers which attend<br />

the splitting operation can be minimized by drifting a<br />

hole through the billet prior to parting, and this practice<br />

should be generally followed.<br />

In connection with almost all cases of the formation<br />

of laps and folds, the temperature of the metal is<br />

of very great importance. The way in which a piece<br />

of metal will crack if it is worked too cold has been<br />

frequently demonstrated and is fairly well understood.<br />

In the efforts to avoid this trouble there is always the<br />

danger of running to the other extreme and using metal<br />

which is too hot. When the metal attains too high a<br />

temperature it becomes sloppy and loses its rigidity<br />

and tends to flow about too easily. This means that it<br />

is not sufficiently under control and is likely to be affected<br />

by small variation of conditions far more than it<br />

should. The use of a correct f<strong>org</strong>ing temperature is<br />

of intense importance and every attention should be<br />

paid to it. Without such attention defects are bound<br />

to be produced, particularly in such operations as rolling<br />

and roughing.<br />

The second most important thing in avoiding laps<br />

is undoubtedly the selection of the right quantity of<br />

metal to be placed between the dies. I think there is<br />

little doubt that more laps are formed in consequence<br />

of a deficiency of metal than through an excess, and<br />

great pains should be taken to ensure that the right<br />

quantity of material is present at the commencement<br />

of die f<strong>org</strong>ing operations. A comparatively large excess<br />

is distinctly less harmful than a relatively small<br />

deficiency in this connection. It has been previously<br />

shown that for other reasons a little excess of metal<br />

is very rarely a disadvantage in preserving the dies.<br />

Connected with the deficiency in metal is the effect<br />

of restricting the flow of the metal at the right places.<br />

If the metal is allowed to go freely where it wills, it<br />

is bound sooner or later to suck after it metal which<br />

ought to flow in another direction. This should be<br />

prevented, and the flow of metal in all directions<br />

should be controlled. On the other hand if there is a<br />

danger that surface defects, which should be properly<br />

accommodated in the scrap, might be incorporated<br />

in the f<strong>org</strong>ing, it is desirable to arrange a scrap recess<br />

around the pattern, so that at an early stage in the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing process the metal is forced to take a contour<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Tieating 117<br />

which results in the collection of the more defective<br />

material (and that which is more likely to become defective)<br />

within the scrap fringe which can be subsequently<br />

discarded.<br />

I have the greatest pleasure in testifying once<br />

again my gratitude to Mr. F. J. Shotton, of the Albion<br />

Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Co., Ltd., Coventry, for the invaluable<br />

assistance that he has so kindly and generously given.<br />

Simplifications of Sheet Steel<br />

Simplification of variety of sheet steel, the third<br />

of the eleven principal products of the steel group,<br />

foreshadows a saving of more than $2,500,000 annually<br />

to the industry, according to an estimate furnished<br />

to the Division of Simplified Practice, Department of<br />

Commerce, by Walter C. Carroll, vice president of<br />

the Inland Steel Company, Chicago, who was a leading<br />

figure in the movement to reduce the variety of<br />

sheet steel sizes.<br />

In the forthcoming booklet in the Division of Simplified<br />

Practice "Elimination of Waste" series, dealing<br />

with this simplification, it is pointed out by Mr.<br />

Carroll that 35 manufacturing companies having 686<br />

mills are affected. The production involved is 5,000,-<br />

000 net tons annually.<br />

Sheet steel, it is pointed out, has a widely varied<br />

demand, ranging from the automobile industry, which<br />

consumes 37 per cent, down to the casket and vault<br />

industry, in which the demand is less than 1 per cent.<br />

The distribution of sheet steel by jobbers is some 13<br />

per cent of the production, ranking second only to the<br />

automobile industry.<br />

Eighty-five per cent of the demand, Mr. Carroll<br />

indicates, was for 15 per cent of the sizes manufactured<br />

before the simplification program was undertaken. In<br />

the field of one pass cold rolled and box annealed steel,<br />

72 per cent of the demand was in 43 of 434 numbers<br />

made. In blue annealed sheets, 70 per cent of the demand<br />

was in 52 of 523 numbers made. In galvanized<br />

sheets 71 per cent was for 110 of 673 items made,<br />

while in galvanized roofing there was 97 per cent of<br />

the demand for 38 of the 142 varieties made. Eighty<br />

per cent of the demand in painted roofing was for six<br />

of the 47 numbers made.<br />

Warehousing of the 1,819 varieties made has been<br />

a huge expense for the distributor, it is pointed out;<br />

and if the sizes had been reduced by but 50 per cent<br />

the saving would have been $2,500,000 annually.<br />

STATEMENT OF THE OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, ETC., OF<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

[Required by the Act of Congress of August 24, 1912]<br />

Name of Publication: F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating, published monthly<br />

at Pittsburgh, Pa. (Report of April, 1925.)<br />

Publisher—The Andresen Co., Inc. 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Editor—D. L. Mathias, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Managing Editor—L. L. Carson, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Business Manager—L. L. Carson, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Names and Addresses of stockholders holding 1 per cent or more of total<br />

amount of stock:<br />

L. L. Carson, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

F. C. Andresen, 709 House Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

C. J. Keller, 5840 Solway St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

M. M. Zeder, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

R. H. Thiess, 426 Byrne Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif.<br />

Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders holding 1 per<br />

cent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities:<br />

None.<br />

Sworn (My commission to and subscribed expires March before 6, CHAS. me 1927.)<br />

t. this L. A. CARSON, 20th SEIBERT, day of Business March, Notary Manager. 1925. Public.


118 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

April, 1925<br />

F a b r i c a t i n g S e a m l e s s H o l l o w M e t a l Balls<br />

Perfect Balance and Freedom from Internal Strains Is Achieved<br />

Without Affecting the Strength or Accuracy of the<br />

A n e w process for the manufacture of hollow metal<br />

balls has recently been perfected after years of<br />

intensive experimentation. The Hollow Ball<br />

Company, Inc., of Baltimore, Maryland, controls the<br />

basic United States and foreign patents for the process<br />

and has recently completed a plant equipped to produce<br />

these balls on a large scale. The balls are marketed<br />

under the trade name "Holbol" and can now be<br />

procured in most commercial sizes and metals.<br />

Instead of using bar stock as is done in the manufacture<br />

of solid balls, the process utilizes metal strip<br />

or seamless tubing. Any metal that has the ductility<br />

requisite for deep drawing and can be procured either<br />

in strip or tube form can lie adapted to the process.<br />

Such metals as steel, brass, aluminum and monel have<br />

already been successfully fabricated and the production<br />

of these balls from stainless steel, nickel silver and<br />

magnesium alloys is now in the course of development.<br />

The basis of the whole process is the rolling operation.<br />

The rolling machine in which this is performed<br />

is shown in big. 1 and consists essentially of two hardened<br />

steel plates provided with a series of matched<br />

concentric grooves of special configuration. ()ne of<br />

the two plates is stationary, the other is rotary and so<br />

mounted that the two plates can be drawn together to<br />

any desired degree. The balls are placed within the<br />

grooves, completely filling them. By the aid of the<br />

FIG. 1—Machine used for closing hole<br />

and forming ball. (Above)—Form of<br />

grooves in plate used on rolling machine<br />

is of basic importance.<br />

hand wheel shown to the left, a gradually increasing<br />

pressure is affected. The grooves are so designed as<br />

to permit the ball to spin, roll and gyrate, assuring a<br />

uniform working of the metal on all diameters. The<br />

balls move from hopper to groove and from groove<br />

back to hopper, successively passing all the concentric<br />

grooves under gradually increasing pressure.<br />

•Editor F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

Ball—Cold-Processing Used Throughout<br />

By D. L. MATHIAS*<br />

The strenuous rolling and spinning action causes<br />

a thorough mechanical knitting of the metal at the<br />

apertures, completely closing them. Furthermore, the<br />

rolling improves the hardness of the balls considerably<br />

and gives them that smooth, close grained surface<br />

which is so essential in withstanding the fatigue of<br />

repeated shocks. The rolling action also causes the<br />

metal to flow from points of excess to points of deficiency,<br />

so that at the end of the operation the wall is<br />

uniform throughout, which accounts for the perfect<br />

balance of the ball.<br />

In smaller sizes the balls are made from strip metal.<br />

Stages of the preliminary press operations, as well as<br />

the rolling and grinding are shown in Fig. 2. Strip<br />

in the form of a coil is fed into an automatic press,<br />

which blanks and cups it. In a second press operation<br />

this blank is re-drawn, after which the cup is reannealed<br />

and automatically trimmed to length. The<br />

third operation points the blank to an acorn shape and<br />

the fourth rounds it. leaving a small aperture at the<br />

pole.<br />

For larger sizes seamless tubing is used. The tubing<br />

is first put into an automatic lathe which simultaneously<br />

curves it to a radius and cuts it to length.<br />

The tubular blanks are then put through a series of<br />

press operations illustrated in Fig. 3. These press<br />

operations differ from the strip method primarily in<br />

the fact that the upper and lower dies are symmetrical<br />

so that at the close of the press work two aperatures<br />

are left at opposite poles.<br />

As we have already mentioned, after the preliminary<br />

press operation, the spherical blanks enter the rolling<br />

machine where the holes are completely closed and<br />

the wall rendered uniform. When the balls emerge<br />

from the rolling machine they are true in sphericity<br />

within approximately .001 in. For some applications<br />

this sphericity is sufficient, for others it is necessary


April, 1925 Ibrging - Stamping - Heat Tieating 119<br />

F r o m T u b e to H O L B O L F r o m Strip t o H O L B O L<br />

^m P""" PaMM US-A..»d Fcr.^n Couwrie. >. , _ p,MM, pa,mted USA. and Feign Countries<br />

Tub* STcSt Poin,ed °va,ed Rounded c'°sed FHo?bofd<br />

Blanked Drawn Re-drawn<br />

and Pointed<br />

Trimmed<br />

Rounded Closed<br />

FIG. 2—The tube is cut to length and the ends tapered. Succeeding operations are similar to those for making the balls<br />

from strips. FIG. 3—Successive stage in the production of hollow balls from strip metal.<br />

to put the balls through a further grinding operation, that a hollow ball having a wall thickness of from 8<br />

which produces the requisite accuracy. Three grades per cent to 10 per cent of the ball diameter is equiva­<br />

of hollow balls are being manufactured — Precision, lent in load carrying capacity to a solid ball of equal<br />

Standard and Hardware — according to the service for diameter, provided both are made of the same metal<br />

which they are intended. However, it is not necessary and subjected to the same heat treatment.<br />

to dwell on these finishing operations as they do not The reduction in weight is of tremendous import­<br />

differ essentially from the methods used in the manuance in practically^ all ball applications, but especially<br />

facture of solid balls.<br />

so in valve service. First of all the lighter ball im­<br />

The weight of a hollow ball is a function of its wall proves the sensitivity of the valve mechanism because<br />

thickness. This is illustrated in the diagram of Fig. 5. it responds more readily to changes in fluid pressure.<br />

The two variables in this diagram are the wall factor. This is an essential improvement as solid ball check<br />

which is the ratio of the wall thickness to the ball valves have been known to stick in the seat or at best<br />

diameter and the weight factor, which is the ratio of respond sluggishly to the action of the fluid. Further­<br />

the weight of a hollow ball to that of a solid ball of more, the lighter weight means a considerable reduc­<br />

equal diameter. As an example consider the average tion in the shock effect, which increases the life of<br />

hollow ball which has a wall factor of approximately both ball and seat. But what is most important is the<br />

7 per cent. The weight factor in this case is 40 per tendency of the lighter ball to whirl under the in­<br />

cent, which means that it is 60 per cent lighter than fluence of the fluid current. This causes a constant<br />

a solid ball of equal diameter. When the wall factor change in seating position which eliminates localized<br />

is reduced to 5 per cent, the saving in weight is over wear and "grooving".<br />

two-thirds.<br />

The necessity of having a lighter ball has long oc­<br />

The process is adapted for making balls the wall curred to ball users and various attempts were made<br />

factor of which ranges at the present time from 5 per to produce hollow balls. One of the best known meth­<br />

cent to 10 per cent. Thus it is possible to produce by ods is to cast a ball out of bronze or iron, leaving a<br />

this process aluminum balls with a weight factor so sand hole to remove the core and then plugging the<br />

low that they can be used for float purposes. On the aperture. Balls of this dsecription are widely used<br />

other hand for valve service, where the duty is likely in larger pumps and valves. A section of such a ball<br />

to be severe, it is essential to get the wall as heavy as is shown in the center of Fig. 4. Another method was<br />

is consistent with the desired reduction in weight. to fabricate a ball out of two hemispheres welded<br />

along the equator. The objectionable feature<br />

in such balls is their lack of balance and also<br />

their weakness around the plug or the weld. The<br />

lack of balance causes the ball to fall in its seat<br />

constantly in the same definite position and a<br />

groove is soon formed at the zone of contact.<br />

The relative lightness of the cast ball is not<br />

FIG. 4—Types of hollow balls. Left- Spun copper ball. Center— sufficient to compensate for this unbalanced con­<br />

Cast bronze ball. Right- -Section of Holbol.<br />

dition, the best reduction that has been achieved<br />

This is achieved by maintaining the wall factor somewhat<br />

around 8 per cent.<br />

It is obvious that the core of a solid ball does not<br />

contribute to its strength and if we imagine that this<br />

is being gradually removed, we will find the following<br />

situation. Up to a certain point the strength will not<br />

be affected. When this "critical wall thickness", however,<br />

is reached, the strength begins to decrease first<br />

very slowly, then more rapidly. Theoretical calculations<br />

show that this critical wall thickness is reached<br />

somewhere between 8 per cent and 10 per cent according<br />

to the metal and heat treatment. That is to say<br />

in this way being about 50 per cent. Furthermore,<br />

this method of construction is difficult to<br />

apply to balls smaller than iy in., which accounts<br />

for their restricted use.<br />

One of the claims made for the balls is that their<br />

perfect balance is not achieved by artificial means but<br />

is inherent in the process itself. First of all the dies<br />

are so designed as to give the blank an approximately<br />

uniform wall. In the second place the remaining difference<br />

of the wall thickness at various points is completely<br />

obliterated during the rolling operation. Incidentally,<br />

the process is in itself a test of the ultimate<br />

have fitness of readily solid flaws of balls detected the than and ball. the such even bar The defects stock in raw a used material as superficial it in may the is manufacture<br />

have less inspection.<br />

liable can to be


[20 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating April, 1925<br />

Should, however, some of the faulty material get into<br />

process the blanks would not be able to withstand the<br />

strenuous press operations and would be scrapped in<br />

the first stages. As to the rolling operation, it is as<br />

good an endurance test as can be imagined, as a ball<br />

that could successfully pass the tremendous pressures<br />

of the rolling plates is equal to any task to which it<br />

may be subjected in actual service.<br />

:00<br />

90<br />

BO<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

JO<br />

* eo<br />

10<br />

10 JO JO 40 SO<br />

Wall thickness in percentages of ball diameter.<br />

FIG. 5—Weight of hollow ball in terms of its wall thickness.<br />

The applications in which these balls are used are<br />

numerous, the widest field being valves and pumps.<br />

At the present time they are used in check valves, relief<br />

valves, spraying and sprinkling equipment, pneumatic<br />

tools, air compressors, hydraulic pumps, oil well<br />

pumps, deep well pumps, paper pulp pumps, sugar<br />

machinery, steam specialties, etc. Steel balls as well<br />

as those made of non-ferrous metals are used in this<br />

service.<br />

A few words regarding the fabricating of steel will<br />

conclude this description of the process. Steel balls<br />

are made of high quality low carbon steel, which is<br />

carburized, after the rolling operation, to a glass hardness<br />

and then ground to any desired accuracy. It is<br />

claimed that the process assures the complete elimination<br />

of unrelieved internal stresses, which as is well<br />

known, sometimes fracture a solid ball even before it<br />

gets into service. This is of great importance in ball<br />

bearing applications. A further advantage in bearing<br />

service is that the reduction in weight means a corresponding<br />

reduction in the centrifugal force. Thus,<br />

the force exerted by the balls on the races and retainer<br />

is reduced, saving the ball cage from the wear<br />

and tear to which they are subjected in high speed<br />

applications.<br />

The Peerless Drawn Steel Company, Massillon,<br />

Ohio, and the Standard Gauge Steel Company, Beaver<br />

Falls, Pa., have been taken over by the Union Drawn<br />

Steel Company. Beaver Falls, Pa., pioneer in the coldfinished<br />

steel industry. This company recently took<br />

over the Frasse Steel Works, Inc., Hartford, Conn.<br />

The deal brings together seven manufacturing plants<br />

valued at between $15,000,000 and S20.000,000.<br />

New Electrode Control<br />

Closer and more flexible control, with simpler<br />

operation from the standpoint of the furnace operator,<br />

is expected from the redesigned line of automatic<br />

electrode control equpments now being sold by the<br />

General Electric Company for use with electric arc<br />

furnaces. Such a control finds its principal use with<br />

melting furnaces of small sizes and furnaces used<br />

for smelting and melting various materials in making<br />

ferro alloys, abrasives, calcium carbide and similar<br />

products in large sizes.<br />

The new line includes three types of regulators<br />

for use with one, two and three-electrode equipments<br />

and for which an auxiliary control panel is required.<br />

A special single-electrode panel is also included in<br />

this line, combining the main and auxiliary control<br />

panel.<br />

One of the advantages of the new line is a decrease<br />

of the time interval between any change in current<br />

and the functioning of the equipment to overcome the<br />

change, in order to maintain a constant current. This<br />

is accomplished by the use of new punched frame<br />

contactors, inherently quick acting. The dynamic<br />

braking circuit is also completed in a shorter interval<br />

of time after power is removed from the motor, thus<br />

decreasing to a minimum any over-travel of the electrode.<br />

Another advantage is the elimination of bearings<br />

or parts subject to wear.<br />

A new voltage relay has been used to prevent the<br />

lowering of the electrode into the furnace bath in case<br />

of power failure or unbalanced conditions in the furnace.<br />

This relay permits a very low calibrating value,<br />

allowing the arc voltage to decrease to about 25 volts<br />

before opening the control circuit to the lowering contactor<br />

. The under-voltage relays are connected across<br />

the arc, and open the control circuit only to the lowering<br />

contactor controlling that electrode.<br />

A special feature of the auxiliary control is the<br />

provision for individual control of each electrode independent<br />

of the others. This is possible by the ust<br />

of a push-button station with transfer switch for each<br />

electrode, eliminating the possibility of an operator's<br />

trying to lower an electrode while an ammeter is<br />

operating to raise it.<br />

Increased Use of Gas in 1924<br />

The gas utilities of the United States sold 405 billion<br />

cubic feet of manufactured gas in 1924, according<br />

to figures made public by the American Gas Association.<br />

This is an increase of 20 billion cubic feet over<br />

1923, and a six-year increase of 100 billion cubic feet.<br />

Steady expansion of plant and distribution facilities<br />

during 1924 enabled the companies to connect 440,000<br />

new customers to their lines, making a total of 10,240,-<br />

000 customers as of December 31, 1924, the association<br />

states. Total population served by gas is in the neighborhood<br />

of 52,000,000.<br />

Unprecedented use of gas in industrial heating processes<br />

is chiefly responsible for the large increase in<br />

sales in recent years. During the last 10 years the industrial<br />

use of gas jumped 1,000 per cent, and indications<br />

are that 1925 will establish a new high record in<br />

consumption. In the meantime, household use of gas<br />

has been making steady increase. Sales of merchandise<br />

last vear by gas companies alone was about $50,-<br />

000,000. More than 300,000 ranges, 450,000 water heaters<br />

and 500.000 space heaters were connected to lines.


April, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat "Beating 121<br />

T h e Electrically H e a t e d S o a k i n g P i t<br />

Elimination of Scaling and Uniformity of Heating Are Among the<br />

Advantages of Electricity Over Gas—Now Successfully<br />

T H E electric heating of soaking pits has been under<br />

consideration for more than 10 years, and has<br />

been the subject of several papers before technical<br />

societies; and while on every occasion considerable<br />

interest was shown, it seldom went further than<br />

"where can we see one in operation?" Among those<br />

who were not familiar with the technical side of electric<br />

furnace design and operation, there was a belief<br />

£hat electrically heated pits could not compete with<br />

gas fired equipments, and while it was generally conceded<br />

that electric pits would reduce the scale on the<br />

ingots, many were of the opinion that it was necessary<br />

to scale ingots heavily in order to produce a good surface<br />

on the bloom. These various contentions remained<br />

somewhat open questions until the installation<br />

of the electric pit at the Donner Steel Company<br />

last March.<br />

Since that time, 700 ingots both of carbon and<br />

alloy steel have been put through this pit and a comparison<br />

of these^ingots with other ingots of the same<br />

heats put through gas pits, together with a description<br />

of the electric pit, is the subject matter of this<br />

paper.<br />

Operating at Donner Steel Company<br />

By T. F. BAILYf<br />

Graphic Recording Wattmeter, and Brown rare metal<br />

couple Graphic Recording Pyrometer with the couple<br />

located in the cover of the pit directly above the ingots.<br />

The temperature readings were checked by<br />

means of a radiation pyrometer, which instrument was<br />

also used to take the temperature of the ingots going<br />

to the pit, when they were on the way to the mill<br />

after leaving the pit, and while they were in the mill.<br />

As the blooming mill was steam-driven, it was not<br />

possible to obtain reading of relative power requirements<br />

in rolling between electric and gas heated ingots,<br />

but the finishing mill was electrically driven and<br />

the comparative results on rolling given in Table 1,<br />

are taken on this mill. Had it been possible to take<br />

similar readings on the blooming mill the relative difference<br />

in power readings between the gas and electrically<br />

heated ingots would, no doubt, have been even<br />

more marked.<br />

The loss of metal due to scale was determined by<br />

means of an ingot scale located at the entrance of the<br />

blooming mill, ingots of both the gas and electric pits<br />

being weighed after stripping and before charging in<br />

the pits, after heating and before rolling, and finally<br />

after the fourth pass in the mill.<br />

Description of the Electric Pit.<br />

The pit is of 150 kw. electrical capacity with out­ Power Required for Heating.<br />

side dimension of approximately 8 ft. wide by 9 ft.<br />

long by 10 ft. high, with internal dimensions of 3 ft.<br />

wide by 5 ft. long and 8 ft. deep, holding two 6,800-lb.<br />

or 7,400-lb. ingots. The electric heating is accomplished<br />

by means of carbon resistors, using crushed<br />

carbon of approximately j4-in. mesh contained in<br />

troughs made of carbide of silicon. This type of resistor<br />

is the only one so far developed that can operate<br />

successfully at temperatures to be met with in soaking<br />

pit practice. The power input is controlled by means<br />

of special transformers having a number of voltage<br />

taps on the secondary, each tap giving a different k.w.<br />

input to the furnace.<br />

The resistor units are located in the side walls<br />

of the furnace, in such a manner that the ingots cannot<br />

come in contact with them, the slap of the ingot<br />

in charging being taken by heavy firebrick walls pro­<br />

While it was not possible on account of plant conditions<br />

to operate the electric pit to the best advantage<br />

except on a few occasions, the power consumption for<br />

heating was well within the figures made before the<br />

equipment was installed. During the month of November,<br />

101 ingots of an average weight of 3.3 gross<br />

tons each were heated, and during this period the<br />

power was on the pit 624 hours, but ingots were in the<br />

pit only 92 hours, and during this time, the pit under<br />

these conditions, the total power consumption was<br />

only 189 k.w.h. per gross ton of metal heated.<br />

Taking the average practice, however, between<br />

November 16 and Dec. 2, charging the pit with power<br />

only during the time ingots were in the pit, the power<br />

consumption was 80.4 k.w.h. per gross ton of ingots<br />

heated when heating two 3.3 ingots at a time to an<br />

average temperature of 2,316 deg. F., the skin temperajecting<br />

beyond the resistor troughs; and while the pit<br />

has been in service several months, no repairs have<br />

been required to these walls nor to the cover, whose<br />

brick is in perfect condition, although heating ingots to<br />

a temperature of 2,350 deg. F., or above, and at times<br />

for experimental purposes, has been called upon to<br />

maintain furnace temperatures of 2600 deg. F.<br />

ture of the ingots charged being 1,660 deg. F.<br />

During the period mentioned above, on account<br />

of mill conditions it was necessary to hold the ingots<br />

in the pit on some occasions as long as 16 hours and<br />

40 minutes, while under the best conditions the time<br />

in the pit was only 1 hour and 40 minutes, although it<br />

was found that an average period of 2 hours was quite<br />

The Transformer Equipment consists of a 150 k.w. sufficient for ingots charged at a skin temperature of<br />

Packard, 25-cylcle, single-phase transformer, which 1600 deg. F. and heated to 2350 deg. F.<br />

was sometimes called upon to carry 50 per cent over­ Had it been possible to operate the pit continuousload<br />

continuously. The meter equipment consisted ly on a two-hour soaking schedule, the power con­<br />

of a Weston Indicating Wattmeter, a Westinghouse sumption would have been considerably under 75 k.w.h.<br />

per gross ton, as occasional daily operation<br />

*Paper presented before the Association of Iron and Steel<br />

showed power consumptions under this figure. It<br />

Engineers, Pittsburgh Chapter.<br />

should be kept in mind that the heat loss through the<br />

•(•President, Bailey Furnace Company, Alliance, O.


122 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating April, 1925<br />

walls of this small pit was large compared with the<br />

heating capacity of the pit, and that a full size pit of<br />

four 6 ft. by 8 ft. holes would show much better economy.<br />

From a careful check on the wall loss of this pit<br />

during the period mentioned of the 75 k.w.h. used for<br />

heating, approximately 30 k.w.h. were chargable to<br />

wall loss, leaving 45 k.w.h. as the heat actually required<br />

for the steel per gross ton ; while in a full size<br />

four-pole pit holding twenty-four 3.3 ton ingots, and<br />

operating on a similar heating period, the power<br />

When heating cold ingots in a full size pit, using<br />

6 hours as the heating time and heating to 2,250 deg.<br />

F., the capacity of the pit would be 10 tons per hour<br />

and the power consumption 330 k.w.h. per ton of ingots<br />

heated. This power consumption makes electric<br />

heating prohibitive from a cost standpoint on low<br />

grade steels; but on high priced alloy or high speed<br />

steel, the saving due to the reductions in scale loss may<br />

easily compensate for the higher-cost of fuel or power<br />

for the electric pit. Since by far the largest tonnage<br />

FIG. 1, Upper Left-7400-lb. chrome nickel ingot coming from electric pit. FIG 2 Upper Right—7400-lb chrome nickel<br />

bTgv^FIG8 /Tent^SOO^bTarbonm.oT0 \\ * } % h ^ V Left-


April, 1925 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 123<br />

Scale Loss from Ingots.<br />

One of the most interesting features of the test on<br />

the electric pit was the determination of metal loss in<br />

scale. Both electric ingots and gas heated ingots were<br />

weighed before charging into the pits and after the<br />

fourth pass in the mill. The average loss of electric<br />

heated ingots was }$ per cent, and on gas ingots substantially<br />

IH per cent. The scale loss on electric ingots<br />

seemed to be about the same regardless of the<br />

time the ingot was in the pit, an indication that'this<br />

y$ per cent loss was caused by the air striking the<br />

ingot after stripping and before charging into the pit.<br />

In the case of the gas heated ingots, the scale increased<br />

as the time in the pit was increased. While the record<br />

of loss on the gas heated ingots in this case was only<br />

1^4 Per cent» ^ is believed that this figure is too low<br />

for average practice, as records taken from a number<br />

of other installations of gas heated pits indicate that<br />

a scale loss of 2% per cent is more nearly the average<br />

loss.<br />

The difference in scale is best shown by Figs. 1, 2,<br />

3 and 4. Fig. 1 is a 7,400-lb. chrome nickle ingot heated<br />

in the electric pit. Fig. 2 is an ingot of the same<br />

heat heated in the gas pit, taken at the same number of<br />

seconds after removal from the pit as the picture of the<br />

electric ingot. Both ingots approximately 2,350 deg.<br />

F. Fig. 3 is a 6,800-lb. carbon ingot heated in the elec-<br />

Eric pit, and Fig. 4 is an ingot of the same heat put<br />

hrough the gas pit. Fig. 5 shows the top of the elecfric<br />

pit with cover open and an ingot being removed<br />

from the top.<br />

Surface of Blooms.<br />

The operation of the electric pit demonstrated conclusively<br />

that the bloom coming from electric heated<br />

ingots had better surfaces in all cases, except perhaps<br />

in such cases where the ingots were very scabby;<br />

(under such ingot conditions there was no advantage<br />

in surface conditions of the blooms by electric heating.<br />

Power Required in Rolling.<br />

Due to the fact that the ingots from the electric<br />

Ipit could be and were heated to the desired rolling<br />

|temperature, and were perhaps more evenly located<br />

throughout, the power required for rolling electric ingots<br />

was less than for gas ingots heated to the same<br />

skin temperature, and it was also noted that the peak<br />

load on the mill was less when rolling electric ingots<br />

than when rolling ingots heated in the gas pits. It<br />

will be noted that in Table 1 the average peak load demand<br />

was 9 per cent less for electric ingots than for<br />

the gas heated ingots, and that the k.w.h. per ton for<br />

rolling electric ingots was 25.8 per cent less than for<br />

the gas heated ingots. This can be best accounted for<br />

by the assumption that the electric ingots were more<br />

evenly and thoroughly heated, which is borne out by<br />

the temperature readings in Table 1, which shows that<br />

there was less drop in temperature of the electric ingots<br />

between the 4th and 9th pass.<br />

Space Required for Electric Pits.<br />

As there are no regenerators or checker work required<br />

for electric pits, they only require about half<br />

the space of gas pits of the same capacity, and when<br />

taking into consideration producer space, only about<br />

a third of the space is required as compared with a<br />

complete producer fired installation. Besides this saving<br />

in floor space, there is a large saving in foundation<br />

cost and the absence of gas mains and stack enable<br />

the electric pit to be more advantageously located<br />

with regard to the pit building and the mill. The savings<br />

in foundation, floor space, stack and gas mains is<br />

such that the installation cost of an electric pit is less<br />

than the cost of a modern producer fired installation,<br />

and about the same as a modern gas pit well fired<br />

with coke oven gas.<br />

TABLE I<br />

Comparison of power required for rolling electrically heated<br />

and gas heated ingots. Temperature of the oustide of ingots approximately<br />

the same by radiation pyrometer.<br />

Temp, at Temp, at Drop in Avg. diff. in Avg. diff.<br />

4th pass. 9th pass. Temp. peak load. in K.w.h.<br />

Electric<br />

Ingots ..<br />

Gas Ingots . 2147°<br />

2118°<br />

2091°<br />

2049°<br />

56°<br />

69°<br />

less 25.8% less<br />

TABLE II.<br />

Comparison of electric and gas heating cost, based on electric<br />

power at 6 mills per k.w.h. coal at $6.00 per ton gassified, coke<br />

oven gas at 12T/2C per 1000 cu. ft. Metal losses at ?4%, Wn%,<br />

and 234% and steel valued at $30.00 and $40.00 per ton.<br />

ELECTRIC HEATING<br />

Ingots charged at 1670 deg.<br />

Heated to 2350 deg.<br />

60 K.w.h. at 6 mills. ... $0.36<br />

3/4% scale at $40 per ton<br />

Renewals and Upkeep..<br />

30<br />

10<br />

PRODUCER GAS HEATING<br />

Ingots charged at 1670 deg.<br />

Heated to 2350 deg.<br />

250 lb. Coal per Ton<br />

250 lb. coal at $6.00 ton $0.75<br />

234% scale at $40 ton 1.10<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

Total per gross ton. . . $0.76 Total per gross ton.. $1.95<br />

ELECTRIC HEATING<br />

Ingots charged at 1670 deg.<br />

Heated to 2250 deg.<br />

50 K.w.h. at 6 mills... $0.30<br />

3/4% scale at $30 per ton .225<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. . .10<br />

Total per gross ton.. $0.625<br />

ELECTRIC HEATING<br />

Ingots charged at 1850 deg.<br />

Heated to 2350 deg.<br />

45 K.w.h. at 8 mills.... $0.48<br />

34% scale at $40 per ton .30<br />

Renewals and upkeep. . . .10<br />

Total per gross ton.. $0.595<br />

60 K.w.h. at 8 mills.... $0.48<br />

34% scale at $40 per ton .30<br />

Renewals and upkeep. . . .10<br />

60 K.w.h. at lc $0.60<br />

34% scale at $30 per ton .225<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

1.925<br />

60 K.w.h. at 1.125c $0,675<br />

34% scale at $60 per ton .225<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$1.00<br />

60 K.w.h. at lc $0-60<br />

14% scale at $60 per ton .45<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$1.15<br />

60 K.w.h. at 3'/4c $1-95<br />

34% scale at $60 per ton .45<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$2.50<br />

PRODUCER GAS HEATING<br />

Ingots charged at 1670 deg.<br />

Heated to 2250 deg.<br />

167 lb. Coal per Ton<br />

167 lb. coal at $6.00 ton $0.50<br />

154% scale at $30 ton .525<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. . .10<br />

Total per gross ton.. $1.125<br />

COKE OVEN GAS<br />

Ingots charged at 1670 deg.<br />

Heated to 2250 deg.<br />

4000 cu. ft. at 12^4c.<br />

13,4% scale at $30 ton<br />

Renewals and upkeep..<br />

$0.50<br />

.525<br />

.10<br />

$1,125<br />

167 lb. coal at $6.00 ton $0.50<br />

134% scale at $40 ton .70<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$1.30<br />

167 lb. coal at $4.50 ton $0,375<br />

134% scale at $30 ton .525<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$1.00<br />

1600 cu. ft. coke oven<br />

gas at 15c $0.24<br />

234% scale at $30 ton .825<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$1,165<br />

250 lb. coal at $6.00 ton $0.75<br />

2%% scale at $60 ton 1.65<br />

Renewals and upkeep.. .10<br />

$2.50


124 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating April, ISK<br />

Summary.<br />

The operation of this pit has demonstrated that<br />

the quality of heating is uniformly better, due to accurate<br />

control of temperature, uniformity of heating.<br />

elimination of scale while in the pit, elimination of the<br />

cutting of the ingot as in the case of sharp gas flames,<br />

and producing a better surface on the blooms.<br />

The peak power demand on the mills is reduced.<br />

as is also the kwh. required for rolling.<br />

There i^ a saving in space required over i^as fired<br />

pits, making it possible to install twice as many pits<br />

m a given space, as well as making a saving in foundation.<br />

When taking into consideration the saving in scale.<br />

and with the usual cost of steel mill power, the cost<br />

of heating is actually less than by any other means,<br />

providing the ingots can be charged into the pits at<br />

such temperature- as are now common in steel mill<br />

practice.<br />

Further than this, it eliminates the discussions between<br />

the open hearth and blooming mill departments<br />

as to who The caused Earth the trouble Inductor in the Compass steel.<br />

Most useful of all navigation instruments, whether<br />

for sea or for air. is the compass; but for airplane use<br />

the ordinary type of magnetic compass has not proved<br />

satisfactory. Changes in speed and direction are much<br />

more rapid in airplanes than in ships, and because of<br />

its inertia the mariner's compass card, if set oscillating.<br />

requires considerable time to come to rest again.<br />

There is. however, a second possible method of<br />

picking up an indication of direction from the invisible<br />

network of magnetic lines of force which cover<br />

the earth. If a coil of wire is rapidly rotated in the<br />

earth's magnetic field, an electric current is generated<br />

in the coil, the intensity of which depends upon the<br />

orientation of the axis of the coil with respect to these<br />

lines of force. It the current is taken from such a coil<br />

by means of brushes and commutator, as with a d.c.<br />

electrical machine, the current depends also upon the<br />

position of these brushes with respect to the lines of<br />

force. A compass of this type is known as an earth<br />

inductor compass.<br />

Many attempts have been made to construct a compass<br />

operating on this principle, especially since the<br />

establishment of aviation and the recognition of the<br />

fact that the present type of needle compass is not<br />

dependable in the air. Until recently, however, none<br />

of these attempts had proved practical, and the Great<br />

War, which so stimulated invention, came to a close<br />

without a completely satisfactory type of airplane compass<br />

having been produced on either side of the conflict.<br />

The U. S Army Air Service recognized this weak<br />

point in the equipment of aircraft, and enlisted the cooperation<br />

of certain instrument manufacturers and<br />

of the Bureau of Standards in the attempt to find a<br />

remedy. The first satsifactory model of earth inductor<br />

compass was produced by Dr. Paul R. Hevl and Dr.<br />

L. J. Briggs, of the Bureau of Standards. Other models,<br />

embodying certain structural improvements, but<br />

no new principles, have since been constructed for the<br />

Air Service by several instrument companies<br />

tion awarded For of the this the year invention Magellan pertaining Dr. gold to Heyl medal navigation. and for Dr. the Brigo-s best inven­ were<br />

The method used in reading this instrument is a<br />

null one. The arrangement is such that when the<br />

ship is on its correct course a galvanometer on the<br />

instrument board reads zero, but if the ship deviates<br />

to the right or left of the course the galvanometer indicates<br />

that fact. There are two ways in which this<br />

can be accomplished. One is by shifting the collector<br />

brushes on the commutator until the current is zero<br />

when the ship is on its course. The armature revolves<br />

on a vertical axis.<br />

A still better method is to use four brushes and a<br />

wheatstone bridge arrangement for balancing the currents.<br />

With this method the rotating parts can be<br />

placed in the tail of an airplane or at the masthead<br />

of a ship where the armature will not be affected by<br />

the ship's magnetism. Four wires, which may be of<br />

any desired length, connect the brushes to the balancing<br />

mechanism and galvanometer, and these parts, being<br />

unaffected by magnetism, can be located in the<br />

cockpit or the cabin wherever convenient.<br />

Very satisfactory results have been obtained by the<br />

Air Service in using this type of compass. Several<br />

long flights have been made completely above the<br />

clouds, relying entirely upon the earth inductor compass<br />

and other instruments. Results have been obtained<br />

that would have been impossible with the<br />

ordinary type of compass.<br />

All of the airplanes which took part in the flight<br />

around the world in 1924 were equipped with the earth<br />

inductor compass.<br />

Systematic research by trained men solved this<br />

problem and gave the world a surer and safer direction<br />

indicator Endeavor for navigation to Develop of the Uniform waters and Numbering the air.<br />

System for Steels<br />

The American Society for Testing Materials and<br />

the Society of Automotive Engineers have <strong>org</strong>anized<br />

a sectional committee to develop, if possible, a uniform<br />

numbering system for the standardization of<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing, casting and structural steels, including steel<br />

plates. A sub-committee was appointed to make a<br />

preliminary investigation to determine the specifications<br />

now in use for steels used in large quantities,<br />

and the extent to which they differ and overlap. The<br />

members of this sub-committee are Prof. A. H. Boyer,<br />

representing the American Society of Mechanical Engineers<br />

; Ge<strong>org</strong>e L. Norn's, of the Society of Automotive<br />

Engineers, and F. W. Olcott, of the Federal<br />

Specifications Board.<br />

. iiiiiiiiiiiiii.iii):iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin» i'<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

""iiuiuiiimiii/ hi | | , mn | Nl ., in<br />

June 22-26—Annual meeting of the American Society<br />

for Testing Materials at Chalfonte-Haddon Hall,<br />

Atlantic City, X. J. Secretary-treasurer, C. L. Warwick,<br />

Engineers' Club Building, 1315 Spruce Street,<br />

Philadelphia. Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

September 14-18—Annual convention of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, and Seventh National<br />

Steel Exposition, to be held at the Public Auditorium,<br />

Cleveland. Ohio. Secretary, W. H. Eisenmann, 4600<br />

Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.


April, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating 125<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of S T E E L<br />

By H. C. KNERR<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

CHAPTER IV — PYROMETRY*<br />

Temperature is not a measurable quantity in the<br />

PART 1—HEAT AND TEMPERATURE<br />

same sense that length or weight is measurable. We<br />

cannot add together the temperatures of two bodies<br />

SOME of the remarkable changes which take place as we could add their lengths or weights. But we<br />

in the structure and properties of steel when heat­ can say that the temperatures of two bodies are equal<br />

ed to certain critical temperatures were discussed when no heat will flow from one to the other; or, we<br />

in the preceding chapter and it was pointed out that can compare temperatures in terms of the changes<br />

these changes are closely associated with the fact that which variations of temperature produce in certain<br />

steel may be hardened by heat treatment. In later materials. This will be clearer after studying some<br />

chapters it will be shown that it is these changes which of the methods by which temperatures are measured<br />

make such hardening possible, and that, in order to or compared.<br />

obtain the best results, it is necessary to accurately<br />

know the critical points, and to closely control the heat<br />

treating temperatures with respect to them. This has<br />

made the measurement of high temperatures, or "pyrometry"<br />

an essential part of the science of treating<br />

steel.<br />

Pyrometers may be used without a complete knowledge<br />

of their technical details, but a clear understanding<br />

of their fundamental principles will be valuable to<br />

every metallurgist and heat treater.<br />

The distinction between heat and temperature, and<br />

the relation of one to the other, were discussed in<br />

Temperature Scale.<br />

The fact that, under given conditions, sudden<br />

changes or transformations, such as melting, freezing<br />

or boiling, always take place in certain materials at<br />

fixed temperatures, gives us convenient standards<br />

from which a temperature scale can be established.<br />

The fact that other changes, such as those of length<br />

or volume, electrical resistance, radiant color, etc., take<br />

place gradually and uniformly with rising temperature,<br />

gives us a means of measuring small changes of temperature<br />

beteween the standard points.<br />

Chapter I, in the section on Physics. It was shown All bodies on the earth have taken up a certain<br />

that heat is a form of energy and that the addition amount of heat from their surroundings- If we could<br />

of heat to a body causes certain changes to take place obtain a body in which there was absolutely no energy<br />

in its physical state, some of which are sudden, such in the form of heat, we could say that its temperature<br />

as the transformation from solid to liquid, or liquid was "absolute zero", and this would be a good place to<br />

to gas, and some of which are gradual, such as changes start our temperature scale. However, it is not prac­<br />

of length, volume, electrical resistance, etc. The stuticable to obtain such a perfectly cold body. As our<br />

dent should review that section at this time.<br />

temperature standards must be conveniently reproducible<br />

for checking purposes, two very common tem­<br />

*The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the<br />

peratures have been chosen and a temperature scale<br />

following references for material contained in this chapter, and<br />

arbitrarily established from these. The melting point<br />

to recommend them to the student for further reading: (9)<br />

of ice has been taken as zero and the boiling point of<br />

"Measurement of High Temperatures," Burgess & LeChatelier;<br />

water at normal atmospheric pressure, as 100 degrees.<br />

(10) "Pyrometric Practice," Foote, Fairchild & Harrison, Tech­<br />

The difference in temperature between these two<br />

nologic Paper of the Bureau of Standards, No. 170. (Obtainable<br />

from Supt. Documents, Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C,<br />

points has been divided into 100 equal parts and each<br />

60 cents.) (11) Pyrometry Data Sheets, A. S. S. T.<br />

part called one degree (1°). Higher or lower tempera­<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factory, tures may then be measured in degrees above or be­<br />

United States Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

low the zero on this scale. This is called the "Centi-<br />

Copyright, 1924, by H. C. Knerr.


126<br />

grade" temperature scale, and is the standard for<br />

scientific work.<br />

Certain properties of matter such as the expansion<br />

of gases change with temperature according to known<br />

laws. From these laws the absolute zero of temperature<br />

has been found to correspond to minus 2/3 deg.<br />

C, that is, 273 C. deg. below the temperature of melting<br />

ice.<br />

Before the Centigrade scale was established, another<br />

arbitrary but less scientific temperature scale<br />

had come into extensive use, in English speaking<br />

countries. This was the Fahrenheit scale, and is still<br />

the one in popular use in the United States. We<br />

therefore may speak of temperature in either of these<br />

scales, and it is fortunately easy to change from one<br />

to another.<br />

The melting point of ice corresponds to 32 degrees<br />

on the Fahrenheit scale, and the boiling point of water<br />

to 212 degrees. We may lay off the two scales side<br />

by side as shown in Fig. 71. The figure, might in<br />

fact, represent two ordinary mercurial thermometers,<br />

one graduated in Centigrade, the other in Fahrenheit<br />

Since a temperature of 32 deg. F. corresponds to 0<br />

deg. C, and 212 deg. F corresponds to 100 deg. C, it<br />

follows that 100 divisions on the Centigrade scale are<br />

equivalent to 212 — 32 or 180 divisions on the Fahrenheit<br />

scale. One degree Fahrenheit, therefore, equals<br />

100<br />

or 5/9 of a degree Centigrade, and we may change<br />

180<br />

from one scale to the other by the following simple<br />

formula:<br />

Fahrenheit to Centigrade: Substract 32 deg. and<br />

multiply by 5/9.<br />

Centigrade to Fahrenheit: Multiply by 9/5 and add<br />

32 deg.<br />

Examples:<br />

100° F 1292° F.<br />

—32 —32<br />

68 X 5/9 = 37.7°C.<br />

1000° C. X 9/5 = 1800<br />

32<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

1260 X 5/9 = 700° C.<br />

-20° C. X 9/5 = -36<br />

32<br />

183:2° f - 4°F-<br />

It is important to know how to make this conversion,<br />

but where many conversions are to be made<br />

it saves time to have a conversion table in which<br />

corresponding temperatures in the two scales are<br />

given in parallel columns. Many such tables have<br />

been published. A convenient one for use in connection<br />

with heat treating operations is given in<br />

Fig. 72. This table gives equivalent Fahrenheit and<br />

Centigrade temperatures at intervals of 5 degrees<br />

Centigrade (9 deg. F.) over a range which covers<br />

all ordinary metallurgical work. The columns have<br />

been arranged for easy reading and the Fahrenheit<br />

and Centigrade figures distinguished by different<br />

tvpe. For many purposes it is satisfactory to know<br />

the temperature to the nearest 5 deg. C. (that is,<br />

within plus or minus 2y deg. C). For somewhat<br />

greater accuracy, intermediate temperatures may be<br />

figured closely enough by taking 2 deg. F. as the<br />

equivalent of 1 deg. C, counting from the nearest even<br />

5 deg. C. For example :<br />

537° C. = 995 plus 4 = 999° F<br />

539° C. = 1004 minus 2 = 1002° F.<br />

This may be done mentally.<br />

April, 1925<br />

For complete accuracy, intermediate temperatures<br />

may readily be interpolated on the basis that 5 deg.<br />

C. = 9 deg. F. Thus, to change 537 deg. C. to Fahrenheit<br />

:<br />

535° C =995° F.<br />

2° C. X 9/5 = 3.6<br />

Or, 1000° F. to Centigrade<br />

Answer 998.6° F.<br />

995° F.<br />

5 X 5/9<br />

= 535° C.<br />

= 2.8<br />

Answer 537.8° C.<br />

PART 2.<br />

METHODS OF MEASURING TEMPERATURE<br />

Gas Thermometer.<br />

If the temperature of a certain quantity of a pure gas<br />

is raised, and it is meanwhile kept at constant volume, the<br />

pressure will increase in proportion to the absolute temperature.<br />

p v = K T<br />

Where p = pressure<br />

v = volume<br />

T = absolute temperature<br />

K = a constant, depending upon the<br />

nature of the gas<br />

The absolute temperature T is equal to the Centrigrade<br />

temperature plus 273 degrees.<br />

By confining a gas in a container of known volume,<br />

heating it and measuring the pressure, the temperature<br />

scale may be extended as high as the material of the container,<br />

and other limitations of the apparatus, will permit.<br />

In this way, temperatures up to about 1500 deg. (J. have<br />

been established with considerable accuracy. Such an apparatus<br />

is called a "gas thermometer" or "gas pyrometer".<br />

It is fragile and tedious to operate, and is used only as a<br />

laboratory tool to standardize other and more convenient<br />

means of temperature measurement.<br />

Melting, Freezing, Boiling Point.<br />

By the aid of a gas pyrometer the melting or boiling<br />

temperatures of certain materials, such as pure metals or<br />

salts, may be found, and these may then be used as standards<br />

of temperature in calibrating pyrometers of various<br />

types. This will be discussed further under "Calibration"<br />

Expansion.<br />

The commonest type of temperature measuring instrument<br />

is the familiar mercurial thermometer. This consists<br />

of a glass bulb containing mercury, connected to a<br />

stem in which there is a fine capillary tube. The mercury<br />

in the bulb expands when heated, forcing a column<br />

of mercury up into the tube. The amount of mercury in<br />

the tube varies directly with the temperature, and a scale<br />

on the tube may therefore be marked off in degrees C<br />

or F. Thermometers of this type have been developed for<br />

commercial use up to about 550 deg. C, which is the


April, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating ill<br />

maximum temperature they will safely stand. In heat<br />

treating work their use is limited chiefly to oil tempering<br />

baths. See Fig. 73.<br />

A form of gas thermometer has been developed for<br />

commercial use between 200 deg. and 500 deg. C. A<br />

bulb, usually of copper, is filled with nitrogen gas and<br />

connected by means of a copper tube having a hole about<br />

.020 in. diameter, with a pressure- indicating instrument<br />

§ift<br />

FAHRENHEIT<br />

CENTIGRADE<br />

FIG. 71—Centigrade and Fahrenheit temperature scales.<br />

similar to a steam gauge in principle. The copper tube<br />

is protected by a heavy flexible reinforcing tube and may<br />

be of any length up to about 150 feet, which permits placing<br />

the indicator at a point distant from the tempering<br />

bath. Expansion of the gas in the bulb causes the indicator<br />

of the pressure gauge to move across a scale, which<br />

is calibrated in degrees Centigrade or Fahrenheit. The<br />

indicator may be replaced by an arm carrying a pen,<br />

and a revolving clock chart provided on which a perma­<br />

c.<br />

0<br />

5<br />

10<br />

15<br />

20<br />

25<br />

30<br />

35<br />

40<br />

45<br />

50<br />

55<br />

60<br />

65<br />

70<br />

75<br />

80<br />

85<br />

90<br />

95<br />

100<br />

105<br />

110<br />

115<br />

120<br />

125<br />

130<br />

135<br />

140<br />

145<br />

150<br />

155<br />

160<br />

165<br />

170<br />

175<br />

180<br />

185<br />

190<br />

195<br />

F.<br />

32<br />

41<br />

50<br />

59<br />

68<br />

77<br />

86<br />

95<br />

104<br />

113<br />

122<br />

131<br />

140<br />

149<br />

158<br />

167<br />

176<br />

185<br />

194<br />

203<br />

212<br />

221<br />

230<br />

239<br />

248<br />

257<br />

266<br />

275<br />

284<br />

293<br />

302<br />

311<br />

320<br />

329<br />

338<br />

347<br />

356<br />

365<br />

374<br />

383<br />

C.<br />

200<br />

205<br />

210<br />

215<br />

220<br />

225<br />

230<br />

235<br />

240<br />

245<br />

250<br />

255<br />

260<br />

265<br />

270 m<br />

275<br />

280<br />

285<br />

290<br />

295<br />

300<br />

305<br />

310<br />

315<br />

320<br />

325<br />

330<br />

335<br />

340<br />

345<br />

350<br />

355<br />

360<br />

365<br />

370<br />

375<br />

380<br />

385<br />

390<br />

395<br />

¥<br />

nent record of temperature is made. Such an instrument<br />

is illustrated in Fig. 74.<br />

Electrical Resistance.<br />

The electrical resistance thermometer or pyrometer is<br />

based on the fact that the electrical resistance of a conductor,<br />

such as a platinum wire, increases with rising<br />

temperature. A suitably mounted and protected coil of<br />

platinum wire is exposed to the temperature to be measured<br />

and its electrical resistance determined by means of<br />

a wheatstone bridge or other instrument, the coil having<br />

first been calibrated by comparison with a standard. This<br />

type of pyrometer permits of very accurate measurements<br />

of temperature up to about 1,000 deg. C, but is too expensive<br />

and delicate for general use in heat treating operations.<br />

Thermo Electric Method.<br />

The thermo-electric method is employed far more than<br />

any other in the heat treatment of steel. This method is<br />

based upon the fact that when two wires of dissimilar<br />

metals are joined and the joint heated, an electro-motive<br />

force or voltage is generated somewhat as if the hot end<br />

were a small electric battery. This electro-motive force<br />

(abbreviated emf.) depends upon the temperature and<br />

upon the kinds of metal used. At best, it does not exceed<br />

a few hundredths of a volt, but even this small voltage<br />

may be measured with great accuracy by means of suitable<br />

CONVERSION TABLE OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT SCALES<br />

F.<br />

392<br />

401<br />

410<br />

419<br />

428<br />

437<br />

446<br />

455<br />

464<br />

473<br />

482<br />

491<br />

500<br />

509<br />

518<br />

527<br />

536<br />

545<br />

554<br />

563<br />

572<br />

581<br />

590<br />

599<br />

608<br />

617<br />

626<br />

635<br />

644<br />

653<br />

662<br />

671<br />

680<br />

689<br />

698<br />

707<br />

716<br />

725<br />

734<br />

743<br />

C. F. C. F. C. F. C. F.<br />

400<br />

405<br />

410<br />

415<br />

420<br />

752<br />

761<br />

770<br />

779<br />

788<br />

600 1112<br />

605 1121<br />

610 1130<br />

615 1139<br />

620 1148<br />

800 1472<br />

805 1481<br />

810 1490<br />

815 1499<br />

820 1508<br />

1000 1832<br />

1005 1841<br />

1010 1850<br />

1015 1859<br />

1020 1868<br />

425 797<br />

430 806<br />

435 815<br />

440 824<br />

445 833<br />

625 1157<br />

630 1166<br />

635 1175<br />

640 1184<br />

645 1193<br />

825 1517<br />

830 1526<br />

835 1535<br />

840 1544<br />

845 1553<br />

1025 1877<br />

1030 1886<br />

1035 1895<br />

1040 1904<br />

1045 1913<br />

450 842<br />

455 851<br />

460 860<br />

465 869<br />

470 878<br />

650 1202<br />

655 1211<br />

660 1220<br />

665 1229<br />

670 1238<br />

850 1562<br />

855 1571<br />

860 1580<br />

865 1589<br />

870 1598<br />

1050 1922<br />

1055 1931<br />

1060 1940<br />

1065 1949<br />

1070 1958<br />

475 887<br />

480 896<br />

485 905<br />

490 914<br />

495 923<br />

675 1247<br />

680 1256<br />

685 1265<br />

690 1274<br />

695 1283<br />

875 1607<br />

880 1616<br />

885 1625<br />

890 1634<br />

895 1643<br />

1075 1967<br />

1080 1976<br />

1085 1985<br />

1090 1994<br />

1095 2003<br />

500 932<br />

505 941<br />

510 950<br />

515 959<br />

520 968<br />

700 1292<br />

705 1301<br />

710 1310<br />

715 1319<br />

720 1328<br />

900 1652<br />

905 1661<br />

910 1670<br />

915 1679<br />

920 1688<br />

1100 2012<br />

1105 2021<br />

1110 2030<br />

1115 2039<br />

1120 2048<br />

525 977<br />

530 986<br />

535 995<br />

540 1004<br />

545 1013<br />

725 1337<br />

730 1346<br />

735 1355<br />

740 1361<br />

745 1373<br />

925 1697<br />

930 1706<br />

935 1715<br />

940 1724<br />

945 1733<br />

1125 2057<br />

1130 2066<br />

1135 2075<br />

1140 2084<br />

1145 2093<br />

550 1022<br />

555 1031<br />

560 1040<br />

565 1049<br />

570 1058<br />

750 1382<br />

755 1391<br />

760 1400<br />

765 1409<br />

770 1418<br />

950 1742<br />

955 1751<br />

960 1760<br />

965 1769<br />

970 1778<br />

1150 2102<br />

1155 2111<br />

1160 2120<br />

1165 2129<br />

1170 2138<br />

575 1067<br />

580 1076<br />

585 1085<br />

590 1094<br />

595 1103<br />

775 1427<br />

780 1436<br />

785 1445<br />

790 1454<br />

795 1463<br />

975 1787<br />

980 1796<br />

985 1805<br />

990 1814<br />

995 1823<br />

1175 2147<br />

1180 2156<br />

1185 2165<br />

1190 2174<br />

1195 2183<br />

FIG. 72—Centigrade and Fahrenheit conversion table.<br />

C.<br />

1200<br />

1205<br />

1210<br />

1215<br />

1220<br />

1225<br />

1230<br />

1235<br />

1240<br />

1245<br />

1250<br />

1255<br />

1260<br />

1265<br />

1270<br />

1275<br />

1280<br />

1285<br />

1290<br />

1295<br />

1300<br />

1305<br />

1310<br />

1315<br />

1320<br />

1325<br />

1330<br />

1335<br />

1340<br />

1345<br />

1350<br />

1355<br />

1360<br />

1365<br />

1370<br />

1375<br />

1380<br />

1385<br />

1390<br />

1395<br />

F.<br />

2192<br />

2201<br />

2210<br />

2219<br />

2228<br />

2237<br />

2246<br />

2255<br />

2264<br />

2273<br />

2282<br />

2291<br />

2300<br />

2309<br />

2318<br />

2327<br />

2336<br />

2345<br />

2354<br />

2363<br />

2372<br />

2381<br />

2390<br />

2399<br />

2408<br />

2417<br />

2426<br />

2435<br />

2444<br />

2453<br />

2462<br />

2471<br />

2480<br />

2489<br />

2498<br />

2507<br />

2516<br />

2525<br />

2534<br />

2543<br />

C.<br />

1400<br />

1405<br />

1410<br />

1415<br />

1420<br />

1425<br />

1430<br />

1435<br />

1440<br />

1445<br />

1450<br />

1455<br />

1460<br />

1465<br />

1470<br />

1475<br />

1480<br />

1485<br />

1490<br />

1495<br />

1500<br />

1505<br />

1510<br />

1515<br />

1520<br />

1525<br />

1530<br />

1535<br />

1540<br />

1545<br />

1550<br />

1555<br />

1560<br />

1565<br />

1570<br />

1575<br />

1580<br />

1585<br />

1590<br />

1595<br />

F.<br />

2552<br />

2561<br />

2570<br />

2579<br />

2588<br />

2597<br />

2606<br />

2615<br />

2624<br />

2633<br />

2642<br />

2651<br />

2660<br />

2669<br />

2678<br />

2687<br />

2696<br />

2705<br />

2714<br />

2723<br />

2732<br />

2741<br />

2750<br />

2759<br />

2768<br />

2777<br />

2786<br />

2795<br />

2804<br />

2813<br />

2822<br />

2831<br />

2840<br />

2849<br />

2858<br />

2867<br />

2876<br />

2885<br />

2894<br />

2903


128 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

electrical instruments. For any given pair of metals, of<br />

suitable material, the emf. will increase at a definite rate<br />

with rising temperature. By taking a series of emf. readings<br />

with the hot end at known temperatures (determined<br />

by a standard, such as a gas thermometer) the relation<br />

between temperature and emf. for that particular pair of<br />

metals can be found. From this relation the temperature<br />

corresponding to any measured emf. will thereafter be<br />

known.<br />

n<br />

FIG. 73 (left)—High temperature thermometer,<br />

mercury.<br />

FIG. 74 (right)—High temperature thermometer,<br />

pressure.<br />

The Thermocouple.<br />

Such a pair of wires is called a "thermocouple." The<br />

point at which they are joined is placed in the furnace or<br />

wherever it is desired to measure the temperature. It is<br />

called the "hot junction." From here the wires are carried<br />

to some location, away from the heat, where they can be<br />

connected to a suitable instrument for measuring the emf.<br />

This arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 75.<br />

Ohm's Law.<br />

When an emf. exists in an electric circuit, it tends to<br />

cause a current to flow. The amount of current which is<br />

produced by a given emf. will depend upon the resistance<br />

of the circuit. The higher the resistance the less the current.<br />

This relation is expressed in a very simple formula<br />

known as Ohm's Law*, as follows:<br />

R<br />

C = R<br />

*The relation between e.m.f., current, and resistance may be<br />

illustrated by comparing the electrical circuit with a line of water<br />

pipe. One important difference is that in a pipe line, water may<br />

flow in at one end and out at the other, whereas in an electrical<br />

circuit, the current must flow continuously around the circuit, back<br />

to its source. However, a pipe line having a closed circuit might<br />

be constructed, as illustrated in Fig. 76. Let "P" represent a source<br />

of pressure, such as a pump, tending to cause water to circulate<br />

through the system. The pipe line would offer a certain resistance<br />

to the flow of the water, depending upon the size and length<br />

of the pipe, and other factors. This is similar to the resistance<br />

of the conductors in an electrical circuit. The higher the pressure<br />

produced by the pump the more water would flow through<br />

the line. The pressure produced by the pump is therefore comparable<br />

to the e.m.f. or voltage in an electric circuit and the flow<br />

of water is comparable to the electric current. A corresponding<br />

electrical source of circuit "electrical is shown pressure" in or Fig. e.m.f. 77. Here a battery is the<br />

Wherein E = electro-motive force.<br />

R = resistance.<br />

C = current.<br />

April, 1925<br />

The unit of electro-motive force is the "volt," the unit<br />

of current is the "ampere", and the unit of resistance is<br />

the "ohm". From this formula, the current in a circuit<br />

can readily be calculated if the electro-motive force and<br />

resistance are known. For example—if there is an emf.<br />

of 10 volts in a circuit whose resistance is two ohms, a<br />

current of five amperes will flow. Similarly, if any two<br />

of the three variables are known, the other may be calculated,<br />

because<br />

R = -=- and E = C R<br />

C<br />

This law is very important in thermo-electric pyrometry.<br />

Furnace<br />

Battery<br />

1<br />

Therm ocouple<br />

Fig. 75<br />

Pump Resistance'—) (<br />

-f-<br />

04><br />

t <br />

Cold<br />

Junction<br />


April, 1925 Ibrging- Stamping - Heat Tieating 129<br />

Cold Junction.<br />

Suppose the two wires of a thermocouple are joined<br />

together at the end away from the furnace, or "cold end",<br />

as well as the hot junction, as in Fig. 78. An emf. will<br />

be generated at the cold junction, which will depend upon<br />

the temperature there. This is true because any pair of<br />

dissimilar metals, at any temperature (except perhaps absolute<br />

zero) always generate an emf. when in contact.<br />

W V W v *<br />

FIG. 80—Optical pyrometer, diagram.<br />

In any junction, the two wires are like the poles of an<br />

electric battery, one being plus and the other minus, depending<br />

on the metals used. The current tends to flow<br />

away from the junction in the plus or positive wire, and<br />

toward it in the negative or minus wire. It is evident in<br />

Fig. 78 that the emf. of the cold junction will oppose that<br />

of the hot junction, as it tends to send current in the opposite<br />

direction.<br />

If E is the e.m.f. of the hot junction, and e the e.m.f.<br />

of the cold junction, the effective e.m.f. in the circuit<br />

will be E — e = E'. The current in the circuit will be<br />

R R<br />

R = Total resistance of cricuit.<br />

In order to measure the current or the e.m.f. in the<br />

circuit, it is necessary to connect the wires of the couple<br />

to a measuring instrument. The connectors of the instrument<br />

may be of brass and the internal wiring of copper,<br />

manganin or other metal. Every joint between dissimilar<br />

metals in the circuit sets up an e.m.f. Some will<br />

act in the same direction as the e.m.f. of the hot junction<br />

and others will act in the opposite direction. In<br />

any thermocouple circuit, if there are several junctions<br />

all at the same temperature, the algebraic sum* of their<br />

electromotive forces is zero. Since the measuring inefru •<br />

ment is (or should be) at uniform temperature throughout,<br />

all junctions within it may be disregarded. The<br />

circuit will, therefore, behave as though the point at<br />

which the wires of the thermocouples join the instrument<br />

were the cold junction, see Fig. 79. The cold junction<br />

e.m.f. will equal that which would occur were the couple<br />

wires joined to each other where they enter instrument,<br />

or e. In other words, the cold junction temperature is<br />

•This means that those acting in the same direction as the<br />

hot junction are added, and those in the opposite direction are<br />

subtracted.<br />

the temperature of the point where the thermocouple<br />

wires end.<br />

It is evident that, in order to determine the temperature<br />

of the hot junction, allowance must be made for<br />

the temperature of the cold junction. Methods for doing<br />

this will be described further on.<br />

Optical and Radiation Pyrometers.<br />

Long before the invention of pyrometers, workers<br />

with steel estimated the temperature of the hot metal<br />

by eye, by judging its "color" Sometimes they achieved<br />

remarkably accurate results. When they did not, the<br />

consequences of their error were generally blamed on<br />

"bad steel" or an evil spirit.<br />

When an object is heated to a temperature above that<br />

of its surroundings, it gives off energy in the form of<br />

heat or light. This energy is radiated from the object<br />

as waves. If the temperature is high enough, some of the<br />

waves become visible to the eye as light, and the object<br />

glows red, orange, straw color, etc. It becomes "incandescent".<br />

Even before the piece is hot enough to glow<br />

we can feel the radiant heat by holding our hand near it.<br />

The energy given off by a body in this way, either<br />

as heat or light, or both, bears a certain relation to its<br />

(absolute) temperature. This principle is used in the<br />

measurement of high temperatures. It is the old method<br />

of eye or feeling developed to a scietific basis, by eliminating<br />

the personal element, and setting up accurate<br />

and reproducible standards.<br />

Pyrometers which utilize the radiation from a bodyare<br />

divided into two classes, known as "optical" and "radiation".<br />

The first measures the light given off from the<br />

hot body, sometimes by separating out a single color,<br />

such as red, from all the light emitted, and comparing<br />

the intensity of this one color with the intensity of the<br />

FIG. 81—Using optical pyrometer.<br />

same color given off from a standard source of light.<br />

The comparison is made by eye, as the eye is very sensitive<br />

to a difference between the brightness of two small<br />

bodies which are close together. The second class measures<br />

all the radiation, including heat and light, which<br />

falls upon a receiving surface in the instrument. Usually<br />

this radiant energy is focused upon the hot junction<br />

of a small thermocouple, and the consequent rise in tern-


\30 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Tieating<br />

l>erature of the thermocouple bears a known relation<br />

to the temperature of the radiating body.<br />

Optical pyrometers, and radiation pyrometers may<br />

be used from' a dull red up to the highest known temperature.<br />

They are, in fact, the only practical means<br />

of measuring temperatures higher than about 1500 deg.<br />

C. (2730 deg. F.). Good commercial forms of instruments<br />

will permit measurements within plus or minus<br />

5 deg. C.<br />

ooo<br />

Too low. Too high. Correct.<br />

FIG. 82—Adjusting optical pyrometer. Appearance of field<br />

of view when adjusting current through lamp filament to<br />

cause the latter to merge with image of hot object.<br />

The intensity of radiation emitted from a body which<br />

is in the open, varies with the nature of the surface of<br />

the body and other factors, as well as with the temperature.<br />

In order that the intensity of radiation will<br />

vary only with the temperature, it is necessary to have<br />

what is known as "black body" conditions. This, from<br />

a practical standpoint, means that the object must be<br />

heated within a hollow enclosure which is all at the<br />

same temperature, and the radiation observed through<br />

a small opening in the wall. An ordinary muffle heat<br />

treating furnace with a hole in the door or wall through<br />

which the pyrometer may be sighted upon the object<br />

meets these conditions very well.<br />

When measuring the temperature of bodies in the<br />

open, such as hot ingots, corrections must be applied<br />

to the readings, and even so, the accuracy is sometimes<br />

greatly reduced.<br />

These pyrometers have the advantage that they<br />

are light and portable, have no parts directly exposed<br />

to the destructive action of high temperatures, may be<br />

used at a distance from the object (5 to 100 ft.) quickly<br />

follow rapid changes in temperature of the object<br />

and will measure higher temperatures than other forms<br />

of pyrometers.<br />

Up to the present time they have not been made<br />

self recording. They are not suitable for temperatures<br />

below a red heat, and their accuracy is greatly affected<br />

by the presence of smoke, flames, dirt, etc.<br />

D M<br />

FIG. 83—Radiation pyrometer, telescope.<br />

A commercial form of optical pyrometer is illustrated<br />

in Figs. 80 and 81.<br />

The maker's description is quoted, as follows:<br />

"L is a lens, through which radiation from the body<br />

whose temperature is to be measured is brought to<br />

a focus at the point F. In the plane of the image<br />

produced by the lens is placed a tungsten lamp filament.<br />

The lamp filament receives current from a<br />

small storage battery contained in a portable case, also<br />

April, 1925<br />

containing a rheostat and an accurate milli-ammeter.<br />

The incandescent filament and the image produced by<br />

the lens are observed through the eyepiece E.<br />

By means of the rheostat the current through the<br />

lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the filament is<br />

just equal to the brightness of the image produced by<br />

the lens L, whereupon the filament blends with or becomes<br />

indistinguishable in the background formed by<br />

the image of the hot object. (See Fig. 82.) When a<br />

balance has been obtained, the observer notes the<br />

reading of the milli-ammeter. The temperature corresponding<br />

to the current is then read from a calibration<br />

curve supplied with the instrument."<br />

A commercial type of radiation pyrometer operates<br />

as follows: Fig. 83 represents the telescope or receiving<br />

part of the instrument, which is pointed at the object<br />

through a hole in the furnace door, or other opening.<br />

Radiation from the object enters through the<br />

diaphragms A and B, falls upon the hollow conical<br />

mirror K, and is reflected upon the hot junction, C, of<br />

a minute thermocouple. Any rays which miss the hot<br />

junction are reflected back upon it by the concave mir-<br />

FIG. 84—Using radiation pyrometer.<br />

ror, M. The thermocouple wires run from C to D<br />

and D' where they connect with flexible leads, L,<br />

which run to a millivoltmeter, shown in Fig. 84. This<br />

figure also shows the method of using this pyrometer.<br />

The hot junction of the thermocouple is heated an<br />

amount depending upon the intensity of radiation from<br />

the hot body. This causes the millivoltmeter to deflect.<br />

The latter is calibrated to indicate directly the<br />

temperature of the hot object.<br />

A very complete description of optical and radiation<br />

pyrometers, their characteristics and use, is given<br />

in ref. 10 (Pyrometric Practice, Bureau of Standards).<br />

Space does not permit of going into the subject more<br />

deeply here.<br />

PART 3. — THERMOCOUPLES<br />

Metals Used.<br />

Any two dissimilar metals will act as a thermocouple—that<br />

is—will generate an e.m.f. when heated<br />

in contact, but for practical purposes, certain metals<br />

or alloys are preferable- A pair of metals, combined<br />

as a thermocouple, should have the following characteristics<br />

:


April, 192S F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 131<br />

1. Permanence — capability of resisting the<br />

action of the air or of furnace gases at working<br />

temperatures.<br />

2. Uniform scale — continuous and regular increase<br />

of e.m.f. for increase of temperature over the<br />

working range.<br />

3. Power — relatively high e.m.f.<br />

4. Economy — low cost for service rendered.<br />

5. Reproducibility—permitting numerous couples<br />

to be made all having the same characteristics.<br />

6. Constancy of calibration — minimum tendency<br />

to take on impurities which will change the<br />

temperature •—• e.m.f. relation of the couple.<br />

pijiliflilH^^<br />

FIG. 85—End of Thermocouple.<br />

BBS B B3SB3BeBaBaBBgB—<br />

FIG. 86—Base metal couple, bare.<br />

FIG. 87—Base metal couple, with sheath and head.<br />

In selecting a couple the first thing generally to<br />

be considered is the temperature range over which it<br />

will be required to work- The higher the temperature<br />

the more expensive the metals, as a rule.<br />

For temperatures up to about 900 degrees C, which<br />

cover ordinary heat treating practice, a couple consisting<br />

of a wire of iron and one of constantan (an<br />

alloy of copper and nickel), is extensively used. This<br />

combination has a high e.m.f., is reasonably permanent,<br />

and is moderate in cost.<br />

Another widely used couple is made from two patented<br />

heat resisting alloys known as "chromel" and<br />

"alumel". Chromel is an alloy of chromium and nickel;<br />

alumel an alloy of aluminum and nickel. They<br />

have the property of resisting oxidation at high temperatures.<br />

This couple has a somewhat lower e.m.f.<br />

than the iron-constantan pair, and its first cost is<br />

higher, but its life is longer at ordinary heat treating<br />

temperatures, and it may be used as high as 1100 deg.<br />

C, or for short periods, as high as 1300 deg. C. These<br />

two couples, and others made of common metals, are<br />

called "base metal" couples.<br />

For higher temperatures, up to about 1500 deg. C,<br />

which is the practical limit for the use of thermocouples,<br />

a combination consisting of one wire of pure<br />

platinum, and one of an alloy of 90 per cent platinum<br />

and 10 per cent rhodium, should be employed.<br />

This is known as the Le Chatelier, or "noble metal"<br />

couple. Its e.m.f. is only about one-fifth that of the<br />

iron-constantan couple, and its cost is quite high, but<br />

it is the only couple which will give satisfactory service<br />

above 1100 deg. C.<br />

Protection Tubes and Mounting.<br />

In order to prolong its life, protect it from mechanical<br />

damage and from attack or contamination by<br />

furnace gases or liquid heat treating baths in which it<br />

may be immersed, the portion of a couple which is ex­<br />

posed to high temperatures is usually covered by a<br />

sheath or protection tube. The nature of this sheath<br />

is determined by the condition under which the couple<br />

must operate. For use with iron constantan couples<br />

a wrought iron or low carbon steel tube, securely<br />

plugged or welded at the end, makes a cheap and satisfactory<br />

sheath. For use with base metal couples at<br />

higher temperatures, tubes of special heat resisting alloys<br />

are preferable. Nichrome and chromel tubes are<br />

widely used and other good alloys are available. Various<br />

refractory protection tubes, such as porcelain, fire<br />

clay, graphite, etc., are useful in some cases, but these<br />

have the disadvantage of being easily broken, and as<br />

they are not such good conductors of heat as metals,<br />

they tend to make the couple sluggish in responding to<br />

fluctuations in the furnace temperature.<br />

Platinum is rapidly contaminated by vapors from<br />

other metals at high temperatures, and must be protected<br />

from metallic vapors coming from the charge or<br />

from metal parts of the furnace. Glazed porcelain or<br />

fused silica tubes are usually employed and these must<br />

be gas tight- These tubes are fragile and may be protected<br />

from mechanical damage by an outer protection<br />

tube of heat resisting alloys, carborundum, etc.<br />

The thermocouple itself is generally a separate unit<br />

from the wires or leads which connect it to the measuring<br />

instrument. Base metal couples are usually made<br />

of rather heavy wires (1/16 to y, in., but more frequently<br />

about y in.), of a suitable length to extend<br />

into the furnace to the desired point. They are welded<br />

together at the hot end, by means of an oxyacetylene<br />

welding flame or electric arc, sometimes being<br />

twisted together a few turns for greater strength. In-<br />

mscm • • '-' i rr-i • • ••g»G><br />

FIG. 88 (left)—Rotary switch for connecting several couples<br />

to indicator.<br />

FIG. 89 (right)—Bus bar for connecting several couples to<br />

recorder.<br />

sulating beads are slipped over each wire to preve<br />

them from short circuiting along their length. This is<br />

illustrated in Fig. 85. These heavy wires terminate<br />

in a "head" outside the furnace where they are connected<br />

to lighter wires, sometimes flexible; which run<br />

to the indicating instrument, see Fig. 86. This head<br />

is usually mounted at the end of the protection tube,<br />

so that the whole is a convenient unit for handling or<br />

replacement, as shown in Fig. 87.<br />

Extension Leads.<br />

For base metal couples, it is customary to run wires<br />

of the same metals but of smaller size from the head<br />

of the couple to the indicating or recording instru-


132 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

ment. This brings the cold junction to that instrument,<br />

where the temperature is fairly constant and<br />

where provision may be made for compensating for<br />

the cold junction temperature. Such wires are called<br />

"extension lead>" They are insulated and resemble<br />

ordinary electric wires, except for the metals used.<br />

For noble metal couples the cost of running extension<br />

leads of the same material to the instrument<br />

would be excessive. Certain inexpensive alloys of copper<br />

and nickel are available which have practically the<br />

Mine effect over the range of temperature to which the<br />

head of the couple and the instrument are likely to be<br />

subjected.<br />

Parasite E.M.Fs.<br />

In the head of a thermocouple, connectors of brass<br />

or other metal different from those of the couple, are<br />

used to join the heavy couple wires to the extension<br />

leads. An e.m.f. is set up where each thermocouple wire<br />

joins its connector and where the extension lead joins<br />

the connector on the other side. If all of these joints<br />

are at uniform temperature these e.m.fs. will cancel<br />

each other (their algebraic sum will equal zero) and<br />

will therefore have no effect on the readings. However<br />

if one end of the connectors is at a higher temperature<br />

than the other end, these e.m.fs. will not<br />

cancel, and serious errors may be introduced in the<br />

readings. Thermocouple heads should be designed to<br />

entirely enclose the connectors in a metal casing as in<br />

Fig. 87, or else to leave them entirely exposed to the<br />

air, so that they may assume a uniform temperature<br />

throughout. The practice of mounting the connectors<br />

in the head with one end inside for connection to the<br />

couple, and the other end outside for connection to the<br />

leads, is likely to introduce errors due to inequality<br />

of temperature, and should be avoided. The inside<br />

of the head is usually hotter than the outside, due to<br />

conduction of heat along the sheath. This also applies<br />

to connections made along the line.<br />

Commutating Switch or Bus Bar.<br />

It is often satisfactory to use one indicating instrument<br />

to take readings on several thermocouples. For<br />

this purpose a commutating switch is provided, such<br />

as is illustrated in Fig. 88. Separate lead wires should<br />

be run from each couple to a pair of contacts on the<br />

switch, and two wires from the switch to the indicator.<br />

The use of a common return is likely to cause trouble<br />

due to leakage currents.<br />

A similar arrangement consisting of a bus bar with<br />

multiple contacts. Fig. 89, may be used to connect a<br />

recording instrument to various couples in turn.<br />

Cold Junction Compensation.<br />

Correction for the temperature of the cold junction<br />

may be made in two ways:<br />

1. By keeping the cold junction at a known<br />

and constant temperature.<br />

2. By compensating for a varying cold junction<br />

temperature—<br />

(a) By hand adjustments.<br />

(b) Automatically.<br />

In the first method, the head of the thermocouple<br />

may be provided with a jacket through which water or<br />

steam flows at a practically constant temperature.<br />

Copper leads are run to the indicating instrument,<br />

which is adjusted permanently to allow for the cold<br />

April, 1925<br />

junction temperature. Another method is to run extension<br />

leads to some point which is at known and<br />

constant temperature. A pipe driven into the ground<br />

to a depth of 5 or 10 feet, or a thermostatic box, electrically<br />

heated and controlled, will serve this purpose.<br />

From here copper leads are run to the instrument.<br />

Arrangements of this sort are likely to give trouble<br />

due to grounds or short circuits, and are being superceded<br />

by the second method, in which extension leads<br />

are run to the instrument, where the cold junction temperature<br />

is compensated for by a manual or automatic<br />

adjustment. Methods for doing this will be described<br />

in connection with the instruments with which they<br />

are used.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

John A. McGregor, president Union Twist Drill<br />

Company, Athol, Mass., since its <strong>org</strong>anization 20 years<br />

ago, died at his home there on March 26. He was in<br />

his sixty-eighth year. Mr. McGregor was a native of<br />

v\Tova Scotia and served his apprenticeship with the<br />

Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Best, founder and president of the Best<br />

Manufacturing Company, Pittsburgh, until he retired<br />

from business a few years ago, died at his home in<br />

Oakmont. Pa.. Mrach 17. The Best Manufacturing<br />

Company was engaged in the piping, valve and power<br />

plant equipment business, first in Pittsburgh and later<br />

at Etna, Pa. The plant at Etna now is owned by the<br />

Kelly & Jones Company. Mr. Best was born in Pittsburgh<br />

67 years ago.<br />

* * *<br />

Austin Goddard Gorham, an old-time Bostonian<br />

and a recognized metallurgist, died March 11 at Buxton.<br />

Me., where he had made his home for some time.<br />

He was in his seventy-seventh year.<br />

* * *<br />

Justin E. Griess, vice-president of the McMyler<br />

Interstate Company, Bedford, Ohio, died recently. He<br />

was 51 years old.<br />

* * *<br />

Frank Singer, aged 58 years, died recently in<br />

Syracuse. He was president of the Syracuse Twist<br />

Drill Company and had been ill for some time.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e W. Jewett, 65, general manager of the<br />

Pittsburgh district plants of the American Steel &<br />

Wire Company, died at Pittsburgh, March 2 of pneumonia.<br />

* * *<br />

Norman D. Carpenter, for many years manager of<br />

sales in the Detroit district for the Carnegie Steel<br />

Company, died at his residence in Los Angeles, March<br />

10, aged 82.<br />

* * *<br />

Elzy B. Van Atta, resident and founder of E. B. Van<br />

Atta & Company, Inc., Olean, N. Y., manufacturer of<br />

hydraulic presses, died March 19 at the age of 67 years.<br />

Mr. Van Atta established a plant in 1916 at Olean.<br />

where he went from New York. He was a native of<br />

Ohio and a former vice-president of the Hydraulic<br />

Press Manufacturing Company, Mount Gilead, Ohio,<br />

where he advanced from a salesman to officer and<br />

partner.


April, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating 133<br />

*<br />

T h e A u t o m o b i l e B a c k A x l e P r o b l e m<br />

A Series of Tests Made by the Author to Determine the Magnitude<br />

and Nature of Stresses Set Up in Automobile Rear<br />

T H E problem of automobile back axles is still one<br />

deserving of attention, and the writer wishes to<br />

put forward a few facts gained by personal experience.<br />

These may be of interest, as there are cars<br />

here and there which are known to be capable of breaking<br />

their back axles, and that is a serious matter. If<br />

one is asked what is the best steel, and the best condition<br />

of that steel for use in a back axle shaft, it is<br />

easy on general lines to answer the question. This<br />

problem, however, at one time presented itself to the<br />

author in a personal way and he, therefore, made some<br />

investigations.<br />

The first step was to determine the magnitude of<br />

the stresses which the back axle shaft in his own car<br />

had to withstand. The car experimented upon is of<br />

15.9 hp. and weighs 2,825 lbs. The diameter of the<br />

shaft on the parallel portion is 1.04 in., and the overall<br />

length 3iy$ in.<br />

The experiment consisted in taking out the hightensile<br />

steel shaft, which had already been in service<br />

for some time, and replacing it with a shaft made of<br />

much softer steel. Before inserting the shaft a line<br />

was scribed along it, so that careful observation could<br />

be made of any relative change in the angular position<br />

of the two ends of the shaft. The car was then run<br />

in the ordinary way for 1,200 miles in and about the<br />

Peak District of Derbyshire, and after this mileage had<br />

been attained the shaft was taken out, and it was found<br />

that it had suffered permanent twist to the extent of<br />

315 deg. After running a further 400 miles an examination<br />

was again made, and it was found that the<br />

permanent twist was now 351 deg. The shaft was<br />

again inserted, and run for another 200 miles. Further<br />

examination showed that there had been no additional<br />

permanent twist. This would appear to showthat<br />

the work-hardening effect of the deformation already<br />

received had raised the elastic limit of the material<br />

until the steel was probably equal to the stresses<br />

imposed upon it. It is admitted that much longer<br />

FIG. 1—Shaft after the experiment.<br />

running might have shown still further permanent<br />

twist, but it was considered that the experiment had<br />

been carried far enough for the purpose.<br />

The steel before putting into service had a tensile<br />

strength of 35 tons, and this was accompanied by a<br />

yield of about 22 tons. The Wohler rotary bend<br />

fatigue value for 10,000,000 reversals was between 14<br />

Axles Is Comprehensively Discussed<br />

By DR. W. H. HATFlELDt<br />

*Reprinted from the Supplement to The (British) Engineer.<br />

tBrown-Firth Research Laboratories, Sheffield, England.<br />

to 15 (zp) tons per square inch. The elongation was<br />

about 28 per cent in 2 in., with a reduction of area of<br />

about 50 per cent. The potential degrees of the twist<br />

for the whole of the parallel portion of shaft, assuming<br />

uniformity of deformation, were probably about 2,300,<br />

so that, although the shaft had been twisted 351 deg.,<br />

the material had still a sufficient reserve in this direction.<br />

FIG. 2—An axle that failed.<br />

Fig. 1 is a photograph of the shaft showing the<br />

position of the scribed line after the experiment, and<br />

it is of considerable interest to record that the twisting<br />

effect was perfectly uniform within the accuracy<br />

of very careful measurement, throughout the whole<br />

length of the axle, contrary to what is frequently observed<br />

in the case of back axle failure.<br />

One interesting result of the observations made<br />

upon this shaft after service was that, in spite of the<br />

very considerable permanent twist, the external dimensions<br />

remained as before, within the errors of careful<br />

measurement. The deformation was also entirely<br />

in the form of twist, there being no evidence of bending.<br />

The main deduction to be drawn from this experiment<br />

is that actual stresses imposed upon this<br />

back axle shaft during running conditions were much<br />

in excess of what the writer had anticipated, and clearly<br />

had exceeded the yield stress of this material in<br />

shear, which is about 14 to 15 tons per square inch.<br />

Having obtained this information, another shaft was<br />

produced in hardened and tempered chromium-vanadium<br />

steel, having a maximum stress in tension of between<br />

50 and 55 tons with a Wohler fatigue range<br />

for 10.000,000 revolutions of about 23 tons. This<br />

shaft had a line scribed along the length of it, for observations<br />

as before. The shaft was inserted, and,<br />

although it has now run nearly 30,000 miles, the line,<br />

when last inspected, was still perfectly true.<br />

This experiment, to the scientific man, may appear<br />

somewhat crude, but we have to recognize that<br />

in many respects the basis of engineering design is a<br />

compromise, and it was thought that this somewhat<br />

practical experiment would be of sufficient interest<br />

to put on record.<br />

An axle made of a very ductile steel has been considered.<br />

It may now be of interest to describe an in-


134 f<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

teresting specimen sent to the writer for examination<br />

during the war. This back axle was from a substantial<br />

car, and is of interest since the other extreme as<br />

regards material had been followed. An alloy steel<br />

had been employed having a Brinell hardness of 364<br />

to 351, which is equivalent to a maximum stress in tension<br />

of 80 to 90 tons. This ranee of hardness, as is<br />

FIG. 3—Fracture.<br />

well known to metallurgists, may be a very dangerous<br />

one. since the steel in that range is at times in a definitely<br />

brittle condition. This back axle came to the<br />

writer packed up in a small cardboard box, and the<br />

photograph in Fig. 2 illustrates the manner of failure.<br />

For years new designers have practically settled<br />

down to using either a heat-treated nickel steel of<br />

about 50 tons tensile strength, a heat-treated nickelchromium<br />

steel towards 60 tons tensile, or chromium<br />

and chromium-vanadium steels of similar characteristics,<br />

and the writer is confident that such practice is<br />

definitely established as technically satisfactory. Such<br />

steels in the condition mentioned have fatigue ranges<br />

of 21 to 27 (±) tons per square inch. On the evidence<br />

of existing experimental work, such a range will withstand<br />

the stresses which are likely to be met. providing<br />

that the dimensions, design and technique of manufacture<br />

are satisfactory. The mechanical properties of<br />

these suitable steels are indicated in the above table.<br />

In will be seen that in each of these steels, as<br />

shown by the high values for elongation and reduction<br />

of area, there is a large capacity for plastic deformation,<br />

should the relatively high elastic range of the<br />

steel be exceeded. This means that under ordinary<br />

conditions the axle shaft should only be stressed well<br />

within its elastic range, but that, should occasional<br />

abnormal stresses be met, slight deformation will ensue<br />

without rupture.<br />

In certain cases the deformation, instead of being<br />

uniformly distributed over the whole length of the<br />

shaft, is localized largely at the end. This is well illustrated<br />

by the photograph of the fracture and the<br />

section through the shaft •— shown in Figs. 3 and 4.<br />

This type of fracture is very interesting, and mav be<br />

put down entirely to severe over-stressing, resulting<br />

from heavy torsional shocks and also to the serious<br />

weakening effect of the keyways with sharp corners.<br />

In this instance the steel and its conditions were of<br />

April, 1925<br />

standard quality. This type of failure is much too<br />

common.<br />

3% Nickel Chromium<br />

Chromium Vanadium<br />

Steel Steel<br />

Carbon, per cent<br />

0.32 0.46<br />

Manganese, per cent<br />

0.60 0.64<br />

Silicon, per cent<br />

0.12 0.19<br />

Sulphur, per cent<br />

0.03 0.28<br />

Phosphorus, per cent<br />

0.03 0.31<br />

Chromium, per cent<br />

076 1.48<br />

Nickel, per cent<br />

3.41 0.19<br />

Vanadium, per cent<br />

nil 0.33<br />

Tensile Tests 47.0 38.6<br />

Elastic limit, tons per sq. in. 56.0 48.6<br />

Yield point, tons per sq. in. 62.0 56.5<br />

Maximum stress, tons per 21.0 22.0<br />

sq. in<br />

62.0 60.4<br />

Elongation, per cent<br />

Reduction of area, per cent.<br />

37.2 36.8<br />

Torsion Tests<br />

39.6 39.0<br />

Yield<br />

440<br />

532<br />

Probably maximum stress..<br />

49<br />

35<br />

Degrees twist<br />

240<br />

280<br />

Izod. foot-pounds<br />

7700 6264<br />

Arnold, reversals<br />

3000 4360<br />

Stanton, blows<br />

277<br />

255<br />

Sankey, Tons, + or foot-pounds —<br />

45 Wohler reversals 41<br />

Brinell 40 hardness number. . . .<br />

Shore 37.5<br />

73,000<br />

hardness number. . . .<br />

35<br />

176,800<br />

34<br />

507,600<br />

32<br />

3,169,000<br />

30<br />

3,628,000<br />

29<br />

10,000,000*<br />

232,000<br />

27<br />

10,000,000* 1,247,000<br />

25<br />

24<br />

22<br />

21<br />

*Safe range for<br />

10.000,000 re\olutions<br />

28.0<br />

27.5<br />

21.5<br />

FIG. 4—Section through shaft.<br />

Nickel<br />

Steel<br />

0.39<br />

0.55<br />

0.11<br />

0.039<br />

0.031<br />

nil<br />

2.96<br />

nil<br />

30.8<br />

41.7<br />

49.51<br />

24.0<br />

63.6<br />

28.5<br />

34.5<br />

468<br />

72<br />

250<br />

4609<br />

3100<br />

228<br />

35<br />

In one or two cars which the writer is interested<br />

in watching, the axle shafts are definitely not strong<br />

enough in section for the work they have to do. It<br />

may also be put on record that cars have been studied<br />

where replace axle shafts have been put in, made from


April, 1925<br />

steel of entirely different mechanical characteristics<br />

from that originally intended by the designer. Replace<br />

shafts should, preferably, be obtained from the<br />

maker of the car. This ensures the correct steel, but<br />

it additionally ensures a more satisfactory technique<br />

in manufacture than that which is obtained when<br />

shafts are hurriedly replaced elsewhere. If such replacement<br />

is necessary, the temporary shafts should<br />

be taken out again as soon as possible. One might<br />

observe that in these days of heat-treated high-tensile<br />

steel the improvization of replace parts by well-meaning<br />

people of little knowledge is a standing danger.<br />

It should always be borne in mind that many cars,<br />

well designed and excellently manufactured, are perfectly<br />

safe and very reliable, but the proviso must be<br />

added that frequently the important parts, as produced<br />

by the makers, effectively embody all the knowledge<br />

that can be derived from modern research, and<br />

such effective workmanship should not be tampered<br />

with.<br />

Large Order for Drop Hammers<br />

Dodge Brothers, Detroit, have ordered from the<br />

Chambersburg Engineering Company, Chambersburg,<br />

Pa., 38 board drop hammers including five 1200-lb 21<br />

1600-lb., 10 2000-lb. and two 3000-lb. machines. The<br />

Endicott F<strong>org</strong>ing & Manufacturing Company Endicott,<br />

N. Y., has placed orders with the Chambersburg<br />

company for one 1200-lb., one 2500-lb. and one 5000lb.<br />

board drop hammers, the latter to be the largest<br />

board hammer yet built.<br />

Large Plate Frame Billet Shear<br />

What is believed to be the largest motor and geardriven<br />

heavy duty steel plate frame billet shear ever<br />

built was recently constructed by Henry Pels & Company,<br />

90 West Street, New York. It is designed to<br />

cut 9-in. rounds, 8-in. squares and 4>^x20-in. flats<br />

cold. The shearing is accomplished in one stroke and<br />

the machine is capable of six strokes a minute, the<br />

length of the stroke being 7% in.<br />

The shear is driven by a 100-hp. motor, which is<br />

mounted on a platform at the top of the machine and<br />

is belted to the flywheel, from which the power is<br />

transmitted by the countershaft, eccentric shaft ana<br />

plunger to the ram carrying the knife. The ram is<br />

engaged for each stroke by throwing a hand-operated<br />

clutch, which disengages automatically at its highest<br />

position after the cut is made.<br />

The end of the bar remaining after the cut is made<br />

is held by a hold-down, which is actuated by a separate<br />

motor, which in turn is belted to the elevating<br />

mechanism. This motor is arranged to stop automatically<br />

when the hold-down comes in contact with<br />

the bar to be sheared, stopping, also when the holddown<br />

reaches its highest position.<br />

The strain of cutting is taken by the frame, which<br />

is made up of two heavy armor plates, specially heattreated.<br />

Automatic lubrication is provided for the<br />

larger bearings. The flywheel, which weighs 5 tons,<br />

is made of cast steel to withstand the centrifugal<br />

force set up at its periphery. The large gear weighs<br />

nine tons and the teeth of this gear are 3y in. thick.<br />

The upper knife weighs 550 lbs. The machine is set<br />

in a pit and accessory equipment for handling the billets<br />

is available. The height of the machine to the<br />

upper edge of the frame is 15 ft., atid to the highest<br />

rail, approximately 21 ft.<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat "Beating 135<br />

Super-Steel Products Company Organized<br />

The Super-Steel Products Company, Milwaukee,<br />

is a new corporation <strong>org</strong>anized by Walter A. Belau,<br />

formerly office manager and estimator, and Charles J.'<br />

Wamser, formerly factory superintendent of the Biersach<br />

& Niedermayer Company, Milwaukee, manufacturers<br />

of fireproof sash, doors, screens, partitions, etc.<br />

A factory has been equipped at Hawley and State<br />

Streets, in Wauwatosa, a suburb of Milwaukee, in a<br />

leased building, but it is intended to erect a new and<br />

larger factory during the year. The line of products<br />

is similar to that of the Biersach & Niedermayer<br />

Company.<br />

Automotive Industry Shows Gain<br />

A gain of 15 per cent over the January figure is<br />

noted on the February report of the National Automobile<br />

Chamber of Commerce. As there is less tendency<br />

to stock in anticipation of spring demand, this<br />

figure represents actual sales. The output of cars in<br />

February was 277,600. The new car stocks are light<br />

and used vehicle inventories are cleaning up.<br />

Establishes Fellowship in Metallurgy<br />

The Milwaukee Steel Foundry Company, Milwaukee,<br />

has established a fellowship in metallurgy of<br />

$1,500 at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. The<br />

first appointee under the fellowship is Leo Shapiro<br />

of Madison, who is making a study of the technical<br />

problems peculiar to the steel casting industry. He<br />

is carrying on the research project at the university<br />

in collaboration with A. T. Baumer, works manager<br />

of the Milwaukee foundry, who is enrolled as a graduate<br />

student in the university class of graduate engineers<br />

conducted in Milwaukee by the Extension Division<br />

of the State University.<br />

Caring for Paint Brushes<br />

Paint and varnish brushes which are used only<br />

occasionally should be hung in a jar of kerosene. The<br />

brush can also be kept soft if kept in linseed oil or<br />

turpentine, but the Bureau of Standards paint specialists<br />

recommend kerosene as the least expensive. The<br />

brush should be hung, not stood on its bristles, so that<br />

all of the bristle and about one inch above the bottom<br />

edge of the ferrule are covered with the liquid. The<br />

brush is then ready for use at any time on simplywashing<br />

out with mineral spirits.<br />

Of course, if one wishes to store the brush for a<br />

long period, it is best to brush out all of the paint possible,<br />

then wash it thoroughly with kerosene, then with<br />

mineral spirits or benzine, or with good soap and water<br />

suds. Varnish brushes should be kept in kerosene<br />

and washed with turpentine when needed.<br />

Studies Nickel Plating<br />

The Bureau of Standards, Washington, is continuing<br />

the study of the protective value of nickel plating<br />

on iron and steel. The indications are that it is extremely<br />

difficult to secure impervious deposits of<br />

nickel on iron and steel. It appears probable that<br />

some of the results of others in which high resistance<br />

in the salt-spray test was obtained, are accounted for<br />

by the presence of buffing grease in the pores of the<br />

nickel deposit.


136 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating April, 1925<br />

W h y D i d T h i s M i l l i n g C u t t e r B r e a k ?<br />

Wrong Grade of Steel?<br />

Improper Heat Treatment<br />

()ccurrences of this kind, which are daily<br />

tying up production in one plant or another,<br />

can be reduced to a minimum by selecting<br />

the proper grade of steel and heat treating it<br />

according to the service it must meet. Prevent<br />

failures like this in your shop, or others<br />

of a similar nature, by acquiring a thorough<br />

knowledge of the<br />

Heat Treatment and Metallography of Steel<br />

Those who have not been able to avail themselves of a college education can learn<br />

the fundamental principles of Heat Treating by enrolling in the correspondence course<br />

bein g offered by Mr. Horace C. Knerr through F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating. Mr.<br />

Kne rr is author of the articles appearing serially in this publication under the heading<br />

"He at Treatment and Metallography of Steel," and is director of the course in metal-<br />

lurg y given at Temple University, "Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

It is not necessary tor the student to possess any special scholastic training to f<br />

low the work, as the text is written in simple language intended for those who wish to<br />

stud y the treatment, structure and properties of steel in their spare time. An idea of the<br />

com pleteness of the course can he had from the following-;<br />

CHAPTER I<br />

-An Ancient Craft and .1 Modern Science<br />

-Phj sical Metallurgy<br />

-Principles of Chemistrj and Physics<br />

Physical Properties of Steel<br />

CHAPTER II<br />

Processes 01 Manufacture<br />

Mechanical Treatment<br />

CHAPTER III<br />

-Microscopic Examination of Metals<br />

-Macroscopic Examination<br />

-Structure of Metals<br />

-Micro-Constituents of Steel<br />

-Critical Points of Steel—Their Manifestation<br />

CHAPTER IV<br />

-Meat and Temperature<br />

-Methods of Measuring Temperature<br />

-Thermocouples<br />

-Galvanometers and Millivoltmeters<br />

- Potentiometers<br />

-Calibration<br />

-Temperature Recorders<br />

OUTLINE OF THE COURSE<br />

or<br />

CHAPTER V<br />

1—Methods of Determining Critical Points<br />

2- Heating and Cooling Curves<br />

CHAPTER VI<br />

1—Nature of Critical Points<br />

2—Slip Interference Theory<br />

3—Constitution Diagrams<br />

CHAPTER VII<br />

1—Purposes of Heat Treatment<br />

2—Annealing, Normalizing<br />

3—Hardening, Tempering<br />

4— Carburizing, Casehardening<br />

5—Alloy Steels<br />

6—High Speed Steels—Equipment<br />

Used in Heat Treatment<br />

8—Miscellaneous and Special Treatments<br />

CHAPTER VIII<br />

1—Chemical Analysis<br />

2—Physical Testing<br />

3—Metallographic Inspection<br />

•4—Inspection During Fabrication<br />

3—Specifications<br />

For full details write Editor, F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating,<br />

Box 65, Pittsburgh, Pa.


April, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Tieating 137<br />

T h e U s e o f H i g h P u r i t y O x y g e n in C u t t i n g<br />

Small Increase in Oxygen Purity Greatly Increases Cutting<br />

Efficiency and Reduces Oxygen Consumption and Time<br />

Required to Complete a Given Amount of Cutting<br />

OXYGEN was recognized by its properties as far<br />

back as the eighth century among the Chinese<br />

who knew that the active component of the air<br />

combines with some metals, with sulphur and with<br />

charcoal, and that this active component could be obtained<br />

pure from saltpeter and certain other minerals.<br />

Leonardo da Vinci (1451-1519) was the first European<br />

to state that the air contains two gases, but it was not<br />

until 1774 that Joseph Priestly made the first sample<br />

of pure oxygen. It is true that Scheele, a Swedish<br />

apothecary, had made oxygen in 1771-1772 from at<br />

least seven different substances, and that he had made<br />

quite an extensive study of its combination with various<br />

materials, but as his results were not printed until<br />

1777, Priestly is generally considered to be the discoverer<br />

of oxygen.<br />

Many other chemists worked on the air and the<br />

commonly known gases at that time, and these studies<br />

furnished the material on which Lavoisier, the great<br />

French philosopher and scientist, based his conclusions<br />

which may be said to form the foundation of<br />

modern chemistry. The name oxygen (meaning acidforming)<br />

was given to the gas by Lavoisier who at<br />

that time thought it was an essential constituent of all<br />

acids. From later work we know that oxygen is not<br />

an essential constituent of all acids and that oxygen,<br />

therefore, does not comply with the definition of its<br />

name.<br />

Occurrence.<br />

Oxygen is the most widely distributed element in<br />

nature, and it has been estimated that it makes up<br />

nearly half of terrestial matter. It forms approximately<br />

21 per cent by volume of the atmosphere; it<br />

makes up eight-ninths by weight of all the water on<br />

the globe; more than three-fifths of the human body;<br />

nearly half of three of the chief constituents of the<br />

earth's crust, namely silicious rock, chalk and alumina.<br />

Many other minerals contain oxygen in considerable<br />

proportions. It is an essential constituent of all<br />

living <strong>org</strong>anisms, aside from its existence in the water<br />

of the tissues. It is absorbed by all animals during<br />

respiration and is given off in the free state from growing<br />

vegetable <strong>org</strong>anisms when exposed to sunlight.<br />

Preparation.<br />

Until a comparatively recent date all oxygen was<br />

produced by chemical or electro-chemical means, and<br />

some of the older users of oxyacetylene torches will<br />

tell you that the oxygen produced for welding and cutting<br />

was very expensive and that it was about as im-<br />

By JOHN J. CROWEf and GEORGE L. WALKER*<br />

*Paper presented at the February 16 meeting, American<br />

Welding Society, New York City.<br />

tEngineer in charge Apparatus Research and Development<br />

Department, Air Reduction Sales Company.<br />

^Associate Engineer, Apparatus Research and Development<br />

Department, Air Reduction Sales Company.<br />

Copyright, 1925, by Air Reduction Sales Company, New<br />

York, N. Y.<br />

pure as it was expensive when judged by our present<br />

standards. Today most of the oxygen used in oxyacetylene<br />

welding and cutting is manufactured by the<br />

liquid air process.<br />

The atmospheric air is liquified by compressing and<br />

cooling and the oxygen is obtained by what amounts<br />

to a distillation process. The boiling temperature of<br />

oxygen at atmospheric pressure being —182.5 deg. C.<br />

(—296.5 deg. F.) whereas the boiling point of nitrogen<br />

is approximately 13 deg. C. lower or —196 deg. C.<br />

(—320.8 deg. F.).<br />

Oxygen has many uses, one of the recent applications<br />

being its use as an explosive in the liquid state<br />

with powdered carbon, but the use with which we are<br />

interested in the present discussion is its application<br />

to the oxyacetylene process of cutting.<br />

FIG. 1—Torch mounted on a geared machine to eliminate the<br />

human element or personal equation as far as possible.<br />

Discovery of the Oxyacetylene Process.<br />

The discovery of the principle of the oxyacetylene<br />

torch was first announced by that famous French<br />

physicist Henri LeChatelier in 1895 in a paper read<br />

before the Academic de Sciences on the temperatures of<br />

flames. He stated at that time that the temperature of<br />

the oxyacetylene flame was 1,000 deg. C. higher than<br />

the oxyhydrogen flame, and we know today that the<br />

temperature, approximately 3,480 deg. C. (6,300 deg.<br />

F.), exceeds that of any other known flame and closely<br />

approaches the temperature of the carbon arc.<br />

Practical application was made of the principle<br />

of the oxyacetylene flame by Fouche and Picard when<br />

they developed the first oxyacetylene torch in 1901.<br />

Application.<br />

The first torches were for welding, but it was not<br />

long before application was made of the principle of


138<br />

iron and steel combustion in an atmosphere rich in<br />

oxvgen when raised to their ignition temperatures We<br />

are all familiar with the classic experiments made by<br />

chemistry teachers wherein a piece of watch spring<br />

with burning charcoal or sulphur attached is lowered<br />

into a jar of oxvgen. The steel spring is ignited by<br />

the burning charcoal or sulphur and burns freely in<br />

the oxygen rich atmosphere. This is the principle employed'<br />

in the present dav modern cutting torch which<br />

has found such wide use in the scrapping of battleships,<br />

old railroad cars, cutting scrap to charging box<br />

size for open hearth steel furnaces, and for cutting<br />

machine members to shape, etc.<br />

Oxygen Purity.<br />

Until quite recently oxygen users were contented<br />

with oxvgen of 97-98.5 per cent purity, but today, at<br />

least in'the United States, such is not the case. By<br />

improving the apparatus and operation of liquid air<br />

plants it has been found possible to manufacture, commercially,<br />

oxygen of much higher purity. By stages<br />

the purity of oxygen has been increased until now it is<br />

possible to obtain, continuously by that method, oxygen<br />

with a guaranteed purity of 99.5 per cent, plus<br />

or minus a tolerance of 0.1 per cent.<br />

The question naturally arises what benefits are to<br />

be derived from small increments in purity as we<br />

approach the ultimate limit of 100 per cent oxygen,<br />

and to answer this question the Air Reduction Sales<br />

Company has carried out two series of experiments<br />

extending over a period of several years, and it is the<br />

results of these experiments which are presented in<br />

this paper.<br />

Method of Test.<br />

The experiments were made on steel plates and<br />

rolled steel billets, ranging in thickness from V% inch<br />

to 12 inches. To eliminate the human element or per-<br />

TABLE I<br />

Average consumption of various purities required to cut<br />

metals of various thicknesses, using 100 cubic feet of 99.5<br />

per cent oxygen as basis of comparison.<br />

Thicknr.ss<br />

of Metal<br />

Inches<br />

H<br />

Vi<br />

Va<br />

1<br />

2'A<br />

2 3/16<br />

4^<br />

6<br />

6<br />

12<br />

12<br />

Average<br />

99 5<br />

Series<br />

Xo.<br />

1<br />

1<br />

1<br />

1<br />

2<br />

1<br />

1<br />

2<br />

1<br />

2<br />

Cons<br />

Difference for<br />

decrease in<br />

99 5<br />

Per Cent<br />

Cu. Pt.<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

100.0<br />

each Yi<br />

oxygen<br />

OXYGEN PURITY<br />

99.0<br />

Per Cent<br />

Cu. Ft.<br />

114.1<br />

111.1<br />

116.0<br />

1154<br />

108.0<br />

112.1<br />

113.3<br />

108.8<br />

114.8<br />

108.4<br />

108.9<br />

111.9<br />

98.5<br />

Per Cent<br />

Cu. Ft.<br />

125.5<br />

121.5<br />

140.0<br />

135.0<br />

123.4<br />

127.5<br />

141.5<br />

133.6<br />

131.7<br />

119.5<br />

122.0<br />

1292<br />

per cent<br />

purity... 11.9 17 3 16.7<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Tieating<br />

98 .0<br />

Per Cent<br />

Cm Ft<br />

148.8<br />

150.1<br />

139.0<br />

145.9<br />

97.5<br />

Per Cent<br />

Cu.Ft.<br />

173.9<br />

169.3<br />

161.0<br />

168.1<br />

21.5<br />

sonal equation as far as possible, all the cutting done<br />

in the first series was done with a hand torch mounted<br />

on a machine (Radiagraph) geared to give variable<br />

speeds from a few inches per minute up to 60 inches<br />

or more per minute, and in the second test series the<br />

cutting was done with a machine torch mounted in<br />

the same manner (see Fig. 1).<br />

April, 192b<br />

The speed of the Radiagraph was checked with a<br />

stop watch. The pressures, where practicable, were<br />

measured with mercury manometers, and the higher<br />

pressures were measured with standard test gauges,<br />

frequently calibrated and tested on a dead weight<br />

gauge tester. The gas (oxygen and acetylene) consumptions<br />

were obtained by weighing the cylinders be-<br />

3XYGErJ PUPITY CUTTING TEST<br />

3 12'BILLET STEEL i j<br />

PPESSUPE CHrlBT ~7\<br />

i. -<br />

/ / 1<br />

/<br />

oxygen pubity cutting test<br />

6'billet steel<br />

ppessube cH/ier<br />

St<br />

/<br />

7<br />

XZl<br />

OXYGEN PUBITY ire C£" ®<br />

OXYGEN PUBITY CUT TING CHAgT<br />

OXYGEN PUPITY CUTTING TEST<br />

\%<br />

le'aiLLET STEEL / *


April, 1925<br />

to use in making the final cuts. The curves shown are<br />

concave upwards but only slightly so, and this is<br />

typical of all curves plotted in this manner.<br />

Taking Fig. 2 as an example it will be noted that<br />

the pressure quired to cut a billet 12 inches thick using<br />

oxygen of 99.5 per cent purity was 99 pounds per<br />

square inch, whereas it required a pressure of 112<br />

pounds when the oxygen purity was reduced 0.5 per<br />

cent—99.0 per cent—and if the purity was dropped<br />

to 98.0 per cent the pressure required was increased to<br />

142 pounds.<br />

As the cutting tip was the same for all cuts on the<br />

same thickness of metal the oxygen consumption for<br />

the same amount of cutting increases with the pressure<br />

required to make the cut.<br />

The next series of curves, Figs. 4 and 5, show the<br />

number of cubic feet of oxygen of the various purities<br />

required to cut one linear focft of the metal thickness<br />

given on each curve. The consumptions given correspond<br />

to the lowest possible pressures it was found<br />

possible to use.<br />

Ibrging- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

TABLE II<br />

139<br />

the cutting on the 6-inch and 12-inch thicknesses being<br />

made at constant speed. The actual time to make<br />

the various cuts is shown in Table II and in order to<br />

compare the results they have all been reduced to a<br />

common basis and expressed in percentages using the<br />

time obtained with 99.5 per cent purity oxygen as a<br />

standard of comparison.<br />

The loss in time expressed in percentages very<br />

closely approximates the waste in oxygen as the<br />

purity decreases, and the two go together, that is, as<br />

the oxygen purity decreases the time required to make<br />

a given cut goes up as shown in Table il, and the consumption<br />

of oxygen in making the cut goes up at the<br />

same time as shown in Table I. The average of the<br />

results expressed in percentages as shown in Table II<br />

is shown graphically in Fig. 7.<br />

The characteristic drags obtained on the 12-inch<br />

billets with oxygen of four different purities are given<br />

in Fig. 8. For some work, such as straight line cutting,<br />

the amount of drag may not be of serious consequence<br />

but in machine cutting of intricate shapes<br />

Actual time required to make cuts of given lengths of metals of various thicknesses, using oxygen of various purities, and<br />

time expressed in percentages, using time required with oxygen of 99.5 per cent purity as a standard.<br />

Thickness<br />

of Metal<br />

Inches<br />

H<br />

yi<br />

u<br />

i<br />

2%<br />

4?i Mean<br />

99.50 PER CENT<br />

Time to Hake<br />

Cut<br />

Min. Sec.<br />

74 18<br />

42 15<br />

35 45<br />

35 20<br />

26 7<br />

14 29<br />

Per<br />

Cent<br />

100<br />

100<br />

100<br />

100<br />

100<br />

100<br />

99.25 PER CENT<br />

Time to Make<br />

Cut<br />

Min. Sec.<br />

79 51<br />

43 13<br />

38 3<br />

37 18<br />

27 4<br />

15 25<br />

Difference for 0.25 per cent in oxygen purity<br />

Difference for 0.50 per cent in oxygen purity<br />

Per<br />

Cent<br />

107.3<br />

102.3<br />

106.4<br />

105.6<br />

103.7<br />

106.5<br />

105.3<br />

In order that the data obtained may be more easily<br />

compared they have been tabulated in Table I after<br />

reducing to a common basis, that is, the number of<br />

cubic feet of oxygen of the various purities required<br />

to cut metals of the various thickness, using 100 cubic<br />

feet of 99.5 per cent oxygen as a standard of comparison.<br />

The mean of the results given in the table are<br />

shown graphically in Fig. 6.<br />

It will be noted that 11.9 per cent more oxygen of<br />

99.0 per cent purity is required to do the same amount<br />

of cutting as was done with oxygen of 99.5 per cent<br />

purity, and when the oxygen purity was dropped from<br />

99.5 per cent to 98.5 per cent the increase in consumption<br />

was 29.2 per cent. In other words, it required<br />

129.2 cubic feet of 98.5 per cent oxygen to make the<br />

same length of cut as was made with 100 cubic feet of<br />

oxygen having a purity of 99.5 per cent.<br />

The preceding data have shown how the oxygen<br />

consumption increases with decrease in oxygen purity<br />

without reference to time. The results of time studies<br />

made in the first series of experiments on sizes up to<br />

4^ inch thickness are given in Table II. Owing to<br />

the large amount of material involved, these experiments<br />

were not extended to cover the larger sizes, all<br />

OXYGEN PURITY<br />

99.00 PER CENT<br />

Time to Make<br />

Cut<br />

Min. Sec.<br />

84 45<br />

46 54<br />

41 27<br />

40 45<br />

28 12<br />

16 25<br />

Per<br />

Cent<br />

114.0<br />

111.0<br />

115.9<br />

115.3<br />

108.0<br />

113.4<br />

112.9<br />

98.75 PER CENT<br />

Time to Make<br />

Cut<br />

Min. Sec.<br />

91 30<br />

48 42<br />

48 48<br />

43 0<br />

29 40<br />

18 32<br />

5.3 percent 7.6 percent<br />

12.9 per cent<br />

Per<br />

Cent<br />

123.1<br />

115.2<br />

122.5<br />

121.7<br />

113.7<br />

128.0<br />

120.7<br />

98.50 PER CENT<br />

Time to Make<br />

Cut<br />

Min. Sec.<br />

93 24<br />

51 15<br />

50 5<br />

47 39<br />

32 14<br />

20 27<br />

Per<br />

Cent<br />

125.5<br />

121.3<br />

140.1<br />

135.0<br />

123.5<br />

141.3 131.0<br />

7.8 percent 10.3 percent<br />

18.1 percent<br />

the drag must be maintained at a minimum as otherwise<br />

the underside of the shape cut will not register<br />

with the top side.<br />

To decrease the drag to correspond with that obtained<br />

with the high purity oxygen (99.5 per cent) it<br />

would be necessary to greatly increase the pressures<br />

and it follows that the consumptions for the lower<br />

purities would be much greater than those shown in<br />

the curves and tables.<br />

M. Piette in carrying out an elaborate series of<br />

experiments* to determine methods of eliminating<br />

oxygen waste, selected oxygen having a purity of 95<br />

per cent as representing the lower limit of oxygen<br />

purity used in France. The results obtained by M.<br />

Piette with oxygen of 96 per cent purity have been<br />

plotted in Fig. 9, and the corresponding results obtained<br />

by the authors with 99.5 per cent oxygen have<br />

also been plotted to the same co-ordinates. The average<br />

of the results show that it requires 251 cubic feet<br />

of 96 per cent oxygen to do the equivalent work done<br />

with 100 cubic feet of 99.5 per cent oxygen.<br />

•Eliminating the Oxygen Waste, the Welding Engineer, Volume<br />

9, No. 12, Page 25.


140<br />

The Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. as<br />

stated in a paperf, published under the date of December<br />

28, 1921. decided to use oxygen oi 98.3 per cent<br />

puritv as best representing the average purity available<br />

at that time. The Bureau of Standards found<br />

that the range of purity was 97.2 to 99.3 per cent.<br />

Practical Tests.<br />

It was not the purpose of this investigation to enter<br />

into any considerable number of practical applications<br />

in cutting with high purity oxygen and the results obtained,<br />

but anyone interested can easily demonstrate<br />

the superior cutting properties of high purity oxygen<br />

by making simple and practical tests, if they will obtain<br />

oxygen of, say, 99.5 per cent purity and oxygen<br />

of 99.0 per cent purity or less and make cuts in the<br />

same steel plate or f<strong>org</strong>ing with both oxygens.<br />

If the cutting pressures are held equal and constant<br />

it will be found that there will be a very appreciable<br />

difference in the speed of cutting, that is. if the pressures<br />

are held equal the length of cut in a given time<br />

will be considerably greater for the oxygen having<br />

mvCracc or curi oronuri or M&ot/j<br />

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V/MOUS THICXNCSSIS usinc /oocu ft<br />

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OXYCEn<br />

OXYGEAI<br />

PURITY<br />

PURITY<br />

CUTTING<br />

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TYPICAL DRAGS FOR. VARIOUS<br />

\§) OXYGEN PURITIES<br />

FIGS. 6. 7, 8 and 9<br />

0<br />

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F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

TIME IN PER CENT REQUIRED TO<br />

CUT GIVEN LENGTH VS OXYGENPURIIT<br />

USING OXYGEN OF 393% PURITY A3<br />

a sraNDABD or / comuaaijon<br />

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41<br />

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oxvcetv to NO Of Cti r~T o*<br />

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96% ro too OXYCE* cu rr<br />

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•'* / 40 je o*99$7. CQUIVAL.BNT<br />

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the higher purity. It will also be found that if the<br />

speeds of cutting with both qualities of oxygen are<br />

held constant and equal that a much lower pressure<br />

can be used with the oxygen having the higher purity,<br />

and still maintain the cut. Thereby the consumption<br />

is reduced, that is, by holding the speeds the same and<br />

properly adjusting the cutting pressures which will<br />

be different for each purity, a considerable difference in<br />

oxygen consumptions will be shown in favor of the<br />

higher purity.<br />

As a field check on the investigation made in the<br />

laboratory, a large number of oxygen cylinders analyzing<br />

99.5 per cent and an equal number of oxygen<br />

cylinders analyzing 99.0 per cent were used for wrecking<br />

steel cars, and a careful study was made of the results<br />

obtained with the two oxygen purities. Ten cars<br />

were scrapped with each purity of oxygen, and to<br />

eliminate as far as possible the personal equation the<br />

operators were frequently changed from one oxygen<br />

tAn investigation of oxyacetylene welding and cutting blowpipes,<br />

with special reference to their designs, safety and economy<br />

in operation by Robert S Johnston, Bureau of Standards Technologic<br />

paper No. 200.<br />

April, 1925<br />

purity to the other, and at no time were the operators<br />

informed as to the purity of the oxygen supplied them.<br />

Weather conditions were bad, the temperatures ranging<br />

from —30 deg. F. to +21 deg. F. and the cars were<br />

covered with snow. Working under these conditions<br />

and with operators some of whom had only a limited<br />

experience in oxyacetylene cutting, a saving of 10 per<br />

cent was shown in oxygen consumption and 11.2 per<br />

cent saving in time, both in favor of the oxygen having<br />

a purity of 99.5 per cent.<br />

Conclusions.<br />

1. That small increases in oxygen purity greatly<br />

increases the efficiency of cutting operations, both as<br />

measured by oxygen consumption and by time required<br />

to complete a given amount of cutting.<br />

2. That the difference of effect of small increases<br />

in oxvgen purity decreases as 100 per cent purity is<br />

approached, but the effect is of considerable magnitude<br />

for the interval of 99.0 per cent to 99.5 per cent oxygen<br />

purity showing a saving of approximately 12 per cent<br />

for oxygen consumption and an equivalent saving in<br />

time.<br />

3. That decreases in consumption and time with<br />

small increases in oxygen purity found by the laboratory<br />

have been substantiated by practical applications<br />

made with oxygen of 99.5 per cent and 99.0 per cent<br />

purity.<br />

American Refractories Institute Program<br />

The American Refractories Institute, whose formation<br />

was recently announced, will hold its first regular<br />

meeting on April 14 at 9:30 A. M. in Mellon Institute<br />

of Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh,<br />

Pittsburgh, Pa. After a short business session,<br />

the following program of addresses and events is<br />

scheduled:<br />

Morning Session.<br />

Address on "The Value of Research in Industry,"<br />

by Dr. E. R. Weidlein, Director, Mellon Institute of<br />

Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh.<br />

A practical discussion of "The Use of Refractories<br />

Materials," by Mr. Ff. L. Dixon, President, H. L.<br />

Dixon Company. Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Address on "Refractories Accounting," by Mr. A.<br />

I. Farber, Haskins & Sells, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

A discussion of "Spalling" by Mr. M. C. Booze,<br />

Senior Industrial Fellow, Mellon Institute of Industrial<br />

Research, University of Pittsburgh.<br />

A discussion of "Relation of Structure and Composition<br />

of Refractories to Thermal Efficiency in Regenerators,"<br />

by Mr. S. M. Phelps, Industrial Fellow.<br />

Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, University of<br />

Pittsburgh.<br />

Inspection of laboratories of Mellon Institute of<br />

Industrial Research.<br />

Luncheon at University Club, Natalie Place, Pittsburgh,<br />

Pa.<br />

Afternoon Session.<br />

Address on "The American Refractories Institute,"<br />

by Mr. J. D. Ramsay, President, Elk Fire Brick<br />

Company, St. Marys, Pa.<br />

Unfinished business.<br />

As previously announced, anyone interested in the<br />

manufacture or use of refractories is urged to attend<br />

this meeting, regardless of his affiliation with the new<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization.


April, 1925<br />

iiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii uiniiniiiiiinuiH<br />

P E R S O N A L S<br />

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiuniiiiinmiiiiiiiiiiiii mum niiimiimiiniiiininimiiniiniiiimu<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e J. Hagan, founder and formerly president<br />

of the Ge<strong>org</strong>e J. Hagan Company, Peoples Bank Building,<br />

Pittsburgh, has disposed of his interest in that<br />

company, and has opened offices in the Peoples Bank<br />

Building, to devote his entire attention to the design<br />

and construction of industrial furnaces which have<br />

been his specialty for the past 28 years.<br />

* * *<br />

H. B. Bevan has been appointed district manager<br />

at St. Louis for the Buffalo Bolt Company, North<br />

Tonawanda, N. Y., to succeed A. M. Jones who becomes<br />

assistant sales manager at North Tonawanda.<br />

* * *<br />

William Pestell has been made a vice-president of<br />

the Riley Stoker Corporation, Worcester, Mass. He<br />

has been connected with the sales division of the Riley<br />

company since its start, first as western sales manager<br />

with headquarters at Chicago and since 1921 as sales<br />

manager with headquarters at New York and Worcester,<br />

Mass. Mr. Pestell will continue to have supervision<br />

of all sales for the Riley Stoker Corporation.<br />

* * *<br />

Glen Riegel, metallurgist of the Gerlinger Electric<br />

Steel Casting Company, Milwaukee, has been promoted<br />

to the position of works manager. At the same<br />

time announcement is made of the appointment of<br />

Albert M. Weis as foundry superintendent.<br />

* * *<br />

James P. Farrell, president of the recently <strong>org</strong>anized<br />

Miami Tool & Die Company, Dayton, O., formerly<br />

was president of the Farrell-Stoneham Company<br />

and Federal Tool Company, that city.<br />

* * *<br />

Walter A. Graf of the Edward G. Budd Manufacturing<br />

Company, Philadelphia, addressed the Pennsylvania<br />

section of the Society of Automotive Engineers<br />

in that city, March 10, on the construction, design and<br />

advantages of pressed steel bodies for automobiles.<br />

Alfred J. Kieckhefer just elected president of the<br />

National Enameling & Stamping Company, 411 Fifth<br />

Avenue, New York, succeeds Ge<strong>org</strong>e W. Niedringhaus,<br />

who has retired to become chairman of the<br />

(board. Ge<strong>org</strong>e V. Hagerty, treasurer of the company<br />

was elected first vice-president.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles F. Brandt has resigned as vice-president<br />

and general manager of the Racine Manufacturing<br />

Company, Racine, Wis., manufacturer of sheet metal<br />

\products, stampings, etc., for the automobile trade. He<br />

was succeeded February 1 by Morrill Dunn, of Chicago,<br />

vice-president of the McCord Manufacturing<br />

Company, which owns the capital stock of the Racine<br />

Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Bradford H. Whiting has severed connections with<br />

the Whiting Corporation, Harvey, 111., manufacturer<br />

of cranes, foundry equipment, etc., and its subsidiary,<br />

the Grindle Fuel Equipment Company. Mr. Whiting<br />

has given up his directorship in each of the companies<br />

and has resigned as vice-president and general manager<br />

of the Whiting Corporation and president of<br />

the Grindle company His retirement is due to illness.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

141<br />

T. B. Cram has charge of the new department of<br />

Drying Systems, Inc., Chicago. This department will<br />

be devoted to the design and manufacture of industrial<br />

furnaces, oil, gas and electrical types.<br />

* * *<br />

Leon A. German, formerly vice-president of the<br />

Olds Motors Works and more recently with the<br />

Durant Motors, Inc., has been appointed assistant to<br />

Edward Ver Linden, president of the Peerless Truck<br />

i& Motor Company.<br />

* * *<br />

W. H. J. Fitzgerald has been elected president of<br />

the Pneumatic Drop Hammer Company, Boston. He<br />

is the head of the W. H. J. Fitzgerald & Company,<br />

machine tool dealers.<br />

* * *<br />

Frank Hodson, founder and president of the Electric<br />

Furnace Construction Company, Philadelphia, and<br />

vice-president of its successor, the General Furnace<br />

Company, has severed all connections with the latter<br />

company and expects to go into business as a consulting<br />

engineer and metallurgist specializing on designs,<br />

layout, construction and operation of metallurgical<br />

plants. During the war he was under the direction<br />

of the British Ministry of Munitions, doing special<br />

metallurgical work connected with the war, in France,<br />

Spain, Sweden, etc. He was sent to the United States<br />

.on metallurgical matters for the Navy Department,<br />

and late in 1918 formed the Electric Furnace Construction<br />

Company. His present office is at 200 Jefferson<br />

Building, Philadelphia.<br />

* * *<br />

Dr. Richard Moldenke, Watchung, N. J., has become<br />

associated actively with the Detroit Aero Metals<br />

Company, having complete charge of all technical<br />

operations.<br />

* * *<br />

James C. Ferris has resigned as vice-president in<br />

charge of sales and service of the Simmons Company,<br />

New York. He entered its employ as an apprentice<br />

in the buffing department of the original Simmons factory<br />

in Kenosha, Wis., about 26 years ago and rose to<br />

the post of general superintendent. With the expansion<br />

of the Simmons production and merchandising<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization several years ago, he was appointed general<br />

superintendent of all operations, and two years<br />

ago he was made vice-president with headquarters at<br />

the then newly established executive offices in New<br />

York. + „, „<br />

W. A. Shoudy has been appointed consulting engineer<br />

with special reference to combustion and furnace<br />

construction by the Bailey Meter Company,<br />

Cleveland. He will continue with his other consulting<br />

practice in steam power engineering at 50 Church<br />

Street, New York City.<br />

* * *<br />

Congressman Schuler Merritt has been elected<br />

chairman of the board of Yale & Towne Manufacturing<br />

Company, Stamford, Conn., succeeding Henry R.<br />

Towne, deceased. Gabriel S. Brown of Easton, Pa.,<br />

has been elected to fill the vacancy on the directorate.<br />

* * *<br />

R. G. Bradley has been named sales manager of the<br />

American Autoparts Company. Detroit, to succeed<br />

W. P. Culver who resigned. Mr. Bradley has been<br />

with the company as sales engineer for five years,<br />

having gone there from the Perfection Spring Company,<br />

for which he had been Western Representative.


142 Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Tieating<br />

mmui nui-.iumimRn inuuuBuuiuuiinunutuni nu tiniir<br />

P L A N T N E W S<br />

iiwifflTwm«wniifliiutimnwniinimn[wnkiJ


F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating 142A<br />

R O D M A N<br />

P R O D U C T S<br />

Sealright<br />

C a r b o<br />

Case Hardening Compounds |!<br />

Longer life and uniform quality.<br />

A luting material that does not corrode the<br />

containers. It prolongs their life indefinitely.<br />

Quenching Oil<br />

A faster oil with uniform quenching char­<br />

acteristics.<br />

R O D M A N CHEMICAL C O M P A N Y<br />

VERONA, PA.<br />

Detroit, 408 Manistique Street<br />

St. Louis, 2024 Railway Exchange Bldg.<br />

Pacific Coast Representatives:<br />

Waterhouse & Lester Company<br />

San Francisco and Portland<br />

New England Heat Treating Service Co., Inc.<br />

112 High Street, Hartford, Conn.<br />

Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating i\<br />

J


143 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating April, 1925<br />

mnui«iitinonB»^mromi«niinairaiuiiimuiii«iniTnnmtnrnitniiiiiiiuiioni]HniiiimiMUiiiMiiiiimmiiiiiti[iiiiiiiinnnnnBi»<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

' ri: hi ,m i:n;!iniiiu:iiiiiiiiii!!ii!iiir,!ii,inniiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i iiniilililii minimi iliimiMiuiuiiimii<br />

Bending Machines—Wallace Supplies Manufacturing<br />

Companv. 1310 Diversey Parkway, Chicago. Bulletin<br />

Xn. 21, 32 pages with cover, illustrating and describing<br />

the products of this company, which include<br />

machines for bending pipes, tubes, angles, channels,<br />

reinforcing bars, flats, squares, rounds and special sections;<br />

also shears, punches, rod cutters, bench legs,<br />

gongs, ball bearings, storage cabinets, etc.<br />

* * *<br />

Refractories and Furnace Designs — Philbrico<br />

Jointless Firebrick Company, Kingsbury at Clay<br />

Street, Chicago. An illustrated Catalog, 36 pages with<br />

cover, devoted to a complete treatise on the building<br />

of monolithic furnace linings with "Philbrico" by the<br />

use of which, it is claimed, furnace life is increased.<br />

The booklet will be of interest to all users of industrial<br />

furnaces of whatever type.<br />

* * *<br />

Pickellette Pickling — William W. Hearne, Inc.,<br />

Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Booklet of 20 pages<br />

dealing with the use of a mixture to avoid the fumes<br />

and odors incident to the usual pickling process, to<br />

avoid large acid consumption, pitting and loss of<br />

weight in the steel, etc. It is stated that many other<br />

advantages accompany the use of this material when<br />

the operation is carried on in accordance with definite<br />

instructions.<br />

* * *<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ed Steel Pipe Flanges—American Spiral Pipe<br />

Works, Chicago. Catalog No. 24 of 88 pages describes<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed steel flanges, embodying the new American engineering<br />

standards of 400, 600 and 900 lb. per sq. in.<br />

^corking steam pressure. The work consists in the<br />

main of drawings, with accompanying tables of dimensions<br />

and price lists. The tabular matter is very<br />

.complete, while a good many special fittings are shown.<br />

* * *<br />

Fans and Blowers — The American Blower Company,<br />

Detroit, Mich. The fans and blowers made by<br />

this company and trade named "Sirrocco" are shown<br />

and described in Bulletin No. 1801 that has been mailed<br />

out. Many tables of specifications and several sectional<br />

drawings are contained in the bulletin.<br />

* * *<br />

Sand Blasting Machines. The United States Silica<br />

Company, Chicago. The many uses of the "Flint Shot"<br />

in a variety of factories and foundries are shown by<br />

illustration and text in this booklet. Ease of operation<br />

and low cost are stressed together with the greater<br />

efficiency of the machine.<br />

* * *<br />

Welding Electrodes — The General Electric Company,<br />

Merchandising Department, Bridgeport, Conn.<br />

Arc stability, ease of manipulation, flexibility of operation,<br />

rapid deposition and good penetration and maximum<br />

economy, are some of the headings used in describing<br />

the product to which this booklet is given<br />

over. Some illustrations show work that has been<br />

done and also work in the process of being welded.<br />

* * *<br />

Rotary Shears—The Niagara Machine & Tool Company,<br />

Buffalo, N. Y. Circle shears and ring shears<br />

with illustrations of each are clearly outlined in the<br />

folder. Other machines made by this company for<br />

the sheet metal shops are also shown by illustration.<br />

* * *<br />

Hoists—The Link-Belt Company, 910 S. Michigan<br />

Avenue, Chicago, 111. The many uses to which the<br />

pkip hoist method of handling material may be effectively<br />

applied are set forth in the text matter and illustrations<br />

of a new booklet issued by this company.<br />

Copies will be sent upon application and Book No. 546<br />

is the designation to be used in ordering from any of<br />

the offices of the company.<br />

* * *<br />

F<strong>org</strong>es—The Buffalo F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Buffalo, N,<br />

Y. A newly designed f<strong>org</strong>e has been put on the market<br />

by this company, and circulars describing it have been<br />

prepared. Many features and improvements are noted<br />

in the product and clear-cut illustrations are used to<br />

emphasize them.<br />

* * *<br />

Screws—The Parker-Kalon Corporation, 353 West<br />

13th Street, New York City. Assembly costs may be<br />

cut from 50 to 75 per cent by the use of the self-tapping<br />

screws made by this concern, according to a<br />

broadside that it has recently mailed out. Wash drawings<br />

illustrate the ease of operation and some of the<br />

other advantages of their use. Another point stressed<br />

is the many uses in the assembling of automobiles to<br />

which these screws may be put.<br />

* * *<br />

Cranes—The Cleveland Crane & Engineering Co.,<br />

Wickliffe, Ohio. The electric tramrail made by this<br />

company is well shown in this booklet. That it will<br />

effect a saving in handling costs is pointed out as well<br />

as the safety and efficiency of using this form of overhead<br />

factory transportation.<br />

* * *<br />

Chain Hoist—The Motorbloc Corporation, Philadelphia,<br />

Pa. This bulletin gives general description,<br />

oiling directions and a list of the parts of the motordriven<br />

chain hoist made by the company.<br />

* * *<br />

Riveters—The Hanna Engineering Works, 1705<br />

Elston Avenue, Chicago, 111. This four-page folder<br />

describes and illustrates the Hanna "pinch bug"<br />

riveters.<br />

* * *<br />

Gas Valve — A motor-operated gas valve which<br />

automatically controls the flow of gas to the burner<br />

when actuated by pyrometer or thermostat is featured<br />

in a bulletin by the Dickson Industrial Equipment<br />

Company, Chicago.<br />

* * *<br />

Rotary-Shears—Methods of cutting disks and ring*<br />

from sheet metal are illustrated in a bulletin by the<br />

Niagara Tool & Machine Works, Buffalo, N. Y., which<br />

is devoted to descriptions and data on rotary shears.<br />

* * *<br />

Punches and Shears — Long & Allstatter Company,<br />

Hamilton, O., has issued a bulletin covering its<br />

line of punches, shears, sprue cutters, riveters, bending<br />

rolls and other heavy duty equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

Power Presses — Double crank presses for large<br />

cutting, punching, bending, stamping and forming dies<br />

are portrayed in a bulletin by the Niagara Machine<br />

& Tool Works, Buffalo. Other sheet metal working<br />

tools are also described.


aiiiiiiimiimiiMimiimiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiimiimiiiiij.'<br />

I roiging-Si'amping-fleailix^^ I<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., MAY, 1925 No. 5 =<br />

P r e s s e d M e t a l S o c i e t y<br />

THE season of the year is rapidly approaching during which most of<br />

our national technical societies hold their annual conventions. So<br />

numerous are these societies that some are of the opinion that industry<br />

has been "<strong>org</strong>anized to- death." Nevertheless, the ever-increasing attendance<br />

at their meetings is sufficient evidence that men of responsibility are<br />

willing to lay aside important business matters for several days once or twice<br />

a year to present papers and enter into the discussion of others dealing with<br />

the work in which they are interested.<br />

Those interested in the various problems relating to pressed metal, but<br />

who have not had the opportunity of getting together periodically at such<br />

meetings as men in other industries, will welcome the recently <strong>org</strong>anized<br />

National Pressed Metal Society. The purposes of the society are to promote<br />

the arts and sciences connected with the pressing of metals and the<br />

study of subjects relating to the manufacture, use and properties of pressed<br />

metal parts.<br />

The most important benefit to be derived through any technical society<br />

is gained by hearing the papers read and taking part in the discussion. Another<br />

of almost equal importance is the broadening of the mind through the<br />

acquaintanceship and sociability fostered among officers, members and<br />

associates prominent in the industry. New acquaintances are made and old<br />

friendships strengthened, thus developing a broader influence that will reflect<br />

favorably upon the service rendered to industry.<br />

Through the friendship begun at these meetings there grows a feeling<br />

of fraternity that can be counted on in almost any situation that may arise<br />

in the actual operation of the various departments and is being more and<br />

more used as a medium of exchange of ideas helpful to each other. The association<br />

with men in similar lines of activity, the questions and answers<br />

brought up in the many private discussions, are all a very vital part of the<br />

actual assimilated knowledge one can take away from these meetings.<br />

nr 1111 u i • 1111111111111111111111111111 iiiiiiiiii a 111 • 11111111111111111111111111 • 11111111 m i i i 11111111111 11111111 i • 1111 i 11 1111 i 1111111 • 111111<br />

145


I4(.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

May, 1925<br />

General view of the f<strong>org</strong>e shop of the American F<strong>org</strong>e Co., Chicago. 111., showing the steel storage yard and gantry crane.<br />

M a t e r i a l H a n d l i n g in U p s e t F o r g e P l a n t<br />

The Plant of the American F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Chicago, Is the<br />

Largest Devoted Exclusively to Manufacture of Upset<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings—Material Handling Facilities Efficient<br />

By D. L. MATHIAS*<br />

DEVELOPMENTS during the period following plain hammer f<strong>org</strong>ing, drop f<strong>org</strong>ing and upset f<strong>org</strong>­<br />

the World War have seen many changes in ing, each overlapping the other somewhat in its appli­<br />

methods of production, which have been made cation. No fixed rule can be laid down as to which<br />

necessary by the keen competition among manufac­<br />

method should be used for each and every f<strong>org</strong>ing,<br />

turers to retain their position in our industrial system.<br />

but a careful study should be made as to the most<br />

New plants have been built and old plants rearranged,<br />

efficient method for the part under consideration, not<br />

modern equipment has replaced obsolete machines and<br />

only as to the cost of the rough f<strong>org</strong>ing, but also<br />

material handling methods<br />

as to machining cost and<br />

have been improved. In<br />

the saving in material. This<br />

every instance the sole purpose<br />

has been to lower pro­<br />

is particularly true with al­<br />

Material handling facilities in a modern manufacduction<br />

costs to meet the<br />

loy steels which require<br />

turing plant are deserving of considerable attention<br />

increased cost of labor and and their efficiency often spells the difference between<br />

more time for machining<br />

materials.<br />

success and failure. The installation of up-to-date<br />

than plain carbon steels and<br />

In some cases the old equipment calls for adequate facilities to supply raw<br />

where the cost per pound is<br />

method of fabrication has material and remove the finished product so as to<br />

considerably higher.<br />

been completely discarded permit of continuous operation.<br />

Little can be said of plain<br />

in favor of another possess­<br />

In considering this problem, attention should be hammer or drop f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

ing greater merit. Pressing given not only to present demands, but also to future that is not already well<br />

and die casting have made expansions. That a thorough study of this phase of known, but the possibilities<br />

rapid strides because of manufacturing is worth-while is evidenced by the and advantages of upset<br />

their advantages in produc­ fact that although the capacity of the plant of the f<strong>org</strong>ings are not generally<br />

tion work and the fact that American F<strong>org</strong>e Co has been doubled in the past few appreciated. While it is<br />

parts so produced are light years, only minor changes have been made necessary true that the upset f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

in weight, absolutely uni­ By insuring a steady flow of materials through the process can be used only for<br />

form from piece to piece, plant idleness of labor and expensive equipment is re­ concentric work that can<br />

require little, if any. maduced to a minimum resulting in increased output and be produced by a rolling<br />

chine work and present a insuring a dependable source of supplies to users<br />

motion, nevertheless, a<br />

pleasing appearance. These methods, however<br />

. wide variety of parts fall<br />

are<br />

limited to certain classes of work, and it is necessary within this class. The saving effected in material and<br />

to employ f<strong>org</strong>ing for parts requiring great strength subsequent machining and the low cost of dies are<br />

and where the cross-sections vary between wide limits among the advantages, and manufacturers interested<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings are produced by several methods, such as in reducing their production costs would be well repaid<br />

by investigating this method.<br />

•Editor. F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating.<br />

Prior to 1915 f<strong>org</strong>ing machines were used principally<br />

for upsetting collars on crankshafts and upset-


May, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating 147<br />

ting stock for axles and camshafts. On hammers that<br />

formerly drew out collars for crankshafts, a run of 90<br />

to 100 per day was considered big production. The<br />

upset f<strong>org</strong>ing machine increased this production to<br />

600 or 700 per day, and on every crankshaft produced<br />

at present, the collars are upset. The tremendous increase<br />

in production on crankshafts led to the making<br />

of other simple f<strong>org</strong>ings, such as large valve stems.<br />

A few examples of the wide variety of work that<br />

can be handled by upset f<strong>org</strong>ing are shown in Fig. 2.<br />

The weight of these parts vary from 10 to 250 pounds<br />

and includes flanged shafts, gear blanks, wire wheel<br />

hubs, spools, hub flanges, stem pinions, cluster gears<br />

and many others. Flanged shafts having a 15-in.<br />

diameter head, 5^4-in. diameter shaft, head thickness<br />

of 2-in. and weighing up to 360 pounds have been<br />

produced by upsetting. Although upsetting is limited<br />

to work of a concentric nature, the saving effected by<br />

the elimination of draft, flash, tong holds, etc., is an<br />

item of no small importance.<br />

Manufactures Upset F<strong>org</strong>ings Exclusively.<br />

In 1915, the American F<strong>org</strong>e Company, 2621 Hoyne<br />

Avenue, Chicago, 111., made a radical departure from<br />

the customary method of manufacturing alloy steel<br />

gear blanks in producing them by the upset method.<br />

The results were so satisfactory and the prospects so<br />

promising that this company devoted its entire effort<br />

to this class of work and today enjoys the distinction<br />

of being the largest exclusive upset f<strong>org</strong>ing plant with<br />

a capacity of producing 1,500 tons per month.<br />

Anticipating the great demand for upset f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

as their merits became known, the company built up<br />

an <strong>org</strong>anization and erected a plant that for efficiency<br />

can hardly be excelled. Although the plant covers a<br />

comparatively small area it is so designed and laid out<br />

that there is little retrogression in the handling of ma­<br />

terial. There is scarcely a foot of space that is not<br />

utilized and yet every unit of equipment is so located<br />

as to provide adequate space for the workmen, and at<br />

the same time convenient enough to eliminate unnecessary<br />

movements.<br />

Plant Well Arranged.<br />

A glance at Fig. 4 will reveal the efficiency of the<br />

plant layout. Two separate railroad sidings handle<br />

the raw material and finished product. The raw material<br />

is unloaded into the stock yard on the west side<br />

of the main f<strong>org</strong>e shop. After shearing, the stock is<br />

placed on tote racks and conveyed to the f<strong>org</strong>ing machines<br />

by electric trucks. The rough f<strong>org</strong>ings are<br />

placed in tote boxes, transported to the grinding and<br />

inspection department on the east side of the plant,<br />

and loaded direct from the department into box cars,<br />

the siding tracks being depressed to facilitate loading.<br />

If the f<strong>org</strong>ings are to be heat treated they are conveyed<br />

to that department located in a continuation of<br />

the grinding and inspection department. After heat<br />

treatment the f<strong>org</strong>ings are tumbled or pickeled to remove<br />

scale and loaded direct from this department into<br />

the cars. Since the grinding, inspection, heat treating<br />

and shipping departments are located in the same<br />

building there is no retrogression in the handling of<br />

the material. The same careful attention was given<br />

to the placing of the die room and die storage. The<br />

two departments located adjacent to each other and in<br />

the end of the main f<strong>org</strong>e shop make handling of the<br />

dies a simple matter.<br />

Efficient Equipment Installed Throughout Plant.<br />

As to the equipment, no expense has been spared<br />

to provide the ultimate in efficiency, every unit having<br />

been selected as to performance. Almost without exception<br />

equipment has been standardized thus reducing<br />

the stock of spare parts to a minimum. All ma-<br />

FIG. 2—A few samples of upset f<strong>org</strong>ing work. A—Wire wheel hub flange, B—flanged shaft, C—cluster gear, D—gear blank,<br />

E—hub flange and F—transmission stem pinion.


I4S F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating May, 1925<br />

FIG. 3—View looking down the f<strong>org</strong>e shop. The equipment consists of 18 f<strong>org</strong>ing machines ranging in size from 3 in. to 7 in.,<br />

together with the necessary furnaces and hot saw and burring machines. Note freedom from overhead obstructions.<br />

Equipment Manufacturers<br />

Equipment Manufactured by Location<br />

F<strong>org</strong>mg Machines Ajax Manufacturing Company Cleveland Ohio<br />

Hot Saw and Burring Machines Ajax Manufacturing-Company Cleveland' Ohio<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Machine Motors Allis Chalmers Company Milwaukee Wis<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Machine Motors General Electric Company Schenectady N Y<br />

Turbo Compressors General Electric Company Schenectady,' N." Y.<br />

2 , B"rnCrS Anth°ny ComPa"y Long Island City, N. Y.<br />

'°,C B°XeS Roura Iron Works Detroit> Mich.<br />

-. rs Henry Pels & Company New York, N. Y.<br />

P Hilles & J°nes Company Wilmington, Del.<br />

"" Niles-Bement-Pond Company New York, N. Y.<br />

trancs • • • Whiting Corporation Harvey 111<br />

Cranes - Gantry Milwaukee Electric Crane & Mfg. Company. . .Milwaukee, Wis.<br />

Magnet. F ift.ng Electric Controller & Mfg. Company Cleveland, Ohio<br />

Heal 1 reating furnaces Tate-Jones Company now consolidated with<br />

II.-,, Tr „„,„ B r. Genera' Furnace Company Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Ilea. Treating Furnaces Chicago Flexible Shaft Company Chicago, 111.<br />

,V''°,m T Wilson-Maeulen Company New York N Y<br />

cr r TCS,Cr Wilson-Maeulea Company New %£ J \<br />

,-, °- "••; Gardner Machine Company Beloit wis<br />

TrinI Prtes ' fm^ ETtr,C ^^^ Cevel'an^ Ohio<br />

.C Hammer ^'^ M*ch'ne & T°o1 C°mPa"y Toledo, Ohio<br />

H Z HammeV ::::::: ? ? t 3 K Engineering Company Chambersburg, Pa.<br />

, ockers .„CC B?d'ey & S°" Syracuse, N. Y.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Steels' ' J? ^"i E?u'Pment Company Aurora, m<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing steels Illinois Steel Company.... rk;„m T1,<br />

Fo^ng Steels Central Steel Company M T L<br />

Foreinc Steels , . T „ y Massillon, Ohio<br />

.<strong>org</strong>mg steels Interstate Iron & Steel Company Chicago 111<br />

^'e B,ocks A. Finkl & Sons ^ r t<br />

Die Insert Steels H„l,,,m»,c. ir- Chicago, 111.<br />

Die Insert Steels J3'0017^ Steel Company Rochester, N. Y.<br />

r a «7u ^roja" Electric Steel Company Chirac 111<br />

Grinding \\ hee s<br />

Scales Chain Tumbling Fire Brick Blocks Barrels ...'..'<br />

\f •,„!,.,** r> ul %,, 7.<br />

W M Manhattan Hydraulic W. W Sly W Press r ^rporation Rubber Manufactunng ^ Brick Mfg. Company Companv Company<br />

cntcago, 111.<br />

Toledo, Summerdale, Passa;c, Cleveland, St. Louis, Ohio N. Mo. Ohio<br />

j. Phila., Pa.


May, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

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150 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

K M » r<br />

FIG. 5—Oil fired heating furnace<br />

chines are driven by individual motors to guard against<br />

shutdowns and are located so that repairs can he made<br />

without interfering with adjacent equipment.<br />

Following the material through the plant in the<br />

order in which it is handled, the raw stock is unloaded<br />

on the west side of the main f<strong>org</strong>e shop building by<br />

means of a 10-ton Milwaukee gantry crane, Fig. 1.<br />

All material received is analyzed and given a systematic<br />

physical examination for pipes, seams, segregation<br />

and other defects. The normal stock of steel varies<br />

from 2,000 to 2,500 tons and is stored according to<br />

size and composition.<br />

May, 1925<br />

Steel requisitioned by the shop is picked up by the<br />

crane, weighed and placed on skids outside the shear<br />

room. The skids are inclined so that the material<br />

moves by gravity into the shear, where it is cut to the<br />

desired length and piled on tote racks. Two shears,<br />

one Pels and one Hilles-Jones, each housed in a separate<br />

lean-to on the side of the f<strong>org</strong>e shop adjacent to<br />

the stock yard, take care of the cutting of material<br />

for all f<strong>org</strong>ing machines. Stock is transported to the<br />

machines by means of Elwell-Parker electric trucks.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Shop Ventilation Unique.<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>e shop, Fig. 3 is located in the main building<br />

which is 420 ft. long and 80 ft. wide. It is of modern<br />

brick and steel sash construction affording ample<br />

light. The ventilating system used in this shop is<br />

rather unique but very satisfactory. Instead of entirely<br />

bricking up the space between the ground and<br />

the window sash, swinging doors are provided at intervals<br />

to allow a free circulation of air. The natural<br />

draft caused by the hot gases from the furnaces draws<br />

fresh air in through the swinging doors at the floor<br />

level carrying off with it the heat, smoke and gases<br />

through the V'-shaped monitor roof construction.<br />

The equipment of this department consists of 18<br />

Ajax f<strong>org</strong>ing machines, six 3-in., six 5-in. and six 7-in.<br />

The machines are staggered as shown in Fig. 3 so as<br />

to provide ample room for the workmen at the same<br />

time economizing in floor space. All machines are<br />

driven by individual motors ranging in size from 50<br />

to 75 horsepower, manufactured by Allis-Chalmers<br />

Company and General Electric Company. To facilitate<br />

the handling of die blocks individual motor driven<br />

FIG. 6-Grinding, inspecting and shipping department. F<strong>org</strong>ings are loaded direct from this department into the cars by<br />

means of electric trucks, the siding tracks being depressed to facilitate loading.


May, Wii<br />

chain blocks are being installed on all f<strong>org</strong>ing machines.<br />

Eighteen Ajax hot saw and burring machines,<br />

one for each f<strong>org</strong>ing machine, are provided for cutting<br />

off the stock and smoothing the f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

No Accumulation of Scrap Permitted.<br />

No unnecessary scrap or material is allowed to<br />

accumulate around the machines, thus adding to the<br />

comfort of the workmen, which is reflected in increased<br />

production. Scrap buckets are placed at each<br />

producing unit for the accumulation of butt ends and<br />

scrap. These are also designed to fit the electric truck<br />

transportation and after they are filled, are taken out,<br />

picked up by the gantry crane and deposited in the<br />

scrap storage bins located at the north end of the stock<br />

yard. The scrap material is loaded into freight cars<br />

from these bins by the use of an electric magnet in connection<br />

with the gantry crane.<br />

The heating furnaces, Fig. 5, are oil fired and were<br />

constructed by the American F<strong>org</strong>e Company, each<br />

furnace being designed especially for the particular<br />

type of work it is to handle. Considerable experimenting<br />

was done in order to select an oil burner that<br />

would produce a soft mellow flame so necessary to<br />

insure thorough penetration of heat in the stock. The<br />

Anthony Nebulyte burner was found to be the most<br />

satisfactory in this respect, and the absence of a sharp<br />

cutting flame greatly prolongs the life of the furnace<br />

linings. Hydraulic pressed brick is used exclusively<br />

for the heating furnaces.<br />

Oil Fuel Used Exclusively.<br />

Oil is used throughout for fuel, the storage facilities<br />

consisting of three 50,000 gallon concrete lined underground<br />

tanks. All tanks are equipped with steam<br />

heated coils to insure free circulation of oil to the<br />

pumps. The oil, after being pumped from the underground<br />

tanks is run through a pre-heater and heated<br />

to approximately 180 deg. before delivery to the main<br />

supply line. Oil is delivered to the burners at a constant<br />

pressure of 40 pounds regardless of the number<br />

of furnaces in operation, the pressure being controlled<br />

by an automatic regulator developed by the American<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company. Twin pumps, motor driven, are pro-<br />

FIG. 8 (Right)—A corner in<br />

the finishing department<br />

showing a battery of motor<br />

driven grinders. Box cars<br />

on depressed track shown<br />

in the background.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

FIG. 7—Electric trucks are used throughout the plant for<br />

material handling.<br />

151<br />

vided to guard against shutdown. The oil pumps and<br />

preheater are located in the boiler room.<br />

Air for the furnaces is supplied at a pressure of<br />

two pounds by two General Electric direct motor<br />

driven turbo compressors. These compressors are<br />

connected to a common main so that either one or both<br />

can be used depending upon requirements. Steam is<br />

used for atomizing the fuel oil for the heating furnaces.<br />

Trench Eliminates Overhead Obstructions.<br />

A concrete lined trench for accommodating the oil,<br />

air, steam, water and power lines removes all overhead<br />

obstructions and provides a free crane runway. The<br />

entire shop is served by a 10-ton Niles electric crane.<br />

The rough f<strong>org</strong>ings, after being cut from the bar<br />

stock, are burred and placed in Roura tote boxes and<br />

transported by electric truck to the grinding and inspection<br />

department, Fig. 6, which is located in building<br />

No. 2 just each of the main f<strong>org</strong>e shop. A 10-ft.<br />

space between the two buildings provides adequate<br />

lisrht and ventilation.<br />

FIG. 9 (Left)—Four car type<br />

furnaces are provided for<br />

heat treating.<br />

FIG. 10 (Center)—After heat<br />

treating the f<strong>org</strong>ings are<br />

tumbled to remove scale.


152 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating May, 1925<br />

Electric Trucks Convey Material.<br />

A wide concrete mad way for the electric trucks<br />

runs entirely around the f<strong>org</strong>e shop and a short connecting<br />

roadway in the middle of the shop and in line<br />

with the entrance to the cleaning and shipping department<br />

facilitates material handling. An idea of the<br />

efficiency of this method of interdepartment transpor-<br />

FIG. 11—The die storage room showing the stands and racks<br />

for the systematic storage of dies and headers.<br />

tation can be gained from the fact that the handling<br />

of 1,500 tons of material monthly requires only three<br />

trucks. This includes hauling raw stock from shears<br />

to f<strong>org</strong>ing machines, thence to the grinding and inspecting<br />

department, loading into cars and the removal<br />

of scrap from around the f<strong>org</strong>ing machines.<br />

All f<strong>org</strong>ings are carefully ground and inspected for<br />

surface defects and customers dimensions. (Fig. 8.)<br />

In cases where the flash is too thick to be profitably<br />

removed by grinding, it is trimmed off by means of a<br />

Toledo punch press. F<strong>org</strong>ings not requiring heat treatment<br />

are loaded into box cars by electric trucks, Fig.<br />

7, direct from the grinding and inspection department<br />

which are both located in the same building. The<br />

shipping tracks are depressed on the east side of the<br />

building so that the trucks can pick up the full tote<br />

boxes and run them into the cars.<br />

Adequate Heat Treating Facilities.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings that are to be heat treated, after being<br />

ground and inspected, are transported to the heat<br />

treating department, Fig. 9, located at the south end of<br />

the building. The equipment of this department consists<br />

of four double-end, car type, Tate-Jones furnaces,<br />

with an extra car for each furnace. These furnaces.<br />

which are of the overhead combustion type, artequipped<br />

with thermocouples connected to a Wilson-<br />

Maeulen indicating pyrometer to insure accurate temperature<br />

control. Necessary tanks are installed for<br />

the quenching and proper handling of the heat treatment<br />

as specified by customers. After heat treatment.<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ings are tumbled or pickeled. Fig. 10, to remove<br />

scale and loaded into box cars for shipment. Final<br />

heat treatment or case hardening is done bv the customer<br />

after machining operations are completed. A<br />

Rockwell hardness tester is used to check the results<br />

of heat treatment of the f<strong>org</strong>ings as well as for determining<br />

the hardness of die blocks and headers.<br />

The die room and repair department, 100 ft. x 80<br />

ft., is located in a continuation of the main f<strong>org</strong>e shop<br />

at the south end of the building. The equipment of<br />

this department is similar to that found in most any<br />

machine shop, such as lathes, shapers, planers, boring<br />

mills and drill presses.. Since practically all of the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings produced are of a concentric nature, the dies,<br />

headers and inserts can be produced by turning or<br />

boring, thus greatly reducing the time and cost to produce<br />

the die and eliminates the necessity of expensive<br />

die sinking machinery. The die room is covered by<br />

a 10-ton overhead Whiting crane, and space is also left<br />

for overhauling and repairing machines.<br />

Systematic Die Storage.<br />

The die storage room. Fig. 11, is located on the<br />

east side of the main building between the die shop<br />

and the main f<strong>org</strong>e shop. Racks are provided along<br />

both sides of the room to accommodate small dies,<br />

headers, etc., while the heavier ones are stored on the<br />

floor in the center of the room. All dies are numbered<br />

and systematically arranged so that any die may<br />

be located on short notice. This is necessary in any<br />

shop carrying a great number of dies, and is as<br />

essential to efficient operation as modern equipment<br />

and material handling facilities. A three-ton Niles<br />

crane covers this department.<br />

A well equipped hammer shop is located at the<br />

south end of the plant. The equipment consists of<br />

one 2,000 pound Chambersburg steam drop hammer<br />

which is used for f<strong>org</strong>ing headers and other miscellaneous<br />

work required around the plant. A Bradley<br />

helve hammer, together with the steam drop hammer,<br />

is used to take care of certain types of work that require<br />

a f<strong>org</strong>ing machine and hammer operation. An<br />

oil fired heating furnace, constructed by the American<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company, is used to heat the stock. A Toledo<br />

trimming press and a Stewart muffle furnace<br />

round out the equipment of this department.<br />

A 250 hp. boiler is installed to supply the necessary<br />

steam for preheating the oil, operating the drop hammer<br />

equipment, heating the building and pickling<br />

n ^ i ^ ^<br />

~ 17 "" i' i:' i • j<br />

^ J & ^ L .<br />

FIG. 12—A corner in the locker and wash room provided for<br />

the comfort of the employees.<br />

tanks. Motor generators furnish d.c. for operating<br />

cranes, machine tools and electro magnet.<br />

A mezzanine floor over the machine shop provides<br />

space for the general offices, locker rooms and shower<br />

baths. In addition to the elaborate wash rooms, with<br />

hot and cold showers and individual lockers, Fig. 12,<br />

drinking fountains are placed throughout the plant.<br />

r<br />

\


May, 1925 Ibrging- Stamping - Heat Treating 153<br />

N a t i o n a l P r e s s e d M e t a l S o c i e t y F o r m e d<br />

Technical Society Recently Organized to Be Devoted Exclusively<br />

to the Discussion of Pressed Metal Problems—First<br />

T H E need for a pressed metal technical<br />

society as outlined in the January issue<br />

of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating was<br />

emphasized at a meeting held in Chicago, Saturday,<br />

April 11th, at which time the National<br />

Pressed Metal Society was <strong>org</strong>anized.<br />

Much had been said in the past concerning<br />

the necessity for such a society, but no action<br />

had been taken to effect an <strong>org</strong>anization. At an informal<br />

meeting held in Chicago early in March, the<br />

advisability of forming a society to promote the arts<br />

and sciences connected with the pressing of metals,<br />

and the study of subjects relating to the manufacture<br />

and use of pressed metal parts, equipment and supplies<br />

was discussed from<br />

many angles, and it was the<br />

unanimous opinion of those<br />

present that steps should be<br />

taken that would lead to the<br />

formation of the society. A<br />

meeting of those instrumental<br />

in founding the society<br />

was held Saturday afternoon<br />

preceding the technical session<br />

at which time a constitution<br />

was adopted and officers<br />

elected.<br />

One of the main purposes<br />

of the society is to provide<br />

a satisfactory means for con­<br />

John C. Biemeck<br />

President<br />

Meeting Brings Out Enthusiastic Attendance<br />

tact between the representatives<br />

from all the companies<br />

that manufacture and use<br />

pressed metal products in<br />

order that their various technical problems may be<br />

thoroughly considered.<br />

It is generally conceded that there is a real need<br />

for an <strong>org</strong>anization of this kind and it is, therefore,<br />

pleasing to learn that there is every indication that<br />

the society will receive the whole-hearted support of<br />

those interested in the various branches of the pressed<br />

metal industry. Endorsement of the undertaking<br />

has been given by a large number<br />

of men in the field. This interest has<br />

been manifested by applications for membership<br />

from a considerable number of industrial<br />

executives. The membership dues<br />

are nominal, inasmuch as it will be necessary<br />

to provide only for the actual operating<br />

expenses of the society.<br />

The activities of the society will be<br />

confined to the Chicago district at present,<br />

but chapters will be established in the<br />

large manufacturing districts where the<br />

membership is sufficiently large to warrant<br />

this action. Applications have already<br />

been received from all parts of the country,<br />

which is conclusive evidence that the<br />

formation of the society has been favorably<br />

received. The fact that the society's work<br />

D. L. Mathias<br />

Secretary- Treasurer<br />

will be devoted exclusively to the various<br />

problems connected with pressing of metal<br />

is responsible for the keen interest it has<br />

attracted.<br />

Mr. F. J. Rode, Mechanical Engineer, Marquette<br />

Tool & Manufacturing Company, Chicago,<br />

presented an interesting paper entitled,<br />

"Selecting Pressed Metal Equipment."<br />

The customary practice in determining the equipment<br />

required for the production of pressed metal<br />

parts is to first plan the operations and tools and thenselect<br />

the machines, such as shears, blanking press,<br />

forming press, draw press, etc., whatever the case may<br />

be. It is usually advisable to consider productive<br />

time on pressed metal equipment<br />

not to exceed 2,000<br />

hours over a period of one<br />

yrear when working nine<br />

hours a day, and double that<br />

amount if running a night<br />

shift of ten hours.<br />

If given careful consideration<br />

the type and number of<br />

machines required for any<br />

particular job can easily be<br />

determined and good results<br />

obtained. Frequently, however,<br />

not much attention is<br />

given to the type of machines<br />

required for the vari­<br />

ous operations with the result<br />

that the actual depreciation<br />

charge made against<br />

the parts that are to be made<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e E. Wattman<br />

Vice President<br />

on the equipment is not correct. An illustration to<br />

substantiate this statement was taken from two plants<br />

that were producing the same stamping for the same<br />

customer.<br />

One was using a shear and knuckle joint press, the<br />

other an open side crank press. The material produced<br />

was of heavy gauge and required considerable pressure.<br />

Both concerns employed two men<br />

to perform the operation of blanking. The<br />

shear and knuckle joint press, costing a<br />

total of $10,000, produced 10,000 blanks<br />

per day, while the open side blanking<br />

press cost $20,000 and produced 5,000<br />

blanks per dayr.<br />

The depreciation charge that had to<br />

be set up against the shear and knuckle<br />

joint press was $0.60 per 1,000 blanks and<br />

the same charge against the open side<br />

blanking press was $2.00 per 1,000 blanks.<br />

This difference was due to the adaptability<br />

of the knuckle joint press for heavy<br />

pressure. Shears were necessary in this<br />

case to facilitate the handling of the material<br />

through the press, which was not<br />

required in the open side blanking press.<br />

It is sometimes advisable to use two or


154 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

more operations, if the higher operating speed and<br />

lower depreciation charge warrant.<br />

In the selection of pressed metal equipment it is<br />

always advisable to consider the depreciation charge<br />

that must be set up against the cost of the product<br />

made. The selection should be such that the equipment<br />

operates at its full capacity to keep the cost of<br />

the product down. Some manufacturers select equipment<br />

much too large, which results in high cost oi<br />

parts due to the higher initial cost of the equipment<br />

and the slower operating speed.<br />

In selecting pressed metal equipment it is advisable<br />

to use a depreciation charge of approximately<br />

|0.60 per hour for every $10,000 worth of equipment<br />

purchased, not including tools.<br />

The officers for the coming year are: President,<br />

John C. Biemick, Coonley Manufacturing Company,<br />

Chicago; vice-president, Ge<strong>org</strong>e E. Wattman, Adams<br />

& Westlake Company, Chicago; secretary-treasurer.<br />

I). L. Mathias, The Andresen Company, Pittsburgh.<br />

The headquarters are located at Chicago with temporary<br />

office at Box 65, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Rail Steel Reinforcing Bars<br />

By E. E. Hughes*<br />

kail steel reinforcing bars repeatedlj have shown<br />

their ability to stand up under bending tests. Nothing<br />

concerning these bars has been more misunderstood<br />

than this.<br />

There has been in some quarters an impression<br />

that a bend in a hard steel, or rail steel bar, greatly<br />

reduced the strength of the material at the point of<br />

the bend.<br />

Thousands of tests have disproved this. A series<br />

of experiments were carried out some months ago.<br />

Samples were selected with the idea of getting the<br />

least desirable material from the different plants.<br />

From scrap heaps consisting of crop ends of longer<br />

bars, pieces were picked up at random. These<br />

pieces were subjected to tests, not in a laboratory,<br />

but on a machine that was used regularly for bending<br />

bars for commercial use. These were bent in accordance<br />

with standard specifications for hard grade<br />

billet and rail steel bars. After bending they were<br />

subjected to tests in a specially designed apparatus.<br />

The result of the experiments was that 80 per cent<br />

of the bars broke in the straight part, leaving the bend<br />

absolutely intact. The remaining 20 per cent broke<br />

in the bend but on an average of only 4.15 per cent<br />

less than the tensile strength of duplicate straight bars<br />

from the same batch of samples.<br />

What is more important, however, is the fact that<br />

not one single bar broke below 80,000 pounds per<br />

square inch, the minimum tensile strength of hard<br />

grade steel, while the average shows the bars to have<br />

broken at 24 per cent higher than this figure.<br />

These results are really remarkable when one considers<br />

the conditions under which the tests were made.<br />

In the first place it was impossible to keep the bars<br />

from slipping and in the second place the hard steel<br />

mandrel around which they were bent actually forced<br />

itself into the bars, thus causing a reduction of area<br />

at the point of the bend.<br />

Under conditions of actual service in which the<br />

liar is completely surrounded by concrete, we feel safe<br />

•President Rail Steel Products Association.<br />

May, 1925<br />

in saying that the bends in rail steel would develop<br />

100 per cent of their original strength.<br />

The answer obviously is that bends do not weaken<br />

rail steel bars.<br />

It should be born in mind that any difficulties experienced<br />

in bending rail steel bars are exactly the<br />

same as those found in bending hard grade billet<br />

stock. This is because they are a steel of high tensile<br />

strength.<br />

The reason for this is not difficult to understand<br />

when one considers the physical properties of hard<br />

and soft steel. Tensile and ductile properties are always<br />

inversely proportioned; if one is high the other<br />

is low.<br />

Mending taxes the ductile properties of the steel<br />

for as the bar is bent, that portion on the outside of<br />

the bend naturally must elongate. For this reason<br />

hard grade, or rail steel, having high tensile and relatively<br />

low ductile properties, is more difficult to bend<br />

than is soft steel, which has higher ductility but lower<br />

tensile strength.<br />

The question quite naturally arises, how much<br />

elongation is really required in making a certain bend?<br />

This depends altogether on the method used. If the<br />

bend is made gradually and there is nothing to restrict<br />

the flow of the metal, elongation and consequent strain<br />

will not be excessive. But if the bar is held so tightly<br />

as to prevent the natural adjustment of the particles<br />

in the bend, the tendency i? to localize the elongation<br />

at some point not so held. This causes the hard bar<br />

to break or induces excessive strains in a softer bar.<br />

Rail steel bars should be bent slowly so that the<br />

proper flow of the particles may take place. Also<br />

unskilled labor should not be used for this work.<br />

Sometimes one-inch bars will be bent around the<br />

same pin that is used for bending %-inch bars. No<br />

reinforcing bar, regardless of the grade, should be subjected<br />

to such treatment.<br />

Specifications as to the size of the mandrel and the<br />

number of degrees through which the bars should be<br />

bent without breaking have been laid down by the<br />

American Society for Testing Materials. The following<br />

table gives the figures:<br />

Hard Grade<br />

Cold Bend without Fracture and<br />

Rail Steel<br />

Bars under YA in. diameter or thickness 180° d—4t<br />

Bars YA in. diameter or thickness or over 90° d—4t<br />

t—equals the size of the bar.<br />

d—equals diameter of mandrel around which bend is made.<br />

These figures, it should be remembered, are for<br />

testing purposes only. In good engineering practice,<br />

actual bending for construction is done around pins<br />

of 7 or 8 diameters which favors the steel to a considerable<br />

extent. No difficulty should be experienced if<br />

bending is properly done. It is obvious that the bar<br />

should not be expected to stand more severe treatment<br />

than is exacted by the test in the specification.<br />

Whether the steel be hard, intermediate or soft,<br />

improper bending develops excessive strains. Why<br />

should the strength of a reinforcing bar be sacrificed<br />

to gain ductility simply that the bar may be mistreated<br />

in bending.<br />

Mending departments are adjuncts of practically<br />

all rail steel mills and skilled labor is employed to<br />

bend bars to specifications at a nominal charge. Skilled<br />

workers rarely have difficulty in the bending of hard<br />

grade bars.


May, 1925<br />

Remarkable Accuracy In Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

FIG. 1—Rotor for turbine capable of developing 45,000 horsepower.<br />

The Manufacture of Turbine Blades Is an Interesting Example of<br />

the Accuracy with Which Parts Can Be Drop F<strong>org</strong>ed—<br />

IF you were asked the question, "What single factor<br />

has been responsible for the many remarkable developments<br />

during the past 25 years?" you would<br />

probably be confused trying to find an answer. One<br />

development has followed so quickly upon another,<br />

each being merely a stepping stone to greater accomplishments,<br />

that it is almost an impossibility to keep<br />

informed on the progress in our industrial system.<br />

However, back of all this there is one factor that has<br />

been indispensable, which could not be done without<br />

unless another of equal importance took its place.<br />

That is electricity. Take away electricity and we<br />

would be compelled to revert to oil and gas lights,<br />

cable cars, steam engines for operating our industrial<br />

plants, and many other inconveniences that to the<br />

average person are not so apparent because we have<br />

come to regard electricity as a servant that serves us<br />

at every turn day and night. What luxury, convenience<br />

or necessity can be mentioned in which<br />

electricity does not play an important part. The turn<br />

of a switch or the movement of a lever operates our<br />

lights or household appliances, street cars, elevators,<br />

turns the wheels of industry, and in the electrically<br />

propelled warship, protects our shores.<br />

The continually increasing use of electric power<br />

has brought about a problem of supplying the demand.<br />

Countless small inefficient generating units are being<br />

replaced by large central power plants. The beltconnected<br />

reciprocating engine and generator have<br />

Method of Preparing Die Models Explained<br />

155<br />

given way to the direct-connected turbo-generator and<br />

power plants are being located convenient to fuel supplies,<br />

thus eliminating the cost of transporting fuel<br />

and releasing these facilities for more useful purposes.<br />

All of these developments have served to give power<br />

at lower costs, more efficient service and to conserve<br />

our national resources.<br />

The steam turbine has, with its high efficiency and<br />

the large capacity of individual units, made it possible<br />

to generate power at a remarkably low cost with the<br />

result that it is used today for purposes that a few<br />

years ago would have been prohibitive. Conversely,<br />

the rapid growth of the electrical industry has been<br />

responsible for the development of the turbine with<br />

the result that much effort has been devoted to its<br />

refinement. Perhaps no single factor in the efficiency<br />

of its performance is of greater importance than the<br />

blades and the remainder of this paper is devoted to<br />

their manufacture.<br />

First Blades Made from Drawn Sections.<br />

The development work on the Parsons Steam Turbine<br />

in this country was started by the Westinghouse<br />

Electric and Manufacturing Company at their East<br />

Pittsburgh works in the closing years of the nineteenth<br />

century and the manufacture of blading had<br />

its inception at that time. Its beginnings were simple<br />

and on a small scale, consisting of cutting off reaction<br />

blades of drawn secton to required length.


156 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating May, 1925<br />

• ^ ^ — ^>— 1 • • . *^^^<br />

• * " ' "<br />

• 1 —.i tW"<br />

FIG. 2—View of the blading department, showing f<strong>org</strong>e shop in the foreground.<br />

Packing or spacing pieces were also sheared from sections<br />

drawn to fit the blade contour, the length of<br />

packing corresponding to the depth of blade groove<br />

in the turbine spindle and cylinder. The reaction<br />

blading and packing were inserted in the groove,<br />

driven up snugly by lateral compression, and finally<br />

when the row was closed the packing was carefully<br />

caulked into place.<br />

From this simple beginning the blade design and<br />

manufacture has passed through a gradual and elaborate<br />

development both as regards methods and materials,<br />

embracing highly specialized machine f<strong>org</strong>ing,<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ing, rolling, drawing, punching, broaching<br />

and milling operations, heat treatments, etc., and running<br />

the gamut of materials from carbon steel and<br />

simple brasses and bronzes to highly developed alloy<br />

steels and special non-ferrous materials.<br />

Development of facilities for blade making having<br />

in recent years reached a reasonably stabilized condition,<br />

it became entirely feasible to plan a factory for<br />

balanced and co-ordinated manufacture and for this<br />

purpose a comprehensive study was made of the size,<br />

character and arrangement of facilities for present and<br />

reasonable anticipation of future needs.<br />

Editors of a number of the leading technical and trade<br />

publications of the country visited and inspected the<br />

South Philadelphia Works on Wednesday and Thursday,<br />

April IS and 16.<br />

The inspection tour covered the entire works, in which<br />

the large apparatus for use in the generation of steam<br />

for power purposes are designed and constructed, but<br />

the visitors were particularly interested in the new turbine<br />

blading shop, which represents a total investment<br />

by the Westinghouse Company of approximately<br />

$1,000,000.<br />

The visit of technical and trade editors to the new<br />

Turbine Blading Shop marked the first formal visit of<br />

industrial men other than officials and executives of the<br />

Westinghouse Company.<br />

Arriving at the South Philadelphia Works on Wednesday<br />

morning, April 16, the party in company with Westinghouse<br />

officials and plant executives made a tour o"<br />

inspection of the entire plant. At the noon hour an informal<br />

luncheon was held in the private dining room.<br />

At this time, editors and plant executives were enabled<br />

to exchange views regarding industrial problems, and<br />

the Westinghouse executives and engineers explained<br />

the purposes of the transfer of the shop to South Philadelphia.<br />

In the afternoon, the party inspected the Turbine<br />

Blading Shop in company with escorts, selected by the<br />

plant management to give the editorial writers such<br />

r^^** ^^^^^^^B<br />

Ml 111<br />

»».». «M


May, 1925<br />

construction, extreme length 500 feet by 145 feet wide;<br />

at its west end the one-story portion is joined to the<br />

two-story portion, the latter forming an acute<br />

angled L.<br />

The two-story building of concrete, steel and hollow<br />

tile construction, 320 feet by 130, has a floor area<br />

of 94,700 sq. ft., and the Blade Shop as a whole 146,550<br />

sq. ft. Fig. 2 is a view from the northeast with the<br />

blade f<strong>org</strong>e shop in the foreground and the twostory<br />

blade machine shop in the background. The<br />

ground floor of the two-story building is of asphalt<br />

brick, other floors reinforced concrete and roofs of<br />

fireproof gypsum reinforced with expanded steel netting.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

157<br />

many inspections during the process of manufacture<br />

and is rejected for the slightest defect. Only the edge<br />

and base of the blade are machined, and those containing<br />

imperfections on the surfaces must be discarded<br />

as no stock is left for grinding or machining.<br />

The power developed by the turbine is transmitted<br />

to the rotor by the steam impinging on the blades.<br />

The stresses set up in the blade by the propelling action<br />

of the steam and also that of centrifugal force<br />

combined with the errosive action calls for material,<br />

design and workmanship of the highest order. The<br />

rotor shown in Fig. 1 is capable of developing 45,000<br />

h.p. at a speed of 1,800 revolutions per minute or a<br />

peripheral speed of almost 10 miles per minute. The<br />

FIG. 3—One of the 5,000-lb. board drop hammers. Trimming press at the right and furnaces at the left.<br />

Care Required in Heating Stock.<br />

The drop f<strong>org</strong>ing of turbine blades is radically different<br />

from that of any other class of drop f<strong>org</strong>ing and<br />

is, without doubt, the highest class of work produced<br />

in this manner. The many different alloys used introduces<br />

many problems in the heating of stock, some<br />

of the alloys scaling excessively while others, although<br />

scaling only slightly, have a scale that is difficult to<br />

remove. As the surface of the blades are not machined<br />

it is essential that they have a finish free from surface<br />

defects of any kind, otherwise the efficiency of the<br />

turbine would be materially reduced. The small cross<br />

section of the blades, thin edges and close limits in<br />

weight are some of the conditions to be contended<br />

with in the manufacture of turbine blades.<br />

Quality of material and perfection of workmanship<br />

are the outstanding features at this plant, the equipment<br />

in the various departments having been selected<br />

and arranged with that idea in mind. Maximum<br />

production is desirable but not at the sacrifice of quality,<br />

The blade or blading material is subjected to<br />

rotor contains approximately 5,000 blades and weighs<br />

115,000 pounds.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Shop Equipment.<br />

The equipment of the f<strong>org</strong>e shop consists of nine<br />

Chambersburg board drop hammers ranging in size<br />

from 1,600 to 5,000 pounds. The flash is trimmed<br />

from the blades by Bliss and Consolidated trimming<br />

presses, which are located convenient to each hammer.<br />

From one to three heating furnaces, depending<br />

upon the size of the hammer and nature of the work<br />

are provided for each hammer. Fig. 3 shows a drop<br />

hammer group embracing furnaces, 5,000 pound board<br />

drop hammer in center and trimming press to the<br />

right.<br />

The heating of the stock preliminary to drop f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

and also the partly finished blades at the various<br />

stages of manufacture is carefully watched. The use<br />

of alloys of widely varying composition has made it<br />

necessary to regulate the temperature for each alloy,<br />

and all heating furnaces are equipped with pyrometers<br />

and platinum rhodium thermocouples. The heating


158 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

May, 1925<br />

FIG. 4 (Upper Left)—Upsetting machines. (Upper Right)—Electric heat treating furnace. (Center left)—Oil storage tanks and<br />

pump house. (Center right)—Annealing furnaces. (Lower left)—Dressing drop f<strong>org</strong>ed dies. (Lower right)—Bradley hammer<br />

and furnace.<br />

furnaces designed and built by the Westinghouse<br />

Company are oil fired. Anthony nebulyte burners are<br />

used on all heating furnaces and are operated on high<br />

gravity fuel oil, no preheating being necessary. Fuel<br />

oil is stored in two steel tanks of 10.000 gallons capacity<br />

each. Fig. 4, conveniently located to the f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

shop and are surrounded by an earth embankment.<br />

Oil is received in tank cars, pumped into the storage<br />

tanks and thence to the heating furnaces. All pipe<br />

lines to the furnaces are carried in concrete trenches<br />

covered by steel plates. Air for the furnaces is supplied<br />

by five Spencer turbo-compressors.<br />

Due to the highly oxidizable nature of some of the<br />

alloys that are used for blades, it is necessary to have<br />

a reducing atmosphere in the furnace, resulting in a<br />

certain amount of smoke escaping from the furnaces.<br />

In order to keep the shop as free as possible from<br />

smoke all furnaces are equipped with hoods connected<br />

to an exhaust system.


May, 1925 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 159<br />

c<br />

0<br />

u V<br />

r<br />

(T5<br />

•V<br />

HH<br />

C<br />

-^ a<br />

0<br />

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E<br />

u<br />

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bu C


160 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Manufacturing Arrangement.<br />

The Bow of material starts at the receiving platform<br />

adjacent to the railway siding, Fig. 5, where<br />

the bar stuck and other materials are brought into<br />

storage racks through the north entrance. For example,<br />

raw material for f<strong>org</strong>ings is sheared to length,<br />

is then passed to Bradley hammers to receive initial<br />

breaking down and thence to the drop hammers where<br />

a suitable number of passes brings the work to finished<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing dimensions. The material after passing<br />

through various pickling, heat treating and straightening<br />

operations, is moved to the second floor for machining<br />

operations and final inspection. It is then<br />

transferred to the erecting floor or placed in finished<br />

stores.<br />

After the rough stock is broken down on the<br />

Bradley hammer. Fig. 4, it is reheated, drop f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

and trimmed. Before the next f<strong>org</strong>ing operation the<br />

blade must be pickled to remove the scale. If pickling<br />

fails to remove all traces of scale it must be chipped<br />

May, 1925<br />

or ground off, otherwise the following f<strong>org</strong>ing operations<br />

will further inbed the scale. On certain types<br />

of blades it is necessary to put them through as many<br />

as six d;op f<strong>org</strong>ing operations, each followed by trimming<br />

and pickling.<br />

At the present time material is transported from<br />

one department to another by means of hand trucks.<br />

This is not particularly objectionable as the quantity<br />

of material is small. However, special racks or baskets<br />

are being installed in the f<strong>org</strong>e shop to facilitate<br />

the handling of material. With the new system, the<br />

partly f<strong>org</strong>ed blades after being trimmed will be<br />

placed in monel metal baskets, conveyed to the pickling<br />

department and placed in the pickling tanks without<br />

removing the blades from the baskets. After completing<br />

the p.ckling operations, the basket containing<br />

the blades will be returned to the f<strong>org</strong>e shop for the<br />

next f<strong>org</strong>ing operation. This method will eliminate<br />

two handlings of the blades for each pickling and on<br />

blades requiring several f<strong>org</strong>ing operations will represent<br />

a considerable saving.<br />

FIG 6 (Upper left)-Machine operations. (Upper right)-Small rolling mill and reel. (Center)—Draw bench reel type (Lower<br />

left)—.Large draw bench. (Lower right)—Straightening rolls for drawn stock. ' ype' ^ower


May, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

FIG. 7 (A)—Blade section rolled from round bar; progressive steps in manufacture. (B)—Reaction blade stages in manufacture.<br />

(C)—Impulse blades. (D)—Steel reaction spindle blade; standard parallel section. (E)—Drop f<strong>org</strong>e multiple exhaust<br />

blade; progressive steps in manufacture. (F)—Special twisted tapered blade.<br />

Heat Treatment of Blades.<br />

Heat treatment of finished f<strong>org</strong>ings is carried on<br />

by means of Westinghouse electric furnaces, Fig. 4,<br />

equipped with recording pyrometers. The f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

are brought up to 1450 deg. F., quenched in oil, again<br />

brought up to 1050 deg. to 1200 deg. F. and cooled in<br />

oil. The electric heating of blades, while producing<br />

little scale on the blades is to be supplanted by salt<br />

bath heating as soon as the installation of two Stewart<br />

salt bath furnaces is completed. This will reduce<br />

scaling and warping to a minimum which is a factor<br />

of considerable importance on work of this kind. After<br />

161<br />

heat treating the blades are carefully inspected and<br />

straightened before they are passed on to the machine<br />

shop.<br />

A view of the second floor machine shop appears<br />

in Fig. 6. In this department is carried on machining<br />

operations on steel impulse and reaction blades.<br />

Standard types of machine tools are used, but numerous<br />

carefully designed devices and fixtures are employed<br />

in the work of production to the end that with<br />

the aid of thorough and systematic inspection the<br />

completed apparatus may be reliable and efficient,


162 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Impulse Blades.<br />

Fig. 7-c shows two typical examples of impulse<br />

blades. These are fabricated by either of two methods<br />

(a) milling from bar stock, whereby the port is<br />

milled out on revolving drum fixtures and (b) drop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing and hot swaging with suitable dies in a f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

press concluding with milling operations for base<br />

and edges. Close limits of precision are required in<br />

either case and each blade is subjected to a V guage<br />

inspection to verify the pitch thickness. The finish is<br />

such that the curved surfaces nest together to proper<br />

pitch without milling or other machine finish. Individual<br />

blades of a set may depart from standard in<br />

thickness of pitch not to exceed .005-in., but in all<br />

cases blades guaging plus, must be compensated for<br />

pelative Displacement setweci<br />

JACENT SECTIONS MijsT NOT £,CEEE.<br />

the DiTEEPENCE BETWEEN THE ABOVE<br />

TOLERANCE'<br />

FIG. 8—Sketch of multiple exhaust blade, giving an idea of<br />

the precision required.<br />

by corresponding blades guaging minus, so that the<br />

algebraic sum of all departures from standard for a<br />

full circle or row shall be zero.<br />

Low Pressure Blades of Parallel Section.<br />

Where the necessities of design do not require extreme<br />

length for a low pressure blade out are beyond<br />

the range of physical qualities of manganese copper,<br />

standard practice employs a drop f<strong>org</strong>ed blade of<br />

straight parallel section, for moving rows usually of 5<br />

per cent nickel steel, of which Fig. 7-D shows a typical<br />

example. For stationary rows a parallel section in<br />

manganese copper is used. Although the latter blade<br />

is essentially of parallel section, its base is reinforced<br />

May, 1925<br />

by upset thickening to afford additional strength at<br />

and near the root.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ed Low Pressure Reaction Blades of<br />

Special Types.<br />

In recent designs of Westinghouse turbines of<br />

large capacities, low pressure blades of 20 to 24 inch<br />

length and even longer have been used. Owing to<br />

the stresses due to high peripheral speeds, also owing:<br />

to radial angularity between the long blades, departure<br />

in certain instances from a straight parallel blade<br />

section has been effected in two particulars: A—the<br />

blade has been tapered to keep down the weight and<br />

stresses due to centrifugal force, and B—the blade has<br />

been twisted or warped for two reasons in order that:<br />

First—the inlet angle may permit the steam to be received<br />

tangentially at all points throughout the length<br />

of the blade, and, second—the passage between the<br />

blades may be of such shape throughout the length of<br />

the blade as to give the requisite nozzle effect in guiding<br />

the steam through the blades for best efficiency.<br />

Various stages in the course of manufacture of a<br />

multiple exhaust blade are shown in Fig. 7-E. On<br />

the bottom is shown the blank sheared to length from<br />

round bar stock. Next is shown the blank after being<br />

broken down under a Bradley hammer in preparation<br />

for the f<strong>org</strong>ing die. Next is the f<strong>org</strong>ing untrimmed<br />

after the first drop. Next is the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing with<br />

the flash trimmed off, and at the top is the blade fully<br />

machined. Not only is the f<strong>org</strong>ing of these blades an<br />

undertaking of unusual refinement, but the machining<br />

requires a high degree of precision in workmanship,<br />

as well as specially developed devices and fixtures.<br />

The sketch of a typical multiple exhaust blade. Fig.<br />

8, shows certain dimensions and characteristic tolerances<br />

from which the required standard of precision<br />

may be judged.<br />

Preparing Models of Dies.<br />

The Keller Mechanical Engineering Corporation<br />

of Brooklyn, New York, was instrumental in working<br />

out methods of preparing models and cutting drop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>e dies for blades for the multiple exhaust design,<br />

an undertaking of no small difficulty or magnitude.<br />

Each cross section of blade to be modeled has its<br />

appropriate contour gauge made of '^ in. sheet steel<br />

and fitted with extreme precision to lapped and<br />

ground steel templates or master pieces. Bottom<br />

halves of these contour guages are shown mounted in<br />

a plate. Fig. 9-A, so that each section bears its proper<br />

relation to its neighbors, vertically, horizontally and<br />

laterally, and these guages form the directing curves<br />

from which by the aid of straight edges, the warped<br />

surfaces are generated in modeling clay, Fig. 9-B.<br />

From this clay model a plaster cast is taken, Fig. 9-C.<br />

and around this plaster cast a cement model Fig. 9-D,<br />

was poured, which when thoroughly hard becomes<br />

available as the model for cutting the bottom die in<br />

an automatic engraving machine. A cast iron frame<br />

encloses the cement model to protect it from breakage<br />

or injury in use. Before being set to work in the<br />

engraving machine, the cement model bottom die is<br />

used in shaping a model for the upper die. Fig. 9-E<br />

shows the model partly prepared with modeling clay,<br />

accurately shaped templates of sheet zinc resting on<br />

the cement form and bedded in the modeling clay<br />

provide the directing curves for generating the sur-


May, 1925<br />

faces for the upper die. Fig. 9-F is ready for casting<br />

the cement model of the upper die. Fig. 9-G shows<br />

two pairs of dies ready for hardening. The Keller engraving<br />

machine used for cutting the dies, through<br />

a cleverly designed system of electric relays, automatically<br />

transmits each movement of the tracer in<br />

the model to the cutter in the steel die.<br />

Dies Require Frequent Dressing,<br />

Because of the finish and accuracy required on the<br />

finished blades, dies must be frequently dressed, the<br />

number of blades f<strong>org</strong>ed per dressing varying between<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 163<br />

embodying the characteristics of a hand modeled<br />

blade, has the advantage of greater facility in preparing<br />

and maintaining the f<strong>org</strong>ing dies. The surfaces<br />

which give the effect of a twist are developed by<br />

planer or shaper cuts, no models nor engraving machine<br />

work for this design being required. These cuts<br />

with non-intersecting axes diverge at the base and<br />

converge at the tip employ suitably shaped form tools<br />

by means of which the required taper and twist are<br />

obtained. Fig. 7-F shows on the left an untrimmed<br />

finished f<strong>org</strong>ing adjoining which is a trimmed f<strong>org</strong>-<br />

FIG. 9 (A)—Contour gauges lined up in base plate for model making. (B)—Blade surfaces generated in modeling clay. (C)—<br />

Plaster cast matrix for casting cement model. (D)—Cement model bottom die. (E)—Partly prepared form for upper die.<br />

(F)—Form ready for casting cement model upper die. (G)—Two pairs of f<strong>org</strong>ing dies ready for hardening.<br />

200 and 500. Fig. 4 shows a group of die stands,<br />

equipped with flexible shaft bench grinders.<br />

The selection of die steels has offered numerous<br />

problems due to the tendency of most steels to spall<br />

because of the thin section of the blades cooling rapidly.<br />

Many grades of steels have been tried for drop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing dies including various alloy steels. Plain high<br />

carbon steel hardened to a scleroscope hardness of<br />

between 80 and 90 has been found most satisfactory.<br />

The dies must take and retain a high finish as the surface<br />

of the blades are not machined.<br />

Modified Type of Warped Blade.<br />

A modified type of warped and tapered blade has<br />

been developed by Westinghouse engineers, while<br />

ing, and to the right are two viewrs of finished machined<br />

blades.<br />

Stationary Reaction Low Pressure Blades of<br />

Manganese Bronze.<br />

A process which lends itself well to the fabrication<br />

of large section, low pressure, stationary blades where<br />

taper, twist and in some instances where a dividing<br />

partition for multiple exhaust are required consists of<br />

casting such blades in manganese bronze and grinding<br />

the surfaces to the required limits of shape and section<br />

thickness. The material has demonstrated its<br />

fitness for the purpose and the process has been<br />

worked out with entire satisfaction.


Iu4 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Drop f<strong>org</strong>ing is employed for the production of<br />

most types of blades, however, blades having a parallel<br />

section and a base that can be produced by cold upsetting<br />

are rolled or drawn. The bar stock is heated in<br />

an oil fired furnace, equipped with automatic temperature<br />

control and hot rolled to the approximate finished<br />

size. Large sections of blading and packing are<br />

rolled in 12-in. and 18-in. mills in a continuous train<br />

driven by a 350 hp. Westinghouse motor through reduction<br />

gearing. Fig. 10. After pickling to remove<br />

scale it is either cold rolled or drawn to the finished<br />

size. Draw benches are used for drawing certain<br />

sections of packing and blading; for heavy sections<br />

the bar type is used while on lighter work the<br />

reel type. Roll straighteners are used where it is<br />

necessary to straighten rolled or drawn sections. The<br />

blading and packing material is annealed between the<br />

various draws to remove strains. In order to protect<br />

the thin edges of the bar it is packed in annealing<br />

boxes. Two oil fired car type furnaces equipped with<br />

pyrometers are used for annealing.<br />

FIG. 10—An excellent view of the 12-in. and 18-in. bar mill.<br />

Equipment Manufacturers<br />

May, 1925<br />

Reaction Blading—Standard Manganese Copper.<br />

The blading material most employed in Westinghouse<br />

turbines in point of quantity of pieces, which<br />

through years of service has demonstrated its reliability<br />

within its proper operating range of stress and<br />

temperature, is manganese copper, which consists essentially<br />

of 5 per cent manganese, the balance copper.<br />

A typical development of the manganese copper<br />

from commercial round bar to a standard blade section<br />

contour through a series of rolling and drawing passes<br />

is shown by Fig. 7-A. The securing of blading in the<br />

grooves by caulking in place served its purpose until<br />

supplanted by a more positive method of fastening<br />

made necessary by reason of increased blade speeds<br />

and higher stresses. The improved method of fastening,<br />

which was developed and made standard since<br />

1911, employed an upset hook at the base of the blade<br />

and a dovetailed packing which locked in a correspondingly<br />

angled groove. The hook is produced by<br />

upsetting in a National heading machine operating<br />

Equipment Manufactured by Location<br />

Drop Hammers Chambersburg Engineering Company Chambersburg, Pa.<br />

Helve Hammers C. C. Bradley & Son, Inc Syracuse, N. Y.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Machines National Machinery Company Tiffin, Ohio<br />

Engraving Machines Keller Mechanical Engraving Corporation Brooklyn, N. Y.<br />

Oil Burners The Anthony Company Long Island City, N.<br />

Trimming Presses E. W. Bliss Company Brooklyn, N. Y.<br />

Trimming Presses Consolidated Press Company Hastings, Mich.<br />

Turbo Compressors The Spencer-Turbine Company Hartford, Conn<br />

Blast Gates \Y. S. Rockwell Company New York, N. Y.<br />

Annealing Furnaces F. J. Ryan & Company Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Die Blocks Braeburn Steel Company Braeburn, Pa.<br />

Pyrometers .Brown Instrument Company Philadelphia, Pa.


May, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 165<br />

laterally-closing dies and an encjwise-moving punch<br />

or ram. Fig. 7-li shows on the right the drawn stock<br />

before upsetting, in the center, the upset untrimmed<br />

blade, and on the left, the trimmed and punched blade<br />

ready for installation. Incidental to upsetting the<br />

hook, the blade bases are upset or thickened to a<br />

suitable tapering reinforcement to insure added structural<br />

strength at and near the base. The packing<br />

pieces are of soft carbon steel rolled and drawn to<br />

section, sheared to length, and broached to dovetail.<br />

Certain other materials such as pure nickel admit of<br />

fabrication in the upsetting machine similar to manganese<br />

copper, though with somewhat less facility.<br />

A Retrospect in Research*<br />

The ninety and nine narratives which have already<br />

appeared in this unique historical series will, it is confidently<br />

believed, have satisfied their open-minded<br />

readers that the history of advance in industrial production<br />

dependent on scientific research is replete<br />

with fascination, personality and the best aspirations<br />

of the human spirit. They breathe sympathy with the<br />

work of the past, and inspiration for the hope of the<br />

future, through patient study of the great universal<br />

ruling mind.<br />

Having reached the centennial number of the<br />

series, it seems advantageous to look back and make<br />

such deductions concerning research in the past as<br />

occasion may inspire. The past year has seen the<br />

centennial anniversary of Lord Kelvin's birth, and<br />

the award of the Kelvin medal to a distinguished<br />

American engineer and inventor. The story of Lord<br />

Kelvin's life is told very entertainingly by the gifted<br />

biographer, the late Dr. Silvanius P Thompson, to<br />

whose two-volume book on "The Life of William<br />

Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs," the more particularly<br />

interested reader may refer.<br />

Lord Kelvin was conspicuously a scientist, a second<br />

wrangler in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos<br />

of 1845, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow<br />

University from 1846 to 1899, a recipient of honorary<br />

Doctor's degrees from 21 universities all over the<br />

scientific world, the writer of 661 identified scientific<br />

papers and the grantee of 69 letters patent for inventions.<br />

At the time of his early manhood, the world of<br />

industry was evidently far removed from the world<br />

of science. It is inevitable that sound industry must<br />

rest upon science; but the connection between them<br />

was remote and inconspicuous in 1850. Industrial<br />

leaders, in almost all instances, depended exclusively<br />

upon experience and skill. Their attitude of mind<br />

towards research and applied science, in considerable<br />

contrast to latter day conditions, was usually one of<br />

hostility and contempt. It is today being recognized<br />

that while experience and skill are just as necessary<br />

as ever, eternal vigilance is equally necessary on the<br />

scientific as on the competitive economic and administrative<br />

fronts, if advance is to be maintained. It<br />

was Lord Kelvin's crowning achievement to break<br />

down some of the then existing barriers between science<br />

and industry, to their great mutual advantage.<br />

A single instance of this Kelvin instinct may be<br />

outlined here. It is referred to in Thompson's bio­<br />

•Engineering Foundation Research Narratives. Contributed<br />

by Pro'. A. E. Kennelly, Harvard University and Massachusetts<br />

Institute of Technology.<br />

graphy. In 1857, it will be remembered that the<br />

British battleship, "Agamemnon," with Kelvin on<br />

board as observer, met the U. S. frigate, "Niagara,"<br />

in mid-Atlantic, to lay the first attempted trans-Atlantic<br />

cable. Starting from a splice between cables on<br />

board the two vessels, they began paying out in opposite<br />

directions, towards Ireland and Newfoundland,<br />

respectively. The cable broke in deep water after<br />

some hundreds of nautical miles had been laid, and<br />

the attempt had to be postponed until the following<br />

year.<br />

Kelvin became engrossed in the mechanical and<br />

electrical problems of ocean cables. On the electrical<br />

side, he developed his now classical theory of the<br />

speed of sending messages, and showed that for a<br />

given length and total capacistance of the cable, with<br />

its signaling apparatus, the speed of transmission, in<br />

words per minute, would be inversely proportional to<br />

the total resistance of the conductor. It was therefore<br />

desirable to use, in any long cable, a copper conductor<br />

of the lowest resistance and of the highest available<br />

conductivity.<br />

On returning to England in 1857, he secured samples<br />

of copper wire used in cable manufacture, and<br />

found that they differed in conductivity as much as<br />

2.5 to 1. Having had chemical analyses made of these<br />

samples, and finding that the conductivity increased<br />

with the degree of chemical purity of the copper, he<br />

urged the directors of the Atlantic Cable Company to<br />

specify high-conductivity copper in their contracts for<br />

conductor material. For a long time he pleaded in<br />

vain, the contractors declaring that the requirement<br />

was expensive and useless.<br />

Kelvin finally succeeded in having the clause inserted<br />

into a contract for a new length of Atlantic<br />

cable, late in the year 1857, and he installed a set of<br />

electric conductivity measuring apparatus at the cable<br />

factory, to ensure compliance with the requirement.<br />

This was the first factory testing laboratory in the<br />

industry. It soon became recognized that Kelvin s<br />

contention was economically well justified, and a special<br />

branch of "conductivity copper" production sprang<br />

up, to meet the demand. So thoroughly incorporated<br />

in the electrical industry has high-conductivity copper<br />

become, that it is now hard to realize that it came<br />

into being as the result of hard and patient endeavor,<br />

based on scientific research.<br />

The foregoing episode from Lord Kelvin's applications<br />

of science to industry is typical of many developments<br />

during the last century, which have become<br />

incorporated in our daily life, and without which<br />

the very existence of present-day populations on our<br />

plant would probably be unsustainable. Some of them<br />

have been outlined in these narratives. More than<br />

ever in the future must we look to discovery and invention,<br />

if we are not to retrocede. These come not<br />

as unbidden guests. They must be worked for diligently<br />

and with research.<br />

Metal Statistics for 1925<br />

"Metal Statistics, 1925," has just been issued by<br />

the American Metal Market Co., 11 Cliff Street, New<br />

York. In addition to the usual tables and statistics<br />

contained in previous editions, this one offers several<br />

new ones not heretofore published and covers a wider<br />

scope than previous editions.


166 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

PART 4.<br />

GALVANOMETERS AND MILLIVOLTMETERS<br />

Galvanometer.<br />

W H E X an electric current passes through a wire,<br />

lines of magnetic force are set up around the<br />

wire. The lines take the form of circles, concentric<br />

with the conductor, as illustrated in Fig. 90-a. It<br />

does not matter whether the wire is bare or insulated.<br />

A compass needle placed near a conductor carrying<br />

a direct current will tend to take a position at right<br />

angles to the conductor. If the direction of the current<br />

is reversed, the compass will reverse its position,<br />

end for end, showing that the lines of force have<br />

direction. If the conductor is formed into a loop or<br />

coil, as illustrated in Fig. 90-b, the lines of force will<br />

pass through the space enclosed by the coil, all in one<br />

direction. The coil will then act like a magnet having<br />

a north pole at one side and a south pole at the other.<br />

(Such a magnet is known as a "solenoid." These rules<br />

apply to direct current, not alternating current.)<br />

Increasing the number of turns in the coil will increase<br />

the magnetic strength for a given current. If<br />

the coil is allowed freedom to move, by suspending it<br />

between long fine filaments, which also serve as conductors,<br />

as shown in Fig. 90-c, it will behave like a<br />

compass. One side of the coil will tend to face the<br />

north and is called the "north pole", the opposite side<br />

is called the "south pole'.. The lines of magnetic<br />

force are assumed to enter at the south pole and leave<br />

*The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the<br />

following references for material contained in this chapter, and<br />

to recommend them to the student for further reading: (9)<br />

"Measurement of High Temperatures," Burgess & LeChatelier;<br />

(10) "Pyrometric Practice," Foote, Fairchild & Harrison, Technologic<br />

Paper of the Bureau of Standards, No. 170. (Obtainable<br />

from Supt. Documents, Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C<br />

60 cents.) (11) Pyrometry Data Sheets, A. S. S. T.<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factory,<br />

United States Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright, 1925, by H. C. Knerr.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

May, 1925<br />

at the mirth pole, as shown by the arrows in the top<br />

view. If the coil is brought near to a permanent magnet,<br />

its north pole will be attracted by the south pole<br />

of the magnet, and its south pole will be repelled by<br />

the south pole of the magnet. Opposite poles attract<br />

and like poles repel each other.<br />

The magnetic field of the earth is comparatively<br />

weak. If the coil is suspended between the poles of a<br />

strong permanent magnet, as shown in Fig. 91-a, the<br />

turning force will be greatly increased. The heavy<br />

arrow represents the magnetic poles of the movable<br />

coil. This is the principle of the d'Arsonval galvanometer,<br />

and by such an instrument very small electric<br />

currents can be detected. The coil is given a large<br />

number of turns of fine insulated wire, and is suspended<br />

by a thin filament of a springy metal, such as<br />

phosphor bronze. A similar filament is attached to the<br />

bottom of the coil. These "suspension wires", upper<br />

and lower, serve to carry the current to and from the<br />

coil. They also act as delicate springs, and when no<br />

current is flowing, hold the coil in the neutral or zero<br />

position, shown in 91-a. When a current passes<br />

through the coil, it would turn to the position shown<br />

at 91-b, were it not for the restraining action of the<br />

spring suspensions. It therefore takes some intermediate<br />

position between 91-a and 91-b, as at 91c. The<br />

amount which the coil turns may be measured by attaching<br />

a light pointer to it, and measuring the deflection<br />

on a graduated scale.<br />

The deflection of the coil will depend upon the following<br />

factors:<br />

1. The amount of current flowing through the<br />

coil.<br />

2. The number of turns in the coil.<br />

3. The strength of the magnetic field in which<br />

the coil is suspended.<br />

4. The strength of the restraining springs or<br />

suspensions.<br />

If factors 2, 3, and 4 are kept constant, the deflection<br />

will depend solely upon the amount of current


May, 1925<br />

flowing through the coil. The scale over which the<br />

pointer moves may therefore be calibrated to read directly<br />

in amperes, or in thousandths of an ampere,<br />

called milliamperes. Such an instrument is called a<br />

"milliammeter."<br />

In many cases, the galvanometer is used only as<br />

a detector of very small currents, or to show when no<br />

current is flowing, by an absence of any deflection. In<br />

such cases it need not be calibrated, but must be extremely<br />

sensitive. This principle is used in the potentiometer,<br />

to be described later.<br />

Millivoltmeter.<br />

E<br />

By Ohms law, C = —, the amount of current flow-<br />

R<br />

ing in any circuit will depend upon the resistance of<br />

the circuit and the electromotive force applied. If the<br />

resistance of the galvanometer circuit is known and<br />

constant, the current flowing through it will be directly<br />

proportional to the e.m.f. applied across its terminals,<br />

therefore the deflection will be proportional to<br />

that e.m.f. The scale may accordingly be calibrated<br />

in terms of volts, or in thousandths of a volt, called<br />

"millivolts" Such an instrument is called a "millivoltmeter".<br />

It should be borne in mind that a millivoltmeter<br />

actually measures current, and that if the<br />

resistance of the circuit is varied, it will not correctly<br />

indicate millivolts.<br />

A millivoltmeter is not required to be so sensitive<br />

as a galvanometer, because more current is generally<br />

available for operating it. Instead of the filament suspensions,<br />

very light coiled springs similar to the hairspring<br />

of a watch, but of non-magnetic material, are<br />

often used to apply the restraining force and carry<br />

the current to and from the coil. In this case the coil<br />

is supported on pivot and jewel bearings. These consist<br />

of a finely ground steel point which rests in an indented<br />

jewel, such as a ruby, permitting nearly frictionless<br />

rotation. A pivot is mounted axially with the<br />

coil, at top and bottom, and the jewels are mounted in<br />

adjusting screws in the frame of the instrument, Fig.<br />

92.<br />

The coil of such a millivoltmeter, with springs<br />

and pointer attached, is shown, removed from the instrument,<br />

in Fig. 93. The pointer is counterbalanced<br />

by a small weight.<br />

In order to reduce the air gap, through which the<br />

magnetic lines of force, or "flux" from the poles of<br />

the permanent magnet must pass, "pole pieces" of<br />

soft iron are attached to the poles. A "core" is also<br />

mounted centrally with the coil, leaving a small annular<br />

space within which the coil may turn. The<br />

core is fastened to the frame of the instrument. (The<br />

coil never turns more than a moderate angle.) The<br />

pole pieces and core also serve to make the magnetic<br />

field through which the coil turns very uniform.<br />

A millivoltmeter, with its principal parts, is illustrated<br />

in Fig. 94.<br />

Millivoltmeters are used to a very large extent to<br />

measure the e.m.f. of thermocouples. The temperature-e.m.f.<br />

relation of a thermocouple being known,<br />

the scale of the millivoltmeter may be graduated to<br />

read temperature directly in degrees, Centigrade or<br />

Fahrenheit. An instrument so calibrated will read<br />

correctly only when used wth the thermocouple for<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

167<br />

which it was intended. If metals having a different<br />

temperature e.m.f. relation are used for the couple,<br />

the scale of the millivoltmeter must be changed accordingly.<br />

Since a millivoltmeter is in reality a current measuring<br />

instrument, and correctly indicates millivolts<br />

only when the resistance of the circuit is a definite<br />

amount, any change in the resistance of the circuit will<br />

cause a corresponding error in the reading of the instrument.<br />

The current flowing through a millivolt-<br />

Suspension -A<br />

(©) (°)(°)<br />

\<br />

qp<br />

' Line,<br />

o<br />

> O O<br />

0 0<br />

V<br />

Top V/'et*<br />

00IW<br />

J<br />

o o<br />

Susp-<br />

Fig. 91<br />

(O)<br />

FIG. 90—(a) Magnetic lines of force around a conductor. (b)<br />

Conductor formed into a loop, (c) Coil suspended, free<br />

to move.<br />

FIG. 91—(a) Coil between poles of permanent magnet.<br />

(b)<br />

Position of coil carrying current, if not restrained.<br />

(c)<br />

Position of coil with forces of magnetism balanced by<br />

spring.<br />

meter which is connected with a thermocouple, will<br />

vary with the effective e.m.f. of the couple (hot junction<br />

minus cold junction) and also with the total resistance<br />

of the circuit, including the couple, the leads<br />

from the couple to the instrument, and the instrument<br />

itself. For this reason, many such instruments are<br />

provided with a certain pair of leads with which they<br />

must be used, in connection with a certain couple or<br />

type of couple. The substitution of shorter-or longer<br />

leads, or of leads of the same length but different resistance,<br />

will cause the instrument to read incorrectly.<br />

The resistance of nearly all conductors of electricity<br />

increases when their temperature is raised. This is<br />

likely to happen when the instrument and its leads are


168 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

near a heat treating furnace, or may result merely<br />

from variations in atmospheric temperature. The resistance<br />

of the couple itself will of course change when<br />

it is placed in a furnace.<br />

In order to prevent fluctuations in line resistance<br />

from having too great an effect upon the readings of<br />

the instrument, modern millivoltmeters have in them,<br />

as part of their circuit, a spool of resistance wire of<br />

rather high resistance, generally about 500 ohms.<br />

(Visible in Fig. 94.) This is made of an alloy (raan-<br />

/lajusting Screw for Jewel<br />

Brass Yoka<br />

Spiral Spring<br />

Carri es Current<br />

to Coil<br />

Movable coil<br />

Pole Piece<br />

Soft Iron<br />

Kig.92.<br />

Adjusting Scre^j<br />

for Spring<br />

Insulated from frame<br />

Carries Current to Spring<br />

Pointer<br />

Counterweight<br />

—itationory<br />

Soil Iron Core<br />

Scale, Showing<br />

Deflection of<br />

Coil.<br />

Calibrated in<br />

Millivolts or<br />

Degrees.<br />

Permanent<br />

Magnet<br />

Steel<br />

Pole Piece.<br />

Soft Iron<br />

ganin) whose resistance changes very little at ordinary<br />

atmospheric temperatures. The resistance of the couple,<br />

the leads, and the other parts of the circuit is small<br />

in comparison with the resistance of this coil. Changes<br />

in their resistance, therefore, produce only small<br />

changes in the total resistance of the circuit, and therefore<br />

produce correspondingly small errors in the readings<br />

of the instrument. The complete electrical circuit<br />

of a millivoltmeter with resistance coil, and the<br />

thermocouple and leads, is illustrated in Fig. 95.<br />

May, 1925<br />

The introduction of a high resistance reduces the<br />

amount of current which the e.m.f. of the thermocouple<br />

will produce in the circuit, and therefore makes it<br />

necessary to use more delicate springs to control the<br />

moving coil, and to reduce the friction of the pivot and<br />

jewel bearings to a very low value. A certain sacrifice<br />

in the ruggedness of the instrument is therefore<br />

entailed. This is counterbalanced to some extent by<br />

using a greater number of turns in the movable coil,<br />

and increasing the strength of the permanent magnet.<br />

Cold Junction Compensation At Instrument.<br />

The preferred practice in most modern heat treating<br />

plants is to bring the cold junction to the instrument<br />

by means of extension leads, and to compensate<br />

for the cold junction temperature either by a manual<br />

adjustment or by some automatic device in the instrument.<br />

Where high accuracy is not required, it is sufficient<br />

to adjust the pointer of the millivoltmeter, so<br />

that, with no current flowing, i.e., the thermocouple<br />

disconnected, it will indicate room temperature (instead<br />

of zero temperature). This is done by moving<br />

the zero adjustment of the instrument. When the<br />

FIG. 93—Movable coil, pointer and springs.<br />

couple is connected, the reading of the pointer will<br />

Brass Yoke<br />

to Support Core<br />

Lines of Maanetic<br />

Force or "Flux"<br />

then correspond to the deflection caused by the effective<br />

e.m.f. (hot junction minus cold junction) plus<br />

the zero setting, and therefore will indicate very nearly<br />

the true hot junction temperature. There is a<br />

Fig. 92 b<br />

slight error in this method because the temperaturee.m.f.<br />

scale for base metal couples is not strictly uni­<br />

FIG. 92—(a) Diagram of movable coil mounted in pivots and form over the working range. The error is greater<br />

jewels, (b) Simplified view of millivoltmeter, showing pole for noble metal couples than for base metal couples<br />

pieces and core.<br />

and should not be used with the former. There is also<br />

the disadvantage that the operator may f<strong>org</strong>et or neglect<br />

to change the zero setting when the temperature<br />

of the room changes. If the cold junction temperature<br />

is set as 75 deg. and the temperature of the room rises<br />

to 100 deg. F. the pyrometer will indicate about 25<br />

deg. too low; if the temperature falls to 50 deg. F. the<br />

reading will be about 25 deg. too high.<br />

Diverse methods of automatically compensating for<br />

variations in cold junction temperature have been developed<br />

by pyrometer manufacturers. One method<br />

(Patented), consists in attaching a thermostatic or


May, 1925<br />

Briguet spiral to one of the hair springs of the movable<br />

coil. The spiral is made of two dissimilar metals<br />

and tends to coil or uncoil with changes in temperature<br />

due to their different expansion. If the temperature<br />

of the instrument rises, the spiral will tend to uncoil,<br />

and has the same effect as moving the zero adjustment<br />

of the instrument, causing the pointer to move<br />

up the scale an amount equivalent to the rise in cold<br />

ZERO ADJUSTING<br />

SCREW<br />

CONTROLLED BY<br />

BRIGUET SPIRAL<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

BRIGUET SPIRAL<br />

FOR AUTOMATIC<br />

COLD JUNCTION<br />

COMPENSATION<br />

FIG. 94—Phantom view of millivoltmeter, showing<br />

internal construction.<br />

junction temperature. A second spiral is attached to<br />

the scale of the instrument, and carries an index to<br />

which the zero reading of the instrument must be adjusted<br />

when the pyrometer is on open circuit.<br />

Another method consists in connecting a coil ol<br />

wire, whose resistance changes considerably with temperature,<br />

in the circuit in such a way that it compensates<br />

electrically for changes in the cold junction temperature.<br />

This method will be described under Potentiometers.<br />

Millivoltmeters have the advantage that they are<br />

direct reading, that is, indicate temperature by the motion<br />

of a pointer on a scale, are comparatively simple<br />

in mechanical and electrical design, and may be somewhat<br />

lower in first cost than potentiometer type to<br />

be described later.<br />

They should, however, be frequently checked. They<br />

are not entirely independent of changes in line resistance,<br />

poor connections in the line may greatly effect<br />

their readings, their accuracy is dependent upon the<br />

constancy of the permanent magnet and of the controlling<br />

springs, both of which are subject to variation<br />

with time and temperature. Any dulling or clogging<br />

of pivot and jewel bearings will affect their reliability,<br />

and may come about through jarring of the instrument<br />

or by the access of dust or moisture.<br />

PART 5. — POTENTIOMETERS<br />

The potential in the slide wire will vary with the<br />

current flowing through it from the cell Ba and a<br />

We have seen that the millivolemeter type of tem­ means for standardizing this is provided. S. C, Fig.<br />

perature indicator really measures the current flowing<br />

in the circuit, and that its readings will not truly represent<br />

the e.m.f. of the thermocouple unless the resistance<br />

of the entire circuit has a definite and constant<br />

value. This difficulty is overcome, and certain other<br />

96-b is a Weston type Standard Cell whose voltage is<br />

constant. It is connected to the potentiometer circuit<br />

at two point D and F by closing the contact<br />

shown between S. C. and Galv., whenever the potentiometer<br />

current is to be standardized. The galva-<br />

169<br />

advantages gained in the potentiometer type of instrument.<br />

The potentiometer measures an unknown e.m.f. by<br />

opposing it with a known e.m.f. which is varied<br />

until equal to the unknown.<br />

The description of this instrument, given by the<br />

manufacturer, the Leeds & Xorthrttp Company, is so<br />

clear and concise that it is quoted below.<br />

"The potentiometer provides, first a means for securing<br />

a known variable potential, and, second, suitable<br />

electrical connections for opposing that potential<br />

tn the unknown electromotive force of the thermocouple.<br />

The two are connected with opposite polarity,<br />

so that they oppose one another. So long as one<br />

is stronger than the other a current will flow through<br />

the thermocouple; when the two are equal no current<br />

will flow.<br />

Fig. 96-a shows the wiring of the potentiometer in<br />

its simplest form. The thermocouple is at H, with its<br />

polarity as shown by the symbols -j . It is connected<br />

with the main circuit of the potentiometer at the<br />

fixed point D and the movable point G.<br />

A current from the dry cell Ba is constantly flowing<br />

through the main, or so-called potentiometer circuit,<br />

ABCDGEF The section DGE of this circuit is a<br />

slide wire, uniform in resistance throughout its length.<br />

The temperature scale is fixed to this slide wire. The<br />

current from the cell Ba as it flows through DGE sets<br />

up a difference in potential between D and E. There<br />

will also be a difference in potential between D and<br />

all other points on the slide wire. The polarity of this<br />

is in opposition to the polarity of the electromotive<br />

force of the thermocouple which connects into the potentiometer<br />

at D and at G. By moving G along the<br />

slide wire a point is found where the potential between<br />

D and G in the slide wire is just equal to the electromotive<br />

force generated by the thermocouple- A galvanometer<br />

in the thermocouple circuit indicates when<br />

the balance point is reached, since at this point the<br />

galvanometer needle will show no deflection.<br />

/<br />

Hot Junction<br />

Compensating Leads<br />

r<br />

Millivoltmeter<br />

Binding Posts N Sprinq<br />

PIG 95—Electrical circuit of millivoltmeter and couple.


17i)<br />

nometer is then in -eric- with S.C. The variable rheostat<br />

R is then adjusted until the current flowing is<br />

such that as it flows through the slide wire DGE and<br />

the standard resistance EF, the fall in potential between<br />

1) and F is just equal to the voltage of the<br />

standard cell S. C At this time the galvanometer will<br />

indicate a balance in the same way as when it was<br />

used with a thermocouple. By this operation the current<br />

in the slide wire DGE has been standardized.<br />

The standard cell is then disconnected and the thermocouple<br />

connected by closing the contact shown between<br />

Galv. and the + side of II.<br />

Automatic Cold Junction Compensator.<br />

The net electromotive force generated by a thermocouple<br />

depends upon the temperature of the hot junction<br />

and the temperature of the cold junction. An)<br />

method adopted for reading temperatures by means of<br />

thermocouples must in some way provide a means oi<br />

correcting for the temperature of the cold end- For<br />

this purpose, the potentiometer may have either of two<br />

very simple devices. In one form the operator is<br />

required to set a small index to a point mi a scale corresponding<br />

to the known cold junction temperature.<br />

In the other form, an even more simple automatic compensator<br />

is employed. The principle of each is described<br />

in the succeeding paragraphs.<br />

As previously explained, the electromotive force of<br />

the thermocouple is measured by balancing it against<br />

the potential DG in the slide wire of the potentiometer.<br />

As shown in Fig. 96-b the magnitude of the balancing<br />

potential is controlled by the position of G. Make D<br />

movable as shown in Fig. 96-c and the magnitude of<br />

the potential DG may be varied either from the point<br />

D or the point G. This gives a means for compensating<br />

for cold junction changes by setting the slider D.<br />

As the cold junction temperature rises, the net electromotive<br />

force generated by the thermocouple decreases,<br />

assuming the hot junction temperature to be constant.<br />

To balance this decreased electromotive force the<br />

slider 1) is moved along its scale to a new point nearer<br />

G. In other words, the slider I) is moved along its<br />

scale until it corresponds to the known temperature of<br />

the cold junction, and then the potentiometer is balanced<br />

by moving the slider G. The readings of G will<br />

then give the temperature of the hot junction directly.<br />

The same results will be obtained if another slide<br />

wire upon which D bears is placed in parallel with the<br />

slide wire of G. as shown in Fig. 96-d. It is such a<br />

slide wide, with a temperature scale fixed upon it, that<br />

forms the manually operated cold junction compensator.<br />

It should be noted that the effect of moving the<br />

contact D, Fig. 96-d. is either to increase N and decrease<br />

F. or to decrease X and increase M ; in other<br />

words, the ratio between X and M is varied. In Leeds<br />

oc Xorthrup indicators and recorders employing the<br />

automatic cold junction compensator, the ratio of X<br />

to M is varied automatically, in the following manner:<br />

The point D. Fig. 96-e. is mechanically fixed; on<br />

one side of D is the constant resistance coil M, on the<br />

other the nickel coil X. X is placed at or near the cold<br />

junction of the thermocouple. Nickel has a high temperature<br />

coefficient (that is. its resistance changes<br />

about .25 per cent for every degree F.) and the electrical<br />

proportions of M and N are such that the resistance<br />

change of X, as it varies with the temperature of<br />

the cold junction, has practically the same effect upon<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

May. 1925<br />

the balancing potential between I) and G that the<br />

movement of the point D has in the hand-operated<br />

compensator of Fig. 96-d.<br />

Fig. 96-f shows a modification of Fig. 96-e to meet<br />

the condition where the cold junction of the thermocouples<br />

is to be located at some distance from the measuring<br />

instrument."<br />

WWViA/V-<br />

"0<br />

E F<br />

FIG. 96—Diagram, circuit potentiometer pyrometer.<br />

The potentiometer is the most accurate means of<br />

measuring the e.m.f. of a thermocouple. Since no current<br />

flows in the thermocouple circuit when the reading<br />

is taken, it is independent of the resistance of the<br />

line, and is therefore unaffected by changes in temperature,<br />

or length of the lead wires. If the resistance<br />

of the lead wires is very high, as might result from a<br />

bad connection, or excessive length, the deflections of<br />

the galvanometer will be weak, and it will be difficult<br />

to locate the point of true balance on the slide wire.<br />

The galvanometer is used only to indicate when the<br />

current is zero, and therefore variations in the restor-


May, 1925*<br />

ing force of its suspensions, or of the strength of its<br />

permanent magnet do not affect the accuracy. The<br />

slide wire may be made quite long, giving a wide temperature<br />

scale which facilitates accurate readings. The<br />

accuracy of the instrument depends only upon the constancy<br />

of the standard cell, and the constancy and<br />

uniformity of the resistance of the slide wire. When<br />

not abused, these will retain an accuracy of 1/25 per<br />

":r-"<br />

SpIS^r^L'-m^ Br<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

171<br />

The potentiometer type of pyrometer has the disadvantage<br />

that it is not direct reading, since it requires<br />

manual adjustment of the battery current by<br />

means of the resistance R, and manual setting of the<br />

slide wire to obtain a reading. This calls for more<br />

intelligence on the part of the operator than simply<br />

reading the indication of a pointer on a scale, as in the<br />

millivoltmeter.<br />

FIG. 97 (left)—Portable potentiometer indicator. FIG. 98 (right)—Wall type potentiometer indicator.<br />

cent for a long time. An accuracy of y per cent is<br />

sufficient in most pyrometric work. Xo instrument<br />

should ever be connected across the terminals of a<br />

standard cell as its accuracy will be destroyed if<br />

more than an extremely minute current is allowed to<br />

flow from it. If its accuracy is in doubt, it should be<br />

checked by means of a potentiometer, with proper precautions.<br />

Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting, A. S. T. M.<br />

The twenty-eighth annual meeting of the American<br />

Society for Testing Materials will be held at the<br />

Chalfonte-Haddon Hall, Atlantic City, X. J., during<br />

the week of June 22. Registration will start Monday.<br />

June 22. Monday afternoon and evening and Tuesday<br />

morning and afternoon have been reserved for<br />

committee meetings. The Committee on Papers and<br />

Publications has been able to arrange the program so<br />

that the afternoons will be left open for committee<br />

meetings and for recreation. To provide for this, on<br />

three occasions simultaneous sessions will be held,<br />

the total number of sessions being ten. The committee<br />

has thought it advisable to have a single session<br />

for both the opening and closing sessions. The program<br />

has been arranged accordingly, and the opening<br />

session is on Tuesday evening. A general session<br />

will be held on Wednesday evening, at which the<br />

president's address will be presented, followed by the<br />

annual smoker and dance, and another general session<br />

on Thursday evening will be devoted to testing and<br />

other matters of general interest, such as research and<br />

the writing of specifications.<br />

Summary of program :<br />

Monday, June 22—<br />

2:00 P.M.—Opening of registration.<br />

Afternoon and Evening—Committee meetings.<br />

Each type of instrument has its advantages, and<br />

the selection of one or the other for any installation<br />

should be governed by a careful consideration of all<br />

the circumstances involved.<br />

Potentiometers may be portable, or may be mounted<br />

against the wall for permanent installation. The<br />

two forms are illustrated in Figs. 97 and 98, respectively.<br />

Tuesday, June 23—<br />

Morning and Afternoon—Committee meetings.<br />

8:00 P.M.—First Session: Wrought Iron, Cast<br />

Iron and Corrosion.<br />

Wednesday, June 2-1—<br />

9:30 A.M.—Second Session: Non-Ferrous Metals<br />

and Metallography. Third Session: Ceramics,<br />

Coal, Timber, Rubber and Slate.<br />

Afternoon—Recreation and Committee meetings.<br />

8:00 P.M.—Fourth Session: Presidential Address<br />

and Reports of Administrative Committees.<br />

9:30 P.M.—Informal dance and smoker.<br />

Thursday, June 25—<br />

9:30 A.M.—Fifth Session: Steel and Fatigue of<br />

Metals. Sixth Session: Road Materials and<br />

Waterproofing and Roofing Materials.<br />

Afternoon—Recreation and Committee meetings.<br />

8:00 P.M.—Seventh Session: Research, Testing,<br />

Nomenclature and Specifications.<br />

Friday, June 26—<br />

9:30 A.M.—Eighth Session: Paints, Textiles, Petroleum<br />

Products and Insulating Materials.<br />

Ninth Session: Cement, Lime and Gypsum.<br />

Afternoon—Recreation.<br />

1 :00 P.M.—Golf and tennis tournaments.<br />

8:00 P.M.—Tenth Session: Concrete.


172 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

May, 1925<br />

FIG. 1 (Upper left)—The original coining press. In 1833 this machine was invented by M. Thonnelier, of France. One of<br />

these presses was included in the original installation of equipment for the United States Mint in 1836. FIG. 2 (Upper right)<br />

—The coining press of 1874. Gradual improvements along various lines were made in the press illustrated in Fig. 1. The<br />

short stroke and a lack of rigidity made its application extremely limited. In spite of this objection the press, with certain<br />

modifications, was used extensively for other operations than embossing coins, medallions, watch-cases and other comparatively<br />

flat work. FIG. 3 (Lower left)—A coining press built in 1883. This press is said to be the first machine having the<br />

present conventional knuckle-action. It was the forerunner of the present machine for commercial work. FIG. 4 (Lower<br />

right)—An 1897 type of press. In this press a number of developments made since 1883 are embodied, including the placing<br />

of the toggles underneath the dies. When larger machines were constructed along this line, the increased distance from the<br />

floor to the dies made deep pits necessary for convenience in operation. The impracticability of this design rendered reversion<br />

to the previous construction imperative.


May, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

R e v i e w o f C o i n i n g - P r e s s<br />

*<br />

D e v e l o p m e n t s<br />

Increase in Production Over That Attained Under Former Meth­<br />

ods Summarized—Composition of Dies Is Specified and<br />

Application of Feeding Mechanisms Described<br />

T H E coining press is a machine capable of exerting<br />

tremendous pressure at its ram. It was used<br />

originally for the heavy service required in embossing<br />

coins. The first machine was invented in 1833<br />

by M. Thonnelier, of France. In 1836 one was included<br />

in the original installation of equipment for the first<br />

United States Mint to emboss our Country's coins; it<br />

is shown in Fig. 1. Gradual improvements along vari-<br />

By A. R. KELSOf<br />

173<br />

operations than those of embossing coins, medallions,<br />

watch-cases and other comparatively flat work. The<br />

two principal changes were an increased die-space or<br />

shut-height and a longer stroke.<br />

In 1883, we find the first coining-press that had the<br />

conventional knuckle-action; it is shown in Fig. 3.<br />

This was the forerunner of the present machine for<br />

commercial work. Further developments were made<br />

Coining-press development is outlined and<br />

the author tells how such machinery was<br />

adapted to speed-up the production of automobile<br />

parts, such as f<strong>org</strong>ed arms and levers,<br />

by a squeezing process that superseded milling<br />

or spot-facing methods. The presses used<br />

are: very rugged in construction and have the<br />

appearance of a plain-type punch-press, except<br />

for the knuckle that operates the ram.<br />

This knuckle is coupled to a crank by means<br />

of a connecting-rod or link. As the crank revolves,<br />

it straightens the knuckle. The pressure<br />

transmitted to the ram is many times<br />

greater than that which could be produced<br />

through a single-acting direct-connected<br />

crank-operated type of machine. An additional<br />

advantage of the knuckle movement is<br />

the application of pressure at the end of the<br />

downward stroke. The position of the ram<br />

at the end of the stroke is controlled by a<br />

screw-actuated wedge. Different sizes of<br />

presses are made, ranging in pressure capacity<br />

from 100 to 2000 tons per sq. in. of area of<br />

the part squeezed.<br />

Details are given of the squeezing operations<br />

and the percentages of increase in production<br />

over that attained under former methods<br />

are summarized. The composition of the<br />

dies is specified, and the application of feeding<br />

mechanisms to such presses is described.<br />

Grain structure of the coin-pressed f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

was studied exhaustively and photo-micrographs<br />

are exhibited. Three specific conclusions<br />

were reached and these are stated.<br />

FIG. 5—The one-piece frame construction of 1919. The objections<br />

to the type of press illustrated in Fig. 4 led to the<br />

development of this design. This frame construction was<br />

ous lines were made until, in 1874, we find a machine uses in presses ranging from 100 to 400 tons in capacity<br />

such as that shown in Fig. 2, which was the work of a and weighing from 7,000 to 18,000 lbs.<br />

well known American machine-tool builder at that in 1897. but the toggles were placed underneath, as<br />

time. This machine was the last word in coining illustrated in Fig. 4. This design, however, became<br />

equipment of that day. Its uses were extremely limit­ impractical when larger machines were built, because<br />

ed because of the short stroke and the lack of rigidity. the increased distance from the floor to the dies made<br />

The perfection of the later machine, with certain modi­ deep pits necessary for convenience in operation.<br />

fications, caused it to be used extensively for other Therefore, reversion to the previous construction became<br />

imperative. The result was a one-piece-frame<br />

*Reprinted from the Journal of the Society of Automotive<br />

construction, shown in Fig. 5, that was supplied in<br />

Engineers. Production Meeting Paper.<br />

fMaster Mechanic, Hudson Motor Car Company, Detroit.<br />

100. 150. 250 and 400-ton capacities that weighed 7,000,


9,500, 13,000 ami 18,000 lb. respectively. l*or convenience<br />

m manufacturing and transporting, presses<br />

with greater capacities were of the built-up type that<br />

consisted of a base, a frame and an upper housing;<br />

these were secured with four large tie-rods, as shown<br />

in Fig. 6. The latter classification includes machines<br />

having 800, 1000, 1200. 1500 and 2000-ton capacity.<br />

FIG. 6—The built-up frame that made its appearance about<br />

five years ago. The demand for prsses capable of exerting<br />

a greater pressure than the one-piece frame type shown in<br />

Fig. 5 and easy of construction and transportation resulted<br />

in this development. This type of press consisted of a<br />

base, a frame and an upper housing, fastened together by<br />

four large tie-rods. The range of these presses was from<br />

600 to 1,000 tons pressure, the largest machine weighing<br />

65,000 lbs.<br />

The 2000-ton press of the type shown in Fig. 7 weighs<br />

235.000 lb. The modern machine has been renamed<br />

the "squeezing press" due to its varied adaptability<br />

to all classes of work within its range.<br />

Ruggedness of Construction.<br />

These presses are very rugged in construction and<br />

have the appearance of a plain-type punch-press, except<br />

for the knuckle that operates the ram. This<br />

knuckle is coupled to a crank by means of a connecting-rod<br />

or link. As the crank revolves, it straightens<br />

the knuckle. The pressure transmitted to the ram is<br />

many times greater than that which could be produced<br />

through a single-acting direct-connected crank-operated<br />

type of machine. An additional advantage of the<br />

knuckle movement is the application of pressure at<br />

the end of the downward stroke. The position of the<br />

ram at the end of the stroke is controlled by a screwactuated<br />

wedge. This is illustrated in Fig. 8. which<br />

shows the ram in both up and down positions.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

May, 1025<br />

Speeding-Up Production.<br />

Increased schedules made equipment for milling or<br />

spot-facing f<strong>org</strong>ed arms and levers inadequate. This<br />

need was particularly manifested in brake and equalizer<br />

mechanisms. To meet the increased production,<br />

two ideas naturally presented themselves; first, to increase<br />

the number of the same machines used for the<br />

purpose, and, second, to change the method.<br />

Data relating to coin-press methods were secured.<br />

Some of the heat-treated f<strong>org</strong>ings, made from S. A. E.<br />

Xo. 1045 steel having a Brinell hardness of 197, were<br />

tested under an ( Hsen universal testing machine. This<br />

test determined the load necessary to compress the<br />

part to the desired dimension. The average pressure<br />

required was 163,000 lb. per sq. in. of area. Other<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings, of S A. F. Xo. 1025 steel having an average<br />

Brinell hardness of 137. required a load of 100.000 Ih.<br />

per sq. in. of area. This gives some idea of the tremendous<br />

force necessary to coin-press parts when the<br />

affected area is of considerable extent.<br />

It was concluded that one press could easily squeeze<br />

to size all of the parts and release the various machines<br />

FIG. 7—A later development of the built-up type of press.<br />

The pressure range of this design is from 800 to 2,000 tons,<br />

the largest machine weighing 235,000 lbs.<br />

on hand for other work. The largest part had an area<br />

of 2-3/16 sq. in. on which a squeezing operation was<br />

necessary. A 400-ton coining-press, having the knuckle<br />

action previously explained, was installed. The finish<br />

allowance required for cutting on each surface was<br />

reduced from 1/16 to 1/32 in. This was found advisable<br />

under the squeezing method. With parts having


May, 1925<br />

two or more bosses of different thicknesses, steps were<br />

arranged on the dies as shown in Fig. 9; thereby all the<br />

bosses could be squeezed at one cycle of the press. It<br />

formerly had been necessary to perform a separate<br />

operation for each boss. With the new method one<br />

operation took the place of several operations. Very<br />

close limits were maintained, due to the fineness of the<br />

ram adjustment. Based on an efficiency of 75 per<br />

cent, a production thirteen times greater than that with<br />

the machining method was attained. The result was<br />

that one man and one machine replaced 12 machines<br />

and as many operators.<br />

Die Materials.<br />

To determine the most suitable die materials, several<br />

sets of dies were made of different grades of coldf<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

die-steel. The average run from the standard<br />

brands was limited to 6,000 pieces. It, therefore, became<br />

necessary to resurface them for either or both<br />

of two causes: (a) Fracturing of the working surfaces<br />

due to the extreme pressure to which they had been<br />

subjected, and (b) an impression of the part in the<br />

die at the point where pressure had been applied.<br />

To correct the difficulty, resort was had to a special<br />

steel of the analysis shown in Table 1. This composition<br />

was properly treated to a scleroscopic hardness<br />

of 90. The average output per grinding of the die surfaces<br />

rose to 40,000 pieces.<br />

TABLE I<br />

ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIAL DIE-STEEL USED<br />

Per Cent<br />

Silicon 0.050<br />

Manganese 0.200 to 0.300<br />

Carbon 0.670 to 0.800<br />

Chromium 0.090<br />

Vanadium Trace<br />

Sulphur 0.021<br />

Phosphorus 0.010<br />

Experiments with this first group of parts opened<br />

the field because the savings were so great that the<br />

equipment could be amortized in less than 1 vear.<br />

After a search to determine the requirements, three<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 175<br />

'.Knuckle<br />

Adjusting<br />

Gib for Ram<br />

FIG. 8—Cross-section of a knuckle-type press. A comparison<br />

of the view at the left, showing the ram up, and that<br />

at the right, with the ram down, readily illustrates the<br />

knuckle action which possesses the additional advantage of<br />

applying pressure at the end of the downward stroke. The<br />

position of the ram at the end of the stroke is controlled<br />

by a screw-actuated wedge that is also shown.<br />

more 400-ton machines were purchased. These machines<br />

pressed all the parts shown in the group in Fig.<br />

10, except the connecting-rods. Table II shows the<br />

percentage of increase in hourly production by squeezing.<br />

Squeezing of Connecting-Rods.<br />

After the four 400-ton machines had been in operation<br />

for a period of time with satisfactory results, it<br />

FIG. 9—Feeding fingers and dies used on a 400-ton coining-press with knuckle action employed in the production of automobile<br />

parts. The three upper views show the feeding fingers. The lower set of views illustrates the manner in which steps were<br />

arrangd on the dies so that with parts having two or more bosses of different thicknesses, all of the bosses could be squeezed<br />

at one cycle of the press, instead of performing a separate operation for each boss. The feeding finger (above) and the die<br />

(below) in each group are for the same part.


176 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

May, 1925<br />

FIG. 10 (Upper left)—Automobile parts produced with a 400-ton coining-press. Some idea of the versatility of this machine can<br />

be gathered from an inspection of this illustration. Parts produced in this way include pedals and levers of various kinds,<br />

head-lamp brackets, steering and fan-support arms, spring-shackles and axle spindles. The increased hourly production made<br />

possible by the use of a press ranged from 480 per cent for brake and clutch pedals to 1043 per cent for a brake lever. FIG.<br />

11 (Upper right)—An 800-ton press producing connecting-rods. With hand feeding the production of this part was increased<br />

251 per cent. FIG. 12 (Lower left)—Operator loading the feeding mechanism installed on the press shown in Fig. 11. After<br />

the installation of this feeding mechanism to eliminate any possible chance of injury to the operator, the production was increased<br />

147 per cent over the hand feeding method of Fig. 11. This resulted in a total increase of 370 per cent over the<br />

machining method that required two vertical-spindle milling machines of the rapid-index type with an operator for each<br />

machine. FIG. 13 (Lower right)—The mechanism used to feed connecting-rods to the press. This mechanism, which was<br />

attached in front of the bolster plate, consisted of a channel in which the rods were stacked and a reciprocating slide that<br />

operated to feed a f<strong>org</strong>ing to the die at each stroke of the ram. With hand feeding, only one stroke in a possible five was<br />

utilized; the incorporation of the magazine enables a piece to be pressed at each cycle.


May, 1925 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating 177<br />

was decided that the next step would be the squeezing<br />

of the connecting-rods. The machining method<br />

required two heavy-duty vertical milling-machines of<br />

a well known rapid-index type, and an operator for<br />

each machine. The largest connecting-rod had a total<br />

area of 3-15/16 in. of metal to displace. An 800-ton<br />

press, shown in Fig. 11, was selected for this work. It<br />

increased the production 251 per cent, when one oper-<br />

FIG. 14—A f<strong>org</strong>ing ready to be squeezed. This view was<br />

taken from the front of the press with the ram and the dies<br />

ready to descend and form a connecting-rod.<br />

TABLE II<br />

INCREASE OF PRODUCTION DUE TO SQUEEZING<br />

Group Percentage<br />

Number Part Name of Increase<br />

5 Brake Lever, Single 1,043<br />

6 Equalizer Shaft, Arm 960<br />

11 Brake Lever, Double 780<br />

13 Internal Brake Lever 928<br />

15 Foot Pedals 480<br />

16 " " 480<br />

17 " " 480<br />

18 " " 480<br />

ator was hand-feeding the press. After a feeding<br />

mechanism had been installed on the press, as shown<br />

in Fig. 12, to eliminate any possible chance of injury<br />

to the operator, the production was again increased 147<br />

per cent. This final result was 370 per cent greater<br />

than the production attained by milling. The product<br />

continued to be held to the 0.004-in. tolerance specified.<br />

The feeding mechanism mentioned was attached to<br />

the front of the bolster plate. It consisted of a channel,<br />

shown in Fig. 13, in which the rods were stacked and<br />

a reciprocating slide was operated in a manner to feed<br />

a f<strong>org</strong>ing on to the die at each stroke of the ram. When<br />

the stock was fed by hand, only one stroke of a possible<br />

five strokes was utilized. With the incorporation<br />

of the magazine, the press was in continuous operation<br />

and a piece was pressed at each cycle. Fig. 14<br />

shows a f<strong>org</strong>ing in position and ready to be squeezed.<br />

Fig. 15 is a view taken from the rear of the machine.<br />

The magazine for feeding the connecting-rods<br />

proved satisfactory as a production and as a safety<br />

factor. Therefore, a feed mechanism was designed to<br />

take care of all the parts shown in Fig. 10, except<br />

those that required to be held in position while squeezing<br />

at a local point. With this arrangement, the work<br />

is fed to the die by a slide equipped with detachable<br />

lingers. These fingers are designed to meet the requirements<br />

of the individual part that is being<br />

pressed. Fig. 9 shows the dies and the feed fingers.<br />

To assure the greatest safety to the operator and<br />

keep him at a safe distance from the ram, a pull-type<br />

feed with a 12-in. stroke was installed. The driving<br />

member was attached to the rear of the ram. It operated<br />

the slide through a crank movement fitted between<br />

the sides of the die and the housings of the machine.<br />

The front was thus left clear except for the<br />

feed slide. To guard against stock jamming, a safety<br />

spring was incorporated in this driving member. The<br />

recommended speed of the press is 32 cycles per min.<br />

At this rate, however, the speed of the feeding device<br />

was so great that inertia forced many pieces through<br />

beyond the die. Therefore, the work was made to<br />

pass under a flat spring acting as a drag. This permitted<br />

handling the smallest parts while the press ran<br />

continuously at the desired speed.<br />

I I<br />

i<br />

-••* /••- •<br />

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/<br />

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imp<br />

35 :.'7*Sfcj<br />

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FIG. 15—View of the rear of the coining-press. In this illustration<br />

a f<strong>org</strong>ing can be seen in position between the dies,<br />

while two finished connecting-rods are shown in the foreground.<br />

The inserts in the die blocks are necessary to<br />

keep the I-beam section of the rod from becoming kinked.<br />

Fig. 16 gives views of a machine on which this device<br />

was used. That at the left shows an operator<br />

loading work, while the slide is in the back position<br />

and the dies are squeezing a piece that was fed previously.<br />

The drag spring in front of the upper die can<br />

be seen holding the piece. The central illustration<br />

shows the position of the slide when injecting stock,<br />

and the view at the right was taken at the rear of the<br />

machine as the work came through. It also shows<br />

where the driving member with its safety spring is attached<br />

to the ram. Table III gives a comparison of


\:s<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

May, 1925<br />

FIG. 16—Three views of a feed mechanism for small parts. The view at the left shows the slide in the loading position. The central<br />

view shows the position of the slide when injecting stock; the drag-spring in front of the upper die should be noticed in<br />

this illustration. At the right the work as it comes through the machine can be seen; attention is directed particularly to the<br />

driving member with the safety spring attached to the ram. This mechanism permits the smallest parts to be handled with<br />

the press running continuously at the desired speed.<br />

the increases made by both the manual and the me- ing is coin-pressed, an investigation of this was made.<br />

chanical feeds. For this purpose a connecting-rod was chosen. This<br />

part is made from S. A. E. Xo. 1045 steel. Before coin-<br />

TABLK III pressing it was warm-water quenched from 1475 deg.<br />

COMPARISONS OF INCREASED PRODUCTION F and then drawn to 1100 deg. F. This produced a<br />

Percentage of Increase Over Brinell hardness of from 187 to 217.<br />

the Machining Method c i • i<br />

Group Part Manual Mechanical Several sections across coin-pressed areas were ex-<br />

Number Name Feed Feed amined. it was impossible to note distortion of the<br />

1 Accelerator I.ever 3S7 583 grains, at 100 diameters magnification. Because of the<br />

•4 Accelerator Lever 43(1 537 fine-grain structure of the heat-treated connecting-rod,<br />

11 Brake Uver '.'.'. .'."." 'Jlli ' 94I an-v cha"ge that had taken place would have been diffi-<br />

28 Clutch Yoke ............. 358 894 cu't to


May, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

"•-• V<br />

v. J r ...'*?• - ^. ~»>,<br />

. j*i*Jiif;-. f^-f5^<br />

•=.•>.' • . •-'-. «."- --7-><br />

> -v« - - . A |<br />

179<br />

*? .^4*'••;•A<br />

i s S ^ r M ^<br />

??* •..-i* • ?> .f'->•>, .-• ,::^- ;y-:-- "•><br />

» •*. .-ji «r; u IVi V- N. ii. L "J «TSift*/ .,,'<br />

FIG. 18—Photo-micrograph of the intermediate section at the FIG. 19—Another photo-micrograph of the intermediate sec­<br />

line of contact. In this instance distortion of the grain tion at the line of contact. This illustration covers the<br />

structure occurred at or near the surface, the grains being same area as Fig. 19 and shows that the distortion occurred<br />

flattened and elongated out of all proportion to their or­ only in the grains adjacent to the line of contact. The<br />

iginal dimensions, as can be seen bv comparing this illus­ magnification in this instance was 35 diameters.<br />

tration with the two views of Fig. 17, the magnification in lily seen; it is illustrated in Fig. 18. The grains<br />

all three illustrations being the same, 100 diameters.<br />

flattened and elongated out of all proportion to the<br />

indicate that the compression of the section is uniform original dimensions. A fourth photo-micrograph was<br />

throughout the total volume compressed.<br />

taken of this same area at a magnification of 35 diam­<br />

To substantiate this conclusion, one of the annealed eters, to give a better idea of the effect of the distor­<br />

connecting-rods was coin-pressed across one-half the tion. It can be seen from an inspection of Fig. 19 that<br />

area of the piston-pin boss. This gave three different the distortion occurred only in the grains adjacent to<br />

conditions on a cross-section through the boss. One the line of contact. This showed conclusively that the<br />

section, which was the original structure not com­ coin-pressing operation did not affect the material adpressed,<br />

is shown at the left of Fig. 17; a second secjacent to the surface. It was a uniform compression<br />

tion in which the structure was compressed is repro­ throughout the entire volume of the part coin-pressed.<br />

duced at the right. The latter should show a decided From the foregoing, the conclusions reached are that:<br />

grain-distortion. It was prepared and examined un­<br />

(1) A coining press will squeeze parts to size<br />

der the microscope, and no difference between the with the same degree of accuracy as is accomplished<br />

original structure and the structure which had under­ by the removal of surplus stock through cutting<br />

gone compression was revealed. Photo-micrographs operations.<br />

at a magnification of 100 diameters, showing the sec­<br />

(2) There is absolutely no difference in the<br />

tions at the surface before and after compression, were molecular constituency of the parts after they are<br />

made. It was apparent that the grain structures were squeezed.<br />

identical.<br />

(3) Under quantity-production conditions, the<br />

To show what would happen if the distortion oc­ average number of parts prepared per hour by a<br />

curred at or near the surface, a third photo-micrograph coining press is 900 per cent greater than is secured<br />

was taken at the line of contact. The effect was read- with usual machining methods.<br />

Steel Treaters Spring Sectional Meeting<br />

Arrangements have been completed for the annual<br />

spring sectional meeting of the American Society for<br />

Steel Treating, which is to be held at Hotel Van<br />

Curler, Schenectady, N. Y., May 28. 29 and 30. under<br />

the auspices of the local chapter. Technical sessions<br />

are to be held during the morning of Thursday, May<br />

28, and the evening of Friday, May 29, with one session<br />

scheduled at the Research Laboratory of the<br />

General Electric Company at 4:30 P. M. of the same<br />

day. Two of the papers announced are: "Results of<br />

Examination of Metals with the X-Ray," by Col. Tracy<br />

C. Dickson, commanding officer, Watertown Arsenal,<br />

and "Manufacture of Guns by the Cold Working-<br />

Process," by Dr. F S. Langenberg, director of laboratories,<br />

Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass.<br />

Besides a visit to the plant of the Ludlum Steel<br />

Company at Watervliet, N. Y., Thursday afternoon.<br />

May 28, the plant of the American Locomotive Works<br />

will be visited Friday morning, followed by a luncheon<br />

and a trip through the works at the invitation of the<br />

General Electric Company. For Decoration Day,<br />

Saturday, May 30, a trip to Lake Ge<strong>org</strong>e has been<br />

scheduled. A banquet is to be held Thursday evening<br />

at the Hotel Van Curler, with addresses by Dr.<br />

W. R. Whitney, director, Research Laboratory, General<br />

Electric Company, and R. B. McColl, manager,<br />

the American Locomotive Works.


im Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating May, 1925<br />

FIG. 1—View of the f<strong>org</strong>e shop showing stock yard and gantry crane for handling material.<br />

Modern F<strong>org</strong>e Plant For Heavy Work<br />

The New Plant of A. Finkl & Sons, Chicago, Combines Advan­<br />

tages of Modern Equipment with Efficient Arrangement<br />

of Units—Regenerative Heating Furnaces a Feature<br />

Till-- recently constructed addition to the plant of<br />

A. Finkl & Sons Company, Chicago, is what may<br />

be called without exaggeration the modern f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

shop. While this addition is not complete in itself,<br />

provision has been made to allow for future expansion<br />

with as few changes as possible to the new shop.<br />

The property on which it is located is adjacent to that<br />

of the original plant. The North Branch of the Chicago<br />

Rivers form one boundary line while the Bloomingdale<br />

Division of the C. M. & S. P R. R. forms another.<br />

The plant is designed exclusively for the production<br />

of heavy f<strong>org</strong>ings and was accordingly laid<br />

out with a view to reduce material handling to a<br />

minimum.<br />

This company specializes in die blocks, sow blocks,<br />

rams, guides, piston rods and heads as well as steels<br />

for trimmers, punches, headers, inserts and gripper<br />

dies. In addition to this special line of products for<br />

the drop f<strong>org</strong>er, a large tonnage of miscellaneous<br />

heavy f<strong>org</strong>ing for a variety of purposes is handled including<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing machine and trimming press crankshafts.<br />

The severe service to which this class of work<br />

is subjected requires that the f<strong>org</strong>ings must be of the<br />

best quality, about 75 per cent of the products being<br />

produced from high grade alloy steels of various analyses.<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>e building is of most modern extra heavy<br />

•^teel mill construction, the main bay of which is 60<br />

x 300 feet with a lean-to 30 x 250. Excellent provision<br />

has been made for light and ventilation which are<br />

most important in a plant of this kind.<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>ing department is at present equipped<br />

with two steam hydraulic f<strong>org</strong>ing presses of the latest<br />

design, manufactured by the United Engineering &<br />

Foundry Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. One press of 1,000 tons<br />

capacity is located at the north end of the building<br />

while another of 500 tons is in the middle of the shop.<br />

A third press will be installed in the near future provision<br />

having already been made for this possibility.<br />

Steam for operating the hydraulic f<strong>org</strong>ing presses<br />

is supplied by two 250 horsepower cross drum type<br />

watertube boilers equipped with six mechanical atomizing<br />

oil burners. These boilers do not use waste<br />

heat from the steel heating furnaces, the latter being<br />

of the regenerative type.<br />

The presses are served by two overhead traveling<br />

cranes of 35 and 25 tons capacity respectively. Ingots<br />

and billets are manipulated at the presses by means<br />

of Wern ingot rotators suspended from the' cranes.<br />

Porter bars weighing upward of 12 tons are used to<br />

balance the ingots. They are so designed that bolts<br />

and other unsubstantial rigging are dispensed with.<br />

These bars are equipped with sliding weights which<br />

are moved as the f<strong>org</strong>ing operation progresses only<br />

enough to create a balance.<br />

A manipulator of 10 or 15 tons capacity is to be<br />

installed to assist in handling the work at the presses<br />

thus permitting the cranes to be used for charging the<br />

furnaces and other miscellaneous work around the<br />

shop. A feature of the crane installation in this plant<br />

is that the operator's cage is suspended to within 10<br />

feet of the floor. This is made possible by the fact<br />

that there are no overhead obstructions, all machines<br />

being driven by individual motors and pipe lines are<br />

carried in trenches and tunnels. The suspended cage<br />

permits the crane operator a better perspective of the<br />

work he handles and incidentally helps to reduce the<br />

possibility of accidents.


May, 1925<br />

The steel storage yard, 60-ft. x 400-ft., is parallel<br />

to the f<strong>org</strong>e shop, short track connections between the<br />

two departments making the handling of material to<br />

the furnaces simple. The incoming cars carrying such<br />

materials as ingots and billets are placed under a<br />

30-ton gantry crane which serves the entire length of<br />

the yard. All ingots and billets are carefully piled<br />

as to analysis and size and are marked with the corrected<br />

analysis as received from the laboratory. A<br />

stock of 3,000 tons of ingots and billets is maintained<br />

at all times, about 75 per cent of which consists of<br />

high grade alloy steels of various compositions, such<br />

as nickel, nickel-chrome, chrome-vanadium, chrome,<br />

nickel-molybdenum, etc. Billets up to 12 in. square<br />

and ingots up to 42 in. in diameter with a maximum<br />

weight of 65,000 lbs. are carried in stock as well as<br />

plain carbon steel ingots of .15 to .65 carbon in sizes<br />

up to 42 in. Steels of special composition are available<br />

on short notice.<br />

The ingots and billets are under constant surveillance<br />

while being heated. The heaters in charge are<br />

thoroughly competent having been trained to heat<br />

the steel in strict accordance with the prescription set<br />

forth by the metallurgical department. The analysis<br />

of course is the first consideration in setting forth the<br />

temperature and rate of heating after which comes<br />

size of steel and then shape. All three points are<br />

very essential in the heating of steel when quality of<br />

the finished product is the leading factor. Steel temperatures<br />

are also very closely watched during the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing operation which is stopped before the temperature<br />

has dropped to a point considered dangerous<br />

to f<strong>org</strong>e without internal injury to the steel. Any injury<br />

created by improper f<strong>org</strong>ing will remain in the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing, as subsequent heat treatment, regardless of<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat 'Beating m<br />

how carefully it is done, cannot overcome the defect.<br />

Many times defects of this nature are visible to the<br />

naked eye while most of them are not encountered<br />

until an unfortunate break has occurred, usually after<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing has been machined and in operation.<br />

Slight surface defects that show up during the first<br />

or second pass through the press are removed by chipping<br />

before further f<strong>org</strong>ing is permitted. After the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing operation is completed another inspection for<br />

surface defects is made and if any are located they<br />

are removed by chipping before any subsequent operation<br />

of production is performed.<br />

A notable feature of this installation is the battery<br />

of heating furnaces designed by Arthur L. Stevens of<br />

Chicago, and built under his supervision. These furnaces<br />

are of the regenerative type with the regenerators<br />

above ground, the burners being placed at the<br />

back of the furnace, permitting the hot gases to make<br />

a complete circuit of the hearth. The exits for waste<br />

gases are in the back wall near each end of the hearth<br />

and communicate by means of vertical flues with top<br />

of regenerators which are at the rear of the heating<br />

chamber.<br />

Steam is used for atomizing the fuel oil and each<br />

furnace is fitted with two burners, which are fired alternately<br />

as the furnace is reversed. Air for combustion<br />

is supplied by fan and is admitted through reversing<br />

valves to the bottom of either regenerator. As<br />

the purpose of regeneration is to conserve fuel and as<br />

the amount of heat that can be recovered from waste<br />

gases is limited to the volume of ingoing air, its specific<br />

heat and temperature, it is essential to the highest<br />

efficiency that all of the air needed for combustion be<br />

passed through the regenerators and that no other air<br />

be admitted to the furnace.<br />

FIG. 2—Interior view of the f<strong>org</strong>e shop showing 1,000-ton hydraulic press. Another press<br />

of 500-ton capacity can be seen in the background.


182 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating May, 1925<br />

Equipment Manufacturers<br />

Equipment<br />

Manufactured by Location<br />

Furnaces<br />

Arthur 1.. Stevens ! Chicago, 111.<br />

Presses United Engineering & Foundry Company Pittsburgh, I'a.<br />

Ingot Rotators , Wern Rotator & Machine Company New York, N. Y.<br />

Cranes Milwaukee Electric Crane & Manufacturing Co.. .Milwaukee, Wis.<br />

Cranes Northern Engineering Works Detroit, Mich.<br />

Pyrometers Brown Instrument Company Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Pyrometers Leeds & Northrup Company Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Blowers American Blower Company Detroit, Mich.<br />

Fire Brick Ashland Fire Brick Company Ashland, Ky.<br />

Oil Pumps and Heaters Schutte-Koerting Companv Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Blast Gates , W. S. Rockwell Company New York . N. V<br />

Lifting Magnet Electric Controller & Manufacturing Company.-.Cleveland, Ohio<br />

Air Compressor , Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company New York , N. Y<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Steels Mesta Machine Company Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Steels , Erie F<strong>org</strong>e Company Erie, Pa.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Steels Central Steel Company Massillon, Ohio<br />

As usually installed, oil burners induce a large volume<br />

of air through the burner openings and large additional<br />

air intake is drawn through the door and other<br />

openings by stack draft. It is evident that such intake<br />

of cold air will reduce the quantity of heated air<br />

that may be taken through the regenerators and reduce<br />

their efficiency. This accounts for the unsatisfactory<br />

results sometimes obtained from improperly<br />

designed and operated regenerative furnaces.<br />

In this installation the burners are set in a surrounding<br />

steam jacket which completely closes the<br />

opening through furnace wall. This steam jacket prevents<br />

overheating of burner tips on reversal and also<br />

superheats the steam used for atomizing.<br />

To prevent infiltration of air around doors and<br />

sight holes, the furnaces are operated upon a balanced<br />

draft, which is made possible with the regenerators<br />

above ground, the system of air supply and damper<br />

control.<br />

The oil consumption in these furnaces is surprisingly<br />

small, being less than one-fourth of that required<br />

in non-regenerative furnaces doing similar work. This<br />

is readily explained when it is considered that at<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing temperatures about 70 per cent of the thermal<br />

value of the fuel is represented by the sensible heat<br />

of the waste gases, leaving approximately 30 per cent<br />

that is utilized by heat absorption in furnace brickwork,<br />

heating steel and radiation loss.<br />

As it is evident that the furnace "constant", or that<br />

amount of heat required to maintain the furnace itself<br />

to a given temperature, is the same whether heat is<br />

recovered or not from the waste gases, it follows that<br />

the heat so recovered can be applied to the useful<br />

work of heating steel and means that either a greater<br />

quantity of steel can be heated on a given fuel consumption,<br />

or what amounts to the same thing, the<br />

fuel consumption can be reduced for a given tonnage.<br />

When operated at f<strong>org</strong>ing temperatures, about 36 per<br />

cent of the total thermal value of fuel is recovered<br />

from the regenerators and over 40 per cent thermal<br />

efficiency mercial operation. in heating ingots has been secured in com­<br />

To obtain the maximum efficiency these furnaces<br />

are designed for a definite reversal period, in this case<br />

15 minutes, which is determined from the physical<br />

properties and size of brick used in checkers. The<br />

checker mass is designed for a definite duty upon a<br />

mean temperature variation with little difference in<br />

to]) temperature, so that the variation in hearth temperature<br />

is not perceptible as the ingoing air is at<br />

nearly constant temperature.<br />

FIG. 3—One of a battery of five heating furnaces. These<br />

furnaces are of the regenerative type and operated on oil.<br />

The construction of this furnace is rugged and<br />

designed for rough service. Door jambs are water<br />

cooled and so arranged that the brickwork is protected<br />

without exposing the water cooled surface to the<br />

direct action of the hot gases. The entire furnace is<br />

encased in steel plates, re-inforced with heavy structural<br />

shapes, forming a stiff self supporting structure<br />

independent of the brickwork.<br />

The mechanical details of these furnaces are<br />

worthy of note. The doors are operated with hand<br />

hoists fitted with roller bearings and with the method<br />

of counterweights, the heaviest door is raised with<br />

ease. Reversal of the furnace is accomplished by a<br />

partial turn of a hand wheel which reverses the flue


May, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating 183<br />

FIG. 4—A corner of the heat treating department. Note quenching tank at the left.<br />

damper, air, oil and steam valves with single movement.<br />

The regulation of oil burners is independent<br />

of reversing gear and is not effected by the reversal<br />

of furnace. One feature that will be appreciated by<br />

practical f<strong>org</strong>e men is that owing to the uniform heating<br />

qualities of these furnaces, it is unnecessary to<br />

turn over ingots during a heat.<br />

FIG. S—View showing the arrangement of the regenerative<br />

chambers of the heating furnaces.<br />

The use of fuel oil for the heating of furnaces and<br />

boilers eliminates the necessity of handling coal and<br />

ashes thus offsetting the increased cost of the fuel by<br />

dispersing with the labor necessary when coal is used.<br />

The furnaces, boilers, oil heater and high pressure<br />

pumps are located as closely together as possible to<br />

reduce oil piping to a minimum assuring hot oil to<br />

the burners. Oil is stored in an underground concrete<br />

tank of 60,000 gallons located about 275 feet<br />

from the boiler room, where the pressure is increased<br />

to 150 pounds and then heated to a temperature of 180<br />

deg. before delivering to the burners. The fuel oil<br />

system is of the continuous circulation type, the surplus<br />

oil flowing back to the storage tank thereby insuring<br />

a constant flow of hot oil to the burners.<br />

The product of this plant is such as to require<br />

great care in heat treating and no effort or expense has<br />

been spared to provide facilities that will permit of<br />

the utmost efficiency in this department in the accuracy<br />

of treatment and ease of handling materials. The<br />

equipment consists of seven heat treating furnaces,<br />

five being of the semi-muffle type and two of the overfired,<br />

semi-indirect construction. In both types, the<br />

furnaces are designed to eliminate the possibility of<br />

any flame impinging on the f<strong>org</strong>ings, only the burnt<br />

gases being present in the heating chamber. This<br />

insures even heating of material allowing maximum<br />

grain refinement and uniform heat treatment. All<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings are handled individually, each receiving<br />

treatment that is best suited for the grade of steel<br />

used, and the service to which the finished part will<br />

be subjected.<br />

All furnaces are equipped with recording pyrometers<br />

so as to permit of accurate temperature control.<br />

The five semi-muffle furnaces are equipped with<br />

straight chart recording pyrometers while the two<br />

over-fired furnaces are supplied with Leeds & Northrup<br />

recording pyrometers with signal light attachment.<br />

The heat treating is under direct supervision of<br />

the metallurgical department which is located adjacent<br />

to the heat treating department.<br />

Quenching and tempering tanks are conveniently<br />

arranged so as to reduce material handling to a minimum.<br />

The furnaces, all of which are oil fired, are<br />

constructed with their hearths at floor level making<br />

loading and unloading a simple matter.<br />

At the extreme south end of the new building is<br />

the finishing department whose equipment includes


184 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

one 54-inch and one 64-inch cutting off saw, one 54inch<br />

x 22-foot extra heavy duty roughing lathe, one<br />

42-inch x 26-foot back geared lathe, one 36-inch x 42foot<br />

double back geared lathe, one 48-inch x 16-foot<br />

heavy duty planer, one 54-inch boring mill and one<br />

54-inch radial drill. A gun lathe, 48 inch x 44 foot<br />

with separate motor for feed, has just been installed.<br />

All tools are motor driven. This department is served<br />

by a 10-ton Northern crane.<br />

With the completion of the addition the company<br />

has an annual capacity of from 12,000 to 15,000 tons<br />

of pressed and hammered f<strong>org</strong>ings, rough machined<br />

or finished complete. In what is now known as its<br />

old plant, the f<strong>org</strong>ing equipment comprises of one<br />

500-ton steam-hydraulic press, one 16,000 pound, one<br />

8,000 pound and two 5,000 pound double-frame steam<br />

hammers, and two 2.000 pound, two 1,500 pound and<br />

one 1,000 pound single frame steam hammers. In the<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>e department are one 10,000 pound, one 6,000<br />

pound, one 5.000 pound, two 3,500 pound, one 1,500<br />

pound and one 1,000 pound hammers. This plant also<br />

includes a finishing department, heat treating department<br />

and a metallurgical laboratory.<br />

A New Rustless Steel Introduced in Sheffield<br />

By A. C. Blackall<br />

Thos. Firth & Company, Ltd., of Sheffield, one of<br />

the pioneers in the manufacture of stainless and rustless<br />

irons and steels, have recently introduced an<br />

improved stainless steel under the name of "Staybrite."<br />

Whereas the previous types developed by this<br />

concern depended in part for their outstanding claims<br />

on strength and their fairly ready submission to the<br />

hardening process, the new type is not intended to<br />

be hardened. On the contrary, it is so malleable that<br />

it readily submits to being cold-pressed, thus opening<br />

up a wide field for its use.<br />

This new type of steel will tend to supplant "stainless<br />

iron." In the original type the percentage of carbon<br />

produced the dfference in the qualities, "stainless<br />

iron" having about one-third the carbon content<br />

generally associated with stainless steel. While this<br />

characteristic is retained in the new type, the metallurgist<br />

has discovered that malleability is secured<br />

by alloying a considerable percentage of nickel with<br />

a rich content of chromium, which also provides the<br />

stainless or rustless quality. So far as constituents<br />

are conceri.ed, it will be seen that nothing new is<br />

employed, nickel in large and small quantities having<br />

been added to standard rustless steels and iron<br />

for some considerable period, and also to rustless<br />

steel and irons of high chromium content. It would<br />

seem, therefore, that the improved properties claimed<br />

for it are brought out by special treatment.<br />

The makers prefer to use the word "rustless"<br />

rather than "stainless" in describing this new product.<br />

claiming the latter word to be in reality a misnomer.<br />

It is stated that the material is unaffected by the acids<br />

which usually find the weak spots—tartaric, formic,<br />

citric, and lactic acids, as well as phosphoric acid in all<br />

its strengths. It can be turned, milled, planed, and<br />

welded by the electrical processes, while soldering,<br />

brazing, and tinning processes are readily accomplished.<br />

May, 1925<br />

The makers are prepared to supply the new steel<br />

at prices which indicate that a solution is being found<br />

to the problem of making the cost of rustless materials<br />

less prohibitive. Table ware and kitchen utensils,<br />

automobile bonnets, watch-cases, brewery fittings,<br />

surgical appliances, and the like can be made of<br />

it, while in engineering valve rings and seatings and<br />

chemical plant are some of the suggested articles<br />

where immunity from corrosion will undoubtedly<br />

prove of advantage.<br />

A possible disadvantage of this material lies in<br />

the fact that it is austenitic and consequently somewhat<br />

difficult and costly to machine. In this connection<br />

it is interesting to revert to the properties of the<br />

new "weatherproof iron," previously described. This<br />

material is softer than ordinary "rustless iron" and<br />

therefore easier to press and machine. In addition<br />

it is rustless without being polished.<br />

Data Sheets on Industrial Poisons<br />

A series of data sheets on common industrial poisons<br />

is to be issued under the supervision of the Industrial<br />

Poisons Committee of the Chemical Section,<br />

National Safety Council. These sheets will be published<br />

for general distribution.<br />

At the Louisville Congress this committee made<br />

the proposal to publish from time to time the latest<br />

available information on poisonous substances used<br />

in industry, in the form of a separate data sheet for<br />

each substance.<br />

The list of substances for which the tentative data<br />

sheets have been prepared includes anilino, arsenic,<br />

benzol, carbon bisulphide, carbon monoxide, chlorine,<br />

chromium, hydrogen sulphide, lead, manganese, nitrous<br />

fumes, phosphorus, toluol and picric acid. The<br />

data sheets outline not only the mechanical forms oi<br />

exposure to the material and the characteristic medical<br />

symptoms but also general preventive methods or<br />

precautions to minimize the danger. Another feature<br />

of practical value is the advice given on special training<br />

or emergency equipment to meet any acute exposure<br />

that may result from accidental leakage, repair<br />

work in tanks, etc.<br />

The personnel of the Industrial Poisons Committee<br />

for the current year is given below. Those who desire<br />

advice on particular problems or who have worked out<br />

useful methods of minimizing poisoning hazards are<br />

urged to communicate with members of the committee<br />

or with the chairman of the Chemical Section, A.<br />

L. Watson, Hooker Electrochemical Company, Niagara<br />

Falls, N. Y.<br />

Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, School of Medicine, Yale<br />

University, New Haven, Conn.; Dr. William F. Boos,<br />

Toxicologist, 196 Beacon Street, Boston; Dr. C. T.<br />

Graham-Rogers, New York State Department of<br />

Labor, 124 East 28th Street, New York City; A. G.<br />

Smith, Chemical Engineer, the Travelers Insurance<br />

Company, Hartford, Conn.; Dr. Leonard Greenburg,<br />

United States Health Service, 333 Cedar Street, New<br />

Haven, Conn.; Joseph L. Kistner, Chief, Inspection<br />

Department, United States Arsenal, Edgwood, Md.;<br />

Charles F. Horan, Manager, Department of Hygiene<br />

& Safety, Hood Rubber Company, Watertown, Mass.;<br />

S. E. Whiting, Asst. Chief Engineer, Liberty Mutual<br />

Insurance Company, Boston (chairman).


May, 1925<br />

Lebanon Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Shop Burned<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>e shop of the Lebanon Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Com<br />

pany, Avon, Lebanon, Pa., was destroyed by fire on<br />

the morning of April 8. The loss is estimated at<br />

$80,000. The machine shop and office building of the<br />

company were not damaged. The f<strong>org</strong>e shop will be<br />

rebuilt with steel construction. The fire started in<br />

the roof over a furnace which served a 4,000-lb. hammer.<br />

Company employes manned fire apparatus, but<br />

the water pressure was so low that nothing effective<br />

could be done to save the shop in the face of a stiff<br />

wind that was blowing. One end of the shear shop<br />

was also damaged. Local fire companies devoted their<br />

efforts to saving the remainder of the property. The<br />

plant was busy and about 35 men will be thrown out<br />

of work for the time being.<br />

Electric Heating Unit for Tempering Baths<br />

The General Electric Company recently developed<br />

an immersion heating unit consisting of helicoil sheath<br />

wire cast into iron. This unit was designed for use in<br />

oil tempering baths and melting pots used for melting<br />

lead, tin and alloys which will not attack iron.<br />

The units employed for oil tempering baths utilize<br />

the cast-in feature only on the portion of the sheath<br />

which dissipates heat at the bottom of the tank, while<br />

on the units for melting pots, the cast iron is brought<br />

up on the neck of the unit and out of the pot. This<br />

neck is heated to allow for expansion of the metal<br />

when cold metal is being melted, thus preventing<br />

blow-ups. The cast iron also protects the steel tube<br />

of which the sheath wire is made from corrosion by<br />

the molten metal. The casting is provided with ribs<br />

to increase the radiating surface and to maintain the<br />

temperature of the heating unit at a relatively low<br />

point.<br />

These units are being made in capacities up to 5<br />

kw. and are sold either individually or incorporated<br />

in melting pots and tempering baths.<br />

Detection of Flaws by Magnetic Analysis<br />

The Bureau of Standards has been engaged for<br />

some time in a study of magnetic method for the detection<br />

of flaws and defects in steel, with particular<br />

reference to wire hoisting ropes.<br />

Experiments have been made at the bureau to discover<br />

the cause of the uncertainty in the interpretation<br />

of results, and a method of eliminating it. It has<br />

been found that the greatest source of the difficulty is<br />

the effect of variations in internal stress within the<br />

specimen. Such variations give rise to large differences<br />

in magnetic permeability, which produce effects<br />

similar to and often greater in magnitude than those<br />

caused by the flaws in the material. The result of recent<br />

experiments show that, by the use of higher<br />

values of magnetizing force than have heretofore been<br />

employed, the effect of internal stress is greatly reduced<br />

without a corresponding reduction in the effect<br />

of flaws. It thus appears that one of the greatest difficulties<br />

in the way of the practical application of this<br />

method has now been overcome. The experiments are<br />

being continued to determine whether or not sufficiently<br />

accurate interpretation of the results of magnetic<br />

exploration can be made to permit of its use a*<br />

a practical inspection method.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 185<br />

Reduction in Varieties of Sheet Metal Ware<br />

Simplification committees of the sheet metal ware<br />

industry have begun in earnest the consideration of<br />

what items, among the hundreds of varieties now<br />

being cataloged by that industry, may be eliminated<br />

to the mutual benefit of the manufacturer, distributor<br />

and user. Meetings have been held in connection<br />

with sessions of the Sheet Metal Ware Association of<br />

the United States Chamber of Commerce.<br />

The simplification undertaking is a sequel to a<br />

meeting of the association last summer in French<br />

Lick, Ind., when committees were named. Since that<br />

time progress has been made through correspondence,<br />

but the recent committee meetings have expedited<br />

tentative plans to reduce a large number of items<br />

carried in the catalogs of the various firms.<br />

Attendance at the committee meetings included<br />

Walter H. Blank, American Can Co., Toledo; Sidney<br />

Detmers and C. H. Kent of the Republic Metalware<br />

Company, Buffalo, N. Y.; J. O. Entrekin, Wheeling<br />

Corrugating Company, Wheeling, W. Va.; Thomas<br />

W. Gulley, National Enameling & Stamping Company,<br />

Baltimore; N. W. Judkins, Belmont Stamping<br />

& Enameling Company, New Philadelphia, Ohio;<br />

Fred Morris, Vollrath Company, Sheboygan, Wis.;<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e M. Schott, Cincinnati Galvanizing Company,<br />

Cincinnati; W. S. Smith, Sheet Metal Ware Association,<br />

New York; J. H. Stevenson, Lalance & Grosjean<br />

Mfg. Company, New York; C. N. Turner, National<br />

Enameling & Stamping Co., Milwaukee.<br />

Annealing Small Castings with Sawdust<br />

For the benefit of your readers I suggest that the<br />

next time they are confronted with the problem of<br />

annealing castings, particularly small castings which<br />

have been welded and have to be machined, they will<br />

find that dry sawdust has many advantages over<br />

other materials, particularly lime or powdered asbestos.<br />

In the first place a small casting coming in contact<br />

with lime rapidly loses its heat by absorption on<br />

the part of the lime. On the other hand if the same<br />

casting was covered with sawdust the latter instead<br />

of absorbing heat on catching fire starts to create<br />

heat. Combustion would cease when sufficient sawdust<br />

was added to exclude the atmosphere.<br />

iW<br />

In the case of small castings they should be thrown<br />

into a bucket kept half full of dry sawdust, then the<br />

bucket is completely filled with sawdust and as an<br />

extra precaution a cover can be placed on top. For<br />

large castings an excellent plan is to dig a hole in the<br />

ground having a good layer of sawdust and then after<br />

placing the red hot casting in the hole cover with sawdust<br />

and a final cover of earth. My experience is that<br />

a casting of whatever size remains hot much longer<br />

by this than any other means. Sawdust in most places<br />

is obtainable at very little cost and the charred sawdust<br />

adhering to surface of casting is easily removed<br />

which is not the case with lime or powdered asbestos,<br />

etc. I have recommended this wherever I have had<br />

the opportunity and the results obtained by those trying<br />

it have been very satisfactory.—(W. J. Field in<br />

Welding Engineer.)


186 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

Interesting Lectures at Carnegie Tech<br />

Two distinguished European scientists and five<br />

prominent American chemical engineers were included<br />

on the program of free public lectures during April<br />

and May of this year at the Carnegie Institute of<br />

Technology in Pittsburgh. All of the lectures, an announcement<br />

points out, were arranged in connection<br />

with the policy of the institution to encourage a greater<br />

interest in scientific research among Pittsburgh<br />

District engineers and scientists.<br />

As a special service to the scientists of the district,<br />

the lectures were scheduled for presentation evenings<br />

to permit many engaged during the day to attend the<br />

discussions.<br />

The first of the series was given on April 15 by<br />

Dr. Franz Fischer, Director of the Institute for Coal<br />

Research at Mulheim-Ruhr, Germany, who lectured<br />

on "Liquid Fuels from Water Gas." The other prominent<br />

European scientist included in the series was<br />

Dr. R. V. Wheeler. Professor of Fuel Technology at<br />

the University of Sheffield, and Director of the Mines<br />

Department Experimental Station of Great Britain,<br />

who was scheduled to give a series of two lectures<br />

April 22 and 23 on "Constitution and Origin of Coal"<br />

and "The Relation of Constitution and Origin of Coal<br />

to Practical Problems in Mining, Storage, and Utilization."<br />

Both the Fischer and Wheeler series were<br />

given in co-operation with the Pittsburgh Experiment<br />

Station of the United States Bureau of Mines.<br />

Other lectures during April and May comprised a<br />

second annual series on chemical engineering problems<br />

given under the joint auspices of Carnegie Institute<br />

of Technology and the Association of Chemical<br />

Equipment Manufacturers. This series, it is announced,<br />

was arranged primarily for chemists and<br />

chemical engineers in the Pittsburgh District, although<br />

open to any one interested.<br />

The schedule for this series follows:<br />

April 17, "The Importance to Industry of Properly-<br />

Designed Chemical Equipment," by G. O. Carter,<br />

Consulting Engineer, Linde Air Products Company.<br />

April 21, "The Role of Chromium Alloys in Chemical<br />

Plant Apparatus," by C. E. McQuigg, Metallurgical<br />

Engineer, Union Carbide and Carbon Research<br />

Laboratory.<br />

May 8, "Continuous Processes in the Chemical Industry,''<br />

by J. A. Baker, Engineer, the Dorr Company.<br />

May 13, "The Equipment Manufacturer and His<br />

New Relations to the Chemical Industry." by Dr. K.<br />

C. Parmelee, editor of "Chemical and Metallurgical<br />

Engineering.<br />

May 22, "Art in Filtration" by Charles Fuhrneister,<br />

Jr., Oliver Continuous Filter Company.<br />

To Install Induction Furnace<br />

The Hoskins Manufacturing Company, now using<br />

two electric induction furnaces in the production of<br />

chromel and similar alloys, recently ordered a third<br />

electric unit for installation with the others in the<br />

Hoskins plant in Detroit. These furnaces have been<br />

found valuable in working to the close analysis necessary<br />

in such manufacture, and the Hoskins Manufacturing<br />

Company has obtained excellent results with<br />

May, 1925<br />

the existing installation in producing metals of extreme<br />

uniformity with every heat.<br />

The two original furnaces are of General Electric<br />

manufacture and the third, now on order, will be of<br />

the latest type with the winding located above the<br />

bath and cooled by air blast. The furnace will be<br />

tilted on trunnions by a handwheel in the usual manner.<br />

The new unit will have a holding capacity of 650<br />

pounds of metal, and each pour will be about 400<br />

pounds. It will be rated 100 kilowatts and will operate<br />

directly from the city power lines through a singlephase<br />

transformer which will step down the voltage to<br />

440 volts, 60 cycles. Power regulation will be obtained<br />

by means of taps in the transformer and an induction<br />

regulator.<br />

Open Hearth Committee<br />

Steel works executives and open hearth superintendents<br />

representing 22 companies in the Middle<br />

West, the East and the South, attended a conference<br />

at the William Penn Hotel, Pittsburgh, April 15 and<br />

16, and formed an open hearth committee for the exchange<br />

of operating ideas, standardization of furnaces,<br />

practices and of materials.<br />

J. V W. Reynders, president of the American Institute<br />

of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, presided<br />

at the conference, and L. B. Lindemuth, of the<br />

consulting engineering firm of Carney & Lindemuth,<br />

New York, who is secretary of the iron and steel<br />

section of the institute, was secretary. Another conference<br />

will be held in about six months, and every<br />

six months thereafter. A general committee composed<br />

of E. A. Witworth, Bourne-Fuller Company,<br />

Cleveland; W. A. Maxwell, Inland Steel Company,<br />

Chicago; L. F Reinartz, American Rolling Mill Company,<br />

Middletown, Ohio; A. R. Maxwell, Pittsburgh<br />

Steel Company, Pittsburgh; A. W. Smith, Youngstown<br />

Sheet & Tube Company, Youngstown, and L.<br />

B. Lindemuth, Carney & Lindemuth, New York,<br />

will conduct the affairs of the new <strong>org</strong>anization.<br />

Papers were presented by L. B. Lindemuth on<br />

"Furnace Operation;" by R. S. Poister, Norristown,<br />

N. J., on "Pit Practice;" by L. F. Reinartz, on "Open<br />

Hearth Fuels," and by C. H. Hunt, Weirton Steel<br />

Company, Weirton, W. Va., on "Furnace Construction."<br />

Mr. H. C. Thomas, Alan Wood Iron & Steel<br />

Company, Philadelphia, and A. R. Maxwell, Pittsburgh<br />

Steel Company, as well as Mr. Reynders, spoke<br />

on the advantages of the movement.<br />

llillliii:m:llillllll,:il::!'!l;illiliiii,in i':i|lii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.in • i iii;;iiiiiiii.iiiii!i:i,i l iimiiii iiiiiiiiiuiihiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihi<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

ifiFiniiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiniiiiriJiiiiiiiiiiiTfirpirrrFiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiFiMiMijiiiioii'inuriiiriiii'ot i iiiibLiiiiiiioNiiiiiuiiM<br />

June 22-26—Annual meeting of the American Society<br />

for Testing Materials at Chalfonte-Haddon Hall,<br />

Atlantic City, N. J. Secretary-treasurer, C. L. Warwick,<br />

Engineers' Club Building, 1315 Spruce Street,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

September 14-18—Annual convention of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, and Seventh National<br />

Steel Exposition, to be held at the Public Auditorium,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary, W. H. Eisenmann, 4600<br />

Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.


May, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

cAll-Steel Houses<br />

By Joseph Horton<br />

in Britain of steel and the inner walls of asbestos. Arrangements<br />

are made also for the circulation of heated air<br />

from the chimney flues throughout the cavity. The<br />

sealing of this space is considered an effective safe­<br />

The most interesting feature of the British Indusguard against vermin.<br />

tries Fair is an exhibit by Braithwaite & Co. Ltd.,<br />

engineers. This comprises two sample houses of the<br />

Telford all-steel type. Some 70 municipalities have<br />

sent representatives, generally housing committees,<br />

to inspect the houses. At present 200 are on order,<br />

of which Bolton is taking 100, Bristol 40 and Birmingham,<br />

eight. A large number of the other municipalities<br />

have instructed the company to put up samples.<br />

An important basis for success is the approval<br />

of the ministry of health qualifying the builders of<br />

such houses for the subsidy granted by the government<br />

under the Housing Acts of 1923 and 1924. The<br />

country is really becoming in earnest over the ques-<br />

The steel plates are 3 ft. 6 in. wide, fitted together<br />

on a concrete platform forming the ground floor, and<br />

the plates are bolted into the concrete. The steel<br />

walls are carried to their full height and bolted both<br />

to the platform, and vertically. The outer walls of<br />

steel are prepared and painted on the exterior with a<br />

special rust-resisting paint, finished in a warm stone<br />

color, and sprinkled with sand while wet. The inner<br />

face of the steel is protected against rust by a bituminous<br />

or other coating. The inner lining is secured<br />

in position by hardwood fillets and brass, screwed<br />

to the framing, this lining being papered if desired.<br />

If required the ground floors may be boarded.<br />

SlKl tioof.<br />

Staled or Vilcd<br />

tion of a house shortage, and it seems likely that this<br />

type of dwelling will be largely adopted. Previous<br />

experiments with all-steel houses in Great Britain<br />

have met with success.<br />

Braithwaite & Company, engineers have built<br />

piers, bridges, etc., in many parts of the work. As<br />

business is slack in their own line they have taken<br />

up house building on a large scale. The Telford<br />

house, designed by J. C. Telford, general manager,<br />

Braithwaite & Company, is built without the aid<br />

of bricklayers, plasterers or other skilled trades, in<br />

which there is a decided shortage of labor. The whole<br />

of the work is done by unskilled labor, every component<br />

being manufactured at the works before being<br />

bolted together on the site. The principal material<br />

is steel plate, y, in. thick, which is covered with thick<br />

asbestos lining sheets, secured to the framework.<br />

Between the outer steel plates and the inner asbestos<br />

sheets is hung an intermediate protective lining<br />

fixed to the back of the inner framework. The<br />

windows are steel casements with wood frames, and<br />

doors, cupboards, etc., are of wood. Chimney breasts,<br />

etc., are of steel construction similar to the main<br />

walls. Flues and chimney heads are made of cast<br />

iron. The roof is of steel plates, thought it may be<br />

constructed in the ordinary way of slate or tile, or<br />

other covering.<br />

In order to obtain equable temperature there is<br />

a sealed cavity 6 in. wide between the outer walls<br />

Li,ima ROOf.<br />

y<br />

7r=^


188 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Gordon A. Webb has opened an office at 733 Majestic<br />

Building, Detroit, Mich., acting as district manager<br />

for Rodman Chemical Company, Verona, Pa.,<br />

manufacturers of carburizing compounds, quenching<br />

and tempering oils, luting materials. He will also represent<br />

F. J. Ryan & Company, Philadelphia, Pa.,<br />

manufacturers of industrial furnaces, temperature<br />

controls and furnace cements.<br />

* * *<br />

Karl H. Shultes recently has been appointed purchasing<br />

agent of the Lansing Stamping Company,<br />

Lansing, Mich.<br />

* * *<br />

C. I. Ochs, since 1916 connected with the Torbensen<br />

Axle Company, and the Eaton Axle & Spring<br />

Company, Cleveland, has been elected president and<br />

general manager to succeed J. O. Eaton, advanced<br />

to chairman. Mr. Ochs was purchasing agent of the<br />

Torbensen Axle Company and later general manager<br />

of the Eaton Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Glen Riegel, recently appointed works manager<br />

of the Gerlinger Steel Casting Company, West Allis,<br />

Wis., formerly had been metallurgical engineer for<br />

several years. Albert M. Weis, foreman of the electric<br />

furnace, has been appointed foundry superintendent.<br />

* * *<br />

Edmund C. Mayo, vice president and general manager<br />

of the Gorham Manufacturing Company, Providence,<br />

R. I., was elected president of the company.<br />

Mr. Mayo for five years was president and general<br />

manager of the American Tube and Stamping Company,<br />

Bridgeport, Conn. He also was at one time<br />

president of the Worcester Pressed Steel Company,<br />

Worcester, Mass. Other officers of the Gorham Company,<br />

recently elected, include Alfred K. Potter, J. B.<br />

Abbott and Arthur F. Hebard, vice presidents, and<br />

Hiram C. Hoyt, secretary.<br />

* * *<br />

C. S. Durkee for 18 years connected with J. H. Williams<br />

& Company, Buffalo, N. Y., manufacturer of<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ings and drop f<strong>org</strong>ed tools, has been appointed<br />

western district sales manager in charge of sales<br />

in the west and southwest, with offices and warehouse<br />

at 117 North Jefferson Street, Chicago. For the<br />

past two years he had been in charge of the Central<br />

Sales district with headquarters at Buffalo.<br />

* * *<br />

Francis Gibbons, Tatnall, has become associated<br />

with the Riehl Bros. Testing Maching Company, 1424<br />

North Ninth Street, Philadelphia, as assistant to the<br />

president.<br />

* * *<br />

Lyle Marshall, former Manager of the Service<br />

Department of the Industrial Works, Bay City, Michigan,<br />

and later connected with the Chicago office of<br />

that company, has recently been appointed District<br />

Sales Manager with new offices at 619 Dixie Terminal<br />

Building, Cincinnati, Ohio.<br />

May, 1925<br />

i u in in ; niiiiiiiiiiiii milium mRiiiimmimmmmmiiiiiiiiimimmiiimimiimiiiii lames limn E. Shearer. Assistant Sales Manager of the<br />

P E R S O N A L S<br />

Industrial Works, Bay City, Michigan, has moved<br />

his headquarters from the home office to the Indus­<br />

miiinminiiiim ••• mnimmimmmiiiimmriiii'mtiimmirnmmtiimmiimmi<br />

rimimritiiimmmiiiiiiiiiiitmiimimmii.iiiiimiiiimiiimiii.im'i<br />

trial Works' New York office, 50 Church Street, that<br />

city. Ge<strong>org</strong>e T. Sinks, in charge of the New York<br />

District, will remain in that position.<br />

* * *<br />

E. W. Nick, president Northern Equipment Company,<br />

Erie, Pa., has been elected president of the<br />

Lakeview Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Erie. W. J. Brenner<br />

has been elected vice-president and G. C. Miller,<br />

secretary-treasurer.<br />

* * *<br />

T. J. Costello will continue as vice-president of the<br />

recently incorporated Costello Engineering Company,<br />

Leetsdale, Pa., which purchased the Costello patents<br />

on sheet and tin mill furnaces, together with drawings<br />

and patterns of annealing furnaces.<br />

H. D. Cushman of the Ferro Enameling Company<br />

of Cleveland is now operating the Pacific Enameling<br />

& Manufacturing Company of Oakland, Cal. Joe<br />

Paul, formerly with the Wolverine Enameling Company,<br />

Detroit, and H. B. Nahler are in charge of the<br />

Oakland plant, and Paul Quay of the Ferro Enamel<br />

Company is spending a few months there installing<br />

new equipment.<br />

Parker F. Wilson has resigned as vice-president<br />

of the Otis Steel Company, Cleveland. He had been<br />

associated with the company a number of years and<br />

previous to the recent re<strong>org</strong>anization was in charge<br />

of operations. Mr. G. A. White, who has been metallurgist<br />

and assistant to the president, has been promoted<br />

to the active management of the plant as assistant<br />

to R. H. Clark, vice-president in charge of<br />

operations.<br />

* * *<br />

W. A. Prendergast, who has been New York district<br />

manager of sales for the Penn Seaboard Steel<br />

Corporation and Tacony Steel Company for the past<br />

two years, has been appointed vice-president in charge<br />

of sales of the Penn Seaboard Corporation and general<br />

manager of sales of the Tacony Steel Company<br />

succeeding H. A. Baxter who resigned.<br />

* * *<br />

Algot J. E. Larson, for the past 10 years general<br />

superintendent of the Art Metal Construction Company,<br />

Jamestown, N. Y., manufacturer of metal office,<br />

bank and vault furniture, has been promoted to general<br />

manager and assistant to the president.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e C. Hayes, 225 Indiana Terminal Warehouse<br />

Building, Indianapolis, has been appointed district<br />

manager for the Elwell-Parker Electric Company,<br />

Cleveland, for the Indianapolis territory. The<br />

company has appointed the Vulcan Iron Works Company,<br />

1400 West Colfax Avenue, Denver, as district<br />

representative for the territory contiguous to Denver.<br />

* * *<br />

B. H. Anibal, formerly engineer with the Cadillac<br />

Motor Car Company, Detroit, has been appointed chief<br />

engineer of the Oakland Motor Car Company to succeed<br />

Benjamin Jerome, who resigned to take a similar<br />

position with the Oldsmobile Company in Lansing.


May, 1925<br />

R. A. Rawson, formerly of the merchandising department<br />

of the Franklin Automobile Company, Syracuse,<br />

N. Y., has been appointed head of the merchandising<br />

department of the Stutz Motor Car Company<br />

of America, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.<br />

H. G. Jackson has been appointed vice-president<br />

and general manager of the Wire Wheel Corporation<br />

of America, Detroit, succeeding G. M. Williams.<br />

Frederick P. Nehrbas has been appointed assistant<br />

general manager of the Stutz Motor Car Company of<br />

America, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind., and will have charge<br />

of all production.<br />

W. H. Klocke, for 20 years chief engineer of the<br />

E. W. Bliss Company, Brooklyn, N. Y., has been elected<br />

vice-president and general manager of the Keiner<br />

Metal F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Richmond Hill, N. Y.<br />

W. R. Bassick, formerly of Bridgeport, Conn., has<br />

assumed the presidency of the Commerce Motor Truck<br />

Company of Ypsilanti, Mich. W. E. Parker, former<br />

president, has been elected chairman of the board of<br />

directors. Edward Graham is vice-president, E. S.<br />

Evans, secretary and treasurer, and C. L. Granger, general<br />

manager of the factory. The Commerce Motor<br />

Truck Company occupies the old Saxon Motors plant<br />

in Ypsilanti, originally built by the Apex Motor Company.<br />

* * *<br />

E. L. Essley, Chicago, has been appointed sales<br />

agent in Chicago territory for high speed riveting hammers,<br />

manufactured by the High Speed Hammer Company,<br />

Rochester, N. Y. Complete stock with supplementary<br />

stock at the Essely Milwaukee store.<br />

* * *<br />

H. A. Anderson has been appointed chief engineer<br />

for the Johnston Manufacturing Company, Minneapolis,<br />

Minn., builder of oil burning heating apparatus for<br />

railroads and industrial plants. He was in the ordnance<br />

department, U. S. Army, during the war and has<br />

been with the Mahr Manufacturing Company, also of<br />

Minneapolis, for several years, the last two as chief<br />

engineer.<br />

W. F. Scully, formerly president of the Advance<br />

Furnace & Engineering Company, Springfield, Mass.,<br />

has rejoined the <strong>org</strong>anization of the Gilbert & Barker<br />

Manufacturing Company, Springfield, as manager of<br />

(furnace and factory sales. He was with the latter com •<br />

jpany from 1910 to 1920, leaving to <strong>org</strong>anize the Advance<br />

Furnace & Engineering Company. Patents, patterns,<br />

records, etc., of the Advance Company have been<br />

purchased by the Gilbert & Barker Company.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Mesta, president Mesta Machine Company,<br />

Pittsburgh, died in New York, April 22. He had been<br />

in poor health for some time. In 1886 he engaged as<br />

an engineer with Totten & Company, Pittsburgh, designing<br />

engines and rolling mill machinery. In 1887<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

189<br />

he <strong>org</strong>anized the Leechburg Foundry & Machine Company<br />

and became general manager and vice-president.<br />

Two years later he was elected president of the company.<br />

In 1898 he <strong>org</strong>anized the Mesta Machine Company<br />

and as its president started the building of the<br />

present plant at West Flomestead, Pa. In the latter<br />

part of 1898, the Mesta company purchased the<br />

plants of the Leechburg Foundry & Machine Company<br />

and the Robinson Rea Manufacturing Company.<br />

Alfred L. Lovejoy, for the past 12 years New York<br />

district manager of sales for the Pratt & Whitney<br />

Company machine tool manufacturers, and who was<br />

identified during the greater part of his life with the<br />

machinery business, died on April 6 at his home in<br />

Greenwich, Conn.<br />

* * *<br />

Elwood Haynes, inventor of the first automobile<br />

in America, and known widely as a scientist and metallurgist,<br />

died April 13 at his home in Kokomo, Ind.<br />

Born at Portland, Ind., in 1857, he attended Worcester<br />

Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass., and John<br />

Hopkins' University. He was well known for his<br />

development of stellite, a high speed metal cutting material,<br />

which was numbered among his discoveries of<br />

alloys of cobalt, chromium molybdenum and tungsten.<br />

He was a member of numerous engineering and scientific<br />

societies and through them and otherwise contributed<br />

to the progress of engineering in a very material<br />

way.<br />

* * *<br />

Harry A. Grusch, purchasing agent, United Engineering<br />

& Foundry Company, Pittsburgh, from its<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization in 1901 until a few years ago, died at his<br />

home in Pittsburgh, April 4. He previously had been<br />

identified with the Frank Neeland Machine Company,<br />

now the Frank Neeland Works of the United Engineering<br />

and Foundry Company. He was 50 years old.<br />

The Imita-Gold Corporation, recently formed, has<br />

title to the manufacturing rights of Imita-Gold in the<br />

United States, Canada and Mexico. This new metal,<br />

which resists corrosion from acids, alkalies and sea<br />

water, is said to possess the hue and lustre of gold<br />

and the strength of high carbon steel. This company<br />

has a fully equipped foundry and will also manufacture<br />

Imita-Silver and Imita-Gold bearing bronze.<br />

An interesting claim for the process is that it produces<br />

a metal whereby copper and aluminum can be<br />

combined into a homogeneous alloy without pores or<br />

blow-holes. Imita-Gold induces a natural lubricant<br />

into the metal, and a bearing may be run dry at intervals<br />

without undue heating. This corporation expects<br />

to market this metal in the form of sheets, tubes,<br />

rods and wire. Hugo Youngstrand is president.<br />

The General Motors Corporation will soon begin<br />

the removal of its research laboratories from Dayton,<br />

Ohio, to Detroit, where they will be housed in the<br />

General Motors Building. This results from a desire<br />

to concentrate research work in the most convenient<br />

location for company officials. Provision for housing<br />

the laboratories was made at the time that the General<br />

Motors Building was erected. Charles F. Kettering<br />

is general manager of the laboratories.


100<br />

riniicriiztjr^ii ti^r^FiiMiiiiiiiitiiLhiti^^iiiiiiiiiiiii'iinii^t^Tihiii^iii ^^TMiriii ;iii>uiihtiitJMniiiiiiiiii3iiiErfij^tiiHiiiniiMiii!!iiiii[piPirTiEiiirrinMUMiu ir=ir^.<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

nufflgmimiimiHiiiiniiinim<br />

The American Tube & Stamping Company,<br />

Bridgeport, Conn., at its annual meeting on April 15.<br />

re-elected the following officers: F. Kingsbury Curtis,<br />

chairman of the board; Ellis M. Johnston, president;<br />

William R. Webster, vice-president; Ellis M. Johnston,<br />

treasurer; A. Bradhurst Field, Jr., secretary;<br />

Earle L. French, assistant treasurer; Charles G. Sanford,<br />

assistant treasurer; Frederic G. Taylor, assistant<br />

secretary.<br />

* * *<br />

The Lyda Machine Products Company, Toledo,<br />

Ohio, has changed its name to the Toledo Pressed<br />

Steel Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Contracts for custom work in metal stampings are<br />

being sought by the Heinn Company, Milwaukee,<br />

Wis., maker of loose leaf devices. It has a battery of<br />

45 punch presses which it is desired to keep busy at<br />

capacity on steel and brass stampings.<br />

* * *<br />

Master Metal Product, Inc., Buffalo, N. Y., has<br />

been incorporated to take over the business of the<br />

Geibel Metal Products Company, manufacturer of<br />

metal kitchen utensils. J. F. Geibel is president, Merritt<br />

N. Baker, vice president, and E. J. Tate, treasurer<br />

and general manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Tennison Manufacturing Company, Houston, Tex.,<br />

manufacturer of metal shingles and other sheet steel<br />

products, has moved into its new plant, 100x200 feet.<br />

H. B. Tennison is president and owner.<br />

* * *<br />

John P. Booz, Chicago, representing bondholders<br />

of the former Saginaw Sheet Metal Works, Saginaw,<br />

Mich., has bought the plant of that company from<br />

the National Motors Company, which had bought it<br />

several months ago.<br />

* * *<br />

Spicer Manufacturing Corporation, Plainfield, N.<br />

J., has sold the plant of the Sheldon Axle & Spring<br />

Company, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., to Ge<strong>org</strong>e M. Wall and<br />

associates who are to form a corporation to be forced<br />

by the new owners. Mr. Wall is vice-president and<br />

general manager of the Sheldon company.<br />

* * *<br />

Extruded Metals Company, Brooklyn, N. Y., recently<br />

incorporated with $300,000 capital, has elected<br />

the following directors: F. S. King, 8630 114th Street,<br />

Richmond Hill, L. I.; L. I. Loeffelhardt and A. E.<br />

Loeffelhardt. 1195 President Street, and H. B. Nash,<br />

685 Macon Street, Brooklyn.<br />

* * *<br />

Capitol Machine & Supply Company, Lansing,<br />

Mich., has started the manufacture of large automobile<br />

trailers designed for transportation of automobile<br />

bodies across countrv.<br />

Prentiss Wabers Products Company, Wisconsin<br />

Rapids, Wis., manufacturer of Sheet Metal goods, has<br />

let a contract to Frank J. Henry & Company, for a<br />

plant 50 x 250 feet, one and two stories. The company<br />

recently suffered a severe loss by fire but is in production<br />

on a limited scale.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

May, 1925<br />

Former plant of the Secor Trunk Company.<br />

Racine, Wis., now owned by the F. J. Greene Engineering<br />

Works, housing several small industries, will<br />

become the home shortly of the Christianson Machine<br />

Company and the Swift Products Company. The latter<br />

will manufacture a mechanical hoist for automobiles<br />

to take the place of pits in factories and garages.<br />

* * *<br />

Seneca Iron and Steel Company, Buffalo, N. Y.,<br />

has let a contract to the Chapman-Stein Furnace Company,<br />

Mt. Vernon, O., for seven recuperative annealing<br />

furnaces, two mechanical gas producers, with coalhandling<br />

equipment, foundations and gas flues. The<br />

furnaces are of the box annealing type, five double and<br />

two single. This equipment is in connection with<br />

the new plant for the production of automobile sheets.<br />

* * *<br />

Sedgewick Stamping Company, 1727 Sedgewick<br />

Street, Chicago, recently incorporated to manufacture<br />

metal specialties, has elected Samuel H. Simon, president,<br />

Dan Kuhn, vice president and Milford Kahn,<br />

secretary and treasurer.<br />

* * *<br />

Du Pont Everdur Company, Wilmington, Del., has<br />

been formed to take over the manufacture and sale of<br />

a non-corrosive copper-silicon alloy which has been<br />

handled by the du Pont Engineering Company. It<br />

will operate as a subsidiary and its plant will be continued<br />

at Wilmington, Del.<br />

* * *<br />

Huron F<strong>org</strong>e & Machine Company, Detroit, recently<br />

<strong>org</strong>anized with J. B. Webb, 7644 Woodward<br />

Avenue, president, will produce drop f<strong>org</strong>ed chain and<br />

miscellaneous f<strong>org</strong>ings. A plant is being built on the<br />

Detroit Terminal Railroad. Emil G. Westover is general<br />

manager and has had long experience in drop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>e work.<br />

* # *<br />

Officers and directors elected at the annual meeting<br />

of the Crompton & Knowles Loom Works, Worcester,<br />

Mass., manufacturers of textile machinery included<br />

Dr. Homer Gage, president; John F. Tinsley, vice<br />

president and general manager; Irving H. Verry, vice<br />

president; Fred W. Howe, vice president; Edward F.<br />

Green, treasurer; Fred J. Bowen, assistant treasurer,<br />

and John B. Symes, clerk.<br />

* * *<br />

The Pulpore Can & Box Company, New York, has<br />

leased the f<strong>org</strong>e shop of the Morse Dry Dock & Repair<br />

Company, First Avenue and Fifty-eighth Street,<br />

Brooklyn, comprising a one-story building, 100x175<br />

ft., and will remodel for a new plant.<br />

* * *<br />

The Brink & Cotton Manufacturing Company,<br />

Bridgeport, Conn., <strong>org</strong>anized with $50,000 capital<br />

stock, wrll install equipment at 1862 State Street, for<br />

the manufacture of hardware, automobile accessories<br />

and light products. Fred Brink is one of the officials.<br />

* * *<br />

Plans are being arranged by the Allegheny Steel<br />

Company, Brackenridge, Pa., for a new one-story<br />

foundry, 75x96 ft., to cost about $45,000 including<br />

equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

The Ourisman-Chevrolet Garage Company, Washington,<br />

local representative for the Chevrolet automobile,<br />

has awarded a general contract to Edgar Mosher,


May, 1925<br />

1416 K Street, N. W., for a two-story service, repair<br />

and garage building, 90 x 145 ft., to cost $67,000 with<br />

equipment. H. Warwick, 1400 K Street, N. W., is<br />

architect.<br />

* * * . .7 ...<br />

The E. A. Laboratories, 696 Myrtle Avenue, Brooklyn,<br />

manufacturers of automobile horns and other<br />

signal equipment, have awarded a contract to the<br />

Barney Ahlers Construction Corporation, 118 West<br />

Fortieth Street, New York, for a three-story top addition,<br />

100x100 ft. to cost approximately $100,000<br />

with equipment. Henry Manley, 20 East Fifty-third<br />

Street, Brooklyn, is architect and engineer.<br />

* * *<br />

The Henry Weyand Company, Brown Place,<br />

Waterbury, Conn., manufacturer of metal window<br />

sash, etc., has plans for a three-story addition, 60 x 107<br />

ft. Thomas M. Freney, Waterbury is architect.<br />

* * *<br />

The Amalgamated Motors Corporation, Plainfield,<br />

N. J., operating at the Bessemer Motor Truck Company<br />

plant, is said to have closed negotiations for the<br />

purchase of the works of the Kelsey Motor Company,<br />

Belleville, N. J., defunct manufacturer of motor<br />

trucks, and will use the property as a division for<br />

truck production, including the manufacture of a line<br />

of taxicabs and motor buses.<br />

* * *<br />

The See-All Corporation, Jamestown, N. Y., has<br />

been <strong>org</strong>anized to manufacture steel filing cabinets,<br />

all work being done by contract. Office equipment<br />

and supplies are needed. The company has an <strong>org</strong>anization<br />

of about 2,000 salesmen and 200 district<br />

offices and plans to do an extensive business. John<br />

S. Small is president.<br />

The Fedco Number Plate Corporation, 115 Broadway,<br />

New York, recently <strong>org</strong>anized, plans to produce<br />

a special number plate for automobiles and to equip<br />

a factory to manufacture in quantity. Equipment<br />

needed includes hydraulic presses of about 400 tons<br />

capacity, annealing equipment, grinders, small drilling<br />

machines and punch presses. Considerable copper<br />

strip will be used in the product. W H. Wheeler<br />

is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The United Engineering & Foundry Company,<br />

Farmers' Bank Building. Pittsburgh, has taken out a<br />

permit for a one-story addition at its Frank Kneeland<br />

Machine Company department, Fifty-fourth Street<br />

and the Allegheny Valley Railroad.<br />

* * *<br />

The Lakeview Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Erie, Pa.,<br />

has been <strong>org</strong>anized to succeed the Lakeside F<strong>org</strong>e<br />

Company, Erie, which has been in the drop f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

industry for many years. The Lakeview company.<br />

operating in the building of the old company, discontinued<br />

the manufacture of wrenches and will devote<br />

its efforts to commercial drop f<strong>org</strong>ings. E. W. Nick,<br />

president Northern Equipment Company, Erie, is<br />

president of the new company.<br />

* * *<br />

The Metal Craft Company, Ltd., Grimsby, Ont.,<br />

manufacturer of hospital furniture and sheet steel<br />

specialties, is building an addition to its plant and<br />

will require new machinery and tools.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

191<br />

The Scovill Manufacturing Company, Waterbury,<br />

Conn., has acquired the plant and business of the<br />

Morency Van Buren Manufacturing Company, Sturgis,<br />

Mich., tank fittings and valves, and will make additions<br />

and improvements.<br />

The Bristol Company, Waterbury, Conn., manufacturer<br />

of pyrometers and other precision instruments,<br />

has awarded a general contract to the Immick Company,<br />

State Street, Meriden, Conn., for a one-story<br />

addition, estimated at $75,000.<br />

The Fisher Body Corporation, General Motors<br />

Building, Detroit, will proceed with the erection of<br />

a one-story plant 60 x 500 ft. on St. Antoine Street, to<br />

cost about $50,000 including equipment. Contract for<br />

the structure has been awarded to the Jerome Utley<br />

Company, Penobscot Building, Detroit.<br />

* * *<br />

The Buhl-Verville Aircraft Company, 2730 Scotten<br />

Avenue, Detroit, has been <strong>org</strong>anized with a capital<br />

of $150,000 to manufacture airplanes and parts.<br />

Principal ownership is in the hands of the Buhl<br />

Stamping Company, a portion of whose plant the new<br />

company has leased. Equipment is being installed<br />

and the company is in the market for materials and<br />

machinery. Several types of commercial planes are<br />

being designed and it expects to build planes for military<br />

and naval use as well. N. C. McMath is general<br />

manager.<br />

* * *<br />

The Cunningham Furnace & Machinery Company,<br />

London, Ont., manufacturer of electric heating specialties,<br />

is said to be arranging for the establishment<br />

of a branch plant at Port Huron, Mich. It is also<br />

contemplating the erection of a plant at Sarnia, Ont.,<br />

and will likelv remove its main works to this location.<br />

The Night-Eye Reflector Company, Waukesha,<br />

Wis., with a capital of $25,000 preferred and 1,000 nopar<br />

common shares, has been <strong>org</strong>anized by Ralph W.<br />

Crary, Ben P. Wolf and A. J. Baird, all of Waukesha,<br />

to manufacture metal reflectors for automobile lamps,<br />

locomotive lights and similar purposes.<br />

Cook Spring Company, Ann Arbor, Mich., formerly<br />

a New York corporation, has removed to Ann Arbor<br />

to be near the center of its business. A. J. Donally is<br />

president, W. A. Scholey, vice president, and M. E.<br />

Donally, secretary and treasurer. A new heat treating<br />

plant has just been added to the business.<br />

The Memphis Fender & Enameling Company,<br />

Memphis, Tenn., has doubled its former floor capacity<br />

in its new plant just completed. A large enameling<br />

oven provides facilities for baking automobile fender<br />

finishes. F. H. Mays is manager.<br />

Bethlehem Steel Corporation has removed its offices<br />

at Boston from 141 Milk Street, where they have<br />

been for many years, to the new Atlantic National<br />

Bank Building at 100 Milk Street.


192 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating May, 1925<br />

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Lifting Magnets — Uses of magnets in the iron<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

' I' t) 11:! I! 911111111111111111 r • f 11111111111 i 1! n' • 11 f 11111111II111H i l MI I f 111111 r 11)<br />

Cleveland. A wide range of use as lifting and separat­<br />

Power Presses — How to cut prices when it seems<br />

impossible is suggested in a bulletin by the Niagara<br />

Machine & Tool Works, Buffalo. The solution presented<br />

is in the use of power presses manufactured by<br />

that company and illustrated in the bulletin.<br />

ing agents is presented.<br />

* * *<br />

Punch Riveters—Illustrations and text descriptive<br />

of the rapid punch riveter manufactured by the Hanna<br />

Engineering Works, Chicago, are presented in a booklet<br />

issued by that company. The anatomy of the riv­<br />

Belts — E. F. Houghton & Company, Philadelphia,<br />

has issued an unusual booklet under the title of "Belt<br />

Tests That Are Tests," in which are reproduced details<br />

of tests of its belts by the Conservatorie National<br />

Des Arts et Metiers, Paris, France.<br />

eter and illustrations showing the variety of positions<br />

in which it can be applied to the work make clear its<br />

application to various classes of punching and riveting.<br />

* * *<br />

Welding Torch — Bastian-Blessing Company, 240<br />

Testing Machines — Riehle Brothers Testing Machine<br />

Company, Philadelphia, Pa. The many virtues<br />

of the Riehle U. S. Standard verticle screw power<br />

testing machines are set forth in a pamphlet recently<br />

issued. Illustrations show the parts of the machine<br />

and the machine as a unit and the text is of a convincing<br />

nature.<br />

East Ontario Street, Chicago. A reprint in colors<br />

showing the new Rego automatic shut-off torch manufactured<br />

by this company. The advantage claimed<br />

for this torch is that it prevents waste of gas. When<br />

the operator is ready to weld he simple presses the<br />

button; a touch of the thumb and out goes the flame<br />

when it is no longer to be used.<br />

* * *<br />

Grinding Wheels — The Norton Company, Wor­<br />

Welding Flux — Chemical Treating Company, 26<br />

cester, Mass. A nineteen-page booklet has been prepared<br />

in which is told the story of "The Balance of<br />

Grinding Wheels." There are several half-tone illustrations<br />

and some sectional drawings.<br />

Broadway, New York. Eight-page booklet outlining<br />

the advantages of Welfles which is a general welding<br />

flux of iron, steel and bronze.<br />

Pyrometers — Republic Flow Meters Company.<br />

2240 Diversey Parkway, Chicago. Covering design<br />

Sand Tester — The Reynolds Electric Company,<br />

2650 W. Congress Street, Chicago, 111. This machine<br />

is designed to test the cohesiveness of molding sand.<br />

The mechanism of the machine and an explanation of<br />

how it works are given.<br />

and use of pyrometers for all applications. Printed<br />

in colors, one feature being a color-temperature scale,<br />

connecting the appearance in the dark of high temperature<br />

articles with the measurement of temperature<br />

in deg. F. Samples are given of log sections for recording<br />

pyrometers, together with descriptions of the<br />

pieces of apparatus involved, with details of parts of<br />

the apparatus, methods of installation, wiring diagrams<br />

and other matters of interest to the user.<br />

Lift Trucks — The Plimpton Lift Truck Corporation,<br />

Stamford, Conn. Four wheels is the feature that<br />

is stressed in the new catalog of the Plimpton Corporation.<br />

There is a list of users, illustrations showing<br />

the trucks in use and descriptive matter setting forth<br />

the virtues of the truck.<br />

Fire-Brick — Details of compounding and baking<br />

refractory brick are related in a leaflet by the Ashland<br />

Fire Brick Company, Ashland, Kentucky.<br />

Electric Soaking Pit — Pictorial and typographical<br />

art have been combined with description and data in a<br />

booklet by the Baily Furnace Company, Alliance,<br />

Ohio, effectively presenting the claims of the electrically<br />

heated soaking pit made by that company.<br />

Photography has been used to carry to the eye an<br />

impression of the relative results of electrically heated<br />

and gas heated ingots, with striking results.<br />

* * *<br />

Cupola Alloy — A mixture compounded to the requirements<br />

of the user is offered by the Chicago Crucible<br />

Company, Chicago, for use in the cupola to give<br />

the desired alloy in the ladle, the value of such a<br />

vehicle to carry the alloying elements into the metal<br />

being presented in a pamphlet by that company.<br />

Boston offices of the Wyckoff Drawn Steel Company,<br />

Pittsburgh, have been removed to the new<br />

Chamber of Commerce Building, 80 Federal Street,<br />

corner of Franklin Street.<br />

* * *<br />

Additional capacity has been provided at the plant<br />

of the Michigan Metal Products Company, Battle<br />

Creek, Mich., by the installation of two presses manufactured<br />

by the Bliss Manufacturing Company, Hastings,<br />

Mich.<br />

* * *<br />

The American Nut & Bolt Fastener Company,<br />

Pittsburgh, is planning alterations and additions to its<br />

plant. These include a new machine shop and larger<br />

storage facilities. The changes will cost about $40,-<br />

000. Present machine shop equipment will be placed<br />

in the new shop. No additional tools will be required<br />

at this time.<br />

* * *<br />

The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company, Jersey City,<br />

N. J., manufacturer of graphite products, announces<br />

the removal of its Boston office from 49 Federal Street<br />

to 80 Federal Street, Room 320. The district representatives<br />

Brinkerhoff are and H. J. A. W. Neally, Loftus.<br />

Charles A. Shaw, R. H.


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| r<strong>org</strong>iiig-SJcimping-flGaT IreaJing I<br />

1 Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., JUNE, 1925 No. 6 =<br />

R e t a r d i n g R e s e a r c h<br />

T H E attitude of the Government toward its scientific men is a<br />

serious handicap to the work of the Bureau of Standards.<br />

Trained scientific men must take charge of the work carried<br />

on by the Bureau, and while these men are, on the whole, interested<br />

in their work, the salaries paid by the Government are so<br />

inadequate that they must necessarily accept the offer of larger<br />

salaries from industrial <strong>org</strong>anizations.<br />

This constantly changing of the personnel is a hindrance in<br />

research work as the successor must waste time familiarizing him­<br />

self with the work done by his predecessor.<br />

The official red tape, binding and restricting, as well as the<br />

insistent demands which are constantly pouring in, dampens the<br />

enthusiasm of the most devoted worker. The insistent demands<br />

force the investigators to drop work on one project to take up<br />

another. Thus, the laboratories are filled with unfinished experiments<br />

and to pick up the loose ends of the different researches<br />

requires a review of the work already completed.<br />

Efficiency is essential. Efficiency must be paid for.<br />

Siiiunmui i i i mini •' •"•" ' imimmmiiiiiiiimiimiiiiiimiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiifi<br />

193


194 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

PART 6.<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER IV<br />

TEMPERATURE RECORDERS AND<br />

CONTROLLERS<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

permanent record, showing the temperature of<br />

any couple over a period of time, is often of great<br />

A<br />

benefit. Such a record will show whether correct<br />

temperatures were used in a heat treating operation,<br />

whether the temperature was maintained constant<br />

within reasonable limits, whether a soaking period<br />

was of correct duration, whether the rate of heating<br />

or cooling was that called for, etc. It will assist the<br />

operator in controlling his furnace, as fluctuations are<br />

at once apparent to him ; it will enable him to tell at<br />

a glance whether he is bringing up the temperature of<br />

a charge at the desired speed, or too fast or too slowly.<br />

The fact that a permanent record is made and is<br />

available for the inspection of others has a great influence<br />

in deterring carelessness on the part of a furnace<br />

operator, and stimulating pride in a skillful performance<br />

of his work.<br />

Millivoltmeter Recorders.<br />

Both the millivoltmeter and potentiometer type of<br />

pvrometer have been developed in recording form. In<br />

the millivoltmeter type, the indicating pointer is<br />

caused to make a mark on a strip or disk of record<br />

paper. The paper is ruled with lines corresponding<br />

*The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the<br />

following references for material contained in this chapter, and<br />

to recommend them to the student for further reading: (9)<br />

"Measurement of High Temperatures," Burgess & LeChatelier;<br />

(10) "Pyrometric Practice," Foote, Fairchild & Harrison, Technologic<br />

Paper of the Bureau of Standards, No. 170. (Obtainable<br />

from Supt. Documents, Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C,<br />

60 cents.) (11) Pyrometry Data Sheets, A. S. S. T.<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factory,<br />

United States Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright, 1925, by H. C. Knerr.<br />

June, 1925<br />

to the temperature scale of the instrument. If the<br />

chart is circular, it is mounted on a disk which is<br />

driven by an eight-day clock, and is rotated one revolution<br />

in 12 or 24 hours. A new chart must be insterted<br />

every day. The divisions for time are radial and<br />

those for temperature circular. A recorder of this<br />

design is shown in Fig. 99.<br />

The continuous strip record is generally preferred.<br />

A roll of paper of considerable length is used which<br />

will run for several weeks or months without renewal.<br />

The rulings for time are transverse and those for temperature<br />

longitudinal, that is, parallel with the length<br />

of the strip. Being straight they are easier to read<br />

than those of a circular chart. The strip is moved<br />

forward by an electric clock or a constant speed electric<br />

motor. An instrument of this type is illustrated in<br />

Fig. 100. This particular instrument is arranged to make<br />

a record of several thermocouples on the same chart.<br />

The various records are distinguished by different colors,<br />

or by dots differently spaced. The record is visible<br />

as it is produced, so that the temperature may be<br />

read at any time.<br />

These recorders operate on exactly the same principle<br />

as the indicating instruments, the difference being<br />

simply in the mechanism for transferring the indications<br />

of the pointer onto the chart for permanent record.<br />

This must be done without interfering with<br />

the free movement of the millivoltmeter coil. The<br />

methods for accomplishing this vary with different<br />

manufacturers, and are usually explained fully in their<br />

catalogues.<br />

Potentiometer Recorders.<br />

The potentiometer type of pyrometer has been<br />

adapted to produce a permanent record for any number<br />

of thermocouples from one to 12, inclusive. For<br />

a single couple, the instrument is equipped with a pen<br />

which draws a continuous line on the chart, corresponding<br />

to the temperature at each moment. This<br />

pen is attached to the slide wire of the potentiometer,


June, 1925<br />

so that as the latter is adjusted to keep the galvanometer<br />

at zero, the pen follows its motion. The pen<br />

corresponds to the index on the indicating potentiometer.<br />

The deflection of the galvanometer pointer<br />

automatically controls the movement of the slide wire<br />

and pen by an ingenious arrangement of cams and<br />

levers. The galvanometer is not required to do any<br />

work. The record strip is moved forward at a uniform<br />

rate by means of a small electric motor whose<br />

speed is accurately governed. This motor also furnishes<br />

the power for operating the cams and levers<br />

which move the slide wire and pen. The battery circuit<br />

is adjusted by hand. The cold junction temperature<br />

is compensated automatically by the electrical<br />

method described for the indicating instrument. A recorder<br />

of this type is illustrated in Fig. 101.<br />

Where a record of more than one thermocouple is<br />

called for, the pen is replaced by a print wheel, which<br />

prints a series of dots corresponding to the temperature<br />

of any couple. A number is printed alongside<br />

the dot for each couple, so that the record of each couple<br />

may be readily identified. This instrument automatically<br />

adjusts the battery circuit, as well as compensating<br />

for the cold junction temperature. Its chart<br />

is particularly wide and clear, which facilitates accurate<br />

readings. A commutating switch, operated by<br />

the motor and geared with the print wheel, connects<br />

one couple after another into the circuit.<br />

Controllers.<br />

It is but a step in mechanical or electrical design<br />

from an instrument which records the temperature of<br />

a furnace to one which automatically controls that<br />

temperature within desired limits.<br />

For furnaces heated electrically, this simply necessitates<br />

opening and closing a switch or circuit breaker<br />

by means of a suitable relay. The relay is operated<br />

by a contact controlled by the pointer or index of the<br />

pyrometer. When the latter goes above a certain predetermined<br />

temperature, it makes an electrical contact<br />

which operates a relay that shuts off the power. The<br />

furnace then begins to cool, but as soon as the temperature<br />

has fallen a few degrees, to a predetermined<br />

low limit, another contact is made which causes the<br />

current to be turned on again. The same principle is<br />

applied to gas and oil fired furnaces. Instead of opening<br />

and closing an electric switch, the relays operate<br />

the valves in the fuel and air lines. Controllers of<br />

various makes are capable of holding the temperature<br />

of a furnace constant within a few degiees Centigrade.<br />

Automatic controllers find their chief application for<br />

furnaces which must operate for long periods at uniform<br />

temperature.<br />

PART 7. — CALIBRATION<br />

Thermocouples, guaranteed to be within a certain<br />

accuracy, may be purchased from manufacturers of<br />

pyrometric equipment. A chart or conversion table<br />

is furnished, giving the temperature-e.m.f. values over<br />

the working range for a certain type of couple, for<br />

example, iron-constantan, or chrome-alumel, and the<br />

couples are guaranteed to correspond with the chart<br />

within a specified tolerance. If the couples are intended<br />

for use with an instrument which reads directly<br />

in degrees Centigrade or Fahrenheit, the chart is<br />

not necessary, the couples simply being guaranteed<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

105<br />

to give correct readings with the instrument in question.<br />

A pyrometer whose scale is graduated in degrees<br />

must be used only with the particular type of couple<br />

with which it was calibrated.<br />

Many users prefer to make up their own thermocouples,<br />

from wires furnished for the purpose. Certified<br />

thermocouple wire, guaranteed to produce couples<br />

of a specified accuracy, is available. This wire requires<br />

great care in manufacture, to insure correct<br />

composition and exclude impurities. Otherwise it will<br />

deviate from the standard temperature e.m.f. relation.<br />

Every coil of certified wire must be checked by the<br />

manufacturer, and this increases its cost. It generally<br />

pays to buy certified wire, to insure interchangeability<br />

of couples.<br />

FIG. 99—Circular chart recording pyrometer,<br />

millivoltmeter type.<br />

It is often desirable to check the manufacturer's<br />

calibration or to make an independent calibration of<br />

thermocouples or thermocouple wires. Methods of<br />

standardization may be divided into two classes, (1)<br />

direct standardization, in which the couple is calibrated<br />

directly in terms of certain fixed temperatures,<br />

such as melting or freezing points of a series of chemically<br />

pure metals, and (2) comparison standardization,<br />

in which the couple under test is compared writh another<br />

couple which has been calibrated as above. Direct<br />

standardization requires special apparatus and a<br />

considerable amount of skill. The U. S. Bureau of<br />

Standards is prepared to do such work for a nominal<br />

fee, and the cost is usually less and the results more<br />

satisfactory than when attempted by an industrial<br />

plant. The best plan for an industrial plant which<br />

requires a large number of working couples, is to keep<br />

either two or three noble metal couples for "primary<br />

standards" and to have these calibrated by the Bureau<br />

of Standards. One of these couples is then used to<br />

check thermocouple wire, or to calibrate a few base<br />

metal couples as "secondary standards" which are, in<br />

turn, used to check the working couples in the plant.


196 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

It is unwise to use the primary noble metal standard<br />

for checking base metal working couples in the plant,<br />

on account of the danger of contamination and breakage.<br />

In the exceptional cases where noble metal couples<br />

are used in the plant, one of the primary standards<br />

may be used for checking them. The second and third<br />

primary standards are used at intervals to check the<br />

first, which is liable to contamination during use. One<br />

or all of the primary standards should be returned to<br />

the Bureau of Standards occasionally for checking.<br />

Wire for primary standards may be purchased from<br />

platinum refiners, and made into couples in the laboratory.<br />

Wires about 0.5 m.m. in diameter and 100 cm.<br />

long are satisfactory. Methods of preparing and<br />

FIG. 100—Continuous strip recording pyrometer,<br />

millivoltmeter type.<br />

checking noble metal standard couples are described<br />

at length in ref. 10 which should be consulted before<br />

such work is undertaken.<br />

Standardization of Base Metal Couples.<br />

The secondary standards should be very carefully<br />

calibrated. Several methods may be used, of which<br />

the following is believed to be one of the most satisfactory<br />

from a practical standpoint.<br />

Calibration is done in an electric muffle furnace,<br />

having a heating space at least 4 inches in diameter<br />

and 16 inches long. The noble metal primary standard<br />

is inserted in its glazed porcelain protection tube, and<br />

the secondary standards of base metal, provided with<br />

insulating beads but no protection tube, are layed<br />

close against the porcelain tube and bound with wire<br />

or asbestos cord. Their hot junctions should be close<br />

to the hot junction of the noble metal couple. Each<br />

couple is numbered for identification.<br />

The bundle of couples is inserted in a heavy thimble<br />

of cast iron, steel or copper, consisting of a piece<br />

of metal about 3 in. dia., 8 in. long, having a hole lyi<br />

in. dia. drilled to within iy in. of the bottom. The<br />

purpose of this is to insure that the hot junctions are<br />

all as nearly as possible at the same temperature The<br />

thimble, with the couples in place, is now inserted in<br />

June, 1925<br />

the approximate center of the electric furnace, taking<br />

care that the heat may reach it uniformly from all<br />

sides. Fig. 102. Readings should be taken at at least<br />

three temperatures, which are fairly evenly distributed<br />

over the working range, for example, 300 deg., 600<br />

deg. and 900 deg. C. The furnace is heated to somewhere<br />

near the first of these temperatures, and then<br />

held constant. (It is not necessary to hold the furnace<br />

at any particular temperature, but constancy is<br />

essential.) Readings are taken at intervals of about<br />

one minute on all of the couples until they all have<br />

shown constant readings for approximately 10 minutes.<br />

It is then safe to assume that every couple has<br />

reached the temperature of its surroundings, and the<br />

readings are recorded, that of the primary standard<br />

being taken as the correct temperature. The operation<br />

is repeated at the next higher temperature, and<br />

so on. As an extra precaution, it is well to repeat the<br />

readings in the reverse order, allowing the furnace to<br />

cool to about the desired temperature for successive<br />

points, and then holding it. The readings should be<br />

plotted on cross section paper, laying off temperature<br />

on a horizontal line, and departure from correct temperature<br />

vertically. A smooth curve drawn through<br />

the points for each couple will then show the correction<br />

necessary for this couple at any temperature. A<br />

temperature — e.m.f. curve may also be plotted for<br />

each couple, laying off e.m.f. horizontally, and temperature<br />

vertically. The curves should be fairly<br />

smooth. Any sharp irregularity is evidence that there<br />

is either something wrong with the couple or with the<br />

readings.<br />

Calibration readings should preferably be taken<br />

with a potentiometer of high precision, especially made<br />

for the purpose. If this is not available, a potentiometer,<br />

having two scales, one for base metal couples<br />

and the other for noble metal couples, should be used.<br />

The cold junctions of the various couples should be<br />

held at a constant and uniform temperature (not exposed<br />

to drafts of hot or cold air, nor to radiation from<br />

the furnace), and this temperature should be measured<br />

with a mercural thermometer and the readings corrected<br />

accordingly.<br />

Cold Junction Correction.<br />

Most couples are calibrated for a cold junction temperature<br />

of 0 deg. C. Cold junctions can readily be<br />

held at this temperature during calibration by inserting<br />

them in a bath of melting ice. The thermocouple<br />

wires run to the bath, and copper leads from there to<br />

the instrument. The wires in the bath must be protected<br />

from moisture, including condensation from<br />

the air. This may be done by sealing them in thin<br />

glass or rubber tubes.<br />

If a couple is calibrated for a cold junction temperature<br />

of t0 deg. C. and is used with a cold junction<br />

temperature of t1 deg. C, the true temperature, T, of<br />

the hot junction is that corresponding to the observed<br />

e.m.f. E\ plus the e.m.f. e, where e is the e.m.f. which<br />

would be developed with the hot junction at t1 deg. C.<br />

and the cold junction at tf, deg. C. The value of e is<br />

positive when t1 is greater than t0, and negative when<br />

t1 is less than t„. This will be clarified by reference to<br />

Fig. 103.<br />

This is simplified when the couple is calibrated with<br />

its cold junction at 0 deg. C. Suppose the couple is<br />

then used with the cold junction at 25 deg. C. By


June, 1925<br />

referring to the calibration chart of the couple, it is<br />

found that a temperature of 25 cleg. C. corresponds to<br />

a certain e.m.f., which we may call "e" millivolts. The<br />

observed e.m.f. is E1 millivolts. The true temperature<br />

of the hot junction is then that corresponding to (E1<br />

plus e) millivolts. As previously explained, the result<br />

obtained by adding the cold junction temperature to<br />

the temperature which corresponds to the observed<br />

e.m.f. will not accurately give the hot junction temperature,<br />

because the temperature-e.m.f. relation is not<br />

strictly proportional throughout the range. If plotted<br />

on cross section paper, with temperature horizontal<br />

and e.m.f. vertical, it would not be a perfectly straight<br />

line.<br />

Calibration by Melting Points.<br />

In the absence of a noble metal standard, a fairly<br />

accurate check or calibration of base metal couples<br />

may be made by comparison with the melting point<br />

of one or more pure metals or salts. As a rule, the<br />

freezing point is actually used, being identical with<br />

the melting temperature, while the manipulation is<br />

somewhat simpler.<br />

The material to be used is melted in a crucible,<br />

usually of graphite, and the couple to be standardized<br />

is inserted in the liquid bath to a depth sufficient to<br />

insure that its hot end will assume the temperature<br />

of the bath and not be cooled by conduction of heat<br />

along its wires or protection tube.<br />

The protection tube should not be thicker nor larger<br />

than necessary. A light steel tube with an oxidized<br />

surface, will do for a bath of tin, lead, aluminum, or<br />

salt. A graphite tube is sometimes used. A reducing atmosphere<br />

should be maintained by excluding air and<br />

floating a little powdered charcoal or graphite on the<br />

surface of the bath. An electric crucible-type furnace<br />

of sufficient depth is excellent for this work.<br />

The molten bath is allowed to slowly cool and temperature<br />

readings are taken at regular intervals of<br />

time. When the bath begins to solidify or freeze, the<br />

temperature will remain constant, until all, or nearly<br />

all, has become solid. Then the temperature will begin<br />

to decrease again, and the test may be stopped.<br />

The bath is remelted, the couple removed, and the<br />

operation repeated, if desired, with a material of different<br />

melting point. The cold junction temperature<br />

is taken care of in the same way as when calibrating<br />

by comparison with a standard couple.<br />

Freezing point temperatures may be taken automatically<br />

by connecting the couple with a recording<br />

pyrometer. When the freezing point is reached there<br />

is a distinct jog or hump in the curve.<br />

Various factors, such as rate of cooling, size of<br />

bath, size of couple, specific heat of each, latent heat<br />

of fusion of bath, rate of heat conduction through bath,<br />

etc., will influence the length of time for which the<br />

temperature remains constant. The presence of impurities<br />

in the bath will lower its melting point, and<br />

is likely to make melting or freezing extend over a<br />

range of temperature instead of being a fixed point—<br />

in other words, the liquid may pass through a mushy<br />

state before solidifying. Great care must be taken to<br />

obtain pure materials for the bath and to avoid contamination<br />

during use.<br />

The following materials are useful for melting<br />

point standards, and give well distributed points:<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

197<br />

Melting Temperature<br />

Material Centigrade<br />

Deg.<br />

Tin 231.9<br />

Lead 327.3<br />

Zinc 419.4<br />

Aluminum 6587<br />

Sodium Chloride 800.0<br />

Copper 1.083.0<br />

Because of the difficulties involved, and the likelihood<br />

of error from various causes, the method is less<br />

desirable for standardizing purposes in industrial<br />

plants than the method of comparison with a noble<br />

metal couple described above. It is often useful as<br />

a check and may be made quite accurate with proper<br />

precautions. More detailed instructions will be found<br />

in reference 10.<br />

FIG. 101—Recording pyrometer, potentiometer type<br />

Checking of Working Couples.<br />

It is very important to check frequently the couples<br />

used in heat treating operations. These couples<br />

deteriorate with use and develop inhomogeneities along<br />

their length. It does not pay to keep them after their<br />

readings become 5 deg. or 10 deg. C. in error.<br />

Neither the couple, the leads nor the pyrometer<br />

should be moved or disconnected when making a<br />

check. They should all be allowed to remain in their<br />

usual working position. The secondary standard, connected<br />

through its own leads to a portable pyrometer<br />

of known accuracy, preferably of the potentiometer<br />

type, should be placed alongside the working couple.<br />

with its hot junction as close to the hot junction of<br />

the working couple as possible. If the working couple<br />

is installed in a furnace, a hole should be provided<br />

close to the hole for the working couple through<br />

which the checking couple may be inserted. Where<br />

this is impracticable, the secondary standard may he<br />

inserted through some other opening, or under the<br />

slightly raised door, the open space being stopped with<br />

fire brick or asbestos. The secondary standard may be<br />

bare or may be protected by a light sheath of thin<br />

seamless steel tubing.<br />

It is usually sufficient to check the couple at one<br />

temperature, which should be about the customary<br />

operating temperature of the furnace. The furnace is<br />

held at constant temperature until both couples with<br />

their respective pyrometers have shown constant<br />

readings for at least 10 minutes, to allow for lag, before<br />

the check reading is taken. This method checks<br />

not only the working couple but also the leads and


198<br />

pyrometer. If. upon replacing an apparently defective<br />

couple with a new one. the error still persists,<br />

it probably exists in the line or instrument, which can<br />

then be separately investigated.<br />

PART 8. — GENERAL PRECAUTIONS<br />

Although a pyrometer is not a complicated instrument,<br />

there are many ways in which it can go wrong.<br />

It is not, by any means, "fool proof", but if correctly<br />

installed and given a reasonable amount of intelligent<br />

care, it will render service many times repaying its<br />

cost. The loss of a single charge through failure to<br />

properly regulate the heat treating temperature, may<br />

easily exceed the cost of installing a first class pyrometer.<br />

It should be kept clearly in mind that a thermocouple,<br />

at best, only indicates the temperature of its<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

June, 1925<br />

position where its readings cease to increase. The hot<br />

junction should come within an inch of the end of the<br />

protection tube. It should not be located near any<br />

part of the furnace that is likely to be at a different<br />

temperature from the charge, nor placed where flames<br />

will strike it.<br />

The couple should be securely mounted so that its<br />

position will not vary. The head should be far enough<br />

from the furnace to be reasonably cool, and the hole<br />

through which the couple is inserted should fit closely<br />

or be covered by a flange, or caulked with asbestos,<br />

to prevent hot gases from coming out of the furnace<br />

or cold air from going in.<br />

Care must be taken to see that the extension leads<br />

are connected to their corresponding wire in the couple<br />

(iron to iron, constantan to constantan, etc.).<br />

Leads should be run in a workmanlike way, on porcelain<br />

insulators or through metal conduits, the latter<br />

Commutotinq Switch<br />

(Enclosedfor Uniform Temperature}<br />

Cold<br />

/Vob/e lie to/ Standard Coup/e in Porce/ain Tube Junction<br />

Base Meta/ Coup/e<br />

Thick Meto7 Thimb/e<br />

ELECTRIC FUI?Nr9CE<br />

Potentiometer<br />

FIG. 102—Calibration of couples.<br />

Cold junction of noble n-.etal at 0 dig. C. Cold junct.on ol bas- metal couple at room temperature.<br />

hot junction. If the hot junction is not properly<br />

placed, or the furnace is not uniformly heated, the<br />

charge may have a very different temperature. The<br />

couple should be located with its hot junction close<br />

to the work being treated. It is well to place the<br />

couple so that its hot end may be observed through a<br />

hole in the door or wall, and its brightness or color<br />

compared with that of the charge. Small differences<br />

in temperature between the work and the couple can<br />

be detected in this way, provided there are no flames<br />

or exceptionally bright surfaces to shed a false brightness<br />

on either object.<br />

To prevent its hot end from being cooled by conduction<br />

of heat along the couple wires or sheath to the<br />

outside of the furnace, the couple should extend into<br />

the furnace a distance of at least 10 or 12 times the<br />

diameter of its sheath. One way to insure sufficient<br />

depth is to hold the furnace at constant temperature<br />

by means of another couple, and gradually move<br />

the furnace couple inward until it is well beyond the<br />

being grounded to prevent leakage from electric light<br />

or power circuits. A small leak will cause erratic readings,<br />

and may damage the instrument. The leads<br />

must be well protected against dampness. Joints in<br />

leads should be avoided, as they may cause trouble.<br />

Where connections are required, as at switches, they<br />

should not be exposed to uneven temperature.<br />

The indicating or recording instrument should be<br />

securely mounted, where it will not be subjected to<br />

excessive heat or cold, or severe jarring or vibration.<br />

In most cases it is desirable to have the instrument<br />

readily visible to the furnace operator, and where this<br />

necessitates mounting it in a shop where there is much<br />

dirt, smoke, or fumes, a protecting cabinet with a glass<br />

door is a good investment.<br />

Recording instruments are necessarily more complicated<br />

than indicators, and their mechanism requires<br />

occasional cleaning, oiling and adjustment. Millivoltmeters<br />

should not be opened except by one experienced<br />

in their care.


June, 1925<br />

The leading manufacturers of pyrometric equipment<br />

are always ready to give advice and assistance<br />

in the installation and care of their apparatus — a<br />

courtesy which, because of the specialized nature of<br />

their product, is well worth accepting.<br />

CHAPTER V — THERMAL ANALYSIS*<br />

The critical points of steel may be studied, and the<br />

temperatures at which they occur determined, by observing<br />

any of the physical changes which take place<br />

at these points. Methods of observation which have<br />

been used with success include accurate measurement<br />

of changes of length and volume, change of electrical<br />

resistance, changes of thermo-electric effect with reference<br />

to another metal, changes of magnetic properties,<br />

etc.<br />

By far the most useful method has been by means<br />

of heating and cooling curves. This method, called<br />

"thermal analysis", is based on the fact that energy,<br />

in the form of heat, is either liberated or absorbed as<br />

a result of the atomic or molecular changes which take<br />

place at the critical points. The test piece or specimen,<br />

usually in the form of a small cylinder, is placed in a<br />

furnace whose temperature may be raised or lowered<br />

at a uniform rate. The temperature of the specimen<br />

will rise or fall uniformly with that of the furnace,<br />

except when passing through a critical point. The<br />

absorbtion or liberation of energy which occurs at<br />

such a pqint due to the change in physical state, tends<br />

to produce a rise or fall in the temperature of the piece,<br />

independent of that caused by the heating or cooling<br />

of the furnace. This results in a change in the rate<br />

of heating or cooling of the specimen. The change<br />

in rate, and the temperature at which it occurs, is observed<br />

by means of one or more thermocouples, by one<br />

of the methods described below.<br />

Time — Temperature Curves.<br />

The simplest method, but not the most accurate.<br />

consists in placing a thermocouple in contact with the<br />

specimen, during heating and cooling, and taking readings<br />

of temperature at regular intervals of time, such<br />

as every minute. Or, readings may be taken at regular<br />

temperature intervals, such as every 10 deg. C,<br />

and the time for successive readings after the first<br />

reading recorded. The intervals chosen will depend<br />

upon the circumstances of the test, but should be<br />

close enough to insure that no change is overlooked.<br />

The test is started at a temperature well below the<br />

lower critical point, the furnace is heated at a slow<br />

and uniform rate to somewhat above the upper critical<br />

point, and is then allowed to cool at about the same<br />

rate at which it was heated, until the lower critical<br />

point has been passed. The readings are plotted on<br />

cross section paper, with temperature on a vertical<br />

scale and time horizontally. The curve will resemble<br />

those in Figs. 67 and 68 of Chapter III. The thermocouple<br />

should be of small wire, and should have its<br />

hot junction inserted in a hole drilled in the specimen,<br />

so as to obtain the maximum sensitivity. The arrangement'is<br />

illustrated in Fig. 104.<br />

Inverse Rate Curve.<br />

Some of the critical points in the curve described<br />

above may not produce a very pronounced hump, or<br />

may show only a gentle change in the slope of the<br />

•References (8), (9) and (10).<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

199<br />

line. This is especially the case with low carbon<br />

steels. The points may be brought out much more<br />

clearly by recording the actual intervals of time, in<br />

minutes or seconds, between each even temperature<br />

interval, and plotting these values on a horizontal<br />

scale, against temperature. This is called an "inverse<br />

rate" curve. Such a curve might also be constructed<br />

by plotting the successive changes in temperature in<br />

degrees, for each interval of time. Inverse rate curves<br />

should always be plotted when studying heating and<br />

cooling curves by the foregoing method.<br />

Difference Curves.<br />

Any change in the rate of heating or of cooling of<br />

the furnace in the time-temperature method (such as<br />

would result from a change in the voltage of the line<br />

supplying the furnace, the presence of drafts of air<br />

FIG. 103—Temperature-e.m.f. curve.<br />

around or through the furnace, etc.), would cause an<br />

irregularity in the rate of heating or cooling of the<br />

specimen, which might be mistaken for a critical point.<br />

Errors from this cause may, for the most part, be<br />

avoided by the "difference method". A piece having<br />

about the same size, shape and heat capacity' as the<br />

specimen under test, but consisting of a metal such<br />

as nickel, which has no critical point within the range<br />

of the test, is placed in the furnace close to the test<br />

piece. It is called the "neutral body" During heating<br />

and cooling, the temperature of the test piece and<br />

of the neutral body would rise and fall simultaneously,<br />

and would therefore be alike or nearly so, were it not<br />

for the critical points. When the test piece passes<br />

through a critical point, its rate of heating or cooling<br />

will differ from that of the neutral body, and this will<br />

cause a difference in temperature between them. The<br />

critical points may be studied by observing this difference.<br />

A difference in temperature between the neutral<br />

body and the test piece is readily detected by means<br />

of a thermocouple having its "hot" junction in contact<br />

with one and its "cold" junction in contact with the<br />

other. Which is which does not matter. This is<br />

called a "differential thermocouple", and its e.m.f. will<br />

be proportional to the difference in temperature between<br />

the two pieces. An ordinary thermocouple is<br />

used to measure the actual temperature of the test<br />

piece. Irregularities in the rate of heating or cooling<br />

of the furnace will affect both pieces alike, and will<br />

therefore not affect the difference in temperature be-


200 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

tween them. The arrangement is illustrated in Fig.<br />

105. Readings are taken simultaneously on the temperature<br />

couple and the differential couple at regular<br />

intervals of temperature. Temperature is then plotted<br />

on a vertical scale and difference in temperature horizon-<br />

K 2<br />

ELECTRIC ruGNiQCE<br />

Fig.104<br />

SPECIMEN<br />

THtRHO COUPLE<br />

SPECIMEN *


June, 1925<br />

nected with the differential couple, and either opposes<br />

or assists the deflection produced by the temperature<br />

coil. This produces a curve whose distance from the<br />

temperature record is proportional to the difference in<br />

temperature between the specimen and the neutral<br />

body, at any time.<br />

A pronounced change in the distance apart of the<br />

two curves therefore is evidence of a critical point.<br />

This apparatus is not sufficiently sensitive to detect<br />

any but fairly pronounced critical points.<br />

A somewhat similar but more sensitive arrangement<br />

has been constructed and used by the writer in<br />

connection with a double curve drawing recorder of<br />

the potentiometer type. This recorder is like that<br />

shown in Fig. 101, except that it is provded with two<br />

pairs of binding posts, for use with two couples, and has<br />

a commutator which causes the pen to trace a curve,<br />

first for one and then for the other at intervals of about<br />

one minute. If the temperature of the two couples is<br />

alike, the two curves coincide, giving a single curve.<br />

Increased sensitivity was attained by using a "multiple<br />

couple" to detect the difference in temperature between<br />

the neutral body and specimen. Such a couple<br />

is made by welding together a number of small thermocouple<br />

wires (as iron and constantan) alternately,<br />

and arranging them so that alternate joints are adjacent<br />

to the neutral body and specimen, as illustrated in<br />

Fig. 106. There are the same number of junctions at<br />

each end, and the leads coming from the couple are of<br />

the same kind. Such a couple gives an e.m.f. corresponding<br />

to the difference in temperature between<br />

opposite ends, multiplied by the number of junctions<br />

at one end.<br />

An ordinary couple is inserted in the specimen and<br />

gives a record of temperature in one curve. The multiple<br />

differential couple is connected in series with the<br />

temperature couple, to the other pair of posts, so that<br />

the second curve represents the algebraic sum of the<br />

e.m.fs. of the temperature couple and the difference<br />

couple. Fig. 106. A change in the distance apart of<br />

the two curves occurs at the critical points.<br />

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2112 F<strong>org</strong>ing S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Jime, 1925<br />

C h r o m e S u r f a c e s Electrolytically D e p o s i t e d<br />

Chromium Plating Will Afford the Manufacturer an Opportunity<br />

to Discard High Priced Alloys Where Resistance to<br />

FOLLOWING the development of the electrolytic<br />

method by which rare ancient bronzes, corroded<br />

beyond recognition, are now being restored to<br />

their original form, the research engineers of the<br />

Chemical Treatment Company have perfected commercially<br />

a process for chromium plating.<br />

The commercial development of chromium plating<br />

offers an opportunity for industry as a whole to utilize<br />

the invaluable properties of metallic chromium in<br />

a thousand different ways that heretofore have not<br />

been possible.<br />

The use of small percentages of chromium to produce<br />

stainless or rustless steel alloys and extremely<br />

hard chrome steels is well known. The advantages of<br />

using chromium as a metal sheath or coating on other<br />

metals as a protection against heat and corrosion, and<br />

to greatly increase surface wearing qualities, have<br />

long been apparent.<br />

In appearance, a chromium plated surface may be<br />

dull gray or have a silver luster, or have a polish much<br />

more brilliant than nickel with practically the same<br />

reflecting power as a high-grade mirror. As the surface<br />

will not tarnish or corrode, no polishing is evei<br />

required and it will outlast indefinitely all similar<br />

surfaces.<br />

The first factory for the production of chromium<br />

plate has been in operation for several months and<br />

thousands of steel, iron, brass and copper articles<br />

have been produced for commercial use.<br />

Crodon, the trade name under which chromium<br />

plate is being produced, has been developed by Dr.<br />

Fink for the Chemical Treatment Company, Inc., 26<br />

Broadway, New York City, and is but one of the products<br />

in the chemical and metallurgical field which<br />

that companv has perfected or is developing.<br />

Crodon will, in thousands of cases, afford the<br />

manufacturer an opportunity to discard the highpriced<br />

alloys which are so difficult to machine and<br />

permit him to fabricate his product of more easily<br />

worked metals, and still secure the necessary noncorrosive,<br />

hard and attractive surface qualities by<br />

applying a Crodon surface coating.<br />

Heat, Corrosion and Wear Are Desired<br />

By COLIN G. FINK,* Ph.D.<br />

cations for chromium plate. The hardness, wear resistance,<br />

corrosion resistance and permanent nontarnishing<br />

attractive appearance of Crodon will give<br />

the solution to many of the problems of the metal<br />

industries.<br />

A steel steam valve seat plated with chromium<br />

and tested under 190 lbs. of superheated steam, first<br />

passed through aluminum sulphate crystals to give<br />

the maximum corrosive effect, has withstood a test of<br />

200 hours, part of the test being run with the valve<br />

practically closed to obtain the maximum wire-drawing<br />

effect without affecting the valve seat. This means<br />

that valves and seats can both be made of a steel<br />

having the same coefficient of expansion so that there<br />

will be no buckling in the valve seat as is sometimes<br />

the case when the seats are made of alloys.<br />

Crodon is being used commercially for that portion<br />

of steam soot cleaner elements exposed to boiler<br />

gases and the direct impingement of the flames and<br />

is giving very satisfactory results in that there is no<br />

surface corrosion. A small test piece of steel pipe<br />

plated with less than one-half mill of chromium withstood<br />

a temperature of 2000 deg. F. for 24 hours without<br />

affecting the plated surface in any way, although<br />

the inside of this pipe, also subjected to the flame<br />

gases, was corroded to such an extent that half its<br />

thickness was eaten away. There is a real field for<br />

Crodon in lengthening the life of turbine blades and<br />

many other engine and pump parts and accessories<br />

which are now subject to excessive wear and corrosion.<br />

Chromium is highly resistant to all <strong>org</strong>anic acids<br />

and to nitric and sulphuric acids. Crodon ware will<br />

resist corrosion indefinitely and can be heated to high<br />

temperature without the scaling and pitting so<br />

familiar with ordinary iron and copper ware. Machine<br />

parts of chemical apparatus, made of ordinary<br />

metals, can be protected by Crodon plate and made<br />

to resist the corrosive action of a large variety of<br />

chemical reagents, besides outlasting all other metals<br />

in wearing qualities.<br />

Crodon plated copper strips have been repeatedly<br />

bent and twisted until the copper itself breaks, without<br />

any peeling or flaking of the plate.<br />

High temperature thermometer casings, golf club<br />

heads, plumbing fixtures, table ware, steam soot In the hardware field, stainless steel is well known<br />

cleaner parts, marine hardware, high pressure steam and when it is considered that this steel contains only<br />

valve seats, surgical instruments, turbine blades, acid- 13 per cent of chromium, the corrosion-resistant propproof<br />

containers, automobile parts and accessories, erties of a chromium plate will be immediately<br />

headlight reflectors, micrometers, dies and crusher- apparent. The hardware trade, above all others, apballs,<br />

are articles to which Crodon can be applied to preciates the deterioration of stock due to rust and<br />

economic advantage, and the variety of objects men­ other corrosion and it is only necessary to look over<br />

tioned is but an indication of the extent of the field any hardware catalog and find innumerable articles on<br />

for chromium plate.<br />

which Crodon can be used to advantage.<br />

For manufacturers of machinery of all kinds, the Where appearance is not a factor, Crodon plate is<br />

electrical field, railroads, farm implements and the most readily produced with a soft gray finish which<br />

metal trades in general, there are innumerable appli- is attractive although entirely without brilliance.<br />

•Division of Electro-Chemistry, Columbia University, Chromium plated files have retained their sharp<br />

Xew York Citv.<br />

cutting teeth indefintely while in stock in localities


June, 1925<br />

where ordinary files soon lost their value and had to<br />

be returned to the manufacturer.<br />

Chromium plated bearings of shafts and similar<br />

machine parts have resulted in a great saving in replacements.<br />

For hospitals, hotels, public buildings and in the<br />

home, chromium plate can be applied in innumerable<br />

ways. Plumbing and other fixtures plated with chromium<br />

are much more brilliant than when nickel<br />

plated. The yellow tint which is a characteristic of<br />

nickel plate is not present in Crodon and, particularly<br />

under artificial light, Crodon has an exceptional brilliance.<br />

A well recognized testing laboratory reports<br />

that chromium plate is at least seven times harder<br />

• than nickel plate. When it is considered that nickel<br />

plate requires polishing with abrasive metal polish to<br />

preserve its brilliance and that the Crodon finish is so<br />

tarnish-proof that no polishing is required, it can<br />

readily be seen that an estimate of at least 20 times<br />

the life of nickel plate is not excessive. As Crodon<br />

fixtures are also plated on the concealed portions, the<br />

green stain of a corroded metal will not appear.<br />

Plated building hardware, such as doorknobs, door<br />

plates, hinges, etc., can now be furnished in a permanent<br />

brilliant or frosted silver-like finish particularly<br />

desirable in locations where the light is poor.<br />

Although a brilliant, lustrous or mat finish, having<br />

a silvery appearance, is now little used in building<br />

hardware except for bathroom fittings, it is expected<br />

that chromium plate will have a wide use in this field<br />

because there can be no damage to woodwork or<br />

paint from injurious polishing compounds which are<br />

no longer needed.<br />

Chromum plate in the above fields will result in a<br />

very large maintenance saving as no time is required<br />

for polishing, except for wiping off such dust as may<br />

collect. In public places, where wear is excessive, the<br />

long life of chromium plate will greatly reduce the<br />

cost of replacement. The various silver-like finishes<br />

which can be secured with Crodon give it a very attractive<br />

appearance against a mahogany, cream or<br />

white background.<br />

The rapid discoloration of silver when brought<br />

into contact with food such as eggs, onions, lemon<br />

juice, etc., often resulting in deep black stains so difficult<br />

to remove, is entirely foreign to Crodon plate.<br />

The field for chromium plate is so vast and the development<br />

of Crodon is so new that there has not been<br />

sufficient time to carry on a series of exhaustive service<br />

tests in the marine field; but although this has not<br />

been done, the following interesting though accidental<br />

test will indicate the value of a chromium surface.<br />

A tablespoon, plated with Crodon, was placed in<br />

a glass about one-quarter full of milk at the time one<br />

of the engineers closed his ocean front summer home<br />

last fall. This spoon remained in the glass for seven<br />

months and when the house was reopened for the<br />

present season, it was found that although the gasstove<br />

in the same room was very badly rusted, that<br />

the aluminum and bronze paint on the fire irons had<br />

not protected the iron from rust and that the salt air<br />

had corroded copper and brass articles, the chromium<br />

plated spoon had not lost any of its brilliance and<br />

that portion exposed to the corrosive effect of the<br />

lactic acid in the milk was entirely unaffected. The<br />

metal house numbers plated with Crodon and tacked<br />

on the front steps about 100 feet from the ocean, were<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

203<br />

unaffected by the salt atmosphere over the same<br />

period of time.<br />

Chromium plated containers have held concentrated<br />

nitric acid for long periods without even affecting<br />

the polish. Brightwork, the sailors' curse, now<br />

has an opportunity to appear with a chromium surface<br />

which will have a lasting brilliance, will not require<br />

polishing, and will wear at least 20 times as long<br />

as nickel plate.<br />

There is a real field for Crodon in lengthening the<br />

lile of turbine blades and many other engine parts<br />

and ships' hardware which are now subject to excessive<br />

wear and corrosion.<br />

The Chemical Treatment Company, to which the<br />

patents pendings have been assigned, plans to continue<br />

the production of Crodon by enlarging its present<br />

plant capacity and erecting additional plants at<br />

central locations. At a later date the company may<br />

be willing to license the process to manufacturers who<br />

will need chrome plating in quantities. Dr. Fink and<br />

his associates have very carefully studied the numerous<br />

variables which have heretofore made commercial<br />

chrome plating impossible. These variables have now<br />

been brought under perfect control and industry can<br />

prepare to reap the full benefits of the invaluable<br />

characteristics of this remarkable metal, chromium—<br />

so exceptionally resistant to wear, corrosion and high<br />

temperature.<br />

Method for Casting Soft Center Ingots<br />

At the head of a marble stairway in his mansion<br />

on Riverside Drive, New York, there stands the lifesize<br />

bronze figure of a puddler. Charles Schwab, a<br />

king of steel, has designed this idea so that he will be<br />

reminded of his puddling days and what he has done<br />

for the steel industry.<br />

Other men have spent years at puddling. John<br />

Glynn has spent over a quarter of a century in the<br />

steel works and mills. From vast practical experience,<br />

he has developed a new and practical invention.<br />

Applying his practical knowledge, he has produced a<br />

new method for casting soft center ingots ; any other<br />

steel requiring different carbons in the same ingot can<br />

be made. This method is almost revolutionary in that<br />

the total finishing operation, which now involves casting,<br />

heating, rolling and pickling, is reduced to the<br />

single function of casting.<br />

A considerable saving of these costs is effected,<br />

lessening the cost of production, and the first shapes<br />

used in ordinary practice have not the heating, rolling<br />

and pickling added as alluded to above. Mr. Glynn<br />

further claims that there is less danger of coarse crystallization<br />

than by the old practice.<br />

A patent has been granted to an experienced iron<br />

and steel worker who has spent 30 years as a puddler<br />

and open hearth melter in the mills. Canadian rights<br />

have also been granted for this method of producing<br />

steel for agricultural implements.<br />

While there are many steps between a patented<br />

idea and the actual production of the soft center ingot<br />

on a sound commercial base, the economies of production<br />

which suggest themselves to the practical<br />

steel man should warrant at least the costs of the<br />

experiment,


204 Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

W o r l d ' s G r e a t e s t Electric L o c o m o t i v e<br />

The world's greatest locomotive, an electric giant<br />

152 feet long, weighing 1,275,900 pounds and with a<br />

rating of 7,125 hp., underwent its first running test<br />

May 14 on tin- Westinghouse electric test track.<br />

Witnesses of the running tests of the locomotive.<br />

the first completed of 36 ordered by the Virginian<br />

Railway for its SI 5,000.000 electrification project between<br />

Mullens. W. Va., and Roanoke, Va., included<br />

representatives of tin- Virginian, the Pennsylvanian,<br />

the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburgh & Lake<br />

Krie railroads, the American Locomotive Company.<br />

the Baldwin Locomotive Company, the R. 1). Nuttal<br />

Company, the Westinghouse Airbrake Company and<br />

the Westinghouse Electric iS: Manufacturing Company.<br />

The huge locomotive, under its own power for the<br />

first time, demonstrated the marvelous efficiency of<br />

the electric locomotive. Tests of its acceleration and<br />

its various speeds; tests of regeneration, the remarkable<br />

ability of the electric locomotive to regenerate<br />

power while taking heavy coal trains down steep<br />

grades and to turn the power back into the transmission<br />

line; and tests of the power of the motors, were<br />

made. It was demonstrated that by locking some of<br />

the wheels and throwing power on others, the wheels<br />

could be slipped without injurious effect to the motors,<br />

thus proving that no matter what the exigencies<br />

of the occasion, the electric locomotive will be equal<br />

to them.<br />

The Virginian locomotives are so huge that it was<br />

necessary to build them in three units each so that<br />

the great length of more than 150 feet could successfully<br />

negotiate curves, and otherwise be controlled<br />

efficiently. Each motive power unit has the Mikado<br />

2-8-2 wheel arrangement, the weight of the cab being<br />

approximately 425,000 pounds, so that the weight of<br />

the three cab road engines is 637.5 tons. Each driving<br />

motor has mounted at each end of the shaft a pinion<br />

which meshes with a flexible gear and the gears are<br />

mounted on a jack shaft, the power being transmitted<br />

from the gear centers to the drive wheels by means<br />

of side rods.<br />

& *<br />

Giant of 7.125 hp. shows efficiency in track tests.<br />

June, 1925<br />

The mechanical parts of the locomotive, such as<br />

cabs and trucks, were supplied by the A^merican Locomotive<br />

Company.<br />

To provide for the application of greater power<br />

to the transmission system, the Virginian locomotives<br />

have been designed for either 11,000 or 22,000<br />

volts between the trolley and rail.<br />

The Virginian electrification contract was the<br />

largest ever awarded, amounting to $15,000,000, all<br />

electrical apparatus to be furnished by the Westinghouse<br />

Companv. The electrification includes 133.6<br />

miles of route and 213 track miles. The power plant<br />

for supplying the 11,000-volt or 22,000-volt alternating<br />

current is rapidly nearing completion. A part of the<br />

overhead caternary structure has been installed and<br />

the remainder of the locomotives, after the first is delivered,<br />

will be shipped from the Westinghouse works<br />

on a schedule of one or two monthly. It is expected<br />

that complete operation of this section will be started<br />

before the close of the present year.<br />

Arc-Welded Buildings<br />

How the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad<br />

has successfully constructed structural steel buildings<br />

entirely with arc-welded joints is told in the recent<br />

publication of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing<br />

Companv, folder 4657.<br />

This publication describes the tests for shear and<br />

tension for the welded joints that were made, the results<br />

of which led to the erection of a 40-ft. x 60-ft,<br />

one-story structural steel building, using steel salvaged<br />

from the scrap pile. Illustrations are shown<br />

of the building at various stages of the construction.<br />

An interesting comparison is made in this folder of<br />

the erection costs of arc-welded buildings with those<br />

of riveted buildings. It shows the great saving effected<br />

by the arc-welded building in the way of saving in<br />

material and shop fabrication, and in the eliminaton<br />

of the necessity of re-enforcing with gusset plates or<br />

butt plates.


June, 1925<br />

Ibrging-Stamping- Heat Treatui*<br />

S o m e C o m m o n D e f e c t s in L a r g e F o r g i n g s<br />

Some of the Common Defects Encountered and a Brief Explana­<br />

tion of Their Causes—Methods Used to Insure Uni­<br />

T H E object of this paper is not to imply that all<br />

large f<strong>org</strong>ings are defective or in any way to condemn<br />

their use, but to point out to designing and<br />

operating engineers some of the places at which defects<br />

may be encountered.<br />

It must always be borne in mind that the type of<br />

stress which exists in the part and the nature of the<br />

operating conditions determine in many cases the<br />

danger of a slight flaw or defect. In many cases the<br />

seriousness of flaws or defects cannot be accurately<br />

determined by laboratory means, and it is only after<br />

years of experience under actual operating conditions<br />

that one can disregard certain defects in certain types<br />

of equipment which must be the cause of rejection in<br />

other equipment.<br />

The statement is often made that the materials<br />

of today are not as good as they were formerly. This<br />

is not true; they are infinitely better today, but the<br />

masses used, the speeds operated at, and the temperatures<br />

and pressures now found in modern apparatus<br />

were not even considered a few years ago. It is this<br />

new order of things which calls for greater uniformity<br />

and homogeneity of materials. Most engineering<br />

formulas are based on a uniform material, but steel<br />

makers and fabricators assert that no such material<br />

is possible, or made, in the strict meaning of the word,<br />

and the formulation of an estimate of the seriousness<br />

of any defect in a specific piece of apparatus therefore<br />

becomes a compromise between theory and<br />

practice.<br />

In considering defects found in f<strong>org</strong>ings, it is well<br />

to classify them under two heads: first, those inherent<br />

in the material; and second, those caused by the<br />

method of fabrication. It is very common to have<br />

both kinds present, and it is entirely possible that<br />

one may so mask or accentuate the other as to make<br />

any definite conclusions difficult.<br />

The most common defects inherent in the material<br />

or the ingot from which f<strong>org</strong>ings are made, are :<br />

1—Variations in composition<br />

2—Piping and gas pockets<br />

3—Cracks<br />

4—Slag lines and "ghost lines."<br />

Variations in Composition.<br />

In the manufacture of large f<strong>org</strong>ings, large ingots,<br />

which in reality are only steel castings of the highest<br />

type, are required. Such castings will naturally have<br />

varying cooling rates, and it is a law of solutions—<br />

and steel is a solution—that the higher concentrations<br />

will solidify first. It is only natural, therefore, that<br />

the chemical composition will vary somewhat from<br />

form and Homogeneous Material Explained<br />

By J. FLETCHER HARPERf<br />

205<br />

the bottom to the top, and from the center to the outside,<br />

of the ingot.<br />

This variation, if not excessive, is of no great importance.<br />

The slight variations in physical properties<br />

from one end to the other can usually be corrected<br />

by heat treatment of the f<strong>org</strong>ing; and it is the<br />

usual practice to test the f<strong>org</strong>ing midway between<br />

the center and the outside to get the average results.<br />

However, any practice in which two heats of steel<br />

are utilized without the employment of a large mixing<br />

ladle, or in which two ladles of steel are poured<br />

without the use of a common runner box, should be<br />

frowned upon.<br />

Piping and Gas Pockets.<br />

As stated before, an ingot is nothing more than a<br />

very special steel casting, and as such it is subject to<br />

many of the defects of steel castings.<br />

FIG. 1—Examples of hidden piping.<br />

The mold, in the best practice today, is made of<br />

special cast iron. The laws of freezing of metals<br />

cause the outside surface next to the mold to solidifyfirst,<br />

and as more heat is absorbed by the mold this<br />

skin grows in thickness. This thickness grows mort<br />

slowly as the metal solidifies, due to the increased<br />

mold temperature and the insulating effect of the<br />

skin, causing the center to remain molten for a considerable<br />

time.<br />

This freezing action is accompanied by contraction<br />

which causes the molten metal in the center portion<br />

to decrease in height, giving the hollow, coneshaped<br />

upper portion known as the "sink head" or<br />

"pipe." If the rate of solidification is not proper, the<br />

outer portions of the ingot, being rigid, will exert<br />

enormous stresses on this inner semi-solid material,<br />

causing tearing or extension of the pipe.<br />

This tendency to tear is further increased due to<br />

the rejection of the impurities into the last material<br />

to solidify. This action is more fully explained under<br />

the discussion of "Cracks."<br />

Ingots of proper design as to shape and cooling<br />

rates should have the pipe or shrink entirely confined<br />

to the upper portion. But if due to improper design,<br />

•Paper presented at the Spring Meeting of the American<br />

or if two heats or ladles of material are improperly<br />

Society of Mechanical Engineers, Milwaukee, Wis., May, 1925.<br />

used, or the pouring or cooling is stopped-at any one<br />

tResearch Engineer, Manufacturing Department, Allispoint,<br />

the ingot can easily have piping throughout its<br />

Chalmers Manufacturing Company.


.'I l( I F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

length or m several places. The surfaces of these<br />

pipe cavities are usually oxidized, which prevents any<br />

possibility of welding in subsequent f<strong>org</strong>ing operations.<br />

The two f<strong>org</strong>ings shown in Fig. 1. which have been<br />

cut in two, show examples of hidden pipe. In the<br />

case of both f<strong>org</strong>ings the defects shown are due to<br />

secondary piping, for ample material had been cut<br />

from the top of the ingots to remove all normal<br />

shrinkage.<br />

Gas pockets or blowholes are due-to the rejection<br />

of gas by the molten steel at the time of solidification.<br />

If the solidification is normal, that is, progressing from<br />

FIG. 2—Ghost lines in the machined surface of a shaft.<br />

the outside inward and from the bottom upward, the<br />

gas is carried into the sink head. But if the freezing<br />

takes place above molten metal and this gas collects,<br />

there will be a gas pocket which will cause trouble.<br />

It considerable gas is present, a number of small<br />

bubbles will probable form just below the skin of<br />

the ingot and escape outward, leaving tiny "worm<br />

holes." The holes arc usually oxidized and cause<br />

surface seams on f<strong>org</strong>ing or rolling. The extent of<br />

these seams is dependent on the depth of the gas<br />

"worm holes."<br />

Cracks.<br />

If the surface of the ingot is not properly designed<br />

or the surface of the mold is rough or full of holes,<br />

natural contraction cannot take place and the ingot<br />

will crack.<br />

Solidification begins about various centers which<br />

are at the lowest temperature, which results in the<br />

formation of crystal skeletons. These skeletons rapidly<br />

develop branches which become more and more<br />

coated with crystallizing matter until the whole resembles<br />

a tree or is, as it is termed, "dendritic."<br />

In the case of an ingot the formation of a number<br />

of dendrites proceeds simultaneously from the chilled<br />

surface of the iron mold until they interlock and the<br />

whole material is solid. Impurities, having the lowest<br />

freezing temperature, will be carried in the mother<br />

liquid until final solidification, when they will be<br />

trapper between the dendritic branches.<br />

If the dendritic formation proceeds from two surfaces<br />

it forces the non-metallics in the molten material<br />

to th«ir extremities, until, when the dendrites<br />

interlock, a plane of inclusions is formed.<br />

June, 1925<br />

This plane .of inclusions is a plane of weakness and<br />

can be the cause of a serious crack in an ingot and<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ings therefrom; and it is for this reason that<br />

the shape of the ingot mold, as regards surface, is<br />

designed so carefully, in order to obtain the maximum<br />

cooling surface with the minimum of corner<br />

segregation.<br />

Slag Lines and Ghost Lines.<br />

"Ghost line" is a rather indefinite term applied to<br />

a frequently encountered defect. Ghost lines are<br />

streaks varying in composition from the major portion<br />

of the metal and usually containing slag impurities.<br />

They usually show up in the machined surface<br />

of the f<strong>org</strong>ing as light or dark marks, depending on<br />

the angle at which the light strikes the machined surface.<br />

As mentioned before, the material in these lines<br />

differs in composition from the rest of the steel, being<br />

usually verv low in carbon and high in phosphorus.<br />

These lines differ in hardness from the surrounding<br />

material, which causes the tool to jump in machining<br />

and the lines to show. The depth of these marks is<br />

usually verv small, so that with a very slight removal<br />

of material they disappear. However, when present<br />

they usually occur in many groups, and when one is<br />

removed, another appears.<br />

The danger from these lines is a much-debated<br />

question. It can be safely said that in straight tension<br />

the strength of the material containing the lines<br />

differs little, if at all, from that of adjacent material<br />

containing no lines. However, the action under reversed<br />

stress is another matter, and that under temperature<br />

changes appear to the author to be detrimental.<br />

Being of radically different composition, the<br />

expansion and contraction are different from what<br />

they are in the surrounding material. It is because<br />

of these two unknown variables, reversed stresses and<br />

temperature variations, that ghost lines are prohibited<br />

in high-class equipment.<br />

Fig. 2 shows the machined surface of a shaft illustrating<br />

a bad condition of ghost lines.<br />

FIG. 3—Shafts showing the clink type of defect.<br />

Defects due to fabrication may be classified under<br />

the following heads: 1, Laps; 2, Star cracks; 3,<br />

Clinks; 4, Improper reduction; 5, Heat treatment.<br />

Laps.<br />

Laps are the folding over of the surface of the<br />

metal in the f<strong>org</strong>ing operation. This type of defect<br />

is usually due to working the metal too much in one<br />

direction before rotating it, or to the use of improper<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing dies. It can also occur with proper working


June, 1925<br />

and die equipment if the shape of the ingot surface—<br />

the corrugations—is not correctly designed.<br />

In large f<strong>org</strong>ings this type of defect is usually not<br />

serious, as the amount of stock left to be taken off<br />

the rough f<strong>org</strong>ing in the machining operation is<br />

usually sufficient to remove all traces of the lap. However,<br />

the surfaces of a lap are covered with a scale<br />

which is folded under, and the lap may be so severe<br />

as to cause actual tearing of the metal. It is purely<br />

a case of bad f<strong>org</strong>ing practice and should be looked<br />

upon with suspicion, as other poor practices often<br />

accompany it when it is allowed to exist.<br />

Star Cracks.<br />

Star cracks, so called from their most familiar<br />

shape, are another form of bad f<strong>org</strong>ing practice. They<br />

are formed in the center of a shaft and are usually<br />

not seen unless the shaft is bored. The common cause<br />

of this type of failure is f<strong>org</strong>ing after insufficient heating,<br />

that is, working the hot outer portion over the<br />

cold center and causing it to fracture.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing a large section on too small a hammer or<br />

press, or f<strong>org</strong>ing it down round instead of square as<br />

far as possible and then rounding it up, can also produce<br />

these defects.<br />

Clinks.<br />

Clinks are one of the greatest possible dangers in<br />

the making of large f<strong>org</strong>ings, and while they are not<br />

necessarily produced by bad practice, they are the result<br />

of not exercising proper care.<br />

In the casting of large ingots or even small ingots<br />

of alloy steels, enormous stresses are set up in the<br />

cooling. If this cooling is allowed to extend below<br />

about 1000 deg. F. without being equalized, these<br />

stresses usually reach such a point as to cause rupture.<br />

It is therefore considered good practice not to allow<br />

a large ingot, or the f<strong>org</strong>ing from it, to cool completely<br />

until it has been heated uniformly to above<br />

the critical temperature of the material.<br />

It is obvious that it is often impossible to get the<br />

cycles of operations to come so that they will allow<br />

the completion of the f<strong>org</strong>ing before cooling. It is<br />

often necessary to ship ingots to other plants for the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing operation, but in all such cases they should be<br />

annealed to relieve the casting strains.<br />

On reheating an ingot, the rate of heating until<br />

the center portion has passed the temperature of 1000<br />

deg. F. should be very slow, otherwise the expansion<br />

of the outer portion will cause a clink.<br />

The reheating of a f<strong>org</strong>ing which is partially f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

and the equalizing of the temperature of the finished<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing are operations which demand the greatest of<br />

care and experience if this class of defect is to be<br />

eliminated. The occurrence of clinks increases with<br />

the size of the work and the use of the denser alloy<br />

steels.<br />

Fig. 3 shows two shafts which have been cut in<br />

two and which exhibit the clink type of defect. A<br />

comparison between the defects in this illustration<br />

and those of Fig. 1 clearly shows the different characteristics<br />

of these two types of defects. The defects<br />

due to pipe have a coarse-grained, heavily oxidized<br />

surface, while the clinks exhibit a clean rupture of<br />

solid metal.<br />

Fig. 4 shows a piece of partially f<strong>org</strong>ed ingot which<br />

has ruptured. This ingot, which was 23 in. in diameter,<br />

was heated and f<strong>org</strong>ed to approximately 21 in.<br />

square; the ingot corrugation can still be seen at the<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

207<br />

corners. This piece of material cooled down and was<br />

set to one side with no care being exercised to relieve<br />

the strains set up by the heating and slight f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Six months later it fractured as shown as a result of<br />

internal stress. The material was perfect, containing<br />

no flaw of any nature.<br />

Improper Reduction.<br />

The major object in f<strong>org</strong>ing a piece of steel is to<br />

break up the grain size found in a steel casting and<br />

to increase the density and homogeneity of the material.<br />

To accomplish this the original area of the ingot<br />

must be reduced. In order to gain the maximum advantage<br />

this reduction should be in a direction at<br />

right angles to that in which the maximum stress will<br />

be applied in the finished article. Furthermore, the<br />

physical tests made to determine the characteristics<br />

should be taken at a position to determine this condition<br />

of maximum stress.<br />

FIG. 4—Fracture of partially f<strong>org</strong>ed ingot as a result of<br />

internal stress.<br />

Reduction causes the dendritic crystallization and<br />

the secondary crystallization to be elongated at right<br />

angles to the applied force. This produces what is<br />

commonly termed "fiber," and greatly increases the<br />

physical properties in the parallel direction but at<br />

considerable sacrifice to the transverse ductility.<br />

It is for this reason that ring f<strong>org</strong>ings are f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

by expanding over a mandrel and tested tangentially.<br />

While it is impossible to work some material, such as<br />

turbo rotor shafts which are so stressed and tested<br />

radially, by expansion, the Allis-Chalmers Company<br />

has found that by proper heat treatment a fairly large<br />

reduction, with its accompanying advantages, can<br />

be made with no sacrifice in strength or ductility in<br />

anv direction.<br />

Because of the fibering of the structure of f<strong>org</strong>ings,<br />

care should be exercised that a change of dimension in<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing operation is made by a flow and not by<br />

a sharp cut-off. If the flow of material is not obtained<br />

a weakness at the points of changes in diameter is<br />

experienced.


208 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Heat Treatment.<br />

Defects due to the heat treatment of f<strong>org</strong>ings is<br />

one subject which would demand many pages for its<br />

consideration, even in very rough outline. However.<br />

there are several major points of caution which can<br />

well be mentioned.<br />

Any heat treatment should lie applied only after<br />

all f<strong>org</strong>ing operations have been completed.<br />

The heating and cooling should be uniform and<br />

applied to the entire mass, eliminating all possibilities<br />

of local heating or cooling of any part.<br />

In large f<strong>org</strong>ings the effect of mass must not be<br />

considered, and time must be allowed for the complete<br />

penetration of the heat. It should be appreciated<br />

that there is a certain amount of inertia present<br />

which resists structural changes, and that the<br />

larger the mass, the greater will be the length of time<br />

necessary to accomplish any change.<br />

Any heat treatment that obtains high physical<br />

strengths but leaves the materials in a highly stressed<br />

condition, should be avoided.<br />

A uniform distribution of the microscopic constituents<br />

in as fine a size as possible should be the<br />

desire, in order to prevent cleavage planes of<br />

weakness.<br />

The Allis-Chalmers Company has found that to<br />

secure good large f<strong>org</strong>ings the following precautions<br />

must be taken, not on one or two f<strong>org</strong>ings, but on<br />

each and ever)- f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

The ingots used for making the f<strong>org</strong>ings must Inmade<br />

under careful supervision as to material melted,<br />

method of melting, temperatures obtained, pouring<br />

conditions, and mechanical handling.<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>ing operations are closely controlled as<br />

to the heating and f<strong>org</strong>ing. The f<strong>org</strong>e department is<br />

apprised of the stresses under which the finished<br />

piece will operate, in order that it may get the maximum<br />

results attainable by reduction and heat treatment<br />

before making the f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

The physical tests are so made as to be representative<br />

of the f<strong>org</strong>ing, and in such a manner as to check<br />

the operating stresses in the finished machine.<br />

FIG. 5—Periscope used for examining the bore of a shaft.<br />

The heat treatment and chemical characteristics<br />

are checked by careful microscopic examination and<br />

analysis before the f<strong>org</strong>ing is released by the metallurgical<br />

department.<br />

All laps, cracks, seams, or surface defects are completely<br />

chipped out before the piece is machined.<br />

Great care is used to see that all traces of the defect<br />

are removed, even to the extent of etching and examining<br />

with the microscope. In defects of this kind<br />

there is great danger that the metal at the base of<br />

the visual crack will be found to be distorted or microscopically<br />

ruptured, and if such material were allowed<br />

in service, there would be risk of fatigue failure.<br />

June, 1925<br />

All shafts over 9 in. in diameter have an exploratory<br />

hole (iy in. in diameter or larger) for use in periscopic<br />

examination.<br />

There are several types of periscopes for this work,<br />

but the one which has been used with success for the<br />

past ten years is shown in Figs. 5 and 6.<br />

This instrument consists of a brass tube, the inner<br />

end of which contains an electric light for illuminating<br />

the bore, and a reflecting prism. The outer end<br />

has a focusing telescope, the object of which is to bring<br />

the image up to the eye, and not to magnify it. This<br />

equipment allows the slightest flaws to be detected<br />

within the bore of the shaft.<br />

FIG. 6—Periscope of Fig. 5 in use.<br />

It is believed that with the careful observations<br />

as outlined above, large f<strong>org</strong>ings today offer the best<br />

means of securing homogeneous material. However,<br />

a full understanding of the nature of defects and their<br />

reference to operating stresses should be thoroughly<br />

understood by all operating and designing engineers.<br />

It is this neglect to realize the limitations of large<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings which has caused them, through failures, to<br />

fall into disrepute; while in reality they are today one<br />

of our most uniform materials of construction.<br />

Mr. M. K. Epstein has discontinued the business<br />

of the Heat Treating Equipment & Supply Company,<br />

Hartford, Conn., to accept the position of District<br />

Manager for Gilbert & Barker Manufacturing Company,<br />

Springfield, Mass., at their New York offices<br />

located at 26 Broadway. Mr. Epstein represented the<br />

Gilbert & Barker Manufacturing Company in the<br />

Philadelphia District from September 1912 to March<br />

1920. _ _ _ _ _<br />

niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinini iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

1 ilium iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiuiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii<br />

June 22-26—Annual meeting of the American Society<br />

for Testing Materials at Chalfonte-Haddon Hall,<br />

Atlantic City, X. J. Secretary-treasurer, C. L. Warwick,<br />

Engineers' Club Building, 1315 Spruce Street,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

September 14-18—Annual convention of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, and Seventh National<br />

Steel Exposition, to be held at the Public Auditorium,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary, W. H. Eisenmann, 4600<br />

Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.


June, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

C a u s e s o f A c c i d e n t s in M a t e r i a l<br />

*<br />

H a n d l i n g<br />

Individuals with Organic Weaknesses Should Not Be Placed<br />

Where They Will Endanger Others—Mechanical Appli­<br />

ances Recommended for Handling Heavy Weights<br />

THIS might well be called the Age of Statistics.<br />

We can find statistics telling how much cream<br />

and sugar to use on our baked apple in the morning,<br />

in order to get enough calories to give us the<br />

necessary wallop during the forenoon; statistics on<br />

the number of microbes of various kinds we will absorb<br />

in the subway on our way to the office; a library<br />

full of statistics on how to run our business when<br />

we get there; statistics in the evening papers on the<br />

number of sets of whiskers in Congress ; and we sometimes<br />

long for the good old days before printing<br />

presses, statisticians and other modern inconveniences<br />

were invented.<br />

Perhaps you all remember Mark Twain's little adventure<br />

into the vital statistics issued by the Government;<br />

he found that for every person killed in a railroad<br />

accident 50 died in bed, and decided that what he<br />

needed most was not insurance against railroad accidents<br />

but against beds!<br />

However, in spite of the odd-looking results we<br />

sometimes see from the use (or abuse) of statistical<br />

figures, the fact remains that the engineer couldn't<br />

very well get along without them, and I will give you<br />

a few such figures to indicate how important a part<br />

of the whole accident problem the handling of material<br />

really is.<br />

Statistics on Material Handling.<br />

The report of the Massachusetts Industrial Accident<br />

Board covering all accidents in the state for<br />

the year ending June 30, 1922, shows the following<br />

results:<br />

No. of Lost Time, Days No. of<br />

Accidents Excluding Deaths Deaths<br />

Total for Mass 51,105 2,216,142 306<br />

Handling material.. 14,916—29% 449,469—20% 19—6.2%<br />

Another way of stating this is to say that the lost<br />

time caused by accidents from handling material (ort<br />

the basis of 300 working days per year) is equivalent<br />

to 1,498 men being laid off continuously throughout<br />

the year in one state from this cause alone. If we<br />

figure the 19 fatalities at a total of 6,000 days each,<br />

the rating used by the Massachusetts Industrial Accident<br />

Board, this would add 380 more men to the list,<br />

bringing the total to nearly 2,000.<br />

Both the number and per cent of deaths and other<br />

injuries from handling objects in Massachusetts was<br />

almost identical for the previous year, that is, 14,970.<br />

or 28 per cent of all accidents, and the percentage of<br />

all fatalities was 6.1. (It may be noted in passing that<br />

the per cent of days lost is somewhat lower than the<br />

numerical percentage of accidents, indicating that the<br />

By DAVID S. BEYERf<br />

•Paper delivered at joint session Engineering Section. Na: I once asked a famous archaeologist, who had<br />

tional Safety Council, and American Society of Safety Engi­ spent many years studying Egyptian lore, whether<br />

neers, New York City.<br />

tVice President and Chief Engineer, Liberty Mutual Insurance<br />

Company, Boston, Mass.<br />

he found any record of the accidents that occurred<br />

during the building of the pyramids, for example. He<br />

209<br />

average accident from handling material is somewhat<br />

less severe than the average from other causes; for<br />

example, 37 days per case for handling objects, compared<br />

with 120 for machinery.)<br />

A large volume of accident data tabulated by the<br />

Pennsylvania Compensation Rating and Inspection<br />

Bureau shows 22 per cent of the accidents due to<br />

this cause.<br />

We may accordingly conclude that approximately<br />

one-fourth of all industrial accidents in a typical manufacturing<br />

state are due to handling material, so it is<br />

an important subject to the safety engineer.<br />

Dividing the Massachusetts accidents into further<br />

cause classifications we find the following results:<br />

Per Cent<br />

Cause of Accident Number of Total<br />

Strains 4,499 30<br />

Injured on sharp or rough objects 3,366 23<br />

Objects dropped 2,217 15<br />

Caught between object handled and other<br />

objects 1,455 10<br />

Injured on hand trucks, wheelbarrows, etc.. 1,090 7<br />

Objects falling from load (while loading<br />

or unloading) 614 4<br />

Objects falling from pile (while piling or<br />

unpiling) 118 1<br />

Miscellaneous 1,557 10<br />

Total 14,916 100<br />

These classifications are rather general, but a few<br />

important points stand out:<br />

Strains.<br />

The large number of strains found in this list<br />

suggests immediately the possibility that men are<br />

being called upon to lift loads that are too heavy to<br />

handle with safety.<br />

The Massachusetts data does not show how many<br />

of these strains resulted in hernia but a separate<br />

analysis of several hundred material handling accidents<br />

reported to the Liberty Mutual Insurance Company<br />

shows that hernia resulted in one-third of the<br />

total cases of strains reported, death following in<br />

several cases.<br />

Some of the injuries show the desirability of mechanically<br />

operated hoists, conveyors, trucks and<br />

other devices, for handling the burden that is too<br />

great for the ordinary human mechanism. However,<br />

mechanical devices seem to play a minor part in this<br />

particular field and an outstanding feature of these<br />

accidents is the importance of the human element.<br />

Most of them are a kind that might have happened<br />

to the dusky workmen who hewed King Tut's tomb<br />

out of the rock or fashioned Cleopatra's barge.


210 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating June, 1925<br />

told me that there were occasional references to the<br />

fact that large numbers of people died during the<br />

work, but human life was valued so cheaply there was<br />

probably no effort made to keep any individual account<br />

of the persons killed.<br />

I suppose there was another difficulty, owing to<br />

the fact that memoranda of that day were made principally<br />

on bricks, and I have no doubt that a card<br />

index ol the accidents occurring (luring the building<br />

of one pyramid would have made another pyramid!<br />

•<br />

Safety vs. Carelessness. The upper figure shows a snubbing<br />

post on the loading dock to convey safely heavy low<br />

trucks into a car. In the lower figure is shown a man<br />

pulling a truck. If he should slip he must invariably suffer<br />

injury, because the height of the load obstructs the<br />

vision ow the men behind, who are pushing with heads<br />

down.<br />

Accidents occurring from "objects dropped," "objects<br />

falling from piles," "caught between objects<br />

handled," etc., all show the importance of personal<br />

carefulness on the part of the worker and his overseer,<br />

and will continue to be a problem for the safety<br />

engineer so long as there are materials to handle and<br />

persons to move them.<br />

The Human Side of the Material-Handling<br />

Problem.<br />

So much for the statistical side of the materialhandling<br />

problem; let us now look at the human side.<br />

The definition of an engineer is a person by whom<br />

"the mechanical properties of matter are made useful<br />

to man in structures and machines." That sounds<br />

rather cold and forbidding, and from the nature of<br />

his work one might picture the engineer as having<br />

that impersonal feeling towards others which was<br />

shown by the negro minister who was baptizing his<br />

Hock through the ice. He lost his grip on one of them<br />

as he dipped him under, and merely remarked, as he<br />

beckoned another victim forward. "The Lord giveth<br />

and the Lord taketh away!"<br />

However impersonal may be the attitude of the<br />

mechanical, civil or electrical engineer toward the<br />

material with which he works, the safety engineer has<br />

a field that calls for the keenest human interest, because<br />

he is dealing with men rather than materials;<br />

his aim is to avoid human tragedy, rather than accomplish<br />

mere utility. His real dynamic power as a safety<br />

engineer will come from the knowledge that he is<br />

geared up directly with that greatest problem of all<br />

time, the accomplishment of human happiness.<br />

The statistical divisions used in tabulating a large<br />

number of accidents are necessarily so general and<br />

lacking in detail as to lose most of their human interest<br />

and even their engineering value. In order to fill<br />

in some of the finer details of the picture I investigated<br />

a group of the fatal accidents from handling"<br />

material which have been reported to the Liberty<br />

Mutual in the last four years. There were lo of these<br />

cases, and the following information was gleaned<br />

from our files covering their investigation and<br />

adjustment.<br />

Of the 16 deaths, seven, or nearly one-half, resulted<br />

from septicaemia or blood poisoning, in some<br />

cases supplemented by other diseases. (This is undoubtedly<br />

a higher proportion than would be found<br />

in a more general group of accidents, but it shows<br />

how important septicaemia is as a cause of fatalities<br />

in material handling.)<br />

Six ot these cases were from slight cuts on the<br />

hands, neglected until the injured person was so seriously<br />

infected that he had no chance. Several of these<br />

were of the kind that is so trying to the insurance<br />

man, where the. injury was not reported at the time<br />

it occurred, and decision of an important case hinges<br />

upon whether the little scratch or cut was received at<br />

the factory or alter the man went home.<br />

Some of the causes given, were a scratch from a<br />

nail in a shoe, a cut from the edge of linoleum, from<br />

a pane of glass which was being set, from a nail in<br />

a plank which was being handled, etc.<br />

In one case, erysipelas developed, and in another<br />

gangrene. This latter case occurred from a man<br />

dropping a small machine part, weighing only about<br />

a pound, on his foot, resulting in a slight injury which<br />

later became gangrenous.<br />

Case No. 215,225 is that of a little grandfather<br />

from the Emerald Isle, 67 years of age. It was his<br />

job to carry bags and barrels of rands (small pieces<br />

of leather used in the heels of shoes) to the sorting<br />

room and to storage. These packages were rather<br />

heavy, weighing as much as 100 pounds each—and he<br />

had to lift them up onto a bench or onto storage piles<br />

as much as three to six feet from the floor.<br />

Hardly a suitable job for a grandfather, we would<br />

say!<br />

However, this one was considered hale and hearty<br />

and boasted that he had not seen a doctor for 40 years.<br />

He had been handling barrels and bags in this'plant<br />

for several years when one day, after placing a barrel<br />

on the sorting table, he complained of a sudden<br />

pain in his stomach.<br />

He apparently had a premonition that it was serious,<br />

for he turned to the sorter and said, "I guess<br />

my days of work are about over." His words were<br />

prophetic. He died next evening from an internal<br />

hemorrhage.<br />

The autopsy showed chronic ulcers of the stomach,<br />

which, the surgeon said, had ruptured as a result of<br />

the strain from lifting a heavy barrel


June, 1925<br />

Case No. 229,816. Two men were taking a casting<br />

weighing nine tons from a freight car, using chain<br />

falls and tackle. An eyebolt used to guide the casting<br />

broke, allowing it to swing and crush one of the workmen<br />

against a post. He died in about half an hour.<br />

As a result of this simple slip, Patrick, Francis, William,<br />

Helen, James and a baby are fatherless, and their<br />

mother a widow.<br />

The bolt was seven-eights of an inch in diameter,<br />

and while it was intended to guide rather than lift<br />

the load, a sudden shock or jerk of the casting evidently<br />

strained it to the breaking point. The foreman<br />

had only been on this job about two months,<br />

and his judgment was apparently at fault in the use<br />

of the hoisting tackle or in not keeping his men in a<br />

safe position.<br />

A very similar case was represented by report No.<br />

148,862.<br />

Here a couple of heavy plate castings (weighing<br />

about 3,000 lbs.) were being lifted by a chain and derrick.<br />

These castings were about 5x8 feet in size and<br />

were accordingly rather unwieldy.<br />

A chain was put around them and they were<br />

turned up on edge, when the chain broke and one of<br />

the plates fell over towards a man who was adjusting<br />

a block underneath them. The flesh was stripped from<br />

one leg from the knee to the ankle, and he was pinned<br />

underneath the plate until a new chain could be rigged<br />

and the casting lifted from him. He was hurried to<br />

the hospital and died next day from shock.<br />

I was unable to locate any further details as to the<br />

condition of the chain and do not know whether or<br />

not it was defective.<br />

However, we are all familiar with the punishment<br />

that is commonly administered to chains when they<br />

are placed around a heavy, sharp-edged casting of<br />

this sort, and there is little doubt but that the accident<br />

was due to the combination of abuse of the hoisting<br />

tackle and unsafe placing of the workmen.<br />

Accident No. 179,638 is one where swift and terrible<br />

punishment was visited on a man for his own<br />

disregard of a simple safety precaution.<br />

This man, Tony B , was an ash handler. He<br />

was a sober and industrious worker. He had been in<br />

this country about six years and receipts in his trunk<br />

showed that he had sent a dozen or more money<br />

orders for 1,000 to 2,500 lire each to his wife and son<br />

in Italy, besides contributing to his old father's<br />

support.<br />

His plans for reaping the reward of his industry<br />

were already laid. He had given a steamship company<br />

the first instalment on a ticket, and in a month<br />

or so he was to return to his native land.<br />

He was an ash handler in a large boiler plant and<br />

it was his duty to push a car of hot ashes as they came<br />

from the boiler furnaces onto an elevator, where they<br />

were taken to the ground level and dumped. There<br />

was a track on the elevator floor and a pin was provided<br />

to hold the car in place.<br />

Perhaps he was thinking of his coming reunion<br />

with his family, or was he just plain "careless"? Anyhow,<br />

he neglected to put the safety stop in place, the<br />

ash car projected a little over the edge of the elevator<br />

floor, and when he started the elevator the ash car<br />

was caught by the edge on the edge of the floor above,<br />

knocking Tony from the elevator and then dumping<br />

the car full of red-hot ashes over him.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

211<br />

He was too badly hurt to help himself, and when<br />

some of the other boiler men noticed his plight a few<br />

minutes later, he was fatally burned.<br />

One wonders in this case was it all Tony's fault<br />

or should his "boss" have noticed that he was not<br />

using the safeguard and insisted mi his doing so?<br />

Accident No. 187,630 refers to a shipper whose<br />

work consisted in packing beds and mattresses for<br />

shipment. He was a Russian and had been with the<br />

concern 18 years; one day, according to his own statement,<br />

the end of a spring cut one of his fingers. He<br />

felt badly next day and stayed away from work. By<br />

the time a surgeon was called in his whole system<br />

was saturated with infection, and he died after a losing<br />

fight of 48 days.<br />

The history of this case begins with the young<br />

peasant who lived on a little farm in Russia, and married<br />

a girl on an adjoining farm. After many hardships<br />

he succeeded in reaching the land of promise,<br />

saving his earnings until he could bring his bride<br />

across the water. He worked industriously to establish<br />

a little home in this country—but everything he<br />

had built during these years of patient effort collapsed<br />

as the result of neglecting a tiny scratch on<br />

his little finger!<br />

Case No. 243,784 concerned a husky pressman in<br />

a printing establishment. He was over six feet tall<br />

and assisted in handling rolls of paper weighing about<br />

1,500 pounds; two or three men occasionally lifted<br />

one end of a roll or put a block under it.<br />

One day he had been doing some such heavy lifting,<br />

but evidently did not realize that he had injured<br />

himself and started home, as one of his fellow workmen<br />

said, "jolly and laughing, just as he always was."<br />

A little later he was found dead in the doorway of the<br />

plant, and an autopsy showed that an artery near his<br />

heart had burst.<br />

The examining surgeon in his report graphically<br />

describes how the vessel had bulged like an inflated<br />

inner tube of an auto tire, until it finally burst and<br />

allowed the blood to accumulate around his heart,<br />

causing a back pressure which quickly killed him.<br />

There was evidence in this case that he had had<br />

heart trouble for some time, the valves being partially<br />

grown together. A thorough physical examination<br />

would probably have revealed this trouble and indicated<br />

the danger to him from a job in which he had<br />

to do such heavy lifting.<br />

On the other hand, some mechanical device might<br />

have relieved the heavy strain of this work, so be<br />

could have continued on it and been alive today.<br />

Case No. 196,953 is that of a man handling castings<br />

on a little platform truck alongside a driveway.<br />

An auto truck with a load of coal entered the driveway<br />

behind the man who was handling the castings.<br />

The driveway had a smooth surface of cinder and dirt<br />

and the approaching truck made little noise. The<br />

driver saw the workman, but did not blow his horn<br />

or give any signal, as he thought he could pass by<br />

with a couple of feet clearance.<br />

A box slipped from the hand truck just as the<br />

auto approached, and the trucker stepped backwards<br />

to get in a better position to replace it, evidently not<br />

hearing the auto. Several workmen were around and<br />

two of them cried "Look out," but it was too late.<br />

The trucker was struck by the front of the automobile<br />

and spun around; unable to regain his balance,


212<br />

he fell, double up, in front of the rear wheel of the<br />

auto, which dragged him several feet and caused internal<br />

injuries from which he died within an hour.<br />

He was a Canadian workman and left a widow and<br />

three children.<br />

The men working about this casting yard knew<br />

that trucks were passing frequently, and there had<br />

been comments on their speed. Momentary lack of<br />

watchfulness on the part of the man who was killed<br />

was one cause of the accident, but a blast from the<br />

chauffeur's horn as he approached the unsuspecting<br />

workman might also have averted the tragedy.<br />

While case No. 204,059 is classified as a material<br />

handling accident, it also involved railroad equipment.<br />

A man was shoveling slag from an open box car<br />

on siding No. 1, with siding No. 2 adjacent to it. A<br />

train crew "kicked" a coal car which was intended<br />

for siding No. 2 in from the main line. The switch<br />

on the track where the man was working was open,<br />

however, and his car was struck by the one being<br />

shifted.<br />

The jolt threw him backwards over the end of one<br />

car and he was crushed by the other, although the<br />

total car movement was only a few feet.<br />

This seems to be a clear case of carelessness on<br />

the part of the train crew, as they had been previously<br />

cautioned against bumping into cars on the<br />

siding without warning, and the moving car was<br />

thrown in from the main line with no brakeman on it.<br />

Accident No. 131,249 was another case where a<br />

man was unloading cars. A track repair gang was<br />

working alongside, cutting a piece off a 30-foot steel<br />

rail. After nicking it with a chisel, they planned to<br />

lift it in the air and drop it on another rail to break<br />

off the piece.<br />

The rail was heavy and Dominic was asked to help<br />

lift it. The foreman in charge of the rail-breaking<br />

operation was named Murphy, but he asked Dominic's<br />

foreman, another Italian, to explain that the men<br />

should step back when the rail was dropped. Either<br />

the instructions were not clear or Dominic misunderstood<br />

them, because, instead of stepping back from<br />

the rail, he stepped forward towards it when it was<br />

dropped, and tried to hold it. He was pinned under<br />

the 600-pound weight and lived only a few minutes.<br />

Age as It Affects These Accidents.<br />

One feature of these accidents that impressed me<br />

was the advanced age of the men. Only one of them<br />

was less than 37 years old, three were 58 and three<br />

others ranged from 60 to 70 years. The average was<br />

a trifle under 50 years.<br />

I believe that men who have grown old in industry<br />

should be allowed to remain at work as long as they<br />

can do so with safety and profit to themselves, but<br />

this list of cases shows the importance of finding a<br />

job for them suited to their advancing years.<br />

When we put a man whose arteries are hardening<br />

or whose limbs have lost their strength and agility at<br />

work where heavy lifting is required, and where ability<br />

to make a quick movement may spell the difference<br />

between safety or disaster, we are not doing a kindness<br />

to the man; we are exposing both him and ourselves<br />

to great loss.<br />

My general feeling is that anyone looking over the<br />

descriptions of these accidents could not help but be<br />

impressed with the feeling that practically every one<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

June, 1925<br />

of these casualties of industry was unnecessary. They<br />

represent a mere tiny fraction of the total casualties<br />

to one insurance company, from one cause, in a single<br />

state, over a limited period, yet this little package of<br />

16 yellow cards stands for the loss of $50,000 in compensation<br />

and medical payments alone.<br />

But of course the financial loss is of minor importance<br />

compared to the irreparable damage to the victims<br />

and their families. This group of 16 men left<br />

behind them 12 widows, and 28 fatherless children!<br />

So the problem of handling material shows itself<br />

to be essentially a human problem of a kind that<br />

should make a special appeal to the safety engineer<br />

in his fight against accidents. It has been an interesting<br />

study to me and I hope it will prove so to others.<br />

The principal lessons to be learned from this study<br />

seem to be:<br />

1—The important place which the foreman<br />

holds in such work. When heavy objects are being<br />

handled the lives of his men may be imperilled at<br />

any moment by lack of judgment or proper caution<br />

on his part.<br />

2—The necessity' for selecting the man for the<br />

job, so that individuals with heart trouble or other<br />

<strong>org</strong>anic weaknesses or disease will not be placed<br />

in work where this weakness may endanger their<br />

lives.<br />

3—The importance of prompt antiseptic treatment<br />

of the small cuts and scratches which inevitably<br />

occur where rough objects are being handled.<br />

4—The use of mechanical appliances wherever<br />

they can be adopted, for handling heavy weights,<br />

and the frequent inspection of such appliances in<br />

use to see that they are not allowed to get out of<br />

order or to be used improperly.<br />

Proper Heat Treatment Important in<br />

Hardening Carbon Steel<br />

By A. C. Blackall<br />

A valuable lecture was delivered before the Institute<br />

of Production Engineers in London recently by<br />

S. N. Brayshaw, in which experiments were described<br />

showing that the generally accepted uncertainty of<br />

success in the hardening of carbon tool steels as distinct<br />

from alloy steels is due, not to defects in the<br />

actual hardening process, but to improper heat treatment<br />

before hardening.<br />

A series of 102 blanks was made from one ingot.<br />

Of these two were at once machined and hardened.<br />

They both broke badly. The rest were kept at 825<br />

deg. C. for one hour, and then cooled out in air. Two<br />

blanks were then machined and hardened, and again<br />

broke badly. Varying heat treatment was given to<br />

each two of the remainder, these being heat treated<br />

for an hour at temperatures varying from 750 deg. to<br />

900 deg. C, and afterwards "soaked" for times varying<br />

from 15 to 16 hours. Finally all were cooled out<br />

slowly in sand.<br />

The results demonstrated that prolonged heat<br />

treatment between 715 deg. and 728 deg. C. before the<br />

hardening process proved best suited for the particular<br />

composition of steel used. The general conclusion<br />

arrived at was that the risk of distortion and<br />

breakage following hardening could in nearly all<br />

cases be avoided by a properly investigated preliminary<br />

heat treatment.


June, 1925<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

P o w e r P r e s s e s — T h e i r U s e in I n d u s t r y<br />

For Duplicate Production of Metal Parts in Large Quantities<br />

There Are Few if Any General Types of Tools Which<br />

T H E demand for reduced labor costs, production<br />

in large quantities, economy in material and a<br />

uniform product is responsible for the rapid<br />

growth of the press industry and its continual expansion<br />

into new fields. For duplicate production of<br />

metal parts in large quantities there are few if any<br />

general types of tools which can compare with power<br />

presses. Their infinitely varied possibilities have<br />

necessitated an almost equal variety in the tools developed<br />

to perform operations, which in many cases,<br />

have become quite complex. Necessarily this rapid<br />

expansion of the art has only been made possible by<br />

the efforts of a great many men in widely different<br />

lines.<br />

Many parts previously made from castings or<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ings and finished up by machining, are now<br />

made far more economically, and also better, in power<br />

presses. Many parts could not be produced at a reasonable<br />

price except in power presses. Even greater<br />

development is ahead as the engineers and designers<br />

of articles produced in quantity, become more familiar<br />

with the old and the new methods of press production.<br />

The impetus given to the automotive industry by<br />

the application of power presses is classic. Blanking<br />

and drawing, forming or stretching methods are now<br />

employed to produce heavy side rails and cross frame<br />

members, cowl, body and door parts, crank-cases,<br />

fenders, hubs, axle housings (even for the heaviest<br />

trucks), disc wheels, radiator shells and brake drums.<br />

Hot forming and press f<strong>org</strong>ing methods are being<br />

used on step hangers, pinion blanks, trim hardware,<br />

valve heads and miscellaneous small f<strong>org</strong>ed parts. Instead<br />

of milling the faces of connections, levers and<br />

the like, many are now using knuckle joint type of<br />

presses to squeeze the cleaned f<strong>org</strong>ings accurately<br />

to size. Caps, lamps, tanks, bushings, covers and<br />

many small electrical parts are also press produced and<br />

all this work is done at rates of a thousand to fifty<br />

thousand or more pieces per day.<br />

The case of the automotive industry is cited to give<br />

an idea of the variety and extent of press usage in one<br />

industry. A similar story might be told about the<br />

production of adding machines, typewriters, vending<br />

machines, locks, all sorts of electrical products, metal<br />

furniture, kitchenware, metal packages, miscellaneous<br />

hardware, metal lath, tractors and endless variety of<br />

manufacturing industries. Some firms have developed<br />

one particular operation to a very high degree and<br />

reduced the designing of the dies involved to a mere<br />

matter of form. In so doing they frequently lose track<br />

of other press methods and of the new processes continually<br />

being worked out in other lines.<br />

The different basic methods by which metals can<br />

be press worked may be classified generally according<br />

•Paper presented before the Providence Engineering<br />

Society.<br />

tStaff Engineer, E. W. Bliss Company, Brooklyn, N. Y.<br />

Compare Favorably with Power Presses<br />

By E. V. CRANEf<br />

213<br />

to whether the principal stress they create in the metal<br />

is shearing, tensile or compressive. There are, of<br />

course, processes in which more than one direct stress<br />

enters, and also processes in which simple operations,<br />

such as blank cutting and forming, are combined and<br />

performed simultaneously in one set of tools.<br />

Work which puts the metal in shear includes cutoff,<br />

blank cutting, repunching and piercing or hole<br />

punching operations, all of which are subject to about<br />

the same general rules. For ordinary purposes, to<br />

save unduly frequent regrinding, clearance should be<br />

allowed between the cutting edges where they pass,<br />

amounting to about a tenth of thickness of the stock<br />

for brass and soft steel, and up to an eighth for hard<br />

steel.<br />

To reduce the shock on the tools and strain on<br />

the press, the tools are usually sheared, that is faced<br />

at an angle so that the cutting is not all done at once.<br />

This shear deforms the metal somewhat and accordingly<br />

when cutting blanks the punch should be flat<br />

and the shear should be on the die so that the scrap<br />

will be deformed. For the same reason, in punching<br />

out holes the die should be flat and the shear should<br />

be on the punch.<br />

Below the cutting edge the die should be opened<br />

out at an angle of about 2 deg. for a short distance and<br />

then allowed greater clearance so that slugs or blanks<br />

pushed through will not stick or clog. It is well on<br />

medium size blank cutting dies to provide pilot pins<br />

to guide the punch holder and on very delicate work<br />

to use a special press construction in which the die<br />

and punch are practicallyr a unit independent of the<br />

guidance of the press slide.<br />

Multiple punching and perforating dies are modifications<br />

of hole punching dies, being a collection of<br />

a number of punches arranged in a line or in several<br />

lines as the cast may be. The punches are frequently<br />

flat faced and shear is obtained by stopping<br />

the punches so that some enter ahead of others. As a<br />

punch has to penetrate the metal only about %-in. or<br />

1/3-in. of its thickness to effect shearing, this amount<br />

is usually sufficient for each step. In arranging a line<br />

of punches it is well to have the longest punch, that<br />

is the one that will enter first, in the center. There<br />

is a certain amount of spreading action in the material<br />

evidenced by the bulge or distortion in perforated<br />

stock, which tends to spread and shear or break the<br />

punches when they all enter together, or when the<br />

outer ones enter first. To stand up properly the<br />

punches should be as short and stubby as possible.<br />

Cam actuated strippers which fit the punches and<br />

which move with the slide of the press until they<br />

reach the stock are very useful both in holding the<br />

stock flat on light material and in guiding punches and<br />

permitting the use of short ones.<br />

Another class of shearing operations include the<br />

trimming of shells, blanks and f<strong>org</strong>ings. For the trim-


214 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

ming of f<strong>org</strong>ings and of drawn shells, where there is<br />

just a flange with an irregular edge to be trimmed<br />

to shape by pushing through the die, the construction<br />

followed i^ similar to that in the case of blanking<br />

dies. For trimming shells with straight sides or with<br />

hinged lugs or notches, especially where a square edge<br />

is required, dies are sued which fit the inside and the<br />

outside of the shell. They are held in proper relation<br />

for cutting and given motion in four directions,<br />

to give a smooth edge. The machines in which such<br />

work is done arc known as flat edge trimming machines.<br />

Blanks cut bv ordinary blanking dies have an edge<br />

which is partly cut and partly broken due to the shearing<br />

action after the punch has penetrated only a part<br />

of the distance. Therefore for greatest strength or<br />

where accuracy or square finish are required it is<br />

necessarj to trim or shave the blank. Shaving dies<br />

are built verv much like blanking dies but practically<br />

FIG. 1—Single action double crank press equipped with dies<br />

and a spring pressure drawing attachment.<br />

without clearance, and arc designed to lake off say<br />

.005-in. the first time, and for extreme accuracy .003in.<br />

in a second cut and ,002-in. in a final cut. The<br />

figures mentioned would apply to a blank of say T,s-in.<br />

thickness. An even higher degree of accuracy and finish<br />

is obtainable by pushing the shaved blank through<br />

a burnishing die with round edges and highly polished<br />

surface and made about .001 to .0015 tight according<br />

to the hardness of the material.<br />

It is best on all shearing and blanking work to use<br />

a press with just as short a stroke as is possible. The<br />

velocity with which the punch strikes the material has<br />

a decided bearing on the life of the tools and for this<br />

reason a press with a long stroke and a proportionately<br />

high linear velocity of crankpin cannot be run as<br />

fast on blanking work as a short stroke press. Of<br />

June. 1925<br />

course, where mechanical feeds are used the stroke<br />

must be long enough to give a sufficient time for feeding.<br />

Work which stresses the material chiefly in tension<br />

includes also in most cases a certain amount of internal<br />

compression of the material also. This is especially<br />

true of drawing work. In drawing a shell<br />

from a flat blank, pressure is applied by the punch to<br />

that section of the blank which will be the bottom of<br />

the shell. The rest of the material is held flat by a<br />

blank-holder and as the punch descends drawing the<br />

surplus down into the shape of the shell there is a<br />

tensile stress in the side wall, and a combined tensile<br />

and compression or crowding stress under the blankholder.<br />

The crowding stress is very high and will<br />

form wrinkles which cannot be ironed out if it is not<br />

held flat. This pressure on the blank results in considerable<br />

pressure on the edge of the drawing die over<br />

which the material is being pulled. Therefore this<br />

radius must be finished very smooth, and should not<br />

be so sharp as to flex the metal unduly. The material<br />

used for the drawing die is of importance on account<br />

of the tendency of some metals to pick up when<br />

being pulled over the drawing edge, thus, cast iron<br />

and especially a chrome nickel mixture makes better<br />

drawing dies for sheet steel than steel itself, but is not<br />

as suitable as steel for drawing aluminum or copper.<br />

Drawing work is done cold and as the metal is<br />

naturally deformed a great deal in dragging it from<br />

the flat shape to a cup or shell there is considerable<br />

strain hardening similar to that in cold rolling. This<br />

and the relation between the tensile strength of the<br />

material and the resistance of the flat blank to the<br />

crow fling action of drawing, limit the amount of<br />

work that can be done in a single operation. For<br />

round work it is generally taken that the depth of a<br />

first operation shell cannot exceed its diameter for<br />

economical results. For square and rectangular shells<br />

a general rule is that the length of the shell cannot<br />

exceed six times the corner radius. In rectangular<br />

work the greatest crowding action occurs at the corners<br />

and consequently the tendency to wrinkle is<br />

greater so that more care must be taken to squeeze<br />

the metal there and to hold it out. In redrawing or<br />

reducing operations in which a shell drawn from a flat<br />

blank is drawn down to a smaller diameter, a blankholder<br />

may be used fitting the inside of the shell or<br />

the stiffness of the shell itself may be counted on to<br />

hold out wrinkles. Common practice permits 25 per<br />

cent reduction in diameter for the first redrawing<br />

and a little less in each case for subsequent redraws<br />

when a blankholder is used. Without it 15 per cent<br />

is about the maximum for the first case with proportionate<br />

decreases for the following redraws. There is<br />

a tendency in all drawing work for the metal to thicken<br />

at the outer edge or at the top of the shell. Where<br />

this must be prevented, that is, where the shells must<br />

have parallel walls as in the production of races for<br />

ball bearings, a so-called ironing operation must be<br />

performed. This merely requires construction of the<br />

drawing die with a clearance between punch and die<br />

equal to the final metal thickness required and therefore<br />

less than a normal thickness of the shell if not<br />

ironed out. Where wall thickness is not important<br />

but the shell must be held accurately to size the final<br />

operation is called sizing and while it may amount to<br />

ironing in some cases, it may also require striking<br />

home at the bottom to bring the corners up.


June, 1925<br />

An operation closely allied to drawing is that of<br />

stretching the metal as for automobile body sections,<br />

casket tops and the like. In this work the draw is<br />

very shallow or there may be no drawing-in at all,<br />

however the metal must be held quite tightly around<br />

the edge. The metal must be stretched beyond the<br />

elastic limit, otherwise the product would not hold its<br />

shape upon being released. To hold successfully it<br />

is frequently necessary to use draw beads c n the blankholding<br />

surface, that is, a raised steel edge set into one<br />

surface with a corresponding hollow in the other.<br />

Squeezing the metal over this bead creates sufficient<br />

resistance to prevent or to limit its pulling in.<br />

Bulging of drawn shells is another operation which<br />

involves stretching the metal. The dies in such a case<br />

are either expanding metal dies while in others rubber<br />

or water is used to do the expanding. Thev are usually<br />

subject to quite a bit of experimenting in order to<br />

obtain satisfactory conditions. It is of course possible<br />

to do bulging operations in spinning lathes although<br />

the expert class of help required in this case is<br />

against it.<br />

Stamping corrugations in metal is closely related<br />

to drawing work, being essentially a stretching operation.<br />

The stamping of lettering and ornamental designs,<br />

which are deep compared to the thickness of<br />

the stock, are also in the same class. Dies for such<br />

work should usually be so designed that there is no<br />

actual squeezing of the metal as the pressure is liable<br />

to be of such magnitude as to be dangerous to the<br />

press without benefiting the work in any way.<br />

Bending operations stress the material equally in<br />

compression and tension. The dies required are usually<br />

quite simple, although it is sometimes necessary<br />

to bend the material farther than is finally required<br />

in order to get a permanent set. or else to squeeze<br />

it at the bent corner for the same result. Some bending<br />

operations, such as underturning and some cylinder<br />

forming jobs require the use of a side motion<br />

which, in a press, can be obtained by the use of wedges<br />

attached to the slide and sliding pieces in the die.<br />

Seam closing in the manufacture of pieced tinware,<br />

metal containers and the like is a bending operation<br />

with a final squeeze to set the seam. Wiring operations<br />

also involve bending the material, the punch in<br />

most cases being designed with a radius shape which<br />

starts the metal rolling either over a wire or into a<br />

false wire.<br />

Operations which stress the material in compression<br />

involve higher unit pressures and endanger the<br />

press most as lack of care on the part of the die setter<br />

may stress the press beyond a safe limit. Shallow design<br />

stamping operations are the simplest under this<br />

heading. Here the thickness of the material is not<br />

really changed but the striking force would either be<br />

uniformly distributed or localized at the edges of the<br />

designs. Cold swedging operations such as are used<br />

in place of machining to bring parts accurately to size<br />

cause slight displacement of material and require<br />

knuckle joint presses, which are the most powerful<br />

mechanical type. These same presses are also used<br />

for coining and embossing work. Such operations are<br />

distinguished from stamping in that the thickness of<br />

the material is altered decidedly, internal flow resulting<br />

in raising some parts as others are depressed.<br />

The extrusion of metals in mechanical presses involves<br />

flowing of the metal. Dies for such work<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

215<br />

must necessarily be very strongly constructed and<br />

ol special steels in many cases. Extruding operations<br />

will produce shells or tubes in tin. zinc and copper<br />

with wall thicknesses as low as .004 or .005 of an inch.<br />

Steel has also been successfully extruded, but this<br />

was done hot and with a wall thickness of about y.<br />

m. However, one operation accomplished what had<br />

required seven by ordinary drawing methods.<br />

Mot f<strong>org</strong>ing of metals also involves flowing of material.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing in presses instead of in drop hammers<br />

is becoming quite popular on a considerable class of<br />

work in both brass and steel due to the higher production<br />

rates possible and to the greater life of the<br />

dies.<br />

It is often possible to combine operations and perform<br />

them simultaneously with appreciable saving in<br />

direct labor.<br />

Presses are now built which are arranged to take<br />

from four to seven sets of dies and to perform as many<br />

operations successively at each stroke without inter-<br />

FIG. 2—Inclinable press equipped for rapid production with a<br />

dial fixture. The operation is forming 7^-in. sleigh-bells at<br />

the rate of 35,000 per 10 hours, using dial feed.<br />

mediate handling by the operator. These presses are<br />

equipped with separate slide adjustments for each die<br />

which has proven to be the only satisfactory method<br />

and with various mechanical feeds to start the work,<br />

and to transfer it from station to station. It is well<br />

to remember in planning operations in such presses<br />

that when one die must be repaired or adjusted all of<br />

the dies are out of service so that the delay for upkeep<br />

is proportional to the number of operations. The<br />

operations which can be performed in such presses are<br />

also limited by the amount of cold working that the<br />

material will stand as, with a series of reducing operations<br />

with no intermediate annealing, the metal would


216 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

harden excessively, resulting in considerable waste m<br />

the product.<br />

In the construction of dies, especially those which<br />

are to be used very considerably, it is advisable to use<br />

only the best of materials. The design should be such<br />

that repairs and adjustments can be easily made and<br />

the replacing of cutting parts does not involve completely<br />

rebuilding the die. It is possible in some cases.<br />

where parts to be produced are large and vary in<br />

size and the production is small, to make dies which<br />

are adjustable or which have portions that can be removed<br />

and replaced with others. Such construction<br />

has been followed on casket, jacket and furniture<br />

dies.<br />

It is extremely important to select a press which<br />

is heavy enough to perform the work required of it<br />

without overstraining. It is false economy in the purchase<br />

of a press if its capacity is only equal to the<br />

work it is to perform. The life of dies, especially<br />

cutting dies, appears to be directly dependent upon<br />

FIG. 3—Double crank press in a motor body plant working<br />

on the back section of a closed car body.<br />

the rigidity of the machine in which they are used,<br />

and dies are the most expensive item in any press<br />

business. One instance might be mentioned in which<br />

a large electrical concern was using very expensive<br />

dies in presses which appeared to be doing the work<br />

all right. They were advised to use a press three sizes<br />

heavier with the result that the number of punchings<br />

obtained per grind on the dies was increased from<br />

about 15,000 to 250.000 and the saving on die charges<br />

exceeded the value of the press each month.<br />

( )\ erloaded presses are subject to frequent breakdowns<br />

especially in clutch parts and the resultant<br />

delavs are usually the source of considerable loss to<br />

production shops. Gap frame type presses are usually<br />

June, 1925<br />

favored for small blanking work especially where the<br />

stock conies in strip form. This type of frame, however,<br />

is more subject to spring than the straight sided<br />

tvpe and consequently such presses should have a<br />

greater excess capacity when used for blanking and<br />

similar work.<br />

The bulk of the presses used are single action machines,<br />

that is, having just one slide and one action.<br />

The most generally used are the crank presses, single<br />

crank machines being used for small work and double<br />

crank machines where considerable width is required<br />

between the housings. Both single and double crank<br />

machines are built with either the gap or cut back<br />

type of frame or the straight sided type, which requires<br />

less iron and is less subject to strain, especially<br />

in the case of the built up construction used for the<br />

medium and larger sizes. Built-up frames are made<br />

up of four members, the bed, crown and two uprights,<br />

which are tied together by steel tie rods shrunk in<br />

so that they exert a pressure equal to the maximum<br />

rated capacity of the machine. The smaller sizes of<br />

gap frame presses are built with inclinable frames so<br />

that the whole machine can be tipped back to permit<br />

gravity discharge of the work from the dies.<br />

The bulk of the energy required to perform each<br />

operation is obtained from slowing down of the flywheel,<br />

the maximum slow down under normal conditions<br />

is about 10 per cent, running in extreme cases up<br />

to 20 per cent. Fast presses for work at the bottom<br />

of the stroke only are built with flywheels mounted<br />

directly on their crankshafts.<br />

Gearing of presses permits running the back shaft<br />

and the flywheel at proportionately high speeds and<br />

makes the press capable of working through a longer<br />

stroke due to the greater energy available from the flywheel.<br />

Some small gap frame presses are built with an eccentric<br />

type shaft running front to back and use a<br />

short stroke and a solid connection from the shaft to<br />

the slide. These presses are especally suited to heavy<br />

blanking and forming work, especially in hardware<br />

plants.<br />

In the larger sizes an eccentric type of shaft is<br />

used with bearings on each side similar to the crank<br />

presses and is capable of taking pressures about twice<br />

as great as crankshafts of similar bearing sizes. This<br />

construction is used with proportionately heavier<br />

drives for short stroke presses for f<strong>org</strong>ing and stamping<br />

work.<br />

For extremely high pressure work such as coining<br />

and embossing the presses are built with hardened<br />

steel knuckles or toggles which are strengthened out<br />

to exert the working pressure by a crankshaft at the<br />

back of the machine. These presses require continuously<br />

forced lubrication and create bearing pressures<br />

as high as 15,000 lbs. per square inch.<br />

Double action presses are those built with two<br />

slides, one inside of the other, their function being to<br />

hold with one slide while performing work, whether it<br />

be drawing or forming, with the other slide. Generally<br />

the dwell or holding period of the outer slide occurs<br />

while the inner slide, which is crank driven, is moving<br />

through the lower half of the down stroke.<br />

Cam double action presses are built in most cases<br />

with a pair of constant diameter cams mounted on the<br />

slabs of the crankshafts and arranged with rollers<br />

carried in yokes against their top and bottom surfaces


June, 1925<br />

to control the outer slide. It is evident that in such<br />

machines the blank holding load exerts a bending<br />

strain on the crankshaft in addition to that due to the<br />

inner slide and exerted against the crankpin. The<br />

smaller sizes of cam presses are arranged with a cam<br />

on the end of the shaft outside the frame to lift the<br />

outer slide on the up stroke. This arrangement permits<br />

shaping the cams to suit any special requirements.<br />

Adjustments must, of course, be provided for<br />

both inner and outer slides.<br />

Another type of double action press is built with<br />

a toggle linkage to operate the blank holding slide.<br />

The arrangement in this case is such that the blank<br />

holding strain comes on the frame of the press instead<br />

of on the shaft, giving the machine a proportionately<br />

greater load capacity than the cam presses. In most<br />

cases, however, toggle presses are so constructed that<br />

the blank holding slide floats somewhat, and is not<br />

suitable for carrying cutting dies although these can<br />

be used in the cam type of presses for cut and draw<br />

work. Toggle presses are built in both single and<br />

double crank styles and run as a rule into considerably<br />

larger sizes than do the cam presses<br />

A third type of double action press somewhat similar<br />

to cam presses makes use of eccentrics on the<br />

slabs of the crank to actuate the outer slide. In this<br />

case both slides have a simple harmonic motion and<br />

must be so timed that the fastest portion of the inner<br />

slide stroke coincides with the bottom of the outer<br />

slide stroke. This gives the greatest drawing speed<br />

combined with the best holding effect. Such presses<br />

can be run materially faster than the cam presses but<br />

are suited only to shallow cutting and cupping opera^<br />

tions. The lack of a positive dwell makes deep drawing<br />

operations impossible.<br />

Double action work can also be done in single action<br />

presses when they are equipped with suitable<br />

attachments in the bed to provide the holding effect<br />

for a blank holding ring, built as a part of the die.<br />

The attachments are in the form of either air cushions<br />

connected with regulators and storage tanks or of<br />

coiled springs carried on slings from the bed of the<br />

press. The spring pressure attachment is really preferable<br />

in that it requires less care, but the springs<br />

must be so proportioned in relation to the depth of<br />

draw that their pressure will not increase materially<br />

during the drawing period. On small machines doing<br />

shallow drawing work this pressure attachment is in<br />

the form of a rubber bumper attached to the under<br />

side of the bolster.<br />

Regular presses of all types are built without attachments<br />

of any kind as it is practically impossible<br />

to foretell what particular modification may be required.<br />

There are, however, fairly well standardized<br />

devices for knockout or lifting out work in the dies,<br />

for controlling the clutches automatically for feeding<br />

strip material, blanks or drawn shells automatically<br />

and numerous other devices to better adapt standard<br />

presses to specific work.<br />

Tempering with a Hot-Plate<br />

A unique application of an ordinary electric hotplate<br />

for lowering the temper of the working-ends of<br />

open header dies and solid cold-f<strong>org</strong>ing tools is demonstrated<br />

at the plant of the Buffalo Bolt Company of<br />

North Tonawanda, New York, manufacturers of bolts,<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

217<br />

nuts, wire and bar material. At this plant many tools<br />

and dies are made which must be specially heat treated<br />

in order that production output on automatic and<br />

semi-automatic machines may be had. In the case of<br />

the header dies and solid cold-f<strong>org</strong>ing tools mentioned<br />

above, it is essential that the body of the tools be of<br />

exceptional hardness. At the same time it is necessary<br />

that the working-ends, themselves, have less the<br />

characteristic of hardness, but rather that of toughness.<br />

At this plant it is the custom to first heat these<br />

dies and tools to a temperature of 1450-1500 deg. F.,<br />

following which they are quenched in a saline solution.<br />

After cooling, these dies are again heated—this<br />

time, however, in an oil solution—to a temperature of<br />

about 450 deg. F They are then allowed to cool down<br />

to the normal temperature of the air. Generally this<br />

would constitute the complete heat treating process.<br />

These particular dies and tools, however, are subject<br />

to great strains and shocks. In the case, of carriage<br />

bolt open header dies, particularly, the square<br />

neck opening with its sharp corners constitutes a<br />

weak working part and unless sufficient toughness is<br />

Tempering with an electric hot plate.<br />

incorporated in the metal at this point, the life<br />

die will be very short.<br />

In order to insure this element of toughness, therefore,<br />

at the point wanted without destroying the great<br />

hardness in the body of the dies and tools themselves,<br />

the above named company has installed an ordinary<br />

electric hot-plate for tempering the ends. This plate,<br />

as can be seen from the illustration, is about 12 in. x<br />

16 in. in size, and has a series of electrically heated<br />

wires underneath. The plate is placed on a small castiron<br />

frame about three feet in height.<br />

In operation these dies and tools, after the final<br />

cooling, have the working ends polished with a piece<br />

of emery cloth. They are then placed on the heated<br />

plate and left there until the ends assume a bluish<br />

color. This designates that the drawback operation<br />

has been completed. The dies are then removed and<br />

allowed to cool in the open air. By doing this the<br />

hardness of the working-ends is reduced so that greater<br />

toughness and less brittleness is had. At the same<br />

time the original hardness in the body of the tools and<br />

dies still remains.


21X Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

A. G. A. Meets at Atlantic City<br />

THE establishment of a national research <strong>org</strong>anization<br />

to make gas available to all industrial fuel<br />

users was the proposal made at the annual spring<br />

conference of the American Gas Association by<br />

Charles A. Munroe. chairman of the Board of the<br />

Laclede Gas Light Companv of St. Louis and a former<br />

president of the Association.<br />

As outlined by Mr. Munroe, the objects of the new<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization, to be underwritten by the manufactured<br />

gas companies of the country, would be to develop<br />

efficient gas burning equipment for all fuel users in<br />

industry and enable the gas companies *o meet the<br />

demand for gas fuel wherever beat is required.<br />

It is understood that Mr. Munroe has the support<br />

of other leading public utility executives for his project,<br />

and that leaders of the gas industry are studying<br />

its details with the greatest interest.<br />

"The present tendency to conserve our national<br />

resources, especially oil and natural gas, makes it inevitable<br />

that the manufactured gas industry will have<br />

to shoulder the heating burdens of the country." he<br />

said. "The gas industry is now equipped to supply<br />

all the immediate fuel requirements for industry, millions<br />

of dollars having been spent for improvements<br />

and new construction during the past two years.<br />

"We must now go a step farther by developing gas<br />

burning appliances to make gas the universal fuel.<br />

as it is now the most economical medium, for even the<br />

most intricate and exact of heating operations.<br />

"Although 25 per cent of the present output of<br />

manufactured gas in this country is being used in<br />

industry, the majority of industrial fuel users are still<br />

cither employing wasteful and outworn methods of<br />

combustion, or have been forced to turn to electricity,<br />

a power producer, in spite of the fact that electricity<br />

costs three times as much gas and also in spite of the<br />

fact that electric appliances cost twice as much as gas<br />

appliances.<br />

"Heretofore no one has been able to spend enough<br />

time and money to develop the proper appliance for<br />

the utilization of gas fuel in industry. As the demand<br />

for gas is increasing, the immediate development<br />

of such appliances becomes an obligation."<br />

Mr. Munroe proposed that a fund be provided to<br />

finance an <strong>org</strong>anization to carry on research along<br />

these lines over a period of five years. He stated that<br />

there are companies now engaged in manufacturing<br />

industrial appliances who could undertake this work<br />

and carry it to a successful conclusion.<br />

Silicon Steel Engineering Foundation<br />

When Sir Robert A. Hadfield produced manganese<br />

steel, as recorded in Narrative 35, he opened an area<br />

of vast possibilities, the field of alloy steels. He and<br />

other metallurgists pressed its exploration successfully.<br />

The world has profited greatly. Without these<br />

alloy steels, having remarkable properties, the progress<br />

of mankind would have been retarded. There would<br />

be no automobiles, no airplanes. Many machines,<br />

structures and processes would have been impracticable.<br />

Hundreds of articles in daily use could not be<br />

made, or would cost much more.<br />

Silicon steel, also invented by Sir Robert A. Hadfield,<br />

is a member of this family of alloys. First pro­<br />

June, 1925<br />

duced in quantity about 1906, it has in 18 years saved<br />

through the electrical industry alone, more than<br />

enough money to build the Panama Canal. Reduction<br />

in waste of energy in electrical equipment is estimated<br />

to save now more than 5,000,000 tons of coal a year.<br />

Many hundred thousand tons of silicon steel have been<br />

manufactured, mostly in thin plates for cores of electrical<br />

transformers.<br />

Late in the 19th century, the best core material<br />

available was giving much trouble. Researchers were<br />

struggling with the problems. Hence the great importance<br />

of this invention, which was named "Low<br />

Hysteresis Steel" because of its remarkable magnetic<br />

properties. "Hysteresis" is a term used by engineers<br />

and scientists in several connections. In brief, magnetic<br />

hysteresis is the tendency of magnetic materials<br />

to persist in any magnetic state which already exists.<br />

It leads to loss of energy, which appears as heat, when<br />

the magnetic state of the object is changed. This<br />

and other losses are greatly reduced by silicon steel.<br />

Silicon steel was not the result of a "hunch" or a<br />

"happy thought." Hadfield's invention of manganese<br />

steel was followed by the no less important invention<br />

by him of silicon steel. This attracted the attention<br />

of scientific workers and in 1888 a committee of the<br />

British Association invited him to assist in investigating<br />

the effect of high percentages of silicon. In September,<br />

1889, he reported some of his discoveries to the<br />

Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain. Only partial<br />

success had yet been achieved; as so often happens,<br />

one discovery led to others. In 1899, Sir William Barrett,<br />

F.R.S. (then Professor of Experimental Physics<br />

at the Royal College of Science, Dublin) discovered its<br />

extraordinary magnetic and electrical characteristics;<br />

during the next three years Mr. W. Brown B. Sc. (an<br />

old pupil and assistant of the late Lord Kelvin), cooperated<br />

with Sir Robert Hadfield in further research.<br />

Joint papers by Barrett, Brown and Hadfield were<br />

read to the Royal Dublin Society and to the Institution<br />

of Electrical Engineers in 1899 and 1902.<br />

Not, however, until several years later, after much<br />

experimental work had been done and many difficulties<br />

overcome, was Hadfield able to produce silicon steel as<br />

a marketable commodity.<br />

Hadfield was granted a United States patent in<br />

1903 for his invention, which consisted in heating steel<br />

containing 2y to 4 per cent of silicon to about 900<br />

to 1100 deg. C., cooling it, then reheating it to between<br />

700 and 850 deg. C, and thereupon allowing it to cool<br />

slowly. Other improved methods followed and further<br />

patents were obtained.<br />

Silicon steel, under low magnetizing forces, is far<br />

more magnetic than the best Swedish iron. Furthermore,<br />

it does not suffer from "ageing"; that is, its good<br />

magnetic properties do not deteriorate, as happened<br />

with the iron.<br />

Silicon, the pure metalloid, has not been seen by<br />

many persons; but silica (silicon dioxide) is familiar<br />

to everybody in sand and quartz. Silica is the principal<br />

ingredient of glass; it is one of the most abundant<br />

substances of the outer crust of the earth. All iron<br />

and steel contain at least minute quantities of silicon.<br />

Hadfield discovered how to combine large percentages<br />

of silicon with iron and make a special steel<br />

for much needed purposes and this steel when appropriately<br />

treated developed the desired magnetic<br />

qualities.<br />

Thus success rewards systematic research.


June, 1925<br />

Microscopic Examination of Sand<br />

By A. Traeger<br />

The quality of a casting naturally depends upon<br />

the condition of the moulding sand. While there are<br />

plenty of sand pits in which an entirely satisfactory<br />

grade of moulding sand is deposited, many foundries.<br />

clue to economic reasons, cannot avail themselves of<br />

same, and are compelled to utilize the less satisfactory<br />

grade of sand found in pits within their vicinity. In<br />

many cases one resorts to mixing of sand of different<br />

quality and endeavors in this manner to empirically<br />

create a moulding material of as good a quality as<br />

existing conditions permit.<br />

Recently a number of papers have been published<br />

dwelling upon scientific methods of testing the moulding<br />

sand in order to eliminate those less dependable<br />

means employed by the moulder in selecting sand,<br />

which more or less is a matter of guess work.<br />

Microscope for examining moulding sand.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

The testing methods employed during recent years<br />

were based, aside from determining the fire-durability<br />

as well as the porosity and permeability of gases, upon<br />

chemical analysis. Total analysis, however, was of<br />

minor importance and the principal point involved is<br />

to establish the ratio of quartz and clay percent within<br />

the moulding sand, which can be accomplished by<br />

means of a rational analysis. The two principal constituents<br />

of moulding sand, of which quarts represents<br />

the body-substance and clay the agglutinant, are distinguished<br />

from each other through a definite size of<br />

grain and their quantitative relation. For the determinaton<br />

of these two factors several methods have<br />

been suggested from time to time. According to<br />

"Schoene-Wabnschaffe',, the size of grain is determined<br />

by means of levigation-process, which method<br />

219<br />

has recently been materially improved through suggestions<br />

made by "Treuheit". According to the latter,<br />

the individual grain-fraction can be determined in<br />

a reliable and quick manner.<br />

Aside of this somewhat troublesome and at the<br />

same time yet procedure, the microscope, at relatively<br />

low power, renders a very satisfactory image of the<br />

distribution of the sharply outlined quartz grains in<br />

conjunction with the finely powdered clay. As an instrument<br />

which is particularly suited for these examinations,<br />

the Binocular Ore-Dressing Microscope<br />

after Schneiderhoehn* is recommended. Prof. Piwowarsky<br />

of the Institute of Technology at Aachen<br />

(Germany), refers to this apparatus in the journal<br />

"Giesserei", vol. 44, page 721, as rendering most reliable<br />

results for the purpose described. With the<br />

aid of the binocular ore-dressing microscope the predominant<br />

grain sizes of new moulding sand and sand<br />

already used, as well as of the intermediate products<br />

can be determined within a few minutes.<br />

The circular glass plate, ruled in square cm, fitted<br />

within the metal stage of the microscope, facilitates<br />

the counting of the individual grains and the determination<br />

of their relative quantities. The size of the<br />

grains is measured by the aid of net-micrometers of<br />

varying values, corresponding to the mesh of sieves<br />

as are utilized in dressing. The micrometers referred<br />

to are inserted into the ocular tubes. As another eminent<br />

advantage should be mentioned that the binocular<br />

ore-dressing microscope yields an image of highlystereoscopic<br />

character and that the instrument permits<br />

prolonged use without the least eyestrain.<br />

•Manufactured by Ernst Lcitz, Wetzlar (Germany).<br />

Aims of American Refractories Institute<br />

Hon. William C. Sproul, former governor of the<br />

state of Pennsylvania, has recently accepted the presidency<br />

of the American Refractories Institute. This is<br />

a new <strong>org</strong>anization that was formed for the purpose<br />

of promoting the common interests of the manufacturers<br />

and consumers of refractory materials, the first<br />

meeting having been held on April 7 at the Mellon Institute<br />

of Industrial Research of the University of<br />

Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Refractories, or heat-resisting materials, are of<br />

vital importance in many key industries. In their<br />

manufacture such raw materials as fire-clay, silica<br />

rock, magnesite, chromite and diaspor are used, the<br />

state of Pennsylvania being the largest producer, although<br />

manufacturing plants are located in no less<br />

than 24 states. The annual production of all types<br />

of refractories has a value of approximately $75,000,-<br />

000, those made of fire clay representing about 75 per<br />

cent of this total.<br />

Such industries as those producing iron, steel and<br />

many other metals, Portland cement, steam and electrical<br />

power, porcelain, enameled ware, glass and<br />

manufactured gas are dependent upon refractory products<br />

for the economical operation of their plants, as<br />

refractories form the lining for their furnaces and cannot<br />

be replaced satisfactorily with an}- other type of<br />

material. Refractories are also used to a considerable<br />

extent in the chemical industries, in baking ovens, oil<br />

refineries, and in the production of man}- other commodities<br />

in common use. In nearly all of these manufacturing<br />

processes, the furnace output and the cost


220 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

of production are greatly affected by the temperature<br />

of operation, the higher the temperature the greater<br />

the furnace capacity. The modern trend, therefore, is<br />

to use as high a temperature as the refractory furnace<br />

lining will allow. Accordingly, there is a big need for<br />

heat-resisting materials that will withstand more<br />

severe usage than the modern products will bear, and<br />

it is planned to meet this industrial requirement<br />

through developments arising from research work carried<br />

on by the Refractories Institute. Laboratories<br />

and a corps of technical specialists are to be maintained<br />

at Mellon Institute for conducting tests on raw<br />

materials and finished products and to make investigations<br />

dealing with the problem of consumers as well<br />

as of manufacturers. For the first year thio work is<br />

being largely sustained by the manufacturers of refractories,<br />

but it is planned to interest the users sufficiently<br />

that they will also participate in the support<br />

of the project. As great economies are possible, there<br />

is every reason to believe that the full co-operation<br />

of the users will be obtained.<br />

In discussing the plans of the American Refractories<br />

Institute, Mr. Sproul made the following statement<br />

:<br />

"This is an unselfish attempt on the part of a large<br />

number of men who are vitally interested in the refractories<br />

industry to meet the problems that arise<br />

from the present-day methods of quantity production.<br />

I predict that with the help of the new <strong>org</strong>anization<br />

great economies will be effected through the development<br />

of superior products, lower costs of manufacturing,<br />

and a clearer understanding of the conditions under<br />

which the products will give efficient service in<br />

manufacturing practice. I hope that the consuming<br />

industries will recognize the merit of this undertaking<br />

and give the full co-operation that is necessary to success<br />

in industrial research of this broad scope."<br />

New Type Electric Lift Tructor<br />

The success of the electric lift tructor within buildings<br />

has tempted many users to increase the range<br />

of this type to more distant points on the premises<br />

where runways are in poor condition. In most instances<br />

this has required the extension of runways,<br />

although some concerns have not given proper values<br />

to such improvements. On the other hand, the yards<br />

and storage spaces are so extensive that the laying of<br />

ideal trucking surfaces would possibly require a prohibitive<br />

investment.<br />

The improvement of the trucking tool has kept<br />

pace with the encouraging interest taken by the average<br />

user in its employment. The Elwell-Parker Electric<br />

Company, Cleveland, has developed a heavier unit<br />

of the electric lift type especially suited to travel runways<br />

not altogether smooth. This haulage unit is<br />

of broader gauge than those designed particularly for<br />

inside operation. The gauge of front and rear wheels<br />

is the same, i.e., 30 inches. They are fitted with 22-in.<br />

drive and 15-in. front wheels and with either 3y2 or<br />

4y2-in. tread. Drive wheels are fitted with double row<br />

ball bearings weighing 13 lbs. each, and radial and<br />

thrust bearings measuring 7 in. in outside diameter.<br />

These wheels are carried on drop f<strong>org</strong>ed knuckles<br />

with drop f<strong>org</strong>ed levers pressed upon tapered serrations,<br />

assuring a firm union of the two. These knuck-<br />

June, 1925<br />

les support the weight of the axle, frame and load on<br />

a steel ball bearing recessed in a cup at the upper ends.<br />

The levers are fitted with ball ends received in steering<br />

rod sockets. All rods are placed high beneath<br />

the platform to avoid contact with obstructions on<br />

runway-s. The full floating alloy steel drive shafts<br />

are pressed into drop f<strong>org</strong>ed clutch plates bolted to<br />

outside of drive wheels. These shafts are fitted with<br />

chrome-vanadium universal joints and engage the<br />

splines of differential.<br />

An innovation in tructor design is found in the alldrop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed differential. The differential carries a<br />

special Brown & Sharpe phosphor bronze worm wheel,<br />

lock bolted between the two halves of the drop f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

differential cage. A multi-thread Brown & Sharpe<br />

steel worm on radial and thrust bearings with the<br />

above parts of differential, are assembled and adjusted<br />

at the bench and the whole dropped into the axle differential<br />

pot. A new type of universal joint inside<br />

brake wheel connects drive worm to motor shaft with<br />

demountable armature. Motor is fitted with ball bearings.<br />

New type electric lift tructor.<br />

Another feature found in this type is the flexibility<br />

of the drive unit when traveling over rough surfaces<br />

or when platform is loaded unevenly. The tructor<br />

platform measures 40 in. in width by 72 in. in length<br />

and is formed from a single steel plate with deep side<br />

flanges. The platform nose is tapered to aid its insertion<br />

beneath a skid even though approached from<br />

an angle.<br />

The lift of this platform is 6y in. or more than<br />

that of any other lift type tructor. It is 17 in. high<br />

when in lowest position and 23y in. when raised.<br />

The importance of this is evident when considering<br />

the following operation and facts:<br />

The underside of skid should clear the top of platform<br />

when down by y in. when tires are new, as the<br />

skid may not be placed on level floor. Then as tires<br />

become worn, there being practically 1 in. of rubber<br />

on tires, this clearance will be increased by just that<br />

much. A-Mlowing for these conditions, the leg of the<br />

skid will clear the floor by from 5 to 5y in., which is<br />

none too much. The underneath clearances of the<br />

tructor between axles is 7 in., as no lift mechanism<br />

or working parts such as lift units or batteries save<br />

the steering rods, are beneath platform.<br />

Clearances are important when tructor crosses<br />

door sills, passes over the crest of an incline or a<br />

wheel drops into a runway depression. The frame<br />

on this new type is of the standard commercial angles


June, 1925<br />

and channel heavy section type, hot riveted throughout<br />

and offers possibilities for varying platform<br />

lengths<br />

The low set, all-steel battery compartment at one<br />

end is fitted with removable end doors and hinged<br />

cover to facilitate inspection or quick exchange of Exide<br />

or Edison storage batteries.<br />

The wiring is unusual in that the leads between<br />

controller and battery are continuous — no splices —<br />

to motor brush studs and motor field coils.<br />

The controller is of an entirely new design with<br />

reverse drum.<br />

Alloy Steel Rivet Sets<br />

Ingersoll-Rand Company, 11 Broadway, New<br />

York, has now produced a rivet set for pneumatic<br />

hammers which lasts longer than three, four or even<br />

more ordinary sets. Users are finding it the most<br />

economical set they can buy because of the great increase<br />

in rivets driven per set and the avoiding of delays<br />

and losses of time due to breakage. This new set<br />

is called the "Jackset".<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

221<br />

This torch is very efficient and utilizes the highly<br />

specialized and standardized parts of the Milburn cutting<br />

and welding torches. It insures a correct and<br />

intimate mixture of the oxygen and acetylene resulting<br />

in "super mixing" and non-flashback qualities.<br />

I his torch is adapted to perform welding as well as<br />

cutting work by the mere interchange of tips. It<br />

Combination cutting and welding torch<br />

preforms practically all the cutting and welding o<br />

tions within range of the process with highest efficiency<br />

and economy.<br />

The torch is of bronze f<strong>org</strong>ings and special seamless<br />

tubing, constructed to withstand constant servce.<br />

The tips are made of solid copper and are interchangeable<br />

with a large number of low pressure<br />

torches of other makes. This torch carries with it<br />

the same guarantee as the company's Standard Milburn<br />

Apparatus.<br />

American Iron and Steel Institute Holds 27th<br />

Annual Meeting at New York<br />

More than the usual thousand members and guests<br />

enjoyed Judge Gary's dinner at the Commodore Hotel,<br />

May 22.<br />

Following Sir Esme Howard, the British Ambassador's<br />

remarks, the chairman proceeded in his discussion<br />

of "Diseases of Industry" Taxes, both direct<br />

Alloy steel rivet set.<br />

and indirect, have become a terribly heavy burden;<br />

the high cost of living has upset natural equilibrium;<br />

but the most acute symptom is the abnormal, unnecessary,<br />

timid and ill-poised mental attitude of managers<br />

themselves. With hope and belief, determination and<br />

energy, the skies will clear.<br />

The chairman expressed his confirmed optimism<br />

It is made of a high quality alloy steel, which will<br />

in the economic future of the United States, basing<br />

stand a much greater degree of heat from hot rivets,<br />

his promises on outstanding natural resources, em­<br />

without the temper becoming drawn. It is specially<br />

phasized today by seasonal crop outlook, which is re­<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed and then heat treated by-a new process. This<br />

ported above the average. Conditions in foreign<br />

new set is the result of years of experience in build­<br />

countries, financial, commercial and political, are<br />

surely improving; this improvement must favorably<br />

ing rivet sets and of hundreds of tests on different<br />

affect the industries of America, including the iron<br />

steels and heat treatments, made in the effort to produce<br />

a tool better able to withstand the stresses of<br />

and steel industry.<br />

riveting service than the ordinary carbon steel rivet The technical papers presented were of the usual<br />

set.<br />

high quality. Wm. J. Corbett, of the Electric Steel<br />

Founder's Research, discussed Factors in Steel Foundry<br />

Business; L. H. Miller, of the American Institute<br />

Combination Cutting and Welding Torch<br />

of Steel Construction, reviewed the developments evident<br />

in the structural industry; H. D. Savage, vice<br />

A low pressure torch which will operate on either president, Combustion Engineering Company, empha­<br />

low pressure or high pressure gas with equal effisized the importance of better furnace wall design and<br />

ciency. It is especially constructed to operate with construction ;W. H. Bailey, Illinois Steel Company,<br />

low pressure acetylene gas, city gas or hydrogen. It traced the developments toward larger blooming mills<br />

is excellent for use with a low pressure acetylene gen­ and C. O. Hadley, Alan Wood Iron & Steel Company,<br />

erator.<br />

offered a basis for revised billet classification.


222 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

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P E R S O N A L S<br />

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W B. Huntle\ has been appointed district sales<br />

manager of the Buffalo territory for the Union Drawn<br />

Steel Company, Beaver Falls. Pa. His headquarters.<br />

effective May 1, are at 731 Marine Trust Building,<br />

Buffalo. * * *<br />

H. L. Stevens has resigned as general manager of<br />

sales for the Central Iron & Steel Company, Harrisburg.<br />

Pa. He had been associated with the company<br />

for two and one-half years and prior to that had been<br />

with the Lackawanna Steel Company for 14 years in<br />

charge of its sales in the Buffalo district and in the<br />

New England district with headquarters at Boston.<br />

* * *<br />

C. H. Martin now is the district representative in<br />

Wisconsin and Illinois for Holcroft & Company, Detroit,<br />

contracting engineers. Mr. Martin took up his<br />

new duties May 1, having previously been with the<br />

Peoples Gas Light & Coke Company. Chicago. His<br />

headquarters will be in Chicago. Holcroft & Company<br />

are contracting engineers for open hearth furnaces,<br />

annealing furnaces, coke ovens and other<br />

furnaces. * * *<br />

J. W. Hargate, tor many years connected with the<br />

Scullin Steel Company, St. Louis, has been appointed<br />

general purchasing agent of the National Enameling<br />

& Stamping Company with office in Granite City, 111.<br />

Mr. Hargate for five vears had been in charge of the<br />

purchasing department of the Scullin Steel Company.<br />

F. L. Kohlhase. National Stamping & Electric<br />

Works. Chicago, has been elected president of the Chicago<br />

Machinery Club for the ensuing vear, succeeding<br />

H. S. White of the Cleveland Twist'Drill Co.<br />

* * *<br />

Thomas J. Fitzgerald has severed his partnership<br />

with the Fitzgerald F<strong>org</strong>ing & Heat Treating Company<br />

of Springfield, Mass.<br />

* * *<br />

H. D. Church, formerly chief engineer of the truck<br />

department of the Packard Motor Car Company, and<br />

lor the past 18 months assistant chief engineer of the<br />

Chevrolet Company, went to the White Motor Company,<br />

May 15, as director of engineering.<br />

* * *<br />

G. H. Webb has been appointed Philadelphia sales<br />

manager of the Central Steel Company of Massillon,<br />

Ohio. He succeeds Mr. A. B. Cooper, who died suddenly<br />

at his home in Philadelphia. May 3. Mr. Webb<br />

has been identified with the Central Steel Company<br />

over 11 years and is thoroughly acquainted with their<br />

manv analyses of Agathon alloy steels.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

Louis J. Bitner. aged 26. metallurgical engineer of<br />

the Jones &• Laughlin Steel Corporation, was injured<br />

fatally by an automobile in Pittsburgh. May 31. Mr.<br />

Bitner was a graduate of the Pennsylvania State College<br />

and was formerly a metallurgical engineer of the<br />

Central Iron & Steel Companv. Harrisburg. Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

Douglas P. Cook, president of the Boston Pressed<br />

Metal Company, Worcester. Mass.. president of the<br />

June, 1925<br />

Worcester Branch of the National Metal Trades Association,<br />

and former president of the National Pressed<br />

Metal Association, died suddenly May 25 of heart disease<br />

while aboard a train in Cleveland on his way<br />

home to Worcester from a business trip. He was a<br />

graduate of Worcester Academy and of Harvard University,<br />

and had been a leader in the development of<br />

the pressed metal industry for many years. He was<br />

the youngest man ever selected as president of the<br />

National Pressed Metal Association.<br />

* * *<br />

Carl H. Breaker, former advertising manager of<br />

the Diamond Chain & Manufacturing Company, Indianapolis,<br />

died recently at Atlanta, Ga. He left for<br />

Florida some time ago because of illness.<br />

* * *<br />

A. B. Cooper, Jr., Philadelphia district sales manager<br />

for the Central Steel Company, Massillon, Ohio,<br />

(lied suddenly of heart failure in Philadelphia. May 5,<br />

at the age of 68 years. He previously had been a steel<br />

salesman for the Penn Seaboard Steel Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles P Wetmore. widely known inventor and<br />

designer of metal-working tools, died at his home in<br />

Milwaukee, April 28, at the age of 62 years. He was<br />

born in Waterbury, Conn., and served his apprenticeship<br />

with Eaton, Cole & Burnham Company at Bridgeport,<br />

later going to New York and then to Chicago,<br />

where he established the Wetmore Mechanical Laboratories.<br />

The business later was moved to Milwaukee.<br />

Mr. Wetmore founded the Wetmore Reamer Cornpan}-<br />

and then the Wetmore Gibbons Company, which<br />

a year or two ago was taken over by the A. 0. Smith<br />

Corporation, manufacturer of automobile frames and<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings. Mr. Wetmore was retained as designing<br />

engineer. He has more than 500 inventions of tools<br />

to his credit, the latest being automatic threading and<br />

generating machines.<br />

* * *<br />

William H. Wiley, for 41 years treasurer of the<br />

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, died on<br />

Saturday, May 2, in New York.<br />

* * *<br />

Dr. Charles W Burrows, one of the leading American<br />

authorities on the magnetic testing of steel, died<br />

on May 7th. He was at one time a member of the<br />

technical staff of the Bureau of Standards, having<br />

charge of the magnetic section. He was a member of<br />

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Society<br />

of Automotive Engineers, American Society of<br />

Mechanical Engineers, American Society for Testing<br />

Materials and the American Society for Steel Treating,<br />

as well as the Engineers Club of New York.<br />

* * *<br />

Wheaton Bradish Byers, president of the New<br />

England Metallurgical Corporation and treasurer of<br />

the A. E. Hunt Steel Company, both of Boston, died<br />

recently at his home. 49 Grove Street, in that city.<br />

Mr. Byers was born in Newton Center, Mass., about<br />

32 years ago, and graduated from Harvard College<br />

with the class of 1915. During the war Mr. Byers<br />

was a captain in the Ordnance Department. He was<br />

a member of the Harvard Club in both Boston and<br />

New York.<br />

* * *<br />

Frank Transue, vice president of the Transue &<br />

Williams Steel Companv, Alliance, Ohio, died April<br />

28 at the age of 82 vears.


June, 1925<br />

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PLANT NEWS<br />

MI)l)lltltII1llllllll>ll>ll1lll>ILMI1tllllllllll11JlIin]1>lllJ11MIIMIIIIIIIItl^lllllllMlltllllllllMl)ti4IIIIIIMU))bllllllllMltl!IIIIIIIIIIIUIllill!llliniltltMIIMIIIIIUIUlUEIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMHlll<br />

Ferro Enamel Supply Company, Cleveland, has<br />

bought a two-story building which will be utilizedfor<br />

the manufacture of equipment formerly purchased.<br />

Offices remain in the Keith Building, where additional<br />

space has been taken. The laboratory in the<br />

Liberty Building is continued.<br />

Metal Tube Manufacturing Company, Bremner<br />

Manufacturing Company and United States Stamping<br />

& Foundry Company, all of Chicago, have been consolidated<br />

under the latter name at 1448 South Laflin<br />

Street. Pattern, machine, die and tool making will be<br />

carried on by the new company with larger facilities<br />

than formerly. * * *<br />

Benjamin Chalick and associates have <strong>org</strong>anized a<br />

company which has taken over the plant of the Wagner<br />

Process Company, Lansing, Mich., for the production<br />

of stamped metal ware and will add machinery<br />

to turn out paper products.<br />

* * *<br />

Contract for a recuperative carbonization furnace<br />

for the Carbon Products Company, Lancaster, Ohio,<br />

has been awarded to the Chapman-Stein Furnace<br />

Company, Mt. Vernon, Ohio. The furnace will be<br />

used in the manufacture of carbon electrodes.<br />

* * *<br />

Crown Machine Company, 809 Winnebago street,<br />

Milwaukee, Wis., has added equipment to produce<br />

light and heavy stampings, installing modern presses.<br />

The company heretofore has been building special machinery<br />

for confectioners, bakers, printers and laundries,<br />

as well as jigs and dies. L. E. Buchholz is<br />

president. * * *<br />

Corry-Jamestown Manufacturing Company, Corry,<br />

Pa., manufacturer of steel furniture, has occupied its<br />

new four-story plant. A large press and new ovens<br />

are being installed.<br />

The Thomson Electric Welding Company of<br />

Lynn, Mass., has moved its Chicago office from 817<br />

Washington Blvd. to 514 Machinery Hall, on West<br />

Washington Street. The office is in charge of F. H.<br />

Leslie. This company also announces that it has discontinued<br />

its connection with the English & Miller<br />

Machinery Company of Detroit and is now represented<br />

in this territory by James A. Muir, whose<br />

headquarters are in the General Motors Building. On<br />

June 1 the Cincinnati office will be discontinued and<br />

a new office opened at 852 Leader Building, Cleve<br />

land, in charge of C. E. Seifert and M. G. Littlefield.<br />

* * *<br />

The Keiner Metal F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, 8746 123rd<br />

Street, Richmond Hill, N. Y., has been <strong>org</strong>anized to<br />

manufacture press f<strong>org</strong>ing brass, copper, duralumin<br />

and steel. The building and equipment have been<br />

provided. Output includes f<strong>org</strong>ings up to 3 lb.<br />

Henry A. Keiner, president, has been in this line since<br />

1883. Harry C. Keiner is secretary-treasurer and W.<br />

H. Klocke, who has been connected with the E. W.<br />

Bliss Company for the past 15 years as chief engineer,<br />

is vice president and manager . The company is a<br />

subsidiary of the Keiner Williams Stamping Company.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

223<br />

Contract has been let by the Heintz Manufacturing<br />

Company, Front and Olney Streets, Philadelphia,<br />

manufacturer of pressed steel automobile bodies, to<br />

the William F. Newberry Company for a one-story<br />

addition to cost $40,000.<br />

* * *<br />

The Marks-Fiske-Zeigler Company, South and<br />

Rademacher Streets, Detroit, iron and steel products,<br />

has acquired the plant on Artillery Avenue, fronting<br />

on the lines of the Michigan Central and Wabash<br />

Railroads, formerly occupied by the Motor City<br />

Stamping Company. The structure approximates<br />

15,000 sq. ft. of floor space, and will be remodeled as<br />

a storage and distributing plant for steel sheets, terne<br />

plate and other products.<br />

* * *<br />

National Machinery Company, Tiffin, Ohio, has<br />

re-elected Earl Frost president and general manager.<br />

Mrs. August Rehr was elected vice president, Henry<br />

J. Weller secretary, Joseph P. Bork assistant secretary,<br />

and William L. Hertzer treasurer.<br />

Tessier Sheet Metal Works, Wisconsin Rapids,<br />

Wis., has been bought by E. B. Bennett, Aberdeen,<br />

S. D., who will continue operation.<br />

Republic Flow Meters Company, Chicago, has<br />

opened a factory branch at 617 Engineers Building,<br />

Cleveland, in charge of L. C. Wilson, formerly in the<br />

company's Pittsburgh office.<br />

* * *<br />

Smith-Springfield Body Corporation, West Springfield,<br />

Mass., has been <strong>org</strong>anized to take over a corporation<br />

of the same name and the Springfield Body<br />

Corporation, and bus bodies will be manufactured.<br />

James N. Swift is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Charles Parker Company, manufacturers of<br />

hardware at Meriden, Conn., has increased its directorate<br />

by the election of L. C. Parker, Charles Parker<br />

and E. P. Lyon to the board. William H. Lyon, who<br />

was secretary-treasurer of the company, has been<br />

elected president to succeed Dexter Parker, decreased.<br />

William R. Bannister was elected treasurer and<br />

Charles S. Parker was elected secretary. Wilbur F.<br />

Parker continues as vice president.<br />

* * *<br />

The W. W. Sly Manufacturing Company announces<br />

the establishment of a branch office at 215<br />

Security Bldg., Springfield, Mass. This office will be<br />

in charge of Daniel L. Harris, who for some time past<br />

has been assistant manager of sales.<br />

* * *<br />

Tobin Tool & Die Company, Fond du Lac, Wis.,<br />

has leased the former plant of the Drophead Projector<br />

Company in that city and will have triple its former<br />

floor space. This move is made necessary by demands<br />

of the Stewart-Warner Corporation, Chicago,<br />

for tools for its radio production.<br />

* * *<br />

Badger Manufacturing Company, 156 Clinton<br />

Street, Milwaukee, Wis., manufacturer of automobile<br />

bumpers, has leased 50,000 sq. ft. in the former plant<br />

of the Avery Company, Mitchell and Fifty-seventh<br />

Streets, West Allis, Wis.


224 f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating June, 1925<br />

Briggs Manufacturing Company, Detroit, has<br />

bought the eastern plant of the Timken Detroit Axle<br />

Company, Waterloo Street and Connors Avenue, Detroit,<br />

including two buildings and 10 acres.<br />

* * *<br />

Production of cracking stills for gasoline plants<br />

will be started shortly by the A. O. Smith Corporation.<br />

Milwaukee, Wis. The company recently started<br />

the manufacture of steel casing couplings for oil pipe<br />

lines. To handle the new lines in the oil industry,<br />

Carl C. Joys, Jr., has been placed in charge as sales<br />

manager for this line, and branch offices have been<br />

opened at Los Angeles, Calif.. Dallas. Texas, and<br />

Tulsa. ( >kla. A new method of welding seams has<br />

been developed by the company.<br />

* * *<br />

The Salem Pressed Steel Company, Inc., Salem,<br />

( )hio, has been incorporated to manufacture mechanical<br />

toys. T. a\I. Vaughan is one of the principals.<br />

* * *<br />

The Felker Brothers Manufacturing Company,<br />

Marshfield, Wis., manufacturer of storage tanks, truck<br />

tanks, tank heaters and similar sheet and plate products,<br />

is taking bids for a one-story brick and steel<br />

addition, 67x100 ft., designed by G A. Krasin, local<br />

architect. New equipment will include a 5-ton electric<br />

traveling crane, ground operated; punches,<br />

presses, riveting and welding machines. A. G. Felker<br />

is president and general manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Baling Presses—Presses for compressing and compacting<br />

various materials, including metals, are shown<br />

in a circular by the Economy Baler Company, Ann<br />

Arbor. Mich. They are built in various sizes and with<br />

various power for meeting requirements of the several<br />

materials to be baled.<br />

* * *<br />

Steel Furniture—Office equipment, practically<br />

complete, all of fabricated steel, is illustrated in a catalog<br />

by the Angle Steel Company, Plainwell, Mich. A<br />

surprising variety of furniture is presented for office<br />

and shop use.<br />

* * *<br />

Steel Buildings—Truscon Steel Company, Youngstown,<br />

Ohio, has issued a catalog of its various products,<br />

including items ranging from complete buildings<br />

to foundry flasks. Illustrations of installations and<br />

brief text explaining their advantages are presented.<br />

* * *<br />

Measurement by Weight—Accuracy eliminating<br />

human and mechanical error, as far as possible, is<br />

featured by the Toledo Scale Company, Toledo. Ohio,<br />

in a circular describing its scales as used in establishments<br />

where counting may be done bv weight.<br />

Portable Buffer—A portable combination tool for<br />

buffing, polishing, grinding and similar work, operated<br />

by current from a light socket, is described in a<br />

bulletin by the Stow Manufacturing Company, Birtghamton,<br />

N. Y. One of its uses is for cleaning molds<br />

in the foundry.<br />

* * *<br />

Abrasive Dresser—A dressing attachment or truing<br />

device for abrasive wheels is described in a bulletin<br />

by the Ransom Manufacturing Company, Oshkosh.<br />

Wis. Firm control of the cutter and adjustment<br />

are provided and give more positive results than<br />

cutters held by hand.<br />

Material Handling Equipment—Electric storage<br />

battery industrial trucks, tractors and cranes are presented<br />

fully in a catalog by the Elwell-Parker Electric<br />

Company, Cleveland. Haulage in the plant is given<br />

careful discussion and the company's devices to make<br />

this effective and economical are described. Portable<br />

cranes are also described and illustrated.<br />

Welding—An electric arc welded structural steel<br />

building erected by the Chicago & Quincy railroad at<br />

Eola, 111., is described in a booklet recently issued by<br />

the Westinghouse Electric ft Manufacturing Company,<br />

East Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Welding Service & Sales Company, Donovan Bldg.,<br />

Detroit, Mich., T. M. Butler, manager, has been appointed<br />

Sales Agent in Detroit territory for arc, spot<br />

and seam welding machinery manufactured by the<br />

Gibb Welding Machines Company, successor to the<br />

,Gibb Instrument Company, Bay City, Mich.<br />

Belt Conveyors—The Hydraulic Pressed Steel<br />

Company, Cleveland, Ohio. The latest catalog issued<br />

by this company is devoted to Mellin patented belt<br />

conveyor idlers. It is bound in loose-leaf arrangement<br />

in heavy paper covers, and contains a wealth of<br />

data on the design, construction and utility of this<br />

equipment. Several types of idlers are illustrated and<br />

other pages contain photographs of shops or outside<br />

conveyors in which Mellin equipment is used. Another<br />

section of the catalog contains reproductions of<br />

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blueprints<br />

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specifications<br />

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for the types<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

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shown.<br />

* * *<br />

Automatic Arc Welding—A resume of the uses<br />

and value of automatic arc welding, together with a<br />

description of the welding apparatus and generating<br />

equipment used, is given in a bulletin bearing the<br />

number 48937.1, recently issued by the General Electric<br />

Company. This is an attractive 20-page, paperbound<br />

booklet, well illustrated by photographs of<br />

equipment and actual applications."<br />

* * *<br />

Testing Machines — A bulletin on hardness testing<br />

of metals and metal products has been issued by<br />

Herman A. Holz, testing engineer, New York. It<br />

goes into the best method, the best machine to apply<br />

to that method and the best accessories. In an appendix<br />

is presented a universal Brinell hardness table<br />

for any ball diameter and any load ratio.<br />

Steel Stamping — On its twenty-fifth anniversary<br />

the E. R. Wagner Manufacturing Company, North<br />

Milwaukee, Wis., published a commemorative booklet<br />

dealing with its plant policy and history, illustrated<br />

,with views of various departments. The growth of<br />

the company from its small beginning, the first year<br />

of the century, is traced and may serve as a guide to<br />

other small concerns now making their beginning.


aillllllllimiimillllllHIHIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIM IIMIIIIIIIMIIIIK<br />

I roj^^-Sramping-floaj fearing \<br />

I Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., JULY, 1925 No. 7 =<br />

T h e S k i l l e d M e c h a n i c<br />

W H A T has become of the skilled mechanic that was so much in evidence<br />

a decade or so ago? It is hard to believe that he has disappeared,<br />

for all branches of industry are in a healthy condition and<br />

their standards are higher than at any time in their history. This condition<br />

would be impossible without skilled workers.<br />

The mechanic of ten or twenty years ago was required to work on every<br />

machine in his department and had to be a "jack of all trades" to conform<br />

to the requirements of his profession. The shops of today are large compared<br />

with those cf yesterday, and the aim of every executive is quantity<br />

production without sacrificing quality. This, with the advent of high speed<br />

and automatic equipment, has made it necessary for mechanics to specialize<br />

on certain machines or operations just as men of other trades or professions<br />

have had to specialize to become proficient.<br />

The physician of a few years ago had to do everything from prescribing<br />

sugar pills to patients with imaginary ills to performing a major operation,<br />

but today there are almost as many specialists as ailments. And so we find<br />

this condition in industry, for experience has taught that "practice makes<br />

perfect," and this maxim has been applied to mechanics. All workers cannot<br />

become skillful on any machine or operation, for it is usually found that<br />

each individual is better suited for one than another. This fact is taken into<br />

consideration by successful executives and with a little patience an <strong>org</strong>anization<br />

can be built up that is highly efficient.<br />

The fact that work has been subdivided leads one to believe that there<br />

are more unskilled mechanics than skilled, but the mechanic of today is just<br />

as valuable as those of a few years ago, the present mechanic, however, being<br />

highly efficient in the operation of one particular machine instead of in all<br />

around work.<br />

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225


226 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

July, 1925<br />

I n s p e c t i n g a n d T e s t i n g A u t o m o b i l e A x l e s<br />

The Tremendous Demands of Axle Service Require That Every<br />

Possible Test Be Used That Will Help Make the Fin­<br />

ished Product One of Absolute Dependability<br />

By R. L. ROLF*<br />

SINCE the time of Captain Cugnot of 1769-70 with ord of having a mechanical devise for allowing dif­<br />

his three-wheeled artillery carriage, the developferential action on the rear wheels.<br />

ment of the motor car has made rapid strides. Step by step the automotive industry paved its<br />

Slowly at first as may be seen by the advancement way until in the early part of the twentieth century it<br />

from Cugnot's artillery carriage to Richard Trevi- made progress in leaps and bounds, and only a tedious<br />

thick's steam road carriage in 1802, thence to Gurney's search of the patent records will give a vague history<br />

steam coaches in the early twenties of the nineteenth of the automobile and tell the story of the life of some<br />

century which was later followed by the magnificent inventors who spent their energies in perfecting coiled<br />

record of Walter Hancock, who built nine steam road spring and clock work motors, carriages provided<br />

carriages of which six were placed in actual service with masts and sails, steam propelled vehicles, vehic­<br />

between the years 1828 to 1839. In 1829 Jame's coach les driven by compressed air, etc., up to the pres­<br />

made its first appearance and is the first to be on rec- ent time of the gasoline motor.<br />

*Mi'tallurf;ical Engineer, The Columbia Axle Company.<br />

Through these dark ages, keeping pace with the<br />

Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

progress and development of the motor car, in fact a<br />

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9"<br />

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July, 1925<br />

little ahead of it, was the automobile axle, and it<br />

had to, for what progress could the motor car make,<br />

if the axle one of the most important parts of a motor<br />

driven vehicle lagged behind. It is up to this component<br />

to carry the entire weight of the car and its<br />

load, besides transmitting the motor's power to the<br />

driving wheels. It must support the brakes which<br />

stop the car and divide the motor's power between the<br />

FIG. 4—Cross bending test on rear axle housing.<br />

two rear wheels so that one may revolve more rapidly<br />

than the other when rounding a corner, it must<br />

hold the rear wheels in line against shocks caused<br />

by dropping into chuck holes, skidding and striking<br />

curbs, and it must at all times permit the driver<br />

to steer unerringly.<br />

To meet these tremendous demands of axle service<br />

a careful study of a multiplicity of analysis, heat<br />

treatments and tests are required so that each axle<br />

part has that material which will allow it to function<br />

the best.<br />

Axles are designed to meet the every-day requirements<br />

with a large margin of safety, and the materials<br />

which enter into their fabrication are so selected and<br />

treated that should they be submitted to undue stress<br />

the axle will stand up under the last ounce of pressure<br />

and severe shock, and then bend but not break.<br />

In the axle industry as well as others, testing is<br />

carried out on a commercial scale to insure that the<br />

proper material is provided and that the material has<br />

been properly handled in its process of manufacture.<br />

To those who have had experience in the testing<br />

and selecting of axle steels nothing need be said, but<br />

those who have not had experience, an outline of the<br />

test and inspection methods that are used in order to<br />

secure the best results, may be useful.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

227<br />

Chemical Test.<br />

The first step in the inspection and testing begins<br />

with the material from which the parts are to be fabricated<br />

and starts with the proper segregation of the<br />

material when it is received at the plant.<br />

Billets and bar stock are usually shipped from the<br />

mill in separate heats and the heat numbers are either<br />

stamped or painted on the ends of the bars. When<br />

this material is received it is stored so as to keep<br />

each heat separate and is so marked or painted as to<br />

keep the identification known at all times.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings, if purchased from an outside source are<br />

a little more difficult to handle, as they are usually<br />

shipped in quantities varying from ten or a dozen<br />

pieces to carload lots. And again each shipment may<br />

consist of f<strong>org</strong>ings, which have been f<strong>org</strong>ed from one<br />

or more heats of steel. Care is therefore exercised<br />

in the checking of each reasonable size shipment of<br />

parts and also as to the proper tagging and storage of<br />

these shipments so that they may be identified at any<br />

future date.<br />

On selecting the specimens for test, usually a percentage<br />

of the shipment is selected at random and<br />

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FIG. 5—Impact test on steering balls.<br />

turned over to the chemical laboratory for sampling<br />

and analysis.<br />

The samples consist of drillings or chips made by<br />

some machine tool without the application of water,<br />

oil or any other lubricant and must be free from any<br />

foreign substance such as dirt, scale, grease, etc.<br />

Whenever it is found practicable the samples are taken<br />

midway between the outside and center by drilling<br />

parallel to the axis. Where this method is found to


22H F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat 'Beating<br />

FIG. 6—Brinell test for hardness.<br />

be impracticable the piece is drilled on its side and<br />

drillings taken to represent the portion midway between<br />

the outside and center of the part. In some<br />

cases this procedure would destroy a costly part and<br />

wherever this occasions the sampling is done to approach<br />

this method as closely as possible and still not<br />

destroy the component. Surface drillings in all cases<br />

are discarded.<br />

The chemical analysis is one of great importance<br />

when testing steel for axle parts, for it is by this<br />

method that the material can be placed in its proper<br />

category; as it is the chemical composition that regulates<br />

the heat treatment and partially determines what<br />

the resultant mechanical properties are to be.<br />

July, 1925<br />

This method of inspection is of unestimable value<br />

when testing for objectionable impurities, or whether<br />

the carbon content is too high or too low, whether the<br />

manganese content is outside of the specified range<br />

and whether or not a straight carbon steel had been<br />

substituted for an alloy, all of which should be determined<br />

before converting the material into the finished<br />

product.<br />

The proportion of impurities permitted depends to<br />

a considerable degree upon the conditions to which<br />

the part or material is subjected, and not only is the<br />

quantity of importance, but likewise its distribution.<br />

This being especially true of the elements phosphorus<br />

and sulphur.<br />

FIG. 7—Shore test for hardness.<br />

Sulphur prints made on material to show the distribution<br />

of this element, and specimens which have<br />

been etched with "Steads" reagent to show phosphorus<br />

banding have often proved invaluable.<br />

Mechanical Tests.<br />

Just as important as the chemical analysis is mechanical<br />

testing. Various parts have different func-<br />

FIG. 8 (left)—Structure of a badly overheated f<strong>org</strong>ing (etched). FIG. 9 (center)—Same as Fig. 8, but unetched.<br />

FIG. 10 (right)—F<strong>org</strong>ing of .35 carbon steel, showing large crystals caused by overheating.


July, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

FIG. 11 (left)—Same steel as Fig. 10, showing how the grain has been refined by proper heat treatment. FIG. 12 (center)—Structure<br />

found in piped stock. FIG. 13 (right)—Ghost lines produced by mechanical working of segregated<br />

material.<br />

tions to perform. The front axle I-beam must not<br />

only be capable of withstanding static and torsional<br />

resistance, but must withstand vibrations as well. Rear<br />

axles have to withstand the vibrations of the road,<br />

carry portion of the load and at the same time withstand<br />

the stresses caused by braking. The steering<br />

mechanism must be strong, tough and capable of resisting<br />

impact. The differential gears are subjected<br />

to wear and must be capable of withstanding this<br />

action, and so on, each component part may be affiliated<br />

with some specific duty it must successfully perform.<br />

By correlating and adjusting steels of various analysis<br />

with different heat treatments various combinations<br />

of dynamic and static strength may be obtained.<br />

Certain types of steel are most favorable for static<br />

loads while others will show a marked affect upon the<br />

dynamic properties of the material. By combining a<br />

suitable steel with its proper treatment, a product<br />

most suitable for the purpose intended should<br />

result.<br />

Once this standard is worked out, then it remains<br />

necessary to duplicate it with reasonable uniformity.<br />

_<br />

* ..;' » » ...»<br />

229<br />

To reach this end there must be some practical guide<br />

that will permit the engineers to know with reasonable<br />

assurance that his results are being duplicated. Mechanical<br />

testing is one means by which these facts<br />

may be ascertained.<br />

When making these tests the first consideration<br />

is that of the selection and preparation of the test<br />

specimen. The test may be conducted on the part itself,<br />

a representative test piece or upon an extension<br />

that may be f<strong>org</strong>ed or cast to the piece.<br />

Where mechanical tests are conducted upon specimens<br />

taken from the part itself, then the piece chosen<br />

is taken from a section of the component that represents<br />

the mass of the whole part. When a prolongation<br />

is used for test purposes, it is given the same<br />

amount of work as the finished component, and where<br />

the finished part specifies heat treatment, then the<br />

prolongation is given the same treatment.<br />

The most common method for determining static<br />

tests is the tension test. In these tests a standard bar<br />

similar to those illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 are machined<br />

from the specimen, and gripped between the<br />

FIG. 14 (left)—Pronounced segregation of ferrite. FIG. 15 (center)—Section of an extremely dirty steel. FIG. 16<br />

(right)—Showing how a crack will follow these inclusions, forming an easy path for rupture.


230 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tireating lulv. 192!.<br />

jaws of a tension testing machine and pulled until<br />

it breaks. By this method of testing the ultimate<br />

strength, yield point, elongation and the reduction of<br />

area of the material is determined.<br />

Front axle centers, steering amis, knuckles and<br />

rear axle drive shafts are all subjected to this type of<br />

test as one form of inspection. This method of inspection<br />

has its limits as it only indicates the manner<br />

in which the steel will act when subjected to a slow<br />

pulling load. In the actual service of an axle consideration<br />

has to be given to torque loads, impact and<br />

vibratory stress.<br />

Drive shafts, front axle centers and rear axle housings,<br />

which have to withstand torque are subjected to<br />

torsion tests on their inspection, as well as tension.<br />

This test is used to determine the resistance of the<br />

part to twisting and is measured in inch pounds and<br />

the distortion in degrees. The elastic limit is obtained<br />

by the use of a tropometer. A comparison is made<br />

by computing the shearing stress in pounds per square<br />

inch. Fig. 3 shows the setup used in testing a rear<br />

axle housing in torsion.<br />

Xot only must the front axle center and rear axle<br />

housing resist torque loads, but they have to carry<br />

their respective share of the car's weight. To meet<br />

these requirements these parts are given an additional<br />

test known as the crossbending or transverse test.<br />

Fig. 4 illustrates the setup used while making these<br />

tests. The axle housing is supported on Yees at a distance<br />

equal to center to center of wheels and the load<br />

applied at both spring pads at a distance equal to the<br />

center to center of springs. The load is recorded in<br />

inch pounds and the deflection is noted by defectometers<br />

calebrated in 1/1000 part of an inch.<br />

Impact is another stress that is not to be overlooked.<br />

Usually just the front axle I-beam and the<br />

steering ball are the only parts tested. When making<br />

this test on an I-beam, a notched test bar is machined<br />

FIG. 17—Etched cross section of defective billets.<br />

from the f<strong>org</strong>ing and tested. With the steering ball<br />

the complete component is tested. This means is used<br />

in determining the ability of the part to withstand a<br />

suddenly applied load or impact, thus determining the<br />

brittleness of the material. Steel that is inherently<br />

defective or made so by incorrect heat treatment can<br />

be readily noticed by this method of inspection. Likewise<br />

is this method valuable in correcting and establishing<br />

the proper heat treatment. Fig. 5 is a photograph<br />

of an Izod single impact testing machine with a<br />

steering ball in place ready for testing. The pointer<br />

and dial at the top of the machine indicates the number<br />

of foot pounds of energy which is absorbed in<br />

breaking the specimen.<br />

All heat treated parts which enter into axle construction<br />

and that are not carbonized and hardened,<br />

are given a 100 per cent Brinell inspection. This is<br />

one method of checking the man at the furnace, as<br />

well as a partial assurance that no inferior material<br />

has through some way or other found its way into the<br />

finished product. Certain Brinell limits are established<br />

and every part has to meet these specifications before<br />

it can go into production.<br />

Parts such as king pins, front axle buishings, gears,<br />

etc., which demand great hardness, are given both<br />

the scleroscope and the file test to check the hardness<br />

while in addition a percentage of every shipment is<br />

broken and the fracture examined.<br />

Microscopic Study.<br />

Metallography in its general sense is a study of<br />

the micro structure of metals; a science which up to<br />

a few years ago was practically unknown but which<br />

has advanced to that stage where it is now considered<br />

on a par with chemical and physical testing.<br />

It is by this means that a check can be made upon<br />

the heat treatment of a part. It will show flaws and<br />

inperfections, and in many cases reveal the mechanical<br />

treatment to which the part has been subjected.


July, 1925<br />

In testing axle parts, this mode of inspection is indispensible<br />

as it brings to light those defects which<br />

can ultimately ruin the product and which cannot be<br />

readily determined without the aid of a microscope.<br />

An idea of just what story this method of inspection<br />

tells may be had by referring to micrographs 8<br />

to 16.<br />

FIG. 18—Grain flow in drive shaft.<br />

Micrograph 8 illustrates the structure of a f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

that had been very badly overheated.<br />

Micrograph 9 is the same specimen as the previous<br />

micrograph, only in the polished state. This shows<br />

the gaps between the crystals, a condition that exists<br />

in badly overheated or burned material. Parts having<br />

structures as these have low fatigue resisting properties,<br />

and should not be used in the fabrication of<br />

axle parts.<br />

Micrograph 10 shows the large crystals that exist<br />

in an overheated f<strong>org</strong>ing made from .35 carbon steel.<br />

Material showing this structure is likewise brittle and<br />

should not be used. This structure however can lie<br />

restored by proper heat treatment.<br />

Micrograph 11 is the same specimen as illustrated<br />

by micrograph 10. only it has been properly heat trcat-<br />

FIG. 19—Grain flow in steering knuckles.<br />

ed. This shows a good commercial structure; it possesses<br />

strength and dynamic properties.<br />

Micrograph 12 illustrates piped stock.<br />

Micrograph .13 represents laminated material.<br />

Micrograph 14 shows a large ferrite segregation.<br />

Parts showing defects as illustrated by micrographs<br />

12, 13 and 14 should never be used for axle<br />

parts unless these parts have very minor duties to<br />

perform.<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

231<br />

Practically all commercial steels contain a certain<br />

amount of impurities and the amount that is permissible<br />

depends to a considerable degree upon their distribution<br />

and the function of the part. Good steel will<br />

have only a very small portion of impurities and these<br />

will be uniformly distributed throughout the metallic<br />

mass. When these impurities become numerous or<br />

tend to segregate then they become extremely dangerous<br />

and material showing these defects should not be<br />

used, as segregated material is usually weak and brittle<br />

as well as being hard on tools.<br />

Micrograph 15 illustrates a section of :i very dirty<br />

steel. Micrograph 1 illustrates how a crack will follow<br />

these inclusions forming an easy path for rupture.<br />

Micrographs such as above illustrates only in a<br />

very small way the man} of the daily uses of the<br />

microscope in solving metallurgical problems.<br />

Deep Etch Test.<br />

Another form of inspection that is gaining favor in<br />

the inspection of axle steels is the deep etch test.<br />

These tests are made by boiling a polished piece<br />

of the material for a certain length of time in a 50 per<br />

cent solution of hydrochloric acid. This method reveals<br />

any serious segregation or lack of homogeneity<br />

in the steel. It tells the crystalline condition of the bil-<br />

FIG. 20—Cold bend tests on heat treated parts.<br />

lets, brings to light seams and cracks and also the degree<br />

to which the metal has been rendered fibrous.<br />

Out of ever}- heat of billets received a percentage is<br />

selected and subjected to this test, and only those<br />

heats which show sound steel are accepted and made<br />

into f<strong>org</strong>ings. Photograph 17 shows two specimens of<br />

an allov steel heat that had been etched to examine<br />

the internal structure. Attention is called to the shattered<br />

and porous condition of the cross section of these<br />

bars. F<strong>org</strong>ings made from material of this type would<br />

be very questionable.<br />

Not only must a f<strong>org</strong>ing that enters an axle, be<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed to a specified shape, but care has to be exercised<br />

to see /that the grain flow in the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

is running in the proper direction to resist stresses.<br />

The flow of these fibers should be at right angles to<br />

the line of shear. Fig. 18 shows the grain flow in a<br />

section of a rear axle drive shaft made by the With-<br />

(Concluded on page 240)


'32 F<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping- Heat Treating July. 1925<br />

S o m e M e t h o d s for C o o l i n g Q u e n c h i n g O i l<br />

It Is Important That the Temperature of a Quenching Bath Be<br />

Kept as Nearly Constant as Possible to Insure Uni­<br />

IN recent years the demand for steel possessing special<br />

physical characteristics not found in carbon<br />

steel has led to the development of allov steels,<br />

composed of iron and carbon in combination with<br />

chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, titanium,<br />

tungsten, vanadium and other rare elements. Alloy<br />

steels are classified according to the number of influential<br />

elements present, as ternary alloys and quartenary<br />

alloys.<br />

Ternary alloys, or three part alloys, are composed<br />

of iron, carbon and one other principal element. This<br />

includes the alloy steels in general use such as manganese<br />

steel, nickel steel, etc. Quartenary alloys are<br />

composed of four elements, including iron and carbon.<br />

Typical of this class are nickel-manganese steel, tungsten-nickel<br />

steel, etc. The possible combinations are<br />

many, although the development of such alloys has<br />

not been carried very far as yet.<br />

Necessity for Heat Treatment.<br />

For many years steel workers held the opinion<br />

that a soft material properly annealed was adequate<br />

for conditions requiring resistance to crystallization,<br />

fatigue, etc. The rapid developments in the metallurgical<br />

industry of late years have shown to the contrary<br />

that breakage is less likely to occur from these<br />

causes in a properly heat treated and tempered steel.<br />

Knowing the composition of a special alloy steel, it<br />

is possible to obtain results with scientifically applied<br />

heat treatment that are as much superior to results<br />

secured with ordinary steel as the latter, in turn, are<br />

to cast iron.<br />

The superior physical properties desired in alloy<br />

steel can be developed only by proper heat treatment.<br />

If the latter is indifferently applied, the extra cost of<br />

the special steel is often wasted. The rapid growth of<br />

the automobile industry is due in large part to the<br />

development of alloy steels possessing elastic limits<br />

and physical properties not possible with carbon steel.<br />

Heat Treating Operations.<br />

The special properties demanded by the use to<br />

which the steel is to be put necessitates suitable heat<br />

treatment. The purpose of this is either to eliminate<br />

certain specific properties of the original alloy, to add<br />

certain new ones, or to change their form or degree to<br />

meet the specified conditions. The three principal<br />

heat treatment operations are : Hardening, tempering<br />

and annealing.<br />

Hardening, or quenching, is the operation of quickly<br />

plunging steel, which has been heated in a furnace<br />

to a point above its critical temperature, in a<br />

cooling bath of either brine, water or oil. The effect<br />

of quenching is to arrest or fix by rapid cooling certain<br />

changes in the internal structure of the steel which<br />

*From a paper by the same author. "The Cooling ol"<br />

Quenching Oil in the Heat Treatment of Steel."<br />

tGriscom-Russell Companv.<br />

formity of Results in Heat Treatment<br />

By KENNETH B. MILLETTt<br />

occur when the temperature passes above the critical<br />

range.<br />

The temperatures at which these changes occur<br />

are termed the "critical" points. Two such temperatures<br />

are inherent to ordinary carbon steel. The higher<br />

one, passed through while the metal is being heated,<br />

is technically known as the "decalescence" point<br />

and the lower one, in the cooling process, is called<br />

the "recalescence" point. The range of temperatures<br />

intervening is termed the "critical range". For steels<br />

of high carbon content the proper hardening temperature<br />

is between 1400 and 1600 deg. F., and for high<br />

speed steels between 1800 and 2200 deg. F. Alloy<br />

steels require various hardening temperatures depending<br />

upon their composition.<br />

Tempering consists in extracting or drawing some<br />

of the hardness from the steel, either by heating in a<br />

furnace or a bath to that temperature below the critical<br />

range which will produce the requisite hardness<br />

when the steel is quenched.<br />

Annealing in its simplest form is the operation of<br />

heating the steel slightly above the "decalescence"<br />

point and allowing it to cool slowly enough to prevent<br />

hardening. The effect is to soften the steel sufficiently<br />

for machining, and to remove any internal strains<br />

which may have been set up in previous operations.<br />

In tempering and in annealing processes the cooling<br />

of liquids is not involved. The former consists in<br />

the application of heat to the tempering bath to maintain<br />

a constant temperature rather than its continuous<br />

extraction. Only hardening operations will, herefore,<br />

be considered at further length.<br />

Quenching Speed.<br />

The primary function of the quenching process is<br />

to extract heat quickly and evenly from the steel in<br />

order to set permanently the desired internal structural<br />

changes. Maximum hardness would be obtained<br />

by instantaneous and uniform cooling of the entire<br />

piece treated. The proper coo'ing rate is, however,<br />

affected by the size and shape of the article. The<br />

same quenching speed cannot be used for snail pieces<br />

of intricate design as for heavier parts of large cross<br />

section, since extreme rapidity of cooling would entail<br />

danger of warping and cracking the former. The<br />

rate is also governed by the composition of the steel.<br />

Alloy steels containing over 0.35 per cent (known as<br />

35 point) carbon require a lower quenching speed<br />

than steel of less carbon content. By regulating the<br />

rate of cooling, it is possible to obtain almost any<br />

degree of hardness.<br />

Quenching Mediums.<br />

The mediums employed can be grouped under two<br />

general heads : Air and liquid. High speed steel when<br />

first put on the market was hardened in a blast of dry,<br />

cold air. Oil quenching is now extensively used for<br />

this purpose.


July, 1925<br />

Liquid quenching mediums include: Water, brine,<br />

oil and special liquids.<br />

Soft water, distilled if possible, is used for hardening<br />

ordinary carbon steel. Impurities in the water,<br />

such as grease or certain acids are objectionable, as<br />

the former are liable to cause uneven hardness by insulating<br />

the steel locally with an oil film, and the acids<br />

produce brittleness. Hard water is very unsatisfactory,<br />

because of the scale thrown down when its temperature<br />

is raised. Water to which salt or soap has<br />

been added is sometimes used to secure quenching<br />

rates respectively higher or lower than that of pure<br />

water.<br />

Cold sea water or brine produces extreme rapidity<br />

of quenching and consequently maximum hardness.<br />

Thin pieces of complicated design cannot be quenched<br />

safely in this material because of the shock. Carbon<br />

steel is sometimes quenched in brine where the requisite<br />

degree of hardness demands such treatment.<br />

Oil quenching mediums are extensively used where<br />

extreme hardness is not essential and where freedom<br />

from quenching shock is necessary. These include :<br />

Mineral oils, kerosene, fish oil, whale oil. cotton seed<br />

oil, linseed oil, lard oil and special animal hydrocarbon<br />

oils.<br />

Mineral oils have proven wholly satisfactory in<br />

plants where the quenching bath temperature has<br />

been kept low by artificial cooling means. If the oil<br />

is not artificially cooled there occurs a gradual breaking<br />

down and thickening of the oil with heat, the<br />

formation of residue, and wide variation in the quenching<br />

rate.<br />

Kerosene is dangerous unless kept at a temperature<br />

safely below its fire point.<br />

Fish and whale oils have the disadvantage of offensive<br />

odors and are open to the same objections as<br />

the seed oils.<br />

Cotton seed and linseed oils become gummy from<br />

oxidation. This increases the viscosity and seriously<br />

affects the quenching speed.<br />

Lard oil is unsatisfactory because of the tendency<br />

to become rancid.<br />

Special quenching oils usually obtained by distillation<br />

of wool grease are used extensively with satisfactory<br />

hardening results. Artificial cooling of this<br />

oii is very necessary when handling large quantities<br />

of metal continuously.<br />

Carbonate of lime, mercury, milk, soda, tallow<br />

and wax are sometimes used for special heat treatment.<br />

Necessity for Uniform Hardness.<br />

The degree of hardness is directly proportional to<br />

the quenching speed. The latter varies directly with<br />

the viscosity of the liquid and its specific heat. Viscosity<br />

is a measure of the fluidity draining quality and<br />

ability to dissipate absorbed heat by natural circulation<br />

within the liquid. An oil of low fluidity has high<br />

relative viscosity, drains slowly from the steel leaving<br />

the bath, with consequent waste, and transfers the<br />

heat sluggishly through the body of oil.<br />

Specific heat is the relative capacity of the liquid<br />

to absorb heat. On the basis of water as 1, the specific<br />

heat of special animal hydrocarbon quenching oil<br />

is about 0.49. A given weight of this oil has 49 per<br />

cent the capacity for heat possessed by the same<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

233<br />

weight of water having the same temperature. Otherwise<br />

expressed, the quenching speed of this oil is approximately<br />

half that of water. This is of great advantage<br />

where the sudden chilling caused by water<br />

quenching would be liable to warp or crack the steel,<br />

or cause excessive hardness and brittleness.<br />

It is most essential that the degree of hardness<br />

specified for a particular purpose be kept uniform<br />

throughout the entire batch of work treated. This<br />

feature is dependent upon the composition of the bath,<br />

bath temperature and bath volume.<br />

The quenching medium must be of uniform composition<br />

throughout the bath. Jt must also be free from<br />

oxygen or ingredients that cause oxidation.<br />

It is most important that the temperature of the<br />

bath be kept constant, or as nearly so as possible, for<br />

uniformity of results. Tests in quantity production<br />

show a wide variation in hardness with small differences<br />

in temperature of a water quenching bath. This<br />

is true also to a lesser degree when oil is used. It is<br />

likewise important to keep the temperature uniform<br />

in all parts of the bath. This is frequently done by<br />

rapid circulation of the liquid, or by agitation with<br />

compressed air. This is preferable to keeping the<br />

quenched steel rapidly moving through the bath to<br />

prevent warping, etc.<br />

Where artificial cooling of the liquid is not employed,<br />

it is necessary to use large volumes in order<br />

to absorb the heat in the steel without excessive temperature<br />

rise. Not only does high temperature break<br />

down the oil, changing its composition and quenching<br />

speed, but it also causes large evaporation losses and<br />

increases the hazard when the fire point is approached.<br />

If small volumes of quenching oil are used without<br />

artificial heat removal, irregular and slow cooling are<br />

certain to result.<br />

In general it can be said that lack of hardness is<br />

frequently caused by inadequate means for cooling<br />

and circulating the oil rather than by an inferior<br />

quality of steel, or too low quenching temperature.<br />

Quenching Tanks.<br />

For hardening operations of the simplest kind<br />

where the volume of work is small and quenching is<br />

intermittent, a metal tank filled with water, brine, or<br />

oil is used. In some cases two tanks are used, one<br />

containing water or brine and the other oil. Pieces<br />

requiring local treatment are first plunged partially<br />

in water to give certain parts of the article extreme<br />

hardness, and then completely in oil to harden the<br />

balance to a lesser degree. In some cases insoluble oil<br />

a few inches deep is floated on water in the bath. The<br />

purpose of the oil is to lessen the quenching shock<br />

when the hot steel reaches the water.<br />

For small operations where some cooling is necessary,<br />

a coil of pipe is inserted around the inside of the<br />

tank. Water is circulated through the coil. This is<br />

crude, but often suffices. In some cases a second coil<br />

is used to warm the oil with steam in winter, when it<br />

may have become chilled and thick between heats.<br />

Frequently a metal quenching tank for oil is water<br />

jacketed on the sides, ends, and bottom. Cooling<br />

water is circulated through the jacket. The oil is<br />

often agitated by compressed air from a perforated<br />

pipe in the bottom of the tank. The water consumption<br />

is extremely high for the cooling performed, due<br />

to the inefficient heat transfer.


234 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Water or brine tanks are sometimes arranged for<br />

continuous circulation by having the supply enter<br />

through a perforated pipe in the bottom, with a side<br />

overflow connection to a storage tank.<br />

Modern practice provides for continuous rapid circulation<br />

of the quenching oil and for cooling external<br />

to the tanks. Hot oil passes out from the side of each<br />

tank, near the surface of the bath. Cold oil is pumped<br />

into the opposite side near the bottom. The two connections<br />

are located as far apart as possible to prevent<br />

short circuiting of the oil. In some installations the<br />

oil enters the bath through perforated pipes laid on<br />

the tank bottom, leaving through numerous outlets<br />

near the top, connected to a common return pipe. The<br />

bottom pipes arc protected against damage by gratings.<br />

The rate of oil flow is regulated by a valve on the<br />

inlet line to each tank. The tanks are located directly<br />

opposite the furnaces in a central position for convenience,<br />

and to shorten the time between heating and<br />

quenching operations.<br />

Cooling Systems.<br />

The methods used to cool quenching oil are:<br />

(a) Water circulation through coils in the<br />

quenching tanks or through jackets surrounding<br />

the tanks.<br />

(b) Circulating the oil through the atmospheric<br />

cooling pipe coils with or without water.<br />

(c) Circulating brine through coils immersed in<br />

the tanks and cooling in a refrigerating machine.<br />

(d) Circulating the oil through coils immersed<br />

in large water volumes such as a pond, river, etc.<br />

(e) Circulating the oil in a closed circuit<br />

through an external oil cooler.<br />

Modern practice undoubtedly favors the last method.<br />

The others are all either unreliable, insufficient in<br />

effect, bulky, expensive to operate and maintain, or introduce<br />

a fire hazard. A leak in a water coil or jacket<br />

on a tank containing oil would float the oil out of the<br />

tank, flooding the quenching room floor with great<br />

danger of a serious fire. In the last method this is<br />

not possible where the pressure on the oil is in excess<br />

of that on the cooling water.<br />

Advantages of Oil Circulation.<br />

The four principal advantages derived from continuous<br />

circulation of the quenching oil are: Reduced<br />

cost for oil. uniform hardening, reduced fire risk' and<br />

time saved in continuous operations.<br />

By keeping the temperature of the bath low at all<br />

times, it is possible to use an oil having a low flash<br />

point. A smaller quantity can be used because large<br />

capacity quenching tanks are unnecessary with artificial<br />

cooling. Evaporation losses and the formation<br />

of oil sludge in the bottom of the tanks are reduced<br />

with cool oil.<br />

Uniform hardening results are possible in quantity<br />

production when oil is circulated because of the close<br />

control of the bath temperature, and the maintenance<br />

of constant quenching speed. The formation of vapor<br />

bubbles on the hot steel, causing soft spots, is prevented<br />

with cool oil.<br />

Fire risk is reduced if the oil is kept at all times at<br />

a temperature well below the fire point regardless<br />

of the weight of metal quenched. This also prevents<br />

the danger of igniting oil vapors above the baths in<br />

a poorly ventilated hardening room.<br />

July. IMS<br />

Time saved. In continuous operations when forced<br />

cooling is not used it is invariably necessary to discontinue<br />

quenching periodically in order to prevent overheating<br />

the oil. This is unnecessary when adequate<br />

cooling is provided.<br />

Standardization of Drawings and Practices<br />

The American Engineering Standards Committee<br />

has been requested by the A^merican Society of Mechanical<br />

Engineers to authorize the <strong>org</strong>anization of<br />

a sectional committee whose duty it would be to develop<br />

standards for drawings and certain drafting<br />

room practices. The society signifies its willingness<br />

to act as sponsor or joint sponsor for this project.<br />

At the main committee meeting of the A. I'.. S. C<br />

on June 11. \'->25. the chairman was authorized to<br />

call a general conference or to appoint a special committee<br />

to consider the proposed standardization.<br />

Drawing is the universal graphical language of the<br />

industrial world. It has its "grammar", and uses<br />

varied forms of expression, varied styles, all matters<br />

of importance on which it is evidently advantageous<br />

to have general agreement. As an example of the<br />

present day diversity not less than 34 different methods<br />

exist to represent the most common standard<br />

American form of screw threads, and this is only one<br />

among the innumerable details considered in mechanical<br />

drawing.<br />

A^nuing the <strong>org</strong>anizations in this country which<br />

have been carrying on standardization work in this<br />

field and have prepared manuals of unusual significance,<br />

are :<br />

The Bureau of Ordnance, LI. S. ANavy Department;<br />

the General Electric Company; Kempsmith Manufacturing<br />

Company; Reed-Prentice Company; Barber<br />

Coleman Company; Gurney Ball Bearing Company;<br />

Walworth Manufacturing Company; Union Tool<br />

Company; The Jeffrey Manufacturing Company; Connersville<br />

Blower Company and B. F Sturtevant Company.<br />

These drafting room manuals are more or less<br />

elaborate and complete as to the field covered by the<br />

standard practice. They standardize the conventions<br />

used on drawings, give the sizes of paper or cloth<br />

used, the size or style of lettering and grouping of<br />

notes, the arrangement of views, dimensioning, methods<br />

of expressing tolerances, instructions for alterations,<br />

classification of drawings and much other valuable<br />

information.<br />

What is needed now is to come to a definite understanding<br />

as to the best practice to be recommended<br />

as a national standard.<br />

Standard Specifications<br />

The tenth edition of its book, "Standard Specifications,"<br />

has just been issued by the Carnegie Steel<br />

Company, Pittsburgh. The specifications contained are<br />

those of the Association of American Steel Manufacturers,<br />

American Society for Testing Materials, American<br />

Society of Mechanical Engineers, Carnegie Steel<br />

Company and American Bridge Company, and cover<br />

steel for bridges and buildings, locomotives and cars.<br />

boilers and boiler rivets, commercial and f<strong>org</strong>ing bars,<br />

reinforcement bars, f<strong>org</strong>ings, railway and industrial<br />

wheels and axles and shafts. The book is concluded<br />

with a list of products made by the Carnegie Steel<br />

Company and a list of the company's plants.


July, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

E x p o s i t i o n to F e a t u r e F o r g i n g M e t h o d s<br />

An Exposition to Acquaint the Trade with Epoch-Making Im­<br />

provements and Equipment That Have Recently<br />

A N event of unusual interest to the f<strong>org</strong>ing industry<br />

will be the second exposition of f<strong>org</strong>ing machines<br />

and bolt and nut machinery to be held<br />

at the plant of the National Machinery Company, Tiffin,<br />

Ohio, August 21 to 26 inclusive. The first exposition<br />

of this kind, which was held by the same<br />

company 15 years ago, met with such widespread approval<br />

that they have decided to exploit recent improvements<br />

in methods and equipment by a similar<br />

demonstration.<br />

The continually increasing field of application for<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings has spurred the machine and die designer on<br />

to new efforts, and no man who manufactures a product<br />

of iron-or steel, whether he has spent years in<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing business or never heard of a f<strong>org</strong>ing machine,<br />

realizes the rapid strides that have recently<br />

been made in machine f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

While much has been accomplished in the line of<br />

machine f<strong>org</strong>ing in the past, the possibilities have not<br />

been fully realized. Steel, iron and malleable castings,<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ings and screwr machine parts are all products<br />

which may be made cheaper or stronger by machine<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing. It is to acquaint the trade with the<br />

possibilities of these new methods and designs that<br />

this exposition is being held. All these designs are<br />

new and embody features that have so widened their<br />

scope that the "impossible job" of yesterday is the<br />

"practical job" of today. No effort is being spared<br />

to make clear to the visitor by actual demonstration<br />

on a production basis how these ideas can be used to<br />

improve his own processes.<br />

A complete line of the "Company's new type high<br />

duty f<strong>org</strong>ing machines, ranging from a small 1-in.<br />

machine to a massive 5-in. machine, will be in operation<br />

on a wide variety of intricate and interesting jobs.<br />

Each machine will be producing a different f<strong>org</strong>ing,<br />

and dies have been selected that will show all phases<br />

of machine f<strong>org</strong>ing such as upsetting, expanding,<br />

piercing, punching, etc. Full information will be<br />

available on the various dies used, such as details of<br />

design, kind of steel used, heat treatment, etc., also<br />

data will be at the disposal of all interested on furnaces,<br />

motors and other accessory equipment.<br />

A complete bolt and nut plant will be in full swing.<br />

New methods of heating—employing everything from<br />

the oil-fired cut blank heaters to the electric heater,<br />

will be demonstrated. Everything in the bolt heading<br />

machine line will be shown in full operation, such<br />

as high speed stop motion headers, automatic feed<br />

"semi-hot" headers and hammer headers. The visitor<br />

will see a small ^-in. automatic feed semi-hot<br />

header making a big head carriage bolt at the rate of<br />

200 per minute; a 1^-in. stop motion header making<br />

machine bolts at a new high rate of production; hammer<br />

headers and large size semi-hot automatic feed<br />

headers making work that even the experienced man<br />

will marvel at.<br />

This extensive educational exposition represents a<br />

great effort on. the part of the National Machinery<br />

Been Developed in Machine F<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

235<br />

Company and is a rare opportunity to investigate a<br />

surprising number of new methods and machines not<br />

previously shown. No user should disregard the<br />

educational and economic value of this demonstration,<br />

for more progress has been made in machine<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing in the last two years than is generally known,<br />

even by the experienced man. Without doubt the<br />

exhibit will be a long step toward a general utilization<br />

of these improvements and in many cases will<br />

serve to revolutionize processes.<br />

It is doubtful whether an exposition of such magnitude,<br />

with all equipment operating on a production<br />

basis, has ever been offered to any branch of industry.<br />

There will be 62 machines in operation, ranging<br />

from a J^-in. nut tapper weighing 125 pounds to a<br />

5-in. heavy duty f<strong>org</strong>ing machine with a weight of<br />

130,000 pounds, 10 furnaces, 550 horsepower in motors<br />

and other auxiliary equipment representing in all<br />

$450,000.<br />

The Master Blacksmiths' Association will hold its<br />

annual convention at Cleveland, August 18, 19 and<br />

20. This association as a body accepted an invitation<br />

from the National Machinery Company during their<br />

1924 meeting to attend this exposition, and Friday.<br />

August 21, has been set aside as Master Blacksmiths'<br />

Day. A large part of the work to be demonstrated<br />

will be of extreme interest to members of this association<br />

and no amount of effort will be spared to see that<br />

their visit to the plant is both profitable and pleasant.<br />

aA.s guests of the company, members and their families<br />

will be brought down from Cleveland to Tiffin by special<br />

train. During their visit lunch and dinner will be<br />

served and at the conclusion of the trip they may<br />

return to Cleveland by special train or depart for<br />

their respective homes direct from Tiffin.<br />

The exposition will be open to railroad and other<br />

industrial executives and officials on August 24, 25<br />

and 26, and those attending at this time will be guests<br />

of the company during their stay in Tiffin.<br />

It is the aim and hope of the company that the<br />

educational value of this exposition will repay its<br />

guests by giving them first-hand information on the<br />

rapidly broadening field of machine f<strong>org</strong>ing. As announced<br />

through other channels, the company extends<br />

a cordial invitation to anyone who has problems<br />

along this line.<br />

Recommended Practices<br />

The American Society for Steel Treating has issued<br />

additional pages for its handbook of recommended<br />

practices covering the heat treatment of 18<br />

per cent tungsten high-speed steel, and for the heat<br />

treatment of plain carbon tool steel. Copies of these<br />

practices will be sent to the members of the Society<br />

this month, and additional copies will be available to<br />

those who desire them.


236 r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

July, 1925<br />

T e s t s o n S t e e l a t E l e v a t e d T e m p e r a t u r e s<br />

Short-Time Static Experimental Results for High-Strength Steel<br />

Are Compared with Long-Time Static Results on the<br />

T H E use of metals at elevated temperatures has<br />

become an important question to builders and<br />

users of steam generating machinery and internal<br />

combustion engines. Certain parts of such machinery<br />

are subjected to elevated temperatures, and these temperatures<br />

have steadily increased in recent years with<br />

the improvement in size and efficiency of such equipment<br />

until, at the present time, metal under considerable<br />

stress is subjected to temperatures which keep<br />

them constantly at from 600 to 900 deg. F Certain<br />

metal parts used at elevated temperatures, such as<br />

steam piping, valves, boilers, and turbine cases, are<br />

subjected in general to static stresses only. Other<br />

metal parts, such as turbine wheels, turbine blades,<br />

piston rods, and cylinders of internal combustion engines,<br />

are subjected to reversed stresses which may<br />

be repeated many times.<br />

The metals in general use at elevated temperatures<br />

are almost all ferrous, and consist in the main<br />

of wrought steel, cast steel and cast iron. It is gradually<br />

becoming known that certain ferrous alloys are<br />

capable of withstanding stress at high temperatures<br />

better than others. Such metals are usually high in<br />

tungsten, nickel, chromium, or some satisfactory combination<br />

of these alloys. Fig. 1 gives a general idea<br />

of the relative values of steels containing these alloys<br />

when tensile strength at elevated temperatures is considered.<br />

These data are from annealed steels and cast<br />

iron, and are largely drawn from results by Harper<br />

and MacPherrant. The results of tests on steels at<br />

elevated temperatures show that in general the static<br />

properties other than strength are affected by temperature<br />

in the following manner: the higher the<br />

strength for any particular steel, the lower the percentages<br />

of reduction of area and elongation and the<br />

higher the hardness factors.<br />

In obtaining strength data at elevated temperatures<br />

for use in actual design, care must be exercised<br />

to approach as nearly as possible the conditions under<br />

which the metal is to be used. The method usually<br />

adopted in testing metals at ordinary temperatures<br />

has been to make a test which lasts less than 10 minutes,<br />

and expect this to represent the strength and<br />

ductility factors to which the metal will conform<br />

when subjected to stress for months, or even years.<br />

For wrought and cast ferrous metals at ordinary<br />

atmospheric temperatures, this assumption may be<br />

made without serious error, but at elevated temperatures<br />

an error of from 30 to 50 per cent depending on<br />

the temperature used may result when this procedureis<br />

followed. Static testing at elevated temperatures.<br />

therefore, is not so simple, nor can it be as expedi­<br />

*A paper presented at the twenty-eighth annual meeting<br />

of the American Society for Testing Materials, held at Atlantic<br />

City, N. J.. June. 1925.<br />

tSpecial Research Assistant Professor of Engineering Materials.<br />

University of Illinois.<br />

{Bulletin Xo. 141. Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Comnany,<br />

1922.<br />

Same Steel Under Similar Conditions<br />

By T. McLEAN JASPERf<br />

tiously carried out as at ordinary atmospheric temperatures.<br />

At ordinary atmospheric temperatures steel is a<br />

crystallin substance which, within its elastic range<br />

under static load, acts as an isotropic, elastic substance.<br />

Under elevated temperatures, however, this<br />

general state of affairs no longer exists, and as the<br />

temperature is increased the metal gradually loses certain<br />

of its elastic properties and at the same time<br />

assumes a state approaching that of a plastic amorphous<br />

material. As this condition is approached, the<br />

steel tends to continually increase its stretch or strain<br />

without an accompanying increase of load, and the<br />

result is that long-time tensile strength varies from<br />

the short-time tensile strength in an increasing percenage<br />

as the temperature is increased. The effect of<br />

this is well illustrated in Fig. 2, which shows the<br />

variation of the static properties of a quenched metal<br />

and indicates the values of the tensile strength at"<br />

ieo ooo<br />

160 000<br />

HO 000<br />

-120 000<br />

&<br />

1100 000<br />

a.<br />

£ 80 000<br />

£ 60 000<br />

W 40 000<br />

20 000<br />

"a.*<br />

Ho I. 19% Tunqste„<br />

SH Cr<br />

r*rr~h. O.Ta»~^<br />

Ho 4 •~L*\<br />

IY,.."<br />

^~ 1<br />

No. 7, L'fl lr >/?.<br />

Temperature, deg. Fahr.<br />

^>o^ &*l\<br />

.^\,>aa.\<br />

*^x<br />

FIG. 1—Curves showing the effect of certain ingredients on<br />

the tensile strength of various annealed steels and cast iron<br />

at elevated temperatures.<br />

elevated temperatures under ordinary test conditions<br />

and under long-time test conditions. In the shorttime<br />

test the material was continuously loaded to its<br />

tensile strength within a period of about five minutes<br />

after it was raised to the correct temperature. The<br />

values of the tensile strengths in this case are shown<br />

by the upper tensile strength curve. In the long-time<br />

test, the specimen was tested to its proportional limit<br />

fairly rapidly and then increments of load were added<br />

only when strain or stretch had become zero, or<br />

almost so. for each increment of load. In this manner,<br />

the time necessary to break a long-time test specimen<br />

varied from 12 to 72 hours, depending on the<br />

material and on the temperature at which it was being<br />

tested. The values of the long-time tensile strengths<br />

are shown by the lower portion of the tensile strength<br />

curve. It will be noticed that, as the values of the<br />

temperature of specimens are increased, the ductilityvalues<br />

are also increased and the strength values are


July, 1925<br />

decreased. It should also be pointed out that the<br />

endurance limit curve goes above the long-time tensile<br />

strength curve as the temperature is increased.<br />

An explanation for this is given below.<br />

A curious effect obtained in the testing of annealed<br />

or normalized steel is shown by the fact that,<br />

as the temperature approaches the neighborhood of<br />

the so-called bluing heat, the tensile strength is increased.<br />

Fig. 3 shows the static values obtained for<br />

this steel, and it is suggested that this state of high<br />

stress is largely due to the temperature and stress<br />

conditions prevailing during the test, and is closely<br />

allied to the effect of mechanical working which it receives<br />

during the process of the test. The proportional<br />

limit is not increased as the temperature is increased,<br />

showing that the mechanical working has its<br />

greatest static effect during the yielding of the material<br />

at these bluing temperatures. In connection<br />

with this strengthening effect at these particular temperatures<br />

a few tests were made in which the metal<br />

was stressed to 90 per cent of the short-time tensile<br />

strength, then allowed to cool, and retested at ordinary<br />

temperatures. The results are indicated in Fig.<br />

3 by the crosses at ordinary temperatures, and show<br />

that the effect of mechanical working is very appreciable<br />

and is retained when the metal is reduced to<br />

ordinary temperatures.<br />

In order to demonstrate whether or not the<br />

strength of this steel could be obtained by heat treatment<br />

as well as by mechanical treatment a; the bluing<br />

temperature, the best heat treatment, as found<br />

220 000<br />

200000<br />

180 000<br />

160 000<br />

•S|40 000<br />

s 120 000<br />

£100000<br />

i 80 000<br />

At<br />

10 60 000<br />

40 000<br />

20000<br />

^<br />

€v pSfft<br />

V h><br />

V<br />

_ PtOborh, 'jMf tir>. •<br />

; V<br />

7\<br />

tn, foran 4~2Zi><br />

*lirrZr~ *.S<br />

?e du£ti njt-<br />

Are£-<br />

Ebnqa, ion in cm. _<br />

., 1<br />

Ibrgmg-Stamping- Heat Tieating 237<br />

80<br />

60 ^<br />

c<br />

40 "<br />

20 £<br />

Temperature, deg. Fahr.<br />

FIG. 2—Experimental results of tests of a high-carbon steel<br />

quenched and tested at various temperatures.<br />

by previous tests in the Fatigue of Metals Laboratory*,<br />

was used for a series of static specimens. This<br />

metal was quenched and drawn at 400 deg. F., as for<br />

treatment AA in the Bulletin referred to. The upper<br />

dotted lines in Fig. 3 show the static tensile strength<br />

of this metal at various temperatures and indicate that<br />

if a steel is heat treated so as to develop its greatest<br />

strength at ordinary temperatures there is no hump<br />

in the strength curves at elevated temperatures, as is<br />

shown for the steel in the annealed or normalized<br />

state. It also shows that the tensile strength at the<br />

bluing temperatures of the heat treated specimen, is<br />

no greater than for the specimens that were nor-<br />

*H. F. Moore and T. M. Jasper, Second Report, Fatigue of<br />

Metals Investigation, Bulletin No. 136, University of Illinois Experiment<br />

Station (1923).<br />

malized before testing. This shows that there is no<br />

advantage obtained in tensile strength by heat treatment<br />

if the metal is to be used at or above tne bluing<br />

temperature.<br />

The dotted line in Fig. 3 next below the tensile<br />

strength line represents the proportional limit of the<br />

heat-treated steel at various temperatures, and is<br />

much higher than the proportional limit curve for the<br />

normalized steel. This bears out a previous statement<br />

to the effect that the strengthening effect on the<br />

normalized at the bluing temperature, due to mechanical<br />

working, comes after the yielding of the<br />

material, and is associated with the stress and temperature<br />

conditions during the approach of the test<br />

160 000<br />

140 000<br />

.120 000<br />

c<br />

o-lOO 000<br />

o. 80 000<br />

g 60 000<br />

1 I I<br />

Normalized Treatment<br />

Quenched and Drawn<br />

£ 40 000<br />

100<br />

7.0 000<br />

50 3<br />

ti<br />

a<br />

0<br />

Temperature, deg. Fahr.<br />

FIG. 3—Curves showing static and fatigue properties of a 0.50<br />

per cent carbon steel tested at elevated temperatures.<br />

specimen to the tensile strength of the material.<br />

Retesting specimens at ordinary temperatures after<br />

they had been stressed to 90 per cent of the tensile<br />

strength and then cooled, shows that the proportional<br />

limit is raised by mechanical working a', the bluing<br />

temperature for all specimens after the initial stressing<br />

has been performed under such conditions. It is<br />

suggested that the reason for the foregoing phenomenon<br />

is that the bluing temperature of a wrought<br />

ferrous metal gives the best conditions for working a<br />

metal to obtain the maximum strength by mechanical<br />

means. That this strength can be made to approach<br />

that obtained by the best heat treatment, is indicated<br />

by those tests.<br />

Fatigue strength results on steels at elevated temperatures,<br />

while essentially long-time tests, may be<br />

expected to exhibit phenomena somewhat different<br />

from that shown by long-time static tests. It has<br />

been shown that for temperatures above from 400 to<br />

600 deg. F. the static test results vary with the rate<br />

at which the specimens are stressed. The specimens<br />

used in obtaining the fatigue results at elevated temperatures<br />

shown in Figs. 2 and 3 have been stressed<br />

from maximum to minimum at the rate of 1500 cycles<br />

every minute, and this is probably comparable to the<br />

short-time static test rather than the long-time statictest.<br />

It will be noticed in Figs. 2 and 3 thai at high<br />

testing temperatures the fatigue endurance limits approach<br />

in one case the long-time static tensilestrength,<br />

and in the other case exceed this value. It<br />

is expected that, as the rate found at elevated temperatures<br />

will also decrease, because a longer time<br />

will be available per cycle at the slower speeds for<br />

the yielding of the material, and the long and shorttime<br />

effect will prevail in a manner similar to that<br />

shown in static tests.<br />

(Concluded on Page 240.)


23*<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

July, 1925<br />

H e a t T r e a t m e n t o f H i g h S p e e d S t e e l D i e s '<br />

A Method for Hardening High Speed Steel Dies and Circular Form<br />

Tools, Without Scaling, Blistering or Distorting to<br />

W I T H the increasing use of high speed steel for<br />

dies, the steel treater has been compelled to<br />

improve his hardening practice. Only dies<br />

of the simplest form can be ground on all sides after<br />

hardening. Fully 95 per cent are made to finished<br />

dimensions before hardening. This means that the<br />

hardener must heat treat such work without scaling,<br />

blistering or distorting t any marked degree. The<br />

average steel treater finds this difficult to do if he<br />

uses the ordinary method of heat treatment. This<br />

article is written for his consideration and discussion.<br />

Maii\- processes have been proposed and many<br />

used, but in the average simp it is usually though" that<br />

it is impossible to heat treat such work in a satisfactory<br />

manner without making many elaborate additions<br />

t their equipment.<br />

The writer has tried man}- processes and combinations<br />

to meet all of the above requirements, but with<br />

the endeavor to make the process practical and economical<br />

and at the same time produce the proper<br />

grain refinement and secondary hardness with the<br />

necessary toughness.<br />

Most of the pack hardening processes proposed are<br />

treacherous and only produce a surface hardness, with<br />

nu secondary hardness, due to the carburizing action<br />

and the low heat used. Those methods using high<br />

enough heats to bring out the secondary hardness are<br />

still more treacherous, slow, and rather expensive to<br />

operate. The salt baths seem promising where large<br />

quantities are to be hardened, but are expensive to<br />

operate where only a few dies at a time are to be hardened.<br />

The final process as adopted and used by the writer<br />

tor over a year requires the following equipment:<br />

Equipment.<br />

1. A preheating furnace with a minimum door<br />

opening as follows: Height 12 inches and width IS<br />

inches, preferably larger.<br />

2. Iligb heat furnace with same minimum door<br />

opening as preheating furnace. Preferably with a<br />

heating chamber IS inches high X 18 inches wide and<br />

24 inches dee]), of semi-muffle type, gas fired.<br />

3. ()il quenching tank.<br />

4. ( )il tempering bath.<br />

5. Cyanide or lead hardening furnace with a steei<br />

pot at least 8 inches in diameter and 10 inches deep.<br />

to use for a salt tempering bath.<br />

6. Three graphite crucibles and lids size No. 10<br />

or 12. depending on size of work to be hardened.<br />

7 Pyrometers and thermometers. Preferably a<br />

rare metal thermocouple for the high-heat furnace.<br />

8. Necessary tongs and fixtures for the work at<br />

hand.<br />

*A paper presented before the Spring Sectional Meeting- of<br />

the American Society for Steel Treating, Moline, [11., May<br />

22. 1924. and reprinted from the Transactions of the Society.<br />

fMetallurgist, Wagner Electric Corporation. St. Louis.<br />

Any Marked Degree Described in Detail<br />

By C. B. SWANDERf<br />

All of the above equipment is usually found in the<br />

average hardening room, with, perhaps, the exception<br />

of a high-heat furnace of the above dimensions,<br />

graphite crucibles and salt for the tempering bath.<br />

An ordinary heat treating furnace can often be converted<br />

into a high heat furnace by changing to a larger<br />

sized burner, particularly the one burner type.<br />

The Process.<br />

The process is carried out as follows :<br />

Inspect the crucible and lids to see that the lids fit<br />

tightly. Put about :y\ inches of a mixture of 1/3 charcoal<br />

and 2/3 silica sand in the bottom of each crucible.<br />

( >n this place a disk of graphite made from a crucible<br />

lid. Preheat two of the graphite crucible.-, and lids<br />

in the preheating furnace to 1500-1600 degrees Fahr.<br />

(815-875 degrees Cent.), and one of the crucibles<br />

with tight fitting lid in the high-heat furnace to 2300<br />

degrees Fahr. (1260 degrees Cent.) One of the preheated<br />

crucibles is then removed from the preheating<br />

furnace. The work to be hardened is inserted. The<br />

crucible and contents are returned to the preheating<br />

furnaces. aAs soon as the work is preheated to 1500-<br />

1600 deg. F. (815-875 deg. C). this crucible is removed<br />

and the one in the high-heat furnace removed and<br />

the work quickly transferred to the high-heat crucible,<br />

the lid is carefully placed into position and the<br />

crucible and the work which is just received placed in<br />

the high-heat furnace held at 2250-2300 deg. F. (1230-<br />

1260 deg. C.). depending upon composition of steel,<br />

for a pre-determined length of time, which naturally<br />

varies with the dimensions and weight of the work<br />

being hardened. The time varies from 5 to 15 minutes.<br />

10 minutes being satisfactory for all but light<br />

pieces and pieces 1 inch through or ovci. The crucible<br />

and contents are then removed from the highheat<br />

furnace, the lid is then removed and the work<br />

quickly quenched into a good grade of quenching oil.<br />

When cooled to about 150-200 deg. F it is transferred<br />

to a hot oil bath maintained at about 400 deg. F. and<br />

tempered for 10-15 minutes, then finished tempered in<br />

a salt bath for about 20 minutes al 1100 leg. F. (595<br />

deg. C). Then it is cooled in oil. The salt film is<br />

then dissolved off in hot water and the die allowed to<br />

cool in air.<br />

By using two crucibles for preheating, the cycle<br />

becomes continuous, as it always has preheated work<br />

ready for the high-heat crucible when the latter is<br />

empty. If the work is of small section, one preheating<br />

crucible is often sufficient.<br />

1 he dies come out remarkably clean, free from<br />

all blistering and scaling, all sharp cutting edges in<br />

perfect condition and with small dimensional changes.<br />

Such dies have a hardness of Rockwell C-60-63, scleroscope<br />

85-95, Brinell of 600-652 and absolutely file hard.<br />

with good grain structure.<br />

The scleroscope hardness usually varies between<br />

90-95, which is at least 5 points higher than is normal-


July, 1925<br />

ly obtained by the quick open fire method, used oil<br />

tools that can be ground.<br />

The temper at 1100 deg. F. as compared to no<br />

temper increases the scleroscope hardness from 2 to<br />

5 points and at the same time reduces the Rockwell<br />

hardness from 2 to 3 points on the C-scale, with practically<br />

no change in Brinell hardness. It also increases<br />

the toughness to a marked degree, which is<br />

easily demonstrated by breaking a thin section say<br />

y X y2 inch. French and Strauss show this very<br />

clearly in their paper on "Effect of Heat Treatment<br />

on Lathe Tool Performance and Some Other Properties<br />

of High Speed Steels." (September, W23, issue<br />

of Transactions.) They show an increase in fibre<br />

stress and deflection after a 1100 deg. F. temper. The<br />

author believes that the high temper is necessary for<br />

die work when hardened by this method, due to the<br />

added toughness which it gives, which is so important<br />

in dies for punch-press work. Hardness values are<br />

fixed and no further heating up to 900 deg. F (485<br />

deg. C.) (which is as high as the author has tried)<br />

for a short or long period wall change them. The<br />

high temper also helps to prevent grinding cracks<br />

which often means failure of the die.<br />

Precautions.<br />

The precautions which should be taken into account<br />

in this method of heat treatment are as follows :<br />

1. Have high-heat furnace equipped with a good<br />

pyrometer, preferably with platinum, platinum-rhodium<br />

thermocouple, and checked often.<br />

2. Before using new graphite crucibles, anneal<br />

them carefully and heat to 1600 cleg. F. (870 deg. C.)<br />

with lids removed to burn out surface graphite to prevent<br />

it falling on the work to be hardened.<br />

3. See that the lids fit tightly before starting<br />

work.<br />

4. Always have crucibles side by side when making<br />

transfer and do not have lids removed longer than<br />

necessary.<br />

5. Transfer work quickly from the preheat crucible,<br />

and likewise from the high-heat crucible to the<br />

quenching oil.<br />

6. Do not allow the hardened pieces to lie around<br />

long before tempering. The sooner they are tempered,<br />

the less the danger of breakage.<br />

7. After tempering in the salt bath, be sure to<br />

let the pieces get cool before placing them in the hot<br />

water to remove the salt.<br />

Dimensional Changes.<br />

This method, since the finished surfaces are not<br />

scaled and pitted, as in open fire work, has given the<br />

author an excellent opportunity to study dimensional<br />

changes. Not on any certain size test bars, protected<br />

by steel clamps and caps as other investigators have<br />

clone, but on production dies and tools of varying dimensions.<br />

Pieces made from round rolled high speed steel in<br />

the annealed condition have always expanded slightly<br />

on the linear dimension, when treated by this method,<br />

and shrunk slightly on the cross-sectional dimension,<br />

regardless of the varying proportions of these dimensions.<br />

A piece \y2 inches in diameter by 3 inches longwill<br />

usually shrink more on the ends than in the center.<br />

The center on such a piece usually shows no<br />

movement at all. If, however, the dimensions are<br />

reversed, that is, 3 inches in diameter by 1^ inches<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

239<br />

thick, the piece gets slightly smaller on the 3-inch<br />

dimension and larger on the lj^-inch dimension, with<br />

a slight bulging in the center. The average expansion<br />

in the linear dimension on some 50 pieces measured,<br />

was 0.0009 inch per inch of length, and the<br />

average shrinkage in the cross sectional dimension<br />

on the same pieces was 0.0007 inch per inch.<br />

This linear expansion of 0.0009 inch per inch<br />

checks very ciosely with curves given by (Jrossmann<br />

in bis paper, "The Change in Dimensions of High<br />

Speed Steel in Heat Treatment" (May, 1922, issue of<br />

Transactions). Mr. (jrossmann, however, did not<br />

take into consideration the cross sectional changes.<br />

My experience has shown that dies made from rectangular<br />

sections show much smaller dimensional<br />

changes than those made from round bars. They<br />

usually expand slightly in the center on the linear<br />

dimension, the edges showing little movement. On<br />

the width they usually expand slightly in the center<br />

and shrink slightly on the ends. On thickness they<br />

practically always expand, the expansion being more<br />

pronounced in the center; here again showing the<br />

bulging effect previously mentioned.<br />

Some data along this line may be of interest to<br />

show the small change that rectangular stock undergoes<br />

in hardening by this method. A few 6-slot motor<br />

laminae dies made from bar stock \y± X 4 inches were<br />

ground on all sides, measured carefully, hardened and<br />

tempered and again measured, showed the following<br />

results:<br />

TABLE I — DIMENSIONAL CHANGES OF HIGH SPEED<br />

RECTANGULAR BAR STOCK<br />

Size Size<br />

Before Treat ment After Tteatinent<br />

Selerosi'ipe Rockwell<br />

Inches In Center At Ends Reading Reading<br />

Length 5.072 5.072 1<br />

Width 3.943 3.9435 3.942 1- 92 C-63<br />

Thickness ...1.1235 1.1247 J<br />

Length 5.933 5.933 j<br />

Width 3.724 3.725 3.724 j 93 C-61<br />

Thickness ...1.063 1.0635 J<br />

Length 5.883 5.883 1<br />

Width 3.422 3.422 3.420 | 92 C-61<br />

Thickness ...1.0595 1.060 J<br />

Length 5.941 5.938 j<br />

Width 3.591 3.591 ,1.588 j 90 C-61<br />

Thickness ...1.070 1.071 J<br />

Treatment—Preheated 1600 deg. F. (870 deg. C.) for 30 mm.<br />

Transferred; in high-heat furnace for 13 min. at 2300 deg. F.<br />

(1260 deg. C). Quenched in oil. In oil at 400 deg. F. for 15<br />

min. In salt at 1100 deg. F. (595 deg. C.) for 25 min. Cooled<br />

in oil.<br />

Discussion.<br />

You no doubt have observed that the main difference<br />

between the method outlined and standard practice<br />

is the use of praphite crucibles and lids, with<br />

about y inch of a mixture of 1/3 charcoal and 2/3<br />

silica sand by volume in the crucibles in which the<br />

work is heated. The reason for the use of graphite<br />

crucible is that the gases therein are reducing at all<br />

times, thus preventing the formation of scale. These<br />

gases do not carburize at the pre-heat temperature,<br />

and show only a slight carburizing effect at the high<br />

heat temperature, this carburization being well under<br />

the eutectoid range.


24G Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating July, 1925<br />

The graphite crucibles stand the high heats well,<br />

and are comparatively cheap.<br />

It is important that the work be thoroughly protected<br />

from oxygen at all times. For this reason the<br />

added precaution is taken of using the small quantity<br />

of charcoal, particularly in the preheat crucibles. If<br />

by chance scale is formed during the preheat operation,<br />

it is reduced by the carbon monoxide present at<br />

the high heat, producing a soft skin or decarburized<br />

surface. This is the reason that emphasis is placed on<br />

tight fitting lids and transferring work quickly.<br />

Large pieces, such as form tools, are handled individually,<br />

resting directly on the graphite slab, while<br />

small pieces are suspended by wires from an umbrellalike<br />

fixture made of sheet steel free from scale.<br />

The process is quite flexible and need not be followed<br />

to the letter. For instance, if the operator feels<br />

that full secondary hardness is not required, he can<br />

use a lower heat, say 2200 deg. F. (1205 deg. C), and<br />

a low temper or quench into salt at 1100 to 1300 deg.<br />

F. There are many who advocate and use the lower<br />

heats on delicate dies not requiring full secondary<br />

hardness.<br />

The tendency of many manufacturers using high<br />

speed steel for dies has been to use a 14-per cent<br />

tungsten steel due to its lower hardening temperature,<br />

thereby eliminating as much danger of scaling<br />

and pitting as possible. But by the above method,<br />

the danger of scaling and pitting is eliminated. Low<br />

tungsten steels are more sensitive to heat treatment<br />

than the high tungsten types. They are also more<br />

brittle when hardened for maximum endurance, and<br />

more subject to grain growth when held at the high<br />

heats for a long time than are the high tungsten types.<br />

Therefore, when using this method which is a<br />

slower heating method and requires holding at a high<br />

heat longer, it seems advisable to the writer to use<br />

an 18-per cent tungsten steel to obtain the best finished<br />

product.<br />

aMucIi less warpage is obtained on thin punches and<br />

long slender pieces by this method than any other<br />

high-heat method that the author has tried. Small<br />

punches, % inch thick x }i inch wide x 3 inches long,<br />

come out straight.<br />

Just a word about clean annealing of hardened<br />

work, for tool makers and tool designers occasionally<br />

make mistakes, and the die must be reworked. The<br />

writer has found that the salt bath is an excellent<br />

medium for annealing hardened high speed steel. By<br />

heating to 1350 deg. F (730 deg. C) in a salt bath<br />

and allowing to cool in air the die is soft enough to<br />

be quite readily reworked and is not scaled.<br />

So far, for a salt bath for tempering and annealing,<br />

the author has used a mixture sold by an eastern firm<br />

which freezes at about 1075 deg. F. The small quantity<br />

used during a year has not warranted much investigation<br />

along this line.<br />

Circular form tools for automatic machines can be<br />

hardened by this method and thereby save the expensive<br />

operation of grinding. In fact a large portion<br />

of my data on dimensional changes of round high<br />

speed steel was obtained from circular form-tools and<br />

verified by several test bars.<br />

Conclusion.<br />

The main difference between the method outlined<br />

and the usual open fire method is the use of graphite<br />

crucibles in which the work is heated. The method<br />

is economical to operate and produces work free from<br />

scale, blisters, and pits, with full secondary hardness<br />

properties.<br />

Pieces made from round high speed steel stock always<br />

expands on the linear dimension and shrinks on<br />

the cross sectional dimension when treated by this<br />

method.<br />

Pieces made from rectangular high speed steel<br />

stock show less dimensional changes than those made<br />

from round high speed steel stock.<br />

Ship F<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

The Matson Navigation Company has placed orders<br />

with the Bethlehem Steel Company for the shaft<br />

and turbine f<strong>org</strong>ings for the steamship "Malolo,"<br />

being built by Gibbs Brothers, Inc., New York. The<br />

shaft f<strong>org</strong>ings will aggregate 26 tons and the turbine<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings something over 30 tons. The vessel will be<br />

the largest high powered passenger vessel built in<br />

the United States.<br />

(Continued from page 231)<br />

ercw Steel process of rolling. In Fig. 19 is shown<br />

the grain flow of a front axle steering knuckle.<br />

Constant check is placed upon all major f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

to insure the proper grain flow and to prevent the<br />

occurance and acceptance of cross grained material.<br />

Cold Tests.<br />

As a final check on axle parts, and as an assurance<br />

to the Engineering Department that the proper care<br />

has been used in the selection and treatment of the<br />

materials that enter into the axle, the important f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

are periodically subjeced to cold bend tests. Heat<br />

treated f<strong>org</strong>ings are selected at random and with the<br />

aid of tons of pressure, they are bent, twisted and flattendeo:<br />

cold. Fig. 20 shows a group of these f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

that have been subjected to test.<br />

Conclusion.<br />

This completes the testing and inspection from a<br />

metallurgical standpoint. Much could be said upon<br />

magnetic analysis and the application of the X-Ra><br />

to detect the hidden dangers, but as these tests are<br />

still in their experimental stage it would not be fair<br />

to list them as the regular method of routine inspection.<br />

Every possible test is used which will help make<br />

the finished product one of absolute dependability.<br />

The axle manufacturer is ever conscious of the dan<br />

gers that lurk should certain components of an axle<br />

fail, and he is therefore ever testing, ever inspecting<br />

and researching in order to make the axle the safest<br />

part of the motor car.<br />

(Continued from page 237)<br />

The results presented in this paper are from tests<br />

which were performed partly at the University of<br />

Illinois and partly by the engineers of the Allis-<br />

Chalmers Manufacturing Company, and are also a<br />

part of the work undertaken by the Fatigue of Metals<br />

investigation. Acknowledgment should be given to<br />

the University of Illinois for the use of machines, to<br />

A. N. Talbot, who is head of the Department of Theoretical<br />

and Applied Mechanics, and to H. F. Moore.<br />

who is in general charge of the materials and fatigue<br />

testing laboratories of the University, and to Mr Harper<br />

and Mr. MacPherran of the Allis-Chalmers Company,<br />

whose results have been largely used for Fig. 1.


July, 1925'<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

D i e P e r f o r m a n c e in M a n u f a c t u r e o f N u t s<br />

The Function of Various Punches and Dies in the Continuous<br />

Process Manufacture of Cold Worked Square and<br />

IT is generally understood that when dies are introduced<br />

in any manufacturing process, extreme accuracy<br />

is implied. In this connection, however, the<br />

die itself is usually thought of as a single individual<br />

tool working independently and separately from every<br />

other tool.<br />

The average bolt and nut manufacturing plant,<br />

however, will demonstrate frequently the use of a<br />

series of different dies in one machine for turning out<br />

a finished or semi-finished product. Here, frequently,<br />

one will find as many as six or seven individual dies<br />

and punches working independently and in successive<br />

order. In a case of this kind, it is not only essential<br />

that each die be of extreme accuracy, but that its<br />

position and order of operation be determined within<br />

very fine limits. Otherwise, inaccuracies will occur<br />

in the finished product.<br />

An example of this is had in a series of dies manufactured<br />

and used at the plant of the Buffalo Bolt<br />

Company of North Tonawanda, N. Y., for cold working<br />

small sized nuts. The material in bar form is fed<br />

into the nut punching machine by an operator and<br />

comes out in the form of a series of semi-finished nuts,<br />

punched, cut off, crowned and trimmed, ready for<br />

tapping operations.<br />

The dies as they appear in the illustration, reading<br />

from left to right, can be enumerated as follows:<br />

Piercing punch, piercing die, cut-off punch, cut-off die,<br />

crowning die and trimming die. All of these tools,<br />

as can be seen from the illustration, are simple both<br />

in design and construction; the interesting points<br />

here, however, are their use in connection with the<br />

cold nut punching machine and the method of<br />

operation.<br />

Before proceeding with this phase, however, it<br />

may be well first to describe briefly the design of each<br />

die. Referring to the illustration, it will be noted<br />

that the piercing punch (first figure) consists of a<br />

small, tool steel, hardened bar with the piercing end<br />

tapered for cutting purposes to the size hole wanted<br />

in the nut. A notch in the shank end provides a bearing<br />

surface for the set screw holding the tool. The<br />

second figure in the illustration represents the piercing<br />

die. This is likewise made of a round bar of hardened<br />

tool steel. The tool has a slightly raised flange<br />

on the inside bearing surface and a tapered hole bored<br />

through the center which provides for disposal of the<br />

punched-out slugs.<br />

Our next figure shows a cut-off punch. Made of<br />

alloy steel, hardened and tempered, the outer dimension<br />

of this tool conforms in shape and size to the nut<br />

to be punched—that is, if it is a hexagon shaped nut,<br />

the cut-off punch will be hexagon in shape; if a square<br />

nut, the punch will likewise be square in shape.<br />

Through the center of the punching tool, a hole is<br />

drilled in which the pilot pin, for holding the nut after<br />

•Buffalo Bolt Company.<br />

Hexagon Nuts Discussed at Some Length<br />

By ARTHUR L. GREENE*<br />

241<br />

punching, operates. The cut-off die, which operates<br />

in conjunction with the cut-off punch, is next illustrated.<br />

This consists of a round shaped piece of hardened<br />

tool steel in the center of which is an opening<br />

conforming to the shape of the nut being made. In<br />

the figure illustrated here, for example, we have<br />

shown a square shaped cut-off die. This opening is<br />

FIG. 1 Showing the punches and dies used in cold working<br />

nuts; (left) piercing punch, piercing die; (center) cut-off<br />

punch; (right) cut-off die, crowning die and trimming die.<br />

(The pilot-pin will be seen projecting from the end of the<br />

cut-off punch.)<br />

made to a 1^2 deg. taper on all sides, the inner or<br />

ting edge being made to size with the taper extending<br />

to the rear of the die.<br />

The crowning die next shown is a solid tool. A<br />

slight depression is made in the face of the die, giving<br />

it much the appearance of a shallow saucer with raised<br />

edges. This acts on the nut to give it a raised cen-


242 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

ter, while the outer edges are depressed, or as it is<br />

more commonly known, chamfered.<br />

The final operation on a cold worked nut is performed<br />

by the trimming die illustrated in the last<br />

figure. The tool itself is square in shape. Through<br />

the center is an opening of the exact size and shape<br />

which the finished nut will take. This opening has<br />

a slight taper of one degree per foot on each side in<br />

order to form a cutting edge and to allow the nut to<br />

pass through the die without forcing. The opening<br />

demonstrated here is square in shape and is used, ol<br />

course, in trimming a square shaped nut.<br />

In setting up the machine, the piercing punch is<br />

placed in a collet or holder; the piercing die is placed<br />

in position immediately back of the piercing punch<br />

so that the latter, after passing through the material,<br />

will enter the piercing die opening. Placed next in<br />

order and just ahead of these two tools is the cut-off<br />

punch and cut-off die, the latter being placed directly<br />

in back of the former. Inserted through the center of<br />

the cut-off punich is a pilot pin, which holds the nut<br />

after it has been pierced and cut off from the bar<br />

material. Held in a slide back of the cut-off tools is<br />

the crowning die, while below this latter is the trimming-<br />

die.<br />

FIG. 2—Showing large cold nut punching machine in operation.<br />

Note the piercing punch and cut-off punch in position<br />

in machine.<br />

When operating, the material in coil is automatically<br />

fed into the machine opening. The piercing<br />

punch moves forward and pierces the material.<br />

The stock moves forward a predetermined distance<br />

and the cut-off punch now advances in turn, cuts off<br />

the stock roughly to the shape desired (in this instance,<br />

square shaped) and continues forward and<br />

through the cut-off die opening to a position in front<br />

of the crowning die. Simultaneously with this forward<br />

movement of the cut-off punch, the pilot pin<br />

likewise advances and inserts itself in the hole opening<br />

of the nut. This pilot pin serves to center and<br />

carry the nut; otherwise, the nut would drop through<br />

the machine following the cutting-off operation. With<br />

the roughly cut nut now in place before the crowning<br />

die, this latter now advances automatically and crowns<br />

the nut with one blow. Following this operation, the<br />

cut-off punch recedes slightly to allow the slide holding<br />

the crowning and trimming dies to move upward,<br />

lulv, 1925<br />

thereby bringing the trimming die directly in front of<br />

and opposite the newly crowned nut. With the cutoff<br />

punch acting as a pusher, and the pilot pin holding<br />

the nut in position, these two tools advance simultaneously<br />

and now force the nut through the trimming<br />

die, where it is trimmed to exact size and shape.<br />

The nut continues through the tapered opening in<br />

the trimming die and drops clown into a container<br />

placed under the machine.<br />

When considering each of these machines separately<br />

and indidvidually, the process entailed may<br />

seem like a length}- one. As a matter of fact, however,<br />

the entire operation is extremely rapid, as can be seen<br />

from the following production figures. For a J4«in.<br />

regular nut. either square or hexagon shaped, output<br />

per 9 2/3 working hours will average 45,000 to 50,000<br />

nuts per machine; over the same working period, with<br />

a slightly larger nut, say 5/16 in. in size, either square<br />

or hexagon shaped, output will average 40,000 to 45,000<br />

nuts. In making a stove nut, where no crowning<br />

operation is needed, output is increased proportionately.<br />

When a hexagon shaped nut is desired, an extra<br />

process is included in addition to those just cited.<br />

This concerns the notching of the bar material before<br />

it is pierced. This notching operation is performed<br />

automatically on the same machine with a pair of bottom<br />

and upper notching tools, made in "V" form, the<br />

lower tool being placed in. the machine with the<br />

pointed end of the "V" inverted. Following this<br />

notching operation of the bar material, exactly the<br />

same procedure is followed as in making the square<br />

nut.<br />

Enlarges Welding School<br />

The Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company<br />

has enlarged and centralized its school for training<br />

arc welders. The work, at first quite simple, will<br />

develop as the men progress into the more complex<br />

and difficult problems of arc welding. It is open to<br />

all employes of the company as well as to men from<br />

outside companies, and is divided into booths so that<br />

each student may work out his own problems undisturbed<br />

and unhampered. The enlarged school has<br />

been re-equipped with up-to-date apparatus, including<br />

a 1,000-amp. motor-generator arc welding set with six<br />

outlet panels; arc cutting apparatus varying from 400<br />

to 600 amperes; a portable 200-amp. arc welding set<br />

and other necessary apparatus.<br />

Extends Research<br />

The British Cast Iron Research Association has<br />

added two new investigations to its program. One<br />

will concern the influence of silicon, manganese and<br />

phosphorous on the formation of graphite in cast iron<br />

and will be conducted by M. L. Becker at the University<br />

of Manchester under the supervision of Prof. F<br />

C. Thompson. The other will deal with the alloy<br />

systems, iron-silicon, iron-manganese, iron-phosphorus<br />

in the presence of carbon over the range usually associated<br />

with cast iron and will be commenced at the<br />

National Physical Laboratory under the direction of<br />

Dr. W Rosenhain.. The director and consultant of<br />

the association recently visited continental laboratories<br />

and works for the purpose of examining recent<br />

foundry developments.


July, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 243<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER VI.<br />

THEORY OF HARDENING STEEL*<br />

PART 1 — NATURE OF CRITICAL POINTS<br />

THE critical points of steel and some of the effects<br />

which they bring about during heating and cooling,<br />

were discussed in Chapter III. Changes in<br />

microstructure, hardness and other physical properties,<br />

and the accompanying evolutions or absorbtions of<br />

heat were touched upon. The present chapter will be<br />

devoted to a discussion of the fundamental causes of<br />

these critical points, the inner nature, atomic or molecular,<br />

of the changes which take place, and the manner<br />

in which these changes bring about the hardening<br />

of steel.<br />

The critical point diagram, which was described in<br />

Chapter III, and shown in Fig. 69, is a part of a larger<br />

diagram (that is a diagram covering a wider range of<br />

temperature and carbon content), known as the "Iron-<br />

Carbon Diagram," or "Constitution Diagram" of steel,<br />

*The present Chapter is based largely upon material from<br />

the following references, which are recommended to the student<br />

for further reading: (12) "The Iron-Carbon Diagram," by R. S.<br />

Archer, A. S. S. T. Data Sheets. (13) "The Science of Metals,"<br />

by Zay Jeffries and R. S. Archer. (14) "Hardness and Hardening"—Synopsis<br />

of lectures by Walter Rosenhain, Chemical and<br />

Metallurgical Engineering, May 21, 1923. The author is also<br />

indebted to Dr. W. M. Mitchell, for constructive criticism in the<br />

preparation of this chapter.<br />

Note: Parts of the present chapter on the Theory of Hardening<br />

Steel, may be somewhat difficult for the beginning student to<br />

grasp, especially if he has had no previous scientific training.<br />

Every effort has been made to cover the subject in as clear and<br />

non-technical language as possible, but the nature of the subject<br />

is such that it cannot be discussed in other than scientific<br />

terms. The student should therefore give this portion especially<br />

careful study and more than one reading, and would do well to<br />

review it from time to time. A clear understanding of the fundamental<br />

causes of hardening will solve many otherwise mysterious<br />

problems.<br />

The author is Chief Metallurgist, Naval Aircraft Factory,<br />

United States Navy Copyright Yard, 1925, Philadelphia, by H. C. Pa. Knerr.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

shown in Fig. 109. This includes temperatures up to<br />

the melting point, and alloys of iron and carbon containing<br />

much more carbon than is ever found in steel.<br />

In studying the hardening of steel, we need concern<br />

ourselves, for the present, only with that portion<br />

of the Iron-Carbon diagram represented in Fig. 69.<br />

The remainder of the Iron-Carbon Diagram will be<br />

discussed in Part 3 of this chapter.<br />

A great deal of research has been devoted to the<br />

study of the physical changes which take place in steel<br />

during heating and cooling. The principal purpose<br />

of these studies was to arrive at a satisfactory explanation<br />

of the remarkable ability possessed by steel<br />

to have its hardness and strength increased by the<br />

process known as "heat-treating". This property has<br />

been known and made use of for centuries, but only<br />

quite recently has anything like a satisfactory explanation<br />

of its fundamental causes been offered. It has<br />

long been recognized that the ability of steel to harden<br />

depends upon the presence of carbon, and that the<br />

addition of small quantities of other alloying elements<br />

such as nickel, chromium, vanadium, etc., has beneficial<br />

effects. But it has not been known how or why these<br />

effects are brought about.<br />

One or two examples will illustrate the remarkable<br />

nature of these effects. Pure iron has a Brinell hardness<br />

of about 80 and a tensile strength of about 40,000<br />

psi. It is soft and ductile. These properties cannot<br />

be greatly changed by heat-treatment. The same material,<br />

with the addition of about one per cent of carbon,<br />

when suitably heat-treated, will have a Brinell<br />

hardness of 600 or more, and a tool made from it will<br />

cut the carbonless iron almost as readily as a knife<br />

cuts wood. The tensile strength of the hardened steel<br />

will be high, but this will be masked by the fact that<br />

it is rather brittle.<br />

Suppose, instead of adding one per cent of carbon<br />

to the iron, we add only about one-half per cent, but<br />

also add one per cent of chromium and one sixth of a<br />

per cent of vanadium, as in a well known commercial


.'44 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Tieating<br />

alloy steel. Proper heat treatment will now produce<br />

in this steel a tensile strength as high as 200.000 or<br />

even 300,000 psi. and it will retain quite a considerable<br />

degree of ductility or toughness.<br />

We may well inquire why the addition of as little<br />

as one or two one-hundredth parts by weight, of alloying<br />

elements to iron, followed by heat treatment, will<br />

make the metal nearly eight times as hard and strong<br />

2 J 4 5<br />

Per Cenl- Carbon by Weight<br />

FIG. 109—Iron-carbon diagram. (Archer.)<br />

as before. The answer will be found in the arrangement<br />

of the atoms of the iron and other elements in<br />

the steel, and is intimately associated with its crystalline<br />

nature.<br />

Nature of Changes at Critical Points.<br />

It is first necessary to clearly understand the<br />

changes which take place at the critical points. Referring<br />

to the critical point diagram, Fig. 110, which<br />

is similar to Fig. 69, with some additional notations—<br />

let us review briefly how it was constructed. First,<br />

it represents pure iron-carbon alloys. (The presence<br />

of other alloying elements will modify the diagram,<br />

changing the positions of the critical points, as will<br />

be discussed later). Carbon content, in per cent, is<br />

laved off on a horizontal scale, and temperature vertically.<br />

Any vertical line therefore represents the changes<br />

which take place in an iron carbon alloy (steel)<br />

of a particular carbon content, when slowly heated and<br />

slowly cooled between the limits of temperature shown<br />

on the vertical scale. Any point on the diagram represents<br />

the condition of a certain alloy at a certain temperature.<br />

Constituents.<br />

Those portions of an alloy appearing, under the<br />

microscope, to be definite units in the structure are<br />

called "constituents". The constituents of annealed<br />

low carbon steel are ferrite and pearlite. Usually the<br />

term constituent is applied only to a portion of the<br />

allov which appears homogeneous. Pearlite appears<br />

homogeneous at low magnifications, but at higher<br />

magnifications it is seen to be a mixture of alternate<br />

plates of ferrite and cementite. The term constituent<br />

is therefore somewhat elastic.<br />

July, 1925<br />

Alpha Iron.<br />

We have seen (Chapter III, part 4), that the arrangement<br />

of the atoms in the crystalline grains of<br />

pure iron, undergoes a change when the metal is heated<br />

above a certain temperature.<br />

In Alpha iron, which exists up to about 900 deg.<br />

C, the arrangement of the iron atoms is that known<br />

as'a "body-centered cubic lattice," illustrated in Fig.<br />

111. The dots represent the centers of the iron atoms<br />

(not their size). There is an atom at each cube corner<br />

and at the center of the cube. Each crystal of Alpha<br />

iron may be considered as being made up of cubes of<br />

this sort.<br />

Gamma Iron.<br />

On heating through 900 deg. C, a complete recrystallization<br />

occurs, with the formation of new grains<br />

of a different crystalline modification having what is<br />

known as a "face-centered cubic lattice," illustrated in<br />

Fig. 112. There is an atom at the corner of each unit<br />

cube, and at the center of each cube face. This is<br />

(iamraa iron, and the change in atomic arrangement<br />

is the A3 point, marked G in Fig. 110.<br />

Beta Iron.<br />

Gamma iron is non-magnetic at all temperatures.<br />

Below 768 deg. C, Alpha iron is strongly magnetic<br />

(that is, capable of being magnetised or attracted by a<br />

magnet). Practically all of its magnetic properties are<br />

lost when heated above the A2 point, 768 deg. C. Certain<br />

small changes in volume, electrical conductivity,<br />

etc., also take place at this temperature. Iron above<br />

the A2 point, but below A3, has been called Beta iron,<br />

and was regarded by some authorities as a distinct allotropic<br />

form of iron. Recent investigations with the<br />

X-ray spectrometer (an apparatus for determining the<br />

atomic structure of crystals), has shown that there is<br />

no change in atomic pattern at the A2 point. The<br />

structure remains the body-centered cubic lattice,<br />

characteristic of Alpha iron. No re-crystallization takes<br />

V<br />

\ s<br />

•»* \<br />

j a S s<br />

j? \ s<br />

».* S s v.<br />

M k 7<br />

•* . h X /tusr£/v/r£<br />

j* \<br />

768<br />

. I / •4 i t 7 c<br />

/<br />

/<br />

A<br />

r-<br />

1<br />

r<br />

1<br />

r<br />

y<br />

A 1<br />

V Fi USTENITE<br />

1 PLUS<br />

I CEMEMTITE<br />

& i. Z.S<br />

*r 1 1 1<br />

it i; PEHRLITE PLUS CEttl •MTlTE<br />

f Hyper- Euteotoid<br />

i ^ _ 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />

i / o / t / t / 3 / 4 /S<br />

PERCENT CARBON<br />

FIG. 110—Critical point diagram.<br />

place and no sudden change in the solubility of constituents<br />

is noted. So far as the constitution diagram<br />

is concerned, Beta iron may therefore be considered<br />

the same as Alpha iron. For this reason, the<br />

A2 critical point has been represented by a dotted<br />

line in the critical point diagram, in Figs. 69 and 110.<br />

It is not regarded as having a place on the Iron-Carbon<br />

diagram.


July, 1925<br />

Solubility.<br />

Gamma iron (austenite), is able to hold moderate<br />

quantities of carbon in solid solution. The presence<br />

of dissolved carbon lowers the temperature at which<br />

Gamma begins to change to Alpha iron on cooling.<br />

This causes a downward slope of the line GS, representing<br />

A3 (and A2, 3), in the diagram, from 900 deg.<br />

C. for pure iron, to 725 deg. C. for iron containing 0.90<br />

per cent carbon*.<br />

Alpha iron (ferrite), is able to hold in solid solution<br />

considerable quantities of certain elements, such as<br />

nickel, silicon and phosphorus, but very little carbon.<br />

The maximum amount of carbon it can take up, is<br />

probably about 0.05 per cent to 0.10 per cent. This<br />

fact has an important bearing on the hardening of steel,<br />

as will be shown.<br />

Hypo-Eutectoid Steel.<br />

Let us now consider a hypo-eutectoid steel, containing,<br />

say, 0.30 per cent carbon, which is heated to a<br />

temperature above A3. It will consist entirely of austenite—that<br />

is, grains of Gara_ma iron holding the carbon<br />

in solid solution. If the piece is allowed to cool<br />

slowly, to the Ar3 point, some of the austenite (Gamma<br />

iron) will change to ferrite, which will separate as<br />

a distinct constituent which we may call "free ferrite."<br />

Since this ferrite is unable to hold appreciable amounts<br />

of carbon in solid solution, the carbon which was in<br />

it will go into solution in the remaining austenite.<br />

This will increase the carbon content of the austenite<br />

and will therefore lower the temperature at which<br />

ferrite separates out. As cooling continues, more ferrite<br />

will be liberated, and the remaining austenite will<br />

become richer in carbon. The diminishing austenite<br />

must hold all of the carbon which is present in the<br />

steel. When a temperature of 725 deg. C. has been<br />

reached, the specimen will consist of two-thirds ferrite,<br />

containing practically no carbon, and one-third<br />

austenite, containing 0.90 per cent carbon. At this<br />

temperature, which is the point Al, austenite will<br />

take no more carbon into solution—it is saturated.<br />

Further slow cooling will now cause the austenite<br />

to break down into ferrite and cementite (Fe3C).<br />

These two constituents will separate in alternate thin<br />

plates or lamellae, producing what we know as pearlite.<br />

Each grain of austenite which remained at 825<br />

deg. C, is converted bodily into one or more grains of<br />

pearlite. These pearlite grains will be imbedded in<br />

or>surrounded by, free ferrite.<br />

No change takes place in the free ferrite on cooling<br />

thru the Al point. This point is caused by the conversion<br />

of the austenite into pearlite, and its intensity<br />

therefore increases from zero, in carbonless iron, up<br />

to a maximum in steel containing 0.90 per cent carbon.<br />

The intensity of the point depends upon the<br />

amount of austenite present at the Al temperature.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

*There is some question whether the line GOS should run<br />

straight from the point G to the point S, on the iron-carbon diagram,<br />

or whether it should be curved or bend downward to the<br />

Point O. Critical point diagrams, used in connection with heattreating<br />

practice, almost always show the latter construction.<br />

This seems to be justified by actual experience. Archer, in ref.<br />

12, makes the line straight, because he considers that there is insufficient<br />

evidence upon which to base the construction of a<br />

curved or broken line. In Fig. 110 the usual practice in the construction<br />

of critical point diagrams has been followed, and the<br />

line has been shown broken at O. The curves of Carpenter and<br />

Keeling, Sauveur, Fig. 175, ref. 8, are substantially in agreement<br />

with this construction.<br />

245<br />

The ferrite which separa-ted from the solid solution<br />

above the A2 point (768 deg. C), was in the nonmagnetic<br />

or Beta state. Upon cooling through Ar2,<br />

this ferrite changed to magnetic or Alpha ferrite (without<br />

any change in its crystalline structure). Further<br />

separations of ferrite with falling temperature, were<br />

in the Alpha state.<br />

Suppose that we now have a specimen of hypoeutectoid<br />

steel containing 0.60 per cent carbon, heated<br />

to the austenitic state, that is, above A2, 3. This<br />

specimen will cool to about 750 deg. C. before separation<br />

of ferrite begins. Separation of carbonless ferrite<br />

in the Alpha state, will continue down to the Al point<br />

(725 deg. C). The steel will then consist of one-third<br />

ferrite and two-thirds austenite, the latter containing<br />

all of the carbon and having a carbon content of 0.90<br />

per cent. Upon cooling through Arl, the grains of<br />

austenite will be converted into grains of pearlite.<br />

It may be that in separating from austenite at temperatures<br />

below 768 deg. C, the ferrite first takes<br />

the Beta form, and then immediately changes to the<br />

Alpha form. On the other hand, Gamma iron may<br />

change directly into Alpha iron when the A3 point is<br />

below 768 deg. C. In either case, there will be a<br />

change from a non-magnetic to a magnetic state on<br />

cooling, and we may regard the A2 point as following<br />

the line OSK in the diagram.<br />

A<br />

? v<br />

*+<br />

i m<br />

j £ S<br />

m<br />

w<br />

FIG. Ill (left)—Alpha iron, body centered cubic arrangement.<br />

FIG. 112 (right)—Gamma iron, face centered cubic arrangement.<br />

(Archer.)<br />

Eutectoid Steel.<br />

Let us now consider a specimen containing 0.90<br />

per cent carbon (the eutectoid composition). When<br />

heated above the critical temperature, this piece will<br />

consist of austenite, holding 0.90 per cent carbon in<br />

solid solution. No change will take place on cooling,<br />

until the Al point (725 deg. C), is reached. Here<br />

the entire mass will be converted into pearlite. At<br />

the same-time, the steel will change from the non-magnetic<br />

to the magnetic state.<br />

Hyper-Eutectoid.<br />

Suppose now that we have a hyper-eutectoid steel<br />

containing say, 1.20 per cent carbon, heated above the<br />

Acm point (for example to 900 or 950 deg. C). All<br />

of the carbon will be held in solid solution in the<br />

austenite. But the solubility of carbon in austenite<br />

decreases as the temperature is lowered, and upon cooling<br />

to the Acm point (the line Se), excess carbon in<br />

the form of cementite will begin to precipitate from<br />

the solid solution. More cementite will-be precipitated<br />

as cooling continues. This will lower the carbon content<br />

of the austenite, until, when a temperature of 725<br />

deg. C. is reached, the austenite will have only 0.90<br />

per cent carbon in solution. The remaining carbon<br />

will be present in the form of free cementite, Fe3C.<br />

The Al change will now take place, that is, the grains<br />

7


24(. F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

of austenite will be converted into grains of pearlite.<br />

The free cementite will be unaffected during cooling<br />

through Al.<br />

Separation of Excess Ferrite or Cementite.<br />

It is evident, from these examples, that, whether<br />

we start with a low carbon steel (hypo-eutectoid) or<br />

a high carbon steel (hyper-eutectoid), the action during<br />

slow cooling from above the critical range is much<br />

the same. First, all of the carbon is held in a solid<br />

solution of austenite. Then, on reaching A3 or Acm,<br />

the excess constituent, either ferrite or cementite, as<br />

the case may be, begins to precipitate out. This brings<br />

the carbon content of the remaining austenite nearer<br />

and nearer to 0.90 per cent as the temperature falls,<br />

until, at the Al point the remaining austenite has a<br />

carbon content of 0.90 per cent, whereupon, it is converted<br />

bodily into pearlite. The excess ferrite in<br />

hypo-eutectoid steel and cementite in hyper-eutectoid<br />

steel usually separates to the grain boundaries of the<br />

Austenite<br />

0.70% 0.25% O.50°/o 0.65%<br />

Hypo-Eutectoid -<br />

July, I92S<br />

is converted into a great number of extremely small<br />

austenite grains, which fill the space formerly occupied<br />

bv the grain of pearlite. This "re-crystallization"<br />

has very important effects, and will be discussed more<br />

fullv in following pages.<br />

The free ferrite which surrounded the former<br />

pearlite grains will not be affected at the Al point. As<br />

the temperature rises above Al, the austenite masses<br />

will begin to take up the free ferrite from the surrounding<br />

grains. The absorbtion of free ferrite by<br />

austenite will continue with rising temperature, until<br />

upon reaching A3 no free ferrite will remain, and the<br />

mass will consist entirely of austenite, holding the<br />

carbon in solution. (On reaching Al, any ferrite which<br />

has not yet been absorbed will become non-magnetic<br />

and take the Beta form.)<br />

In a eutectoid steel (0.90 per cent carbon) the entire<br />

mass will change from pearlite to austenite, with<br />

recrystallization, upon heating through Al, 2, 3. There<br />

0.75% 0.90% 7.70% 7.40% 7.60%\<br />

Eutectoid - Hyper-Eutectoid—4<br />

|«-Cementite<br />

Austenite<br />

Pearlite<br />

mentite<br />

FIG. 113—Changes in constituents of steels of various carbon content, on slow heating and cooling. (Stead)<br />

cooling austenite, and will appear as a network surrounding<br />

the grains of pearlite.<br />

Reversal of Changes.<br />

In allowing our specimens to cool slowly to room<br />

temperature, from above the critical range, we have<br />

put them in what might be called a normal condition.<br />

Reheating them slowly to a temperature above the<br />

critical range will cause a reversal of the changes<br />

which took place on cooling. Considering first a low<br />

carbon steel, containing say 0.30 per cent carbon, no<br />

change will take place on heating, until a temperature<br />

of 725 deg. C. is reached. Here the pearlite grains will<br />

be converted into austenite. The alternate thin plates<br />

(layers) of cementite and ferrite, composing the pearlite<br />

will dissolve in each other, forming a mass of austenite<br />

having the same size and shape as the original<br />

pearlite grain.<br />

Here, however the change is not simply a reversal<br />

of the action on cooling. Instead of being converted<br />

into a single grain of austenite, each grain of pearlite<br />

will be no changes of state below or above that temperature.<br />

If the steel is hyper-eutectoid (over 0.90 per cent),<br />

all of the pearlite present will be converted into austenite<br />

at Al, 2, 3, but the free cementite will be unaffected.<br />

As the temperature rises above this point, a<br />

gradual absorption of the free cementite will take<br />

place, until, at Acm, it will have been completely<br />

absorbed, and the mass will consist entirely of austenite,<br />

holding all of the carbon in solid solution.<br />

Change Pictured.<br />

The structural changes (except recrystallization)<br />

which take place in specimens of steel of various carbon<br />

content on slow cooling from above the critical<br />

range, is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 113. Each<br />

vertical strip represents a specimen of steel having the<br />

carbon content indicated below it. The structure it<br />

will have at any temperature is shown opposite that<br />

temperature, on the vertical scale.


July, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 247<br />

The dark areas represent austenite, and the lined<br />

areas, pearlite. In steels having less than 0.90 per<br />

cent carbon, the white areas represent ferrite, and in<br />

steels having more than 0.90 per cent carbon, they<br />

represent cementite. On cooling from the austenite<br />

state there is a gradual separation of either ferrite or<br />

cementite from the grains of austenite, beginning at<br />

the grain boundaries. In the higher carbon steels, some<br />

cementite may also separate within the grains. The<br />

only sudden change in structure occurs at the Al<br />

point, where the austenite is converted into pearlite.<br />

If specimens having the structure shown at the base<br />

of the diagram, are slowly reheated, the structure will<br />

pass through the successive stages, from bottom to<br />

top.<br />

(The changes of structure, except recrystallization,<br />

which take place in the different steels, on heating and<br />

cooling, may be strikingly illustrated by cutting a<br />

horizontal slit about y% in. wide in a piece of cardboard,<br />

placing it over the diagram, Fig. 113, and moving<br />

it up and down. The structures corresponding to<br />

the various temperatures for each steel will appear in<br />

the slit. The slit should extend across the full width<br />

of the picture, including the temperature column.)<br />

Time a Factor.<br />

The changes in the microstructure of steel, which<br />

have been described above, do not take place instantaneously.<br />

The processes of solution and of atomic<br />

rearrangement, require time for their completion, just<br />

as it requires time for particles of sugar to dissolve<br />

in a cup of coffee. Time is therefore a highly important<br />

factor in determining the structural changes which<br />

take place in the heating and cooling of steel and<br />

consequently in determining the changes in physical<br />

properties which are produced by heat treatment.<br />

If heating is too rapid, the changes will not take<br />

place until temperatures higher than those of equilibrium<br />

have been reached. If cooling is too rapid,<br />

the changes will be greatly modified, or may even be<br />

prevented or suppressed.<br />

Recrystallization.<br />

When Alpha iron or ferrite changes to Gamma iron<br />

or austenite, complete recrystallization takes place. A<br />

new set of crystalline grains is produced. Tiny Gamma<br />

iron grains start to form at many points, but chiefly<br />

at the boundaries of the former Alpha grains, and follow<br />

the ordinary laws of grain growth. The Alpha<br />

or ferrite grains are completely obliterated, and are replaced<br />

by new and (at first) very small grains of<br />

Gamma iron or austenite.<br />

When a grain of pearlite is heated through Al and<br />

changes into austenite, the little layers of ferrite and<br />

cementite dissolve in each other, while, at the same<br />

time, the Alpha iron (body centered lattice) changes<br />

to Gamma iron (face centered lattice). Simultaneously<br />

a new set of crystalline grains comes into existence<br />

in the little mass of austenite, which has replaced<br />

the pearlite grain. Tiny crystals start to form at many<br />

points and grow until they meet each other.<br />

On cooling through the critical range, there is<br />

also recrystallization. At Ar3 many small Alpha<br />

iron grains form from each Gamma iron grain. On<br />

cooling through Arl, each austenite grain is replaced<br />

by one or more grains of pearlite. The number and<br />

size of the new grains of Alpha iron or of pearlite, are<br />

influenced by the rate of cooling through the transformation<br />

points.<br />

Grain Growth.<br />

The fact that the crystalline grains of metals are<br />

able to grow while in the solid state was mentioned in<br />

Chapter III. The larger grains rob their smaller<br />

neighbors, taking atoms from the adjoining surfaces<br />

of the smaller grains, and fitting them to their own<br />

orientation. In this way the large grains get larger<br />

and the smaller grains finally disappear. If this process<br />

were continued indefinitely, a given piece of metal<br />

would finally be converted into a single huge crystalline<br />

grain. But as the grains get larger their tendency<br />

to grow decreases, so that the process finally comes<br />

to a stop.<br />

Grain growth does not take place in iron or its<br />

alloys at ordinary temperatures. A certain amount of<br />

heat is necessary to give the atoms the power (energy<br />

and mobility), to move from one grain to another,<br />

across the grain boundary. There is, in general, a<br />

minimum temperature at which grain growth will take<br />

place in any metal or alloy. (This is influenced by<br />

certain other conditions, especially the presence of<br />

strains in the metal, discussed in Part 2 of this chapter.)<br />

As the temperature is raised above the minimum<br />

value, grain growth becomes more rapid. No grain<br />

growth occurs in slowly cooled (normal) steel, when<br />

it is reheated to temperatures below the critical range.<br />

The new austenite grains which are formed on<br />

heating through the Al point grow very slowly at<br />

this temperature, but the speed of growth increases<br />

as the temperature is raised, and may be fairly rapid<br />

at A3 or Acm (in low or high carbon steels), and<br />

quite rapid at still higher temperatures.<br />

As the grains of any free ferrite or cementite which<br />

is present in hypo- or hyper-eutectoid steel are completely<br />

obliterated upon being absorbed in the austenite,<br />

any grain growth which may take place in either of<br />

these constituents during heating to A3 or Acm, is<br />

not important.<br />

In order to obtain the best results in the hardening<br />

of steel it is essential to first get all of the ferrite or<br />

cementite into solid solution, and to produce the finest<br />

(smallest) possible grain structure. The reasons for<br />

this will appear in the following section. Evidently,<br />

therefore, the steel must be heated above the A3 or<br />

the Acm point, so that all of the free ferrite or cementite<br />

may be absorbed, and it must be held at this temperature<br />

long enough to permit complete solution to<br />

take place. But the temperature must not be raised<br />

much above the critical range, or grain growth will be<br />

rapid, and it must not be held above the critical range,<br />

too long, or even a slow rate of grain growth will produce<br />

a coarse structure. For hyper-eutectoid steels<br />

a double treatment may be necessary, in order first<br />

to get the cementite into solution, and then refine the<br />

grain.<br />

Pearlite Grains.<br />

It is customary to speak of "grains" of pearlite. It<br />

may be well to point out the distinction between pearlite<br />

grains and crystalline grains of a pure metal or<br />

solid solution. Pearlite grains are not crystalline bodies,<br />

in the same sense that grains of ferrite are crystalline<br />

bodies. We have seen that a crystalline grain of<br />

metal is a body made up of atoms all arranged along<br />

definite straight lines and planes. A grain of pearlite<br />

is not made up in this way. It is composed of alternate<br />

thin layers or plates of two different materials, ferrite


24.S<br />

and cementite. The plates are usually curved. Each<br />

ferrite plate and each cementite plate is composed of<br />

crystalline material, and may perhaps be considered as<br />

a thin crystalline grain. These curved plates are approximately<br />

parallel to each other and fairly continuous<br />

within a given pearlite grain, but the orientation<br />

of their atoms is not necessarily the same. There is<br />

usually a distinct difference in the direction of the<br />

plates of adjoining pearlite grains. Pearlite grains,<br />

therefore, do not have cleavage planes as do grains of<br />

ferrite or austenite.<br />

Cooling.<br />

If a piece of practically pure iron is cooled through<br />

the A3 point, complete recrystallization occurs. The<br />

grains of Gamma iron are replaced by entirely new<br />

grains of Alpha iron. These start to form chiefly at<br />

the boundary of the Gamma grains. If cooling through<br />

the critical temperature is slow, the A^lpha iron grains<br />

may grow to fairly large size, but if cooling is rapid<br />

they will be small. The grain size of a piece of relatively<br />

pure iron, such as wrought iron or Armco iron<br />

may be much refined and a considerable increase in the<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

July, 1925<br />

tory. This consists in heating to a temperature slightly<br />

above A3 and cooling at a moderate speed, as by<br />

withdrawing the part from the furnace and allowing it<br />

to cool in air. This treatment is sometimes referred to<br />

as "normalizing."<br />

Graphical Representation.<br />

£±0* c*ooC F-ister G>at.i"ih PcriAiCMerir AhNEAUHQ<br />

Z/itjoT Medium Fom Hot MmO CooUnq<br />

FOBQtNQ r*}R<br />

FIG. WORKIHQ 114—Grain size changes, eutectoid steel.<br />

hardness and strength produced by heating just above<br />

A3 and rapidly cooling.<br />

If a piece of steel is cooled through the critical<br />

range too rapidly to allow the separation of excess<br />

ferrite or cementite or the formation of pearlite (as<br />

by quenching in water or oil), one or more of the<br />

constituents known as martensite, troostite or sorbite<br />

will be formed. The result will depend upon the speed<br />

of cooling through the range, and the presence and<br />

amount of carbon and other alloying elements. Extremely<br />

rapid cooling, or the presence of much manganese,<br />

nickel, or the like, may prevent the critical<br />

changes from occuring, so that austenite will be retained<br />

at room temperature. This, however, is rare,<br />

and may be regarded as an exceptional case.<br />

Ordinarily, where hardening is desired, as in tools.<br />

the speed of cooling is such as to produce the hardest<br />

constituent, martensite. The part is afterward "tempered"<br />

by reheating to some temperature below Al, to<br />

the required degree of hardness, strength or ductility.<br />

For structural parts, requiring little hardness, moderate<br />

strength, resistance to shock, and rather high<br />

ductility, a grain refining treatment is often satisfac-<br />

The changes in constitution or grain size, which<br />

take place during heating and cooling, may sometimes<br />

be represented graphically. Such diagrams can seldom<br />

be made correct in every detail, but they serve to convey<br />

a fairly good general impression. The precipitation<br />

and redissolving of ferrite and cementite on slow<br />

cooling and heating of steels of various carbon content,<br />

and the change from austenite to pearlite, have been<br />

illustrated in Fig. 113, but that picture does not show<br />

the changes in grain size.<br />

Some of the effects of recrystallization and grain<br />

growth in steel of eutectoid composition (.90 per cent<br />

carbon), during heating and cooling, are illustrated<br />

diagrammatically in Fig. 114. Temperature is layed<br />

off vertically. The width of the shaded areas at any<br />

OvEaHeaTiniq Cookscns HmjtTtrtQ hot WoaKtNQ<br />

q*:#,rv Sit-e. netow Ofincat. f/tqoT From<br />

To Sorre/v So-vri'/t} Pit<br />

temperature is intended to represent the average grain<br />

size at that temperature.<br />

Consider first the solidification and cooling of the<br />

ingot. Freezing begins at A, with the formation of<br />

small crystals which grow rapidly in the liquid metal<br />

until all has become solid. Grain growth then continues<br />

in the solid austenite, during cooling, down to<br />

the Al, 2, 3 point. Here the austenite grains are converted<br />

into pearlite, and no further grain growth occurs,<br />

down to room temperature, B. Slow cooling, as in<br />

a large ingot or casting, allows the formation of very<br />

large grains, as indicated by the width of the figure at<br />

B. If cooling is more rapid, as in a smaller ingot, or one<br />

in which heat is absorbed rapidly by the mold, the<br />

grain will not be so coarse as in AB. This is represented<br />

in CD. Suppose that this ingot is now reheated<br />

for hot working, as in EF. No change will<br />

occur up to the Al point. Here the pearlite grains<br />

will be converted into very minute new austenite<br />

grains. These will grow with rising temperature up<br />

to the point F, where the ingot is withdrawn from the<br />

furnace and carried to the hammer, press or rolls (F—<br />

G). Some further grain growth takes place during the


July, 1925<br />

time the piece is cooling, after leaving the furnace and<br />

before hot working begins.<br />

Hot working then proceeds to break up the grains<br />

of austenite. The fragments of the grains immediately<br />

recrystallize, but are prevented from growing by<br />

the kneading action. The result is a structure consisting<br />

of small grains which have about the same<br />

dimensions in all directions. (Not greatly elongated,<br />

as occurs in cold working.) The piece meanwhile<br />

cools. If hot working is stopped before the piece<br />

has cooled down to the Al point, as at some point<br />

g, grain growth immediately sets in, and continues<br />

down to the Al temperature, so that some of the<br />

effects of grain refinement are lost. If hot working<br />

should continue down to a temperature just<br />

above the Al point, such as from I to i, very little<br />

grain growth will have a chance to occur, and a finer<br />

structure will be produced, as at J. If working is continued<br />

below the critical range, the fragments will not<br />

recrystallize and a structure having an elongated appearance<br />

will result. Hardness and strength will be<br />

increased but ductility will be reduced, with a tendtncy<br />

toward brittleness. Working below the critical<br />

range is called "cold working." Cold working is desirable<br />

for some purposes but not for others. It is,<br />

therefore, evident that the "finishing" temperature,<br />

namely, the temperature at which working is stopped,<br />

should be carefully controlled.<br />

Grain Refinement by Annealing.<br />

In addition to refining the grain structure, hot<br />

working has certain other beneficial effects, one of<br />

which is to break up or distribute segregated impurities.<br />

Hot working is not always applicable, for instance<br />

in steel castings which are poured to the desired<br />

size and shape. In such cases refinement of grain may<br />

be secured by a simple "annealing" or "normalizing"<br />

treatment consisting in heating slightly above the critical<br />

range and then cooling. This releaves stresses set<br />

up during solidification, and also tends to homogenize<br />

the structure (distribute or break up segregations,<br />

etc.) provided the piece is held above the critical temperature<br />

for a "soaking" period, before cooling. K,<br />

Fig. 114, represents the coarse grain structure of the<br />

casting. No change in structure occurs during heating,<br />

until the Al point is reached. There austenite is<br />

formed, with recrystallization, into very small grains.<br />

Grain growth continues during the soaking period<br />

(usually at constant temperature), and during cooling,<br />

until the Al point is again reached. If the temperature<br />

and time have not been excessive, a refined structure<br />

will result, as at N. This method is also used in<br />

further refining the grain of f<strong>org</strong>ings or other hot<br />

worked parts. A piece having a partially refined structure,<br />

as shown at H, for example, may be reheated, as<br />

at OP, to just above Al and then immediately cooled<br />

(QR), producing a fine structure, R. Overheating<br />

(too hot or too long, or both), will coarsen the structure<br />

instead of refining it, as shown at S-T-U-V.<br />

A tempering treatment is often given to remove<br />

some or all of the hardness produced by cold working<br />

or by quenching. This consists in heating to some<br />

temperature below the critical range and cooling, represented<br />

by W-X-Y-Z.<br />

Hot Working from Soaking Pit.<br />

To economize fuel and time, and for other reasons,<br />

freshly poured ingots are often carried to a furnace<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

249<br />

called a soaking pit (Chapter II), immediately after<br />

stripping off the molds. Here they are held, until they<br />

assume, uniformly throughout their mass, a temperature<br />

suitable for hot working. This avoids reheating<br />

and gives the constituents a chance to diffuse more<br />

uniformly. Grain growth occurs during solidification<br />

and during soaking, but the structure is broken up by<br />

the hot working and if the latter is continued down<br />

to the critical temperature, a refined grain is obtained.<br />

This is illustrated at A1—B1 in the figure.<br />

It should be kept in mind that the Al point will be<br />

higher during heating (Acl) and lower on cooling<br />

(Arl) although it has, for simplicity been shown as a<br />

single temperature, the Al equilibrium point. It<br />

should also be kept in mind that this diagram illustrates<br />

conditions in a general way and must not be<br />

taken too literally.<br />

Westinghouse to Erect Big Office Building<br />

aA.ii 11-story office building 136 ft. long and 56 ft.<br />

wide costing approximately a million dollars will be<br />

built at the East Pittsburgh Works of the Westinghouse<br />

Electric and Manufacturing Company to takecare<br />

of continued expansion of business. Small buildings<br />

on the site of the new structure have been razed.<br />

and erection of the building will be completed within<br />

a year.<br />

The new building will centralize the office forces<br />

of the various departments which are now scattered<br />

throughout the factory. It will add 175,000 sq. ft.<br />

to the present office floor area at the plant.<br />

The first floor will contain a modern photographicsection<br />

including portrait and general galleries, dark<br />

rooms, photostat room, printing and work rooms.<br />

The third floor will contain the reception rooms and<br />

executive offices, and practically all the remainder<br />

of the building will be given up to large airy offices.<br />

The elevator equipment will include four Westinghouse<br />

geared traction elevators Kaestner & Hecht<br />

type of 2,500-pound capacity and a speed of 500 ft.<br />

per minute, with variable voltage control and a new<br />

magnetic type of automatic floor landing to eliminate<br />

all false stops and speed up service. Alundum nonslip<br />

tile panels will be used in front of the elevators as<br />

an extra safety precaution.<br />

The elevators will be located along one side midway<br />

between front and back. The space immediately<br />

in front of the elevators will be partioned off into<br />

private offices, and the space at either end will be left<br />

to make up a large office, approximately 50 x 135 ft.<br />

The lighting system will be of the most modern<br />

including the use of conduo metal base so that any<br />

outlets may be conveniently made for the operation<br />

of electrically driven machines and individual lights.<br />

The heating system will be combination of direct<br />

radiation and univent type heaters which will act as<br />

a ventilating system under summer and winter conditions.<br />

The exterior windows will have architectural ventilated<br />

steel sash to prevent drafts. The floor construction<br />

will be of the hollow pan system designed to<br />

allow cables, conduits and wires to be installed without<br />

injury to permanent walls.<br />

The building will have a pleasing outward appearance<br />

the exterior being of smooth red vitrified fire<br />

brick with a terra cotta belt course, cornice and window<br />

sills.


250 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

July, 1925<br />

Selection o f F u e l O i l S t o r a g e Facilities<br />

Underground Pit Is Preferable Where Yard Space Is Valuable<br />

and the Best Fire Protection Is Desired—Preference<br />

T H E practice of storing oil in concrete tanks is<br />

well established with the oil refining companies.<br />

With the consumers the problem became acute in<br />

recent years as a safeguard for the continuous operation<br />

of their plants due t the irregularity of coal supply<br />

and the shortage of natural gas in the winter<br />

months.<br />

For storing of quantities limited to several thousands<br />

of gallons of oil, preference is given to the use<br />

of steel tanks. In order that the problem be solved<br />

economically, and with safety, various provisions<br />

have to be made. Their advisability has been borne<br />

out by actual experience. The following survey will<br />

be found useful by those who are confronted for the<br />

first time by the problem :<br />

1—The housing of the tank or tanks must be<br />

decided upon; same may be placed above the<br />

ground or underground. This is discussed in the<br />

latter part of article.<br />

2—In order to keep the oil liquid enough for<br />

pumping, same must be heated, either by heating<br />

the whole pit or by placing steam coils in the<br />

tanks.<br />

3—A pump must be provided to pump the oil<br />

to its destination, and a preheater must be used<br />

ahead of the burner nozzles.<br />

4—The oil pit and the oil tanks must be ventilated<br />

for removal of inflammable fumes.<br />

•Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Section Eic. I<br />

Is Given to the Use of Steel Tanks<br />

By R. KRAUS*<br />

r/7///////////,y/////^<br />

Eic. I I *3t-*"•--<br />

FIG. 1—A concrete pit makes an ideal oil storage.<br />

(53<br />

5—A steam line about 2 inches in diameter<br />

should be brought either in the pit or in the tanks<br />

for quenching of a fire; the operating valve for such<br />

a steam line must be located outside the pit.<br />

6—Provide means for unloading the oil from<br />

the tank car, and arrange also a sump between car<br />

tracks, piped to the tanks; that will help to salvage<br />

the oil in case of an accident with the unloading<br />

equipment. (See Fig. 2.)<br />

7—Compressed air must be brought in the tankcar<br />

in order to increase the speed of unloading.<br />

8—If more than one tank is used, pipe tanks<br />

in such a way as to permit of filling either tank<br />

independently of the other.<br />

The amount of investment permissible will be<br />

largely decisive in the method of housing the tanks.<br />

A simple steel structure above ground, built up of<br />

light angles and channels, and covered with corrugated<br />

sheet steel, is the least costly. However,- it will<br />

prove expensive to heat in localities with frigid winters,<br />

and such a structure is not quite perfect, if a fire<br />

has to be quenched or localized. For a structure<br />

above ground a bricked-in building is better in every<br />

respect.<br />

Much trouble will be eliminated if the pump suction<br />

is not connected directly to the tank, but to a<br />

float with a swing joint, as shown in Fig. 3.<br />

An underground fuel oil pit is preferable where<br />

yard space is of value and the best fire protection is<br />

YF.RD Level<br />

Fic. 2<br />

FIG. 2—Suggests a method of salvaging oil in case of accident.


July, 1925<br />

aimed at. The ideal solution is a concrete pit, as<br />

shown in Fig. 1, namely, below the yard level and<br />

large enough to give all around access (of about two<br />

feet) to the tanks for maintenance by painting and<br />

caulking if leaks develop. Sufficient space should be<br />

in front of the tanks to enable the working of a<br />

scraper at least four feet long for removal of muck.<br />

The tanks resting on piers should be inclined<br />

about 6 in. in 30 ft. in order to promote the accumulation<br />

of the muck in the front end. These two provisions<br />

mentioned are not necessary with tanks 10 ft.<br />

in diameter or larger, where a man can bail out the<br />

sediment and handle the buckets through manholes.<br />

The floor of the pit should slant in every direction<br />

toward a sump ( 2 ft. by 2 ft. by 2 ft.). A sump pump<br />

will also be found useful. The treads of the stairway<br />

used for regular access are best made of channels<br />

filled with concrete, which is the best protection<br />

against accidents from slippery steps. A fire escape<br />

should be provided at far end of the pit; the door<br />

must be latched from the inside only and it can be<br />

made accessible by means of rungs embedded in the<br />

concrete.<br />

Another arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. The<br />

tanks are entirely embedded in concrete; with it there<br />

is less expense for excavation and also less cost for<br />

concrete. The expense for heating the pit is the low-<br />

FIG. 3—Shows a float with swinging joint.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

est in this case. The heating coils can be placed in a<br />

recess of the concrete right under the tanks, which<br />

will make the heating very economical. This piping<br />

must be done very carefully, as leaks will contribute<br />

considerably to the deterioration of the tanks.<br />

This latter arrangement will require the same<br />

pump space, also the same provision for removal of<br />

muck and the same sump arrangements.<br />

If leaks develop then the drawbacks of embedding<br />

the tanks begin to show up, because repairs are made<br />

with considerable inconvenience. The method of embedding<br />

tanks in concrete became almost universal<br />

with gasoline.<br />

In either design the concrete must be reinforced;<br />

in the second case a sufficient reinforcement must be<br />

provided to prevent the cracking of the concrete due<br />

to the temperature differences.<br />

New Portable Acetylene Generator<br />

251<br />

A small generator for producing acetylene at low<br />

pressure for welding and cutting has recently been<br />

developed by the Oxweld Acetylene Company, 30 East<br />

42nd Street, New York. This supplements a line of<br />

larger generators, a great many of which are used to<br />

supply pipe lines in shops where much cutting and<br />

welding is done.<br />

The new generator, which takes 35 lbs. of carbide<br />

at one charge, can be transported readily from place<br />

to place, thus providing a portable supply of generated<br />

acetylene gas. Emptyr, the generator weighs only<br />

210 lbs.<br />

aA.ii entirely new principle of feed control is used<br />

which might be called a "heavier-than-water" float.<br />

A vertical partition, extending nearly to the bottom<br />

into a water seal, divides the generator shell. One<br />

side is gas tight and contains the carbide hopper at<br />

the top. The upper part of the other side contains<br />

gas regulating and protective devices, and an automatic<br />

carbide feed control. Generation of the first<br />

acetylene causes water to rise on this side of the partition<br />

high enough to all but submerge a pan full of<br />

water, hung to a control lever. This pan normally<br />

acts as a weight acting counter to a spring, but as the<br />

water rises about it, its apparent weight is diminished<br />

and the carbide hopper valve is closed by the<br />

action of the spring. As acetylene is drawn off, water<br />

rises in the gas compartment and correspondingly<br />

lowers under the float, relieves some of the buoyancy<br />

under the water pan, which, gathering weight with<br />

the receding water, depresses the spring and allows a<br />

small amount of carbide to drop into the generator,<br />

and restore equilibrium conditions.<br />

Because of its low center of gravity, the generator<br />

rights itself when tilted at an angle of 30 deg. It<br />

works perfectly at an inclination of upwards of 10<br />

deg. No adverse effects result if a generator while<br />

in operation is knocked over. Nearly all fittings are<br />

enclosed in the cylindrical shell and there is little, if<br />

anything, projecting which may be injured by a fall<br />

on a concrete pavement.<br />

This generator has been submitted to the Underwriters'<br />

Laboratories, Inc., and has been listed by<br />

them as an acceptable device for installation on insured<br />

premises.<br />

Automatic Arc Welding Equipments<br />

Following several years of development and trial,<br />

the General Electric Company is now marketing a<br />

line of automatic arc welding equipments. These<br />

equipments, sold either as complete units or as separate<br />

parts, have been especially designed for quick,<br />

efficient and economical welding where quantity<br />

production is a factor. Heretofore, it has been the<br />

custom to supply the separate parts only.<br />

The new oufit is expected to find its principal application<br />

in the construction of such standard products<br />

as tanks, boilers, cans, axle housings, and pipe, and<br />

also for repairing undercut shafts or axles and building<br />

up sharp flanges on car wheels. Its field of greatest<br />

usefulness will be in the manufacture of storage<br />

vessels where the static load is not greater than 10<br />

pounds per square inch and where the thickness of the<br />

metal to be welded is not less than No. 16 gauge.


252 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

Outstanding among the advantages claimed for<br />

these automatic equipments is the resulting increase<br />

in speed of production following their installation.<br />

Estimates by General Electric engineers, based on<br />

actual production, show that this increase in speed<br />

is especially marked when comparison is made between<br />

the automatic arc welder and either hand arcwelding<br />

or hand gas welding. A complete outfit can<br />

be operated by a man and helper, while the completion<br />

of an equal amount of hand work in the same<br />

time would necessitate the use of four or more men.<br />

Estimates also indicate a lower overhead expense than<br />

with gas welding, excluding the item of labor. The<br />

use of pushbutton control provides simplicity and<br />

ease in operation. Uniformity of finished product and<br />

space saving by the reduction of the number of workers<br />

and quantity of stuck on band arc among the other<br />

advantages claimed fur this equipment.<br />

i l l<br />

i» i<br />

*<br />

A complete outfit consists of an automatic weldin<br />

head and control panel, travel carriage and clai<br />

device. Where it is desired, in order to rjte<br />

circumstances in any plant, the travel<br />

other component parts of the equip assembled<br />

by the purchaser with his ,^e for<br />

holding the work.<br />

A list of products in the manufacture of which this<br />

automatic equipment is recommended includes ice<br />

cream cans; gasoline storage tanks; oil switch tanks;<br />

transformer tanks; range boilers; and pipe for dredging,<br />

oil well casings and irrigation purposes, and texile<br />

machinery parts. .Automatic equipments are also recommended<br />

for repairing worn car wheel flanges, locomotive<br />

guide rods and worn axles and shafts. Several<br />

successful installations have been made by street<br />

railway companies both in the United States and<br />

foreign countries.<br />

Welding Society Exhibition<br />

The American Welding Society will hold an exhibition<br />

of welding apparatus and welded products in<br />

connection with the annual meeting, to be held in Boston<br />

next fall. The exhibition will be at the Massachusetts<br />

Institute of Technology, which has offered<br />

space for the purpose.<br />

July, 1925<br />

Care of Pneumatic Tools*<br />

By C. B. HEINGARTEN<br />

It is a well known fact that portable pneumatic<br />

tools such as air-drills and air-hammers are subject<br />

to more abuse and neglect than any other high<br />

grade machinery. It is obvious that only a small percentage<br />

of pneumatic tool operators understand the<br />

construction of these tools and the importance of<br />

operating correctly.<br />

The cost of maintaining pneumatic tools is in proportion<br />

to the care given by the operator. One of the<br />

most injurious practices is that of running the hammer<br />

without holding it at all times firmly down on<br />

the chisel shank. This habit will allow the piston to<br />

strike the shoulder in the barrel and will eventually<br />

crystallize the metal structure of the barrel and<br />

handle. When oiling the hammer, the operator<br />

should not hold the hammer upside down to blow the<br />

excess oil out. This will cause the piston to hit both<br />

shoulder and valve as the excess oil can be blown out<br />

verv easily by holding the hammer properly, in which<br />

case the piston will not move until the shank is inserted.<br />

Obviously one of the most important problems in<br />

the maintenance of pneumatic tools is lubrication.<br />

This is without question more important than with<br />

an\- other piece of machinery, including our modem<br />

high-speed combustion motors. Generally all othei<br />

motors operate in one position, either vertically or<br />

horizontally, and they are oiled by a base reservoir<br />

or force feed. In this connection the base of these<br />

motors can be designed with ample room to hold<br />

lubrication as cranks and rods are drilled and force<br />

pumps applied. Therefore, pistons can be made very<br />

long with a number of rings to prevent the vaporized<br />

fuel from entering and contaminating the lubrication,<br />

as a few pounds added makes no material difference.<br />

In the design of pneumatic tools the manufacturer<br />

must economize on space and material to keep the<br />

weight as low as possible. When one realizes the<br />

work that is done, and the many limitations the manufacturer<br />

has to contend with, it is only reasonable that<br />

instructions be adhered to and to see that tools have<br />

the proper lubrication. Inasmuch as these tools must<br />

be operated in every conceivable position and the<br />

periods of alternating drill from one position to another<br />

have regularity, it may be necessary to work in<br />

one position for several hours. When this happens to<br />

be with the spindle down, it has a tendency to work<br />

the lubrication down in the gear case. This, of course,<br />

will cause the upper connecting rod to become dry<br />

and burn, which is the most difficult position to contend<br />

with.<br />

In selecting the proper kind of lubrication for pneumatic<br />

drills the following conditions must be considered<br />

:<br />

(1) A grease must be selected that is adhesive<br />

enough to withstand the rapid revolving motion of<br />

the crankshaft without being rapidly thrown off with<br />

centrifugal force.<br />

(2) It must have a high melting point so that the<br />

grease will not break down to liquid at once under<br />

normal conditions, but gradually become soft enough<br />

to drip from the surrounding walls where it is thrown<br />

by the crank and so furnishes the proper amount of<br />

lubrication to the crankshaft and connecting rods.<br />

•Paper presented before American Railway Tool Foremen<br />

s Association.


July, 1925<br />

Another condition that seriously affects the proper<br />

lubrication of the grease is the terrific whipping action<br />

of the crankshaft and connecting rods to which the<br />

grease is subject at all times. The grease that has the<br />

highest lubricating quality is not always suitable for<br />

use in lubricating drills, as it is necessary to take into<br />

consideration the thought that grease to be suitable<br />

must be plastic and adhesive and not solvent in water<br />

"as a pneumatic drill operates under very adverse<br />

moisture conditions and a great amount of moisture<br />

passes into the crank chamber in the form of water."<br />

The oil and bases must be well blended in proper proportion<br />

to withstand the whipping action which it is<br />

subject to. Some greases have the proper melting<br />

point, but the oil and base are poorly blended and<br />

after whipping for a short period the oil in the base<br />

entirely separates on account of the oil being very<br />

thin and the base hard dry lumps.<br />

The question as to the reasonable length of time<br />

to operate a drill with one greasing is based on authorities<br />

of automotive industries as the information<br />

furnished by them is that oil should be changed every<br />

500 miles. The chemist and the refinisher tell us that<br />

it is necessary on account of dilution and contamination,<br />

as grease is simply oil mixed with some heavy<br />

quality of the grease, but is used simply to hold the<br />

oil in Suspension. It is obvious when using a grease<br />

that is not solvent in water we have practically no<br />

source of dilution, but when it comes to the question<br />

of Contamination we have considerable. In the first<br />

place, we have the rusty water that enters the drill by<br />

passing the piston. While the grease may not be solvent<br />

in water, most greases will collapse and will<br />

emulsify with water to a considerable extent, at least<br />

to a point where the lubricating quality is seriously<br />

impaired if not entirely gone.<br />

An automobile crankshaft will turn over approximately<br />

1,423,630 times in traveling 500 miles. In comparison<br />

a pneumatic drill, if operated at an average<br />

of 2,000 rpm., crankshaft would turn over 1,440,000<br />

times. It would then seem by using the automobile<br />

standard of lubrication the grease should be changed<br />

at least every 12 hours. In the case of a pneumatic<br />

drill it has been found best to add a small amount<br />

of grease after eight or ten hours of use, as it develops<br />

that, after 40 hours' service, the grease has practically<br />

collapsed, and in place of being plastice and adhesive<br />

as it should be to obtain the best results, is very thin,<br />

which of course shows a bad tendency to work<br />

through the exhaust.<br />

The most satisfactory means for putting new<br />

grease in drills is to remove one of the crank chamber<br />

plates and add a sufficient amount to fill the crank<br />

chamber with the drill running at a speed of 200 rpm.,<br />

and, in this connection, fill the crank chamber sufficiently<br />

so that it will be possible to revolve the<br />

crank without working out on the side of the drill.<br />

In the event it is necessary to change the grease for<br />

the reasons of its collapsed conditions, one of the<br />

simplest means for cleaning the old grease out is to<br />

pour from one to two pounds of kerosene into the<br />

crank chamber, depending, of course, on the size of<br />

the drill to be cleaned and, by laying drill over a can<br />

resting on its handles, run motor about half speed,<br />

tipping drills slightly so that fluid will work into<br />

gearcase, and by running the drill for about a minute<br />

in this position and reversing drill over rapidly, this<br />

will throw old oil and grease out. It might be well<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

253<br />

to remove the other crank chamber plate and try the<br />

connecting rod screws to make sure that none of them<br />

have worked loose. In regreasing a drill proceed as<br />

outlined above, packing drill as heavily as possible<br />

while running at about one-third speed and, by running<br />

drill for a few minutes, to work cleaning fluid<br />

and new grease into bearings before putting into<br />

service.<br />

For pneumatic hammers use a high grade mineral<br />

oil that will not gum. Hammers should be oiled at<br />

least once every hour when in service. If the oil is<br />

applied around the tool shank in chipping and calking<br />

hammers, the tool will work better and last much<br />

longer. Do not use a chisel having a rough shank, as<br />

it will wear out bushings in a very short time. It is a<br />

ood practice when pneumatic hammers are turned in<br />

after service to let tools hang in a small tank filled<br />

with kerosene or signal oil, as this will cut the dirt<br />

and foreign matter. When putting hammer into service<br />

again, would suggest having operator blow the<br />

accumulated moisture and foreign matters out of the<br />

holes before connecting the hammer.<br />

When air tools are delivered to tool room for repairs<br />

it is advisable not only to repair or replace the<br />

one particular part that has caused the trouble, but to<br />

take apart the machine and have all parts cleaned in<br />

kerosene so the mechanic can make a more accurate<br />

inspection of all parts. It is only by doing this that<br />

the mechanic will be in a position to discover the<br />

cause of breakdown, which may be due to other parts<br />

in relation to those that have given away. It is only<br />

natural that this is the most economical way to make<br />

the proper repairs. It may take a little time to do the<br />

work properly, but the tool will stand service much<br />

longer, the cost of maintenance will be reduced and<br />

less time will be lost by the operator awaiting small<br />

and frequent repairs.<br />

The most economical cost of repairs is found when<br />

the mechanic is furnished with all the necessary tools<br />

for making the various assembling operations and to<br />

complete repairs in the shortest time possible. By<br />

using the proper hand tools the mechanic can do the<br />

work in half time, the work will be better, and consequently<br />

the machine will be in service for a much<br />

longer time.<br />

The piston holes in the cylinders should be inspected<br />

carefully and the piston and cylinder holes<br />

should not be allowed to show more than 0.003 in.<br />

wear. In the event there is any more, the live air<br />

will blow by the piston and cylinder wall into the<br />

crankcase and more or less condensation that takes<br />

place in air line will pass by with the air and thin<br />

out' the lubricant.<br />

The most serious objection, however, is the air<br />

that enters the crankcase; this will form a pressure<br />

in the crankcase and blow the lubricant out, causing<br />

overheating, and may cause the destruction of crank<br />

and connecting rods. The machine shop should be<br />

equipped with oversize reamers to ream cylinder so<br />

that oversize piston can be applied. After the cylinder<br />

has been reamed the new'piston, corresponding to<br />

size of reamer, should be tapped into the cylinder<br />

with clean lubricating oil. A few strokes will tell<br />

whether the piston has a good fit.<br />

If connecting rod bearings or crankshaft is worn,<br />

it is not practical to apply new rods to worn crank or,<br />

vice versa, worn rods to new crank. It is best that<br />

crank and rods be put in new, as old crank would ruin<br />

the new rod and the old rod would ruin the new crank.


254 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

July, 1925<br />

iiiiiiiiii mmiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiuin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiintiiiim niiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mm imiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimii «i iiiiiiiii at San Francisco. He was formerly with the Berger<br />

division of the United a\11ov Steel Corporation.<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

* * *<br />

1 i iwmimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilillilllllliiiiiiiin iiiiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiiiiinini C. P. iinni Wright iiiiiiiniiiinii has been iiiiiiiiiiiiihiiiiiiiih appointed sales » engineer for<br />

September 14-18—Annual convention of the Amer­ the Harnishfeger Corporation, with headquarters in<br />

ican Society for Steel Treating, and Seventh National Seattle, Wash.<br />

Steel Exposition, to be held at the Public Auditorium.<br />

* * *<br />

Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary, W. H. Eisenman. 4600 E. T. Sproul, formerly general manager of sales of<br />

Prospect Avenue. Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

the Trumbull Steel Company, Youngstown, Ohio, has<br />

* * *<br />

been made assistant to the vice president. In that<br />

September 15-16—Production meeting of the Society<br />

of Automotive Engineers at Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Secretary, Coker F. Clarkson, 29 West Thirty-ninth<br />

capacity he will continue to have sales department relations<br />

as well as general duties.<br />

* * *<br />

Street, New York City.<br />

Charles N. Ring has been appointed assistant di­<br />

* * *<br />

October 5-9—Annual convention of the American<br />

Foundrymen's Association at Syracuse, N. V. An exhibition<br />

of foundry and machine shop equipment and<br />

supplies will be held in connection with the convention.<br />

* * *<br />

November 30-December 5—Fourth National Exposition<br />

of Power and Mechanical Engineering to be<br />

held in the Grand Central Palace, New York City.<br />

IIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 'II Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illllllllllttllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll<br />

rector of the Electric Steel Founders' Research Group,<br />

succeeding W. J. Corbett who resigned to become<br />

secretary-manager of the Steel Founders' Society of<br />

A-\merica. Mr. Ring was formerly works manager for<br />

the Allied Steel Castings Company, at Harvey, 111.,<br />

and has been associated with the foundry industry for<br />

many years.<br />

* * *<br />

Harold L. Turk has been appointed receiver of the<br />

Consolidated Metal Spinning and Stamping Company,<br />

249 Varet Street, Brooklyn. N. Y.<br />

* * *<br />

PERSONALS<br />

P. W. Sloan, who has been service engineer of the<br />

r 1' l il mi 111: • 111111 n i) m tl 11111111M1111 n 1111111 •: 111111111' i 11 - 1' " m 11:11111: Timken-Detroit r l • t -1111:1111. r Axle r i i, • Company, i I Detroit, in charge of<br />

the field service men, has been appointed service man­<br />

H. L. Barnes has been elected general manager<br />

ager of the company.<br />

of the A\merican F<strong>org</strong>e & Machine Company, Can­<br />

* * *<br />

ton, O. He formerly was with the Whitman & Barnes<br />

Manufacturing Company, Akron, O.. manufacturer of Arthur L. Abrahams, formerly associated with the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings and has had many years' experience in the Hale & Kilburn Corporation, Philadelphia, and recent­<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing business. H. C. Haight, formerly treasurer ly plant manager of the Kny-Scheerer Corporation, of<br />

and general manager, remains treasurer.<br />

America, New York, has joined the Truscon Steel<br />

Company, Youngstown, as special sales representative<br />

* * *<br />

of the pressed steel department with headquarters at<br />

Harold W. Hunsiker, until recently vice president 31 Union Square, New York.<br />

of the Sizer F<strong>org</strong>e Companv, Buffalo, X. Y., has joined<br />

* * *<br />

the sales <strong>org</strong>anization of the United Alloy Steel Corporation,<br />

Canton, O., as special representative.<br />

J. W. Bolton, metallurgist for the Niles Tool<br />

Works Company, Hamilton, Ohio, was awarded the<br />

* * *<br />

advance degree of master of science at Rose Polytech­<br />

K. M. Bowman has been appointed assistant general<br />

purchasing agent of the United Alloy Steel Corporation,<br />

Canton, Ohio. He was formerly assistant<br />

purchasing agent of the Otis Steel Company, Cleveland,<br />

and has had several years' experience in the steel<br />

business.<br />

nic Institute, Terra Haute, June 11. Mr. Bolton, who<br />

was graduated from that institute in 1918, has been<br />

well known for his work along metallurgical lines.<br />

* * *<br />

Albert E. White, professor of metallurgical engineering<br />

and director of the department of engineering<br />

research at the University of Michigan, was recently<br />

Samuel M. Lynch, for many years purchasing<br />

agent of the National Tube Company, Pittsburgh, has<br />

been promoted to the position of assistant to Taylor<br />

Alderdice, vice president in charge of operations, and<br />

& G. Goe has been appointed purchasing agent.<br />

granted the honorary degree of doctor of science by<br />

Brown University. At one time connected with the<br />

Jones & Laughlin Steel Company, he has been for<br />

many years with the University of Michigan.<br />

* * *<br />

* * *<br />

J. W. Hubbard, prominent Pittsburgh manufactur­<br />

David Baker, consulting metallurgical engineer,<br />

1011 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, has reopened his<br />

office after an absence of 12 years in Newcastle, Auser,<br />

has purchased the Detroit Seamless Tube Companv.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles M. Bullard, of Appleton, Wis., has been<br />

appointed representative in central and northwestern<br />

Wisconsin for the LTehling Instrument Company of<br />

Paterson, N. T.<br />

* * *<br />

Joseph A. Wilson has been appointed general manager<br />

of the Pacific Sheet Steel Corporation, located<br />

tralia, during which he has been engaged in establishing<br />

the iron and steel department of the Broken Hill<br />

Proprietary Company, Ltd. He will devote himself<br />

to the problems connected with the construction and<br />

operation of iron and steel works.<br />

* * *<br />

Mr. D. C. Briggs, formerly production manager<br />

for the Detroit Steel Products Company, has become<br />

associated with the American F<strong>org</strong>ing & Socket Company<br />

of Pontiac, Mich., as general superintnedent in


July,' 1925<br />

complete charge of manufacturing activities. This<br />

company has found a ready market among the automobile<br />

and body manufacturers for many of its newly<br />

developed products, and finds it necessary to operate<br />

two shifts in some departments, with new equipment<br />

being added as rapidly as possible.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

The passing of Edward W. Merrill, suddenly and<br />

unexpectedly, on June 13, 1925, deprives the Drop<br />

Hammer and Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing industry of one of its Pioneers—and<br />

one who had a wealth of experience in their<br />

developement from a crude inception, thru' to the present<br />

refinement of the industry and where he personally<br />

was in no small measure concerned.<br />

Born in New York City in 1869, he early became<br />

associated with his father Edward White Merrill and<br />

his uncle Manning Merrill, then the firm of Merrill<br />

Brothers, and who in turn were successors to their<br />

fathers business of Charles Merrill, which latter was<br />

founded in New York City during 1825, Merrill<br />

Brothers, were then engaged as general machinists<br />

and machine builders and in 1866 undertook to develope<br />

and build Drop Hammers.<br />

From the time he started in with them, his efforts<br />

were confined mostly to the development of Drop<br />

Hammers and Drop F<strong>org</strong>ings and where his counsel<br />

and advice were so eagerly sought and highly appreciaed<br />

by all who knew him.<br />

During his life, he steadfastly cherished and firmly<br />

held to the high ideals established by his Grandfather,<br />

father and uncle and so firmly were they established<br />

by them and maintained by him, that the present firm<br />

of Merrill Brothers, will be continued by his brothers<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e H. and Whitney Merrill, who have been associated<br />

actively with this company for many years.<br />

# * *<br />

John P. Dunn, proprietor of the Dunn Machine<br />

Company and the Buffalo Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Buffalo,<br />

died May 31 at his home in that city. Mr. Dunn<br />

was born in Oswego and came to Buffalo when a<br />

young man. He has been in business in Buffalo for<br />

35 years.<br />

Frank L. Leach, assistant manager of the Agricultural<br />

Implements Company, Ltd., Jamshedpur,<br />

India, subsidiary of the Tata Iron and Steel Company,<br />

Ltd., died there April 7. Mr. Leach was 34 years of<br />

age, but despite his youth enjoyed an exceptional<br />

standing in the engineering profession. He was connected<br />

with Perin and Marshall in New York for two<br />

and a half years, leaving in January, 1922, for India.<br />

Mansfield Merriman, professor of civil engineering<br />

at Lehigh University, and a pioneer in technical education<br />

in this country, died in New York City on<br />

June 7. Professor Merriman was widely known as a<br />

scientist and educator and held several honorary degrees<br />

from leading universities. At different times<br />

he was president of the Society for the Promotion of<br />

Engineering Education and of the American Society<br />

for Testing Materials.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

255<br />

Henry Clay Ebert, retired president of the Cincinnati<br />

Car Company, died suddenly in the Parkway-<br />

Hotel in Chicago on June 9. Mt. Ebert was at one<br />

time associated with the Pennsylvania Railroad and<br />

the Westinghouse interests.<br />

U IIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I I I Illllll I h.l.i.l,,. Li. I<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

The Truscon Steel Company, Youngstown, Ohio,<br />

has acquired the fireproofing department of the General<br />

Fireproofing Company, also of this city, thus obtaining<br />

additional annual capacity of about 30,000<br />

tons. The acquisition will increase the capacity of the<br />

Truscon Company about 20 per cent. The transfer<br />

will be effective July 1. The Truscon Steel Company<br />

takes over the entire operating and sales <strong>org</strong>anization.<br />

The present General Fireproofing Company board of<br />

directors will be added to the board of Truscon Steel<br />

Company.<br />

* * #<br />

Colonial Steel Company, Philadelphia, Pa., has removed<br />

from its temporary location at 522 Drexel<br />

Building, Philadelphia, to its new office and warehouse<br />

at 308-312 North Fifteenth Street. John A. Succop<br />

is district manager.<br />

* * *<br />

The Dallman Machine and Manufacturing Company,<br />

of Milwaukee, has taken over the plant of the<br />

Obenberger F<strong>org</strong>e Company at West Allis. The Dallman<br />

company builds special machinery and equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

The Pittsburgh Screw and Bolt Company has purchased<br />

the Continental Bolt & Iron Company of Chicago.<br />

The new acquisition will be merged with the<br />

Gary Screw and Bolt Company of Gary, Ind., which<br />

is the Western branch of the concern.<br />

Sales and service for a patented demand limitator<br />

has been taken over by the Pittsburgh Electric Furnace<br />

Corporation, Pittsburgh. The device has been<br />

perfected and placed upon the market for limiting<br />

total plant loads through elimination of peaks and cutting<br />

down the consumers' power bill. The device also<br />

enables power companies to avoid extreme demands<br />

in peak times. The device is applicable to electric<br />

melting furnaces, electric heating furnaces, motors,<br />

etc.<br />

* * *<br />

The Republic Flow Meters Company, of Chicago,<br />

has opened a branch office at 535 Bramson Building,<br />

Buffalo, N. Y. This office will be in charge of W. W.<br />

Barron, formerly of the Chicago office.<br />

The newly <strong>org</strong>anized Hannum Manufacturing<br />

Company, of Milwaukee, has acquired the business of<br />

the Lavine Gear Company. Ge<strong>org</strong>e H. Hannum, head<br />

of the new company, was formerly president of the<br />

Oakland Motor Car Company. The Hannum Company<br />

will specialize in automotive products and the<br />

Hannum steering gear.


25U Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

Dodge Brothers, Inc., of Detroit, manufacturers<br />

of the Dodge motor car, have just completed the re<strong>org</strong>anization<br />

of their executive and technical staffs.<br />

Frederick J. Haynes continues as president and A. T.<br />

Waterfall as vice president. A. Z. Mitchell is vice<br />

president in charge of manufacturing; Russell Huff<br />

is directrr of engineering; Clarence Carson is chief engineer;<br />

R. H. Allen, director of purchases; R. A. Vail,<br />

factory manager and Albert A. Andrich, production<br />

manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Cleveland Punch and Shear Works Company,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio, has completed a plant extension program,<br />

including addition of considerable new equipment,<br />

which will result in an increase of about 50 per<br />

cent in its capacity. At the last regular meeting of<br />

the board of directors the following officers were elected<br />

: President, W. D. Sayle; first vice president and<br />

general manager, W. C. Sayle; vice president and<br />

chief engineer, A. L. Bechtel; vice president and works<br />

manager, R. H. Pardee; vice president and metallurgist.<br />

H. C. Sayle; secretary and treasurer, A. C. Eckert;<br />

sales manager, J. H. Corrin; advertising manager,<br />

W. J. Stewart.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e J. Hagan, 1105 Peoples Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh,<br />

who recently disposed of his interests in the<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e J. Hagan Company, and now is conducting a<br />

general furnace business, has been appointed representative<br />

for the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company,<br />

covering its line of industrial furnaces. These furnaces<br />

range from a small solder iron heater to the cartype<br />

annealing furnace and porcelain enameling furnace.<br />

Mr. Hagan will continue also his own line of<br />

industrial furnaces.<br />

* * *<br />

Inland Metal Products Company is the new name<br />

of the H. O. King Company, 1735 Armitage Avenue,<br />

Chicago. The company also has increased its capital<br />

from $50,000 and 2,000 shares no par value to $75,000<br />

and 2,000 shares no par value and has increased directors<br />

from three to five. Good, Childs, Bobb and Westcott,<br />

Illinois Merchants Bank Building, are correspondents.<br />

* * *<br />

The Jamestown Car Parts Manufacturing Company,<br />

Allen Street Extension, Jamestown, N. Y., manufacturer<br />

of automobile radiators and metal furniture,<br />

will purchase welders, punches, shears and other<br />

equipment for $50,000 addition to its plant under construction.<br />

Gustave Lawson is secretary.<br />

* * *<br />

Contract has been let by the Timken-Detroit Axle<br />

Company, Detroit, manufacturer of automobile axles.<br />

to the Walbridge Aldinger Company, Penobscot<br />

Building, for an addition to its plant on Fort Street<br />

to cost in excess of $65,000.<br />

* * *<br />

The Ajax Auto Parts Company, Racine, Wis., is<br />

preparing to utilize more of the available area of the<br />

former Higgins Spring & Axle Company works which<br />

it acquired two years ago. and will soon be in the<br />

market for additional equipment for the production<br />

of automobile accessories.<br />

* * *<br />

The Super-Refractories Corporation, care of W. A.<br />

Goldwynne, Cortland and Church Streets. New York,<br />

July, 1925<br />

recently incorporated with 1,000 shares of stock, no<br />

par value, plans to manufacture firebrick and other<br />

refractory products. Its operating schedule has not<br />

been fully developed.<br />

* * *<br />

The General Welding Company, 80 State Street,<br />

New Haven, Conn., has been <strong>org</strong>anized to operate a<br />

welding and manufacturing shop. It will be in position<br />

to construct tanks of any size, weld pipe lines,<br />

and handle repairing by the acetylene or electric arc<br />

process. A plant has been leased and initial orders<br />

for equipment placed, but various supplies, steel plates<br />

and wires will be required. Richard M. Crosby and<br />

Willys R. Stanton are the principals.<br />

* * *<br />

The Briggs Manufacturing Company, Detroit,<br />

manufacturer of automobile bodies, will devote the<br />

two factory buildings of the Timken-Deroit Axle Company,<br />

on Waterloo Street, recently acquired, to body<br />

production, adding about 10 acres of space to its present<br />

works. Complete equipment will be installed.<br />

The property was taken over for $750,000.<br />

# * *<br />

The Baltimore Tool Works, Inc., 1109 American<br />

Building, Baltimore, Md., recently <strong>org</strong>anized with<br />

$25,000 capital stock is equipped to manufacture a<br />

complete line of f<strong>org</strong>ed tools, as well as for heat treatment<br />

and hardening of dies, special parts, etc.<br />

* * *<br />

The Lindell Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Lansing, Mich.,<br />

has completed plans for a one-story addition to cost<br />

about $35,000.<br />

The Ford Motor Company, Detroit, is asking bids<br />

on a general contract for a one-story addition at its<br />

Dearborn plant, 201x315 ft. to be used as a nickelplating<br />

works, f<strong>org</strong>e and blacksmith shop, and other<br />

kindred service. Albert Kahn, Marquette Building,<br />

Detroit, is architect.<br />

* * *<br />

The Combination Stamping Company, 616 Columbus<br />

Boulevard, Charleston, W. Va., is considering the<br />

establishment of a new plant for the manufacture of a<br />

patented shade hanger and other stamped metal products.<br />

M. J. Simms is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Fergs Stamping Company, Bristol, Tenn.-Va.,<br />

will install equipment in a local building to be given<br />

over to the manufacture of oil-testing devices, including<br />

power presses, enameling ovens, etc.<br />

* * *<br />

The Wesley Steel Treating Company, 651 South<br />

Pierce Street, Milwaukee, has awarded contracts for<br />

the erection of a $20,000 shop addition, 30x75 ft., and<br />

is purchasing equipment.<br />

* * *.<br />

The Superior Metal Products Company, Kenosha.<br />

Wis., has been incorporated with a capital stock of<br />

$12,000 by Carl and Walter Momm and John Olep,<br />

to manufacture metal stampings, principally automotive<br />

equipment and accessories. Leases have been<br />

taken of manufacturing space and equipment is being<br />

purchased.<br />

* * *<br />

Floor space of the Modern Die and Stamping Company,<br />

Twelfth and San Pedro Streets, Los Angeles,<br />

has been enlarged 200 per cent with a leasing of addi-


MR. EXECUTIVE:—<br />

You and your associates are invited to<br />

CLEVELAND<br />

September 14 to 18<br />

to attend the annua?<br />

CONVENTION OF THE A. S. S. T.,<br />

PRODUCTION MEETING OF THE S. A. EL<br />

and<br />

7th National Steel Exposition<br />

Fbrging-Stamping Heat Treating -56A<br />

The technical sessions on production and metallurgy will be<br />

a source of highly valuable information, education and<br />

inspiration.<br />

And combined with this, over a million dollars of time<br />

and money saving equipment will be shown in operation<br />

by two hundred exhibitors in Cleveland's Great Public<br />

Auditorium. These include steel (all forms), machinery,<br />

machine tools, small tools, metal treating equipment and<br />

supplies, inspection material, etc. A complete panorama<br />

of high grade production equipment. 43,000 attended this<br />

exposition last year.<br />

No time could be used to greater profit than at<br />

The VPorlcTs Great Industrial Exposition.<br />

For complete program, hotel rates, etc., write<br />

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR STEEL TREATING<br />

4600 PROSPECT AVENUE CLEVELAND<br />

Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

J


tional room. The company will purchase new machinery<br />

to care for increased business.<br />

* * *<br />

Kingsland & Company, Inc.. 75 Manufacturers<br />

Place, Newark. N. J., has been <strong>org</strong>anized with capital<br />

stock of $125,000 to manufacture sheet metal workers'<br />

machinery and equipment, including squaring<br />

shears, brakes, forming dies, shear blades, etc. It<br />

has leased a plant and will have work done under<br />

contract. Frank N. Kingsland is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Toys & Utilities Manufacturing Company,<br />

Jewett City, Conn., has been <strong>org</strong>anized to manufacture<br />

mechanical toys. It is erecting a shop and upon<br />

completion will be in the market for machines.<br />

* * *<br />

The Penn Metal Company, 675 Concord Avenue,<br />

Cambridge. Mass.. manufacturer of stamped metal<br />

goods, metal ceilings, etc., has selected property' at<br />

Parkersburg, W. Va., and will have plans drawn for<br />

two units of a new plant estimated to cost $115,000.<br />

The works will be designed to consolidate operations<br />

now conducted in factories at Philadelphia and New-<br />

York, with the installation of considerable additional<br />

equipment. Later, the Parkersburg plant will be extended<br />

with other units to cost $1,000,000.<br />

* * *<br />

Plans have been tiled by the Indianapolis Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Orange and Market Streets, for a<br />

one-story addition.<br />

* * *<br />

The Edwards Enameling Company, Indianapolis,<br />

has leased property at 835 South Charles Street, and<br />

will operate a metal-enameling works.<br />

The Parrot Head Tool Company, Oklahoma City,<br />

()kla., has been <strong>org</strong>anized to manufacture drop f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

tools, especially pliers and pipe wrenches. Equipment<br />

is sufficient for the present but the company may<br />

purchase a drop hammer, buffing stand, nickel plating<br />

plant and heat treating furnace later. Samuel Pledger<br />

is general production manager.<br />

* * *<br />

The Remington Typewriter Company, 374 Broadwax-,<br />

Xew York, will soon ask for bids for a four-story<br />

addition to its plant at Ilion, N. Y., 100x200 ft., estimated<br />

to cost $200,000 with machinery. Kinne and<br />

Frank, 7 Hopper Street, Utica, N. Y., are architects.<br />

* * #<br />

Contract has been let by the Syracuse Stamping<br />

Companv, 423 S. West Street, Syracuse, N. Y., to<br />

Dawson Brothers, Union Building, for a one-story and<br />

basement addition, 60x165 ft.<br />

* * *<br />

Demand for steam and board drop hammers is<br />

heavy and some manufacturers are operating full. The<br />

Chambersburg Engineering Company, Chambersburg,<br />

Pa., has recently taken the following orders: A 3,500lb.<br />

and a 2.750-lb. board drop hammer for the Great<br />

Lakes F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Chicago; two 1,500-lb. board<br />

drop hammers for the American F<strong>org</strong>e and Socket<br />

Company, Pontiac, Mich.; a double-end mqunting and<br />

demounting wheel press and a 300-ton hydraulic press<br />

for the Cheyenne, Wyo.. shops of the Union Pacific;<br />

a 12,000-lb. double frame steam hammer for the West<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Inly, 1925<br />

Lynn. Mass., shops of the General Electric Company;<br />

a 12,000-lb. double frame steam hammer for the Schenectady,<br />

N. Y., plant of the American Locomotive<br />

Companv; a double-end mounting and demounting<br />

wheel press for the Norfolk, Va., shops of the Chesapeake<br />

and Ohio.<br />

* * *<br />

The E. R. Wagner Manufacturing Company, North<br />

Milwaukee, Wis., manufacturer of hardware specialties,<br />

electro-plated parts and materials, is completing<br />

construction work to enlarge the plant and capacity,<br />

and contemplates some further extension. The capitalization<br />

has been increased to 19,200 shares, consisting<br />

of 5.600 shares of preferred with a par value<br />

of $25; 3,600 shares of second preferred with a par<br />

value of $100, and 10,000 common shares without par<br />

value, E. R. Wagner is president and general manager.<br />

Ilium • 11• i • i, < 1111: -, , - iri.,o.i :nrrnorr:rror[i,irl Mill 1111rl[ j.tnMMk,oMirr11'un: .nil.:<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

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£ E<br />

| iXHgiiig-STainpin^^ I<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., AUGUST, 1925 No. 8 |<br />

A r e Y o u A l i v e ?<br />

A RE you "keeping pace with modern progress"? The daily<br />

>-X circulation of the newspaper shows that the majority of the<br />

"* people of today are interested in keeping in touch with the<br />

events of the world at large, but do they show the same interest in<br />

the developments of the industry in which they are engaged?<br />

The executives of every company, while they do not know the<br />

particular duties of each employee, have a thorough knowledge of<br />

the general workings of each department. A thorough understanding<br />

of our own work is absolutely necessary, but a general<br />

idea of what the other fellow is doing is also essential. The business<br />

world of today is one of competition; it is not at a standstill;<br />

it is working its way up to the heights. To keep our place in line,<br />

we should bring into play all our stored-up ability, and climb to<br />

the head of the procession.<br />

The workings of the industrial world are no longer secrets.<br />

Almost every industry has formed its associations and societies,<br />

where the developments and inventions are freely discussed, where<br />

the developments and inventions are freely discussed, where the<br />

best methods of procedure and economical operations are given<br />

wide publicity. If you would keep pace with progress and give to<br />

the industry in which you are engaged your best efforts, you must<br />

read constructive literature.<br />

ftiiiiiiitiififfJi iniiiiiiiiiiiMinrimmmriiiiiiiiiiti turn mm i iiiiiiiiiiiiimiimmi hiiiiiiiiiiii minimis<br />

259


2N) f<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Tieating<br />

S o m e N o t e s o n D u r a l u m i n F o r g i n g<br />

The Author Discusses the Working of Duralumin in a Very Com­<br />

prehensive Manner—F<strong>org</strong>ing Duralumin Introduces<br />

T H E combination of strength and lightness has always<br />

been an attractive proposition to the users<br />

of metals. Recent advances in the Metallurgy of<br />

Aluminum have resulted in the production, on a commercial<br />

scale, of alloys combining these properties to<br />

a large degree, and in the automobile and aeronautical<br />

industries such alloys have begun to make headway.<br />

The drop f<strong>org</strong>er's fortunes are bound up particularly<br />

with these two industries, and so he, also, is interested<br />

in the production of f<strong>org</strong>ings both light and strong.<br />

As far as the drop f<strong>org</strong>er is concerned there are two<br />

suitable outstanding alloys, namely, Duralumin and<br />

"Y" alloy, of which the former is the more popular.<br />

It is proposed therefore to deal with Duralumin in this<br />

paper, although in many ways the two alloys are similar.<br />

Properties.<br />

Duralumin is an alloy of aluminum, the manufacture<br />

of which is protected by letters patent. The<br />

range of composition and an actual analysis are shown<br />

in Table I.<br />

Many Difficulties Not Experienced with Steel<br />

TABLE I.<br />

3.S - 4.5%<br />

0.4-0.7<br />

0.4-0.8<br />

0.4-0.7<br />

0.2-0.5<br />

3.936<br />

.15<br />

.28<br />

.63<br />

.63<br />

This alloy has quite different properties from any<br />

steel met with in drop f<strong>org</strong>ing practices. It melts at<br />

a low temperature (600-700 deg. C), which is not<br />

more than a dull red heat. The working temperature<br />

is below 500 deg. C, which is only a "black heat", and<br />

if this limit is exceeded the alloy crumbles.<br />

Further, it exhibits a phenomenon known as "ageing"—that<br />

is to say, after heat-treatment consisting of<br />

heating and quenching, the metal is not in a stable<br />

state, but attains that state slowly in course of time,<br />

with consequent change in physical properties. So<br />

that, after manufacture and heat treatment articles are<br />

not used till they have "aged"<br />

The "ageing" effect can be seen from a study of<br />

the Brinell Hardness of a bar of duralumin, which<br />

was heated to 480 deg. C, the correct temperature for<br />

heat-treatment and quenched in cold water. Impressions<br />

taken at the intervals are shown in Table II.<br />

After seven days there was no apparent change in<br />

hardness, so that it may be assumed that "ageing" was<br />

then practically complete. The process may be accelerated<br />

as shown later in the section on heat-treatment.<br />

•Reprinted from the Journal of the (British) Association<br />

of Drop F<strong>org</strong>ers and Stampers.<br />

By H. A. WHITELEY<br />

Time<br />

After<br />

Quenching<br />

0 hours<br />

1 "<br />

2 "<br />

3 "<br />

4 "<br />

5 "<br />

6 "<br />

24 "<br />

2 days<br />

3 "<br />

4 "<br />

5 "<br />

6 "<br />

7 "<br />

TABLE II.<br />

Dia. of<br />

Impressions<br />

in m.m.<br />

6.8<br />

6.55<br />

6.4<br />

6.4<br />

6.3<br />

6.1<br />

6.0<br />

6.0<br />

5.9<br />

5.7<br />

5.7<br />

5.65<br />

5.6<br />

5.6<br />

August, 1925<br />

Brinell<br />

Hardness<br />

Number<br />

71.5<br />

79.0<br />

82<br />

82<br />

86<br />

92<br />

95<br />

95<br />

99<br />

107<br />

109<br />

109<br />

112<br />

112<br />

The micro-photographs, Fig. 1, show immediately<br />

after quenching, Fig. 2, after quenching and "ageing",<br />

showing the alteration in structure. The first specimen<br />

was polished, placed in a sodium nitrite bath at<br />

the correct temperature, quenched in water, etched<br />

and photographed within five minutes of quenching.<br />

After "ageing" the approximate mechanical properties<br />

together with the figures of an actual test, are shown<br />

in Table III.<br />

TABLE III.<br />

Yield point. Max. stress. Elongation Red. of Area<br />

Tons per square inch. % %<br />

Approx. 15 25 15 20<br />

Actual 16.20 24.36 19.0 28.0<br />

Izod impact of 21 ft. lbs.<br />

These figures compare favorably with those of a<br />

dead mild steel, and when one remembers that the<br />

weight of a duralumin f<strong>org</strong>ing is only about onethird<br />

that of a similar steel f<strong>org</strong>ing, it is at once apparent<br />

that, in certain cases, the light alloy scores over<br />

steel.<br />

Working Temperature Considerations.<br />

As the melting point of aluminum alloys is low<br />

(pure aluminum melts at 657 deg. C, whereas pure<br />

iron melts at 1500 deg. C.) it can be readily understood<br />

that it is extremely necessary to work them<br />

within the correct temperature limits. This particularly<br />

applies to drop-f<strong>org</strong>ing duralumin and constitutes<br />

one of the great difficulties in the manufacture<br />

of articles by this means.<br />

It has already been stated that the correct tern<br />

perature for hardening duralumin is 480 deg. C, and<br />

this is also the correct f<strong>org</strong>ing temperature. If heated<br />

to much over 500 deg. C, duralumin becomes very<br />

crumbly, and on f<strong>org</strong>ing disintegrates completely.<br />

Fig. 3 shows a piece of 1%-in. round bar which was<br />

heated above 500 deg. C, and an attempt made to<br />

draw it down. The disastrous results are accounted<br />

for by an examination of the micro-structure. On<br />

comparing the structure shown in Fig. 1 (duralumin<br />

worked and treated at the correct temperature)


August, 1925<br />

with that of Fig. 4 (the overheated bar) it can be<br />

seen that the dark constituent has apparently segregated<br />

and melted out. This results in a lack of cohesion<br />

between the crystal grains and a very light force<br />

is sufficient to rupture the metal completely. It is<br />

therefore absolutely essential, in f<strong>org</strong>ing duralumin,<br />

to take every precaution to ensure that the bar, billet<br />

or f<strong>org</strong>ing never exceeds a temperature of 500 deg. C.<br />

On the other hand, it is possible to f<strong>org</strong>e duralumin<br />

at temperatures well below 500 deg. C. in a fairly<br />

satisfactory manner. A piece of bar iy in. round was<br />

heated to 490 deg. C, and drawn at the one heat to<br />

1 in. square, and then to the thickness of a knife blade.<br />

The piece was fashioned to the shape of a knife, Fig.<br />

5. A quick light blow was used, and the test was<br />

made in order to see how far the bar could be reduced<br />

before fracture took place.<br />

Cold work hardens the alloy considerably and if<br />

carried to extreme would eventually break it up. In<br />

the production of duralumin f<strong>org</strong>ings, therefore, it is<br />

very necessary that a temperature of 500 deg. C,<br />

should never be exceeded, but that any variation from<br />

the correct temperature of 490 deg. C. should be on<br />

the cold side. The correct range for f<strong>org</strong>ing may be<br />

stated to be 470 deg.-500 deg. C. This has given satisfactory<br />

results in practice.<br />

Furnace and Temperature.<br />

The design and regulation of furnaces to heat bars,<br />

billets and f<strong>org</strong>ings of duralumin in the range for f<strong>org</strong>ing,<br />

4700 deg. C. to 500 deg. C. is not at all a simple<br />

matter. Moreover, f<strong>org</strong>ers are not accustomed to<br />

handle steel at such low temperatures and require<br />

some time to get into the knack of working. At a<br />

temperature of 500 deg. C. no visible light is emitted.<br />

Even a dull red glow indicates temperature of 600 deg.<br />

C, which is far and away too high for duralumin.<br />

After due consideration of all aspects of the question<br />

an oil fired muffle furnace was chosen as suitable for<br />

heating duralumin and has so proved in practice.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

261<br />

For small work a fireclay muffle 16 in. on the sill,<br />

by 2 in. high by 18 in. from sill to back, with walls 2<br />

in. thick was used. This was contained in, a suitable<br />

chamber about 3 ft. by 2 ft. (outside measurements)<br />

solidly constructed and bound with iron, and supported<br />

at a convenient height. The roof was slightly<br />

arched and made removable.<br />

For small muffles it is sufficient to use one burner<br />

of the fine needle-valve type, with both oil and air<br />

under pressure, and this proves quite up to the work.<br />

It is set in the side of the furnace above the level of<br />

the muffle so as to avoid the direct impinging of the<br />

hot flame on one end of the muffle. The flame passes<br />

along the top of the muffle, down one side, along the<br />

bottom, and out by two vertical flues leading from the<br />

bottom of the furnace to just above the roof. Although<br />

no definite provision is made for heating the<br />

end of the muffle nearest the burner, it is found that<br />

by radiation the heat becomes even all over the muffle.<br />

With large sized muffles more difficulty is experienced<br />

in obtaining an even heat, but the problem<br />

is not incapable of solution.<br />

With all oil fired furnaces it is better to have the<br />

air pipe leading down to the burner instead of up to it,<br />

so that, if any oil leaks at any time through the valve,<br />

it cannot run into the air pipe and collect with the re­<br />

FIG. 1—Photomicrograph of duralumin immediately on<br />

sult that when air is turned on, a large quantity of<br />

quenching. X 75 diams. Etched with hot 25 per cent<br />

oil is blown along with it.<br />

nitric acid.<br />

The furnace temperature must be over 500 deg.<br />

Once the fusible constituent has melted, the metal is C. in order to avoid waste of time waiting until the<br />

ruined and it is, therefore, of no use to allow an over­ bars attain that temperature, and so some relation<br />

heated bar to cool down to 500 deg. C. before f<strong>org</strong>ing must be established experimentally between the fur­<br />

under the belief that all will be well. It is simply imnace temperature and the length of time required to<br />

possible to do anything with the metal. In this re­ heat certain sized stock to 500 deg. C. It is essential<br />

spect duralumin and burnt steel are similar.<br />

to know the furnace temperature to provide a bas;s on<br />

FIG. 2—Photomicrograph of duralumin "aged." X 75 diams.<br />

Etched with hot 25 per cent nitric acid. The small "lakes"<br />

of the dark constituent (CuAL) have diffused somewhat<br />

into the light ground (Al).<br />

which to work. This is accomplished by fitting a<br />

base-metal thermo-couple enclosed in a silica sheath<br />

giving direct temperature readings on a galvanometer.<br />

In order that any temperature change shall be recorded<br />

immediately it is advisable to dispense with the<br />

usual iron pyrometer sheath which causes "lag" between<br />

furnace temperatures and the galvanometer. By<br />

placing the couple in one corner of the muffle alrng<br />

the floor, with the head only projecting a short distance,<br />

it is possible to avoid breaking the sheath, al-


though the method requires compensating leads to<br />

counteract the effect due to the head of the pyrometer<br />

getting hot. This method is far superior to any guess<br />

work and can easily be supplemented by the muchused<br />

charring of paper which occurs about 500 deg. C,<br />

depending on the sort of paper used.<br />

Die Design.<br />

Many patterns can be f<strong>org</strong>ed in duralumin using<br />

the same dies as for steel. Although the coefficient<br />

of expansion of aluminum is twice that of steel, tinf<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

temperature is only half, and so dies with a<br />

shrinkage allowance for steel should be suitable for<br />

duralumin. In practice it i- found that duralumin<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- arc slightly mi the large side compared to<br />

steel.<br />

FIG. 3—The result of an attempt to draw down a 134-in.<br />

round at a temperature of 500 deg. C.<br />

Better results are obtained by modifying the steel<br />

design to suit duralumin, bearing in mind the fact<br />

that duralumin does not flow quite so readily as steel.<br />

This will mean that all sharp corners are to be avoided<br />

("laps" therefore eliminated), and that, where possible,<br />

changes of section are made more gradual. In<br />

multiple impression dies small modifications may be<br />

necessarv to counterbalance this lack of flow, and also<br />

the impressions should be placed in a more central<br />

position to avoid excessive pull on the die.<br />

Another point to be considered is, that as duralumin<br />

is light, it is possible to make a more robust<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing in that alloy than in steel, offsetting to some<br />

extent the lower strength, and yet keep the weight<br />

down to about half that of the steel prototype. So that<br />

in certain cases, it is better to cut special dies for<br />

making patterns in duralumin rather than run the risk<br />

of excessive scrap bv using impressions cut for steel.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Several investigations have been done on the properties<br />

of duralumin at relatively high temperatures.<br />

Table IV gives some results obtained by Cohn at various<br />

temperatures :<br />

TABLE IV.<br />

Yield Point Max. Stress Elonga- Red. of Area<br />

Deg. C. Tons per square inch. tion r'c %<br />

20 26.25 30.4 13 32<br />

100 24.0 27.6 13 33<br />

200 17.0 18.8 16 40<br />

300 4.0 4.2 33 75<br />

The rapid fall of the maxii stress above 300<br />

deg. C. indicates that the metal is not very strong at<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

August, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing temperature. In fact, when "necking" a bar,<br />

a heavy blow will cause the metal to shear at the<br />

neck. To obviate this, only light rapid blows should<br />

be used for "roughing out", particularly where there<br />

is a big change of section between one part and another.<br />

For example when roughing out for connecting<br />

rods, heavy blows must not be used, otherwise<br />

shear will take" place where the "big end" joins the<br />

stem. These light rapid blows also have the effect<br />

of keeping the temperature of the metal up and so<br />

rendering it more plastic. When, however, the bar<br />

is of correct shape and f<strong>org</strong>ing between the dies takes<br />

place, the full weight of the hammer must be given<br />

to force the metal into the impressions. It can easily<br />

be seen while f<strong>org</strong>ing, that duralumin does not "flow"<br />

as well as steel, and appears to be more elastic.<br />

As no scale is formed on the surface of the metal<br />

the use of f<strong>org</strong>ing oil is rendered unnecessary, but in<br />

view of the fact that duralumin does not "flow" as<br />

readily as steel, it is advisable to have the finish of<br />

dies for duralumin very smooth so that there shall be<br />

no drag on the metal. With new dies a little lubrication<br />

may be necessary and for this purpose tallow is<br />

used. Similarly it is used on the pegs in the center of<br />

the big end of a connecting rod. If f<strong>org</strong>ing oil is used<br />

thin flakes of metal detach themselves from the f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

and becoming blackened by the oil are, to all intents<br />

and purposes, scale. These flakes are very easily<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed into the article the surface of which is already<br />

black with the oil. and easily escape notice. The re<br />

moval of this black film is dealt with later.<br />

Sometimes the surface of a f<strong>org</strong>ing is made up<br />

of very thin layers of metal which peel off easily.<br />

Apparently this is caused by the excess of oil which<br />

penetrates the skin of the f<strong>org</strong>ing and causes it to lift<br />

after each blow.<br />

FIG. 4—Photomicrograph of overheated duralumin.<br />

Owing to the softness of the metal at f<strong>org</strong>ing temperatures,<br />

it is very necessary to keep the f<strong>org</strong>ing exactly<br />

in the impression to avoid "chopping". It is also<br />

important to see that the finished f<strong>org</strong>ings are not<br />

thrown into a heap while hot or some deformation is<br />

bound to occur. More careful handling is required<br />

throughout than is necessary with steel f<strong>org</strong>ing. Clipping<br />

tools should be sharper than those used for steel,<br />

or the scrap is likely to tear and cracks along the<br />

scrap-line will appear, and the f<strong>org</strong>ings become badly<br />

deformed.


August, 1925<br />

Heat Treatment.<br />

In the heat treatment of duralumin f<strong>org</strong>ings accurate<br />

pyrometer control is absolutely essential. Full<br />

treatment consists of heating to 480 deg. C, quenching'in<br />

water and "ageing." Heating may be carried<br />

out in muffle furnaces, oil or gas fired, but where<br />

electricity is cheap electrically heated muffles would<br />

give very good results. A bath of molten salts (sodium<br />

nitrite and potassium nitrate) may be used, but<br />

blistering may possibly be caused. On the other hand,<br />

the danger of overheating is considerably less with a<br />

salt bath, especially if accurate pyrometric control is<br />

obtainable. A point against the salt bath is the loss<br />

of the fused salts which adhere to the f<strong>org</strong>ings on<br />

removal from the bath. Each method has its advantages<br />

and if properly controlled would give satisfactory<br />

results. "Ageing" can be accelerated by hn.l.ng<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ings in water. At the end of six hours, "ageing"<br />

is practically complete, so that even a short<br />

boiling assists materially in shortening the time required<br />

for the attainment of the maximum strength.<br />

FIG. 5—Knife f<strong>org</strong>ed at one heat from the 1^-in<br />

diameter bar shown.<br />

The annealing operation on duralumin consists of<br />

heating to 350 deg. C, preferably in salt baths owing<br />

to the low temperature required, followed by cooling<br />

in air. Little or no "ageing" takes place after annealing<br />

and the mechanical properties are approximately :<br />

Yield point — tons per sq. in.. . . 7<br />

Maximum stress — tons per sq. in. 16<br />

Elongation — per cent 14<br />

Any machine operations can be carried out on the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing, either in the annealed or the fully heat-treated<br />

condition without ill-effect provided that the workis<br />

not allowed to get hotter than 100 deg. C. (boiling<br />

water).<br />

Pickling.<br />

The removal of the black surface caused by the<br />

use of f<strong>org</strong>ing oil and the restoration of the characteristic<br />

aluminum appearance of a f<strong>org</strong>ing is quite simply<br />

done either before or after heat-treatment.<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>ings are placed in a hot strong solution<br />

of caustic soda in water and left for a time. Oil and<br />

grease will be removed, and the aluminum is attacked<br />

by the soda. If the attack is too vigorous, or the<br />

articles are left in too long "pitting" will result. They<br />

are removed soon after the soda has begun to attack<br />

them, rinsed in water and well brushed. Sometimes<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping Heat Treating 26.5<br />

this does not remove the black deposit which is very<br />

adherent. Immersion in diluted (10 per cent) sulphuric<br />

acid for a time, followed by rinsing and vigorous<br />

brushing, will generally prove efficacious. If not,<br />

a further soda and acid treatment will be necessary.<br />

It is hardly necessary to point out that the soda<br />

should not be contained in a metal vessel, as it will<br />

attack it rapidly. An earthenware vessel is most suitable.<br />

After this treatment a thorough rinsing in boiling<br />

water is necessary to remove all acid or soda, otherwise<br />

\ery rapid corrosion of the duralumin occurs.<br />

Examination.<br />

The main defects in duralumin f<strong>org</strong>ings have been<br />

indicated—"laps", "runs", "chops" and f<strong>org</strong>ing in<br />

loose metal. Any of these defects may easily be seen<br />

by pickling in soda and acid as above. The macrostructure<br />

and flow of the metal can also be brought<br />

ii]) by long etching in soda, followed by cleansing in<br />

acid as indicated.<br />

An_\- sandblasting must be done with very fine<br />

sand and a low pressure, otherwise a very poor surface,<br />

full of "pits" is obtained. Grinding operations<br />

should not 1>e carried out on duralumin f<strong>org</strong>ings as<br />

(he fine "swarf" is very easily ignited by a spark.<br />

Water should not be used to quench an igr.ited aluminum,<br />

but damp sand is efficacious. Filing, although<br />

slower, is safer than grinding, but aluminum powder<br />

and iron scale (iron oxide) mixed together form the<br />

powerful explosive, thermite. Ignition of thermite is<br />

difficult compared to other explosives, but there is<br />

considerable danger in having such a mixture lying<br />

around, particularly near grinding wheels. Where<br />

steel and duralumin f<strong>org</strong>ings pass through an inspection<br />

department together, precautions must be taken<br />

against mixing aluminum filings and iron scale, where<br />

there is any danger of igniting them. Apart from<br />

these two points there is no clanger with duralumin.<br />

GAS FUEL IDEAL FOR JAPANNING<br />

One of the most popular uses for city gas is for<br />

japanning automobile parts, stoves, ranges, and all<br />

kinds of sheet metal goods for domestic use. A peculiar<br />

feature about japan is that with the same japan the<br />

heat of the oven must be regulated with due consideration<br />

for the temperature to which the metal will be<br />

exposed in use. That is. a baking temperature of 200<br />

deg. F may prove entirely satisfactory when used on<br />

an automobile. However, if no more than that were<br />

used in japanning a baking range, the japan would not<br />

be able to stand up under kitchen usage. The gas<br />

range oven is ordinarily used at a temperature of 400<br />

deg. F. and under.<br />

In the case of enameling, which is also done largely<br />

by gas. even greater care must be taken to bake the<br />

enamel at a much higher temperature than the product<br />

in use will be subjected to. The enamel used on<br />

electric reflectors that are used in outdoor lighting<br />

and for gas ranges has to be baked at from 1,500 to<br />

2.000 deg.<br />

The use of city gas in the japan oven results in<br />

many advantages and economies because it permits of<br />

very close control of the temperature of the oven thus<br />

speeding up the production.


264 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating August, 1925<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER VI — Continued<br />

PART 2 — SLIP INTERFERENCE<br />

BEFORE proceeding to a study of why steel is<br />

hardened by heat treatment, it will be well to<br />

review some of the known facts bearing on the<br />

case. We know that all metals are crystalline. Crystals<br />

are formed by the orderly arrangement of atoms along<br />

straight lines and planes, according to a regular pattern,<br />

sometimes called a "space lattice"<br />

Steel consists of the metal iron, with the addition<br />

of small quantities of carbon and sometimes other elements,<br />

such as nickel, chromium, vanadium, etc. These<br />

additions confer upon the iron the ability to have its<br />

hardness and strength greatly increased by heat treatment.<br />

The process known as "heat treatment" consists in<br />

heating the steel through certain temperatures, called<br />

critical points, and then cooling it, slowdy or rapidly,<br />

according to the results desired. Important changes<br />

take place in the crystalline structure of the metal at<br />

the critical points. The changes which principally influence<br />

the hardening properties are:<br />

(1) A change in the crystalline pattern of the<br />

atoms (from body-centered .'Mpha iron to face-centered<br />

Gamma iron), accompanied by the formation<br />

of entirely new crystals, and the obliteration of<br />

the old ones.<br />

(2) A dissolving or precipitation of certain constituents<br />

into or out of solid solution. (Loss or<br />

gain of magnetic Properties has no direct effect on<br />

the hardening characteristics.)<br />

These changes are reversable on slow heating or<br />

cooling, but the changes which normally occur on slowcooling,<br />

may be partially or completely suppressed<br />

(prevented), if cooling is rapid. The amount of carbon<br />

(and of other alloying elements) present greatlv<br />

affects the temperature at which the reversals take<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

The author is Consulting Metallurgist. Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright, 1925. H. C. Knerr.<br />

place, and the degree to which they may be suppressed<br />

by rapid cooling.<br />

The complete or partial suppression of the cooling<br />

changes results in retaining, at room temperature, certain<br />

constituents called austenite, martensite, troostite,<br />

and sorbite. The degree of hardness, strength and<br />

ductility of the metal is closely associated with the<br />

presence of these.<br />

Refining the grain structure increases the hardness<br />

and strength of metals and sometimes also the ductility.<br />

Reheating hardened steel to temperatures below<br />

the critical point, causes a reduction in hardness and<br />

strength and an increase in ductility<br />

Pure metals and alloys may have their hardness and<br />

strength increased by cold working. This is usually<br />

accompanied by a decrease in ductility. Reheating<br />

cold worked metals decreases their hardness and increases<br />

their ductility.<br />

These facts have been known to metallurgists for<br />

many years, but the reason for the hardening properties<br />

of metals has long remained a good deal of a mystery.<br />

Various theories were offered in explanation,<br />

but none fully covered all the facts. Leading authorities<br />

frankly admitted that, until some new light was<br />

shed on the subject, it was unlikely that the question<br />

would be entirely cleared up.<br />

New light has been shed, during very recent years,<br />

from a rather unexpected source, the X-ray. The<br />

atomic arrangement of metals is on much too small a<br />

scale to be seen with even the highest powered microscope,<br />

because of limitations of lenses, and the wave<br />

length of light. X-rays, however, are waves of extremely<br />

short length, which have the Power of penetrating<br />

metals. By means of an instrument known as<br />

the X-Ray Spectrometer, the arrangement and spacing<br />

of the atoms in crystalline substances may be<br />

studied. (How this is done, need not be discussed<br />

here.) Information obtained in this manner has supplied<br />

the missing link in chains of evidence which for-


August, 1925<br />

merly did not hold together, and has permitted the<br />

construction of a clear and very reasonable theory of<br />

the hardening of metals. This is the theory of Slip<br />

Interference, first outlined by Jeffries and Archer, in<br />

June, 1921,* and which has since been republished in<br />

their book, ref. 13. Dr. Walter Rosenhain, eminent<br />

English metallurgist, at about the same time, reached<br />

very similar conclusions in regard to the fundamental<br />

reasons for the hardening and hardness of metals.<br />

These are reviewed in ref. 14.<br />

The theories of Jeffries and Archer, and of Rosenhain,<br />

are substantially in agreement, and are accepted<br />

(with or without some reservations), by the majority<br />

of metallurgists of today. There is still difference of<br />

opinion on certain details, and some modification of<br />

these theories may be necessary in the light of future<br />

knowledge.<br />

The Slip Interference theory offers the first clear,<br />

comprehensive and reasonable explanation of the rather<br />

complex behavior of metals in hardening. It is<br />

based on a thorough analysis of a very large number<br />

of carefully observed facts. Most of these facts have<br />

been known and accepted for years. Only a few of<br />

them, such as the X-ray measurements, are of recent<br />

origin. The latter have been independently checked by<br />

several investigators, and are being corroborated by<br />

additional evidence in numerous ways.<br />

In the following pages of this section, an attempt<br />

has been made to outline the theory of Jeffries and<br />

Archer, in abridged and simplified form. Their words<br />

have been quoted in a number of instances. Elsewhere<br />

it has been necessary to simplify and condense.<br />

The reasoning by which the authors have arrived at<br />

their conclusions, and the supporting evidence, is given<br />

very fully in their text. Space does not permit repeating<br />

these portions here. For a thorough study of the<br />

theory, their book, "The Science of Metals," ref. 13,<br />

should be consulted.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - H


266 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

ing of metals bv various means, becomes more simple.<br />

Instead of inquiring why metals are so strong, it may<br />

better be asked why metals are so weak."<br />

Properties of Metal Crystals—Slip.<br />

We have seen that metals are composed of crystals.<br />

The properties of metals, therefore, are governed to a<br />

large extent by the properties of crystals. When a<br />

load is applied to a crystal, elastic deformation takes<br />

place. The atoms move apart or together a little way,<br />

and return to their original positions on removing the<br />

load. Strain is proportional to stress up to the elastic<br />

limit.<br />

But the regularity of atomic arrangement in crystals,<br />

gives rise to certain planes of weakness or low resistance<br />

to shearing stress.<br />

When the stress increases to a certain point, failure<br />

of the crystal takes place, by a sliding action along one<br />

of the planes of weakness of the crystalline grain.<br />

Sliding Easier Than Pulling Apart.<br />

A crystal of pure metal, with its planes of easy slip,<br />

may be compared in some ways to a stack of iron<br />

plates, placed in a strong magnetic field, acting at right<br />

t<br />

—» Atomic Bonds (Cohesion)<br />

» Points of Friction<br />

t _* Freforminq' Force<br />

FIG. 115—Planes of slip.<br />

(a) Sets of planes of easy slip.<br />

(b) Direct separation difficult. Many atomic bonds broken.<br />

(c) Sliding or "slip" easy. Few atomic bonds broken.<br />

Friction greater on any plane after slip has occurred.<br />

angles to their surfaces. The surfaces of the plates<br />

represent a set of planes of easy slip in the crystal.<br />

The magnetic force represents the cohesive force between<br />

the layers of atoms. This is illustrated in Fig.<br />

115. It would be very difficult to pull the plates<br />

straight apart, but comparatively easy to separate them<br />

by sliding them over each other.<br />

"In separating the magnetic plates by a straight<br />

pull, it is necessary to overcome the entire magnetic<br />

attraction at once, whereas in sliding the plates, the<br />

magnetic force is overcome only at the edges and then<br />

gradually by small increments (amounts). The principal<br />

resistance to sliding is the frictional resistance,<br />

due to pressure. In order to completely separate the<br />

Portions of a crystal (on opposite sides of a plane of<br />

slip), by a direct tensile pull, it would be necessary to<br />

break simultaneously all the atomic bonds on the<br />

plane. This would require a force equal to the absolute<br />

cohesion of the metal." The two portions can<br />

slide past each other on the slip plane by overcoming<br />

only a small proportion of the atomic bonds at a time.<br />

Of course, slip separates the atoms from their old<br />

neighbors, but cohesion bonds are established with<br />

their new neighbors, and the attractive force of the<br />

new neighbors, about balances that of the old.<br />

August, 1925<br />

Plasticity and Brittleness.<br />

The parts on opposite sides of a slip plane, may or<br />

may not adhere to each other after slip starts. If they<br />

do adhere, the crystal is "plastic" or ductile, and the<br />

plane of failure is a "slip plane" or "gliding plane."<br />

If the fragments do not adhere, the crystal is brittle<br />

and the plane is called a "cleavage plane". In either<br />

case failure takes place by a shearing action. There<br />

are, of course, a great many possible planes of shear<br />

in any crystal.<br />

The plasticity of a crystal and therefore the ductility<br />

of the metal, depends upon whether or not the<br />

atoms form new atomic bonds after slip has occurred<br />

on a given plane. In many metals, such bonds are<br />

readily formed. These are the ductile metals, and include<br />

iron, gold, silver, copper, aluminum, etc. Resistance<br />

to further movement along a slip plane of a<br />

ductile crystal, is greater than before slip started. This<br />

is probably due to the fact that some atoms or particles<br />

are dislodged during slip and act like grains of sand<br />

between the planes, opposing slip. Any additional deformation<br />

of the crystal, therefore, causes slip to take<br />

place along new planes.<br />

As deformation continues, one new slip plane after<br />

another is formed. The original crystal is broken up<br />

into a number of crystalline fragments, which adhere<br />

to each other. This is the process known as "cold<br />

working". Since the planes along which slip has occurred<br />

are stronger (more resistant to slip) than they<br />

were before, it is easy to see how the production of<br />

more and more of these planes, in cold working, will<br />

increase the resistance to further deformation and consequently<br />

the hardness and strength of the metal. Cold<br />

working increases the resistance to permanent deformation<br />

in other ways, which will be described further<br />

on.<br />

"The first appreciable formation of slip planes,<br />

marks the beginning of plastic deformation, and therefore,<br />

the passing of the elastic limit. The resistance<br />

to permanent deformation, which is a general measure<br />

of hardness and strength, represents resistance to the<br />

beginning and propagation of slip. Anything that<br />

serves to hinder slip is a source of strength and hardness.<br />

The hardening and strengthening of metals by<br />

any of the known methods, may be considered as due<br />

principally to interference with slip."<br />

Slip Bands.<br />

The formation of slip planes in the crystalline<br />

grains of a metal may readily be observed under the<br />

microscope. For example, if a piece of soft iron is<br />

polished and lightly etched, the grain boundaries will<br />

appear, but the areas enclosed by the boundaries (representing<br />

sections through crystalline grains), will be<br />

fairly smooth and free from markings. If the specimen<br />

is now squeezed in a vise (or bent or stretched)<br />

so as to produce some permanent deformation, and<br />

again examined at fairly high magnification, it will be<br />

found that a number of fairly straight lines have appeared<br />

in various grains. The lines in any one grain,<br />

will be roughly parallel to each other, but those in<br />

different grains, will run in different directions. Further<br />

deformation will produce more lines, some of<br />

which may cross those previously formed. This is<br />

illustrated* in the photomicrographs, Fig. 116. The<br />

lines crossing the grains, simply indicate planes of<br />

•Excellent illustrations of slip are also shown by Rosenhai<br />

ref. 7. Chapter XI.


August, 1925<br />

slip in the crystal. Fig. 117 represents a section perpendicular<br />

to the polished surface, and illustrated how<br />

slip has taken place and how the formerly smooth<br />

surface has been broken up by slip, on various planes<br />

of the crystals.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

t r w ^ m<br />

/ i>r€<br />

jfeS^ « • -& i" > ><br />

T^Z^Jfkr^-^r *'•*+*%-<br />

-•^l^y.6c;<br />

(By J. W. Harsch, courtesy H. F. Moore.)<br />

FIG. 116—Slip in nearly pure iron. (Carbon 0.02%.)<br />

All at same spot. (200 x)<br />

(a) Unstressed. (Polishing marks horizontal.)<br />

(b) Stressed to yield point.<br />

(c) Stressed close to ultimate.<br />

What Cements Crystalline Grains Together?<br />

The question naturally arises why metals do not<br />

fail by the separations of the grains along their boundaries—what<br />

holds the grains together?<br />

In discussing the crystalline nature of metals, and<br />

the formation of crystalline grains, in Chapter III, it<br />

was shown that crystals grew from small beginnings<br />

by taking on atoms from the surrounding material and<br />

arranging these atoms according to a regular pattern,<br />

267<br />

which is uniform throughout the crystal. When two<br />

crystals of different orientation meet, there are three<br />

possible conditions at the grain boundaries:<br />

(1) There are voids (atomless spaces), between<br />

the two crystals.<br />

(2) There is a zone in which some of the atoms<br />

are held in both crystal lattices (patterns), in<br />

which case the lattices would be distorted at the<br />

surface of contact.<br />

(3) There is a zone of dis<strong>org</strong>anized or "amorphous"<br />

metal.f<br />

There is no way known at present of determining<br />

the actual structure at the grain boundaries of metals.<br />

There are many indications, however, that the grains<br />

are held together by a sort of "cement", composed of<br />

atoms which are not arranged according to any regular<br />

(crystalline) pattern.<br />

The absence of slip or cleavage planes in this noncrystalline<br />

material, gives it great hardness and<br />

strength at ordinary temperatures. There being no<br />

planes of weakness, the amorphous material more nearly<br />

develops the absolute cohesion of the metal, and<br />

is therefore harder and stronger than the crystalline<br />

grains. At elevated temperatures, the amorphous ma-<br />

FIG. 117 (left)—Formation of slip bands. Section perpendicular<br />

to polished surface.<br />

(a) Before slip.<br />

(b) After slip.<br />

FIG. 118 (center)—Key particles intefering with slip.<br />

FIG. 119 (right)—Large key particles, leaving unkeyed planed.<br />

Iterial takes on some of the properties of a fluid. It is<br />

|then weaker than the crystalline material, and in this<br />

state, failure may occur at the grain boundaries.<br />

Hardening Effect of Grain Refinement.<br />

Ordinarily, a piece of metal is composed of many<br />

crystalline grains, differently oriented. As the slip<br />

planes of adjacent grains run in different directions,<br />

and seldom coincide in adjacent grains, there cannot<br />

be any continuous plane of weakness through the piece<br />

as in the case of a single grain. When slip takes<br />

place, it cannot continue from one grain to the next,<br />

without change of direction. This naturally hinders<br />

its progress. The amorphous cement at the grain<br />

boundaries, being free from planes of weakness, also<br />

interferes with the progress of slip from grain to grain.<br />

The smaller the grains, the shorter and more irregular<br />

will be the possible planes of slip, and the greater will<br />

be the quantity of amorphous grain boundary material.<br />

Refinement of the grain structure of a metal, therefore<br />

increases slip interference. The result is a greater<br />

resistance to permanent deformation, and consequently<br />

an increase in elastic limit, hardness and strength.<br />

Hardening by Cold Working.<br />

Permanent deformation below the recrystallization<br />

temperature of a metal is called "cold working". This<br />

(Continued on page 283)<br />

-(•"Amorphous,, is the opposite of crystalline, that is, not arranged<br />

according to any regular atomic pattern. Amorphous<br />

metal would therefore have no slip or cleavage planes.


268 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat "Beating<br />

August, 1925<br />

A . S. S. T. P r e p a r e s for A n n u a l C o n v e n t i o n<br />

The 1925 Convention and Exhibition Will Be Largest in History<br />

of the Organization—Many Valuable Papers to Be<br />

M O S T of the details necessary in preparation for<br />

the seventh annual convention and exhibition<br />

of the American Society for Steel Treating,<br />

which will be held in Cleveland, September 14 to 18.<br />

have been smoothly worked out by W. H. Eisenman<br />

of Cleveland, the society's secretary, and his office has<br />

reported that the 1925 convention and exhibition will<br />

be the biggest in the history of the <strong>org</strong>anization.<br />

Both of the exhibition floors of Cleveland's magnificent<br />

municipal auditorium will be filled with exhibits<br />

of machinery for making tools and machinery<br />

and for the treatment of steel. Applications for exhibit<br />

space long since oversubscribed the space available.<br />

Nearly 200 companies will have their products<br />

on exhibition. A number had to be disappointed because<br />

of lack of space. Ninety makers of machine<br />

tools and small tools will have exhibits in operation<br />

and many others will showr metals, metal treating<br />

equipment, testing and inspection equipment.<br />

Here will be shown the most modern works used<br />

in the treating of steel and in the manufacture of steel<br />

products, small and large. Assembled in Cleveland<br />

will be the leaders of the steel and machinery industry<br />

to learn of the progress made and to exchange<br />

ideas. Here, too, will be members of the Society of<br />

Automotive Engineers who are to hold their production<br />

meeting to coincide with the exhibition that they<br />

might learn how the material for the motor cars<br />

they design is treated and produced.<br />

It is estimated that the two <strong>org</strong>anizations will drawto<br />

Cleveland approximately 10,000 visitors for the<br />

study of steel. W. S. Bidle of Cleveland is president<br />

of the society for steel treating. He has named J. B.<br />

Dillard of the Cleveland Twist Drill Company chairman<br />

of the general convention committee.<br />

One of the important sessions to be held during<br />

the convention will be the symposium on hardness<br />

testing. The work of the Hardness Testing Committee<br />

of the National Research Council has been<br />

turned over to the A. S. S. T.<br />

The A. S. S. T. committee has been doing a remarkable<br />

work in the investigation of the subject of<br />

hardness which bears such an important relation to<br />

physical properties.<br />

This symposium will be held Thursday afternoon,<br />

September 17, at the Hollenden Hotel. The committee,<br />

under the chairmanship of Major A. E. Bellis<br />

will present the following program:<br />

"Herbert and Vickers Hardness Testing Machines"<br />

by Prof. O. W. Boston of the University of Michigan.<br />

"Checking Brinell Machines." by Capt. S. N. Petrenko<br />

of the LJnited States Bureau of Standards.<br />

"Hardness of Cold Rolled Nickel", by Dr. S. R.<br />

Williams, director of laboratory, Amherst College,<br />

Amherst, Mass.<br />

"Comparison of Brinell and Rockwell Readings<br />

on Carbon and Alloy Steels, Brasses and Bronze," by<br />

Presented—Exhibition Space Over-Subscribed<br />

R. C. Brumfield, of the materials testing laboratory of<br />

Cooper Union, New York.<br />

"Hardness Testing', by Robert Barry of Barry<br />

Company, Muscatine, la.<br />

The program for the convention is to be:<br />

Monday, September 14<br />

9:30 A.M.—Technical Session. Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

1:00 P.M.—Exposition opens. Registration begins, Public<br />

Auditorium.<br />

2:30 P.M.—Technical Session. Ball Room, Hollenden Hotel.<br />

Tuesday, September 15<br />

9:30 A.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

1:00 P.M.—Exposition opens.<br />

1:30 P.M.—Plant inspection.<br />

2:30 P.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Hollenden Hotel.<br />

9:30 P.M.—Smoker and Annual Frolic, Rainbow Room, Winton<br />

Hotel.<br />

Wednesday, September 16<br />

9:30 A.M.—Annual Meeting of A. S. S. T., Ball Room, Cleveland<br />

Hotel.<br />

10:30 A.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

1:00 P.M.—Exposition opens.<br />

1:30 P.M.—Plant inspection.<br />

2:30 P.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Hollenden Hotel.<br />

9:30 P.M.—Annual Dance, Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

Thursday, September 17<br />

9:30 A.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

10:00 A.M.—Exposition opens.<br />

2:30 P.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Hollenden Hotel.<br />

5:30 P.M.—Exposition closes for the day.<br />

6:30 P.M.—Annual Banquet, Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

Friday, September 18<br />

9:30 A.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Cleveland Hotel.<br />

1:00 P.M.—Exposition opens.<br />

1:30 P.M.—Plant inspection.<br />

2:30 P.M.—Technical Session, Ball Room, Hollenden Hotel.<br />

10:00 P.M.—Exposition closes.<br />

The exposition will be open daily from 1 P.M. to<br />

10 P.M., except Thursday, when it closes at 5:30 P.M.,<br />

to allow delegates to attend the annual banquet that<br />

evening.<br />

At the convention sessions papers on new developments<br />

in steel treating will be read by leading authorities<br />

from many parts of the country.<br />

The society's 29 chapters are <strong>org</strong>anizing "On to<br />

Cleveland" parties with the view in mind of making<br />

the Cleveland convention the largest attended of any<br />

yet held.<br />

Special plans are being made for the entertainment<br />

of visitors to Cleveland, with golf, club parties,<br />

outings, inspection tours and other attractive items<br />

on the program.<br />

The great amount of detail is being worked out by<br />

sub-committees of Clevelanders named by Chairman<br />

Dillard to the end that everything runs smoothly for<br />

all concerned. Heading these committees are the following<br />

chairmen:<br />

Meetings and Papers Committee—E. C, Smith,<br />

Central Steel Company.


August, 1925<br />

Finance Committee—W. C. Bell, Case Hardening<br />

Service Company.<br />

Ladies' Entertainment Committee—H. M. Boylston,<br />

Case School. Vice Chairman, Mrs. H. M. Boylston.<br />

Men's Entertainment Committee—W. F Abel,<br />

2589 Euclid Blvd.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 269<br />

Information Committee—J. V. Emmons, Cleveland<br />

Twist Drill Company.<br />

Transportation Committee—A. H. Frauenthal,<br />

Chandler Motor Company.<br />

Hotels Committee—W. H. White, Atlas Alloy<br />

Steel Corporation.<br />

Plant Inspection Committee—G. J. Allen, Heppenstall<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e & Knife Company, Kirby Bldg.<br />

R a i l r o a d M a s t e r B l a c k s m i t h ' s C o n v e n t i o n<br />

THIS year the twenty-ninth annual convention of<br />

the International Railroad Master Blacksmith's<br />

Association will be held at the Hotel Winton in<br />

Cleveland, Ohio, on August 18th, 19th and 20th. This<br />

association has a membership of some 200 comprising<br />

the master blacksmiths of nearly all the large railroads<br />

in the United States and Canada. Usually between<br />

50 and 60 railroads are represented at the convention.<br />

Each year the association grows in numbers. The<br />

papers presented at their meetings are most interesting<br />

and cover all phases of the blacksmith's art.<br />

The meeting this year is going to be especially<br />

interesting to those desiring information about f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

machinery. One afternoon is to be devoted to a<br />

visit to the Acme Machinery Company plant in Cleveland.<br />

Another afternoon will be an inspection of the<br />

new plant of the Ajax Manufacturing Company at<br />

Euclid, Ohio, just outside of Cleveland. This year's<br />

convention will really be in session four days instead<br />

of the customary three. On Friday, August 21st, the<br />

entire convention will board a special train at Cleveland<br />

and spend the day at Tiffin, Ohio, as guests of<br />

the National Machinery Company. There the blacksmiths,<br />

their families, and all supply men will be given<br />

an advanced showing of a f<strong>org</strong>ing exposition to be<br />

held by the National Machinery Company the following<br />

week. A special train leaving Tiffin at 6:30 p. m.<br />

Friday will bring all back to Cleveland that evening.<br />

In conjunction with the Interational Railroad Master<br />

Blacksmith's Association there is held at the same<br />

time a meeting of the Supply Men's Association. Many<br />

members of this <strong>org</strong>anization hold exhibits at the same<br />

time. An attractive arrangement has been worked<br />

out for the display of exhibits in the Rainbow Room<br />

of the Hotel Winton. Among those exhibiting this<br />

year are:<br />

The Acme Machinery Company.<br />

The Ajax Manufacturing Company.<br />

Anti Borax Compound Company.<br />

Crucible Steel Company of America.<br />

The DeRemer Blatchford Company.<br />

Ewald Iron Company.<br />

Firth-Sterling Steel Company.<br />

"F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating."<br />

Metal & Thermit Corporation.<br />

The National Machinery Company.<br />

Oxweld Railway Service Company.<br />

"Railway Journal."<br />

There is still some space available and anyone interested<br />

in attending this convention and exhibiting<br />

their products should get in touch with the Blacksmiths'<br />

Supply Association, Edwin T. Jackman, Secretary-Treasurer,<br />

710 W. Lake Street, Chicago. A letter<br />

to Mr. Jackman will give you all details in connection<br />

with the convention.<br />

From present indications, the attendance this year<br />

will be larger than ever before and all signs point to a<br />

most successful railroad blacksmiths' convention.<br />

R e p o r t s o n Steels for C u t t i n g T o o l s<br />

VALUABLE reports have recently been completed<br />

by the Cutting Tools Research Committee set up<br />

in Great Britain. In one, Demster Smith, M.B.E.,<br />

and Arthur Leigh describe experiments with lathe tools<br />

on fine cuts and some physical properties of tool steels<br />

and metals operated on. In another, Professor E. G.<br />

Coker, D.Sc, F.R.S., gives some results obtained with<br />

a machine that could be used as a planing machine or<br />

a milling machine for transparent sheets of material,<br />

the latter being so disposed that a polarized beam of<br />

light could be transmitted through them and the<br />

stresses produced by the tools on the work measured<br />

by observations of the color bands.<br />

A special machine was fitted to allow of the operations<br />

described in Professor Coker's report being car-<br />

*London, Eng.<br />

By A. C. BLACKALL*<br />

ried out. In the operation of planing color bands,<br />

similar to those which occur with turning, were found<br />

to spring from or near to the point of the tool. A perfectly<br />

shaped tool produces shavings with brilliant<br />

colors due to overstress, but at the zone of operation<br />

a black patch occurs. One interesting phenomenon<br />

observed was that a planing tool running back after<br />

making a cut is not in contact with the work. This<br />

is especially the case when a rough cut is made. The<br />

shaving removed is thicker than the cut as measured<br />

by the micrometer feed. In the case of a smooth cut<br />

this gap between the tool and the work is small. Experiments<br />

made on brass with tools which are known<br />

to give smooth surfaces showed that no gap occurred.<br />

The phenomenon was, therefore, observed under a<br />

microscope with a magnification of 40. This served<br />

to show that in the cases in which a gap was pro-


270 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

duced, the tool pulled up the metal locally, so that<br />

ruled straight lines on a plate developed bulges under<br />

the tool point. In one case the surface lift on brass<br />

was 0.003 in. and a line 0.008 in. below the cut surface<br />

was lifted 0.001 in., while a similar line 0.024 in. below<br />

the surface was lifted 0.0005 in. Further experiments<br />

showed that in the absence of lubricant the surface<br />

distortion in front of the tool is such that there is a<br />

demarcation between the overstressed region and that<br />

which only suffers elastic deformation. This boundary<br />

curve partly falls below the line of the cut. The<br />

action is, however, markedly different when only a<br />

trace of lubricant is present. The boundary curve is<br />

then always above the line of the cut, and this must<br />

be associated with the ease with which a smooth surface<br />

is rendered possible by means of a lubricant.<br />

Here the actions are remarkably different from<br />

those associated with planing. In the case of milling<br />

the shaving is not uniform, owing to the fact that the<br />

tooth-point describes in general an oblate trochoidal<br />

curve, due to the combined action of the rotation and<br />

feed. Such cutters produce results which are in part<br />

influenced by the presence of neighboring cutters.<br />

With a single cutter the area in front of the cutter is<br />

in compression, while that to the rear of the tool is in<br />

tension. With two or more cutters in action near to<br />

each other there is, in general, a region between two<br />

teeth in which the pull of one tooth is neutralized by<br />

the push of the one advancing behind it. This phenomenon<br />

is described and discussed in some detail.<br />

A number of observations were made in which three<br />

cutter teeth were engaged simultaneously. The progressive<br />

advance of the place of zero stress as the cut<br />

proceeds was very marked.<br />

It would seem that the photo-elastic method of investigating<br />

the action of cutting tools has reached a<br />

stage which indicates reasonable prospect of carrying<br />

out fundamental investigations which will have for<br />

their object the measurement of stress in both work<br />

and tool. LTp to the present it has been found impossible<br />

to use a glass tool as a transparent material in<br />

which to determine the internal stresses. Alternatively<br />

two tools, one of steel and the other of hard<br />

nitro-cellulose or bakelite of precisely similar shape,<br />

may be used. A convenient cut is made with the steel<br />

tool, which is then suddenly stopped and exactly replaced<br />

by its transparent counterpart, this being advanced<br />

until it is acting as far as possible in the same<br />

manner as the steel tool, and from this the actual distribution<br />

may be found by increasing all stresses in<br />

the ratio of the total forces exerted.<br />

But photo-elastic laws can hardly be applied with<br />

accuracy in cases in which very high stresses are involved.<br />

It would, therefore, seem necessary to gain<br />

more accurate knowdedge of these laws, and this subject<br />

is engaging attention at the present time.<br />

In the report of Dempster Smith and Arthur<br />

Leigh it is stated that a large number of investigations<br />

have been made with metal-cutting tools to determine<br />

how the durability of the tools is affected by<br />

changes in the depth of the cut, traverse, cutting<br />

speed, cutting angle, section of the tool steel, contour<br />

of the cutting edge, and the material operated upon.<br />

In the main the tests were made with single cutting<br />

edged tools of the lathe type on comparatively coarse<br />

cuts, and were undertaken with the object of finding<br />

the most economical cutting speeds for use in the<br />

workshops.<br />

August, 1925<br />

While the speed-durability curves for heavy cuts<br />

show that the durability decreases continuously as<br />

the speed advances, E. G. Herbert has shown that for<br />

light cuts the durability increases with the speed up<br />

to a maximum, declines and increases again to a second<br />

maximum, and finally falls off at higher speeds.<br />

The experiments were made on the Herbert tooltesting<br />

machine, the work taking the form of a tube<br />

rotated against the tool held in a special vice. The<br />

point of the tool was free, and only the cutting edge<br />

beyond the point was in contact with the tube, and<br />

on account of these special conditions the results have<br />

been the subject of controversy. To verify the irregular<br />

durability when taking very fine cuts at different<br />

speeds it was decided to carry out a series of trials in<br />

an ordinary lathe with a cut 0.0625 in. deep and 0.0013<br />

in. traverse, these dimensions approximating closely<br />

to those of Mr. Herbert.<br />

Results having been advanced to indicate that the<br />

vertical force of a compact shaving of a given depth<br />

of cut and traverse remains practically constant at all<br />

speeds, it was thought that a certain percentage increase<br />

of the initial force would afford a suitable measure<br />

of durability, and for the purpose of measuring<br />

the cutting force while cutting progressed a special<br />

dynamometer was designed and fitted to the turret<br />

of an ordinary No. 4 Herbert combination lathe. With<br />

such extremely light cuts the force for a given cut was<br />

found not to remain quite constant at all speeds, but<br />

by adopting a percentage increase of the initial force<br />

this small variation did not appreciably affect the<br />

standard. With a 15 per cent increase 'the cutting<br />

edge of the tool was seriously injured, while with a 5<br />

per cent increase it was unimpaired. A 10 per cent<br />

increase corresponded with the stage at which the<br />

operator sought to withdraw the tool for regrinding,<br />

and was taken as the measure of durability. The 10<br />

per cent increase in the initial vertical force corresponded<br />

approximately to a 15/10,000 in. wear of cutting<br />

edge, and bore a distinct relation to the breakdown<br />

point of the tool.<br />

Corrosion of Outdoor Equipment<br />

Protection of oil and gas field equipment against<br />

corrosion forms the subject of a book of 134 pages,<br />

issued by the United States Bureau of Mines as Bulletin<br />

No. 233. Copies may be obtained from the<br />

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing<br />

Office, Washington, at 35c each.<br />

While the details of the bulletin are based upon<br />

the one limited field of activity, the principles involved<br />

affect all outdoor structure of iron and steel. Nearly<br />

half of the book is devoted to methods of combating<br />

corrosion under the varying circumstances of use. It<br />

is stated that no panacea for corrosion troubles has<br />

yet been found, but that excessive losses from this<br />

source can be diminished by systematic effort. A list<br />

of recommendations follows, for use in a series of<br />

conditions of application.<br />

Performance, construction, service, sacisfaction —<br />

are the watchwords emphasized in the new folder<br />

issued by the Chicago Flexible Shaft Company.<br />

The Gray & Prior Machine Company, Worthington<br />

Pump & Machine Corporation, and Fred Heinzleman<br />

have contributed testimonials to their favorable experiences<br />

with Stewart furnaces.


August, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 271<br />

E q u i p m e n t F o r H e a t T r e a t i n g T o o l P a r t s<br />

This Paper Describes the Layout and Heat Treating Equipment<br />

Which Is Being Used by One of the Biggest Pro­<br />

ducers of Semi-Automatic Lathe Tools<br />

By D. M. GURNEYf<br />

FROM a casual observation of machine tools in<br />

general, it would seem that a considerable amount<br />

of heat treating is necessary in their production.<br />

Upon careful analysis of the situation it will be seen<br />

that while there are many intricate parts which do<br />

require heat treatment, the main structural parts consist<br />

of castings which are not heat treated. With<br />

this point in mind, it will be appreciated that an exceedingly<br />

large heat treating department is not necessary<br />

in the production of machine tools, although a well<br />

<strong>org</strong>anized and laid out plant capable of taking care<br />

of an even flow of material is essential. This has been<br />

accomplished to a nicety in the plant of the Warner<br />

& Swasey Company of Cleveland.<br />

There are many types and sizes of cutting tools,<br />

jigs, fixtures and intricate parts combined in finished<br />

machine tools as manufactured today. Many of these<br />

large tools are built upon standard lines, but are supplied<br />

with special equipment to take care of the needs<br />

of the individual purchase. While it is nearly impossible<br />

to tabulate all of the parts which are heat treated<br />

in this plant, the following list will give a fair idea<br />

of the materials which are daily hardened in this small<br />

but amply large heat treating department.<br />

spring collets, gear.-, of all types, high speed cutters.<br />

pilot bars, tool holders, screws of all types, carbon<br />

steel cutters, pinions, shafts, rods, rolls, pins, carburizing<br />

and oil quenching alloy steels, washers, nuts, boring<br />

bars, studs of all types, springs, tool posts,<br />

wrenches, etc.<br />

Layout of Heat Treating Shop.<br />

The heat department is housed in a separate brick<br />

hip-roof mill building which is adjacent to the general<br />

assembly floor. The layout of this heat treating shop<br />

is shown in the floor plan. Fig. 1. This unit is 100<br />

feet long and 45 feet wide. Three-quarters of this<br />

space is devoted to heat treating equipment, while<br />

the balance is devoted to a small f<strong>org</strong>e shop.<br />

Furnace equipment consist of the following:<br />

Floor Space, In. Oven Size, In.<br />

2—Carburizing furnaces 124 x 70 72 x 42 x 22<br />

4—Carburizing and hardening furnaces<br />

98 x 55<br />

4—Hardening furnaces 76 x 53<br />

Materials Heat Treated.<br />

Materials heat treated include such items as bushings<br />

and bolts of all types, cams, collars, centers,<br />

1—High speed steel furnace with<br />

preheater<br />

1—Double lead pot<br />

1—Single lead pot<br />

1—Nitrate of soda tempering bath<br />

66 x 30<br />

furnace<br />

•Reprinted from the July issue, Transactions of the<br />

1—Cyanide<br />

Amer­<br />

hardening and heating<br />

ican Society for Steel Treating.<br />

furnace<br />

•(•Metallurgist, The Warner & Swasey Co., Cleveland. Ohio.<br />

1—Hot slushing solution bath<br />

1—Hot soda bath<br />

HI<br />

1—Electric tempering furnace<br />

ryiTIc?//<br />

/FlJita/ar /fa/il<br />

\wir\ (a/ j — CiiaiM (ai J \wih\ (ai) — Lir/rA<br />

/Flt/FCa.''rrF4/o/r'jbr 9-JH3<br />

\ v<br />

/na'Fca/cv<br />

I I<br />

Carburizing<br />

I I<br />

Compouna<br />

a so<br />

/6 15 ,'J /7 //<br />

Carbt/rizing<br />

| Box.<br />

'f Storage<br />

Bins<br />

Coolma Hood<br />

A?/<br />

'r5oda\rtfJ<br />

y^yssii/s<br />

tB7<br />

% Saace<br />

47-0<br />

tl«.<br />

Fur<br />

-J3&-<br />

_lV&£1-<br />

•fv/ mam Desk<br />

Mipec/ors Desx<br />

\('/£>cA' t<br />

fynviied' in/or/<br />

^2^^ZZMffi^^^MM2Z^MmSm^^^^^2W%. '" '' " •^;^7-^77«y^MM<br />

FIG. 1—Floor plan of heat treating department.<br />

48 x 27 x 19<br />

36 x 24 x 12<br />

14 x 8 x 4<br />

a .<br />

1<br />

•<br />


271<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

FIG. 2—This photograph shows six carburizing and hardening furnaces as<br />

well as the quenching tanks, hoists and indicating and recording<br />

pyrometer system. It will be observed that the operator is charging a<br />

carburizing box in a furnace from the portable steel table. The hoods<br />

and ventilating system are clearly shown.<br />

operations may be continued by opening a<br />

large valve in the gas main, which is located<br />

in the heat treating room. The two large<br />

carburizing furnaces (Nos. 1-2 and 3-4) are<br />

each equipped with 12 gas burners (6 on<br />

each side) and 4 oil burners (2 on each end).<br />

These furnaces are of the under-fired type.<br />

The 4 smaller carburizing furnaces (Nos. 5,<br />

t>. 7 and 8) are each equipped with 8 gas<br />

burners (4 on each side) and 2 oil burners<br />

(1 on each side). aA.11 of the other furnaces<br />

in the heat treating room are equipped in<br />

the same manner with gas and oil burners,<br />

with twice as many gas burners as there<br />

are oil burners.<br />

Each furnace is equipped with a large<br />

hood which carries off smoke, heat, excess<br />

gas and fumes which otherwise would be<br />

diffused into the hardening room. Each<br />

of these hoods is supplied with a large ventilator<br />

pipe which extends to a monitor<br />

mounted on the roof. (Figs. 2, 3, and 4).<br />

In addition there is one large hood over the<br />

carburizing-box cooling-table. Eleven of<br />

these hoods, ventilator pipes and monitors,<br />

comprise the ventilating equipment of this<br />

hardening room.<br />

All of the furnaces are equipped with one or more<br />

thermocouples. The number on each furnace (Fig. 1)<br />

designates not only the serial number of the furnace,<br />

but also the number of the thermocouples in the furnace.<br />

For example, furnace No. 3-4 contains thermocouple<br />

No. 3 and thermocouple No. 4, while furnace<br />

August, 1925<br />

Each furnace is equipped with both oil and gas No. S contains thermocouple No. 5. The number of<br />

burners. Due to the constantly increasing cost of each thermocouple corresponds to the respective sta­<br />

natural t,nd city gas, these furnaces are heated almost tion-number on the 8-station recorder or multiple-sta­<br />

entirely with fuel oil, gas being used only in the case tion indicator. The temperature of thermocouples 1<br />

of emergencies. In case of trouble with the oil supply, to 8 are recorded on the 8-station recorder, while temperature<br />

of the other thermocouples is indicated<br />

on the multiple-point indicator. The<br />

recorder and indicator are conveniently located<br />

in the center aisle so that they may be<br />

i<br />

• >. il readily observed byr operators working on<br />

either line of furnaces. The instruments<br />

_ 1 M M<br />

are mounted on springs and set on concrete<br />

piers which extend 3 feet underground. This<br />

method eliminates vibration from the f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

f r - •• -'ii r:<br />

shop and railroad.<br />

•^ — Carburizing. il"<br />

The procedure followed out in this plant<br />

^I^BV^H in the carburizing of parts has been well<br />

planned. The empty carburizing boxes are<br />

placed on a portable steel table which is so<br />

^F^^E i_ _ ^^ ^l^^^^fitu^^^l ***^^jTy<br />

Iff S^s ~^B<br />

"w^*iB58U


August, 1925<br />

and heating. For the most part, this plant has standardized<br />

on cast steel boxes.<br />

The storage bin for the carburizing compound has<br />

been divided into five compartments. Each compartment<br />

contains carburizing material which has been<br />

used from one to four times. Bin No. 1<br />

contains new material; bin No. 2 contains<br />

material which has been used only once;<br />

bin No. 3 contains material which has been<br />

heated two times; bin No. 4 contains material<br />

which has been heated three times;<br />

and bin No. 5 contains material which has<br />

been heated four times. Carburizing material<br />

which has been heated more than<br />

four times is discarded. Certain combinations<br />

of these different materials are used<br />

according to the requirements of the parts<br />

which are to be carburized.<br />

After the boxes are properly packed<br />

and the covers luted on, the entire table is<br />

then transported to the furnace in which<br />

they are to be heated. The elevating truck<br />

is released and the height of the table then<br />

corresponds to the height of the furnace<br />

hearth (Fig. 2). The boxes are then<br />

charged into the furnace by means of a<br />

charging truck. Fig. 2 shows an operator<br />

charging a box into a furnace. The practice<br />

in this plant is to carbttrize at 1650<br />

deg. F. for the time which is necessary<br />

to obtain the desired depth of case.<br />

After the pieces have been carburized<br />

quired length of time, they are taken out<br />

nace and are either quenched directly or<br />

for the reof<br />

the furallowed<br />

to<br />

cool to room temperature, after which they are re-<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Meat Treating<br />

FIG. A—Photograph showing operator packing a carburizing box. It will<br />

be observed that the box is on one of the portable steel tables. The<br />

cooling hood may be seen on the right and the carburizing compound<br />

bins on the left.<br />

heated for hardening. In the event that the pieces<br />

are to be cooled in the boxes, they are transported to<br />

the cooling hood which is shown in Fig. 4 and are<br />

allowed to remain there until cold. The dissipated<br />

heat from these cooling boxes is carried off through<br />

the large ventilating pipe. In handling the larger<br />

boxes a small jib-crane is provided; otherwise all<br />

of the heat treated material which is handled in<br />

this plant is of such a weight and character that it<br />

can readily be handled by hand or with trucks.<br />

FIG. 5—Photograph of cooling coils and circulating pump used in<br />

maintaining quenching oil at uniform temperature.<br />

Quenching Equipment.<br />

Eight quenching tanks are installed between the<br />

two main rows of furnaces. They are alternately arranged,<br />

oil and water, and are placed in such<br />

a manner that they serve both rows of furnaces.<br />

All of these quenching tanks are set<br />

down into the floor with approximately two<br />

feet extending above the floor level. See Fig.<br />

6. The two tanks opposite the large carburizing<br />

furnaces are 8 feet deep. The next four<br />

tanks are 5 feet deep and the last two are 3<br />

feet deep. Th quenching system being of the<br />

circulating type, the tanks are provided with<br />

over-flow pipes for conducting the quenching<br />

media back into the cooling coils. The tanks<br />

are filled to within 12 inches of the top.<br />

Over each tank is mounted an air hoist<br />

having a piston length equivalent to the<br />

depth of the tank. A wire basket is fastened<br />

to the end of this piston into which the heated<br />

pieces to be hardened are placed. When<br />

quenching heated pieces, this air hoist is set<br />

into operation and the basket is caused to<br />

move up and down in the quenching medium.<br />

These may be clearly seen in Fig. 2. A reversing<br />

mechanism has been provided on<br />

each of these hoists so that they may be auto­<br />

matically' reversed, until such time as the<br />

operator shuts off the air. This mechanism<br />

provides an excellent method of agitating the<br />

quenching medium, although the oil and<br />

water is in constant circulation by means of<br />

a circulating pump which circulates the oil through a<br />

cooling coil. This cooling coil was an adoption from<br />

a refrigerating machine used in the production of<br />

manufactured ice. It has since been commercially<br />

marketed for use for a cooling system in heat treat-


ing plants. This cooling coil is shown in Fig. 5.<br />

The quenching oil (27 barrels) is stored in a large<br />

tank placed underground and in line with the quenching<br />

tanks. The overflow from the quenching tanks<br />

returns to the storage tank, and in turn is circulated<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

August, 1925<br />

High Speed Steel Hardening.<br />

The hardening of high speed steel tools is accomplished<br />

by means of the well known type of preheating<br />

oil-fired muffle furnace. The quenching of tools<br />

made of high speed steel is usually done in a small<br />

Beam carry/nt? a/r /iY7j<br />

sc/pfiLiir/ea' in/ raxif /rtrss<br />

FIG. 6—Sketch showing elevation of quenching tank system of air hoists and baskets.<br />

through the water-cooled cooling coils. City water<br />

flows through inner pipes which are surrounded by<br />

larger pipes through which the quenching oil flows.<br />

The temperature of the oil is regulated by the rapidity<br />

of its flow through the system.<br />

The fuel oil for the furnaces is pumped by means<br />

of a rotary pump placed at a point near the oil storage<br />

tank which is located adjacent to a railroad siding and<br />

several hundred feet from the heat treatment department.<br />

An ingenious device has been provided for the<br />

automatic closing down of the pump in the case of<br />

accident or unexpected interruption of the combustion<br />

air. This device is a magnetically operated one which<br />

has proven very efficient and was invented by the<br />

electrical engineer of this company.<br />

The combustion air is supplied by a large rotary<br />

blower supplying air at 6 to 8 ounces of pressure. One<br />

of these blowers is installed in the heat treating room<br />

and a second auxiliary blower is installed in the power<br />

plant which is located close by.<br />

( )ne of the unique features of this plant is that<br />

all of the wiring, pipe lines and drains, have been<br />

placed in conduits under the floor. The conduits are<br />

accessible, being simply covered by corrugated steel<br />

flooring.<br />

Tempering.<br />

The tempering of hardened parts is accomplished<br />

bv several methods. This plant is provided with oil<br />

tempering baths, salt tempering baths, lead baths and<br />

electric resistance oven furnaces as shown in Fig. 3.<br />

A number of the parts, after tempering, are placed<br />

in a bath of grease. This bath is maintained at about<br />

250 deg. F.; and the parts are immersed for a few<br />

minutes. When they are removed, a thin film of<br />

grease solidifies which protects steel from corrosion.<br />

tank of oil which is aranged in a similar manner to the<br />

air hoist quenching tanks previously described, but<br />

which is operated by hand.<br />

Although this plant was designed a number of<br />

years ago, it is doubtful whether many improvements<br />

could be made in the layout or facilities for heat treating<br />

parts for the master tools of industry.<br />

Heat Treatment Changes Properties of Glass<br />

Results of investigations which have been carried<br />

on for the past two years by the Bureau of Standards,<br />

Department of Commerce, show that by changing<br />

the heat treatment of glass during the process of<br />

manufacture, the density and refractivity may be materially<br />

altered, and other properties can be greatly<br />

changed.<br />

Since the physical properties of glass are subject<br />

to changes of considerable magnitude during the final<br />

stages of production, even when the composition and<br />

methods of melting are carefully controlled, these results<br />

will prove valuable in many problems in the<br />

manufacture of both optical and commercial glasses.<br />

They should aid in preventing many losses heretofore<br />

unavoidable, and make it possible to increase the<br />

strength and durability of such articles as bottles, window<br />

glass, and glazed and enameled wares.<br />

Nickel coatings used on iron and steel parts of<br />

automobiles should be at least 0.001 in. "thick, according<br />

to findings of the Bureau of Standards, Washington.<br />

A thinner film will make a finish which will not<br />

be durable, because the thinner coating is almost invariably<br />

porous. It was found that the protective<br />

value of the coating can be materially increased by<br />

adding thickness up to the figure recommended by the<br />

bureau.


August, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

W h y H a r d C h i l l e d R o l l s B e c o m e R o u g h<br />

Careful Warming of Rolls and Judicious Use of Water Will Elimi­<br />

nate Many Failures—Uniformity of Roll Tempera­<br />

IF on one mill having a rough bottom roll, the production<br />

totals 300 pairs in 8 hours, on an order<br />

calling for 30 — gauge 20-9/16 X 28^ X 28s»<br />

X 61-11/16 (a 3-cut order), bottom sheets beingrough,<br />

there will result 300 X 3 or 900 rough sheets;<br />

in three turns there will therefore be 2,700 rough<br />

sheets for which roller receives the same payment as<br />

for clean sheets.<br />

These 2,700 rough sheets are* then ca/rried on<br />

through the identical procedure as the clean, that is<br />

—opened, pickled, annealed, cold rolled, wdiite pickled<br />

and delivered to the Tinning Department; there they<br />

are given a coat of tin, sent to the assorting room<br />

where the rough sheets are rejected. Attempts are<br />

often made to overcome this original roughness by<br />

extra dipping but the percentage of recovery is extremely<br />

small, a sheet roughened at the hot mills remains<br />

a rough reject.<br />

The manufacturer's only recourse is to class such<br />

sheets as "seconds" and offer them for $2.50 per box<br />

of 112 sheets to the jobbers instead of securing the<br />

price of $7.50 per box which is paid for prime clear<br />

sheets.<br />

On the above basis a plant of 32 hot mills operating<br />

with rough bottom rolls stands a total loss of<br />

86,400 sheets per 24 hours' production. Calculated on<br />

a 6 days' schedule, such a plant loses 518,400 rough<br />

sheets per week.<br />

Admitting the foregoing, is such costly and wasteful<br />

practice justifiable? And if not, what methods<br />

should be employed to improve the practice?<br />

Roll-turning is of course resorted to, but each time<br />

a roll is turned more of the chilled surface is turned<br />

off and the roll is weakened in its resistance to further<br />

roughening influence. The grey iron comes out<br />

more freely, and the mill requires closer supervision<br />

from the roller. There is a strong difference of opinion<br />

among rollers as to whether a hard chilled tin<br />

mill roll is easier to keep clean than a medium chilled<br />

roll. In my opinion, the harder the surface the better<br />

the performance; it is primarily a question of the<br />

"starting" or "warming-up" turn; keep a hard surfaced<br />

roll clean at the start and it remains clean all<br />

week; let it become rough early, and nothing remains<br />

but a roll change. Hard chilled rolls break<br />

more frequently and will not stand the abuse that<br />

medium chilled rolls will.<br />

Experience has shown that the roller in charge of<br />

the mill is usually more at fault for rough rolls, whatever<br />

the age of the roll, or however many times the<br />

rolls have been turned. He unnecessarily works the<br />

rolls "too full", causing swelling at the middle of the<br />

roll, creating a bearing directly in the center of both<br />

rolls. One roll slides and grinds upon the other at<br />

this "bearing point" and causes the birth of a rib of<br />

•Woodlawn, Pa.<br />

ture Essential to Successful Operation<br />

By HAROLD HARRIS*<br />

275<br />

roughness at the middle of the bottom roll. This<br />

roughness shows up about the third heat of narrowiron<br />

(say 20-in.).<br />

The roller himself aggravates this rough condition<br />

by ordering the pair-heater or sheet-heater to keep his<br />

iron colder. Instead of using unlimited water on the<br />

roll-necks, the roller would improve matters by cutting<br />

off all water, allowing the heat in the rolls to<br />

spread throughout the entire roll surface and body.<br />

When the widest orders that the mill will roll are<br />

available the water can then be turned on.<br />

When a mill is operated full in an over-heated,<br />

over-expanded condition, with the same amount of<br />

steam blowing on the working roll-surfaces as the<br />

volume of water running on the necks of the rolls<br />

there is a strong tendency to magnify the original<br />

roughness.<br />

A good formula to follow would be like this:<br />

"In warming up a mill at the start, keep the water<br />

off the necks of the rolls as much as possible on a<br />

warming up turn until you get up to the widest orders<br />

that can be worked on your mill. Then when you see<br />

you have to use water, use it very sparingly, just<br />

dribbling on the neck, not flooding; thereby doing<br />

this you keep the necks of rolls warm, not cold. This<br />

method allows the heat to spread uniformly through<br />

the body and over the roll surfaces evenly distributed.<br />

The rolls do not become full or get together and you<br />

are not forcing your rolls. Do not allow your rolls<br />

to become full or overexpanded at any time and you<br />

will have no trouble with roughness on roll or in<br />

production in the first 48 hours of operation, and you<br />

will be in control of the surfaces of your roll, you<br />

have it clean, and save yourself much polishing. You<br />

are giving yrour rolls a chance and a square deal, also<br />

a square deal to yourself and the management and<br />

company, as well as a clean production. A-Vlways remember<br />

full, over expanded, over heated sheet and<br />

tin mill rolls create rough rolls."<br />

And the following general rules will govern the<br />

important questions of expansion and contraction:<br />

More rolls are broken in the sheet and tin mills bv<br />

working them in an over heated, over expanded condition<br />

than were ever broken from being worked in<br />

a hollow condition or any other cause in the history<br />

of this trade. Keep a uniform heat in your rolls, and<br />

whatever you do, watch the color of your rolls while<br />

working.<br />

When you enter a pack of sheets in your rolls, and<br />

your roll surface shows a uniform dark blue color and<br />

shows up the shape of the hot pack of sheets after<br />

passing through the rolls where the steel has come in<br />

contact with the rolls, changes in color from a dark<br />

blue to a light golden or copper color, you will knowthen<br />

that you have your rolls in a uniformly heated<br />

condition and you are safe from roll breakage.


_'/(. F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating August, 1925<br />

When your bottom roll is rough, with ribs of<br />

roughness or just rough, you will know why your<br />

iron twists and pinches on the first pass through the<br />

rolls though you have your rolls in the proper hollow<br />

condition during that heat. The explanation is<br />

this: The bottom roll, being rough like a file, pulls<br />

the bottom sheets away from the others in the pack<br />

and pinches bottom sheet, and as long as it is rough<br />

you will have this trouble of pinching and twisting<br />

the iron; as soon as you get the bottom roll clean<br />

again the trouble ceases entirely.<br />

Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing of Connecting Rods<br />

A talk on modern production methods, with especial<br />

reference to drop f<strong>org</strong>ing of connecting rods, was<br />

given by Dr. Schweissguth at a meeting of the Association<br />

of German Production Engineers, held at<br />

Leipsic last March.<br />

The necessary production of f<strong>org</strong>ings can only be<br />

attained by the process of f<strong>org</strong>ing in dies, as they<br />

cannot be turned out under the hammer in the ordinary<br />

way. As the production of f<strong>org</strong>ing in dies calls<br />

for extensive specialization of equipment and standardization<br />

of design, all machine parts must come<br />

from the f<strong>org</strong>ing department sufficiently accurate so<br />

that onlv verv little stock needs to be removed.<br />

For the quantity production of connecting rod f<strong>org</strong>ing blanks,<br />

billets are rolled to profile. (Left)—Connecting rod f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed by the old process. (Center)—Connecting rod<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing f<strong>org</strong>ed by the new process. (Right)—Rolled connecting<br />

rod section.<br />

In quantity production we have to do with millions<br />

of parts produced year after year with the same<br />

precision in the same machine, the press or hammer<br />

must be suited to the f<strong>org</strong>ings, and the same anplies<br />

to the furnace. In such a drop f<strong>org</strong>ing establishment<br />

there is necessarily a large number of groups which<br />

turn out f<strong>org</strong>ings independently. A modern f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

must be free of smoke, dust and floating ashes, hence<br />

the furnaces must be heated with either oil or gas.<br />

All f<strong>org</strong>ing is done in dies and, to save the dies<br />

and prevent their undue heating, only a single blow<br />

of the hammer or one stroke of the press should be<br />

used with the piece in one die. The shape of the<br />

dies used successively should gradually approach the<br />

form and dimensions of the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing. Dies<br />

are made by means of automatic die-sinking machines<br />

or copying machines. With this the die is milled, but<br />

not from the full block, the approximate form of the<br />

die being pressed into the block while at red heat.<br />

Dies produced in this way are appreciably more durable<br />

than those machined out of the solid block.<br />

Wherever possible the rolling mill should take into<br />

consideration the form of the blanks required, the<br />

steel blocks or billets being rolled to the profile of<br />

the blanks, and individual blanks sawed off. This is<br />

illustrated by the example of an automobile engine<br />

connecting rod of wfhich drawings are reproduced<br />

herewith.<br />

For raising the blanks to the f<strong>org</strong>ing temperature,<br />

use can be made to advantage of a vertical rotary<br />

furnace, which can be opeated at very high temperatures.<br />

It should have from six to ten doors on the<br />

circumference and preferably be power-operated.<br />

High thermal efficiency is of less importance than<br />

the highest possible heating capacity.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing of very complicated form can be made Infirst<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing parts separately and then welding them<br />

together by the fuse-welding process. This process<br />

has the advantages that no impurities can get into the<br />

weld and reduce the strength of the part.<br />

Best Corp. Acquires Dempsey Furnace Co.<br />

The W. N. Best Corporation, 11 Broadway, New<br />

York, pioneer manufactures of oil burners and oil<br />

burning furnaces, announce the purchase of the Dempsey<br />

Furnace Company, Jersey City, N. J. The combined<br />

furnace business of the two companies will be<br />

operated as the Dempsey Furnace Division of the<br />

W N. Best Corporation, and will be carried on under<br />

the pergonal direction of Mr. H. B. Dempsey.<br />

Mr. Dempsey has had 20 years of practical experience<br />

in the design and manufacture of industrial<br />

furnaces for heat treating, annealing, hardening, carbonizing,<br />

tempering, f<strong>org</strong>ing, welding, galvanizing,<br />

smelting, rivet, angle, plate and bolt heating.<br />

With the addition of the well known Dempsey line<br />

of standardized industrial furnaces to the engineering<br />

and manufacturing facilities of the W. N. Best Corporation,<br />

the scope of the field covered and the ability<br />

to render a more complete service in every phase of<br />

industrial oil burning is increased to the maximum.<br />

The W. N. Best Corporation has just completed its<br />

thirty-fifth year in the liquid fuel business.<br />

Takes Over Gear Plant<br />

Transue-Williams Steel F<strong>org</strong>ing Corporation has<br />

completed negotiations by which it has acquired possession<br />

of the Weldless Rolled Ring Company of<br />

Cleveland. This will be made a department of the<br />

larger company. S. V. Hunnings, president of the<br />

Cleveland company, will be head of the new department.<br />

Operations will be started in August, the product<br />

being ring and drive gears and other circular f<strong>org</strong>ings.


August, 1925<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

F a t i g u e o f M e t a l s B y D i r e c t<br />

•X-<br />

S t r e s s<br />

This Paper Discusses an Improved Apparatus for Direct Stress<br />

Fatigue Testing—Endurance Limits Compared with<br />

T H E elastic limit in tension has been the criterion<br />

governing the dimensions of machine parts regardless<br />

of the nature of the stresses imposed—<br />

that is, whether they be live or dead loads. For a<br />

structure under a dead load or one subjected to stresses<br />

which are varied or reversed but a few times during<br />

the life of the structure, the elastic limit in tension is<br />

the determining factor in design.<br />

For machine parts which must endure millions of<br />

reversals of stress, however, the endurance limit is<br />

the important physical property. It is a limiting stress<br />

below which a metal may be stressed indefinitely<br />

without fracture.<br />

Up to the present time the fatigue properties of<br />

metals have been obtained principally by the bending<br />

type of test. The good feature of this test is that it<br />

is easy to make. There are certain limitations in this<br />

test, however, which make tests under other types of<br />

stress, such as cycles of tension-compression, imperative.<br />

The limitations of the bending type of test are<br />

these:<br />

a. We are held to a stress cycle of equal plus<br />

and minus values — the top of the specimen being in<br />

tension and the bottom in compression to the same<br />

extent. Various ratios of these stresses occur in practice<br />

and a study of them is important.<br />

b. If the proportional limit of the material is below<br />

the endurance limit, the beam formulae for stress<br />

do not hold true since we no longer have a straight<br />

line relation between stress and strain. If endurance<br />

limits are based upon such tests they are open to<br />

criticism.<br />

c. Assuming that the proportional limit of the<br />

material is above the endurance limit and that the<br />

straight line relation between stress and strain does<br />

hold, we are overstressing the outer fibers of the test<br />

piece while the inner part may become strengthened<br />

by stressing it just below the endurance limit.<br />

These doubtful points associated with the bending<br />

type of test are not present in the direct stress tests<br />

in which the whole area is subjected to an accurately<br />

known stress. The difficulty encountered in this test<br />

has been in obtaining a purely axial load. The writer<br />

has succeeded in designing a new type of alignment<br />

seat and special test piece grips which have overcome<br />

this difficulty. Comparative tests on the direct and<br />

flexural types have shown that there is good agreement<br />

between the two methods. Therefore we are<br />

justified in using the easier bending test to obtain endurance<br />

limits if the proportional limit is above the<br />

Those Resulting from Flexural Stresses<br />

By PAUL L. IRWINf<br />

endurance limit and where the endurance limit under<br />

complete stress reversal is sufficient.<br />

Description of Machine.<br />

The machine used for obtaining the endurance<br />

limits in direct stress was that designed by B. P.<br />

Haigh and made by Bruntons. In this machine the<br />

test specimen is subjected to a tensile and compressive<br />

stress alternating at 2,000 cycles per minute. The<br />

upper end of the test specimen is held stationary<br />

while the lower end is threaded into a cross-head.<br />

This cross-head is constrained to move in an axial<br />

direction relative to the test piece. The motive power<br />

is supplied by an armature which is attached to the<br />

cross-head and which moves through a small air gap<br />

between two fixed magnets. The machine was supplied<br />

with threaded bushings in the head and crosshead<br />

into which the test specimen could be screwed.<br />

It is evident that the center line of the head, the axis<br />

of the specimen and the line of motion of the crosshead<br />

must all lie in the same straight line if the test<br />

specimen is to be subjected to an axial load. Preliminary<br />

tests with a Marten's extensometer showed<br />

that due to the grips being non-adjustable, consider-<br />

FIG. 1—New form of test specimen.<br />

able bending stresses could occur in the test speci<br />

men. Alignment seats and test-piece grips were designed<br />

to correct this condition. Before these are discussed<br />

it is necessary to say something about the type<br />

of test specimen employed.<br />

Test Specimen for Direct Stress.<br />

In this type of machine the total range of load is<br />

2,700 lb. A specimen subjected to equal tensile and<br />

compressive stresses is impressed with a load of half<br />

this value, or 1350 lb. For small loads, certain discrepancies<br />

occur in the magnetic characteristics and<br />

it is necessary to work on the upper two-thirds of the<br />

load scale in order to obtain reliable results. This<br />

makes it necessary to have different sizes of test speci­<br />

*A paper presented at the twenty-eighth annual meeting mens in order to test materials varying widely in en­<br />

of the American Society for Testing Materials, Atlantic Citv, durance limit values.<br />

N. J., June 26, 192S.<br />

The diameter at the minimum section was varied<br />

tResearch Department, Westinghouse Electric & Manufac­<br />

for different materials as follows:<br />

turing Co., East Pittsburgh, Pa.


278 r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Minimum<br />

Material Diameter, Area,<br />

In. Sq. In.<br />

Low-carbon steel 0.226 0.040<br />

Medium-carbon steel 0.196 0.030<br />

Chrome-nickel steel 0.160 0.020<br />

Manganese bronze 0.253 0.050<br />

Cast iron 0.253 0.050<br />

It was furthermore thought desirable to change the<br />

design of the te>t specimen in order to facilitate assembly,<br />

avoiding any stress concentration on the central<br />

portion and still retaining a certain amount of<br />

rigidity in order to withstand the compressive loads.<br />

In order to fulfill these requirements the original type<br />

of specimen, with threaded ends and reduced section,<br />

was modified to that shown in Fig. 1. The test specimen<br />

between the heads i> formed by swinging the<br />

cutting tool on a 7?«-in. radius. Fracture always occurs<br />

in the central section of the specimen, although<br />

the stress is not concentrated.<br />

New Alignment Seats and Grips.<br />

In the new arrangement, ball-and-socket alignment<br />

seats were embodied to allow freedom of the<br />

test piece from bending stresses. Having assumed<br />

an unstrained position, the balls are locked against<br />

the seats by a half turn of a nut.<br />

On account of the difficult}- encountered in the insertion<br />

of a threaded test specimen and the consequent<br />

probability of overstrain of same, the button-head type<br />

of test piece was designed in conjunction with the<br />

grips which are .screwed permanently into the ball<br />

August, 1925<br />

joints. A few turns of a nut lock the button heads<br />

in the grips. The grips are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.<br />

These grips lock the test specimen against vibration,<br />

give a self-centering fastening to ensure concentricity<br />

between ball joint and axis of test specimen, give<br />

rapidity in insertion of test specimen and prevent<br />

lateral deflection of the specimen. The use of such<br />

grips has proved satisfactory and a fractured test<br />

specimen may be removed and a new specimen assembled<br />

in two or three minutes as against about 30 with<br />

the old arrangement.<br />

The degree of perfection of the alignment obtained<br />

may be estimated by examination of the fractured test<br />

specimen. If, for example, a low-carbon steel be subjected<br />

to a stress which will cause fracture to occur<br />

at approximately 100.000 cycles, there will, at failure,*<br />

be a noticeable extension of the specimen in the region<br />

of minimum cross-section. The cracked test specimen<br />

on being rolled upon a surface plate is observed<br />

to roll true, thus showing that, through the use of<br />

the new grips, no bending stresses have been acting—<br />

otherwise the cracked specimen would have become<br />

bent. Two fractured test specimens are shown in<br />

Fig. 5.<br />

A further proof of alignment may be seen from<br />

the appearance of the fatigue test curves themselves.<br />

For the cases examined (low-carbon, medium-carbon<br />

*A circuit breaker controlled by a 6-volt relay actuated by a<br />

switch on the moving armature could be so adjusted that the<br />

machine was stopped when partial fracture had occurred.<br />

FIG. 2—Alignment seats and grips. FIG. 3—Ball seats and grips installed. FIG. 4—New calibration test bar. Haigh<br />

calibration test bar.


August, 1925<br />

and chome-nickel steels) the curves obtained by plotting<br />

stress against number of cycles to fracture were<br />

very regular, the points all lying on a smooth curve.<br />

To such a degree was this regularity possible that<br />

having obtained some points on the curve for high<br />

stress values and some for low stress values then, on<br />

running at that number of cycles shown by the curve.<br />

This was never found possible with the bending type<br />

of test specimen and shows that alignment had been<br />

obtained. Such curves are shown in Figs. 6 to 8.<br />

Calibration.<br />

The next development in this apparatus was with<br />

regard to the calibration test bar. Due to the load<br />

being applied magnetically, calibration was deemed<br />

necessary. The original calibration test bar supplied<br />

with the machine is the larger of the two shown in<br />

Fig. 4. The image of a lamp filament is reflected by<br />

the mirror upon a ground glass scale attached to the<br />

rear of a camera box. The strain was measured over<br />

a length of the test bar which included the parallel<br />

•y#$<br />

|<br />

1<br />

I<br />

1 1<br />

^r^^^^<br />

§ 1 •-mm..<br />

•<br />

1 u<br />

M<br />


281)<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Hoat Treating<br />

TABLE I.<br />

Proportional<br />

Limit,<br />

ll». per sq. in.<br />

Yield<br />

Point,<br />

DA. per sq. in.<br />

Tensile<br />

Strength,<br />

lb. per sq. h<br />

Elongation<br />

in 2 in.,<br />

per cent<br />

August, 1925<br />

Reduction<br />

of Aren,<br />

per cent<br />

0.15 per cent Carbon Steel (Annealed), 30 870 32 000 49 400 41.0 69.1<br />

0.37 per cent Carbon Steel (Annealed) 39 000 42 000 80 500 28.1 42.0<br />

0.68 per cent Chromium. 2.93 per cent Nickel Steel 100 000 113 000 133 700 18.4 49.7<br />

084 per cent Chromium, 3.33 per cent Nickel Steel 92 000 97 000 119 000 24.5 59.4<br />

Manganese Bronze 52 SOO 79 500 105 500 8.0 17.0<br />

0.15 per cent Carbon Steel (Annealed)<br />

0.37 per cent Carbon Steel (Annealed)<br />

0.68 per cent Chromium, 2.93 per cent Nickel Steel.<br />

0.84 per cent Chromium, 3.33 per cent Nickel Steel.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ed Manganese Bronze<br />

In Table II are given the endurance limits obtained<br />

for these various materials in direct stress. For the<br />

purpose of comparison, fatigue tests were made on the<br />

same material under cycles of flexural stress. These<br />

endurance limits are also given in Table 11. The third<br />

column of the table gives the ratio of the endurance<br />

limit under direct stress to the endurance limit under<br />

flexural stress and shows this ratio to be approximately<br />

unity.<br />

68000<br />

C; 6-4OO0<br />

SS.62O00<br />

v. 6O000<br />

J)<br />

^58000<br />

^ S6000<br />

QS4 000<br />

1<br />

1<br />

1<br />

£- ssooo<br />

5QOOQ<br />

\ < ^<br />

Cycles of Stress<br />

FIG. 8—Endurance test curve for nickel-chrome steel<br />

The fourth column gives the ratio of endurance<br />

limit to strength in tension—the steels agreeing closely<br />

in this respect. It will be observed that in this<br />

ratio the non-ferrous metal varies markedly from the<br />

ferrous.<br />

Conclusions.<br />

—o—<br />

fix/at.<br />

From these considerations, it is concluded that a<br />

satisfactory attachment has been designed, for direct<br />

stress testing, which makes possible the speedy insertion<br />

of test specimens and their removal without injury<br />

to the surface of the fracture. Furthermore, a<br />

new method of calibration has been devised in conjunction<br />

with a new design of high-speed extensometer<br />

which gives accuracy in calibration and which<br />

may have other applications.<br />

:<br />

—l ><br />

TABLE II<br />

Endurance Limits<br />

Direct<br />

Stress<br />

Flexural<br />

Stress<br />

Ih. per sq. in. per sq. in.<br />

24 500<br />

33 000<br />

56 200<br />

58 200<br />

17 500<br />

25 500<br />

30 000<br />

55 000<br />

61 500<br />

16 000<br />

Ratios<br />

Direct Direct<br />

~ T Tensile<br />

Hexural strength<br />

0.96<br />

1.10<br />

1.02<br />

0.95<br />

1.09<br />

0.50<br />

0.41<br />

0.42<br />

0.49<br />

0.17<br />

A result of more importance to the designer, however,<br />

lies in the comparative data which shows (for<br />

all cases examined) that the endurance limit obtained<br />

bv direct stress is the same as that obtained by flexural<br />

stress.<br />

Acknowledgement.<br />

The author wishes to thank the Westinghouse<br />

Electric & Manufacturing Company in whose research<br />

laboratory this work has been executed for permission<br />

to publish these results, and Mr. J. M. Lessells and<br />

Dr. S. Timoshenko for valuable criticism and assistance<br />

in the preparation of the manuscript.<br />

German Alloy of Diamond Hardness<br />

.\n interesting material which is claimed- to replace<br />

the diamond in core-drilling and stone-curtrhg has recently<br />

been developed in German}'. It is being offered<br />

by the Roechling Steel Works, Wetzler, Germany,<br />

under the name "Thoran" The company states that<br />

the high cost of carbons used in diamond core drilling<br />

and the necessity of great skill in their setting the bits<br />

led it to undertake the task of developing a substance<br />

to take their place.<br />

Thoran is claimed to have approximately the. hardness<br />

of the diamond. It has a melting point of 5,400<br />

deg. F. (3000 deg. C.) ; it does not soften or fuse at any<br />

lower temperatures and therefore connot be f<strong>org</strong>ed.<br />

It has a minute crystalline body and is said to consist<br />

of a mixture of tungsten carbides and tungsten. According<br />

to the mineral scale it possesses a hardness<br />

between 9.8 and 9.9, the diamond being 10.<br />

Its structure is described as metallic and consequently<br />

it has much greater strength and durability<br />

for mechanical operations than the diamond. In spite<br />

of its extraordinary hardness it has adequate tenacity,<br />

contrary to the natural diamond. The mechanical<br />

strength of Thoran is reported as about equal to that<br />

of superior quality high-speed steel. Because it cannot<br />

be f<strong>org</strong>ed its cutting edges must be obtained<br />

through grinding. Because Thoran is harder than<br />

emery wheels, special grinding equipment, similar to<br />

that used for grinding diamonds, is required. Victor<br />

F Halbarth, 50 Church Street. Xew York, is the<br />

American representative of the German company producing<br />

this new product.


August, 1925<br />

Joining- Stamping - He»af lieanng<br />

D e v e l o p m e n t s in D r o p F o r g i n g P r o d u c t i o n<br />

IN this particular article we discuss the five point<br />

range in carbon and the general effect of several<br />

alloying elements. In many cases a five point range<br />

in carbon is specified for the purpose of obtaining uniform<br />

results on different furnace heats furnished by<br />

the steel manufacturer, without the necessity of keeping<br />

these heats separate throughout heat treating operations.<br />

The carbon content seems to be considered by<br />

many as the single factor affecting uniformity in response<br />

to heat treatment—the most important influence<br />

of such alloying elements as nickel, chromium,<br />

molybdenum, manganese, etc., seems entirely overlooked.<br />

Frequently a heat is rejected because it falls<br />

a point or two outside of the specified five point range<br />

in carbon, and yet the combined value of the other<br />

hardening elments renders it more satisfactory for results<br />

with prescribed treatment than many heats<br />

strictly within the carbon range, but with the percentage<br />

of alloys falling on the extremity of the range. For<br />

example, consider the following specifications: Carbon,<br />

.30/35; manganese, .50/80; chromium, .45/75;<br />

nickel, 1.00/1.50. A heat analyzing carbon, .29; manganese,<br />

.75; chromium, .70; nickel, 1.40, might be rejected,<br />

whereas one analyzing carbon, .31; manganese,<br />

.55; chromium, .50; nickel, 1.10, accepted, though less<br />

satisfactory than the rejected one. By exercising<br />

judgment, better and more consistent results may be<br />

obtained with less rejections of material.<br />

Care Required in Heat Treating.<br />

The proper means of attaining uniform results<br />

after heat treatment is not in the adherence to a five<br />

point range in carbon—it is in treatment classification<br />

of f<strong>org</strong>-ings by furnace heat lots as received from the<br />

steel manufacturer. A number of f<strong>org</strong>ing companies<br />

and other parts manufacturers now retain the identity<br />

of heats throughout f<strong>org</strong>ing and heat treatment operations,<br />

prescribe definite treatment temperatures and develop<br />

uniformity in treated products that is not otherwise<br />

attainable. Such practice has now almost become<br />

standard in differential ring gear production and<br />

has been the means of minimizing distortion to such<br />

an extent as to almost completely eliminate noisy<br />

gears. Crankshafts have been handled by many manufacturers<br />

in the same manner. The United Alloy Steel<br />

Corporation, treating thousands of tons of bar stock.<br />

has always adhered to this method, although working<br />

with automatic treating furnaces of capacities of nearly<br />

50 tons of treated bars daily.<br />

Alloy Steels.<br />

Of the alloying elements the one probably in most<br />

general use is chromium, appearing as the predominating<br />

influence in chrome steels, chrome-vanadium<br />

and chrome-molybdenum steels, and as a most important<br />

one in chrome-nickel, chrome-nickel-vanadium,<br />

chrome-nickel-molybdenum and various other combinations.<br />

Outside of so-called structural alloy steels,<br />

it is a tremendous factor in special steels such as magnet,<br />

tool, stainless, high-speed, etc. This element,<br />

from one to two per cent, decreases the tendency to<br />

crystalline growth, giving a fine close grain. It confers<br />

upon steel increased hardness, strength, and pene-<br />

*Reprinted from U-Loy News.<br />

281<br />

trative effect in heat treatment. In higher percentages<br />

it has a marked effect on magnetic properties and corrosion<br />

resistance.<br />

Nickel increases strength, ductility and toughness<br />

of carbon steel, giving finer structure and renders the<br />

steel more susceptible to heat treatment. It is used<br />

in combination with chromium in many ranges covering<br />

wide fields of application.<br />

While both molybdenum and vanadium are occasionally<br />

used as a sole alloying agent in plain carbon<br />

steel, their greatest value is derived from combination<br />

with chromium or nickel or with both of these elements,<br />

and where their addition most materially enhances<br />

the properties of the steel.<br />

Manganese may be considered a necessary component<br />

of all alloy steels and appears in all specifications.<br />

Its greatest value is an indirect one resulting<br />

from reduction of oxides, and from combination with<br />

the sulphur suppressing the formation of iron-sulphide<br />

and its embrittling effect. The direct effect of manganese<br />

is the increase of physical properties. Excellent<br />

physical characteristics have been developed on<br />

plain carbon steel with approximately \y> per cent<br />

manganese.<br />

With the exception of high silicon steels, such as<br />

silico-manganese and chrome-silico-manganese (together<br />

with numerous special steels such as valve,<br />

rustless, electrical, etc.) silicon is seldom given consideration<br />

in chemical specifications, yet it is vitally<br />

essential. The use of silicon in the making of alloy<br />

steels is most important on account of its property of<br />

deoxidizing and of eliminating gases( about four times<br />

as active as manganese). It is equally necessary that<br />

the finished product contain a certain minimum quantity<br />

of this element. In most structural alloy steels a<br />

content of .10 to .20 suffices. However, in others it is<br />

most advantageous to hold to .15 minimum with a .25<br />

or even .30 maximum. The higher range of .15 to .25<br />

is particularly advisable in the carburizing grades of<br />

steel and has been found a most important factor in<br />

contributing to freedom from laminations, ready machinability<br />

with minimum tool chatter, elimination of<br />

distortion in quenching, and superior static and<br />

dynamic properties of the finished product. While<br />

no silicon limits are incorporated in many specifications,<br />

the steel maker should have sufficient experience<br />

and information on requirements to prescribe<br />

proper limits for his melting department.<br />

Inspecting Shipments.<br />

Upon receipt of a shipment of steel from the manufacturer<br />

the material is usually promptly checked for<br />

its various qualities and properties, and as previously<br />

stated, in a much more thorough manner than formerly<br />

necessary when the inspection governing acceptance<br />

was more or less superficial and in the main consisted<br />

of chemistry check, rough dimensional check<br />

and casual observation for pipe and surface imperfections.<br />

On analysis, commercial allowable variations<br />

between laboratories was accepted; rolling tolerances<br />

were less restricted; minute surface defects were ignored.<br />

The present day inspection embraces in most<br />

cases rigid adherence to chemistry limits, due to a<br />

large extent to the refusal of the motor and motor


1X2 FcMging- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

accessory manufacturers to consider even slight deviations<br />

from specification. Strict dimensional adherence<br />

is necessary because keen competition will not permit<br />

of the least extravagance in raw material. Rejections<br />

are made for even slight surface and internal imperfections<br />

because of the higher standard of requirements<br />

by the motor manufacturer and because of the<br />

ever increasingly severe operations put upon the steel<br />

in f<strong>org</strong>ing. These conditions are merely cited as<br />

factors influencing the demand for better steel. Thev<br />

August, 1925<br />

have served as an impetus toward further perfection<br />

in steel making.<br />

It is quite evident that the proper time to reject<br />

steel is before it is put into f<strong>org</strong>ings—at a time before<br />

the drop f<strong>org</strong>er has put money into processing, and at<br />

a time when the steel manufacturer may salvage. Furthermore,<br />

before f<strong>org</strong>ing, the responsibility for defects<br />

can be definitely established. After f<strong>org</strong>ing there is<br />

often difficulty in definitely assigning correct origin of<br />

a defect.<br />

R e v i e w o f P r e s s e d M e t a l D e v e l o p m e n t s<br />

T H E story of metal reads like a romance and the<br />

modern stamping <strong>org</strong>anization is man's answer<br />

to the demands of his time for rapid quantity production<br />

of similar metal parts having a comparatively<br />

uniform thickness throughout the section.<br />

Kitchen and table utensils, dairy and agricultural<br />

machinery, clock parts, locks, baggage fittings and<br />

toys also came in for early development at the hands<br />

fif the die-maker, and the bicycle, getting into quantity<br />

production ahead of the automobile gave a varied experience<br />

to the stamping maker, which he later used<br />

to advantage in developing parts for use on the automobile.<br />

The carriage and wagon were doubtless the<br />

predecessors of the auto and the truck, and we are reminded<br />

in connection with the reference to following<br />

the law of habit that, as the story runs, one early<br />

producer of the "horseless carriage" on one occasion<br />

included a whip socket as an accessory part. For the<br />

bicycle manufacturer were produced in great quantities,<br />

sprockets, hubs, saddle post clusters, head clips.<br />

fork crowns, coaster brake shells, frame braces, crankhangers<br />

and pedals.<br />

In the automotive field, it is interesting to note<br />

that one manufacturer has built tools for, and produces<br />

over 200 different stamped or pressed parts for<br />

automobiles, trucks and tractors, among these being<br />

wheel and axle parts, spring shackles, engine hangers.<br />

radiator shells, running boards, oil pans, torque arms<br />

and tubes, clutch cones and discs, universal joint housings,<br />

and a wide range of levers, brackets, covers,<br />

ratchets, links wrenches and the like.<br />

In his zeal to minimize the "drag" of the brake<br />

bands, the automotive engineer has concentrated much<br />

attention on the matter of exacting roundness in the<br />

brake drum, without machining, and together with<br />

drums for passenger cars (as are mentioned), there<br />

are now made drums from metal up to one-half in. in<br />

thickness for trucks. It required a powerful press.<br />

properly designed tools, and expert operation to draw<br />

such steel plate from a "blank" 39 in. in diameter into<br />

a flanged shell 25 in. in diameter and 8y2 in. deep,<br />

from cold stock, and still maintain a degree of roundness<br />

with .020 in., ironing out the metal between the<br />

dies to present a smooth and even contour, yet this is<br />

an achievement at the rate of 75 per hour. Compare<br />

this, if you will, for a moment, with casting and machining,<br />

and consider the uniformity of the steel in<br />

texture.<br />

•Engineer Youngstown Pressed Steel Company.<br />

By R. I. MINER*<br />

The brake drum made from steel of higher carbon<br />

content than formerly used, is today receiving further<br />

consideration in an effort to offset excessive wear on<br />

the braking surfaces, and this has presented new problems<br />

which have been successfully met by the pressed<br />

steel manufacturer.<br />

The Rear Axle Housing is one of the most highly<br />

developed and intricate pressed steel achievements.<br />

Early designs showed two flanged hemispherical<br />

shells, bolted together through the flanges, and having<br />

drawn necks to which were secured seamless tubing<br />

to cover the axle shafts. Later designs involve the<br />

pressing of the entire length in halves, welded together<br />

in two seams either above and below the axle<br />

shafts, or in front and rear of them; the acetylene<br />

torch used for this welding has now largely given way<br />

to the more effective electric arc. In one design, the<br />

covering for the drive shaft was incorporated, making<br />

a three armed affair, and housings are also produced<br />

in one piece, the metal being so formed that but one<br />

welded seam is necessary.<br />

These shells "house" the axle shafts and differential<br />

gearing; support the differential carrier and drive<br />

shaft; carry the brake spiders, wheels and springs at<br />

the extremities, and in some designs take the entire<br />

driving torque. The ends are frequently flanged, and<br />

around the circumference of the bowl, where extra<br />

metal is needed for threads for the carrier bolts, the<br />

pressed steel engineer has folded the metal flat on itself<br />

in a circle, also adding strength to the section;<br />

sleeves, f<strong>org</strong>ings, castings, baffle plates, oil retainers<br />

and various inner reinforcements are incorporated in<br />

varying design, and pads are often raised out of the<br />

metal for localized machining or for attachments,<br />

while the sections show varying contours along the<br />

length. Axle housings are made today from metal<br />

y in. thick to 7/32 in. thick for passenger cars and<br />

light trucks, and from these up to 7/16 in. for larger<br />

trucks and fire engines. This project is mentioned at<br />

some length to point out the possibilties of pressed<br />

steel.<br />

The advantage of any one method of producing<br />

metal parts must be carefully considered in the light<br />

of experience, and clearly proven; and we shall hold<br />

but lightly any gains made except through the sound<br />

argument of simplified means of production and resultant<br />

economies.<br />

In general, where quantities are adequate, the section<br />

of comparatively uniform thickness, or the de-


August, 1925<br />

sign is such that ribs, bosses and reinforcements may<br />

be formed, coined or doubled into the metal, and<br />

where accessory parts formed by other processes can<br />

be effectively added and combined by pressing into,<br />

or by welding, the pressed steel engineer can offer<br />

splendid economies.<br />

Rapid production, greater uniform strength, less<br />

weight for a given purpose and its accruing advantages,<br />

reduced machining costs, better original surfaces<br />

for plating, painting or enameling, even distribution<br />

of the metal, and smoother outlines form the basis of<br />

the appeal to consideration for the use of pressed<br />

metal.<br />

The inventor and designer of a hundred years ago<br />

perhaps felt at times that the ultimate had been<br />

reached, yet was not deterred; we are still constantly<br />

searching out and find new and advantageous applications<br />

of pressed metal to projects of widely varying<br />

functions; household appliances, aircraft and the radio<br />

have already added to the list, and we are all familiar<br />

with pressed steel furniture—it may be that with<br />

further developments of rust-proofing that residences<br />

will be of steel, and the writer recalls that he recently<br />

saw a proposition for constructing a whole highway<br />

from pressed steel sections; at any rate, as the authors<br />

declare, the experiences of the pressed metal manufacturer<br />

in observing the action of steel under pressure<br />

in the dies are so varied that it seems obvious that<br />

the manufacturer contemplating how a metal part may<br />

best be made will consult him.<br />

It is true that the pressed metal manufacturer must<br />

cite his achievements and point the way to greater<br />

economies; in proportion as we contribute to progress<br />

in any line of endeavor, do we prosper. The pressed<br />

metal industry can justly claim a place in the fore<br />

front with those industries that have gained ground by<br />

virtue of their proven accomplishment.<br />

(Continued from page 267)<br />

breaks up the grains into fragments along many sets<br />

of slip planes, some of which intersect. The original<br />

grain boundaries persist even after severe cold working,<br />

but the fragments of the grains are moved in such<br />

a way as to cause an apparent elongation in the direction<br />

of working (see Fig. 65, Chapter III).<br />

The structure produced by cold working, is not<br />

obtainable in any other way. The breaking up of<br />

grains and the turning movements of the fragments<br />

produced by cold working has a hardening effect very<br />

similar to that of grain refinement. An additional<br />

hardening effect results from the production of a considerable<br />

amount of dis<strong>org</strong>anized or amorphous metal,<br />

at slip planes and grain boundaries during the breaking<br />

up of the original grains.<br />

Severe cold working tends to orient the crystal<br />

fragments of all original grains in certain definite directions<br />

with reference to the direction of working.<br />

This tends to make slip somewhat easier, along these<br />

directions. Therefore it is probable that there is a<br />

limit to the hardness obtainable by cold work. The<br />

hardness obtainable by cold working of pure metals,<br />

is usually much less than that obtainable by the addition<br />

of small quantities of alloying elements, followed<br />

by heat treatment. Iron, for example, can never be<br />

made as hard by cold working, as steel containing<br />

about 1 per cent carbon, which has been hardened<br />

by quenching from above the critical range.<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heaf "Beating 283<br />

Machine Designed to Salvage Old Wire<br />

A wire straightening machine that will prove to<br />

be an economy in almost every factory is the latest<br />

product placed on the market by the Kane & Roach<br />

Company of Syracuse, N. Y. This machine will salvage<br />

95 per cent of the wire put into it no matter how<br />

badly twisted.<br />

The machine is simply constructed, consisting of<br />

eight rolls, the first two of which act as pinching rolls,<br />

being equipped with spring adjustment to prevent<br />

shaft strain. The remaining six rolls are staggered,<br />

all but one upper roll being driven by gears. These<br />

rolls are all made of tool steel, heat treated and hardened.<br />

The shafts are of high carbon steel, accurately<br />

machined and polished. A feed guide made of high<br />

Wire salvaging machine<br />

carbon steel directs the wire into the rolls. Passe<br />

the rolls are so cut that once the machine is adjusted,<br />

it is unnecessary to readjust the rolls for each size of<br />

wire other than to raise or lower the last roll to correct<br />

the tendency of the wire to go up or down as it<br />

is delivered from the machine. All rolls and gears<br />

are covered by guards which protect the operator.<br />

The machine has a capacity for 1/16-in. to ^g-in. wire<br />

core, and from 150 to 200 feet of wire a minute.<br />

What Fuel Shall Industry Use?<br />

| V* • "»( | ; I \l ».| r| l»j ijH » ' i»<br />

In the face of the coming coal strike many industries<br />

are looking around for a substitute for this commodity.<br />

A prominent Pittsburgh fuel engineer recently<br />

discussed the advantages of gas as a fuel for industry,<br />

and some of his conclusions are given below. He<br />

pointed out the fact that 10 or 12 years ago in a territory<br />

where manufactured gas was sold more gas was<br />

used for industrial purposes than in the natural gas<br />

regions where gas was cheaper. This was because<br />

the supply of natural gas was never sure and the<br />

equipment utilized was very inefficient. Today, however,<br />

many natural gas people are selling gas to industries<br />

because a constant supply has been insured<br />

by supplementing the natural gas supply with manufactured<br />

gas. Modern equipment is replacing the<br />

wasteful types previously used.


284 Raging- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

New Rockwell Hardness Tester<br />

The latest model of the Rockwell Hardness Tester<br />

is quite an elaborate machine compared with any of<br />

the earlier standard models and has been designed<br />

specially for testing very large pieces. In all of the<br />

smaller models of the Rockwell the work being tested<br />

is elevated into contact with the penetrator, but in<br />

this new model provision is made for lowering complete<br />

testing head so that the penetrator is moved<br />

into contact with the work being tested.<br />

The first three of these new universal models have<br />

been made for large automobile companies for testing<br />

the hardness of automobile cylinder block castings.<br />

In some instances machined castings are tested and<br />

in others unmachined castings.<br />

The threaded columns and testing bridge of the<br />

tester in the illustration shown are standard, but the<br />

length of those columns and their distance apart are<br />

obtainable to suit special requirements. The base<br />

shown into which the columns are set is simply a shop<br />

tool for testing out the accuracy of each D U machine.<br />

These universal machines have been made only for<br />

New Rockwell hardness tester.<br />

those several companies who have undertaken to<br />

make their own bases, and as the D U machines have<br />

been used principally for hardness tests on automobile<br />

engine cylinder blocks the bases made by the<br />

users have been designed to fit into their production<br />

train.<br />

By turning the crank handle the whole testing head<br />

is raised and lowered and both the principle and accuracy<br />

of test are the same as in the smaller sizes of<br />

the Rockwell Tester. Readings on large and small<br />

machines are alike, as the same penetrators and loads<br />

are used. In these universal machines the testing<br />

head is lowered with pressure against the work to be<br />

tested instead of elevating the work against the test<br />

point, for application of the "minor" load.<br />

In considering both the design and cost of these<br />

machines it is to be kept in mind that 100 points of<br />

hardness on the Rockwell scale is equivalent to a total<br />

depth of penetration of only .008 in. so that two points<br />

difference in hardness means difference of depth of<br />

impression of only .00016 in. These large machines<br />

are really giant micrometers of a high order of ac­<br />

August, 1925<br />

curacy, and the testing head must elevate and lower<br />

without any measurable "back-lash" or "lost-motion."<br />

The helical springs between the nuts on the<br />

threaded columns press the testing bridge always upward<br />

against the lower surfaces of the threads of the<br />

columns. Ball bearings are introduced as points of<br />

greatest friction.<br />

This universal model is useful not only for large<br />

castings but for testing circular saws, say, 72-in.<br />

diameter, which are too heavy and too great in area<br />

to consider elevating to meet the penetrator.<br />

A Binocular Magnifier<br />

In certain industries where visual examination is<br />

necessarily employed by mechanics and machinists at<br />

lathes and at other tools in order to gage the progress<br />

of precision work, eye strain and fatigue often result<br />

from the smallness of the product to be examined. To<br />

correct this difficulty a new instrument, known as the<br />

"binocular.stereo magnifier," has been put on the market<br />

recentlv by E. Leitz, 60 East 10th Street, New<br />

.<br />

• •<br />

•<br />

•<br />

,, ''<br />

\WL i '<br />

i p t / r ^<br />

i<br />

n ^<br />

Binocular stereo magnifier.<br />

fei^<br />

* m<br />

York. It is claimed that, by the use of this new in<br />

strument, the minutest parts can be inspected and<br />

technical details controlled, as well as the smallest<br />

units adjusted to their relative position in an accurate<br />

and reliable manner.<br />

The new instrument is descibed as producing a<br />

stereoscopic image which shows the object under examination<br />

in plastic relief, sharper and clearer than<br />

by the naked eye. It is suggested that the use of<br />

this instrument may eliminate some of the large losses<br />

in production, and that there will be a diminution in<br />

the constant falling off in efficiency and quality of production,<br />

due to poor vision.<br />

The new magnifier is furnished for use with a<br />

variety of different stands to suit each particular requirement<br />

and, since the prism body can readily be<br />

interchanged with any stand offered, a saving in cost<br />

of installation will always prevail. It is pointed out<br />

that when using the binocular magnifier the object is<br />

reproduced in its actual orientation, or, in other words.<br />

in the identical position as seen with the naked eye.<br />

1


August, 1925<br />

It resembles a pair of prism binoculars, arranged on a<br />

stand as shown in the illustration, each tube being<br />

rotated on its axis, permitting an adjustment of the<br />

interpupillary distance of the observer's eyes. The<br />

prism bodies are equipped with eyepieces which slide<br />

into tubular mounts, allowing one to correct any differences<br />

of vision between the observer's eyes.<br />

The instrument permits a magnification from 3.5<br />

to 30 diameters, which is claimed sufficient for practically<br />

all calibrations and control work on finished<br />

or semi-finished products. The working distance from<br />

the objectives' prism body to the specimen varies up<br />

to 6 in. and is dependent upon the magnification used.<br />

One can readily cover an object up to 2 in. in diameter<br />

with low-powered eyepieces whereas, using the higher<br />

eye-pieces, the field of view is slightly decreased but<br />

is considerably larger.<br />

giiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiunniiiiiiiiiiiiinini iiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiin mn<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIINIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIU<br />

September 14-18—Annual convention of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating, and Seventh National<br />

Steel Exposition, to be held at the Public Auditorium,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary, W. H. Eisenman, 4600<br />

Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

* * *<br />

September 15-16—Production meeting of the Society<br />

of Automotive Engineers at Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Secretary, Coker F. Clarkson, 29 West Thirty-ninth<br />

Street, New York City.<br />

* * *<br />

October 5-9—Annual convention of the American<br />

Foundrymen's Association at Syracuse, N. Y. An exhibition<br />

of foundry and machine shop equipment and<br />

supplies will be held in connection with the convention.<br />

* * *<br />

November 30-December 5—Fourth National Exposition<br />

of Power and Mechanical Engineering to be<br />

held in the Grand Central Palace, New York City.<br />

d mm n mn<br />

P E R S O N A L S<br />

IIUIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIN<br />

Robert J. Anderson, consulting metallurgical engineer,<br />

has opened offices at Cleveland, Ohio, and Pittsburgh,<br />

Pa., and offers a general consulting engineering<br />

service in the metallurgy, production and application<br />

of aluminum and aluminum alloys. Complete advice<br />

may be obtained by manufacturers and users of all<br />

phases from raw materials to finished products. Advice<br />

and information is offered on aluminum ores<br />

(bauxite), alloys, duralumin, electrical applications,<br />

fabrication and stamping, foundry practice, heat treatment,<br />

melting and furnaces, motor-car applications,<br />

permanent-mold work, rolling-mill practice, secondary<br />

metal and scrap, uses, etc.<br />

* * *<br />

Harry D. McKinney has been elected second vicepresident<br />

and general sales manager of the Driver-<br />

Harris Company, located in Harrison. New Jersey.<br />

Mr. McKinney came to the Driver Harris Company<br />

in 1918 as district sales manager of the New England<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

28$<br />

territory, in which position he served until 1920 when<br />

he was transferred to the Chicago Sales Office as manager.<br />

Prior to going with the Driver-Chicago Company,<br />

Mr. McKinney was associated with the Westinghouse<br />

Electric & Manufacturing Company in various<br />

capacities in both the shop and sales departments.<br />

where he handled a number of industrial applications<br />

including air compressors, machine tools and similar<br />

installations.<br />

S. P. Kinney, assistant metallurgical chemist, with<br />

headquarters at Pittsburgh, Pa., has been designated<br />

as supervising metallurgist of the Bureau of Mines.<br />

Mr. Kinney will have technical supervision of the<br />

Bureau's ferrous metallurgical work both at the Pittsburgh<br />

Station and at the other experiment or field<br />

stations where ferrous metallurgical work is conducted.<br />

All members of the metallurgical staff of the bureau<br />

have been instructed to bring to Mr. Kinney's<br />

attention any matters pertaining to ferrous metallurgy<br />

which in their opinion may be of interest to the Bureau<br />

of Mines. Mr. Kinney has for some time been engaged<br />

in the study of problems affecting the technology<br />

of blast-furnace practice. C. E. Sims, electrometallurgist,<br />

has been designated as chief of the metallurgical<br />

section at the Pittsburgh, Pa., experiment<br />

station of the Bureau of Mines, and in this capacity<br />

will have technical supervision of all metallurgical<br />

work conducted at that station.<br />

Barney Nelson has resigned as factory manager of<br />

the American F<strong>org</strong>e & Machine Company, Canton,<br />

Ohio, and has taken charge of the f<strong>org</strong>ing division of<br />

Fairbanks, Norse & Company at Beloit, Wis.<br />

# * #<br />

Charles H. Dishman has been appointed district<br />

representative at Kansas City, Mo., for the National<br />

Enameling & Stamping Company. His office is located<br />

at 404 Ridge Arcade Bldg. For several years he<br />

has been with the Carnegie Steel Company, first in<br />

Pittsburgh and more recently representing the company,<br />

together with the Illinois Steel Company, Tennessee<br />

Coal, Iron & Railroad Company and the American<br />

Sheet & Tin Plate Company at New Orleans.<br />

* * *<br />

J. A. Roesch, Jr.. has been elected president of the<br />

Steel Sales Corporation, of Chicago, to succeed the<br />

late Albert D. Dorman. Mr. Roesch was at one time<br />

connected with the Western Electric Company, Chicago,<br />

and with the Charles G. Stevens Company, Chicago.<br />

* * *<br />

T. ]. Litle, Jr., chief engineer of the Lincoln division<br />

of the Ford Motor Company has been nominated for<br />

the presidency of the Society of Automotive Engineers.<br />

* * *<br />

D. C. Briggs, formerly production manager for the<br />

Detroit Steel Products Company, has become general<br />

superintendent in charge of manufacturing activities<br />

for the American F<strong>org</strong>ing & Socket Company, Pontiac,<br />

Mich.<br />

* * *<br />

Ernest V. Squier has been appointed with Edward<br />

F. Clemett as representatives of the Greasalt Products<br />

Corporation, Syracuse, N. Y., manufacturer of clean-


286 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating August, 1925<br />

ing materials, in Michigan and Toledo. Mr. Squier with $50,000 capital stock, has leased a new building<br />

will cover Michigan outside of Detroit while Mr. Clem­ and started production on drop hammers, power pressen<br />

will handle sales in Detroit and Toledo.<br />

es, drill presses, grinders, automatic and hand screw<br />

* * *<br />

machines, etc., also complete annealing and hardening<br />

Fred Runge. formerly with the Ferro Enameling equipment. David Blumberg is president; Benjamin<br />

Company, Cleveland, is now with the A"\ndes Range & Glass, vice-president and Harry Madwed, secretary-<br />

Furnace Corporation, Geneva, N. Y.<br />

treasurer.<br />

* * *<br />

* * *<br />

Stanley A. Richardson, just connected with the Detroit F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Detroit, which six<br />

Interstate Iron & Steel Company, Chicago, as a member<br />

of the metallurgical staff, formerly was assistant<br />

professor of metallurgy in the Lewis Institute of Chicago.<br />

months ago was amalgamated with the Superior F<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

Company, and the Great Lakes Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company,<br />

that city, to operate under the present name, has<br />

purchased the plant and grounds of John Brennan &<br />

Company, Detroit. The purchase provides over 100,-<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

000 square feet of additional manufacturing space and<br />

Thomas J. Hyman, secretary and treasurer of the<br />

Illinois Steel Companv, Chicago, died July 5th at the<br />

places the company is a commanding position in the<br />

local f<strong>org</strong>ing field. In the company's present plant,<br />

Presbyterian Hospital in that city at the age of 70. operations are being carried on at capacity. The com­<br />

He was born in Comanche, Iowa, and started his inpany has 30 drop hammers, a complete die making<br />

dustrial career as a railroad man.<br />

* * *<br />

plant and departments necessary to a complete service<br />

on f<strong>org</strong>ings. The new plant is equipped with electric-<br />

Roy IL Christ, metallographist of the Bethlehem, cranes, having capacity of 50 to 75 tons each.<br />

Pa., plant of the Bethlehem Steel Company, died July<br />

6th, as a result of appendicitis.<br />

* * *<br />

* * *<br />

The Indianapolis Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Indianapolis,<br />

has awarded a general contract to J. E. Mc-<br />

Alexander McKim, aged 80, formerly superintend­ Gaughy, American Central Life Bldg., for its oneent<br />

and manager of the old Duquesne F<strong>org</strong>e Company, story addition, 50x75 ft., at Orange and Madison<br />

Pittsburgh, died July 7 at his home in Swissvale, Pa., Streets.<br />

from injuries sustained by him in a fall about six<br />

* * *<br />

weeks previously. He was born in Irwin, near Glas­<br />

The National Metal Etching Corporation, room<br />

gow, Scotland, and located in Pittsburgh when about<br />

1709, 42 Broadway, New York, has taken title to prop­<br />

16 years of age. His first position was in the Miller erty at Long Island City, as a site for a one-story<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company's mill, which he and four associates factory, for which plans will soon be drawn. The<br />

later acquired and re<strong>org</strong>anized as the Duquesne F<strong>org</strong>e company was <strong>org</strong>anized recently with a capital of<br />

Company. In 1906 the Duquesne F<strong>org</strong>e Company $126,000.<br />

was sold to the McClintic-Marshall Company and Mr.<br />

* * *<br />

McKim retired.<br />

The Penn Metal Company, Cambridge, Mass., is<br />

* * *<br />

erecting a new plant at Parkersburg, W. Va., for the<br />

Edward W. Newell, aged 68, mechanical engineer manufacture of metal lath, rib lath, cold rolled chan­<br />

of the Westinghouse Airbrake Company, Wilmerding, nels, etc. It will be in full operation late this year<br />

Pa., died at his home in Pittsburgh, June 29th.<br />

and is intended to accelerate shipments west of the<br />

i huh mi mn iiiimiiiiiiiinmiiiiiiiimii uiuniuuiiiiiiuiiuuiuiiuiiiuujiiJiiniiiiiHiiiiniiuiiuiuiniiuiiiiuuiniiiiiuiiuuuiiiiiiniifiiiiiiuui<br />

Allegheny Mountains.<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

* * *<br />

limn i mmiiiin i n mm nun minimum mini mmimnnimnmi m i i mmn<br />

Sargent & Company. Water Street, New Haven,<br />

The Budd Wheel Corporation, Hunting Park Ave­ Conn., manufacturers of builders' hardware, mechannue,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa., has given a contract to the<br />

Wark Company, 1600 Walnut Street, for a one-story<br />

addition to their steel automobile wheel plant.<br />

* * *<br />

a-\ portion of the plant of the McKinney Steel Company,<br />

Crystal Falls, Mich., was destroyed by fire on<br />

July 11th. The machine shop, f<strong>org</strong>e and blacksmith<br />

shop and the power house were damaged to the extent<br />

of $50,000. It is planned to rebuild.<br />

* * *<br />

The Fedders Manufacturing Company, 57 Tonawanda<br />

Street, Buffalo, Xew York, manufacturer of<br />

automobile radiators, etc., has filed plans for a onestory<br />

addition to its factory at 1543 Niagara Street.<br />

* * *<br />

The A-\tlas Automotive Parts Company, Ash and<br />

Mt. Grove Streets, Bridgeport, Conn., incorporated<br />

ics' tools, etc., have plans for a one-story addition, 60<br />

x 208 ft. Westcott & Mapes, 139 Orange Street, are<br />

architects.<br />

* # ifi<br />

The Progressive Tool Company, Beloit, Wis.,<br />

manufacturer of rotary pumps, special machinery,<br />

tools, dies, etc., has purchased the factory property<br />

of the Clinton Manufacturing Company, Clinton.<br />

Wis., and is transferring the operation. The new<br />

plant will start operations July 15. W. S. Perrigo is<br />

general manager.<br />

* * *<br />

The Burnside Die & Tool Company, Detroit, is<br />

said to be planning the installation of additional equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

The Reliable Die & Metal Stamping Works, 244<br />

Canal Street, New York, has leased a floor in the build­<br />

sold Boulevard ing The at at 242 drop public Canal and f<strong>org</strong>e auction Fresno Street plant * Street, for Tuesday, of * the expansion. Springfield, * Harley July Company, 21st, Mass., together<br />

Page was


August, 1.52$<br />

with machinery and equipment. The property was<br />

owned by the Indian Motorcycle Company, Springfield.<br />

* * *<br />

The General Electric Company, West Lynn, Mass.,<br />

has awarded contract for foundations for a one-story,<br />

55 x 100 ft. f<strong>org</strong>e shop to be known as building No. 42.<br />

* * *<br />

W. H. Love, P. O. Box. 164, Greensboro, N. C, is<br />

desirous of getting in touch with manufacturers of<br />

brass stampings and bent wire hooks.<br />

The Harbison-Walker Refractories Company,<br />

Farmers' Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh, will proceed with<br />

rebuilding the portion of its plant at Mount Union,<br />

Pa., including dust mill, recently partially destroyed<br />

by fire. An official estimate of loss has not been announced.<br />

Additional equipment will be installed.<br />

* * *<br />

The Motor Necessities, Inc., Milwaukee, has been<br />

<strong>org</strong>anized to manufacture metal stampings, principally<br />

automotive equipment specialties. Incorporators are<br />

Stephen A. Park, Hugh P. Morris and Ira Milton<br />

Jones, attorneys, 425 East Water Street, acting for interests<br />

which will announce plans within a short time.<br />

* * *<br />

The Detroit F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, 284 Mount Elliott<br />

Avenue, Detroit, formed several months ago by a<br />

merger of the Superior F<strong>org</strong>ing Company and the<br />

Great Lakes Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, has concluded<br />

negotiations for the purchase of the plant of John<br />

Brennan & Company, Twenty-fourth Street and the<br />

Michigan Central Railroad. The new owner will install<br />

drop hammers and conveying apparatus.<br />

M. P. Dahl Tool & Die Casting Company, Indianapolis,<br />

Ind., will move into a new building at Twelfth<br />

and Illinois Streets.<br />

* * *<br />

Negotiations for merging the Eastern Steel Company<br />

and the Penn Seaboard Steel Corporation have<br />

been discontinued. The\ attempts at a merger began<br />

about six months ago, and several methods were considered<br />

The proposition now has been definitely<br />

abandoned.<br />

* * *<br />

Ajax Manufacturing Company has removed its<br />

office from Cleveland to its new plant at Chardon<br />

Road, Euclid, Ohio.<br />

* * *<br />

The protective committee of noteholders of the<br />

Hydraulic Steel Company, Cleveland, Walter C. Janney,<br />

chairman, has obtained approval of a re-<strong>org</strong>anization<br />

plan in accordance with the terms of the deposit<br />

agreement of November 1, 1923. Of $2,851,300<br />

outstanding notes $2,423,100 have been deposited. The<br />

deposit date expires August 15, 1925.<br />

* * *<br />

Fostoria Pressed Steel Company, Fostoria, Ohio,<br />

has bought the business of the Ashland Manufacturing<br />

Company, Ashland, Ohio, and is moving the plant<br />

to the former city. The company manufacturers automobile<br />

jacks, and tire pumps.<br />

* * *<br />

Braun & Brady, 549 Washington Street, Chicago,<br />

have been made representatives for the Waddell Steel<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

287<br />

Company, Niles, Ohio, and the Worcester Pressed"<br />

Steel Company, Worcester, Mass.<br />

* * *<br />

The Kilborn & Bishop Company, New Haven,<br />

Conn., which up until July 1, 1925, has been a copartnership,<br />

sold its entire assets and liabilities to<br />

the Kilborn and Bishop Company, a corporation. The<br />

change was one of type of <strong>org</strong>anization only. The<br />

business is unchanged and the net resources are unchanged.<br />

The new <strong>org</strong>anization has elected the following<br />

officers: President, Ge<strong>org</strong>e A. Kilborn; secretary,<br />

M. K. Woodruff; treasurer, Holloway Kilborn;<br />

general manager, John H. G. Wrilliams.<br />

* * *<br />

The Westingfhouse Electric Company of Japan<br />

has been <strong>org</strong>anized to distribute Westinghouse products<br />

throughout Japan. The officers of the new company,<br />

which is a subsidiary of the Westinghouse Electric<br />

International Company, are: Guy E. Tripp, chairman<br />

; L. A. Osborne, president; E. D. Kilburn, vicepresident;<br />

I. F. Baker, manager director, located at<br />

Tokyo.<br />

W A. Jones Foundry and Machine Company, Chicago,<br />

111., has recently opened a new office at 614<br />

Builders Exchange, Minneapolis, Minn., with Mr. F.<br />

S. Van Bergen, District Sales Manager. Terrtory<br />

covered by this office includes all of Minnesota, North<br />

and South Dakota, also parts of Iowa and Wisconsin.<br />

which adjoin Minnesota. This office will handle sales<br />

of the entire Jones line in the territory, including<br />

speed reducers, friction clutches, gears, iron pulleys.<br />

flexible couplings, line shaft equipment and miscellaneous<br />

power transmission specialties.<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

•••iiiiTiniininiiittliiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiEitiriMiitiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiaiiiiiiiiiiiiiirrriiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiriiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiii i i<br />

Pyrometers—Leeds and Northrup Company, 4901<br />

Stenton Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa., have issued a catalogue<br />

on potentiometer pyrometers. This catalog<br />

covers quite fully pyrometer problems and the various<br />

recording, indicating and automatic systems are discussed.<br />

Many illustrations show the types and uses<br />

of the pyrometer. Sample charts show the practical<br />

applications of the theory as discussed in the booklet.<br />

The prices of outfits and accessories are given in a<br />

separate section.<br />

* * *<br />

Presses and Shears — Niagara Machine & Tool<br />

W^orks, Buffalo, N. Y., has issued Circular No. 215.<br />

describing in condensed form several models of punching<br />

and trimming presses and shears.<br />

* * *<br />

Electric Thermometers — Wilson-Maeulen Company,<br />

383 Concord Avenue, New York, has issued a<br />

catalogue, No. T-2, describing the various types of<br />

electric thermometers for industrial use and the indicating<br />

devices in connection with thermometer work.<br />

Resistance bulb thermometers are given special attention,<br />

these having ranges from minus 40 deg. F.<br />

to 900 deg. F.<br />

* * -p<br />

Gas Filled Recording Thermometers — Bristol<br />

Company, Waterbury, Conn., has issued a catalog, No.<br />

1303, describing recording thermometers for various


288 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heof Treating<br />

uses, with many illustrations of the types of instruments<br />

and of details of their construction and application.<br />

Various charts are shown together with list of<br />

charts showing the range in degrees covered by each.<br />

Industrial Trucks, Tractors and Cranes — Elwell-<br />

Parker Electric Company. Cleveland, has issued their<br />

catalogue No. 140. outlining aids to selection of haulage<br />

systems and the operation and control of the company's<br />

machines.<br />

* * *<br />

Air Compressors—Stationary and portable air compressor<br />

equipment is described in a 16-page folder of<br />

the .Allis Chalmers Manufacturing Company, Milwaukee,<br />

Wis. A general description of air compressors,<br />

including direct and a.c. types is included, while the<br />

major features of the machines are described and illustrated.<br />

* * *<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Machines—The National Machinery Company,<br />

Tiffin, Ohio, has issued a bulletin describing the<br />

machinery to be exhibited at its second annual exhibition<br />

and demonstration to be held August 24 to 26.<br />

Descriptions of bolt and rivet headers, automatic electric<br />

heaters and f<strong>org</strong>ing machines are principle features.<br />

* * *<br />

Furnaces — Reversing and control of regenerative<br />

furnaces are described in a catalog by the M<strong>org</strong>an<br />

Construction Company, Worcester, Mass. By this<br />

system it is claimed the operator has better control of<br />

his furnaces and various benefits accrue from its use,<br />

such as increased tonnage, longer life of walls and<br />

other economies.<br />

* * *<br />

Stokers—Side-dump stokers are discussed in a 20page<br />

publication prepared by the Riley Stoker Corporation,<br />

Worcester, Mass. Operation of the stoker is<br />

explained by numerous photographs and sketches.<br />

Typical installations are suggested by the use of blue<br />

print sketches. In the back of the bulletin is a representative<br />

list of installations.<br />

Tractors — Pulling almost anything from a railroad<br />

car in a switchyard to a load of logs in the north<br />

woods seems the forte of the caterpillar tractor featured<br />

by the J. T. Tractor Company, Cleveland, in a<br />

bulletin now being sent out. Varied uses are shown<br />

in illustrations and full specifications of the machine<br />

are given in the text.<br />

* * *<br />

Die Sets—The third edition of the Danly Machine<br />

Specialities, Inc., catalogue entitled "Standardized Machine<br />

Die Sets" is just off the press. This new catalogue<br />

is of 34 pages, or 20 additional pages compared<br />

with the last edition.<br />

The catalogue has been especially prepared for<br />

ready reference by tool-room foremen, superintendents,<br />

designers and draftsmen who are concerned with<br />

providing die sets to meet their requirements. Each<br />

of the 12 types of Danly Die Sets is illustrated by<br />

blueprint and photograph, each fully dimensioned for<br />

each size. Ordering has been greatly simplified. Four<br />

new types of die sets have been added, bringing the<br />

total up to 12 types and 97 distinct sizes.<br />

August. 1925<br />

A number of new devices are described in this catalogue.<br />

The most radical development is that of die<br />

sets in the "knock down". All types of Danly Die<br />

Sets are available in the "knock down". Punch holder<br />

and die shoe can be ordered separately, as well as<br />

leader pins and bushings.<br />

Another unique development is the removable<br />

leader pin by which dies can be reground without removal<br />

from the die shoe, and leader pins may be inserted<br />

and taken out without the use of an arbor<br />

press. Another new device described is the Danly<br />

Lap. This has especially been designed for use in<br />

every case where lapping is required. The arbor is<br />

of standard Morse taper.<br />

The former edition of 14 pages is in use by almost<br />

3,000 companies as a standard reference book. The<br />

new 34-page catalogue will be sent without cost or<br />

obligation to superintendents, tool-room foremen and<br />

designers upon request of the Danly Machine Specialties,<br />

Inc., 4911 Lincoln Avenue, Chicago, or their<br />

Detroit or Long Island City offices.<br />

* * *<br />

Oxyacetylene Process — "Answers to Questions<br />

about the Oxyacetylene Process" a recent publication<br />

by the Air Reduction Sales Company, is intended to<br />

supply in convenient pocket form some of the information<br />

on the principles of the oxyacetylene process,<br />

oxygen, care of oxygen cylinders, acetylene, care of<br />

acetylene cylinders, equipment, welding and cutting.<br />

Pump Standards—The third edition of "Standards<br />

of the Hydraulic Society" has just been issued. It<br />

contains not only the information embraced in the<br />

earlier editions, but also much new and valuable data,<br />

such as a standard classification of pumps; standard<br />

nomenclature and definitions, pertaining to the industry;<br />

standard dimensions for cast iron flanges and cast<br />

iron flanged reducers for 125 lb. and 250 lb. steam<br />

pressures as adopted by the A. S. M. E.; and a very<br />

complete list of chemicals and other special liquids,<br />

specifying the materials recommended in the construction<br />

of pumps for handling these special liquids. Copies<br />

of the booklet may be obtained from any pump<br />

manufacturer who is a member of the Hydraulic Society,<br />

or upon application to C. H. Rohrbach, secretary,<br />

90 West Street, New York.<br />

* * *<br />

Switchboards — The installation, operation and<br />

maintenance of switchboards is fully covered in a new<br />

120-page booklet, paper bound, issued by the General<br />

Electric Company. This booklet, bearing the number<br />

87000-E, is profusely illustrated with photographs,<br />

diagrams, tables, formulas, etc. It contains much<br />

varied information of special value to those engaged<br />

in the construction, installation and maintenance or<br />

operation of switchboards.<br />

* * *<br />

Pneumatic Die Cushions—Marquette Tool &<br />

Manufacturing Company, 321 West Ohio Street, Chicago,<br />

111. Booklet entitled "Short Cuts in Metal<br />

Drawing," showing various examples of work that<br />

has been done on presses equipped with Marquette<br />

pneumatic die cushions. The sheet-metal drawing<br />

and forming operations illustrated are performed on<br />

all makes of presses, and cover both large and small<br />

work.


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£ E<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., SEPTEMBER, 1925 No. 9<br />

O n t o C l e v e l a n d<br />

THE Seventh Annual Convention of the American Society for<br />

Steel Treating and the International Steel Exposition, scheduled<br />

to be held in Cleveland from September 14 to 18, inclusive,<br />

will surpass all previous gatherings of this society. As usual<br />

the technical sessions will be filled with papers covering almost<br />

every branch of steel treating. Every indication points to an<br />

attendance that will tax the capacity of the hotel facilities of the<br />

convention city.<br />

In addition to being located almost at the center of the iron<br />

and steel industrial field, Cleveland is an ideal recreational city and<br />

many will available themselves of the opportunity to combine business<br />

with pleasure. The International Steel Exposition, which is<br />

to be held in Cleveland's spacious Public Auditorium, will present<br />

an array of exhibits equal, if not superior, to anything of its kind<br />

ever before offered. The Auditorium being centrally located to<br />

the hotel district will probably bring out a greater attendance of<br />

interested members and guests than could be had in almost any<br />

other city in the country.<br />

The membership of the society, which has grown to approximately<br />

4,000 in seven years, is constantly increasing, and there<br />

could be no better evidence of the esteem with which the society is<br />

regarded. The veil of secrecy which surrounded various metallurgical<br />

operations a comparatively few years ago, has disappeared<br />

and the free exchange of information which has taken its place is<br />

largely responsible for the success of American industry.<br />

Numbered among the members of this coiety are executives<br />

and operating officials from most of the leading concerns in the<br />

steel treating field. Those who fail to take advantage of the occasion<br />

to associate with these men at the technical sessions and social<br />

activities and to witness the exposition will lose an opportunity to<br />

keep in touch with the latest and most improved mehods and<br />

equipment.<br />

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90 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

September. 192?<br />

A M o d e r n H e a t T r e a t i n g D e p a r t m e n t<br />

The Modern Heat Treating Department Presents a Favorable<br />

Contrast to the Old Time "Hardenin Room" Which Was<br />

Often Tolerated as a More or Less Necessary Evil<br />

T H E quality of a great variety of steel products<br />

depends ultimately upon the results produced in<br />

their heat treatment: many factors influence these<br />

results and if they are to be satisfactory it is necessary<br />

that careful consideration be given to the design<br />

of the product, to the steel used in its manufacture,<br />

to f<strong>org</strong>ing and machine shop practice, and finally to<br />

the heat treatment itself and the methods and equipment<br />

used. Under this stimulus heat treating facilities<br />

have been improved until they are on a par with<br />

those available for other manufacturing operations.<br />

As a result the modern heat treating: department presents<br />

a favorable contrast to the old time "hardenin'<br />

room" which often was tolerated only as a more or<br />

less necessary evil and was handicapped by the several<br />

conditions which this attitude imposed. The<br />

heat treating department of the Geometric Tool Companv,<br />

Xew Haven, Conn., which is described and<br />

illustrated herewith, is typical of the progress which<br />

may be made when the management of a concern is<br />

sufficientlv well informed of the facts relative to the<br />

value of quality heat treatment and has the wisdom<br />

to provide adequate facilities therefor.<br />

The equipment of this department is naturally<br />

somewhat specialized to correspond with the class<br />

of material and parts treated. Much of the latter is<br />

finish machined before treatment and the clean smooth<br />

surfaces must be retained. Several steels are used<br />

which require different treatments to develop the required<br />

phvsical properties which demand a fair range<br />

of adaptability. Threading chasers made from high<br />

speed or carbon tool steel constitute the most impor-<br />

'ant part of the work and a large percentage of the<br />

total volume.<br />

There are two tvpes of furnaces available for high<br />

speed steel hardening. Two oven furnaces, one for<br />

the preheat, the other for the high heat, are similar<br />

to those ordinarily used for this purpose. The preheat<br />

furnace is also used for heating carbon steel. The<br />

high heat furnace has a floor tile of carborundum<br />

which is an improvement over some of the materials<br />

which may be used for this purpose.<br />

By E. L. WOOD*<br />

Furnace Construction.<br />

A four pot high speed hardening furnace ha^<br />

proved to be very efficient for a pot type furnace.<br />

Named in the order in which they are used, the first<br />

chamber is a semi-muffle preheat, the second a salt<br />

preheat, the third a salt high heat, the fourth a salt<br />

quench. The salt baths used for heating have a rather<br />

high melting point and when the salt preheat alone is<br />

used the time required to bring the work from room<br />

temperature to the necessary preheat temperature is<br />

much greater than is required in the high heat; but<br />

bv using the additional semi-muffle chamber the rate<br />

of production is materially increased. The main burn-<br />

'Metallurgist, Geometric Tool Co., Now Haven, Conn.<br />

ers are applied to the high heat pot and except for<br />

bringing the furnace up to temperature very little<br />

fuel is used on any of the others during the day's<br />

run. The burners are tangentially located at the<br />

upper part of the furnace to compensate for greater<br />

heat losses from the to]) of the bath and to aid in uniform<br />

heating. The gases travel downward with a<br />

whirling motion to the outlet duct which conveys<br />

them successively to the tops of the next two chambers<br />

where similar paths are followed; after passing<br />

through the muffle preheat they exhaust directly into<br />

the atmosphere. This arrangement is new for this<br />

type of furnace in that all of the waste gases are utilized,<br />

and incidentally this is the first high speed pot<br />

furnace to make a complete use of them in this manner.<br />

The economies which result are considerable<br />

and more than offset the difficulties which the construction<br />

of such a furnace presents. The linings of<br />

the high heat and preheat chambers are severely taxed<br />

as to heat resistance. The temperature reached in the<br />

high heat combustion space often approaches 3000<br />

(leg. F and some types of fire brick and fire clay melt<br />

readily and flow out as a liquid. The linings and<br />

ducts of the high heat and preheat chambers were<br />

constructed of a special carborundum cement. They<br />

were rammed in wooden forms, air dried, and then<br />

cemented into place. Sufficient vitrification has taken<br />

place in service to be satisfactory. This furnace is<br />

especially well insulated, having a thick wall of Sil-<br />

O-Cel insulating material surrounding all of the heat<br />

chambers. The shell is coated with an aluminum<br />

paint which also helps to reduce heat losses. Pressed<br />

steel pots are used as containers for the salt baths. In<br />

the case of the high temperature pots they are protected<br />

by a carborundum thimble or crucible which<br />

aids in prolonging their life. Although the mixture<br />

proportions are held fairly uniform and slightly on the<br />

gas rich side, the use of the refractory protection<br />

seems to be a necessity. The fact that it is made of<br />

carborundum gives reasonably good heat transfer due<br />

to the high thermal conductivity of this material.<br />

Overcomes Objection to Salt Bath.<br />

One objection which has been raised against the<br />

use of salt bath for hardening high speed steel, i. e..<br />

inability to obtain sufficiently high temperatures, is<br />

not met with in the use of this furnace. It is true that<br />

much salt bath work has been hardened in the past<br />

at heats which were too low for some classes of work.<br />

but with the furnace in question it is possible to reach<br />

and maintain any desired temperature up to and including<br />

2300 deg. F., and heats considerably in excess<br />

of this have been used for test pieces. It is true that<br />

this temperature is somewhat lower than those which<br />

are often indicated by pyrometers used in connection<br />

with oven type high speed furnaces, but it is onlv<br />

in very rare instances that the pieces being hardened<br />

in an oven type furnace can be allowed to remain in<br />

the furnace until they reach the indicated tempera-


September, 1925<br />

ture. Some objections have been advanced against<br />

the cost of salt bath methods. For certain classes of<br />

work, no doubt, these costs would be a deciding factor<br />

in the decision against the use of salt bath hardening,<br />

but for the finer grade of tools of certain types, and<br />

particularly those which represent considerable labor<br />

cost, the advantages usually outweigh the cost consideration.<br />

It is not wished to convey the impression<br />

that the salt bath is a cure-all for all high speed hardening<br />

ills, but it does lit in well for some work and<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Hoar Troaiing<br />

291<br />

small amount of surface oxidization which interferes<br />

somewhat with subsequent grinding operation. The<br />

oxicle has a tendency to load the wheels more quickly<br />

than if the grinding was being done on clean surfaces.<br />

This objection, however, applies with the same force<br />

to high speed tools which may have been hardened in<br />

the open fire without a later cleaning operation, such<br />

as sand blasting. The value of the bath method lies<br />

particularly in the uniformity of temperatures which<br />

mav be obtained. It is regular practice in the use of<br />

Views in the hardening room of the Geometric Tool Company. (1) Part of compressor equipment. (2) High speed<br />

furnace. (3 and 4) General view of hardening room. (5) Typical pyrometer installation.<br />

certainly should not be left out of any consideration<br />

of methods available for high speed steel heat treatment.<br />

High Speed Drawing Furnaces.<br />

The high speed drawing is done in a furnace which<br />

also makes use of the waste exhaust gases for preheating.<br />

This furnace has three chambers, one at each<br />

end, and is directly heated by burners arranged in the<br />

usual way; the exhaust is led into a central chamber<br />

of semi-muffle type. A salt bath is used as a heating<br />

medium for most of the high speed drawing. They<br />

have some objections, one of which is that there is a<br />

this furnace to hold the drawing temperatures within<br />

five degrees plus or minus at all times, and usually<br />

the variation is even less than this. All of the work<br />

is preheated in the central chamber before it is inline!<br />

sed in the tempering bath. It is customary also<br />

tii have the temperature of the drawing bath quite a<br />

bit lower than desired drawing temperatures when<br />

the work is first immersed in it. This, together with<br />

the preheating, practically eliminates the danger of<br />

cracking the hardened pieces when they are placed in<br />

the bath. There is no loss whatever from this cause<br />

at present.


2 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

Cyaniding Furnaces.<br />

Two other furnaces of similar design are used respectively<br />

for carbon steel hardening and for cyaniding.<br />

They may be used interchangeably, however, to<br />

accommodate any unusual fluctuations in the class of<br />

work. Each of these furnaces has one chamber heated<br />

directly and also make use of the exhaust gases for<br />

preheating in a manner very similar to that used in<br />

the high speed drawing furnaces. Pressed steel pots<br />

are used in all of them as containers for the salt or<br />

cyanide and work out satisfactorily, although it is<br />

possible that alio}- pots would be more suitable for<br />

use under some conditions. A considerable number<br />

of parts are lead hardened in the usual commercial<br />

pot type furnaces. Properly operated lead hardening<br />

furnaces offer great possibilities and it is probable that<br />

electrically heated automatically controlled pot furnaces<br />

will eventually replace those just described for<br />

all work which is treated below 1800 deg. F in using<br />

either salt or lead as a heating medium.<br />

High Pressure Gas Used.<br />

< )ne of the photographs shows the compressors<br />

used for the high pressure gas system. These machines<br />

work out very well, no trouble whatsoever having<br />

been encountered in their use. Duplicate units<br />

are provided to give more flexible operation as required<br />

by the fuel demand. The high pressure gas is<br />

used in connection with Surface Combustion inspirators<br />

and in most cases this combination is very effective.<br />

The ease and accuracy' of temperature control<br />

and economy of fuel are notable. The same type of<br />

compressor is used in connection with the Reeve's<br />

premixing system which is also used, and there seems<br />

to be little preference between the two. Both produce<br />

satisfactory results in the use of ordinary citygas<br />

as fuel for industrial heating purposes.<br />

Efficient Pyrometer System Essential.<br />

A very complete and efficient pyrometer system<br />

is installed in connection with all of the heat treating<br />

furnaces. It is believed that it is almost impossible<br />

to give too much attention to a pyrometer system if<br />

it is intended to make any use of one whatsoever. The<br />

recent publicity given to the "Man at the Fire" is<br />

entirely justified and he is deserving of great credit,<br />

but just why this should be used to throw discredit<br />

upon the use of pyrometers is not quite evident and<br />

seems not at all logical. With the present high state<br />

of pyrometer development serious inaccuracies are<br />

hardly excusable, and anyone who intends to work<br />

without their help is bound to suffer a self-imposed,<br />

but none the less serious, handicap. The potentiometer<br />

type is used exclusively. Great care has been<br />

taken in providing a workmanlike installation.<br />

Pyrometers are supported in a very substantial manner,<br />

as can be noted from one of the illustrations, and<br />

all wiring is carried in conduits which form an adequate<br />

protection and insure against faulty wiring.<br />

Compensating leads corresponding with various type<br />

couples are used and since the instruments themselves<br />

are compensated for cold junction errors, one deficiency<br />

which is encountered in some installations is<br />

entirely avoided in this particular one. The high<br />

speed pyrometer is a recording signalling type. The<br />

signalling feature is of very material help to the hardening<br />

room foreman in keeping a continual check<br />

upon the high speed hardening temperatures without<br />

too great a demand on his time for taking tem­<br />

September, ln25<br />

perature readings at the instrument. The signals are<br />

the conventional red, white and blue light. An electric<br />

time device is also used in connection with high<br />

speed hardening and operates both a signal light and<br />

a bell at the end of any predetermined interval of time.<br />

The accuracy of each pyrometer is carefully checked<br />

at regular intervals. A primary temperature standard<br />

is being established. This will consist of three<br />

platinum-platinum rhodium thermocouples with Bureau<br />

of Standards certificates. One of these will be<br />

used in connection with a special potentiometer for<br />

standardizing the checking couples. At periodic intervals<br />

the three platinum couples will be compared to<br />

determine if there has been any change in the millivolt<br />

characteristics of the one which has been used.<br />

It might be of interest to know that the chromelalumel<br />

type of thermocouple has proven to be satisfactory<br />

and it is planned to standardize on this type<br />

of couple as the ones now in use need replacement.<br />

Pyrometers Frequently Checked.<br />

The high speed salt bath furnace and several of<br />

the other furnaces were designed and built at the<br />

Geometric Plant and have given results which are<br />

quite up to expectations. The rejections of finished<br />

product, due to all causes which may be more or less<br />

justly laid to heat treatment, have been greatly lessened<br />

and an even more desirable improvement in<br />

quality has been made. An important place among<br />

the factors which have contributed to these results<br />

is occupied by the heat treating equipment. Already<br />

quite satisfactory, it is being constantly studied to<br />

discover means for improvements which will be<br />

adopted as rapidly as circumstances justify.<br />

Standards for Shafting and Keys<br />

Two dimensional standards dealing with cold-finished<br />

shafting, and square and flat shafting keys, recently<br />

approved as "tentative American standards" by<br />

the American Engineering Standards Committee, are<br />

being distributed by the American Society of Mechanical<br />

Engineers, the sponsor.<br />

The standards cover machinery shafting from )/2<br />

to 6 in. in diameter and transmission shafting from<br />

15/16 to 5-15/16 in. The recommended stock lengths<br />

for cold-finished shafting are 16, 20 and 24 ft. All tolerances<br />

are negative and represent the maximum allowable<br />

variation below the exact nominal size. The<br />

keys considerd for these 60 standard shaft-diameters<br />

are either square or flat, and are to be cut from coldfinished<br />

stock and are to be used without machinery.<br />

The standard widths and heights and the corresponding<br />

negative tolerances are given.<br />

In the development of these standards, which was<br />

begun in 1918, manufacturers, users and more than<br />

.300 dealers and jobbers, have participated. The standards<br />

for shafting and keys, known as B 17a and B 17b<br />

respectively, are the first dimensional standards having<br />

national approval to be published in this country<br />

in the single sheet form. Copies may be obtained from<br />

the American Engineering Standards Committee, 29<br />

West Thirty-ninth Street, New York. The price is 20<br />

cents per sheet.<br />

The sectional committee is working on formulas<br />

to guide engineers in the selection of the best sizes<br />

for transmission shafting for use under various conditions<br />

for loading. The chairman of the committee is<br />

Cloyd M, Chapman and the secretary is C. B. Le Page,


September, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Ifeaf Treating<br />

P r o d u c t i o n o f A u t o m o b i l e F r o n t A x l e s<br />

The Important Basic Designs of Automobile Front Axles Discussed<br />

in a Comprehensive Manner—Machinery and Routine<br />

PRACTICALLY everybody is familiar with an<br />

automobile front axle. To the average layman<br />

it is just something on which the car rests and<br />

the wheels revolve. To those more familiar to aut >motive<br />

mechanics more intricate details are brought<br />

to light.<br />

Numerous types of axles may be purchased on the<br />

competitive market, but for our purpose we will content<br />

ourselves with only studying the more important<br />

basic designs.<br />

Generally speaking a front axle consists of an axie<br />

center, two steering knuckles on which the wheels<br />

are mounted, two king pins on which the knuckles<br />

turn, and a suitable attachment for turning them.<br />

(Fig. 22.)<br />

In classifying front axles as to basic design, we<br />

may divide them into six distinct classes, namely:<br />

The Elliot<br />

The Reverse Elliot<br />

The Lemoine<br />

The Inverted Lemoine<br />

The Fifth Wheel Type<br />

The Front Wheel Drive Type<br />

These designs may again be subdivided according<br />

to the types produced byr the manufacturer, and may<br />

be known as his particular type.<br />

Elliot Type.<br />

In the Elliot design of axle, the axle center is<br />

forked at the ends and the steering knuckle assumes a<br />

"T" shape and fits between the jaws of the axle center.<br />

In Fig. 24 is illustrated a design where the king<br />

pin has its bearing in the steering knuckle, and a<br />

tight fit in the fork of the axle center. Bushings are<br />

inserted in the steering knuckle and the king pin<br />

passes throueh these and is held in place by a castellated<br />

nut. The steering arms are located back of the<br />

axle and make connection with the knuckles at their<br />

base.<br />

Another design of the Elliot type steering head is<br />

shown in Fig. 25. In this design the bushings are<br />

located in the fork bosses of the axle center, and the<br />

king pin is held in place with a locking pin driven<br />

through the knuckle and fitting into a flat machined<br />

on the king pin. The upper bushing is lubricated byr<br />

means of an oil hole drilled in the top of the king pin,<br />

while the lower bushing is taken care of by an oil hole<br />

drilled in the lower boss of the axle center. The<br />

steering arms are located back of the axle center and<br />

are fitted into tapered holes in a boss at the side and<br />

near the base of the knuckle.<br />

In the Elliot type of construction the thrust comes<br />

at the top. where the axle center rests on the knuckle.<br />

To carry this, care of the lighter type are provided with<br />

hardened and ground steel thrust washers (Fig. 26),<br />

Laboratory Inspection Briefly Described<br />

By R. L. ROLF*<br />

*Metallurgist, Columbia Axle Co., Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

293<br />

inserted between the top axle boss and the knuckle,<br />

while on cars of the heavier type, thrust bearings<br />

(Fig. 27) take the place of the washers. Both types<br />

of construction are usually contained in oil cups to<br />

exclude dust and retain the oil which is received from<br />

the oiler on top of the king pin.<br />

Reversed Elliot.<br />

The reversed Elliot design of steering head was<br />

first introduced by the German Daimler Company.<br />

and its design is just the reverse of the Elliot construction.<br />

In this design the steering knuckles are forked<br />

and fit over the cylindrical head of the axle center<br />

(Fig. 28), the thrust being transmitted to the bottom<br />

of the steering knuckle where the axle center rests.<br />

In some designs hardened and ground thrust washers<br />

are inserted between the lower face of the axle<br />

center and the top face of the lower knuckle boss.<br />

Thrust bearings are also used, but in this design the<br />

distance from the center line of the king pin to the<br />

center line of the wheel is somewhat larger than in<br />

the other types and by using thrust bearings this distance<br />

is further increased.<br />

Some designs have overcome this feature by shouldering<br />

the lower bearing of the king pin or by tapering<br />

the portion that passes through the axle center<br />

(Fig. 29). The thrust bearing surrounds the king pin<br />

on top of the knuckle, and is held in place by a castellated<br />

nut screwed on the king pin. In this construction<br />

the king pin transmits the end thrust.<br />

Lemoine.<br />

The Lemoine design at one time was very popular,<br />

being used very extensively in France and on<br />

some cars in America. Today this construction is<br />

very seldom seen. Fig. 30 illustrates this design.<br />

The axle center rests upon the bottom of the king<br />

pin portion of the steering knuckle, the two being<br />

made integral. With this construction practically all<br />

the thrust load is on the bottom of the knuckle, which<br />

must take all the side loads as well.<br />

Inverted Lemoine.<br />

In 1905 the Pope Toledo fabricated a novel type<br />

steering head termed the "Inverted Lemoine". In<br />

this type the wheel stub is on the top of the axle center,<br />

instead of the bottom as in the regular Lemoine<br />

design, as illustrated in Fig. 32.<br />

The four wheel brake design has brought into<br />

popularity the Reverse Elliot type of construction,<br />

and because of its popularity, we will use this design<br />

as a base for our discussion.<br />

By referring to Fig. 23. you will note that a front<br />

axle is a composite of many parts, some of which are<br />

large in detail and others minute. To go into detail<br />

on every part would mean a very lengthy and tiresome<br />

discussion. For our purpose a study of the<br />

large f<strong>org</strong>ings will suffice.


294<br />

Front Axle Center.<br />

In the manufacture of front axle centers, drop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings play the important role. Castings have been<br />

looked upon with fear and doubt by designers. Tubular<br />

axles at one time enjoyed much popularity, but<br />

today they arc only used by a few.<br />

This construction consists of a piece of tubing<br />

bent to shape to form a front axle center. Drop<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ed ends are either welded or riveted in place, and<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

September, 1925<br />

the spring pads are made in two parts and bolted together.<br />

The disadvantage of this type of axle is in<br />

the fastening of the ends.<br />

In 1909 the pressed steel axle made its appearance<br />

and consisted of a pair of pressed steel channels of<br />

different sizes. These were assembled with their<br />

flanges inward and riveted together. The ends were<br />

made from drop f<strong>org</strong>ings, and riveted in place.<br />

A recent development in the f<strong>org</strong>ing of a front<br />

irT^IG;,22^Showing the 8eneral construction of an automobile front axle<br />

*


September, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

FIGS. 24 to 32—Various types of construction that are used in the front axle.<br />

295


2**. f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hoar Treating<br />

axle center is found in the "Witherow" process. With<br />

this method the blank is broken down from 4 in. x 4 in.<br />

billets by several passes through rolls into a convenient<br />

shape for f<strong>org</strong>ing. The channel is rolled in<br />

place, and the ends are so designed that they may<br />

be f<strong>org</strong>ed into the desired shape under a drop hammer.<br />

Figs. 33. 34, 35 and 36 illustrate the different stages<br />

required to convert a Witherow blank into a Reverse<br />

Elliot type of axle center.<br />

Fig. 33 represents the blank as it is furnihsed<br />

to the f<strong>org</strong>e shop. The blank is next heated and<br />

blocked, and assumes the shape shown in Fig. 34.<br />

From the blocking impression it is transferred to the<br />

finished impression in the die where it assumes the<br />

shape illustrated in Fig. 35. From this operation the<br />

FIGS. 33 to 36—Witherow process is a recent development<br />

in the f<strong>org</strong>ing of a front axle.<br />

component is placed under a trimming press, the flash<br />

is removed, and in a separate operation the spring<br />

pads are padded.<br />

These f<strong>org</strong>ings are f<strong>org</strong>ed one end at a time, and<br />

are usually held from y2 to y of an inch short between<br />

the king pin bosses. By this means of f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

the axle center can be stretched to length. As this<br />

length cannot be held to the exact dimensions in the<br />

stretching operation, the axle engineers have allowed<br />

certain tolerances which this dimension may vary.<br />

Stretching is done in either a press or bulldozer.<br />

Fig. 40 shows a press and fixtures used for performing<br />

this operation. From this operation the I-beam is<br />

transferred to the heat treating department where it<br />

is normalized, quenched, drawn and given a 100 per<br />

cent Brinell inspection. From here it is transferred to<br />

the straightening department where all kinks are removed<br />

under a power press (Fig. 38), and from here<br />

to the pull down bench where the finishing touches<br />

are administered. This operation removes all the rock<br />

from the beam, and places the king pin bosses in<br />

proper alignment. (Fig. 39.)<br />

The parts are then pickled and transferred to the<br />

rough inspection department where they are inspected<br />

TABLE I.<br />

September, 1925<br />

for burns, cracks, seams, laps, overall length, angle of<br />

king pin bosses, depth and width of channel, and flatness<br />

of pad. No beam is allowed to enter production<br />

that shows more than 1/32 in. rock on the spring<br />

pads, or that is more than 1/32 in. undersize on the<br />

depth or width of the channel section. F<strong>org</strong>ings that<br />

show serious metallurgical defects are immediately<br />

scrapped in this operation. The f<strong>org</strong>ings are now<br />

ready for the machine shop.<br />

Machining.<br />

Fig. 31 is a line drawing of an inverted Elliot type<br />

axle center, and gives a fair idea of the machine work<br />

required.<br />

The first operation consists of milling the ends<br />

of the king pin bosses square. This operation is performed<br />

in an ordinary type of milling machine<br />

equipped with a special jig. From here the component<br />

is transferred to a Baker drill press for drilling the<br />

king pin holes. This machine is equipped with a<br />

floating type jig. which is so designed as to insure the<br />

proper angle of the king pin holes which are not allowed<br />

to vary more than 15 minutes.<br />

The axle f<strong>org</strong>ing is placed in the jig against two<br />

Y-blocks, one at each end. The pads are held square<br />

bv means of balances placed under each spring pad.<br />

The ends of the f<strong>org</strong>ings are clamped into position<br />

by individual clamps, and the whole assembly is<br />

locked to the base by means of a centrally located<br />

clamp. These clamps are cam operated, and permit<br />

speed in their operation. ( Fig. 37.)<br />

When the drilling is completed on one end, it is<br />

only necessary to loosen the center swivel clamp and<br />

rotate the jig into position to take care of the machining<br />

on the opposite boss. With this construction one<br />

operator can run two machines drilling, rough and<br />

semi-finish reaming these holes.<br />

The next operation in sequence is spotfacing the<br />

top and bottom of the king pin bosses to size. It is<br />

important in this operation to hold these faces perfectly<br />

square, and maintain the proper height of these<br />

bosses.<br />

The knuckle lock pin hole is drilled and reamed.<br />

the king pin holes are then finished reamed, this operation<br />

being done by hand and the diameter held within<br />

one-half thousandth of an inch.<br />

The f<strong>org</strong>ing is next given the finished inspection<br />

for size, and then passed to the assembly floor.<br />

Materials.<br />

The materials used in the fabrication of front axle<br />

centers are varied; no particular grade of steel is<br />

singled out as being the best; each manufacturer has<br />

his favorite analysis. The variation that exists may<br />

be noted by referring to Table I, which gives the<br />

chemical analysis of some of the front axle centers<br />

that were found under various makes of cars.<br />

Axle Xo. S. A. E. Xo. Carbon Manganese Chromium Xickel Vanadium Molybdenum<br />

1<br />

-<br />

3<br />

4<br />

5<br />

1040<br />

1035<br />

4130<br />

3135<br />

6125<br />

.420<br />

.365<br />

.335<br />

.395<br />

.275<br />

.79<br />

.73<br />

.62<br />

.83<br />

.78<br />

.86<br />

.52<br />

1.10<br />

1.35 .17<br />

.13


September, 1925<br />

Brging- Stamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

FIG. 37—Drilling the king pin holes. FIG. 38—Power press used to straighten and remove kinks. FIG. 39—Removing the<br />

rock from the beam and aligning king pin bosses. FIG. 40 — Press and fixtures for stretching the front axle.<br />

297


298 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

Each manufacturer selects his material with some<br />

particular advantage in view, which he expects to<br />

gain by the u-e of that particular specification. It<br />

may be only price or machining qualities, or strength.<br />

that he is after, or it may be a combination of all.<br />

Exceptionally good material may be purchased<br />

and care exercised on all operations, but still the part<br />

may fail in service. When conditions of this type<br />

arise, a careful study should be made of the design.<br />

Every part should be so designed as to take care<br />

to the best of its advantage the stresses imposed upon<br />

it. and to posses an ample factor of safety.<br />

Besides the bending moment in the vertical plane<br />

due to the dead weight on the axle, there are other<br />

unusual load.-, to which an axle is subjected both in<br />

the horizontal and vertical plane, such as the stresses<br />

developed by striking obstacles at high speed, or the<br />

wheels dropping into chuck holes, all of which have<br />

to be carefully figured when designing the axle sections.<br />

Experience has taught the engineer that if<br />

certain proportions be maintained between the vertical<br />

and horizontal resisting moment of the section, and<br />

September, 1925<br />

The total weight on the front axle is 1,700 pounds<br />

of which one-half is distributed to each spring pad,<br />

or a load of 850 pounds per pad. The resulting<br />

bending moment is the load multiplied by the lever<br />

arm, that is, the distance between the center of the<br />

front wheels and the center of the front springs, in<br />

this case:<br />

56 in. — 27yA<br />

= \m in.<br />

2<br />

850 x 14.375 = 12219 in. lbs. bending moment.<br />

The section modulus being 1.07 we get a fiber<br />

stress of:<br />

12219<br />

= 11410 pounds per sq. in.<br />

107<br />

Using a carbon steel and assuming the expected<br />

elastic limit to be 65.000 pounds per square inch, we<br />

find the factor of safetv to be :<br />

65000 ,•„ _ - c- r a<br />

= 5.7 P actor of Safety<br />

11410<br />

Laboratory tests to check the strength of front<br />

axle centers are made part of routine inspection. This<br />

Y % p , / 7 B<br />

.iv*-w"'.*5»»H!<br />

FIGS. 41, 42 and 43—Photomicrographs showing evidence of poor f<strong>org</strong>ing practice.<br />

a certain factor of safety which is based upon the<br />

vertical stresses due to the dead load on the axle is<br />

provided, his product will stand up successfully.<br />

In determining the factor of safety on a front axle<br />

center, the measurements taken at the center section<br />

of the I-beam are those most generally used in calculations,<br />

as this section is slightly weaker than other<br />

portions of the axle center.<br />

The maximum fiber stress is determined by dividing<br />

the bending moment by the section modulus of the<br />

section, rnd the factor of safety is obtained by dividing<br />

the expected elastic limit of the steel by the unit<br />

fiber stress.<br />

As an illustration, let us assume a car with its full<br />

complement of passengers, full radiator, gasoline tank,<br />

oiling system, extra tires, tool kit and accessories,<br />

which has a dead weight on the front axle equal to<br />

1,700 pounds. The spring pad centers are 27'4<br />

inches, a 56 inch track and a section modulus of the<br />

beam is 1.07.<br />

is accomplished by supporting the axle center on the<br />

king pin bosses, and applying a load on both spring<br />

pads, recording the load and reading the deflection by<br />

means of deflectometers graduated to 1/1000 in. and<br />

placed under each spring pad and under .he center of<br />

the beam.<br />

If you are a frequent visitor to your service department,<br />

you have evidently noticed that occasionally<br />

axle centers are returned which have failed in service.<br />

An investigation was made which attributed the cause<br />

to the following:—<br />

(a) Collisions<br />

(b) Light Sections<br />

(c) Defective Material<br />

(d) Poor F<strong>org</strong>ing Practice<br />

(e) Improper Treatment<br />

Evidence of poor f<strong>org</strong>ing practice is shown by<br />

Figs. 41. 42. 43 and 44. Fig. 41 is a cross section of an<br />

axle center showing burned ends, while Fig. 44 shows<br />

the micro-structure of the same specimen.


September, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

FIGS. 44 to 55—Photomicrographs showing various<br />

defects and structures encountered in front axle f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

299


300 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hear Treating<br />

The cause of the defective material may be one of<br />

several different kinds.<br />

First. Some of the material may be porous. Porous<br />

material is indicated by a large number of minute<br />

blow holes. These blow holes are caused by entrapped<br />

gases in the steel at the time of solidification.<br />

They are not as a rule "closed up" in the rolling operation<br />

and therefore contribute somewhat to a weakness<br />

of the material. This condition is in evidence in<br />

Fig. 45.<br />

Second. Slag Inclusions. Slag inclusions are the<br />

result of non-metallic substances entrapped in the<br />

steel at the time of solidification. This slag may be<br />

one of several forms.<br />

(a) Oxides of the metal which are indicated in<br />

Fig. 46. It will be noted that these patches of foreign<br />

material are separate, i. e.. showing no connection<br />

between them. These isolated inclusions break the<br />

continuity of the metallic mass, and are apt to give<br />

trouble because of the weakness, fracture occurring<br />

along the line or plane in which they lie.<br />

(b) < Hirer non-metallic inclusions such as manganese<br />

sulphide are shown in Figs. 47 and 48. These<br />

show th-j grey color of this slag, and failure may very<br />

readily occur in line with the inclusion.<br />

Segregation. Segregation very frequently surrounds<br />

non-metallic inclusions. A segregation is<br />

clearly indicated surrounding such inclusions in Figs.<br />

49 and 50. Fig. 49 is an extension of a surface fracture,<br />

and that shown in Fig. 50 is composed of inclusions<br />

parallel to the surface.<br />

Heat Treatment.<br />

Heat treatment is an item of vast importance and<br />

must be watched as closely as the selection of the<br />

material and the design, for superior designs and the<br />

best materials may bring failure in service, if the man<br />

at the furnace becomes negligent.<br />

To illustrate a case of negligence let us examine<br />

Microphotographs 51, 52. 53 and 54. which are specimens<br />

taken from a rejected shipment of axle centers<br />

which were f<strong>org</strong>ed from S.aAE. 1035 steel, and were<br />

supposed to be heat treated to a Brinell hardness of<br />

200-250<br />

All these specimens show a structure which has<br />

been caused by overheating. Since these parts were<br />

to be treated, and assuming that these specifications<br />

were carried out, it is clearly indicated that the heating<br />

had been only superficial showing no conscientious<br />

effort to carry either the time or temperature to a point<br />

that would result in a refinement of the structure.<br />

A structure of this type is practically useless for<br />

an axle center, and it would be suicidal to use material<br />

having a structure of this type in a product which is<br />

subjected to dynamic stresses since failure may occur<br />

at any time in as much as the structure itself does<br />

not promote resistance to such stresses.<br />

The axle engineer aims to produce an axle which<br />

when stressed beyond its limit will bend but not break.<br />

and tries to incorporate a structure in his carbon steel<br />

parts, somewhat similar to that shown in Fig. 55.<br />

Arc Welders — Lincoln Electric Company. Cleveland,<br />

has issued a catalog of its welding machines in<br />

which it points out the large number of branches of<br />

industry in which welding is employed.<br />

More Oil from Oil-Field Sands<br />

September, 1925<br />

In preparation for the day. possibly near at hand,<br />

when the output of the oil fields of the United States<br />

will fail to meet our growing oil requirements, the<br />

Department of the Interior, through the Geological<br />

Survey, which is concerned with the geology of oil<br />

fields, has been carrying on studies of the mode of<br />

occurrence of the oil in the oil sands and other rocks.<br />

The principal object of these studies is to learn the<br />

conditions under which the oil is held in the pore<br />

spaces between the fine grains of an oil sand a'nd in<br />

the capillaries of the oil-containing rock, and thus to<br />

heli) in the discovery of some method, either chemical<br />

or physical, by which the oil may be freed from pore<br />

and capillary space and made to flow in larger volume<br />

into the wells — in other words, the studies are directed<br />

toward the recovery of a larger proportion of the<br />

oil that is known to be present in the ground.<br />

In every oil field more or less of the oil is left in<br />

the ground unrecovered. In the Bradford-Olean region<br />

of northwestern Pennsylvania and western New<br />

York, where the oil is of the highest grade, worth $3<br />

or $4 a barrel, the Geological Survey has found that<br />

perhaps 15 per cent of the oil flowed from the sand<br />

into the wells and was recovered before the yield became<br />

too small to pay for pumping and the fields were<br />

abandoned. In portions, of the abandoned area, fresh<br />

water, let down in the wells from a sand about 800 feel<br />

above the oil sand, is made to "drive" out an additional<br />

yield, amounting under favorable conditions to<br />

as much as 20 per cent of the original oil content.<br />

Tests of drill cores and cuttings indicate that about<br />

60 per cent of the oil is still left in the ground after<br />

the "water drive" has done its best. Advances in the<br />

price of oil, which are likely to follow shortage in the<br />

domestic supply, will encourage the application of<br />

special methods of oil recovery if means that can be<br />

used profitably are known.<br />

As the result of examinations and tests of many<br />

oil sands, especially the Bradford sand, and by means<br />

of experiments with various acid and alkaline solutions.<br />

Dr. P. G. Nutting, a physicist of the Geological<br />

Survey, finds that the water associated with the oil<br />

or used to force the oil by water drive from the sands<br />

becomes contaminated within a short time by the<br />

solution of a small amount of oil, which has been determined<br />

in connection with other work to amount to<br />

about two one-hundredths of 1 per cent. Water so<br />

contaminated has lost much of its power to separate<br />

the oil from the sand, and the recovery is therefore<br />

greatly lessened. On the other hand, laboratory tests<br />

based upon samples of sand saturated with Bradford<br />

oil prove that a large part of the oil content can be<br />

driven out by ordinary fresh water if the oil and water<br />

are in contact less than 48 hours. A drive sufficiently<br />

rapid to be completed during so brief a period of contact<br />

is. of course, imoossible in an oil field where the<br />

water travels through the sand but two inches a day<br />

and the wells are about 150 feet apart. Hence, the<br />

problem arises how to prevent the contamination of<br />

the water or counteract its effects while, at the same<br />

time, loosening the grip of the oil on the sand so that<br />

it may be more completely flushed from the pores and<br />

capillaries and driven onward toward the wells. "


September, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

A . S. S. T . R e a d y F o r A n n u a l C o n v e n t i o n<br />

Seventh Annual Convention and Exposition of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating Expected to Surpass All<br />

T H E American Society for Steel Treating is preparing<br />

for its Seventh Annual Convention and<br />

National Steel Exposition scheduled to be held<br />

in Cleveland, the home of the Society, from September<br />

14 to 18. Most of the details have been worked<br />

out by Mr. W. H. Eisenman. the Society's secretary.<br />

and it is reported that this year's convention and exhibition<br />

will surpass all previous efforts of the society.<br />

The technical papers, like those of previous years,<br />

stand out in great prominence and are of splendid<br />

caliber, presenting the latest advances in research and<br />

investigation in the metallurgy of metals. Men of recognized<br />

authority in the industry will present new<br />

and worthwhile ideas. A new and valuable departure<br />

this year is the preprinting of papers to be presented,<br />

and this innovation should add greatly to the interest<br />

and discussion of the papers.<br />

Hardness Symposium.<br />

The work of the Hardness Testing Committee of<br />

the National Research Council has been turned over<br />

to the A. S. S. T. The same committee that accomplished<br />

such excellent results under the National Research<br />

Council will continue with the aA.. S. S. T. The<br />

Hardness Testing Symposium will be held on Wednesday,<br />

September 16, at 2 P. M. at the Hollenden<br />

Hotel. The re<strong>org</strong>anized committee, under the direction<br />

of the A. S. S. T., has prepared an especially attractive<br />

program. The list of papers follows:<br />

"English Hardness Testing Machine of the Brinell<br />

Principle," by Prof. O. W. Boston, University^ of<br />

Michigan.<br />

"Checking Brinell Machines." by Captain S. N. Petrenko,<br />

Bureau of Standards.<br />

"Some Comparisons Between the Rockwell and Brinell<br />

Hardness," by R. C. Brumfield, Materials Testing<br />

Laboratory, Cooper Union.<br />

"Hardness of Cold Rolled Nickel," by Dr. S. R. Williams,<br />

Director of Laboratory, Amherst College.<br />

"The Hardness and Toughness of High Speed Steel<br />

as Affected by Heat Treatment," by Robert K.<br />

Barry, Barry Company, Muscatine, Iowa.<br />

"Stress-Strain Curves and the Characteristics Which<br />

Are Associated with Hardness," by H. P. Hollnagel,<br />

Department of Physics, Thomson Research<br />

Laboratory, General Electric Company, West<br />

Lynn, Mass.<br />

Conference on Metallurgical Education.<br />

Metallurgical education has occupied a very important<br />

part in the deliberations of the society due to<br />

the great interest of the members in the subject. This<br />

year instead of devoting an afternoon to the program,<br />

it has been decided to hold a luncheon conference.<br />

The preparation of this conference is under the direction<br />

of Dr. O. E. Harder, Professor of Metallography,<br />

University of Minnesota.<br />

Previous Gatherings of This Organization<br />

3*01<br />

Manufacture of Steel.<br />

One technical session will be devoted to the manufacture<br />

of steel. This will consist of four papers, one<br />

serving as an introduction showing the relationship of<br />

the total production of steel to the proportion heat<br />

treated. There will be three papers presented on the<br />

following subjects: Basic Open Hearth, Acid Open<br />

Hearth and Electric Furnace Steel.<br />

The first paper on proportion of heat treatment to<br />

production will be presented by C. J. Stark, editor of<br />

Iron Tiade Review. The subject of "Basic Open<br />

Hearth Steel" will be presented by Radcliffe Furness<br />

of the Midvale Company, while "Acid Open Hearth<br />

Steel" will be presented by Edward Whitworth of the<br />

Bourne-Fuller Company. The third paper on "Electric<br />

Furnace Steel" will complete the program. The<br />

high standing of the contributors to this session point<br />

to its being one of the most attractive of the week.<br />

Plant Inspection.<br />

Plant inspection is under the direction of Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />

Allen, Kirby Bldg., whose committee has made arrangements<br />

for scheduling plant inspection on Tuesday,<br />

Wednesday and Friday afternoons. Optional<br />

visits for these days have been provided. Considering<br />

the wide variety of manufacturing in Cleveland<br />

there will, undoubtedly, be many members and guests<br />

who will desire to take these trips. Mr. Allen's committee<br />

has further provided for inspection of other<br />

plants than those included in the main group. These<br />

trips may be made upon application to the committee.<br />

S. A. E. Production Meeting.<br />

The Production Meeting of the S. A. E. is to be<br />

held in Cleveland the same week as the convention<br />

of the A. S. S. T. and National Steel Exposition, the<br />

week of September 14. Details for this production<br />

meeting have been worked out and the tentative program<br />

includes technical sessions on Monday, Tuesday<br />

and Wednesday, September 14, 15 and 16. The Winton<br />

Hotel will be the headquarters for the S. A. E.<br />

and the technical sessions will be held in the Rainbow<br />

Room. The Cleveland committee for the S. A. E.<br />

Production Meeting, under the direction of John<br />

Younger, 2010 East 102nd Street, will co-operate with<br />

the A. S. S. T.. and the features of entertainment for<br />

the men, as well as the ladies, will be a joint affair.<br />

Among the subjects to be discussed will be the<br />

following:<br />

"Foremanship Training."<br />

"Employee Training."<br />

"Economic Study of Machine Tool Equipment."<br />

"What to Purchase and What the Automotive Industry<br />

Needs in Machine Tools."<br />

"Session on Sheet Steel."<br />

"Production Methods in the Heat Treating Department."<br />

A. S. M. E. to Participate.<br />

The participation of the A. S. M. E. with the A. S.<br />

S. T. will take the form of a session on Machine Shop


3112 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heal Tieating<br />

Practice, to be contributed by the .Machine Shop Practice<br />

Division of the A. S. M. E. Mr. F H. Colvin.<br />

editor of The American Machinist, has been appointed<br />

by the executive committee of the division to<br />

take charge of securing papers on Machine Shop and<br />

Machine Shop Practice. The papers will be presented<br />

on Thursday afternoon at the Hollenden Hotel.<br />

The Exposition.<br />

The great Cleveland Public Auditorium has been<br />

entirely reserved b) exhibitors for the National Steel<br />

Exposition. This will be the largest exposition that<br />

the Society has ever held, and the largest steel exposition<br />

ever held in the world. Both of the extensive<br />

floors of the Auditorium as well as the stage have<br />

been reserved by exhibitors who will have their products<br />

on display. This Steel Exposition represents a<br />

complete cycle in the metal working and the metal<br />

treating industry.<br />

Ninety makers of machine tools and small tools<br />

will have exhibits in operation and many others will<br />

show metals, metal treating equipment, testing and<br />

inspection equipment. There will be shown the most<br />

modern works used in the treating of steel and in the<br />

manufacture of steel products, small and large.<br />

September, 1925<br />

Men's Entertainment.<br />

Those who have attended the past six conventions<br />

of the Society realize that besides the wonderful score<br />

of technical sessions and the exposition, the host chapter<br />

always arranges a series of entertainment having<br />

a tendency to add relaxation and enjoyment to educational<br />

process. The men's entertainment committee,<br />

under the leadership of W. J. Abel, has arranged<br />

a schedule of entertainment which bids fair to go<br />

down in history as probably the most complete and<br />

enjoyable of any so far experienced. The numerous<br />

country clubs around Cleveland will be glad to receive<br />

the golf enthusiasts.<br />

The annual smoker will be held in the Rainbow<br />

Room, Winton Hotel, Tuesday, September 15th, and<br />

the dance and banquet at the Hotel Cleveland on<br />

Wednesday and Thursday, respectively. This provides<br />

for two open evenings, Monday and Friday,<br />

WllC'll n the Lilt" visiting mmliiij; ^ guests will have time for the selection<br />

of such events as may interest them<br />

Ladies' Entertainment.<br />

As usual, extensive preparations have been made<br />

for the entertainment of the ladies who will accompany<br />

the members, guests and exhibitors. The enter-<br />

Hotel Cleveland, headquarters for the Seventh Annual Convention, American Society for Steel Treating. Upper insert<br />

Hollenden Hotel, where afternoon sessions will be held. Lower insert—Winton Hotei, headquarters for the Society<br />

of Automotive Engineers.


September. 192:<br />

tainment committee is under the expert direction of<br />

Professor and Mrs. H. M. Boylston. The headquarters<br />

for the ladies will be in the Hotel Cleveland. The<br />

tentative schedule of events is as follows:<br />

Monday, September 14—Luncheon, Hotel Cleveland.<br />

Tuesday, September 15—Drive to Nela Park,<br />

going out through the parks and Bratenahl and returning<br />

through the Heights in the afternoon. Preliminary<br />

luncheon to be served at Nela and the ladies<br />

are to be shown the house lighting exhibit and other<br />

features of interest. Evening—Theater party.<br />

Wednesday, September 16—In afternoon, entertainment<br />

at Women's Club. In evening, dance at<br />

Hotel Cleveland.<br />

Thursday, September 17—In afternoon, short automobile<br />

ride through the West Side, possibly returning<br />

through industrial district over the Pershing Avenue<br />

viaduct. In the evening, banquet at Hotel Cleveland.<br />

Convention Committees.<br />

The committees for the various activities arc as<br />

follows:<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

.103<br />

J. H. Dillard, general chairman, Cleveland Twist<br />

Drill Companv.<br />

H. A. Schwartz, chairman, Cleveland Chapter A. S.<br />

S. T., National Malleable & Steel Castings Company.<br />

A. S. Townsend, secretary, Cleveland Chapter A.<br />

S. S. T., Cleveland Twist Drill Companv.<br />

W. S. Bidle, president, A. S. S. T„" \V. S. Bidle<br />

Company.<br />

E. C. Smith, chairman, Meetings and Papers Committee,<br />

Central Steel Company.<br />

W. C. Bell, chairman, Finance Committee, Case<br />

Hardening Service Company.<br />

II. M. Boylston, vice chairman, Ladies' Entertainment<br />

Committee.<br />

W. F. Abel, chairman. Men's Entertaniment Committee.<br />

25W> Euclid Blvd.<br />

J. V Emmons, chairman, Information Committee,<br />

Cleveland Twist Drill Company.<br />

A. H. Frauenthal, chairman. Transportation Committee,<br />

Chandler Motor Companv.<br />

W. H. White, chairman. Hotels Committee. Atlas<br />

Alloy Steel Corporation.<br />

G. J. Allen, chairman, Plant Inspection Committee,<br />

Heppenstall F<strong>org</strong>e & Knife Company, Kirby Bldg.<br />

C l e v e l a n d - A P r o g r e s s i v e I n d u s t r i a l C e n t e r<br />

Development of Cleveland as a Lake Port a Big Factor in Placing<br />

the City in the Front Rank of Industrial Centers—<br />

FROM an isolated trading post in the wilderness<br />

in 1790 to a thriving metropolis in 1925—this, in<br />

a nutshell, is the history of Cleveland. The city<br />

has grown by steady, substantial processes, until it<br />

now ranks fifth in the United States in population. It<br />

is among the 30 largest cities in the world. Situated<br />

as it is, on the southern shore of Lake Erie, at the<br />

logical ind most economical meeting point of ore, coal<br />

and limestone, Cleveland has become a power in industry.<br />

In the short span of years the trading post of a<br />

score of people has 'grown into a city covering 68<br />

miles. Skyscrapers have replaced the log cabins of<br />

early pioneer days, miles of paved streets have taken<br />

the place of a few Indian trails, while homes have<br />

sprung up on the ground that a century ago was<br />

wilderness and waste. •<br />

Moses Cleaveland, Founder.<br />

Cleveland owes its location to Moses Cleaveland.<br />

chief surveyor for the Connecticut Land Company,<br />

who set out in the spring of 1796 to survey a tract<br />

of 3,000,000 acres that is now Northern Ohio. Cleaveland<br />

and his small band of associates landed on the<br />

banks of the Cuyahoga River, where it joins Lake<br />

Erie, in July of the same year. In September they<br />

laid out the site of the city a mile square on the bluff<br />

overlooking the lake. The early growth of the citywas<br />

slow and marked by many hardships and much<br />

suffering. Four years after its founding, Cleveland<br />

boasted a population of but 25 persons. In 1820 there<br />

were 600, which grew to 6,071 in 1840. From that<br />

time to 1880 Cleveland practically doubled its popula­<br />

Products Are Widely Diversified<br />

tion every ten years. In 1900 the population reached<br />

381,000 and in the last quarter of a century this figure<br />

has almost been tripled.<br />

Lake Port Development.<br />

Development of Cleveland as a lake port, a big<br />

factor in placing the city in the front rank of industrial<br />

centers, played an important part in the growth of the<br />

population. The first steamboat on Lake Erie "The<br />

Walk-in-the-Water," made her maiden trip from Buffalo<br />

to Cleveland in August, 1818. A-\t that time there<br />

were numerous small sailing vessels plying up and<br />

down the lake and many of these brought new faces<br />

to Cleveland. Daily arrivals of boats loaded with five<br />

or six hundred persons were not uncommon. Many<br />

of these emigrants foresaw the material advantages<br />

of Cleveland's geographical location on a great inland<br />

waterway and went no farther.<br />

It was not until the year 1852 that the ship "Baltimore"<br />

entered Cleveland's harbor with the first cargo<br />

of iron ore from the Lake Superior region and paved<br />

the way for a great industry. More than 800 large<br />

ships now ply the Great Lakes. With 14.2 miles of<br />

lake frontage protected by a breakwater 5y miles<br />

long, a harbor amply supplied with docks, both along<br />

the lake shore and along the banks of the Cuyahoga<br />

river, Cleveland is well able to meet the demands of<br />

this ever-increasing business on the lakes.<br />

Within the boundaries of Cleveland more than<br />

3,000 plants, with 200,000 wage earners, annually manufacture<br />

in excess of a billion dollar's worth of products.<br />

The capital invested exceeds $762,000,000.


304 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Tieating<br />

In the heart of a strong buying market, a field of<br />

unlimited trade possibilities, Cleveland naturally<br />

thrives industrially. Half the population of the United<br />

States and Canada lives within a radius of 500 miles<br />

of this metropolis. Its industries supply not only the<br />

people of the United States, but many other nations<br />

as well with a variety of products. In manyr of these<br />

products Cleveland leads the world in total output.<br />

The city's location forms a natural and economical<br />

meeting place for iron ore from the Lake Superior<br />

district, coal from the states of Pennsylvania and West<br />

Virginia, and limestone deposits from northern Ohio.<br />

Its location has met the present day requirements of<br />

combined low cost of transportation and convenience<br />

of distribution. This factor has made it an important<br />

center in the iron and steel industry.<br />

Each year in normal times Cleveland receives more<br />

than 10,000,000 tons of iron ore. While a great deal<br />

of this is reshipped to other cities, enough is refined<br />

here to give the iron and steel business high rank in<br />

all branches of the industry. The value of the iron<br />

and steel output equals one-third the value of all<br />

other Cleveland-made products combined.<br />

The manufacture of iron and steel in Cleveland<br />

dates back to 1828, when one small smelter was established.<br />

It was built of thick masonry and used a<br />

cold blast. The fuel was charcoal and with necessarily<br />

crude methods, production did not exceed 15<br />

or 20 tons per week. The furnace was blown by<br />

horse-power.<br />

The first plant to use steam blast began operations<br />

in 1834 In 1882 the first steel tank ship for carrying<br />

ore was constructed. This marked a new epoch in<br />

the steei industry as it paved the way for cheaper<br />

and more efficient transportation from the mines. Iron<br />

ore now comes to Cleveland almost entirely bv means<br />

of boats specially built to carry it. These are really<br />

floating tanks, some having a capacitv as high as<br />

12,000 tons.<br />

The Cleveland Museum of Art<br />

September, 1925<br />

The handling of ore at the docks is always a source<br />

of interest. Many of the docks are equipped with ore<br />

handling buckets having a "grab" of 10, 17 and 20<br />

tons. An ordinary railway ore car may be loaded<br />

by three grabs of a single bucket. Huge mountains<br />

of ore are familiar sights along Cleveland's docks.<br />

From these storage piles the ore may go to any<br />

of a score of blast furnaces, some of which produce<br />

as high as 600 tons of iron per day. In the pioneer<br />

days of the industry 20 tons per week was a large output.<br />

Cleveland's smelters now have a capacity of<br />

nearly 3,000,000 tons of pig iron annually. One plant<br />

alone has a capacity of more than 700,000 tons of steel<br />

products a year.<br />

Diversity of Industries.<br />

From this basic, pioneer industry, many other lines<br />

of manufacturing have developed. Nearly everything<br />

for which the world has a marked is manufactured in<br />

Cleveland. United States Government reports show<br />

that 83 per cent of the officially classified industries<br />

of the nation are represented here.<br />

Cleveland occupies an important position in the<br />

production of wire nails, bolts and screws, malleable<br />

castings and heavy machinery. It holds high rank<br />

in the production of tacks, drills, steam hammers,<br />

lathes, punches, shears, f<strong>org</strong>es and automatic screw<br />

machines. Other products turned out in great quantities<br />

include wire springs, wire fence and wire nails;<br />

tools of all kinds; hoisting and conveying machinery,<br />

railroad supplies, stoves for oil, gas and coal; office<br />

furniture, scientific instruments, wire of all kinds, artificial<br />

silk, and tow motors.<br />

Cleveland is one of the largest hardware producing<br />

centers in the United States. There are several<br />

large manufacturers of steel office furniture, printing<br />

presses and paper cutters. The only multigraph<br />

manufacturing concern in the United States is located<br />

in Cleveland. Only one city in America produces


September. 1925<br />

more sewing machines. Plumbing supplies, railroad<br />

frogs and crossings, kitchen utensils, washing machines,<br />

aluminum wares, lamps, lighting fixtures, roofing<br />

materials, toilet articles, toys, rubber goods and<br />

small novelties are manufactured here in enormous<br />

quantities.<br />

In the value of annual output, foundry and machine<br />

shop products lead the list. In one year this amounted<br />

to $157,567,000. Automobiles, bodies and parts ranked<br />

second with a value of $154,567,000, while more than<br />

$84,400,000 worth of iron and steel mill products were<br />

manufactured.<br />

Automobile Industry.<br />

From a pioneer automobile manufacturing city<br />

in the '80's, Cleveland has grown to be an important<br />

factor in the production of motor cars and trucks.<br />

The first steam propelled automobile was made in<br />

Cleveland. Its inventor first experimented with sewing<br />

machines, establishing a business which has produced<br />

and sold more than 8,000,000 of these household<br />

time-savers. Later he experimented with bicycles.<br />

The next step was the steam automobile and<br />

this eventually led to the manufacture of a line of<br />

motor trucks, now used the world over.<br />

Another of Cleveland's pioneer automobile manufacturers<br />

worked in a bicycle shop in Cleveland in<br />

1884. After many experiments he built his first automobile<br />

in 1896. Two years later it was put on the<br />

market, the first gas-propelled car in America. There<br />

are now seven pleasure cars manufactured in Cleve­<br />

Erie ffffj<br />

Depot •<br />

1—Hotel Cleveland<br />

2—Hollenden Hotel<br />

3—Statler Hotel<br />

4—Winton Hotel<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

305<br />

land, including the Chandler, Cleveland, Rollin, Jordan,<br />

Peerless, Stearns and Kurtz Automatic.<br />

Cleveland's part in the automobile industry is not<br />

confined to the production of cars. The city ranks<br />

high in the production of automobile parts and accessories.<br />

More springs are made here for wagons, carriages<br />

and automobiles than anywhere else. Storage<br />

batteries, motor cylinders, rims and tubing are produced<br />

in large quantities in Cleveland. Its factories<br />

have daily production capacities of more than 2,000<br />

automobile cylinders, 15,000 carriage wheel rims, 1,500<br />

bands for truck wheels, and 1,200 bases for truck<br />

tires. Frames, axles, bearings, fittings of various<br />

sorts, bodies, carburetors, crank shafts, motors, wheels,<br />

tubings, f<strong>org</strong>ings, stampings and castings for automobiles<br />

are produced in large quantities.<br />

Paint, Clothing, Etc.<br />

For more than a score of years Cleveland has been<br />

a leader of cities in the production of paint and varnishes.<br />

Two of the largest paint companies in the<br />

world maintain administrative offices and plants here.<br />

The output of refined oils totals more than a billion<br />

gallons annually. Its eight leading paint concerns<br />

yearly turn out 116,000,000 pounds, or 10,000,000 galions,<br />

valued at $40,000,000.<br />

With a capitalization of close to $40,000,000, Cleveland's<br />

ready-made clothing industry takes high rank<br />

in the nation. All kinds of women's garments are<br />

made in Cleveland and virtually every kind of men's<br />

clothing. Items include dresses, skirts, suits, cloaks,<br />

Map of business section of Cleveland showing location of hotels, theaters, etc.<br />

Detroit V Buffaia Boots<br />

Hole! Cle ire land<br />

ASST Headquarters<br />

Horning Technical<br />

Sessions,<br />

5—Olmsted Hotel<br />

6—Colonial Hotel<br />

7—Murphy's Hotel<br />

8—New Amsterdam<br />

Hollenden Hotel<br />

Afternoon Technical<br />

Sessions<br />

9—Euclid Hotel<br />

10—Public Auditorium<br />

11—New Public Library<br />

12—Union Trust Bldg.<br />

CLEVELAND<br />

BUSINESS SECTION<br />

Winlon Hotel<br />

SAE Heodauarfers<br />

m m<br />

13—Postoffice 19—Hanna Theater<br />

16—Stillman Theater 20—Y. W. C. A.<br />

17—County Court House 21—Y. M. C. A.<br />

18—City Hall


Mx,<br />

knit goods, men's suits, coats, caps, hats, boy's blouses,<br />

hosiery of all kinds, neckwear and many other articles<br />

of dress. There are 73 mills making various kinds of<br />

men's clothing, employing more than 4,000 persons.<br />

More than $13,300,000 in capital is invested in this<br />

industry. Value of products is estimated at $20,-<br />

000,000<br />

In the field of women's garments there are 103<br />

different factories employing more than 6,000 persons.<br />

Value of products is estimated at $26,000,000 a year.<br />

Capitalization is approximately $10,343,300. More<br />

than $10,000,000 worth of knit goods and $2,353,000<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

September, 1925<br />

pedo carriers or may be used for long distance scouting.<br />

They are equipped with interchangeable landing<br />

gear making them serviceable for land or water.<br />

Banks and Business.<br />

With the remarkable growth of its industries, its<br />

banks have risen to a high rank among the large cities<br />

of the world. In total resources the Federal Reserve<br />

Bank of Cleveland ranks third among the twelve regional<br />

Reserve Banks in the United States. Deposits<br />

of all banks in the city as shown in the latest survey,<br />

totaled $837,605,000. This was an increase of 13 per<br />

City Hall Cuyahoga County Court House<br />

worth of millinery and lace goods are produced annually.<br />

Five individual firms and corporations maintain<br />

brick plants in Cleveland and adjacent territory. The<br />

production of clay products is large and rapidly increasing,<br />

a^ii average of 15,000,000 face bricks, 30,-<br />

000,000 paving bricks, 250,000,000 common bricks and<br />

200,000 tons of hollow tile are produced each year.<br />

Leads in Mazda Lamp Production.<br />

Nela Park, the headquarters of the National Lamp<br />

Works of the General Electric Company, is located<br />

in Cleveland, nine miles east of the business center.<br />

It is famous for the beauty of its architecture, landscape<br />

gardening and its spaciousness. This beautiful<br />

tract of 75 acres, with its executive offices and laboratories,<br />

stands forth prominently as a monument<br />

to scientific research and to modern industry. Back<br />

of the millions of mazda lamps, which, high in the<br />

air on the night air mail, deep in the blackest mines,<br />

on streets and automobiles, in homes, stores, factories<br />

and offices, spells safety, convenience and comfort,<br />

lies the romance of research and engineering which<br />

have made them possible.<br />

Glenn Martin airplane factory, which produces<br />

many of the Government planes for use in the Army<br />

and Navy, planes for the air mail service and planes<br />

for commercial use, is also located in Cleveland. Many<br />

features of the modern science of airplane production<br />

emanate from the Glenn Martin plants. Unique<br />

among these recently was the construction of a fleet<br />

of three-purpose planes to be used by the Navy.<br />

These planes may serve as bombers, battleship-tor-<br />

Playhouse Square, Euclid Avenue<br />

at Fourteenth Street<br />

cent over the previous year. Savings deposits increased<br />

12 per cent. Bank clearings, which furnish a<br />

fairly reliable index of the state of trade, totaled<br />

$5,550,000 in Cleveland, an increase of 19.5 per cent<br />

over the figures of the previous year.<br />

One of the largest bank buildings in existence,<br />

containing the largest banking rooms in the world, is<br />

situated in Cleveland. Towering 21 stories above the<br />

busiest street intersection of the shopping district,<br />

it is truly a symbol of Cleveland's amazing progress<br />

in finance and commerce.<br />

The building covers a gross land area of 95,000<br />

square feet and contains 20,000,000 cubic feet. Visitors<br />

marvel at the tremendous proportions of the<br />

main banking lobby. It has been laid out in the shape<br />

of an L, one wing of which is 250 feet Icing and the<br />

other 336 feet long. It is 50 feet wide and 75 feet high<br />

at its highest point. Huge columns extending along<br />

the sides of both wings are 40 feet high. More than<br />

100 cages flank the wings.<br />

A co-operative plan of financial advertising, started<br />

in Cleveland, has received national attention. This<br />

plan provides for joint advertising campaigns by three<br />

groups, the banks, the investment brokerage houses<br />

and the building and loan associations. The chief<br />

object of this co-ordination of forces is to promote<br />

thrift and to further educate the Cleveland public to<br />

sound investment practice.<br />

The Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers' Cooperative<br />

National Bank, which recently erected a<br />

new 20-story building in Cleveland, was the pioneer<br />

of the labor co-operative financial institutions in<br />

America. This bank has provided the nucleus around


September, 1925<br />

which 21 other co-operative banks have been established<br />

throughout the United States.<br />

Educational Facilities.<br />

Three great universities and 225 public and parochial<br />

schools form the backbone of the educational<br />

system of Cleveland.<br />

Western Reserve University, with its College for<br />

Women, Adelbert College, Schools of Medicine, Law,<br />

Dentistry and Pharmacy, and courses in Education<br />

and Applied Science, is Cleveland's oldest collegiate<br />

institution. Recently plans were begun for its expansion<br />

to provide for a new medical school building, a<br />

babies' hospital, home for nurses and a fine medical<br />

library building. This development, along with other<br />

projects recently completed, will make Cleveland a<br />

foremost medical center.<br />

Adjacent to Western Reserve University is Case<br />

School of Applied Science, which has become favorably<br />

known wherever there is interest in scientific<br />

schools. Its courses include Civil, Mechanical, Electrical,<br />

Mining, Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering<br />

and Physics. The two universities are situated<br />

on high ground overlooking the southern end of Wade<br />

Park, one of Cleveland's natural beauty spots.<br />

John Carroll University, formerly known as St.<br />

Ignatius College, has an honorable record of many<br />

years' 3iiraiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiaiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii|i|ii!:im,iiii:iiiPA<br />

service in Cleveland and its territory. Students<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

i A<br />

receive especially thorough instruction in the classics,<br />

and emphasis is laid on scientific studies. Among<br />

the interesting features of this institution is a seismological<br />

observatory, equipped with three large instruments,<br />

the largest of which contains a 2,400 pound<br />

vertical pendulum. The archives of this department<br />

contain records of practically every tremor observed<br />

in the earth's surface in the last twenty years.<br />

Museum of Art.<br />

The Cleveland Museum of Art is regarded as one<br />

of the most beautiful museum buildings in America.<br />

It has no superior in the perfection of equipment for<br />

handling and preserving its treasures. In addition,<br />

307<br />

it serves a valuable purpose in the educational life<br />

of the city. Being linked closely with the city's<br />

schools and colleges, it has become an essential factor<br />

in their work as well as a center of culture for the<br />

whole community. Its treasures have been selected<br />

for their high quality rather than quantity. While<br />

the collections are small compared with those in some<br />

of the great museums of the world they are made up<br />

of the finest objects procurable, chosen with definite<br />

regard for their educational value.<br />

Public Library.<br />

The public library system of Cleveland is one of<br />

its outstanding educational features. Recently a new<br />

building was erected at a cost of $4,600,000 and forms<br />

a part of Cleveland's Mall, or group plan of public<br />

buildings. Situated in the heart of the business section<br />

it is unusually accessible to all citizens and visitors.<br />

This building provides space for more than<br />

2,000,000 volumes. From this as a nucleus, the library<br />

system extends to 945 branches in all parts of the<br />

city. Even industrial plants are equipped with libraries<br />

as a part of this system. These branches are<br />

realty community centers and their service is invaluable.<br />

The system has more than 200,000 patrons<br />

each year.<br />

Municipal Achievements.<br />

A striking example of the progressive, generous<br />

HiSlBl mi. -*


308 f<strong>org</strong>ing Siamping - Heaf Treating<br />

Since 1910 the street railway system has operated<br />

under what is known as the "Tayler" franchise, a<br />

service-at-cost agreement, which has been the center<br />

of attention of street railway experts throughout the<br />

nation. Under this plan the street railway company<br />

is enitled to a 6 per cent profit on its capital and provision<br />

is made for raising or lowering of fares dependent<br />

upon the condition of the interest fund.<br />

The municipally-owned lighting and heating plant<br />

is another noteworthy achievement of recent years.<br />

Its domestic rate for electric lighting, as well as that<br />

of the private corporation in the field, is the lowest<br />

of any city in the United States using coal to generate<br />

power. Cleveland's location near the rich coal<br />

fields represents a big factor in providing low rates.<br />

The plant has a capacity of 35,000 kilowatts. Plans<br />

are under way to increase this to 50,000 kilowatts.<br />

Cleveland's water, light and heat departments operate<br />

as separate entities to the city government, although<br />

they are subject to the review and control of<br />

September, 1925<br />

world. Its center span is 591 feet long and 95 feet<br />

above the lake level and is built of nickel steel. It<br />

has a total length of 2,880 feet and is 8\y feet wide.<br />

It was constructed at a cost of $5,407,000.<br />

The lower level of this huge structure provides<br />

space for six street car tracks, while the upper leve;<br />

is devoted to vehicular and pedestrian traffic Within<br />

a few hundred yards of the heart of the business section,<br />

it affords an ideal site from which the visitor<br />

may view the shipping and industrial activities of<br />

that section of the city.<br />

An Ideal Meeting Place.<br />

Situated on a large body of water, within an overnight's<br />

ride of half the population of the United States<br />

and Canada, favored by temperate climate in summer<br />

and winter, possessed of splendid hotel facilities, an<br />

auditorium unexcelled anywhere, many magnificent<br />

theatres, a great shopping district and a beautiful<br />

natural park system. Cleveland presents the ideal in<br />

Rose Gardens, Wade Park Scene in Rockefeller Park<br />

the administration. Probably the most conspicuous<br />

development of either of these departments was the<br />

recent construction of Baldwin reservoir. This occupies<br />

fourteen acres of ground and is the largest<br />

covered reservoir in the world. Its "roof" has been<br />

covered by two feet of soil, which eventually will be<br />

sown with grass and shrubbery. When landscape<br />

work is completed it will form the appearance of an<br />

English formal garden.<br />

The water supply, which includes neighboring<br />

cities and villages, is obtained through two intakes<br />

located in Lake Erie about 4y2 miles from the shore<br />

line. One of these intakes, a steel protection crib,<br />

extends above the surface, while the other is of the<br />

submerged type. Tunnels under the bed of the lake<br />

connect these intakes with the pumping station on<br />

shore.<br />

Another great achievement was the construction<br />

of what is known as the Detroit-Superior High Level<br />

Bridge, which spans the Cuyahoga River and Valley<br />

and which is the principal artery of travel between<br />

the east and west sections of the city. Thii :s th^;<br />

largest double-deck, re-inforced concrete bridge in the<br />

Wooded Road, a scene in Ambler Park<br />

convention cities. During the season of lake navigation,<br />

it is particularly attractive. Delegates and visitors<br />

traversing the Great Lakes district have the added<br />

advantage of traveling by rail or by rail-and-water<br />

as Cleveland is connected by steamer with nearly<br />

every port on the upper lakes. Delegates to conventions<br />

during the season of navigation are enabled to<br />

combine business with pleasure by taking a tour up<br />

or down the Great Lakes either before or after the<br />

convention. Opportunity is also afforded for outings<br />

at numerous summer resorts near by.<br />

A fine public auditorium was recently erected in<br />

Cleveland. This immense building, costing $6,900,000,<br />

has a seating capacity of 12,500 and when used for expositions<br />

it affords 70,000 square feet of floor space.<br />

Ideally located in the heart of the downtown section,<br />

within easy walking distance of all principal hotels,<br />

public and semi-public office building, wholesale establishments<br />

and the shopping district, the auditorium<br />

presents unusual convenience for large gatherings or<br />

for staging public entertainments.<br />

A motor trip through the parks always proves a<br />

delight. Extending like a girdle around the greater


September, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating<br />

TENTATIVE PROGRAM<br />

SEVENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION<br />

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR STEEL TREATING<br />

CLEVELAND, SEPTEMBER 14-18, 1925<br />

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14<br />

Morning Session<br />

Meeting in Ball Room, Hotel Cleveland<br />

10:00—Welcome by Cleveland Chapter—H. A. Schwartz, Chairman.<br />

Address of Welcome—Colonel Dillard, General Chairman.<br />

Response—President W. S. Bidle.<br />

Technical Session<br />

10:15—"Interpretation of Notched Bar Impact Test Results"—Paul<br />

Heymans, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,<br />

Mass.<br />

10:50—"Chemical Composition of Tool Steels"—J. P. Gill and M. A.<br />

Frost, Vanadium Alloys Steel Co., Latrobe, Pa.<br />

11:25—Experiments 1:00-—Exposition<br />

opens. with Nickel, Tantalum, Cobalt and Molybdenum<br />

2:00- —Technical in High Speed Session—Ball Steels—H. Room, J. French, Hotel Hollenden. Bureau of Standards,<br />

2:00-Washington,<br />

Chairman, Dr. D. A. C. E. White.<br />

—"Effect of Cold-Work Afternoon on Endurance Session and Other Properties of<br />

2:40-Metals,"<br />

D. J. McAdam, Jr., TJ. S. Naval Engineering Ex­<br />

3:20-periment<br />

Station, Annapolis, Md.<br />

—"Graphitization at Constant Temperature," H. A. Schwartz,<br />

National Malleable & Steel Castings Co., Cleveland.<br />

—Some Factors Affecting Coercive Force and Residual Induction<br />

of Some Magnet Steels," J. R. Adams and F. E. Goeckler,<br />

Midvale Co., Nicetown, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Evening Session<br />

9:30-<br />

Exposition open until 10:00 P. M.<br />

9:30-<br />

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15<br />

9: SO-<br />

Morning Session<br />

Meeting in Ball Room, Hotel Cleveland<br />

10:30-<br />

Chairman, Dr. J. A. Mathews.<br />

11:15-—Steel<br />

Melting Session.<br />

12:30-—"Proportion<br />

of Heat Treated Steel to Total Production," C. J.<br />

Stark. Iron Trade Review, Cleveland.<br />

—"Acid Open Hearth Steel," Radclyffe Furness, Midvale Co.,<br />

1:00-<br />

Nicetown, Philadelphia.<br />

1:30-<br />

—"Basic Open Hearth Steel," Edward Whitworth, Bourne-Fuller<br />

2:00-<br />

Co., Cleveland.<br />

2:00--"Electric<br />

Furnace Steel," F. T. Sisco, McCook Field, Dayton,<br />

Ohio.<br />

2:40-<br />

—"Metallurgical Education Symposium Luncheon," Hotel Cleve<br />

3:20- land. Chairman, Dr. A. E. White.<br />

Afternoon Session<br />

—Exposition opens.<br />

-Plant Inspection, Midland, Steel Products Company or National<br />

6:00- Carbon Company. .<br />

S. T. M.—Old Colony<br />

9:30- -Technical<br />

Club, Hollenden<br />

Session—Ball<br />

Hotel.<br />

Room, Hotel Hollenden. Chairman,<br />

—Annual<br />

Dr. Zay<br />

Smoker<br />

Jeffries.<br />

and Entertainment.<br />

-"Comparative<br />

Exposition open<br />

Slow-Bend<br />

until 10:00<br />

and<br />

P.<br />

Impact<br />

M.<br />

Notched Bar Tests on<br />

WEDNESDAY,<br />

Some Metals,"<br />

SEPTEMBER<br />

S. N.<br />

16<br />

Petrenko, Bureau of Standards, Wasnington,<br />

D. C.<br />

Morning Session<br />

9:30-<br />

-"Effect<br />

Meeting<br />

of Reheating<br />

in Ball<br />

on<br />

Room,<br />

Cold<br />

Hotel<br />

Drawn<br />

Cleveland<br />

Bars," S. C. Spalding,<br />

-Annual<br />

Halcomb<br />

Meeting<br />

Steel<br />

of<br />

Co.,<br />

the<br />

Syracuse,<br />

American<br />

N.<br />

Society<br />

Y.<br />

for Steel Treating,<br />

-"Application<br />

Chairman, W.<br />

of<br />

S.<br />

the<br />

Bidle.<br />

Mathematics of Probability to Experi­<br />

Report<br />

mental<br />

of<br />

Data<br />

Chapter<br />

as<br />

Delegates.<br />

a Basis for Appropriate Choice of lerrous<br />

Report<br />

10:30- Materials,"<br />

of Officers.<br />

B. D. Saklatwalla and H. T. Chandler, Vanadium<br />

Corporation of America,<br />

Technical<br />

Bridgeville,<br />

Session<br />

Pa.<br />

11:15- Evening Session<br />

Chairman, Dr. G. K. Burgess<br />

-"Retained<br />

-Dinner Meeting<br />

Austenite<br />

of Committee<br />

— A Contribution<br />

E-4, A.<br />

to the Metallurgy of<br />

Magnetism," Dr. John A. Mathews, Crucible Steel Company<br />

of America, New York City.<br />

1:00-<br />

-"On Martensite," Dr. H. Hanemann, Technischen Hochschule,<br />

1:30-<br />

Charlottenburg, Germany. (To be presented by Dr. S. L.<br />

Hoyt.)<br />

Afternoon Session<br />

-Exposition opens.<br />

-Plant Dutton Inspection, Company. White Motor Car Company or Van Dorn and<br />

309<br />

2:00—Technical Session Ball Room, Hollenden Hotel. Chairman,<br />

E. C. Bain.<br />

2.00—The Carbon Content of Pearlite in Iron Carbon Alloys Containing<br />

One Per Cent Silicon," Anson Hayes and H. U.<br />

Wakefield, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.<br />

2:30—"Irregular Carburization — Its Causes and Preventions," W. J.<br />

Merten, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., East<br />

Pittsburgh.<br />

3:00—"A Study of Dendritic Structure and Crystal Formation,"<br />

Bradley Stoughton and F. J. G. Duck, Lehigh University,<br />

Bethlehem, Pa.<br />

3:30—"Oil Burning Equipment for Industrial Furnaces," M. H.<br />

Mawhinney, General Furnace Co., Pittsburgh.<br />

Evening Session<br />

9:30—Annual Dance, Ball Room, Hotel Cleveland.<br />

Exposition open until 10:00 P M.<br />

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 17<br />

Morning Session<br />

Meeting in Ball Room, Hotel Cleveland<br />

9:30—Technical Session. Chairman, Dr. Albert Sauveur.<br />

9:30—"Initial Temperature and Mass Effects in Quenching," H. J.<br />

French and O. Z. Klopsch, Bureau of Standards, Washington,<br />

D. C.<br />

10:20—"On the Nature of Some Low-Tungsten Tool Steels," M. A.<br />

Grossmann, United Alloy Steel Corp., Canton, Ohio, and<br />

E. C. Bain. Union Carbide & Carbon Research Laboratories,<br />

Long Island City, N. Y.<br />

11:10—"Effect of Cold Working on Hollow Cylinders," Dr. F. C.<br />

Langenberg, Watertown Arsental, Watertown, Mass.<br />

Afternoon Session<br />

2:00—A Session Contributed by the American Society of Mechanical<br />

Engineers, Machine Shop Practice Division. Ball Room,<br />

Hollenden Hotel.<br />

"Modern Surface Grinding," Henry K. Spencer, Blanchard<br />

Machine Co., Cambridge, Mass.<br />

"Dies," . Mr. Keller, Keller Mechanical Engineering Corp.,<br />

Brooklyn, N. Y.<br />

Titles of other papers to be supplied later.<br />

2:00—"Symposium," Hardness Testing Committee of the A. S. S. T.<br />

Hollenden Hotel. Chairman, A. E. Bellis.<br />

2:00—"Electric Ring for Verification of Brinell Hardness Testing<br />

Machines," S. N. Petrenko, Bureau of Standards, Washington,<br />

D. C.<br />

2:20—"Some Comparisons Between Rockwell and Brinell Hardness,"<br />

R. C. Brumfield, Cooper Union, New York City.<br />

2 :40—"Hardness and Toughness of High Speed Steel as Affected by<br />

the Heat. Treatment," R. K. Barry, Barry Co., Muscatinp,<br />

Iowa.<br />

3.00—"Stress-Strain Curve and the Characteristics Which Are Associated<br />

with Hardness," H. P. Hollnagel, General Electric<br />

Co., West Lynn, Mass.<br />

3:20—"English Hardness Testing Machine of the Brinell Principle"—<br />

O. W. Boston, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.<br />

3:40—"The Durometer—An Instrument for Testing Hardness" Dr.<br />

Albert Sauveur, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.<br />

5:30—Exposition closes for the day.<br />

Evening Session<br />

6:30—Annual Banquet of the A. S. S. T., Ball Room, Hotel Cleveland,<br />

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 18<br />

Morning Session<br />

9:30—Technical Session, Ball Room, Hotel Cleveland. Chairman,<br />

Bradley Stoughton.<br />

9:30—"Carburization by Solid Cements," W. E. Day, Jr., International<br />

Afternoon Evening 10:00—Exposition 11:10—"What 10:20—"Dilatometric 2:00—Technical 3:20—"Welding 2:00—"Why 2:40—"Design 1:30—Plant Session Welding Field, versity, Doehler Dowdell neapolis, Steel Chairman, Moore, Exposition Motor Session Inspection, Metal Happens & and Dayton, Co., Session, University Steel Die Lafayette, Wire officially and Wire," Minn. Operation H. opens Warps Method New Castings A. Tubing M. Company, When Ohio. F. Ball C. Brunswick, F. at closes.<br />

Boylston. of Ind. and of Forsythe, H. 1 of T. Room, Co., Illinois, Metal P. and Heat Furnaces Cracks," Glidden Sisco Cuyahoga M. Batavia, Sheet Treatment," Fails Hollenden N. University Urbana, and J. for Company J. with by Plant. N. H. Salt F. \. 111. Fatigue," Hotel. W. Chrome Keller, O. of Baths"—Sam Boulton, or E. Minnestota, Harder, the Purdue Prof. Molybdenum American McCook H. R. Tour, MinUni­ F. L.


310<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S f amping - Heaf Treating<br />

LIST OF EXHIBITORS AT THE<br />

PUBLIC AUDITORIUM<br />

Name<br />

Name Booth No.<br />

Abrasive Machine Tool Co 250 Cooper Hewitt Electric Co 206<br />

Acme Machine Tool Co.. . , 254 Crucible Steel Co. of Am 74-75-76<br />

Air Reduction Sales Co 271 and 281 Davenport Machine Tool Co.. 250<br />

Ajax Mfg. Co 3 Davison Gas Burner & Welding Co... 216<br />

Allen Co 213 Dearborn Chemical Co 63<br />

American Gas Furnace Co.... 220-221-222 Disston & Sons. Inc 22<br />

American Resistor Cn , 116-A Donner Steel Co 93<br />

American Stainless Steel Co 81 Driver-Harris Co 95<br />

American Tool Works 224-225 Electrical Refractories Co.. . 120-B<br />

Ames & Co 210 Electric Furnace Co 116-B<br />

Anchor Drawn Steel Co 84 Electro Alloys Co 114-A<br />

Andresen & Associates, Inc 11 Engelhard, Inc 53<br />

Armstrong-Blum Mfg. Co 45 Ex-Cell-0 Tool & Mfg. Co 287<br />

Armstrong Cork & Insulating Co 57 Firth Sterling Steel Co 14-15<br />

Atkins & Co 100 Ford Company 56<br />

Atlas Alloy Steel Corp 118 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating 34-A<br />

Avey Drilling Machine Co 253 Ganschow Company 62<br />

Badger Tool Co 258<br />

Gardner Tap & Die Co 18<br />

Baker Brothers 246 Oathmann Engineering Co 107<br />

Bnth & Co., Inc 47 General Alloys Co 42 and 58<br />

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co 24 General Electric Co 99<br />

Bellevue Industrial Furnace Co 121 Geometric Tool Co 233<br />

Bellis Heat Treating Co 117 Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co... 245<br />

Bethlehem Steel Co 20. 21, 31 and 32 Gisholt Machine Co 223-A<br />

Biltnn Machine Tool Co 217 Goddard & Goddard Co 90<br />

Black & Decker Mfg. Co 46 Goss & DeLeeuw Machine Co 266-B<br />

Blanchard Machine Co 256 Gould & Eberhradt, Inc 247<br />

Bristol Co 35 Gray Company 237<br />

Brown Instrument Co 65-66 Hagan Company 13<br />

Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co 234-235 Halcomb Steel Co 85-86<br />

Brown Lvnch Scott Co 120-A Hammond Mfg. Co 212<br />

Bullard Machine Tool Co 253 Hanson-Whitney Machine Co 282<br />

Bureau of Standards 113 Heald Machine Co 267-268<br />

Campbell. Inc 232<br />

Heim Grinder Co 215<br />

Case Cleveland Carpenter Cebte Central Cincinnati Carborundum Colonial Hardening Products Steel Twist Automatic Bickford Steel Milling Shaper Planer Co Co. Co Drill Co Service Co Machine Co Tool Machine Co. 51. Co 269. Co Co. 52, Co 270 252 67 and . and . 26-37 233 217 257 102 41 48 17 , 280 261 68 255 Internationa] Heppenstall Hevi-Dutv Holcroft Hoskins Houghton International Interstate Iron Ace Mfg. & Iron Publishing & Electric Co F<strong>org</strong>e Nickel Co Machine & Steel & Co Co Knife Co Tool Co 215 78 and 54-55 106 108 lfi 23 98 83 99<br />

September, 1925<br />

Nome Booth No.<br />

Jessop Steel Co , 119<br />

Jones & Lamson Machine Co .... 229-230<br />

Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp<br />

Kai-dex-Rund Co Lobby<br />

79<br />

Kearney & Trecker Corp 205<br />

Keller Mech. Engineering Corp.. . 248-249<br />

Kelly Reamer Co 284<br />

Keystone Lubricating Co 88<br />

King Machine Tool Co 236<br />

King Refractories Co 19<br />

Knight Machinery Co<br />

I.andis Tool Co 293-294<br />

214<br />

Leeds & Northrup Co 10<br />

Lehmann Machine Co 285<br />

Leitz, Inc 35<br />

Leland-Giffora Co 204<br />

Liberty Machine Tool Co 218-219<br />

Lodge & Shipley Mnchine Tool Co 260<br />

Lucas Machine Tool Co 242<br />

Ludlum Steel Co<br />

Marschke Mfg. Co 292<br />

29-30<br />

Midvale Company 77<br />

Monarch Machine Tool Co 207<br />

Morris Machine Tool Co 286<br />

Morse Twist Drill & Machine Co 82<br />

Motch & Merryweather Machinery Co.<br />

244 to 261<br />

National Automatic Tool Co... 228 and 238<br />

National Electric Light 110<br />

National Equipment Co 259<br />

Nat. Twist Drill & Tool Co. ..265 and 275<br />

Neumann's Successors, Inc 288<br />

New Britain Machine Co 239-240<br />

Norton Company 231 and 241<br />

Xuttall Company<br />

O. K. Tool Co 276<br />

59<br />

Oesterlein Machine Co 289<br />

Ohio Steel Foundry Co 38<br />

Oilgear Company 226<br />

Oliver Instrument Co 227<br />

Olsen Testing Machine Co., Tinius... 43<br />

Oxweld Acetylene Co 101<br />

Park Chemical Co Ill<br />

Peerless Machine Co 12<br />

Pels & Co 291<br />

Penton Publishing Co 40<br />

Pittsburgh Crucible Steel Co 87<br />

Pittsburgh Instrument & Machine Co.. 103<br />

Potter & Johnston Machine Co 223-B<br />

Pratt & Whitney Co 277-278<br />

Production Machine Co<br />

Republic Flow Meters Co 69-70<br />

251<br />

Rockford Machine Tool Co 287<br />

Rockford Milling Machine Co 287<br />

Rockwell Co 61<br />

Rodman Chemical Co 84<br />

Roessler & Hasslaclier Chemical Co... 44<br />

Sebastian Lathe Co 290<br />

Seneca Falls Machine Co 295<br />

Shore Instrument & Mfg. Co 34-B<br />

Simonds Saw & Steel Co 72-73<br />

Skinner Chuck Co 92<br />

Skybrite Co 109<br />

Spencer Turbine Co 223<br />

Stamets Company 282 and 292<br />

Standard Tool Co 92<br />

Starrett Co 94<br />

Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Company<br />

207 to 216 and 224 to 238<br />

Taylor United Vanaduim-Allovs Walcott Strong, Sun Surface Swindell Thompson Swedish Taylor Timken Union Universal WTilson-Maeulen V Whitney Wrilmarth Warner Westinghouse Wheelock. H Oil O Twist Instrument Allov & Carlisle Combustion & Roller Press Lathe Crucible & Mfg. Co Grinding & Lovejoy Grinder Fenn & Swasey Bros Sons Drill Morman Steel Elec. Co Bearing & Co Steel 264 Co & Co Hammond Co Machine & Co Corp Co., Mfg. 112 and Co Co 49 Inc.. 64 274 Co Company 28 80 272-273 104-105 262-263 and 96-97 259 115 283 279 254 282 243 36 27 60 71 25<br />

39 91


September, 1925<br />

part of the city, the park and boulevard system is<br />

rivalled by few cities in the United States in its picturesque<br />

natural scenery. Deep ravines, water-falls,<br />

fine old forests, sandy stretches of beach and huge<br />

rock formations of Lake Erie's shoreline, all combine<br />

to give these pleasure grounds rare charm. Twenty<br />

parks, with more than 40 miles of well paved driveways<br />

and boulevards, comprising 2,240 acres, make<br />

up this great system. It contains 14 children's playgrounds,<br />

50 baseball diamonds, 63 tennis courts, 14<br />

skating ponds, 15 football fields and a sporty 27-hole<br />

municipal golf course.<br />

Brging- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating 311<br />

In addition to this splendid park area, Cleveland<br />

and its surrounding territory embraces what is known<br />

as the Metropolitan Park District. This system, now<br />

under development, combines into one continuous<br />

outer encircling parkway the more important valleys<br />

and glens in Cuyahoga county and parts of the neighboring<br />

counties. The original project was a parkway<br />

approximately 70 miles in length, with an estimated<br />

area of 7,500 to 10,000 acres. The project now<br />

proposed embraces between 15,000 and 20,000 acres<br />

of parks and parkways.<br />

E x h i b i t o r s a n d W h a t T h e y W i l l E x h i b i t<br />

Abrasive Machine Tool Company, East Providence, R. I.<br />

Booth 250. Exhibiting in operation: No. 3 horizontal<br />

spindle surface grinder; No. 33 vertical spindle surface<br />

grinder. In attendance: K. B. MacLeod and N. D. Mac­<br />

Leod.<br />

Acme Machine Tool Company, Cincinnati, O. Booth 254.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: No. 2 full universal turret lathe.<br />

In attendance: C. Meier and Mr. Stehn.<br />

Air Reduction Sales Company, New York City. Booths 271<br />

and 281. Exhibiting in operation: Airco oxygen, Airco<br />

acetylene and Airco calorene in cylinders. Airco-Davis-<br />

Bournonville welding and cutting torches, regulators and<br />

supplies. Airco-Davis-Bournonville oxygen discharge<br />

manifold. Radiagraph for oxy-acetylene machine cutting.<br />

Oxygraph for oxy-acetylene machine cutting. In attendance:<br />

G. F. Weiser, industrial engineering department;<br />

W. F. Cooper, J. H. Gjerdum, C. E. Hobbs.<br />

Ajax Manufacturing Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booth 3.<br />

Exhibiting: Model Ajax upsetting f<strong>org</strong>ing machine.<br />

Model Ajax board drop hammer and sample upset f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

In attendance: J. R. Blakeslee, president; H. D.<br />

Heman, general manager; A. L. Guilford, western manager;<br />

J. A. Murray, eastern manager; Gordon Fristoe, sales<br />

engineer, and W. W. Criley.<br />

Allen Company, Charles G., Barre, Mass. Booth 213. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: One four-spindle Allen ball bearing<br />

power feed drilling machine. One four-spindle Allen ball<br />

bearing drilling machine, showing different types of heads.<br />

In attendance: Harding Allen and Charles G. Allen.<br />

American Gas Furnace Company, Elizabeth, N. J. Booths<br />

220, 221 and 222. Exhibiting in operation: Gas carbonizing<br />

machine, salt bath furnaces for preheating high speed<br />

and for drawing carbon and high speed steel. High speed<br />

steel oven furnace operating on high pressure gas supplied<br />

by rotary gas booster. Burners and blowpipes, automatic<br />

temperature controller and new type high pressure blower.<br />

In attendance: P. C. Osterman, vice president; W. H.<br />

Kelsey, Cleveland representative; John Mehrman, chief<br />

demonstrator; Theodore Farwick, Sr., automatic temperature<br />

controller and burner representative; Gustav Schwab.<br />

American Resistor Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Booth 116-A.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Globar non-metallic electric heating<br />

elements in actual operation at temperatures ranging<br />

from 1600 to 3000 deg. F. High speed steel heat treating<br />

and f<strong>org</strong>ing furnaces equipped with Globar non-metallic<br />

heating elements, operating at temperatures up to 2400<br />

deg. F. Laboratory and assay furnaces equipped with<br />

Globar non-metallic heating elements operating at temperatures<br />

up to 3000 deg. F. In attendance: Jos. A. Steinmetz,<br />

president; W. W. Perkins, vice president and treasurer;<br />

W. E. Duersten, vice president in charge of operations;<br />

B. G. Tarkington, Oscar Brophy, H. N. Shaw and<br />

K. E. Rogers, sales engineers.<br />

American lathe; stainless Neale, Exhibiting Exhibiting: 24-in. president;-C. Tool Stainless steel in motor-driven Works, Varied and operation: Steel stainless S. assortment Cincinnati, Company, Bunting, shaper; 14 iron. in. O. secretary. of 24 Pittsburgh. by In Booths articles in. 6 attendance: ft. by 224 motor-driven<br />

12 made Space ft. and heavy J. from 81. 225. C.<br />

pattern motor driven laths; 5-ft. triple purpose radial drill,<br />

motor driven; 3-ft. maxi-speed sensitive radial drill, motor<br />

driven; 3-ft. gear box belt-driven radial drill. In attendance:<br />

J. C. Hussey, western sales manager.<br />

Ames & Co., B. C, Waltham, Mass. Booth 210. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: One bench lathe mounted on cabinet; one<br />

bench milling machine, and one triplex lathe. In attendance:<br />

Warren Ames, president.<br />

Anchor Drawn Steel Company, Latrobe, Pa. Booth 84. Exhibiting:<br />

"Gold Anchor" high speed drill rods; "Blue Anchor"<br />

carbon drill rods; "Red Anchor" carbon drill rods;<br />

cold drawn threading chaser steel in high speed, carbon<br />

and alloy grades; cold drawn tap steel in high speed, \y2<br />

per cent tungsten and alloy grades; cold drawn stainless<br />

steel and iron in rounds (down to .103 in.), squares, flats,<br />

hexagons, octagons and turbine and special shapes; cold<br />

drawn special shapes in high speed, tool steels, alloy steels,<br />

carbon steels and screw stock; cold drawn key stock and<br />

cold drawn specialties. In attendance: D. R. Wilson.<br />

president; G. W. Morrison, vice president in charge of<br />

operations; W. W. Noble, vice president in charge of<br />

sales; Felix Kremp, metallurgist.<br />

Andresen & Associates, Inc., F. C, Pittsburgh. Booth 11.<br />

Exhibiting: "Fuels and Furnaces." In attendance: Elmer<br />

C. Cook, managing editor, and I. S. Wishoski, engineering<br />

editor.<br />

Armstrong-Blum Mfg. Company, Chicago, 111. Booth 45.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Marvel automatic high speed<br />

saw; Marvel metal band saw; Marvel hack sawing machines;<br />

Marvel punch, shear and bender. In attendance:<br />

H. J. Blum, secretary.<br />

Armstrong Cork & Insulating Company, Pittsburgh. Booth<br />

57. Exhibiting: Cork and cork specialties, Armstrong's<br />

corkboard, Nonpareil cork covering, Nonpareil high pressure<br />

covering (insulating), Nonpareil and Armstrong's<br />

insulating brick, Linotile and Armstrong's cork tile. In<br />

attendance: J. T. Gower, Cleveland manager; P. W.<br />

Adams, N. P. Waite, James A. Wilson.<br />

Atkins & Company, E. C, Indianapolis, Ind. Booth 100. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Atkins silver steel hack saw blades.<br />

Atkins No. 3 metal band saw machine; Atkins No. 18 and<br />

No. 7 Kwik-Kut machines. In attendance. Edw. S. Norvell,<br />

manager metal cutting department; H. L. Pruner, district<br />

metal saw specialist; A. Mertz, Cleveland representative;<br />

W. R. Chapin, metallurgist; Wm. Appel, chemist.<br />

Atlas Alloy Steel Corporation, Dunkirk, N. Y. Booth 118.<br />

Exhibiting: High speed carbon and alloy tool steels in<br />

various forms such as hot rolled, cold drawn, f<strong>org</strong>ed, etc.<br />

In attendance: A. F. Dohn, president; F. B. Lounsberry,<br />

vice president and metallurgist; C. P. Burgess, assistant to<br />

president; Walter Bould, assistant treasurer; W. H. Wills,<br />

assistant metallurgist; D. G. Hoyt, assistant metallurgist;<br />

Avey one drills, one design W. and Exhibiting Drilling single H. single J. one of E. White, spindle motor with Jones, spindle Machine in operation: Cleveland automatic salesman.<br />

mounting; No. Company, 2 \l/z Aveymatic district feed Two high one and Cincinnati, manager; speed two spindle with one spindle with hand motor No. O. J. tapping feed S. No. 2 on Booth Marlowe sensitive spindle; of 3, unit; 253. new one


312 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating<br />

spindle Avevmatic feed, one with tapping head. In attendance:<br />

J. G. Hey. J. Mirrieless, Mr. Hazeldine, and L. B.<br />

Patterson, president.<br />

Badger Tool Company, Beloit, Wis. Booth 258. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: No. 220 double wheel surface grinder; No. 8<br />

belt-driven disc grinder with power operated lever feed<br />

table. In attendance: E. B. Gardner, John Nielsen.<br />

Baker Brothers, Toledo. O. Booth 246. Exhibiting in operation:<br />

No. 24 cam feed drill; No. 3 two-way horizontal<br />

boring and drilling machine; No. 525 heavy duty drill. In<br />

attendance: H. Tigges; William Baker, treasurer; W. W.<br />

Elliott; Ge<strong>org</strong>e E. Hallcnbeck, vice president.<br />

Bath & Company, Inc., John, Worcester. Mass. Booth 47.<br />

Exhibiting: Ground thread tools including ground taps,<br />

hobs, roll thread dies, plug thread gages and chasers. Bath<br />

internal micrometers. Whereas we featured last year simply<br />

our precision thread grinding work, this year we will<br />

supplement our standard exhibit with samples of worn out<br />

taps showing the remarkable production records secured<br />

from Bath products. These samples will be secured from<br />

plants engaged in many different types of manufacturing<br />

and will show the universal application of Bath ground<br />

thread tools. The point we will stress is the economy of<br />

Bath ground thread tools, as evidenced by the service life<br />

of the samples on exhibit. Our slogan this year will be<br />

"More holes per dollar of tap investment." We will feature<br />

this year our new ground thread hand book which will<br />

be unique. It will embrace not only a catalog of Bath<br />

ground thread tools, but also a short history of ground<br />

thread work, together with a section of general information<br />

and "tapping helps." This will be one of the most<br />

constructive and helpful catalogs covering threaded tools.<br />

In attendance: John Bath, president and treasurer; J. Chester<br />

Bath, vice president.<br />

Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y. Booth<br />

24. Exhibiting: Metallographic equipment, with some new<br />

features. Contour measuring projector and several new<br />

optical devices for shop use. In attendance: W. L. Patterson.<br />

I. L. Nixon, H. L. Shippy, F. C. Lap and L. V.<br />

Foster.<br />

Bellevue Industrial Furnace Company, Detroit, Mich. Booth<br />

121. Exhibiting: Bellevue high speed furnace with section<br />

cut away showing inner construction; Bellevue high<br />

temperature fire brick; Bellevue oil and gas burners. In<br />

attendance: Walter E. Hinz, president and general mana­<br />

ger; L. J. Raymo. sales manager.<br />

September, 1925<br />

Bellis Heat Treating Company, Branford, Conn C Booth O R 117 R I D O Walker, R Pittsburgh-Cleveland district manager; H. W.<br />

Exhibiting: Lavite, the ideal heating medium; Lavite pots<br />

and furnaces with work that has been heat treated in<br />

EXIT<br />

Lavite. including annealed wire, a nickel - silver, g spoon g blanks, g<br />

Moss, Detroit district manager; L. G. Bean, Boston district<br />

manager; C. C. Eagle. Philadelphia district manager;<br />

14 H. G. Hall, is 1 ''<br />

Chicago district manager; H. E. Bean, Bir­<br />

••Be<br />

18<br />

watch cases, carbon steel gears, punches and dies, hard­<br />

ENTRANCE<br />

42<br />

58<br />

20<br />

31<br />

ENTRANCE 74<br />

85<br />

-13<br />

59<br />

21<br />

32<br />

44<br />

60<br />

75<br />

86<br />

45<br />

61<br />

22<br />

33<br />

76<br />

87<br />

46<br />

62<br />

23<br />

34 A 34 B<br />

47<br />

63<br />

77<br />

88<br />

2a1<br />

35<br />

48<br />

64<br />

78<br />

89<br />

49<br />

65<br />

25<br />

36<br />

50<br />

66<br />

79<br />

90<br />

ened high speed steel form cutters, drills, etc. Annealed<br />

gold, brass and nickel strip and wire. In attendance: A.<br />

E. Bellis, president; W. E. Hitchcock, treasurer; G. C.<br />

Davis, New England representative.<br />

Bethlehem Steel Company, Bethlehem. Pa. Booths 31, 32, 20<br />

and 21. Exhibiting: Educational exhibit, concentrating<br />

on Lehigh Mill products such as alloy and tool steels and<br />

miscellaneous merchant mill products and special sections.<br />

Interesting castings made from mixtures of Mayri iron,<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>ings and small difficult press f<strong>org</strong>ings as well as<br />

some miscellaneous specialties. In attendance: If. G.<br />

Walton, D. A. Barklev, R. MacDonald, C. K. Chamberlain.<br />

F. W. Baldwin, f. J. Fitzgibbons, R. S. Tucker, VV.<br />

C. Cutler, J. C. Chandler, P. Kreulin, A. D. Smitn, all of<br />

sales department; A. P. Spooner, engineer of tests; Robert<br />

Shimer, sales metallurgist; Walter Trumbauer, H.<br />

Wysor, director of research; A. D. Shankland, metallurgical<br />

inspector, and others.<br />

Bilton Machine Tool Co., Bridgeport, Conn. Booth 217. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: No. 3l/2 and No. 6y2 Pro-Ducto-<br />

Matic drilling machines.<br />

vice president.<br />

In attendance: E. A. Harper,<br />

Black & Decker Mfg. Co., Towson, Md. Booth 46. Exhibiting:<br />

Complete line of portable electric drills, bench and<br />

post drill stands, portable electric grinders, electric bench<br />

grinders, electric twist drill grinders, portable electric tappers<br />

and portable electric screw drivers and socket<br />

wrenches. All tools in actual operation, visualizing their<br />

adptability to the various jobs most commonly met with<br />

in industrial work. In attendance: S. D. Black, president;<br />

R. W. Procter, sales manager; W. C. Allen, sales<br />

supervisor;; R. D. Black, advertising manager; G. M.<br />

Buchanan, industrial sales department; R. E. Mizener, industrial<br />

representative; C. M. Hall, Cleveland office manager;<br />

T. C. Cornell and W. J. Fenwick, salesmen.<br />

Blanchard Machine Company, Cambridge, Mass. Booth 256.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: No. 16-A automatic surface<br />

grinder with automatic sizing device and washing attachment.<br />

In attendance: H. F. Skillings and C. L. Jones.<br />

Bristol Company, Waterbury, Conn. Booth 35. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Pyrometers and temperature controllers for<br />

heat treating furnaces, including indicating pyrometers,<br />

recording pyrometers, single record, duplex and six-point<br />

multiple models, controlling pyrometers with Bristol automatic<br />

control valve.<br />

~L<br />

In attendance:<br />

~b<br />

H. L. Griggs, gen­<br />

eral sales manager; C. W. Bristol, chief engineer; R. M.<br />

mingham district manager.<br />

26 27 28 2° 30 J<br />

37 38 39 40 41<br />

51<br />

67<br />

80<br />

91<br />

52<br />

68<br />

81<br />

92<br />

53<br />

69<br />

S4<br />

70<br />

82<br />

93<br />

55<br />

71<br />

56<br />

72<br />

57<br />

73<br />

S3 1 84<br />

94 95<br />

98 99 I 100 I 101 1 ioi I 103 | 104 1105 I I 106 , jk


September, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating<br />

Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Company, Providence, R. I. Booths<br />

234 and 235. Exhibiting (in operation): Hobbing machine,<br />

No. 0 high speed automatic screw machine, No. 33<br />

automatic milling machine, small tools and cutters. In<br />

attendance: J. G. Swinburne, J. H. Skelton, W. Spencer.<br />

Brown Instrument Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Booths 65<br />

and 66. Exhibiting: New line of Brown recording pyrometers<br />

which include single recording, duplex, 6-record multiple,<br />

triple duplex (3 records on each of two halves of<br />

a duplex chart) and control. An indicating control pyrometer<br />

which controls automatically the temperature at two<br />

points in a furnace; portable potentiometer, incorporating<br />

the unusual 96-in. scale; the duplex CO? and temperatuie<br />

recording meter for checking combustion efficiency in large<br />

furnaces; new types of motor operated control valves including<br />

valves for controlling oil and air, gas and air, or<br />

for controlling furnace dampers. Other temperature indicating,<br />

recording and recording and control equipment.<br />

In attendance: R. P. Brown, president; G. W. Keller,<br />

sales manager; C. L. Simon, technical director of advertising;<br />

M. M. Watkins, assistant sales manager; R. W. Mayer,<br />

Detroit district manager; G. L. Clapper, PittsDurgh district<br />

manager; D. C. Mayne, Columbus district representative;<br />

W. E. Woodrow, Pittsburgh district representative.<br />

Brown Lynch Scott Company, Monmouth, 111. Booth 120-A.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Perfection compound cleaner<br />

and grader. In attendance: J. A. Scott, Secy, and Mgr.<br />

Bullard Machine Tool Company, Bridgeport, Conn. Booth<br />

253. Exhibiting: 42-in. vertical turret lathe. In attendance:<br />

James Welch.<br />

Bureau of Standards, Washington. Booth 113. Exhibiting:<br />

Research and testing work illustrated by photographs and<br />

special equipment so selected as to indicate fields of cooperation<br />

with various industries particularly relating to<br />

iron and steel. Attention will be given to current or recently<br />

completed investigations and there will be available<br />

for examination a large number of publications prepared by<br />

staff members. Soil corrosion test samples, special rivet<br />

steels, tarnish resistant silver alloys, new optical extensometer,<br />

etc. In attendance: H. J. French, O. X. Klopsch,<br />

T. C. Digges, H. S. Rawdon.<br />

Campbell, Inc., Andrew C, Bridgeport, Conn. Booth 232.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: No. 1 Campbell nibbling machine,<br />

belt drive type; No. 1-B Campell nibbling machine,<br />

motor drive; No. 2 Campbell nibbling maliine, motor drive.<br />

Will cut 1/16, in, y% in., 3/16 in., % in., 5/16 in. and fsj in.<br />

steel on these machines. In attendance: Stuart Naramore.<br />

sales manager; J. Johnson, engineer and demonstrator.<br />

Carborundum Company, Perth Amboy, N. J. Booth 17. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: One small gas-fired furnace to show<br />

224<br />

234<br />

• 244<br />

.262<br />

272<br />

253<br />

225<br />

235<br />

263<br />

273<br />

1 245<br />

visually the difference in thermal conductivity of various<br />

refractory tile in common use. One gas-fired furnace to<br />

show application of Carboradiant chambers for heat treating.<br />

Carbofrax tile and brick such as used in common<br />

types of heat treating furnaces. Carbofrax and Firefrax<br />

high temperature cements. In attendance: J. A. King.<br />

New England sales representative; C. A. Dutton, Detroit<br />

and Cleveland representative; R. S. Baker, Chicago representative;<br />

S. A. Fennon, assistant sales manager.<br />

Carpenter Steel Company, Reading, Pa. Booth 48. Exhibiting:<br />

Display of tools made from Stentor Oil Hardening<br />

Tool Steel. In attendance: F. A. Bigelow, president; J.<br />

H. Parker, vice president; C. A. Heil, district sales manager;<br />

J. N. Clarke, F. W. Curtis, F. G. Davis, V. W. Gardner,<br />

sales representatives; F. R. Palmer and W. H. Kemper,<br />

Met. Dept.; H. J. Joyce, Jr., sales representative.<br />

Case Hardening Service Company, Cleveland, O. Booth 41.<br />

Exhibiting: Carbonizing compounds, charcoal, bone, cyanide<br />

compounds, all grades; Non-Case, anti-carbonizing<br />

paint; Cleancoat, covering for lead baths; Drawite, drawing<br />

salts of all ranges; Bathite, hardening salts; Hi-Tempo.<br />

heat resisting metal; carbonizing boxes; lead and cyanide<br />

pots; PresSteel, pressed steel lead and cyanide pots; high<br />

temperature furnace cements and all other essential harding<br />

room supplies. In attendance: W. C. Bell, president;<br />

E. J. Gossett, vice pres.; James S. Ayling, sales manager.<br />

Celite Products Company, San Francisco, Calif. Booth 102.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Insulating brick, insulating powder,<br />

insulating cement, high temperature cement and<br />

water-proofing compound for brick surfaces. In attendance:<br />

M. L. Jenkins, sales engineer.<br />

Central Steel Company, Massillon, Ohio. Booths 51, 52, 67<br />

and 68. Exhibiting: General exhibits of special steel prodducts.<br />

In attendance: F. J. Griffiths, president and general<br />

manager; B. F. Fair less, vice president in charge of<br />

operation; J. M. Schlendorf, vice president in charge of<br />

sales; W. M. Garrigues, assistant general manager of sales;<br />

D. B. Carson, assistant sales manager; G. F. Hess, sales<br />

department; F. L. Gibbons, Cleveland district manager;<br />

Arthur Schaeffer, district sales manager of Detroit; T. B.<br />

Davies, Syracuse sales manager; E. C. Smith, chief metallurgical<br />

engineer; C. P. Richter, assistant chief metallurgical<br />

engineer; Wm. Leffler, A. J. Wilson, M. M, Clark and<br />

R. K. Bowden, metallurgical engineers.<br />

Cincinnati Bickford Tool Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth<br />

257. Exhibiting in operation: 4-ft. radial drill; 20-in. high<br />

speed drill; new 21-in. direct drive drill. In attendance:<br />

N. C. Schauer, sales manager; R. M. Husband and S. K.<br />

Walker, factory representative.<br />

Cincinnati Milling Machine Company, Cincinnati, Ohio Booth<br />

255. Exhibiting in operation: 8-in. new design saddle type<br />

229 230 231 232 233<br />

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237<br />

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228<br />

238<br />

247 '<br />

254 255 256<br />

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264<br />

274<br />

265<br />

275<br />

266A £(xB<br />

276<br />

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239<br />

248<br />

257<br />

267<br />

277<br />

240<br />

249 '<br />

258<br />

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268<br />

278<br />

241<br />

250<br />

259<br />

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279<br />

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242<br />

251<br />

260<br />

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280<br />

243<br />

'252<br />

261<br />

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271<br />

281<br />

[HFl 1286.1 287 |288| 289 |?


314 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating<br />

grinder; No. 3 plain high power milling machine with<br />

pyramid column and taper roller bearings throughout; No.<br />

2-M universal with the same features; automatic centerless<br />

grinder and a 24-in. duplex. In attendance: Walter Tangeman,<br />

sales manager; J. E. Caster, L. V. Johnson and Walter<br />

Stegner.<br />

Cincinnati Planer Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booths 252<br />

and 261. Exhibiting in operation: New 36 in. by 36 in. by<br />

8 ft. Hypro planer, with Westinghouse reversing motor<br />

drive, planing steel block, demonstrating advantages of<br />

rapid traverse, dial feeds, variable speeds, etc. In attendance:<br />

B. B. Quillen, president; Ge<strong>org</strong>e Langen, works<br />

manager; Carl Linden, Ge<strong>org</strong>e Lamoth and Tom Addison.<br />

Cincinnati Shaper Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth 217.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: 24-in. heavy Cincinnati climax<br />

shaper, complete with all standard equipment, arranged for<br />

motor drive, including 10-hp. type SK G. E. motor, with<br />

starter. In attendance: H. S. Robinson, sales manager;<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e Diehl, factory demonstrator.<br />

Cleveland Automatic Machine Company, Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Booth 233. Exhibiting in operation: Cleveland multiple<br />

spindle automatic machine. In attendance: H. W. Rupple,<br />

assistant general manger; H. M. Rich, vice president<br />

and treasurer; A. W. Schaffer, sales representative.<br />

Cleveland Twist Drill Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booths<br />

269, 270 and 280. Exhibiting in operation: Three drill<br />

presses in operation, demonstrating Cle-F<strong>org</strong>e high speed<br />

drills, brass drills and peerless high speed reamers. In<br />

attendance: Harley G. Smith, Thomas Thomas, Frank A.<br />

Kelly, R. D. Boltey, F. M. Hoelzle, A. J. Ireland, H. S.<br />

White and C. G. Franz, sales representatives; W. E. Caldwell,<br />

sales manager; H. P. Jenson, assistant manager of<br />

sales; J. B. Dillard, general superintendent; H. J. Baier,<br />

chief engineer; D. H. Burdett, assistant to Gen. Supt.<br />

Colonial Steel Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. Booths 26 and 37.<br />

Exhibiting: Square split tool steel ingots; square split heat<br />

treated alloy, tool steel die blocks; hardened high speed,<br />

carbon and alloy tool steel fractures showing various specimens<br />

on different degrees of heating. Samples of iron,<br />

pure muck bar and all raw materials used in manufacture<br />

of high grade tool steel. Pyramid of blocks from 1 in. to<br />

12 in. square. Various f<strong>org</strong>ings including oil well bits.<br />

Sections of different grades of high speed, carbon and alloy<br />

tool steel including plow shapes, section steel, hollow and<br />

solid drill steel, safe and jail steel. Microscope and a number<br />

of polished specimens. Also an electrical display. In<br />

attendance: J. Trautman, Jr., general sales manager; N.<br />

B. Hoffman, chemist and metallurgist; F. L. Stevenson,<br />

Cleveland district sales manager; Herbert Bray, Chicago<br />

district manager; Charles Kopenhoefer, Cincinnati district<br />

manager; W. H. Rieger, special representative; Messrs.<br />

Hamilton, Hill, Largey and McKinnon.<br />

Cooper Hewitt Electric Company, Hoboken, N. J. Booth 206.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Work-Light, the commercial application<br />

of mercury vapor lighting in industrial plants.<br />

Collection of photographs showing typical installations of<br />

Work-Light, and a special exhibit of installations in the<br />

machine tool industry. In attendance: C. F. Streibig,<br />

sales manager; D. R. Grandy, commercial engineer; S. H.<br />

Knapp, Cleveland district manager; H. M. Ferree, commercial<br />

engineering department.<br />

Crucible Steel Company of America, New York City. Booths<br />

74, 75 and 76. Exhibiting: Steel and steel products. In<br />

attendance: E. C. Collins, president; Dr. John A. Mathews,<br />

vice president; A. T. Galbraith, general manager of sales;<br />

R. Michener, general sales agent; F. E. Phelps, Cleveland<br />

district manager; R. C. Webster, Cincinnati district manager;<br />

J. W. Taylor and M. S. Dravo of Pittsburgh; B. F.<br />

Altman; A. H. Kingsbury, representatives.<br />

Davenport Machine Tool Company, Rochester, N. Y. Booth<br />

250. Exhibiting in operation: Standard five spindle auto­<br />

Dearborn Davison general in hibiting: cleaners. Booth Edward maticance: furnaces a hot Gas screw 216. Chemical Messrs. use. Poor, and air No-ox-id In Burner Exhibiting machine; furnace; In f<strong>org</strong>es, attendance: superintendent.<br />

Thomas attendance: Company, & chemical and combination Welding also in and a operation: E. line Chicago, non-stop rust Dresser. N. M. Company, of C. preventive, Converse, gas oil Davison, 111. "A" machine and home Booth Pittsburgh, gas oil department president, and burners burner In oil Dearborn 63. attend­ burner Ex­ and Pa. for of<br />

September, 1925<br />

specialties; C. I. Loudenback, Detroit district representative;<br />

E. H. Ruhlman, Cleveland district manager.<br />

Disston & Sons, Inc., Henry, Philadelphia, Pa. Booth 22.<br />

Exhibiting: Inserted tooth and solid tooth metal cutting<br />

saws; metal band saws; hack saws and files; metal cutting<br />

products; display of products made from Disston steels.<br />

In attendance: S. Horace Disston, vice president; G. Satterwaithe,<br />

vice president; D. W. Jenkins, general manager,<br />

domestic division; Mr. Forrest, manager metal saw department;<br />

H. B. Allen, chief metallurgist; J. Dorrington, sales<br />

representative; E. Ludy, demonstrator; C. H. Williams,<br />

manager of steel works; C. T. Evans, manager steel sales;<br />

S. T. Harleman, assistant steel sales manager; Norman<br />

Bly, metallurgist.<br />

Donner Steel Company, Buffalo, N. Y. Booth 93. Exhibiting:<br />

Various f<strong>org</strong>ings and finished parts made from Donner<br />

material. In attendance: W. F. Vosmer, vice president;<br />

F. R. Huston, vice president in charge of operation;<br />

J. A. Buell, general superintendent; C. A. Cherry, assistant<br />

to vice president; E. D. Pumphrey, Detroit district manager;<br />

H. C. Richardson, Cleveland district manager; J. W.<br />

Donner, inspection engineer; R. E. Sherlock, metallurgist.<br />

Driver-Harris Company, Harrison, N. J. Booth 95. Exhibiting:<br />

Nichrome carburizing pots heated by electric furnace<br />

wound with Nichrome ribbon; Nichrome castings for<br />

heat treating applications; Nichrome glass roll showing<br />

machinability and high finish attainable; Nichrome cast<br />

grids; motor cylinder block of cast iron with small percentage<br />

of Nichrome; working exhibit of spark plugs using<br />

D-H wire; exhibit of brake band linings using D-H wire;<br />

Nichrome retorts; "Cimet" (iron-chrome) castings. In<br />

attendance: G. A. Lennox, assistant general sales manager;<br />

W. E. Blythe, Detroit district manager; Messrs. Waldrip,<br />

Prior and H. D. Tietz.<br />

Electro Alloys Company, Elyria, Ohio. Booth 114-A. Exhibiting:<br />

Thermoalloy high temperature heat resisting<br />

castings. In attendance: A. M. Miller, Jr., E. C. White,<br />

W. J. Hansen, R. C. Culver, W. C. Whyte, J. B. Thomas,<br />

A. L. Garford and J. W. Henry.<br />

Electric Furnace Company, Salem Ohio. Booth 116-B. Exhibiting:<br />

T-Grid electric furnaces for heat treating, annealing,<br />

carburizing and enameling. Electric heating equipment<br />

for special processes. Sample construction of large<br />

furnaces, views of installation, data on operation, etc. In<br />

attendance: R. F. Benzinger, vice president and sales<br />

manager; E. T. Cope, chief engineer; F. J. Peterson, Detroit<br />

representative; A. H. Vaughan, advertising manager.<br />

Electrical Refractories Company, East Palestine, Ohio. Booth<br />

120-B. Exhibiting: Refractories for use in oil resistance<br />

type electric heating devices; in industrial furnaces, hanger<br />

blocks or supports for the support of electric heating elements<br />

in stationary industrial furnaces; also muffles and<br />

muffle plates, together with therminal supports for small<br />

industrial furnaces; also refractories for use in domestic<br />

equipment, such as element supports for use in electric<br />

ranges, hot plates, tireless cookers and air heaters. In attendance:<br />

F. E. Owen, president; C. W. Williams, secretary<br />

and treasurer; F. C. Simms, general manager.<br />

Engelhard, Inc., Charles, New York City. Booth 53. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Automatic temperature regulators<br />

for gas, oil and electric furnaces; Type S and SM recorders<br />

in operation on electric resistance thermometers and<br />

thermo-electric pyrometers; this is a new development and<br />

will be featured. Various types of electric resistance thermometers;<br />

base metal thermo-electric pyrometers, raremetal<br />

thermo-electric pyrometers with auxiliary equipment<br />

such as switches, tubes, cold end compensators and other<br />

fittings. Electric thermal conductivity type gas analyzer<br />

for CO=, SO;, hydrogen, etc. In attendance: H. DeGallaix,<br />

E. S. Newcomb, J. H. Allison and R. W. Newcomb.<br />

Ex-Cell-O Tool & Mfg. Company, Detroit, Mich. Booth 287.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Xlo standard drill jig bushings;<br />

a tion air at grinders. general tions; high Sample duced. A. F. line Wise, 65,000 Huber, turbine with speed of Xlo bushings manager; Xlo special general the rpm., In secretary; high driven internal belt attendance: exhibit for representative; speed with tools driven Clifford spindle, grinding of grinding C. ground detailed ball the R. internal N. capable Peacock, Halcomb Alden, bearings A. holes of spindles, to E. Woodworth, holes grinding manufacturer's H. of manager of vice (exhibited Steel continuous this Hopson, 3/32 featuring president; size Company); spindles of president in. will service.<br />

sales; in operation specifica­ diameter. the connec­ be for Philip pro­ Wm. Xlo<br />

and all


September, 1925<br />

Firth Sterling Steel Company, McKeesport, Pa. Booths 14<br />

and 15. Exhibiting in operation: High speed, carbon and<br />

alloy steels together with samples of raw materials used<br />

and various processes of manufacture. In attendance: C<br />

O. Ericke, C. E. Hughes, Edwin T. Jackman, Alan jackman,<br />

D. E. Jackman, Jr., G. A. Jacobs, T. A. Larecy, W<br />

A. Nungester, I. Olsen, W. C. Royce, M. E. Burkemer', Al.<br />

Mattson, Henry I. Moore, W. A. Ruppel, A. C Leete D<br />

G. Clark, Frank Marth.<br />

Ford Company, J. B., Wyandotte, Mich. Booth 56. Exhibiting:<br />

Wyandotte cleaning specialties. In attendance- F<br />

R. Merrick, B. N. Goodell, T. S. Blair, L. C. Warden, C.<br />

R. Beaubien, Chief Little Bear.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating, Pittsburgh, Pa. Booth<br />

34-A. Exhibiting: F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating,<br />

published by the Andresen Company, Inc. This<br />

booth will be fitted up as a rest room where those<br />

attending the convention are invited to make their<br />

headquarters. Publications devoted to interests of<br />

the iron and steel industry will be on exhibit, including<br />

Blast Furnace and Steel Plant, Directory of<br />

Iron and Steel, F<strong>org</strong>ing, Heat Treating and Stamping<br />

Plants. In attendance: D. L. Mathias, Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />

P. Grant, F. B. Yeager.<br />

il ivmll,hi ill,in ill: mi ,ni|i" : ,linii'!.!<br />

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Ganschow Company, William, Chicago, 111. Booth 62. Exhibiting:<br />

Ganschow speed reducers, samples of cut gearing<br />

and samples of heat treating. In attendance: C. H.<br />

Thomas, sales engineer.<br />

Gardner Tap & Die Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booth 18.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Complete line of taps. One<br />

Acme J^-in. six-cylinder semi-automatic nut tapper in<br />

operation, tapping nuts. In attendance: J. M. Gardner,<br />

president; C. M. Jackson, secretary; H. P. Boggis, sales<br />

manager; Fred E. Criley, metallurgist.<br />

Gathmann Engineering Company, Baltimore, Md. Booth 107.<br />

Improved quality sound ingots; Gathmann patent ingot<br />

molds; Chafin "Slago" sink head casings; Gathmann built<br />

up sinkhead casings; sound ingots of non-ferrous base;<br />

photographs of ingot molding; etched sections of ingots<br />

and billets; pamphlets descriptive of quality ingot production.<br />

In attendance: Emil Gathmann, vice president<br />

and general manager; Mark Gathmann, sales engineer;<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e A. Dornin, sales engineer.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating 315<br />

Iron ore boats in the Cuyahoga River<br />

General Alloys Company, Boston, Mass. Booths 42 and 58.<br />

Exhibiting: Q-Alloy carburizing boxes, cyanide and lead<br />

pots, retorts, muffles, glass dies, conveyor chains, enamel<br />

burning racks; ore roasting furnace parts, oil-still parts,<br />

cyanide dipping baskets, sheet and cast pans and trays,<br />

hearth plates, furnace parts, miscellaneous Q-Alloy castings<br />

covering the entire heat treating field. In "attendance:<br />

H. H. Harris, president; E. P. VanStone, vice<br />

president; W. K. Leach, A. L. Grinnell, J. J. Donovan, R.<br />

M. Kirk, H. G. Chase, A. D. Heath.<br />

General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. Booth 99.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Electric furnaces and automatic<br />

electric arc welding. In attendance: D. G. Brokaw, R. F.<br />

Newell, L. B. Rosseau, Walter Anderson, L. A. MacKenney,<br />

H. E. Scarborough, C. H. Lockwood, C. L. Ipsen, A.<br />

N. Otis and C. T. McLoughlin.<br />

Geometric Tool Company, New Haven, Conn. Booth 233.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Self opening and adjustable die<br />

heads; self opening and adjustable rotary die heads; solid<br />

adjustable die heads; adjustable collapsing taps; adjustable<br />

collapsing rotary taps; solid adjustable taps; Geometric<br />

chaser grinder; Geometric threading machine; tapping machine;<br />

adjustable hollow milling tools; Jarvis high speed<br />

tapping devices; Jarvis friction drive tapping devices; Jarvis<br />

quick change chucks and collets; Jarvis self opening<br />

stud setter. In attendance: E. W. Mertz, S imiiiniiiiii' E. J. miimiiiiiiiii Gillis, iiiiii. F.<br />

W. Gowrie, F. A. Barker, E. L. Wood, metallurgist; G.<br />

A. Dennison, sales manager.<br />

ni .,i','iil'iilii'|i|iiir:'l<br />

Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Company, Fond du Lac, Wis.<br />

Booth 245. Exhibiting in operation: Teromatic grinding<br />

roller bearing cones; No. 45 horizontal boring, drilling and<br />

milling machines with 12 in. high column and 2 ft. extra<br />

length bed, probably the largest machine in the exhibition.<br />

In attendance: Messrs. Kraut and Gebuhr.<br />

Gisholt Machine Company, Madison, Wis. Booth 223-A. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: New Gisholt 3L all-steel geared<br />

head turret lathe with new features in design. Gisholt 4B<br />

universal turret lathe. Gisholt precision balancing machine<br />

for rotative parts. In attendance: E. S. Chapman<br />

and C. B. Carr.<br />

Goddard & Goddard Company, Detroit, Mich. Booth 90. Exhibiting:<br />

High production milling cutters, both standard<br />

and special, including slab mills, channelling cutters, locomotive<br />

taper reamers and helical mills, such as used in<br />

railroad shops. In attendance: A. N. Goddard, president;<br />

C. H. Wallace, railroad demonstrator; R. T. Rice, E. E.<br />

Toerner, E. E. Guntert, C. S. Goddard, sales manager.


316 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

Goss & DeLeeuw Machine Company, New Britain, Conn.<br />

Booth 266-B. Exhibiting in operation: Four spindle automatic<br />

chucking machine. In attendance: Stanley T. Goss,<br />

president; Jos. J. Spring, sales engineer; Edwin H. Peck,<br />

manager of service and demonstration.<br />

Gould & Eberhardt, Inc., Newark, N. J. Booth 247. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: 32-in. invincible type shaper, operating<br />

on die blocks; No. 16-HS Hobber cutting Chandler<br />

transmission gears. In attendance: Fred Eberhardt,<br />

president, and A. Miller, also H. W. Jacobson and G. H.<br />

Davis.<br />

Gray Company, G. A., Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth 237. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Gray maximum planer 36 in. by 36 in.<br />

by 10 ft., with reliance Cutler-Hammer reversing motor<br />

drive. Equipped with helical gear train, all of steel and<br />

running in oil. Single shift rapid traverse, cantslip positive<br />

dial feed, Gray rail-lock and rail-setters. Automatic<br />

lubrication with filtered oil to V's and drive shaft bearings,<br />

centralized control, and centralized lubrication of rail<br />

parts. Heads to have twin-purpose taper gibs and abutment<br />

tool aprons. Many of these features are patented,<br />

and head design has never been exhibited before. In attendance:<br />

August Marx, president and general manager;<br />

F. E. Cardullo, chief engineer; Tell Berna. sales manager;<br />

Philip Leisinger, planer superintendent.<br />

Hagan Company, Ge<strong>org</strong>e J., Pittsburgh, Pa. Booth 13. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Installation of a full automatic<br />

rotary furnace for handling small regular shaped pieces<br />

on a production basis. Materials to be heated will be<br />

charged into and discharged from the furnace automatically,<br />

the rotating hearth stops and starts automatically<br />

and the temperature is controlled automatically. All materials<br />

discharged from the furnace pass directly from furnace<br />

to the quenching medium without coming into contact<br />

with the air. The furnace is suited for operating direct<br />

on 220 volts d.c, or single phase a.c, and 110 volts, three<br />

phase, a.c. Also, complete photographic display of a<br />

great number of operating installations of practically every<br />

type of electric heating furnace, together with operating<br />

data. In attendance: R. E. Talley, president; H. G. Hammer,<br />

treasurer; J. Sandberg, Detroit district manager; V.<br />

A. Hain, Chicago district manager; C. F. Cone, J. L. Edwards<br />

and A. D. Dauch.<br />

Halcomb Steel Company, Syracuse, N. Y. Booths 85 and 86.<br />

Exhibiting: Tools made from carbon, special and high<br />

speed steels; automotive and special engineering parts<br />

made from Halectralloy brand steels; parts made from noncorrosive<br />

steels. In attendance: H. J. Stagg, assistant<br />

manager; M. P. Spencer, assistant sales manager; J. H.<br />

Hinkley, Chicago district manager; J. F. Kirwan, Cleveland<br />

district manager; Arthur Schroeder, Detroit district<br />

manager; T. F. Wood, Syracuse district manager; F. W.<br />

Ross, New York district manager; S. C. Spalding, metallurgist;<br />

J. T. Leyden, J. H. Schnibbe and E. F. Talmage.<br />

Hammond Mfg. Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booth 212. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: One 8-spindlc automatic deep hole<br />

drilling machine, motor driven; one radial stud driver and<br />

nut setter, motor driven; one column and base radial drilling<br />

machine, with friction tapping attachment, motor<br />

driven; one cabinet base motor driven polishing and buffing<br />

machine. In attendance: C. M. Allen, president; W.<br />

D. Buss, manager and superintendent.<br />

Hanson-Whitney Machine Company, Hartford, Conn. Booth<br />

282. Exhibiting in operation: Universal semi-automatic<br />

thread milling machine; universal vertical tool and die<br />

shaping machine; universal tap sharpening machine; taps,<br />

gauges, precision screws, thread rolling dies( flat and circular)<br />

and hobs, all finished after hardening by the "Hanson<br />

process." In attendance: E. A. Hanson, engineer; C.<br />

A. Lauridsen, demonstrator; J. W. Johnson, engineer.<br />

Heald Machine Company, Worcester, Mass. Booths 267 and<br />

Heim motor 268. internal grinding for ing sales hibiting No. lars. Heald, M. Grinder self-contained Lippard, machine, 7 engineer; Exhibiting Style drive, semi-automatic general grinding in ball No. operation: Company, grinding Cleveland arranged bearing manager; F. 25 in machine, full H. full operation: the internal motor Grimshaw, for races. Danbury, automatic district Heim bores S. self arranged T. drive, centerless grinding contained In of Style Massey, manager; Conn. down ball sales attendance: grinding for No. bearing engineer.<br />

feed machine, sales self motor cylindrical Booth 72 R. surface full contained bores A. manager; races. drive, James 215. automatic St. arranged of grind­ John, Style face col­ full ExN.<br />

R.<br />

September, 1925<br />

ing machine equipped with full automatic attachment and<br />

motor driven, together with all necessary equipment for<br />

handling through and shoulder grinding. In attendance:<br />

F. M. Angevin, general manager; C. Booth, works manager;<br />

R. Krametz and C. Previdi.<br />

Heppenstall F<strong>org</strong>e & Knife Company, Pittsburgh Pa. Booth<br />

106 Exhibiting: An enameled and nickel plated surface<br />

die block In attendance: Ge<strong>org</strong>e I. Allen, Frank C<br />

Mover. Ge<strong>org</strong>e O. Desautels, C. W.<br />

Jenkins.<br />

Happenstall, E. O.<br />

Hevi-Duty Electric Company, Milwaukee, Wis. Booth 23.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: One HD 14368 radiant type tool<br />

room furnace. 14 in. wide, 36 in. long, 8 in. high. One<br />

HD 143412 oil bath, 14 in. wide, 24 in. long, 12 in. deep.<br />

One Hevi-Dutv crucible furnace, 15 in. dia., 30 in. deep.<br />

One HD 70-S "radiant tvpe tube furnace \l/i in. inside dia.,<br />

18 in long. In attendance: F. A. Hansen, manager of<br />

sales; Edward Busch, Cleveland district manager; F. A.<br />

Weiser, chief engineer, and others.<br />

Holcroft & Company. Detroit, Mich. Booth 16. Exhibiting:<br />

Photographs, drawings and data on heat treating furnaces,<br />

melting furnaces and continuous kilns. In attendance: C.<br />

T. Holcroft, president; H. L. Ritts, secretary-treasurer;<br />

Alfred Ruckstahl, engineer.<br />

Hoskins Mfg. Company, Detroit, Mich. Booth 98. Exhibiting<br />

(in operation): Electric tool room furnace equipped<br />

with automatic temperature control. Hoskins pyrometer<br />

and chromel thermocouples. Display board of Hoskins-<br />

Chromel resistor alloys. In attendance: W. D. Little,<br />

sales manager; C. S. Kinnison, advertising manager; W.<br />

A. Gateward, chief engineer; J. D. Sterling, Cleveland district<br />

manager.<br />

Houghton & Company, E. E., Philadelphia, Pa. Booths 54<br />

and 55. Exhibiting: Heat treating materials, Vim leather<br />

belting and Vim leather packings, electric pots for liquid<br />

heat and drawing temperatures. In attendance: H. G.<br />

Llovd. H. E. Cressman, W. J. Wright. Robert Smith, J.<br />

C. "Bentlev, W. A. Buechner, F. L. McNamara, W. A.<br />

Fletcher, I. D. Fletcher, D. D. Reed and E. C. Redlin.<br />

International Machine Tool Company, Indianapolis, Ind.<br />

Booth 215. Exhibiting in operation: 26x7j4 in. bore<br />

"Libby-International" turret lathe on railroad work. In<br />

attendance: D. J. Cosner, special Cleveland representative.<br />

International Nickel Company, New York City. Booths 78<br />

and 99. Exhibiting: Collection of parts made from<br />

nickel steel, such as nickel steel castings and f<strong>org</strong>ings,<br />

automotive and aeroplane parts; tools, such as saws, chisels,<br />

etc.; die blocks; roller bearings; gears; steel mill rolls;<br />

turbine blades; and some castings of nickel cast iron. In<br />

attendance: A. J. Wadhams, manager of development and<br />

research department; Dr. P. D. Merica, director of research;<br />

Charles McKnight, Jr., T. H. Wickenden and J.<br />

S. Vanick of the development and research department;<br />

L. Muller Thym<br />

partment.<br />

and R. A. Wheeler, of the sales de­<br />

Interstate Iron & Steel Company, Chicago, 111. Booth 108.<br />

Exhibiting: Samples of raw and f<strong>org</strong>ed steel from ingots<br />

to finished f<strong>org</strong>ings, as well as photographic views of heat<br />

treatment and physical elements tending to show progress<br />

during the year in production of sound steel. In attendance:<br />

Paul Llwellyn, vice president; W. H. C. Carhart<br />

and Elmer Larned of Chicago; John A. Guyer of Cleveland,<br />

and R. S. LeBarre of Detroit; W. J. MacKenzie, Chicago<br />

office.<br />

Iron Age Publishing Company, New York. Booth 83. Exhibiting:<br />

Iron Age current issues, and reprints of special<br />

sections. In attendance: W. W. Bacon, E. F. Cone, R. E.<br />

Miller, F. L. Prentiss, G. L. Lacher, F. L. Frank, H. E.<br />

Barr, E. Findley, D. G. Gardner, B. L. Herman, Pierce<br />

Lewis, Charles Lundberg, C. L. Rice, W. B. Robinson, F.<br />

W. Schultz, E. Sinnock, W. C. Sweetser, D. C. Warren,<br />

F. S. Wayne, C. S. Baur.<br />

Jessop Jones hibiting: high raw land V. sentative;cinnati Yogeley, 229 H. & and Steel materials. manager; grade Lamson Lawrence, representative.<br />

230. New Finished Company, C. tool R. Exhibiting Machine York R. In steels. Trimmer, metallurgist; K. products attendance: manager, Washington, Greaves, Company, Swedish in Chicago operation: manufactured J. and Detroit M. V. iron Springfield, Pa. W. Curley, representative; M. J. exhibit, Hartness district Booth Wellman, Fredericks, from Boston Vt. and 119. manager; flat Jessop's Booths Cleverepre­ E. other CinExtur- V.


September, 1925<br />

ret lathe, 15-in. chucking machine turning drop f<strong>org</strong>ed steel<br />

adjusting collar. Hartness flat turret lathe, 2^x24 bar<br />

machine turning cap screws. Hartness screw thread comparator<br />

gaging cap screws. Hartness automatic die head,<br />

"High Speed" series, threading cap screws. Fay automatic<br />

lathe, machining second operation automobile ring bevel<br />

gear. Flanders ground thread taps. In attendance: Henry<br />

S. Beal, assistant general manager; Charles H. Seaver.<br />

Cleveland district manager; F. L. Watkins, Detroit representative;<br />

J. L. Reilly, Indianapolis representative.<br />

Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa. Booth<br />

79. Exhibiting: Various products of interest. In attendance:<br />

A. A. Wagner, assistant sales manager of hot<br />

rolled department; E. A. France, Cleveland district manager;<br />

J. G. Hutchinson, S. A. Fuller and others.<br />

Kardex-Rand Company, Tonawanda, N. Y. Booth in lobby.<br />

Exhibiting: All types of visible record equipment, the<br />

merger lines of Kardex Company, Rand Company and<br />

Index Visible Company. In attendance: W. C. Mowry,<br />

Cleveland district manager; A. H. Fritchman, S. S. Shane,<br />

P. A. Eaton, J. H. Mahrer, L. Blueck, I. M. Stubbart, A.<br />

T. Hoover.<br />

Kearney & Trecker Corporation, Milwaukee, Wis. Booth 205.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: No. 28 plain Milwaukee milling<br />

machine, new style external motor drive, equipped with a<br />

special production service reciprocating fixture, for milling<br />

clutch teeth in small bevel gears. Rate of production:<br />

175 to 200 pieces per hour. No. IB vertical Milwaukee<br />

milling machine. Latest style motor-in-base drive, equipped<br />

with special production service rotary fixture, for milling<br />

slots in wrist pin set screws; courtesy of Ajax Motors,<br />

Racine, Wis. 2,000 pieces per hour. In attendance: Theodore<br />

Trecker, president; E. J. Kearney, secretary and<br />

treasurer; J. B. Armitage, chief engineer; Joseph Trecker,<br />

production department; W. K. Andrew, production service<br />

department; Ge<strong>org</strong>e L. Erwin, Jr., sales department;<br />

R. A. Wellington, Cleveland branch manager, and Clarence<br />

Hochmuth.<br />

Keller Mechanical Engineering Corporation, Brooklyn, N. Y.<br />

Booths 248 and 249. Exhibiting in operation: BL Keller<br />

all-round die tool and pattern room machine. R-6 Keller<br />

cutter and radius grinder, improved. BK-3 Keller roller<br />

floor stand flexible shaft grinder. BK-1 Keller bench<br />

stand flexible shaft grinder. In attendance: Jules Dierckx,<br />

vice president and sales manager; A. J. Benson, P. Brown<br />

and Charles Bitter.<br />

Kelly Reamer Company, Cleveland. Ohio. Booth 284. Exhibiting:<br />

Block unit adjustable boring and reaming, tools;<br />

multiple bladed adjustable boring and reaming tools; single<br />

point boring bars; hardened and ground bars; strip piloted<br />

bars; mandrels and arbors; Kelly production tools. In attendance:<br />

E. W. Putnam, general manager; M. C. Daw,<br />

chief engineer; A. H. Howard, sales representative.<br />

Keystone Lubricating Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Booth 88.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Keystone safety lubricating system<br />

as applied to machinery bearings, and rubber hose<br />

leads connected to moving bearings. Samples of various<br />

densities of Keystone grease for all mechanical conditions.<br />

In attendance: Peter Cassady, western manager; V. Berguson,<br />

M. C. Schwenk, F. D. Street.<br />

King Machine Tool Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth 236.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: One 42-in. gear box motor-driven<br />

boring mill. In attendance: E. A. Muller, vice president.<br />

King Refractories Company, Niagara Falls, N. Y. Booth 19.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: High temperature cements and<br />

"Mono" baffles. One Balopticon machine; advertising literature<br />

and samples of cements. In attendance: S. C.<br />

Smith, president; F. A. Podwils, Cleveland representative.<br />

Knight Machinery Company, W. B., St. Louis, Mo. Booth<br />

214. Exhibiting in operation: No. 3 Knight Miller, complete<br />

with full equipment, with high speed, horizontal milling<br />

and shaping attachments for use with machine. A<br />

large variety of sample work done on Knight millers. In<br />

Landis grinding troit attendance: machine traverse land Baker, Exhibiting Tool representatives; representative; Cleveland plain with plain crankshafts Company, in W. hydraulic grinding operation: grinding B. representative; Knight, Waynesboro, F. W. of machine. traverse. Griner machine. automobiles. G. Crank Jr. Nevin, and Pa. 10 6 I. grinding In in. sales in. C. S. Booths by attendance: by Internal M. Deardorff, manager. 20 36 Talhelm, machines in. 293 hydraulic<br />

grinding and Cleve­ J. 294. De­ for S.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Sf amping - Heaf Tieafing<br />

317<br />

Leeds & Northrup Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Booth 10.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: New circulating air drawing furnaces;<br />

recording and indicating pyrometers. Automatic<br />

temperature controllers and miscellaneous instruments applying<br />

to steel treating. In attendance: G. W. Tall, Jr.,<br />

assistant sales manager; A. E. Tarr, district manager;<br />

Henry Brewer, assistant sales manager; E. B. Estabrook,<br />

district manager; O. Brewer, P. H. Taylor, A. F. Moranty,<br />

H. R. Abey, C. C. Graf, W. A. Lame, T. C. Smith, Jordan<br />

Korb, E. J, Docherty.<br />

Lehmann Machine Company, St. Louis, Mo. Booth 285. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: One 22-24^ in. by 11 ft. bed (taking<br />

6 ft. between centers) Lehmann sixteen speed geared<br />

head engine lathe, motor driven, complete with standard<br />

equipment and with improved taper attachment fitted. One<br />

16-in. Lehmann improved 16 speed geared headstock with<br />

cover removed and one 24-in. Lehmann improved hardened<br />

lathe spindle with patented nose giving double bearing for<br />

chuck and face plates.<br />

president.<br />

In attendance: Paul Lehmann,<br />

Leitz, Inc., E., New York City. Booth 35. Exhibiting in<br />

operation: Micro metallograph of latest design, Model<br />

1925, embodying new features and improvements never before<br />

shown in any previous model. Specimens will be prepared<br />

and photographed at 10,500 diameters, which represents<br />

the highest magnification as yet obtained. New<br />

grinding and polishing machines for metal specimens. A<br />

low power magnifier for use in steel and metal plants for<br />

visual examination of fractures and flaws. Ore dressing<br />

microscope. In attendance: Messrs. Ziegler and Vollrath.<br />

Leland-Gifford Company, Worcester, Mass. Booth 204. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: No. 1 12-in. 1-sp. floor type motor<br />

spindle ball bearing drilling machine. No. 1 12-in. 2-sp.<br />

floor type belt drive ball bearing machine with motor<br />

mounted on rear of machine, with power feed on 1 spindle,<br />

No. 1 ball bearing tapper on second spindle. No. 2 14-in.<br />

1-sp. motor spindle drilling machine. No. 2 14-in. 3-sp.<br />

belt drive drilling machine with motor mounted on rear<br />

of column, complete with power feed and tapping attachment.<br />

No. 3 24-in. 1-sp. belt drive ball bearing drilling<br />

machine, with motor mounted on rear of column, complete<br />

with power feed. No. 2 EM Washburn Shops drill<br />

grinder. In attendance: S. Nikoloff, vice president; S. B.<br />

Dowd. sales manager; A. H. Anderson, Cleveland manager;<br />

E. A. Heidlinger, Detroit manager.<br />

Liberty Machine Tool Company, Hamilton, Ohio. Booths 218<br />

and 219. Exhibiting in operation: One 36 in. by 36 in. by<br />

10 ft. two housing late model Liberty planer, to be equipped<br />

for reversing motor drive with motor mounted on the<br />

floor and connected to driving shaft through a Grundy<br />

coupling. Planer to be equipped with two rail heads and<br />

two side heads employing individual motors to each side<br />

head for power rapid traversing vertically and to rail head<br />

for control of power rapid traverse as well as elevating<br />

or lowering of rail. In attendance: A. R. McCann, vice<br />

president and general manager; A. Iutzig, general superintendent;<br />

J. Milliken, purchasing agent.<br />

Lodge & Shipley Machine Tool Company, Cincinnati, Ohio.<br />

Booth 260. Exhibiting in operation: Duomatic operating<br />

on Chandler cluster gears. 14-in. selective head tool room<br />

lathe. In attendance: Fred Albrecht, sales manager, and<br />

J. M. Stephens.<br />

Lucas Machine Tool Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booth 242.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: "Precision" horizontal boring,<br />

drilling and milling machine. Lucas power forcing press.<br />

In attendance: F. P. Sprague. sales representative, and<br />

J. A. Leighton, sales representative.<br />

Ludlum Steel Company, Watervliet, N. Y. Booths 29 and<br />

30. Exhibiting: Tool steels, carbon and alloy, high speed,<br />

special alloy, rust and stain resisting steels and iron, heat<br />

resisting steels and non-corrosive steels. Showing methods<br />

of producing these steels and representative tools made<br />

therefrom. In attendance: H. C. Batcheller, vice presi­<br />

Marschke dent manager K. W. ger;troithibiting Cleveland Martin, H. L. and H. representatives.<br />

Wreaver, Mfg. Keen, W. in general of district district; operation: Spiegel, superintendent; sales; Company, W. Albany sales manager; J. C. J. H. Fitzgerald, E. B. manager; Indianapolis, One I. district Templeton, Polhemus. Askew, P. 20-in. R. R. W. manager; P. metallurgical Jr., Thurston, heavy DeVries, H. Detroit Ind. sales and Vrooman, duty J. Booth T. department; Wr. district J. metallurgist;<br />

C. department;<br />

grinder Cruice, Kinsey, 292. Sherman, assistant manaDeEx­ and<br />

A. of


31S F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping - Heaf Tieating<br />

one 12-in. general duty grinder, each machine fully<br />

equipped and with latest design wheel guards or two types.<br />

In attendance: W\ A. Marschke. vice president and sales<br />

manager.<br />

Midvale Company, Nicetown, Philadelphia, Pa. Booth 77.<br />

Exhibiting: Diesel engine crankshaft, brass extrusion<br />

cam; f<strong>org</strong>ed and hardened rolls for controlling; tools<br />

manufactured from Midvale tool steels; hammer piston<br />

rod. In attendance: Stuart Hazlewood, H. H. Ziesing<br />

and H. E. Rowe of Philadelphia; Ward A. Miller. New-<br />

York; Fred W. Sager, Chicago; Harry Teel. Detroit, and<br />

T. G. Besom of New York.<br />

Monarch Machine Tool Company, Sidney, Ohio. Booth 207.<br />

Exhibiting: One 9x3 Monarch Junior lathe. One 14x(><br />

helical geared head manufacturing lathe; one 22x12 helical<br />

geared engine lathe; all machines arranged for individual<br />

motor drive. In attendance: W. E. Whipp, secretary and<br />

treasurer; J. A. Raterman, sales engineer.<br />

Morris Machine Tool Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth 286.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: One Morris 3-ft. heavy duty<br />

radial drill arranged for variable speed motor drive. In<br />

attendance: Edw. G. Meckstroth, superintendent; A. C.<br />

Pletz, general manager.<br />

Morse Twist Drill & Machine Company, New Bedford, Mass.<br />

Booth 82. Exhibiting: Samples of various tools, consisting<br />

of drills, reamers, taps and dies, and milling cutters,<br />

both of high speed and carbon steel; also special tools for<br />

special work. No. 2 universal grinder (not in operation).<br />

In attendance: Wm. T. Read, vice president and treasurer;<br />

F. O. Lincoln, vice president in charge of sales;<br />

Waldo F. Congdon, Detroit manager; Milton G. Bonner<br />

and Robert W. Mein, sales representatives.<br />

Motch & Merryweather Machinery Company, Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

Booths 244 to 261, inclusive. Exhibiting in operation:<br />

Products manufactured by the following firms: Abrasive<br />

Machine Tool Company, Acme Machine Tool Company,<br />

Badger Tool Company, Baker Brothers, Blanchard Machine<br />

Company. Bullard Machine Tool Company, Cincinnati<br />

Bickford Company, Cincinnati Milling Machine Company.<br />

Cincinnati Planer Company, Davenport Machine Tool<br />

Company, Thompson Grinder Company, Avey Drilling<br />

Machine Company, Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Company,<br />

Gould & Eberhardt, Inc., Keller Mechanical Engineering<br />

Corporation, National Equipment Company, Lodge<br />

& Company. Cleveland: Shipley V Machine G. & E. O Press Merryweather, Tool Company. Company, president; In Production attendance: E. R. Machine Motch, From<br />

Detroit—Superior High Level Bridge<br />

September, 1925<br />

secretary; E. P. Motch, Jr.. R. J. Houck. J. S. Phelps, W.<br />

F. Wissman, W. F. Hall, A. B. Einig, W. F. Gallen and<br />

R. G. Knapp. From Cincinnati: E. A. Shriver, manager;<br />

M. H. Jones and L. C. Iobitz. From Pittsburgh: E. C.<br />

Batchelar, manager; J. T. McCuen, L. A. Rafferty, J. A.<br />

Menges, L. C. Deckard, J. L. Vance. From Detroit: R.<br />

C. Haudleser, manager; E. F. Lickey, E. A. Guntrum, H.<br />

C. Bayliss, J. F. Dittus, V. Gottsman, N. H. Carpenter.<br />

National Automatic Tool Company, Richmond, Ind. Booth<br />

228 and 238. Exhibiting in operation: One Garvin No.<br />

2SS horizontal duplex driller; No. C-13-C Natco driller;<br />

No. C-13-A Natco tapper; No. A-103 Natco continuous<br />

driller; No. 9 Natco Minster Hi-Duty driller. An exhibit<br />

of Natco universal joints and tool holders. In attendance:<br />

F. A. Root, assistant sales manager.<br />

National Electric Light Association, New York City. Booth<br />

110. Photographs and engineering data on industrial heating<br />

installations. Those in attendance in booth will endeavor<br />

to give information and advice on industrial heating<br />

installations. In attendance: Various representatives<br />

of industrial heating firms.<br />

National Equipment Company, Springfield, Mass. Booth 259.<br />

Exhibiting: New type NB f<strong>org</strong>ing and riveting machine;<br />

NC machine also. In attendance: A. L. Bausman, G. A.<br />

Busman, Joel Whitney, Charles Gowing, John Peterson.<br />

National Twist Drill & Tool Company, Detroit, Mich. Booths<br />

265 and 275. Exhibiting in operation: Display of drills,<br />

reamers, cutters, hobs and special tools; also parabolic milling<br />

cutters in operation. In attendance: Harry Butler, C.<br />

Cornwall and G. Webster, sales representatives.<br />

Neumann's Successors, Inc., Friedrich, New York City. Booth<br />

288. Exhibiting in operation: "Single grip" twist drill<br />

grinding machines; two models, Model SPL for grinding<br />

twist drills from No. 38 to Y& in; Model SPK, equipped<br />

with point thinning device, for grinding twist drills from<br />

Yt in. to 2 in. Both machines furnished to be driven by<br />

belt from overhead shafting or by belt through individual<br />

motor drive. Both machines equipped with indexing<br />

chuck or gripping head which permits of both lips of the<br />

drill being ground in one setting. In attendance: .William<br />

K. Samets, territorial representative.<br />

New Britain Machine Company, New Britain, Conn. Booths<br />

239 and 240. Exhibiting in operation: No. 12A New<br />

Britain tool rotating chucking machine. No. 452 New<br />

ance: Britain H. six-sjindle New-Matic H. Pease, automatic chucking president; screw machine. E. machine. L. Steinle, No. In 204 manager<br />

attend­ New


September, 1925<br />

machinery sales; G. K. Atkinson, Ohio representative; T.<br />

C. Stirling, Detroit representative; H. L. Wilson, Chicago<br />

representative; C. L. Perry, C. Hanson and S. Mayerjack.<br />

Norton Company, Worcester, Mass. Booths 231 and 241.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Norton cylindrical grinding machine,<br />

and a display of grinding wheels; Norton floor<br />

products, consisting of Alundum floor and stair tile and<br />

treads; Norton refractories. In attendance: O. E. Nordstrom,<br />

Erick Hellstrom, O. A. Knight, C. H. Hill, W. T.<br />

Montague, sales manager; H. J. Griffing and H. W. Dunbar.<br />

Nuttall Company, R. D., Pittsburgh, Pa. Booth 59. Exhibiting:<br />

Gears and pinions for various applications, that<br />

have been heat treated and hardened by our BP process<br />

including such gears as used on trunk line electric locomotives,<br />

rolling mill table mitre drives; our single helical rolled<br />

steel gears for traveling cranes, and several items of gearing<br />

and other wearable mill parts that have been in service<br />

to show their performance record. In attendance: Q. W.<br />

Hershey, sales manager; J. E. Mullen; W. H. Phillips,<br />

manager engineering and works; R. W. Young, sales engineer;<br />

W. H. Smith and C. H. Parker.<br />

0. K. Tool Company, Shelton, Conn. Booth 276. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Universal grinding machine with special designed<br />

OK attachment for regrinding inserted tooth sectional<br />

hobs. This fixture can also be used for grinding any<br />

style milling cutter by simply releasing the gear drive. It<br />

can be attached to any universal machine. A motor driven<br />

grinding machine with special fixture attached for grinding<br />

OK tools. A complete assortment of standard sets, also OK<br />

sets for special purpose machines. In attendance: F. J.<br />

Wilson, secretary; R. R. Weddell, engineer; R. S. Young,<br />

metallurgist; Frederick Schroeder, sales representative.<br />

Oesterlein Machine Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth 289.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: One No. 2 motor-driven constant<br />

speed "Ohio" milling machine. One No. 2 motor driven<br />

universal and tool grinder. In attendance: Ge<strong>org</strong>e M.<br />

Meyncke.<br />

Ohio Steel Foundry Company, Springfield, Ohio. Booth 38.<br />

Exhibiting: Fahrite heat resisting alloy castings, annealing<br />

boxes, hearth plates, support beams, furnace rails, carbonizing<br />

boxes, disc, for continuous conveyor furnaces, and<br />

miscellaneous castings for use in high temperature work.<br />

In attendance: T. H. Harvey, vice president; C. E. Malley,<br />

alloy division.<br />

The Oilgear Company, Milwaukee, Wis. Booth 226. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: 10-ton Oilgear semi-automatic broaching<br />

and assembling press. In attendance: Donald Clute and<br />

Harold Crull.<br />

Oliver Instrument Company, Adrian, Mich. Booth 227. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Oliver automatic drillpointer; Oliver<br />

point thinner and Oliver die making machine. In attendance:<br />

E. C. Oliver, manager.<br />

Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Company, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Booth 43. Exhibiting in operation: Various types of testing<br />

machines, including Olsen universal testing machine<br />

with various attachments. Varous types of Brinell hardness<br />

testing machines, and Olsen Last Word hardness testers.<br />

Extensometers, strain gauges and elongation scale for use<br />

in tension and compression testing. Latest type of motordriven<br />

ductility testing mahine for sheet metal. Olsen-<br />

Lundgren crankshaft and flywheel balancing equipment for<br />

correcting static and dynamic unbalance of rotating parts.<br />

In attendance: Jacob Lundgren and Wm. J. Tretch.<br />

Oxweld Acetylene Company, New York City. Booth 101. Exhibiting:<br />

Oxweld apparatus, Linde Oxygen, Prest-O-Lite<br />

Acetylene and Union Carbide. Welds will be made, cut into<br />

coupons by an oxy-acetylene straight line blowpipe, and<br />

tested with a universal testing machine, showing the<br />

strength of the welded union. In attendance: E. E. Thum,<br />

publicity department; J. W. Dunn; J. P. Dawson, carbide<br />

and carbon research laboratories; J. V. Upton and H. H.<br />

Dyar.<br />

Peerless Park driven universal J. ingchinery,ing:ing Chemical N. salts in Machine Bourg, Case 6x6 operation: motor-driven and type. in. hardening Company, D. other standard Company, In W. attendance: heat High Bauer 9x9 compounds, Detroit, Peerless treating Racine, in. speed and standard Mich. F. R. type, materials. Wis. power W. cyanide T. Peerless Faery. motor-driven Booth Ingalls, Booth hacksawing mixtures, In 111. 12. type, sales attendance: Exhibitmotor- 9x9 manadrawma­ in.<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Tieafing<br />

319<br />

ger; A. H. Goetz, field representative; Charles Rasmussen,<br />

mechanical engineer.<br />

Pels & Company, Henry, New York City. Booth 291. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Two triple combined punching and<br />

shearing machines, one small and one large, that will punch<br />

holes in steel, cut angles, tees, bars and plate, without<br />

changing tools. One shearing machine for cutting angles,<br />

tees, beams and channels. In attendance: T. C. Sternblad,<br />

secretary.<br />

The Penton Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booth 40.<br />

Exhibiting: Technical and commercial periodicals and<br />

books dealing with heat treating, f<strong>org</strong>ing, etc. In attendance:<br />

C. J. Stark, editor, Iron Trade Review; Earl Shaner,<br />

managing editor, Iron Trade Review; E. F. Ross, associate<br />

editor; J. D. Pease, advertising manager; John Henry,<br />

Max Reiner and G. P. Howarth, all of advertising department;<br />

F. V. Cole, circulation manager; F. F. Light,<br />

assistant circulation manager.<br />

Pittsburgh Crucible Steel Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. Booth<br />

87. Exhibiting: F<strong>org</strong>ing grades of steel; photographs and<br />

charts showing samples of products. In attendance: F. B.<br />

Hufnagel, president; R. M. Keeney, general superintendent;<br />

A. H. Sonnhalter, assistant general superintendent;<br />

O. L. Pringle, superintendent of met. and insp. dept.; S.<br />

D. Williams, superintendent of open heath; W. I. Mc-<br />

Inerney, superintendent of heat treating and cold drawing<br />

departments; E. T. Walton, ch. inspr.; W. E. Davis, W.<br />

P. Benter and W. R. Howell, metallurgists; W. W. Williams,<br />

general sales manager; K. E. Porter, assistant general<br />

sales manager; J. N. Critchlow, Detroit sales manager;<br />

T. A. Goodridge, Cleveland sales manager; H. T.<br />

Harrison, B. B. Holt and Myron Powers, salesmen.<br />

Pittsburgh Instrument & Machine Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Booth 103. Exhibiting in operation: Brinell hardness<br />

testing machines, including microscopes and depth gauges;<br />

impact testing machine; metal sheet tester; metallographic<br />

grinder and Buvinger's weight calculating instrument for<br />

use of car wheel manufacturers. In attendance: Paul<br />

Kammerer and Charles Trueg, proprietors.<br />

Potter & Johnston Machine Company, Pawtucket, R. I. Booth<br />

223-B. Exhibiting in operation: 6-C automatic chucking<br />

machine; Unimatic machines; 2-M automatic milling machine<br />

and a 24-in. universal shaping machine. In attendance:<br />

N. R. Earle, general manager of sales.<br />

Pratt & Whitney Company, Hartford, Conn. Booths 277<br />

and 278. Exhibiting in operation: Machine tools: 6-in.<br />

shaper; 13x30-in. centering machine; model B lathe; double<br />

bench outfil with lathe; universal milling machine and<br />

drill press; supermicrometer. Small tools and gages. Display<br />

board on which is mounted taps and dies, cutters,<br />

reamers, hobs, gages. A special display board of tools that<br />

have made record runs. In attendance: W. P. Kirk,<br />

sales manager; A. E. R. Turner, Cleveland district manager;<br />

J. J. Heber and G. E. Thomas, Cleveland office; E. C.<br />

Shultz, publicity director; E. J. Sullivan, special representative;<br />

A. H. d'Arcambal, metallurgist and sales engineer.<br />

Production Machine Company, Greenfield, Mass. Booth 251.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Type "A" cylindrical polishing<br />

machine. Type "F" polishing machine for flat work. Type<br />

"R" combined disc grinder and polishing machine. In<br />

attendance: A. H. Behnke, sales manager, and Mr. Fuller.<br />

Republic Flow Meters Company, Chicago, 111. Booths 69 and<br />

70. Exhibiting in operation: Indicating and recording<br />

pyrometers with complete accessories. Combustion instruments<br />

consisting of C02 boiler meters, etc., draft instruments,<br />

flow meters, etc. In attendance: J. S. Cunningham,<br />

president; C. C. McDermott, pyrometer division;<br />

G. V. Nightingale, Philadelphia office; M. E. VanVliet,<br />

Pittsburgh office; A. M. Steeves, Detroit office; F. A.<br />

Hall, New York office, and D. J. Jones of Chicago.<br />

Rockford Machine Tool Company, Rockford, 111. Booth 287.<br />

Rockford press. attendance: Exhibiting 287. and ance: Stamets. pletelystrand tooled Exhibiting 24-in. Milling stub Charles equipped in for lathe, M. Rockford operation: production Machine B. Monson, in with completely DeVlieg operation: improved motor Company, 24-in. on superintendent, and automotive equipped drive mechanics Rockford variable G. Rockford, A. and with Markuson.<br />

parts. speed and rigid production cutters. motor William 111. motor. mill, In attend­ Booth Sund- drive com­ drill In K.


320 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating September, 1925<br />

Rockwell Company, W. S., New York City Booth 61. Exhibiting:<br />

Models of operating furnaces. In attendance:<br />

J. X. Voltman and C. D. Barnhart.<br />

Rodman Chemical Company, Verona. Pa. Booth 84. Exhibiting<br />

carburizing materials, quenching oils, tempering<br />

oils, luting clay. In attendance: Hugh Rodman, president;<br />

Cordon A. Webb, Detroit district manager; S. P.<br />

Rockwell, New England representative; Warren D. Fuller.<br />

New England representative, and O. T. Muehlemeyer,<br />

Rockford, 111., representative.<br />

Roessler & Hasslacher Chemical Company, New York City.<br />

Booth 44. Exhibiting: Cyanegg sodium cyanide 96/8 per<br />

cent. Cyanogram sodium cyanide 96/8 per cent. R & H<br />

case hardener, granl., 30 per cent. R & H case hardener,<br />

slabs. 30 per cent. R & H special case hardener, slabs, 45<br />

per cent. Cyanide chloride mixture sodium cyanide 73/ri<br />

per cent. A complete line of chemicals. Also a demonstration<br />

of electro plating of steel with zinc and copper and<br />

the case hardening of steel with cyanide. In attendance:<br />

Wm. M. Gager and C. H. Proctor and also representatives<br />

from Cleveland district.<br />

Sebastian Lathe Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Booth 290. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: One 15x6 geared head motor-driven<br />

lathe. In attendance: E. E. Stokes, president.<br />

Seneca Falls Machine Company, Seneca Falls. N. Y. Booth<br />

295. Exhibiting in operation: Seneca Falls cost cutting<br />

turning equipment. "Lo-Swings," plain and semi-automatic.<br />

"Short-Cut" production lathes. "Star" screw cutting<br />

engine lathes. In attendance: E. R. Smith, vice<br />

president and general manager; J. A. Fyfe, secretary; W.<br />

H. Nettle, midwest representative; F. B. Webb and M. C<br />

Day. sales engineers; G. J. Hawkey.<br />

Shore Instrument & Mfg. Company, New York. Booth 34-B.<br />

Exhibiting: Standard model C-l scleroscope, bulb type.<br />

Standard model D scleroscope, dial type. Special heavy<br />

model C-l scleroscope on D-type clamp. Electric actuator<br />

for C type in operation. Tilting table with fixture. Types<br />

"A" and "B" pyroscopes, 1200-1300 deg. F. Localcase<br />

(control carbon in carburizing). Localhard (control hardness<br />

in tool steel). Durometer for measuring hardness of<br />

plastic material, as rubber. Elastometer for measuring<br />

elasticity of plastic material. Jigs and fixtures. In attendance:<br />

F. G. Kendall, sales manager, and assistant.<br />

Simonds Saw & Steel Company, Fitchburg, Mass. Booths 72<br />

and 73. Exhibiting: Metal cutting off saws, both solid<br />

and inserted tooth. Metal slitting saws, screw slotters,<br />

tiles, hack saw blades, tool holder bits, carbon and high<br />

speed steel machine knives, and wood cutting saws. Tool<br />

steels, permanent magnet steels, chisel steels, chrome ball<br />

and bearing steels, bar and sheet steels. In attendance:<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e T. Curtis, H. B. McDonald and H. D. Weed.<br />

The Skinner Chuck Company, New Britain, Conn. Booth 92.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Lathe, drill and planer chucks.<br />

A small bench lathe for the purpose of demonstrating the<br />

accuracy of Skinner chucks. Cut open models showing<br />

operating mechanism of various types of fathe chucks.<br />

Skinner box body 2-jaw lathe chucks (a chuck of new<br />

design having several unique features). Air operated<br />

chucks with the new type of cylindrical jaw. In attendance:<br />

Wm. H. Day, assistant treasurer.<br />

Skybrite Company, Cleveland. O. Booth 109. Exhibiting:<br />

Skybrite liquid factory glass cleaner. Actual demonstration<br />

of Skybrite method of cleaning foundry and machine<br />

shop glass. In attendance: T. T. Holt, president; V. S.<br />

Loventhal. treasurer.<br />

Spencer Turbine Company, Hartford, Conn. Booth 223. Exhibiting:<br />

1507 turbo compressor, 1750 speed, 900 cfm. \y2<br />

lbs. pressure, also one catalog 1010 turbo compressor, 1300<br />

cfm. 1 lb. pressure 1750 rpm.. and one 1005 machine, 600<br />

cfm.. 1 lb. pressure, 3500 rpm. In attendance: S. E.<br />

Phillips, secretary; H. M. Grossman, sales engineer.<br />

Stamets Company, Wm. K., Pittsburgh, Pa. Booths 282 to<br />

chinepany. Ge<strong>org</strong>e Company. Company, 292. the Cello-O ney Machine following: Mfg. Exhibiting Company. D. In Tool Company, Friedrich Company, Marschke Miller, attendance: & Hanson-Whitney Sebastian in Mfg. W. operation: Neumann's Morris Mfg. Taylor E. Company. Wm. Tabb Lathe Company. Machine & and R. Successors, Products Fenn Machine Company, Rockford King. Wm. Tool Kelly Company, K. manufactured Company, W. Oesterlein Company, Henrv Machine Reamer Stamets. H. Lehmann Barber, Pels WhitCom­ Tool Ma­ Ex- by &<br />

Standard Tool Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booth 92. Exhibiting:<br />

Complete line of different styles of twist drills,<br />

reamers, taps and milling cutters. Demonstration of different<br />

stages through which steel passes in evolution of a<br />

drill, a reamer, a tap, and a milling cutter. In attendance:<br />

H. C. McKean, general manager; R. T. Lane, sales manager;<br />

E. E. Northway, secretary; H. Will, superintendent;<br />

Clarence Buck, metallurgist; T. Bascom, master mechanic;<br />

D. R. Higgins, D. G. MacMillan and J. G. Green.<br />

Starrett Company, L. S., Athol, Mass. Booth 94. Exhibiting:<br />

Fine mechanical tools, steel tapes, hack saw blades<br />

and vises. In attendance: D. Findlay, sales manager;<br />

Arthur H. Starrett, master mechanic; O. J. Rogers and<br />

J. E. Hindes.<br />

Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Company, Cleveland. Booths<br />

207 to 216 and 224 to 238. Exhibiting in operation: Complete<br />

line of machine tools made by following firms: Monarch<br />

Machine Tool Company, B. C. Ames Company, Heim<br />

Grinder Company, Hammond Mfg. Company, Charles G.<br />

Allen Company, W. B. Knight Machinery Company, International<br />

Machine Tool Company, American Tool Works<br />

Company, Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Company, Oilgear Company,<br />

King Machine Tool Company, Bilton Machine Tool<br />

Company, Oliver Instrument Company, G. A. Gray Company.<br />

National Automatic Tool Company. In attendance:<br />

T. W._ Carlisle, G. E. Kruger, Detroit and Cleveland representatives<br />

also.<br />

Strong, Carlisle & Hammond Company, Furnace Department,<br />

Cleveland, O. Booths 104 and 105. Exhibiting in operation:<br />

Improved continuous furnace for heating small parts,<br />

electrically heated and automatically controlled. High<br />

speed and lead hardening furnaces electrically heated. Photographs<br />

and descriptions of installations heated by gas or<br />

oil. In attendance: W. H. McClelland, sales manager; G.<br />

S. Peterson, J, Weintz, A. B. Lindsay, T. W. Clark, F. C.<br />

Parsons.<br />

Sun Oil Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Booth 115. Exhibiting:<br />

Samples of machined metal products cut with Sunco emulsifying<br />

cutting oil. Display of petroleum products, cutting<br />

oil, motor, fuel, tempering, quenching oils and greases. In<br />

attendance: R. S. Drysdale, chief engineer; C. K. Hague,<br />

cutting oil engineer, and C. B. Harding.<br />

Surface Combustion Company, New York. Booth 36. Exhibiting:<br />

Models and designs of furnaces. In attendance:<br />

F. W. Manker, vice president; F. J. Winder, Pittsburgh<br />

district manager; C. A. Blesch, engineer, Pittsburgh district;<br />

A. A. Tread way, Detro.it district manager.<br />

Swindell & Bros., Wm., Pittsburgh, Pa. Booths 28 and 39.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Universal electric heat treating<br />

furnaces. Photographs. In attendance: E. H. Swindell,<br />

treasurer; R. W. Porter, vice president; F. W. Brooks,<br />

chief engineer; G. P. Mills, sales engineer.<br />

Swedish Crucible Steel Company, Detroit, Mich. Booth 27.<br />

Exhibiting: Nickel alloy and steel castings, carbonizing<br />

boxes, lead and cyanide pots, furnace crates, retorts. In<br />

attendance:<br />

manager.<br />

Henry Nixon, metallurgist; S. R. Allen, sales<br />

Taylor Instrument Companies, Rochester, N. Y. Booth 112.<br />

Exhibiting: Oil testing thermometers, index thermometers,<br />

recording thermometers, thermoelectric pyrometers<br />

and new design portable pyrometers. In attendance: G.<br />

A. Howell, H. W. Maurer, Jr., A. H. Goddard.<br />

Taylor & Fenn Company, Hartford, Conn. Booth 283. Exhibiting:<br />

One 2-spmdle horizontal spline milling machine.<br />

One high speed ball bearing vertical milling machine with<br />

circular milling and other attachments. One 3-spindle ball<br />

bearing sensitive drilling machine with hand feed, power<br />

feed, and tapping head. In attendance: Ge<strong>org</strong>e S De-<br />

Lany, sales manager, and Niels Carlson, demonstrator.<br />

Thompson Grinder Company, Springfield, Ohio. Booth 259.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: 10x36-in. self contained universal<br />

grinder. In attendance: H. J. Warrick.<br />

Tin?!M?1.J4?ller Thompson vice A. metallurgist; ting Exhibiting: ings Uranam Booth In Swan, attendance: president; machine, and 60 & 1 views assistant hompson, Exhibiting: Sons BearinB H. Steel and A. of W. Fellows J. Company, steel plant. a sections, McQuaid, vice Sanford, special Company, sales Milband president, In Thompson, exhibit tubing, manager; attendance: Henry steel metallurgist<br />

Canton, positive sales and of f<strong>org</strong>ings, G, metal Thomas general T. manager; Ohio. Hartford, feed M. A. cutting T Hyde. roller W. metal Booth manager; Lothrop Charles' Hardv. Conn. bear­ saws cut­ 71


September, 1925<br />

United Alloy Steel Corporation, Canton, Ohio. Booths 49<br />

and 50. Exhibiting: Finished automobile, locomotive and<br />

industrial machinery parts. Various f<strong>org</strong>ings and several<br />

rolled axle shafts, the latter made in our plant. A demonstration<br />

of "Enduro," rustless iron. In attendance: H. H.<br />

Pleasance, sales manager; M. H. Schmid, assistant sales<br />

manager; F. W. Krebs; R. B. Kelley, Cleveland district<br />

manager; J. D. Jones, Detroit district manager; M. A.<br />

Grossman, metallurgical engineer; N. L. Deuble and C. C.<br />

Snyder of metallurgical department, also B. H. Shirk.<br />

Union Twist Drill Company, Athol, Mass. Booths 272 and<br />

273. Exhibiting: Line of milling cutters, bobs, twist drills,<br />

reamers, taps, dies, screw plates and similar tools. In<br />

operation a grinding machine for sharpening hobs, form<br />

cutters, milling cutters and twist drills. In attendance:<br />

J. H. Horigan, chief engineer; Ge<strong>org</strong>e F. Holland, general<br />

manager, Butterfield & Company division; Laurance H.<br />

Laythe, sales manager, Butterfield & Company division;<br />

G. E. Strople, sales manager of S. W. Card Division; G.<br />

G. Hunter, Ohio representative of S. W. Card division.<br />

Universal Grinding Machine Company, Fitchburg, Mass.<br />

Booth 279. Exhibiting in operation: One universal grinding<br />

machine and one cylindrical grinding machine. In<br />

attendance: Robert D. Gould, treasurer; G. S. Gould,<br />

sales representative.<br />

Vanadium-Alloys Steel Company, Latrobe, Pa. Booth 64.<br />

Exhibiting: High speed, alloy and carbon tool steels, tools<br />

showing typical and unusual uses of these steels. In attendance:<br />

R. C. McKenna, president; W. S. Jones, vice<br />

president; L. D. Moberg, vice president; J. P. Gill and L.<br />

D. Bowman, metallurgists; J. H. Roberts, eastern sales<br />

manager; W. R. Mau, Chicago sales manager; A. F. Mc-<br />

Farland, Detroit sales manager; J. H. Caler, Cleveland sales<br />

manager; R. R. Artz, T. J. VandeMotter and G. E. Reminger.<br />

V & O Press Company, Hudson. N. Y. Booth 254. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: No. 4IN high speed press equipped with<br />

armature disc notching attachment operating at 600 strokes<br />

or slides per minute. No. 2 press equipped with double<br />

roll feed and scrap cutter. The roll feed will be rack driven,<br />

which will insure more accuracy in feeding, also a greater<br />

length of feed without gearing. In attendance: H. U.<br />

Horrick, vice president and general manager; F. A. Beardsley,<br />

sales manager.<br />

Walcott Lathe Company, Jackson, Mich. Booths 264 and 274.<br />

Exhibiting in operation: Melling crankshaft contour turning<br />

lathe. Melling crankshaft pin turning and finishing<br />

lathe and a Walcott gear tooth grinder. In attendance:<br />

D. G. Kimball, president and general manager; N. R.<br />

Townley, vice president and treasurer; C. H. Sylvester,<br />

experimental engineer; R. G. Williams.<br />

The Warner & Swasey Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Booths<br />

262 and 263. Exhibiting in operation: A 3-A universal<br />

hollow hexagon turret lathe working on a typical chucking<br />

job. A Roto pneumatic grinder demonstrating the<br />

possibilities of this new hand tool. In attendance: C. J.<br />

Stilwell, sales manager; K. L. Pohlman, grinder sales;<br />

James Craig, demonstrator; A. C. Cook, vice president and<br />

W. K. Bailey, manager Cleveland territory.<br />

Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Booths 96 and 97. Exhibiting in operation: Electric furnaces<br />

of the latest design. A melting pot will also be exhibited<br />

in addition to various interesting details of electric<br />

furnace construction. In attendance: W. S. Scott, manager<br />

industrial heating section; R. T. Ruttencutter, M. R.<br />

Armstrong, F. G. Allen, H. H. Sugg, all of industrial heating<br />

section; J. F. Sweeney, Jr., publicity department.<br />

Wheelock, Lovejoy & Company, Inc., Cambridge, Mass.<br />

Booths 80 and 91. Exhibiting: Hy-Ten alloy steels and<br />

Whelco tool steels, representing processes of manufacture,<br />

heat treatment and application to special machine parts. In<br />

attendance: A. O. Fulton, president; Frederick H. Lovejoy,<br />

vice president; E. E. Bartlett, district manager, and<br />

The mission.mission;ger Exhibiting W. Cleveland; G. Whitney A. and Knight Barch, F. steel In Mfg. J. in E. of attendance: Devans Clement roller operation: P. New Company, Gaffney, York; chain and H. Hartford, Austin D. Williams Silent and L. district I. P. sprockets Wheeler, R. chains Needham, Conn. manager, Townsend and for F. Booth for sales district F. power and of representa­<br />

Blosser, 282. Chicago. Thomas transmanaof<br />

Fbrging-Sfamping- Heaf Tieating<br />

321<br />

tive; C. E. Wertman, sales manager; S. C. Smith, sales<br />

representatives.<br />

Wilmarth & Morman Company, Grand Rapids, Mich. Booth<br />

243. Exhibiting in operation: No. 78 surface grinder,<br />

motor drive; No. 3 surface grinder. No. 1 surface grinder.<br />

No. 1 universal cutter and tool grinder, motor drive. No.<br />

99 plain universal cutter and tool grinder, belt drive, less<br />

all attachments and countershaft. Type "B" improved<br />

New Yankee drill grinder, motor drive. In attendance:<br />

C. H. Slaughter, sales manager; A. Williams, general<br />

superintendent.<br />

Wilson-Maeulen Company, New York. Booth 25. Exhibiting<br />

in operation: Recording and indicating pyrometer<br />

equipment; recording and indicating electric resistance<br />

bulb thermometer equipment and accessories; automatic<br />

temperature control equipment; Rockwell direct reading<br />

hardness tester, including new Model 4-B and new universal<br />

Model DU. In attendance: J. P. Roberts, Cleveland<br />

district representative; C. E. Hellenberg, Detroit district<br />

representative; Harvey Lee, Pittsburgh district repre­<br />

Annealing with Hauck Venturi Oil Burners<br />

sentative.<br />

In the steel casting industry, annealing operations<br />

are of first importance in producing castings of high<br />

quality. This operation must be done thoroughly and,<br />

at the same time, at as low a cost as possible. Where<br />

oil fired furnaces are used, it follows that the burners<br />

must operate efficiently and economically. A recent<br />

survey made at the Michigan Steel Casting Company,<br />

Detroit, Mich., indicated that the No. 582 Hauck<br />

Venturi low pressure oil burners, embody these characteristics.<br />

There are six of these burners on a double chamber,<br />

parabolic roof, car type furnace — 6 ft. 1 in. x 15 ft.<br />

9 in. inside and 17 ft. 8 in. x 18 ft. 5 in. outside dimensions.<br />

At present, only one of the chambers with its<br />

three burners is used and three eight-ton heats are<br />

run per 24 hours, beginning each evening.<br />

On Monday, when the furnace is relatively cold,<br />

three and one-half to four hours are required to bring<br />

the furnace to heat. After the first heat, the same<br />

operation required about two and one-half hours and<br />

in both cases the time for soaking averages one and<br />

one-half hours. Generally three-quarters of an hour<br />

elapses between heats when changing the charge.<br />

The fuel oil pressure is 15 lbs. and the air pressure<br />

is one lb. per square inch at the furnace. The<br />

oil is supplied at room temperature while the air is<br />

preheated to from 500 to 600 deg. F., by a recuperator<br />

system using the exhaust gases from the combustion<br />

chamber. By using different recuperators, it is hoped<br />

to raise this to 700 deg. F., to secure even better combustion<br />

conditions. About 75 cu. ft. of free air is used<br />

per minute per burner. The oil consumption averages<br />

nearly 16 gallons per ton of castings annealed and the<br />

three heats, totaling 24 tons, take an average of 16<br />

hours.<br />

The scale on the castings have been materially reduced<br />

as shown by 100 determinations, resulting in a<br />

substantial saving, not including the decreased time<br />

for tumbling required.<br />

The burners are very easily lighted, even when the<br />

furnace is cold, and they give a broad flame, with no<br />

explosions or back fires, with a slightly reducing atmosphere<br />

in the furnace chamber. This eliminates<br />

the necessity of spreading charcoal or other material<br />

over the charge to prevent scaling. The annealing is<br />

correct and uniform, thoroughout the furnace, tests<br />

having determined that there is thorough heat circulation<br />

throughout the charge.


32. F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

September, 1925<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

Compounds such as iron carbide, Fe3C, have usually<br />

been considered to go into solution in their combined<br />

form. This would imply for example that distinct<br />

molecules of Fe3C are dispersed in the Gamma<br />

iron. Jeffries and Archer have reached the conclusion<br />

that this is not the case. They believe that the carbon<br />

in austenite is present as individual atoms of carbon.<br />

These atoms would be held strongly to the neighboring<br />

iron atoms, but without a permanent union. They<br />

would be free to migrate (move about, slowly). It<br />

is well known that carbon will diffuse (travel) through<br />

Gamma iron (and even Alpha iron), so that if time is<br />

allowed and the temperature is not too low, any carbon<br />

present will be distributed uniformly through the<br />

mass. This means that, on going into solution, carbon<br />

atoms must move from points where there are many,<br />

to points where there are fewer. When carbon comes<br />

out of solution, as in the precipitation of cementite,<br />

during the cooling of austenite, carbon atoms<br />

must migrate to the grain boundaries or gather together<br />

into small islands. It is considered that molecules<br />

of Fe3C could not, on account of their size, travel<br />

through solid iron. According to this view, cementite<br />

has no existance except as a crystalline substance,<br />

which is not merely precipitated but actually formed<br />

on the coolinsr of austenite.<br />

The author is Consulting Metallurgist, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright, 1925, H. C. Knerr.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

CHAPTER VI — Continued<br />

The fact that solid solutions are harder and stronger<br />

than the solvent metal, is believed to be due chiefly<br />

PART 2 — SLIP INTERFERENCE<br />

to two causes :<br />

(1) Increased interatomic forces, the attraction<br />

INI general, metals are hardened and strengthened between by unlike atoms being in general, greater than<br />

the addition of elements which dissolve in them to between like atoms.<br />

form solid solutions. The structure of solid solutions<br />

(2) Roughening of the slip planes, due to the<br />

is, at present, not completely understood, but there distorting effect which the stranger atoms have on<br />

is good reason to believe that the atoms of the solute the crystalline pattern. (Rosenhain.)<br />

(dissolved substance) are distributed among the atoms<br />

of the solvent, usually taking the place of some of the Compounds.<br />

latter in the atomic pattern.<br />

The great hardness of compounds such as Fe3C,<br />

which are formed in alloys, is regarded as being due:<br />

(1) To the large interatomic forces between the<br />

dissimilar elements in the compound.<br />

(2) To the fact that, in compounds, the atoms<br />

have greater reluctance to change partners during<br />

slip.<br />

The difficulty in forming new atomic bonds during<br />

slip, renders these compounds brittle. But if they are<br />

uniformly and evenly loaded, so that the stress is<br />

tvenly distributed, they are probably very strong. It<br />

is likely that cementite, for example, has a strength of<br />

several hundred thousand pounds per square inch.<br />

Small quantities of these strong, hard compounds<br />

have a very important effect in increasing the hardness<br />

and strength of steel (and other metals), as will presently<br />

be explained.<br />

Obstruction Principle.<br />

Pearlite is naturally harder than ferrite. The numerous<br />

layers of strong hard cementite, between the<br />

layers of ferrite in a pearlite grain, cause the slip<br />

planes in the ferrite to be very short and frequently interrupted.<br />

The plates of cementite also have a re-enforcing<br />

or supporting effect on the surrounding ferrite.<br />

The presence of grains of pearlite in hypo-eutectoid<br />

steels, has a similar hardening action. The pearlite<br />

grain interferes with the progress of slip planes<br />

through the surrounding ferrite grains, and, being<br />

stronger and harder than the ferrite grains, give them


September, 1925<br />

external support. This is known as the "obstruction<br />

principle."<br />

Hardening by Particles Within Grains—<br />

Keying Action.<br />

One of the most important causes of hardness in<br />

metals, is the distribution of small particles of a hard<br />

'• ^aA<br />

J / "I St--<br />

f v"a*\<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

'.IS*<br />

fc'V<br />

1*5 '" •*£• - ," "/J *" , > i. J16b<br />

y*, '-<br />

(By J. W. Harsch, courtesy H. F. Moore.)<br />

FIG. 116—Slip in nearly pure iron. (Carbon 0.02%.)<br />

All at same spot. (200 x)<br />

(a) Unstressed. (Polishing marks horizontal.)<br />

(b) Stressed to yield point.<br />

(c) Stressed close to ultimate.<br />

substance throughout the crystal. This is known as<br />

"keying action". The small hard particles act as keys<br />

to prevent movement at the slip planes. We have<br />

seen that deformation in pure metals is due to slip<br />

along crystalline planes of weakness, as illustrated in<br />

Fig. 117. The presence of small hard particles distributed<br />

throughout a crystalline grain is pictured in<br />

Fig. 118. It is evident that slip will, be greatly hin­<br />

323<br />

dered in such a grain, by the presence of the key particles.<br />

The result is increased elastic limit, hardness and<br />

strength. The hardening effect of a given amount of<br />

material, distributed in this manner, depends very<br />

largely upon the size of the particles. If the particles<br />

shown in Fig. 118 were gathered together into a<br />

single large particle, as illustrated in Fig. 119, it is<br />

evident that many planes would be left unkeyed, and<br />

the hardening effect would be less. From a study of<br />

various alloys, it appears that hardness increases as<br />

particle size decreases, until a particle size is finally<br />

reached, which produces maximum hardness. Smaller<br />

particles have a somewhat less hardening effect. The<br />

average size of particles which produce maximum<br />

hardness, has been called the "critical size", and the<br />

hard substance is said to be in a state of "critical dispersion."<br />

Formation of Hardening Particles Within Grains.<br />

How do the hardening particles become distributed<br />

through the grains of softer metal? Such a distribution<br />

is one of the important results of the heat treatment<br />

of certain alloys, notably steel. Suppose that a<br />

hard constituent, such as cementite, is soluble (in the<br />

alloy) at elevated temperatures, but is less soluble at<br />

room temperatures. When the alloy is heated, the<br />

hardening compound goes into solid solution, and is<br />

///,<br />

FIG. 117 (left)—Formation of slip bands. Section perpendicular<br />

to polished surface.<br />

(a) Before slip.<br />

(b) After slip.<br />

FIG. 118 (center)—Key particles intefering with slip.<br />

FIG. 119 (right)—Large key particles, leaving unkeyed planed.<br />

uniformly distributed throughout the mass, probably<br />

in the atomic state. Cooling then causes the compound<br />

to be precipitated, but if cooling is done at a suitable<br />

speed, the precipitated material will be unable to collect<br />

into large masses, and will be distributed through<br />

the grains of the parent metal in very small particles.<br />

Rosenhain considers that the atomic pattern or lattice,<br />

of the parent metal, around such particles will be<br />

greatly disturbed and will be largely in an amorphous<br />

condition. This would cause a further hardening<br />

effect.<br />

The Hardening of Steel.<br />

The principles governing the hardening of metals,<br />

discussed in the foregoing pages, apply to metals in<br />

general. The special application of these principles<br />

to the hardening of steel, will now be taken up. There<br />

are two factors to be considered:<br />

(1) Grain refinement.<br />

(2) Solution and precipitation of carbon and<br />

other alloying elements.<br />

Pure Iron Not Greatly Hardened by Quenching.<br />

A certain amount of grain refinement can be caused<br />

in pure iron by heating above Ac3 and rapidly cooling.<br />

This is accompanied by a moderate increase in hardness<br />

and strength. When Alpha iron is changed to<br />

Gamma iron, on heating through Ac3, recrystallization


324 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Sfamping - Heaf Treating<br />

takes place, and very fine grains are temporarily produced.<br />

But grain growth proceeds rapidly at this high<br />

temperature. When the Gamma iron is cooled through<br />

Arl, a good deal of heat is evolved. This tends to retard<br />

cooling and allows time for the grains of Alpha<br />

iron to grow. It is therefore difficult or impossible to<br />

produce a very fine grain size in pure iron, even by<br />

severe quenching.<br />

Anything which will lower the Ar3 transformation<br />

of iron, hinders grain growth. This produces a finer<br />

grained Alpha iron, which is consequently harder and<br />

stronger. Xickel has this effect, and so does carbon.<br />

When carbon (or cementite) goes unto solution in<br />

austenite, it probably does so as atoms of carbon, distributed<br />

among the atoms of iron. The tendency for<br />

the carbon to distribute itself uniformly through the<br />

austenite will cause the carbon atoms to take positions<br />

as far from each other as possible.<br />

When the change from Gamma iron to Alpha iron<br />

takes place, there is a strong tendency for the carbon<br />

to be rejected from solution. In so doing it will combine<br />

with atoms of iron, forming the carbide Fe3C.<br />

"The change from Gamma iron to Alpha iron involves<br />

only minor movements of the iron atoms (face<br />

centered to body centered pattern). Formation of<br />

cementite from iron atoms and carbon atoms, the latter<br />

being as far apart as the}- can get in the space<br />

lattice, involves the diffusion of carbon. This requires<br />

much more time than that required for the<br />

transformation of iron from one space lattice to another."<br />

For this reason the carbon may not be precipitated<br />

when Gamma iron is changed to Alpha iron<br />

by rapid cooling, but may be trapped in the form of<br />

carbon atoms, distributed through the crystalline<br />

grains of Alpha iron.<br />

When austenite, high in carbon, is rapidly cooled,<br />

as by quenching in water, the transformation from<br />

Gamma to Alpha iron is lowered to about 300 deg. C.<br />

Little or no grain growth would occur at this temperature.<br />

The Alpha iron grains are therefore probably<br />

extremely small.<br />

Martensite.<br />

Jeffries and Archer consider martensite, the hardest<br />

state of steel, to be the product of such a quenching<br />

operation and to consist of extremely fine grains of<br />

ferrite in which the carbon is temporarily held as individual<br />

atoms (atomic dispersion).<br />

"Martensite has a variable carbon content, being<br />

the same as that of the austenite from which it was<br />

formed at the moment of the allotropic transformation<br />

(change from Gamma to Alpha iron). Its properties<br />

vary with the carbon content, and with physical differences,<br />

such as those due to different quenching temperature,<br />

or maximum temperature of treatment, before<br />

quenching. Carbon steels containing less than<br />

about 0.15 per cent carbon, do not form hard martensite,<br />

when quenched from above the upper critical temperature.<br />

Carbon steels containing about 0.20 per<br />

cent carbon, form a medium hard but ductile martensite.<br />

The hardness increases with the carbon content<br />

up to about 0.70 per cent carbon, above which there is<br />

a less marked change, up to about 1.50 per cent carbon.<br />

The lower the carbon content, the more drastic<br />

must be the quench, in order to produce martensite.<br />

For example the mildest quench which will produce<br />

100 per cent martensite in a 0.90 per cent carbon steel,<br />

will produce free ferrite, martensite and troostite (or<br />

September, 1925<br />

sorbite) in a 0.20 per cent carbon steel, and martensite<br />

and troostite in a 0.50 per cent carbon steel."<br />

Microstructure of Martensite.<br />

The ferrite grains in martensite probably form<br />

along the cleavage planes of austenite when the latter<br />

is breaking down, and consist of very small thin plates.<br />

This would account for the needle-like appearance of<br />

martensite, and for the peculiar triangular arrangement<br />

of the needles*. (See Figs. 57 and 58, Chapter<br />

III.)<br />

Martensite inherits its appearance, to a still further<br />

extent, from the austenite grains from which it was<br />

formed. If these were large, due to overheating, the<br />

martensite may appear to have distinct grain boundaries,<br />

which, in reality, are merely traces of the austenite<br />

grain boundaries. The larger the parent grains of<br />

austenite, the more pronounced is the needle-like appearance<br />

of martensite. Martensite formed from fine<br />

grained austenite (i.e., which has not been overheated),<br />

has a much less pronounced needle-like structure.<br />

Tempering Martensite.<br />

Since carbon is very much less soluble in Alpha<br />

iron than in Gamma iron, there is a strong tendency<br />

for the entrapped carbon in martensite to precipitate<br />

out, with the formation of carbide. This actually occurs,<br />

when martensite is heated to moderate temperatures,<br />

or even when it is allowed to stand for a time<br />

at room temperature. The cementite so formed gathers<br />

into very minute, submicroscopic particles. As<br />

the temperature is raised, these particles grow in -size,<br />

by the migration of carbon atoms from neighboring<br />

points, and the structure changes to that known as<br />

troostite. A higher temperature results in the forma*<br />

tion of still larger carbide particles, producing the<br />

structure called sorbite. If the tempering temperature<br />

is carried still higher (but below Al), and is held for<br />

a long enough time, relatively large particles are<br />

formed, and we have the structure known as spheroidized<br />

carbide or globular cementite, or sometimes<br />

granular pearlite.<br />

During the first stage of tempering martensite,<br />

perhaps on standing at room temperature, the carbide<br />

particles will grow to the critical size at which they<br />

exert the maximum interference with slip in the ferrite<br />

grains. There is an increase in the hardness of<br />

the martensite up to this point, and it here attains its<br />

maximum hardness. Further increase in the size of<br />

the cabride particles is accompanied by a decrease in<br />

their number, and by a decrease in their effectiveness<br />

as key particles to resist slip. Progressive tempering,<br />

with the formation of troostite, sorbite and globular<br />

cementite therefore reduces the hardness of the steel.<br />

Causes of Hardness of Martensite.<br />

Jeffries and Archer conclude that the hardness of<br />

martensite is due chiefly to the fineness of the ferrite<br />

grains and consider that the presence of great numbers<br />

of minute crystalline particles of cementite, which act<br />

as keys, is an additional source of hardness. Rosenhain<br />

suggests that the presence of insoluble carbon<br />

atoms or the particles of rejected cementite, distorts<br />

•Some microscopic work recently done by Lucas at very hi<br />

magnifications, throws new light on the structure of martensite,<br />

and appears to support the view that it consists of extremely<br />

small plates following the cleavage planes of the parent austenite<br />

grain. See "The Microstructure of Austenite and Martensite "—<br />

F. F. Lucas, Trans. A. S. S. T., Dec, 1924, vol. VI, No. 6.


September, 1925<br />

the space lattice of the ferrite grains, thereby interfering<br />

with slip. He believes that this is an important<br />

cause of hardness.<br />

Formation of Troostite and Sorbite on Quenching.<br />

We have seen in Chapter III that martensite is not<br />

always formed on quenching, but that slower cooling,<br />

or lower carbon content will produce the softer constituents,<br />

troostite and sorbite. Slower cooling and<br />

less carbon does not lower the transformation point so<br />

much as rapid cooling and high carbon. A higher temperature<br />

and longer time favor the formation of larger<br />

grains of Alpha iron, and the precipitation and growth<br />

of cementite particles. There is therefore less resistance<br />

to slip, and consequently less hardness, than in<br />

martensite.<br />

Migration of Carbon in Alpha Iron.<br />

Below the Al point, iron (that is, Alpha iron or<br />

ferrite), will dissolve very little carbon. The amount<br />

it will retain in solid solution after slow cooling from<br />

above the critical point, is certainly less than about .05<br />

per cent, as is evident from the fact that steel containing<br />

this much carbon will show islands of pearlite after<br />

annealing. It is therefore usually said that cementite<br />

or carbon is insoluble in Alpha iron. This, however,<br />

cannot be strictly true. Troostite is known to consist<br />

of Alpha iron in which are embedded innumerable<br />

crystalline particles of cementite, too small to be seen<br />

FIG. 120—Grain growth by strain. Tapered bar of mild steel,<br />

broken in tension and then heated to about 600 deg. C. for 2<br />

hours. Longitudinal section. Low magnification. (C.<br />

Chappell.)<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

325<br />

Grain Growth Below Critical Range.<br />

We have seen that grain growth takes place in steel<br />

when it is heated above the critical range, but that,<br />

ordinarily, none occurs below the critical range. There<br />

are exceptions to this rule, which should be noted.<br />

Pronounced grain growth may occur in low carbon<br />

steel (carbon about 0.04 to 0.12 per cent) at temperatures<br />

below the critical range, if it is in a cold worked<br />

state — that is, if strains have been set up in the<br />

metal. For a certain temperature there is a certain<br />

degree of strain that will produce the greatest grain<br />

growth. For instance, if a tapered bar is annealed,<br />

so as to remove all strain and produce a fairly fine<br />

grain structure, then broken in tension and finally<br />

heated to some temperature below the Al point, such<br />

as 600 deg. C, quite large grains may be produced at<br />

some point along its length. Since the bar was tapered,<br />

the stress, and therefore the strain, will have increased<br />

gradually from the thickest part to the thinnest.<br />

The section at which the strain was most favorable<br />

for grain growth at 600 deg. C, will have the largest<br />

grains. Higher and lower strains will have produced<br />

less grain growth. For a different temperature,<br />

maximum grain growth would have occurred at some<br />

other section. The experiment is illustrated in Fig.<br />

120.<br />

A "temperature gradient", that is a condition<br />

wherein the temperature increases from one point to<br />

another, in the piece, may also cause grain growth in<br />

steel.<br />

The reasons for these exceptions to the ordinary<br />

laws of grain growth, are still uncertain. The subject<br />

is discussed at some length in ref. 13.<br />

In view of the pronounced effect of grain size on<br />

the properties of metal the importance of these exceptional<br />

cases of grain growth is plain.<br />

Volume Changes.<br />

When austenite changes to martensite on quench­<br />

under the microscope. If troostite is heated to a temping, there is an increase in volume camparable to that<br />

erature slightly below the Al point, say 700 deg. C. which takes place in soft iron on slow cooling through<br />

for several hours, cementite particles large enough to Ar3. This expansion during quenching, takes place<br />

be seen under high magnification, will be formed. The at a temperature below 300 deg. C. It is accompanied<br />

structure will have changed to sorbite. Continued by reappearance of magnetism and the development<br />

heating below the critical range, will cause the cemen­ of pronounced hardness. If austenite, which has been<br />

tite particles to increase in size, but decrease in num­ preserved at ordinary temperatures, is caused to<br />

ber, resulting in the structure known as spheroidized<br />

change into martensite, by tempering, a similar ex­<br />

cementite or granular pearlite. The particles of cemenpansion<br />

takes place.<br />

tite in troostite or sorbite are not connected, and are When freshly formed martensite is allowed to stand<br />

completely surrounded by ferrite. In order for some at room temperature for a time, or is slightly heated<br />

of them to grow, carbon or carbide from neighboring as by placing in boiling water, contraction takes place.<br />

particles must travel to them through the ferrite. The Tempering causes further contraction. This contrac­<br />

large particles grow by taking material from smaller tion is attributed to the formation (precipitation) of<br />

particles, through the intervening ferrite. It is cementite. The individual carbon atoms, entrapped<br />

considered that the small particles gradually dis­ in Alpha iron during sudden cooling, probably take up<br />

solve in the surrounding ferrite, and that carbon atoms more room than they do when combined with iron<br />

then migrate through the ferrite to the larger particles. atoms in the form of cementite, Fe3C.<br />

combining there with iron atoms to form carbide The amount of contraction which takes place, in­<br />

(Fe3C) again, and becoming part of the larger cemencreases with the carbon content. In steel containing<br />

tite particle. This means that the larger particles have 1.0 per cent carbon, the contraction due to the forma­<br />

a stronger tendency to grow than do the small partition of cementite is sufficient to counterbalance the<br />

cles. (We have seen that the same principle holds true expansion which accompanies the formation of Alpha<br />

in the crystalline grains of metal, and accounts for iron from Gamma iron. Such steel, when slowly cooled<br />

grain growth.) The cementite particles could not grow through the critical range, undergoes no volume<br />

in this way, unless carbide or carbon is soluble, to change except the gradual contraction due to cooling.<br />

some extent, in ferrite. The solubility is no doubt If it is suddenly cooled, so as to form martensite, ex­<br />

greater just below Al than at lower temperatures, and pansion occurs, and this is followed by contraction on<br />

is probably about 0.10 per cent.<br />

standing or on tempering.


326 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping - Heaf Treating<br />

These volume changes have an important bearing<br />

on the deformation or cracking of steel parts during<br />

heat treatment, as will be discussed in Chapter VII.<br />

PART 3<br />

IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM<br />

The critical point diagram, Fig. 110, which was<br />

described in the first part of this Chapter, portrays<br />

the changes which take place in steel during slow<br />

heating and cooling, through the critical range. It<br />

is therefore limited to temperatures not much over 900<br />

deg. C. and to iron-carbon alloys containing not more<br />

than about 1.7 per cent carbon. When the carbon content<br />

is much in excess of the latter figure, the material<br />

is classed as cast iron.<br />

When steel or cast iron is heated to the molten<br />

state, or slowly cooled from the molten state, as in<br />

casting, certain structural changes take place, which<br />

have important effects on the character of the metal.<br />

These changes may be studied in connection with the<br />

iron-carbon diagram shown in Fig. 109.<br />

This graph is also known as an "equilibrium" or<br />

"constitution" diagram of iron-carbon alloys, and<br />

sometimes as a Roozeboom diagram, after the originator.<br />

The diagram has been plotted differently by<br />

various authorities and some details are still open to<br />

question. Archer's diagram, reproduced here, is probably<br />

one of the simplest and most accurate as well as<br />

one of the most up-to-date. Archer's description (ref.<br />

12) has already been quoted in connection with the<br />

critical point diagram, and will be followed rather<br />

closely here. It has already been explained that the<br />

diagram is plotted by laying off temperature vertically<br />

and composition (per cent carbon), horizontally. Any<br />

point on the diagram represents the condition of a<br />

definite alloy at a definite temperature. The carbon<br />

content is shown on the horizontal base line, directlv<br />

below the point in question, while the temperature is<br />

shown on the vertical scale, directly opposite the point.<br />

Only 6.67 per cent carbon would cause the alloy to<br />

consist entirely of the compound Fe3C, or cementite.<br />

This is the theoretical limit of the iron carbon diagram.<br />

Practically, a maximum of about 5.0 per cent<br />

carbon is never exceeded.<br />

Constituents and Phases.<br />

We have seen (Part 1 of this Chapter), that those<br />

portions of an alloy which, under the microscope appear<br />

to be definite units in the structure, are called<br />

"constituents." The term is rather indefinite for it is<br />

applied to pearlite, sorbite, troostite and martensite,<br />

although these are really made up of a mixture of two<br />

different things, cementite and ferrite, which may be<br />

distinguished, at least in the first two cases, if the magnification<br />

is high enough.<br />

A more definite term is "phase". A phase is a<br />

portion of an alloy which is physically and chemically<br />

homogeneous (uniform) throughout, and which is separated<br />

from the rest of the alloy by distinct bounding<br />

surfaces. More specifically, a phase is a state or aspect<br />

in which an element or substance may exist.<br />

The following phases occur in the iron carbon<br />

alloys: Molten alloy, austenite, ferrite, cementite<br />

and are not "physically and chemically homogeneous<br />

throughout." It is evident that a phase in an alloy<br />

may be an element (as graphite, which is a form of<br />

September, 1925<br />

carbon), a compound (as cementite, Fe3C), a solid<br />

solution (as austenite or ferrite), or a liquid solution<br />

(as the molten alloy), but not a mixture.<br />

Constitution.<br />

When we say what phases are present in a given<br />

alloy, at a given temperature, and how much there is<br />

of each phase, we completely describe its "constitution".<br />

(Constitution should not be confused with constituents.<br />

By construction we mean the make-up of<br />

an alloy at a given temperature, i.e., what phases of<br />

the materials composing it are present.)<br />

It is sufficient description of the constitution of an<br />

annealed low carbon steel at room temperature, for<br />

example, to say that it contains 3 per cent cementite<br />

and 97 per cent ferrite, although a description of the<br />

structure of this steel might give the added information<br />

that it contained about 22 per cent of pearlite and 78<br />

per cent of free ferrite. The iron-carbon diagram deals<br />

only with the constitution of the iron-carbon alloys,<br />

and not with their structure.<br />

Equilibrium.<br />

The iron-carbon diagram represents these alloys<br />

in a condition known as "equilibrium." We may consider<br />

that a state of equilibrium exists in any alloy at<br />

any given temperature, when exposure to that temperature<br />

for any further period of time does not produce<br />

any change in the constitution, provided the temperature<br />

in question is sufficiently high to allow constitutional<br />

changes to go to completion. The test of<br />

equilibrium is that the same condition is reached, no<br />

matter from which side it is approached, whether heating<br />

or cooling.<br />

Let us now consider the changes that take place<br />

when iron-carbon alloys cool from the molten to the<br />

solid state, and the phases that are produced, as shown<br />

on the diagram.<br />

The Liquidus.<br />

The line "ABD" called the liquidus, represents the<br />

beginning of solidification on cooling and the end of<br />

melting on heating. All points above this line represent<br />

alloys in a completely molten condition. All<br />

points below ABD represent alloys partially or completely<br />

solid.<br />

Solidification.<br />

Pure iron, represented by the point A, and the ironcementite<br />

eutectic, represented by the point B, melt<br />

and solidify at constant temperature. All other alloys<br />

represented in the diagram, melt and freeze over a<br />

range of temperature.<br />

Alloys containing 0 to 4.3 per cent carbon, begin to<br />

solidify on cooling to the line AB by the separation<br />

of austenite crystals from the liquid.<br />

Alloys containing more than 4.3 per cent carbon,<br />

begin to solidify with the separation of cementite from<br />

the liquid, on cooling to the line BD.<br />

The alloy containing 4.3 per cent carbon is the<br />

eutectic alloy, and solidifies entirely at the point B.<br />

with the simultaneous formation of austenite and cementite.<br />

In the case of alloys containing less than 1.7 per<br />

cent carbon, austenite continues to freeze out on cooling<br />

from AB to AE. At AE the alloy is completely<br />

solid and consists of one phase, austenite.<br />

In alloys containing from 1.7 to 4.3 per cent carbon,<br />

austenite freezes out of the liquid from AB to EB. At


September, 1925<br />

EB there is some residual liquid, which is of eutectic<br />

composition. This liquid then solidifies at constant<br />

temperature, forming the eutectic mixture of austenite<br />

and cementite.<br />

In alloys containing more than 4.3 per cent carbon,<br />

cementite freezes out on cooling from BD to BC. At<br />

BC the residual liquid is of eutectic composition and<br />

solidifies at constant'temperature.<br />

The Solidus.<br />

The line AEBC is called the solidus. Below this<br />

line all alloys are completely solid."<br />

Phase Changes During Slow Cooling.<br />

The iron carbon diagram will be clarified by* following<br />

the changes of phase which take place in some<br />

typical examples of steel and cast iron during slow<br />

cooling from the molten state. See the reproduction<br />

of Iron-Carbon diagram, Fig. 121. Consider<br />

first pure iron. Above the point A, about 1530<br />

deg. C, it will be completely molten. Upon cooling<br />

to this temperature it will solidify completely, chang-<br />

/60cx<br />

,3S .30 A3 1-7 4-3<br />

Percent Carbon, by k/e/ght<br />

FIG. 121—Phase changes of various iron-carbon alloys.<br />

(Archer.)<br />

ing into crystals of Gamma iron. This will change<br />

to Alpha iron at the point G, (900 deg. C), as we have<br />

seen in the critical point diagram. Pure iron may<br />

therefore exist in any of three phases, liquid, solid<br />

Gamma or solid Alpha. The magnetic change of<br />

Alpha iron, which occurs at the A2 point, is not regarded<br />

as a change of phase, and is therefore not included<br />

on the diagram.<br />

Consider next a hypo-eutectoid steel containing,<br />

say 0.35 per cent carbon, such as is used to a large<br />

extent in f<strong>org</strong>ings, and the like. The addition of carbon<br />

to iron (up to 4.3 per cent carbon) lowers the<br />

freezing or melting point. This steel will not begin<br />

to solidify until it has cooled to the point 1, Fig. 121.<br />

Here crystals of austenite will begin to form. These,<br />

at first, will contain less than 0.35 per cent carbon.<br />

Their carbon content may be found by drawing a horizontal<br />

line from the point 1 to the solidus line AE,<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

327<br />

and dropping a vertical line from this point 2 to the<br />

base line. The vertical line through 2 represents the<br />

alloy of iron and carbon which would be completely<br />

solid at the temperature 1-2, and according to the diagram,<br />

contains about 0.15 to 0.20 per cent carbon. This,<br />

therefore, is the carbon content of the first austenite<br />

crystals formed at 1. Since these crystals have less<br />

than the average carbon content (0.35 per cent) of the<br />

alloy under consideration, the liquid portion of the alloy<br />

at 1, must contain more than 0.35 per cent carbon.<br />

The freezing point of the remaining liquid is therefore<br />

lowered. Evidently, as cooling progresses, the solidifying<br />

austenite and the remaining liquid both become<br />

richer in carbon. Final solidification will take place<br />

on reaching the point 3, on the solidus line. Just before<br />

reaching this point, the little liquid remaining, and<br />

the austenite crystals which are formed from it, will<br />

have a carbon content equal to that of the alloy 2a,<br />

whose solidification begins at the temperature opposite<br />

3-2a. This carbon content is about 0.90 per cent.<br />

It is evident, therefore, that, during the freezing of<br />

the alloy, there is a tendency to produce an uneven<br />

distribution of carbon, the beginnings or centers of the<br />

crystalline grains having the lowest carbon content<br />

and the portions near the grain boundaries, the highest.<br />

This tendency is more or less counterbalanced by<br />

the fact that the carbon in solid solution in austenite<br />

tends to distribute itself uniformly, by the process of<br />

diffusion. Diffusion of carbon begins in the austenite<br />

grains as soon as they are formed, and continues until<br />

the mass has cooled down to the transformation point,<br />

Al, indicated by the line PSK. Heating in the soaking<br />

pit, and hot working, also favor the even distribution<br />

of carbon. A^fter cooling through the point 3, no further<br />

change of phase takes place until the alloy has<br />

cooled to the point 4, on the line GS. This is the<br />

critical point, A3, and, as we have already seen, free<br />

ferrite or Alpha iron begins to separate from the austenite<br />

grains. Precipitation of ferrite continues, with<br />

falling temperature, down to the point 5. This ferrite<br />

is nearly free from carbon, therefore the remaining<br />

austenite must become richer in carbon as cooling progresses<br />

from 4 to 5. At the point 5. which is the Al<br />

critical point, the austenite grains will have attained<br />

a carbon content of 0.90 per cent, and will then be<br />

converted into pearlite. The latter as we know, consists<br />

of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. Below<br />

the line PSK, therefore, it will be found that two,<br />

and only two, phases exist, namely ferrite, and cementite.<br />

Part of the ferrite will be in the form of individual<br />

grains (called free ferrite or proeutectoid ferrite)<br />

and the remainder will be mixed with the cementite<br />

(called eutectoid- or pearlitic-ferrite). The alloy<br />

under consideration will now have a structure con­<br />

sisting of 0.35<br />

0.90<br />

X 100 = 39 per cent pearlite and 61<br />

per cent free ferrite. The pearlite itself is made up of<br />

100 X —•— = 13.5 per cent cementite and 86.5 per<br />

6.67<br />

cent ferrite.<br />

Let us next follow the phase changes, during cooling,<br />

of a eutectoid (0.90 per cent carbon) steel, such<br />

as is largely used for springs and tools. Solidification<br />

begins at the point 6 and is complete at the point 7.


328 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating<br />

The first austenite crystals formed will have a carbon<br />

content less than 0.90 per cent (probably about 0.30<br />

per cent to 0.40 per cent) and the final crystals will be<br />

high in carbon (perhaps about 1.7 per cent, with possibly<br />

some free cementite at the boundaries), but diffusion<br />

will tend to distribute the carbon uniformly<br />

through the austenite grains, so as to produce a uniform<br />

carbon content of 0.90 per cent. No further<br />

phase change will occur down to the point S (which is<br />

the Al, 2, 3 point). Here the austenite will be transformed<br />

into pearlite. The structure will now consist<br />

entirely of pearlite made up of 13.5 per cent cementite<br />

and 86.5 per cent ferrite.<br />

Now consider a steel having a carbon content of<br />

1.3 per cent, representing a high carbon tool steel.<br />

Solidification will begin at 9 and finish at 10, where the<br />

alloy will consist entirely of austenite. On cooling to<br />

the point 11. on the line SE, cementite will begin to<br />

precipitate from solid solution. This line SE, is the<br />

Acm line on the critical point diagram. We know,<br />

therefore, that separation of cementite will continue<br />

down to 12 on the line PSK (Al, 2, 3 point), and<br />

that the carbon content of the austenite will at the<br />

same time decrease, until it reaches the eutectoid composition<br />

(0.90 per cent C.) at 12. Here the remaining<br />

austenite will be converted into pearlite. The structure<br />

now consists of pearlite grains surrounded by a<br />

network of free ferrite, and there are, again, the two<br />

phases, ferrite and cementite. This time, there is only<br />

pearlitic ferrite, but there is some free (pro-eutectoid)<br />

cementite, and some pearlitic (eutectoid) cementite.<br />

No phase change occurs below the line PSK.<br />

Suppose that the carbon content of our alloy is 1.7<br />

per cent. This is the greatest amount of carbon which<br />

iron can hold in solid solution, and this much can be<br />

dissolved only at a certain temperature. The molten<br />

alloy will begin to freeze at 13, and freezing will continue,<br />

down to the point E, at 1130 deg. C, where the<br />

mass will consist of grains of austenite holding 1.7 per<br />

cent carbon in solid solution. Cooling below this<br />

point will immediately cause the precipitation of cementite,<br />

which will continue down to the point 14.<br />

Here the austenite will have reached the autectoid<br />

composition, and will be converted into pearlite. The<br />

1.7<br />

mass now contains X 100 = 25.5 per cent cemen-<br />

6.67<br />

11.5 per cent cementite will be in the pearlite, leaving<br />

14 per cent free cementite. The structure will contain<br />

86 per cent pearlite.<br />

An alloy consisting of 4.3 per cent carbon, 95.7<br />

per cent iron, is called the "eutectic" alloy, meaning<br />

alloy of lowest melting point. This alloy cools to the<br />

point B without any solidification. A*\t that temperature,<br />

1130 deg. C, the entire mass becomes solid,<br />

but in so doing, a "eutectic mixture" of cementite and<br />

austenite is formed. The austenite in this mixture<br />

holds 1.7 per cent carbon in solid solution, the remainder<br />

of the carbon, 4.3 — 1.7 = 2.6 per cent, going to<br />

form the cementite. On further cooling, the austenite<br />

of this mixture behaves exactlv like the austenite of<br />

September, 1925<br />

1.7 per cent carbon steel, described above, first liberating<br />

more cementite and finally being converted into<br />

pearlite at the line PSK.<br />

The presence of more than 4.3 per cent carbon<br />

raises the temperature at which solidification begins,<br />

as shown by the line BD. On cooling to this line,<br />

crystals of cementite begin to form. This lowers the<br />

carbon content of the remaining liquid, until, at the<br />

line BC, it contains 4.3 per cent carbon and solidifies<br />

into the eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite,<br />

described above.<br />

The eutectoid point, S, derives its name from the<br />

similarity it bears to the eutectic point, B.<br />

Graphitization.<br />

Under certain conditions, some or all of the carbon<br />

in iron-carbon alloys, occurs as graphite, instead<br />

of forming cementite. This is the case in gray cast<br />

iron and in malleable iron. In the former the graphite<br />

separates during slow cooling, into thin, irregular<br />

plates, at the grain boundaries. This tendency is<br />

stronger, the higher the carbon, and is greatly favored<br />

by the presence of silicon. In malleable iron the<br />

conditions must be such as to prevent the formation<br />

of graphite plates during cooling. Long reheating to<br />

below the critical range then causes the cementite to<br />

decompose into iron and graphitic carbon, known as<br />

temper carbon.<br />

Very slow cooling or long heating favors the<br />

breaking down of cementite into graphitic carbon and<br />

iron. It may be, therefore, that this is the true condition<br />

of equilibrium. However, nearly pure iron carbon<br />

alloys do not graphitize readily, and it is possible<br />

that graphite would not form at all in strictly pure alloys.<br />

This question has not yet been definitely decided.<br />

A tentative constitution diagram based on the<br />

iron-graphite system, is given in refs. 12 and 13.<br />

End of Chapter VI.<br />

Hydro-Pneumatic Press Applied to Production<br />

Forming and Pressing<br />

tite and 74.5 per cent ferrite. All of the ferrite is found<br />

in the pearlite. Since pearlite consists of 13.5 parts of<br />

cementite to 86.5 parts ferrite, 13.5<br />

The forming and pressing of metal parts on a production<br />

basis is the function of the self-contained fourcolumn<br />

hydraulic press which is being marketed by<br />

X<br />

86.5<br />

74.5 per cent =<br />

the Chambersburg Engineering Company, Chambersburg,<br />

Pa. In railroad and car shop work the machine<br />

is said to produce car diaphragms, stiffeners, gussets<br />

and similar parts economically, and to be used to advantage<br />

also in bending and straightening sills, plates<br />

and other pieces. Capacities range from 200 tons up,<br />

the machine illustrated being of 300 tons capacity.<br />

Rapid operation is said to be accomplished by<br />

utilizing shop air pressure for the movement of the<br />

platen and stripping ram to and from the work, and<br />

having the actual pressing done by means of the<br />

hydraulic pressure furnished by a pump mounted on<br />

the upper platen. The general design permits special<br />

features to meet the requirements of general shop<br />

work.


September, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

F o u r R o l l T y p e o f B o a r d D r o p H a m m e r<br />

Board Drop Hammers Provided with Two Sets of Rolls Instead<br />

of One Have Been Designed to Meet the Demand<br />

F O R many years a stock subject for discussion<br />

whenever drop f<strong>org</strong>ers met has been the relative<br />

merits of steam drop hammers and board drop<br />

hammers. The board drop hammer has had some advantages<br />

in the original cost of the installation, since<br />

it could be set up and operated with only a motor and<br />

a lineshaft, whereas, a steam boiler plant was required<br />

for the steam drop hammer. On the other hand, in<br />

handling some types of work, the steam drop hammer<br />

had considerable advantage, due to the fact that<br />

it can strike either a light or heavy blow, whereas,<br />

the board drop hammer in f<strong>org</strong>ing any one piece, must<br />

strike a fixed weight of blow, at least as far as practical<br />

operation is concerned. The relative production<br />

and relative operating cost of the two types has been<br />

the favored subject of discussion, the answer depending<br />

to a great extent on the local conditions. The<br />

swing toward the use of central station power in late<br />

years has of course been a factor in favor of board<br />

drop hammers, and another thing which nas brought<br />

about its adoption in many cases recently is the fact<br />

that board drop hammers designed in the last few<br />

years are of much more substantial and rugged construction<br />

than those of earlier design. In fact, the<br />

superintendent of a large f<strong>org</strong>e shop, addressing a recent<br />

meeting of the American Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Institute.<br />

stated that the important members of 600-lb. board<br />

drop hammers which he was buying today were- as<br />

heavy in cross section as those of hammers rated at<br />

3000-lbs. on which he learned his trade.<br />

Capacity of Board Drop Hammer Limited.<br />

However, it was thought that the steam drop hammer<br />

would always dominate the field in large sizes,<br />

as they could be built almost to any capacity that<br />

might be required, since there was nothing to prevent<br />

the use of larger cylinder bores or high pressure<br />

steam to lift a ram of any size. The feeling has been,<br />

however, that it would not be practicable to build<br />

board drop hammers larger than about 4000-lbs. or<br />

5000-lbs. in rated size. It will be understood that in<br />

the case of board drop hammers the rated size is<br />

the nominal weight of the hammer head or ram, and<br />

in the case of the steam drop hammers the rated size<br />

is the nominal weight of the falling parts which consist<br />

of the ram, the piston rod and the piston head.<br />

In the case of board drop hammers, the hammer ram<br />

is lifted by means of boards which are wedged in<br />

plate in the ram and which are gripped by revolving<br />

rollers. In large hammers the rolls must have a tremendous<br />

pressure on the boards in order that merely<br />

by friction they can accelerate and lift the heavy ram.<br />

There is a limit to the unit pressure per inch of width<br />

of board which can be carried by the hard maple before<br />

the board is crushed, or it is burned by the friction<br />

and wears very rapidly. If the rams in various<br />

sizes of hammers are designed with about the same<br />

proportions, it is evident that if the width of the hammer<br />

board is increased, the weight of the ram will<br />

increase as the cube of the width; that is, :f the board<br />

for Board Hammers of Large Capacity<br />

329<br />

is twice as wide, a ram of the same proportion would<br />

weigh eight times as much. Putting the same statement<br />

in another way, the width of board on a 5000-lb.<br />

hammer is only about 30 or 40 per cent more than<br />

on a 2500-lb. hammer, instead of being twice as much.<br />

Therefore, the unit pressure on the boards of the<br />

larger hammer must be considerable greater and the<br />

life of the boards is correspondingly reduced.<br />

New Type of Board Hammer.<br />

A new type of board drop hammer recently placed<br />

on the market by the Erie Foundry Company of Erie,<br />

Pa., is designed to meet the demand for large board<br />

drop hammers and at the same time to reduce the<br />

wear on boards and belts, and thus minimize two of<br />

the largest items of board drop hammer operating<br />

cost. This has been accomplished by providing the<br />

hammer with two sets of rolls instead of one. so that<br />

the total pressure of the rolls against the board is applied<br />

at two points; thus, with the same effort applied<br />

to lifting the ram, the unit pressure of the board is<br />

only half as great. Actually, however, the lifting effort<br />

has been increased so that the hammer can be<br />

operated more rapidly, and at the same time the unit<br />

pressure on the board is much less than in any other<br />

hammer. The design lends itself to the use of a gear<br />

reduction between the pulley shaft and the roll shaft<br />

so that the pulleys are run at about twice the rpm.<br />

of the rolls and this increases the speed of the belt<br />

and reduces the tension to figures which would be<br />

recommended by belting manufacturers. This cannot<br />

be done on any other type of hammer and it is claimed<br />

that the cost of belting repairs and maintenance will<br />

be much reduced.<br />

The distinguishing feature of the new type of hammer<br />

is of course the design of the lifter or head, although<br />

there is some interesting construction at other<br />

points to which reference will be made later. A closeup<br />

view of the head is shown in the accompanying<br />

cuts Fig. I. The head is symmetrical front and<br />

back, the only difference being that the front eccentric<br />

operates at each stroke of the hammer, being actuated<br />

by the friction bar; while the back eccentric is adjustable<br />

to accomodate varying thicknesses of boards.<br />

Roll Pressure Must be Equalized.<br />

The upright side housings of the head are supported<br />

'w the heavy cast steel tie plate, which also<br />

carries the floating head or clamp which is of the<br />

usual design. Journaled in the uprights of the head<br />

are the cast steel eccentrics. Each eccentric carries<br />

two equalizers or eveners, which are free to turn<br />

about the eccentric. The diameter of the eccentric<br />

which carries the equalizers is turned on a different<br />

center from the diameter which is journaled in the<br />

side frame; so, as the eccentric is rotated, the equalizers<br />

are forced in toward the hammer board. The<br />

tops of each pair of equalizers are fastened together<br />

by means of heavy cast steel bars so that the pair of<br />

equalizers must always work as a unit and the ends


330 F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

will always be in line with each other. The rolls are<br />

mounted on shafts which are carried in bores at the<br />

ends of the equalizers, one roll at the top and one at<br />

the bottom of each pair of equalizer-. It will be<br />

readily apparent that the pressure put on the board by<br />

the toIU will always be equally divided between the<br />

top pair and the bottom pair of rolls, regardless of<br />

whether or not the front and back ol the board are<br />

parallel. This point is of particular importance, since<br />

frequently a low spot is worn at one point of the<br />

board, or the board wears tapered, and without the<br />

equalizing feature, one pair of rolls will take all of<br />

the load, not only damaging the board, but also putting<br />

high pressure on the roll bearings and straining<br />

other part.- of the mechani>m which are designed to<br />

take only half the load.<br />

The eccentric is bored out and bushed with bronze<br />

and the main drive shaft runs in these bushings. It<br />

carries at one end the driving pulleys and at the other<br />

end the pinion. The pinion meshes with two gears.<br />

one f>n each of the roll shaft- which extend through<br />

September, 1925<br />

the ends of the equalizers. It should be noticed particularly<br />

that these gears are always in constant mesh<br />

regardless of the position of the eccentric. This design<br />

is not to be confused with the old-style of gear<br />

lifter in which a gear at the front of the board meshed<br />

with one at the back of the board. This old style of<br />

gear lifter is practically obsolete now, because of the<br />

fact that with a thick board the gear- mesh out at<br />

the point of the tooth, while with a thin board they<br />

mesh down near the root of the tooth, and consequentlv<br />

special tooth forms must be used and the<br />

gears wear rapidly and become noisy. The pinion is<br />

only half the size of the gears, so that the main shaft<br />

and the pulleys revolve at twice the speed of the rolls.<br />

Therefore, with the same size pulleys, the belt speed<br />

is twice what it would ordinarily be and consequently<br />

the belt tension only half what it would be. This has<br />

overcome another difficulty which has stood in the<br />

path of the development of large board drop hammers.<br />

Ordinarily the pulley and the roll run at the same<br />

speed, both being keyed to one shaft. Previously, in<br />

FIG 1—A close-up view of the head of the four-roll board drop hammer.


September, 1925<br />

large hammers the surface speed of the rolls has<br />

necessarily been decreased, while the diameter of<br />

the rolls has been increased, so that the rpm. of the<br />

rolls is much less on large hammers than on small<br />

ones. It is not practicable to increase the diameter<br />

of the pulleys as they would be out of all proportion<br />

to the rest of the hammer, and consequently the belt<br />

speed is much cut down on larger hammers. The belt<br />

tension, particularly at the time of picking up the ram<br />

from a standstill, has exceeded what would be recommended<br />

by belting manufacturers, and this has resulted<br />

in high maintenance cost for the belt By increasing<br />

the belt speed in the manner described in the<br />

new hammer, the effective belt pull is reduced and<br />

the belt can be run at a considerable lower initial tension,<br />

and will not have to be tightened up so frequently,<br />

nor be replaced so often.<br />

Hammer of Massive Construction.<br />

The massive construction of the whole machine<br />

can be readily seen from Fig. 2 better than it can<br />

be described. The new type of hammer has been<br />

brought out by a firm which has a quarter of a century's<br />

experience in building f<strong>org</strong>e shop machinery.<br />

and it is to be expected that they would be familiar<br />

with the fact that this class of equipment is subjected<br />

to abuse and that many of the parts have to resist<br />

stresses which it is practically impossible to compute.<br />

The hammer is design with a liberal factor of safety<br />

and with a further factor of ignorance, to take care of<br />

this condition. Even beyond this, however, the designers<br />

have had in mind that the introduction of the<br />

new type of hammer was an opportunity to design a<br />

machine which could be pointed to for some time to<br />

come as an example of what hammer construction<br />

should be. The castings used are principally of steel.<br />

The shafts, f<strong>org</strong>ed parts, gears, etc.. are, for the most<br />

part, alloy or special analysis steel. All rotating bearings<br />

are bushed with fine bearing bronze, cast from<br />

virgin steel. Special attention has been paid to convenient<br />

means of oiling to assure the ample lubrication<br />

and consequent long life of the moving parts.<br />

As will be seen from the photograph, the hammer<br />

has been furnished with box section type frames similar<br />

to those used on steam drop hammers, instead of<br />

the usual I-beam section frames of board drop hammers.<br />

The box section frame is more difficult to make<br />

and more expensive than the I-beam type, but no one<br />

has ever questioned that it is superior since the box<br />

section is the ideal one to resist the strains which, is<br />

the case of a hammer frame, come against it in all<br />

directions.<br />

Novel Guide Construction.<br />

The guides in which the ram operates, Fig. 3, are<br />

of novel design. Drop f<strong>org</strong>ers have expressed the<br />

opinion that this construction could be used to advantage<br />

on all board drop hammers, small as well as<br />

large, ar.d it is expected that this may be developed<br />

in the near future. On the upper half of the frames<br />

there is a single V guide cast integral with the frame.<br />

The bottom half of the guide is a separate piece held<br />

in a pocket in the frame. In the case of the 5000-lb.<br />

hammer, the renewable part of the guide has three Vs<br />

so as to provide ample bearing area. The cross section<br />

of the guide is very heavy in order to prevent<br />

breakage. In this case it is approximately 8 in. square.<br />

Moreover, the guide is strongly reinforced by the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping - Heaf Treating<br />

331<br />

heavy frame as it is supported in the pocket in the<br />

frame on five sides. The guide is designed to serve<br />

as a renewable wearing piece and, therefore, no adjustment<br />

is provided in the guide itself. As the guide<br />

wears, or after it has been planed down, means are<br />

provided for bringing it out to the proper location by<br />

putting liners back of the guide, between it and the<br />

FIG. 2—Hammer is of the box type construction similar to<br />

that used on steam drop hammers.<br />

frame. The guides are interchangeable from one<br />

frame to another, and can be turned end for end in<br />

the pocket in the frame so that if wear occurs only<br />

at one point, it is possible to change the guides around<br />

until all the available surface has been worn, before<br />

it is necessary to take the guide out and have it<br />

planed.<br />

The ram can be lifted by the rolls in the usual<br />

manner up above the level of the top of the renewable<br />

section of the guide and after the ram has been blocked


332 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Tieating<br />

in place, the guides can be quickly and easily removed<br />

or replaced. If it is necessary to remove the ram<br />

from the hammer to dress up the die notch, this is<br />

easily done by removing the guides as has just been<br />

described and then dropping the ram and removing it<br />

from the hammer almost at floor level without dismantling<br />

the hammer or even spreading the frames<br />

apart. Other advantages of this construction are that<br />

it is possible to renew the guides in just a few minutes<br />

if a spare set of guides is carried. After the Ys have<br />

been worn they can be dressed up in a small planer; a<br />

large planer capable of passing the whole frame of<br />

the hammer is not required, nor is it necessary to completely<br />

dismantle the hammer. Moreover, by having<br />

only hall of the guides renewable, only half the length<br />

has to be planed that would otherwise be required,<br />

since the single V at the top should last for the life<br />

of the hammer without dressing it up.<br />

As is the case with all Erie Drop Hammers, the<br />

upper works of the hammer form a rigid unit which<br />

can be moved across the anvil from right to left or vice<br />

FIG. 3—Showing the novel type of guide construction.<br />

versa, being moved by adjusting wedges which bear<br />

across the back of the frames for the full width. In<br />

addition to these wedges, provision is made for taking<br />

up wear between the frames and the anvil in the<br />

front and back direction. The overhang of the frame<br />

bears against the back face of the anvil, and at the<br />

front tapered gibs are provided lying on the front<br />

face of the anvil under the over-hanging frame, so<br />

that as wear occurs, the tapered gibs can be tightened<br />

up and the proper fit maintained. This construction<br />

has eliminated the necessity for the tongue and groove<br />

which is usually provided to keep the frames in line<br />

with the anvil and thus it has been possible to provide<br />

September, 1925<br />

an unusually large area at the top of the anvil where<br />

the frame is seated, and it is expected that wear at<br />

this point will practically be eliminated. The latch,<br />

roll release lever, treadle and other similar parts, follow<br />

the well known design of standard Erie Board<br />

Drop Hammers.<br />

Application has been made for patent covering the<br />

special features of the hammer, which have been described<br />

above.<br />

Cause of Blisters<br />

Sample iron plates cast from northern pig irons<br />

were distributed to co-operating enamelers and also<br />

enameled in the Bureau of Standards laboratory. Both<br />

lots of sample plates were found to blister if enameled<br />

above a fairly definite temperature; that is, about 1290<br />

deg. F., according to Technical News Bulletin No. 99,<br />

issued by the bureau.<br />

The three most probable causes of the blisters are<br />

as follows: A certain amount of gas is taken up in<br />

the blast furnace, due to some difference in operating<br />

conditions in northern furnaces. It has been assumed<br />

that, on remelting once in the cupola, the gas is not<br />

removed, but it is on repeated meltings. Just why this<br />

should happen is not clear, because analyses of cast<br />

irons for oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen show no difference<br />

between ordinary and remelted irons. The<br />

second possibility is that some element not shown<br />

by ordinary analysis is present in the pig and is responsible<br />

for the trouble. Spectroscopic analyses fail<br />

to show any difference that can be considered significant.<br />

The third possibility is that graphite may be present<br />

on the surface, and is not wholly removed by sandblasting.<br />

At a sufficiently high enameling temperature<br />

this graphite would react with the oxides of the<br />

enamel to form carbon monoxide, which causes blisters.<br />

By remelting, something might happen to change<br />

the distribution of graphite, so that finally the surface<br />

after sandblasting would be free from graphite.<br />

In view of the possibilities sample plates were pre<br />

pared from two northern irons melted once in the electric<br />

furnace. The scrap produced was also remelted<br />

and cast into sample plates. One Northern iron has<br />

been remelted in the cupola two times and sample<br />

plates cast. The test pieces made by the above methods<br />

have been enameled at the bureau, with promising<br />

results. It was found that all plates cast from the first<br />

melting in the electric furnace blistered, but not so<br />

badly when enameled by the dry process as when<br />

enameled by the wet process.<br />

Sample ,plates obtained by remelting the scrap,<br />

both in the electric furnace and in the cupola, show no<br />

blisters when enameled by the dry process and a decided<br />

reduction in blistering in the wet process. It<br />

appears that remelting the iron several times is beneficial<br />

in reducing the blistering of the enamel. Chemical<br />

analyses of the cupola and electric furnace melts<br />

have been made and microscopic examination now is<br />

in progress.


September, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g T h e H a r d n e s s o f S t e e l<br />

The Hardness of Carbon Spring Steel Is Influenced by the Tem­<br />

perature to Which the Steel Is Heated and the Length<br />

of Time Held at That Temperature<br />

THERE are a great number of factors that have<br />

a bearing on the hardness of carbon steel. The<br />

first consideration is that the steel must be heated<br />

above the critical range. Given specimens of a certain<br />

size and chemical composition their hardness will<br />

depend on their rate of cooling to room temperature.<br />

The purpose of this paper is to show that there are<br />

two other factors that have a marked influence on the<br />

resulting hardness of carbon steel after quench.<br />

1—Temperature above the critical range to<br />

which it was heated.<br />

2—Length of time it was held at this temperature.<br />

In order to find to what extent these factors influence<br />

the hardness of carbon spring steel some bars<br />

were heated at various temperatures for various<br />

lengths of time and then quenched in oil. To secure<br />

uniformity of composition the bars were all taken<br />

from the same heat. The size of bar used was 14 in.<br />

x 2 in. x .22 in. and had the following chemical<br />

analysis—<br />

C Mn. P S Si.<br />

~M ~A2 j019~ .040 TlO<br />

By C. W. HOLMES*<br />

In order to eliminate the effect of lower temperatures<br />

on the results as much as possible the test pieces<br />

were heated quickly to the desired temperature. A<br />

gas-fired open muffle furnace was used for the heat<br />

treatment. The test pieces, six at a time were placed<br />

flat on the floor of the furnace, which was previously<br />

heated 1o the required temperature. About ten minutes<br />

was usually sufficient to bring the furnace and<br />

test pieces to this temperature again. When the test<br />

pieces had attained this temperature they were kept<br />

constant until taken out and quenched.<br />

A Leeds & Northrup potentiometer with a chromelalumel<br />

thermocouple was the system used to measure<br />

the temperature of the furnace.<br />

The results of Table I show that at 1550 deg. and<br />

1600 deg., the 5 min. treatment before quench produced<br />

a harder steel than the 30 min. treatment. Below<br />

these temperatures the shorter treatment produced<br />

a harder steel than the longer treatment but<br />

there is less difference than for the higher temperatures.<br />

It is to be noted that these results are similar to<br />

what one would expect if the longer treatment had<br />

decarbonized the surface of the specimens. To ascertain<br />

whether any decarbonization had occurred carbon<br />

determinations were run on some of the specimens<br />

before and after a 30 min. treatment at 1600 deg. F.<br />

They were annealed in lime and drillings were obtained<br />

by boring y% in. holes completely through the<br />

•Standard Steel Spring Co., Coraopolis, Pa.<br />

333<br />

bars. The analyses before and after treatment are<br />

as follows :—<br />

Carbon before Carbon after<br />

treatment treatment<br />

.94 .94<br />

.94 .93<br />

.94 .93<br />

Some of the bars that had been given the 30 min.<br />

treatment at 1600 deg. F. before quench were again<br />

heated to 1600 deg for 5 min. and then quenched<br />

in oil. The hardness for the two treatments were as<br />

follows :—<br />

Av. Brinell Av. Brinell<br />

Hardness Hardness<br />

First Treatment Second Treatment<br />

418 642<br />

390 632<br />

405 600<br />

412 S96<br />

396 611<br />

435 622<br />

These results show that no decarbonization of the<br />

surface of the specimens had, appreciably, occurred<br />

during the first heat treatment. If it had occurred<br />

the steel would not have TABLE regained I. its hardening power<br />

in The the following second treatment.<br />

table gives the hardness of the test pieces<br />

after various treatments—<br />

Temp, o f<br />

specimens<br />

at quench<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1440 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1550 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F7<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

1600 deg. F.<br />

Time at<br />

temp.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

20 min.<br />

20 min.<br />

20 min.<br />

20 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

30. min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

5 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

30 min.<br />

Brinell diam.<br />

range m.m.<br />

2.95 — • 3.10<br />

2.90 --3.20<br />

2.70- • 3.05<br />

2.30 -•<br />

2.90<br />

2.80- 3.00<br />

2.80 — 3.10<br />

2.95 --<br />

3.10<br />

2.90 - 3.10<br />

3.00 - 3.15<br />

3.00 - 3.10<br />

2.50 — 3.00<br />

2.40 — 2.60<br />

2.40 — • 2.50<br />

2.30 -•<br />

2.50<br />

2.30 -•<br />

2.55<br />

2.40 — • 3.00<br />

2.40-•<br />

2.80<br />

2.30 — 2.40<br />

2.40 — 3.10<br />

2.40- • 2.60<br />

2.40 --2.95<br />

2.40 --<br />

2.50<br />

2.30-•<br />

2.90<br />

2.30--2.50<br />

2.40 --<br />

2.70<br />

2.40--2.80<br />

2.40--<br />

2.55<br />

2.60--<br />

3.00<br />

2.80 --<br />

3.10<br />

3.00 - 3.20<br />

2.90--3.10<br />

2.95 --<br />

3.20<br />

2.70 --<br />

3.20<br />

2.90 --3.20<br />

2.80--<br />

3.07<br />

2.50 --3.10<br />

2.70 --<br />

3.25<br />

2.55 --<br />

2.95<br />

Average<br />

diam.<br />

3.04<br />

2.95<br />

2.85<br />

2.68<br />

2.92<br />

2.90<br />

3.03<br />

3.02<br />

3.07<br />

3.04<br />

2.56<br />

2.47<br />

2.42<br />

2.40<br />

2.40<br />

2.53<br />

2.50<br />

2.37<br />

2.53<br />

2.51<br />

2.52<br />

2.47<br />

2.58<br />

2.38<br />

2.53<br />

2.63<br />

2.50<br />

2.90<br />

2.99<br />

3.13<br />

3.00<br />

3.08<br />

3.04<br />

3.02<br />

3.07<br />

2.93<br />

3.03<br />

2.84<br />

Brinell<br />

Hard'ss<br />

average<br />

405<br />

430<br />

454<br />

520<br />

438<br />

444<br />

409<br />

412<br />

396<br />

405<br />

578<br />

616<br />

642<br />

652<br />

652<br />

587<br />

600<br />

671<br />

587<br />

596<br />

591<br />

616<br />

564<br />

694<br />

587<br />

541<br />

600<br />

444<br />

420<br />

380<br />

418<br />

390<br />

405<br />

412<br />

396<br />

435<br />

409<br />

446


334 f<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

Some time-temperature heating and cooling curves<br />

were also obtained for this steel. The bars used for<br />

these determinations were pieces of spring bar 8 in. x<br />

2 in. x .28 in. A 3/16 in. hole was drilled in each specimen<br />

in the direction of its width a little over one-half<br />

way through and symmetrical with respect to the<br />

other two dimensions. A small chromel-alumel thermo-couple<br />

was inserted and asbestos was packed<br />

around it at the opening of the hole. The leads were<br />

connected to a Leeds & Northrup potentiometer.<br />

The furnace used for these determinations was an<br />

electric resistance furnace. The door was slightly<br />

raised and the opening closed by asbestos blocks leaving<br />

space for the passage of the couple wires. Another<br />

couple was kept in the furnace connected to the<br />

same potentiometer by leads and a couple throw<br />

switch.<br />

In running this test the furnace was first heated<br />

to a certain temperature, the specimen with couple<br />

II<br />

i&oo ~F<br />

at 1000 deg. F. for the three cases:—<br />

Heating<br />

Curve<br />

Fig. 1<br />

Fig. 2<br />

Fig. 3<br />

September, 1925<br />

Rate of Heating<br />

at 1000 deg. F.<br />

118 deg. per min.<br />

192 deg. per min.<br />

229 deg. per min.<br />

The steel used in both the hardness tests and the<br />

heating and cooling curve determinations is eutectoid<br />

steel. A polished and etched section under the microscope<br />

will reveal a very fine lammelar structure<br />

that requires high magnification for its resolution.<br />

When a lammelar structure is visible it is called pearlite,<br />

Fig. 4. It consists of alternating plates of ferrite<br />

and cementite, which are the light and dark bands<br />

of the micrograph.<br />

When, as in the case of the iron-cementite series,<br />

the system is a two component one and two phases<br />

are in equilibrium with each other the composition of<br />

each phase will be a definite function of the temperature.<br />

When the phases in equilibrium are ferrite<br />

11<br />

/GOO"F<br />

1<br />

La<br />

1 i 1<br />

/eoo<br />

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f<br />

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I- 1 -<br />

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/ cot F<br />

j 400'<br />

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1_'-'-'' •t<br />

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it: !<br />

4-"!<br />

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4oo'<br />

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^<br />

jy<br />

S*5<br />

NC<br />

X z^<br />

\ / ieoo*<br />

/ 1<br />

l 2:::±<br />

\ _/ . 1 _<br />

2 7 /40Q'<br />

/ 1<br />

V , j<br />

* 7 1 T T<br />

11; /eoo*<br />

|--fi "ST ± " " = "<br />

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e • si s \<br />

*/ N.<br />

if OO^s.<br />

4- so" . .<br />

._ _ _ __± _^i _<br />

------- --f- ,3cS--<br />

6O0- sfet<br />

I ^ *<br />

_r ~ " r1-.- - " : ' "::::<br />

1 400'<br />

I 1<br />

±_ _ _ ±: _ . _<br />

j .17 ::::<br />

J A SO°<br />

-f-— . __. . -----<br />

I_ __.<br />

L -.-<br />

L -._ .-_ _.<br />

Time<br />

Fiol Fig 2 F,G.3<br />

Time<br />

FIGS. 1, 2 and 3—Heating curves, obtained when furnace was raised to 1580, 1680 and 1700 degs. F., respectively.<br />

attached was placed therein and raised about one inch<br />

from the floor by asbestos blocks at each end. Readings<br />

were taken every 15 seconds. Data for the cooling<br />

curves was obtained while the test pieces were in position<br />

in still air and protected against contact with any<br />

other material by asbestos blocks at the ends.<br />

In order to determine the character of the heating<br />

curves for different rates of heating of the specimens<br />

the furnace was raised to different temperatures,<br />

before the introduction of the specimens. Heating<br />

curves Figs. 1, 2, and 3, are those obtained when the<br />

furnace was raised to 1580 deg., 1680 deg., and 1700<br />

deg. F. respectively. The part of the curve where<br />

the lag occurs is the point of change of alpha to gamma<br />

iron. It will be noticed that the time required<br />

for the transformation, at the abnormal part of the<br />

curve, decreases as the temperature of the furnace<br />

increases.<br />

The higher the temperature of the furnace the<br />

more rapid is the heating of the specimens at any<br />

temperature. The following are the rates of heating<br />

1 1 *<br />

leoo'f<br />

and austenite the carbon content of the latter will decrease<br />

as the temperature rises, and when cementite<br />

and austenite, the carbon content ofthe latter will increase<br />

with rising temperature. When three phases<br />

are present and in equilibrium the system is non-variant.<br />

When the three .phases in equilibrium are<br />

ferrite, cementite and austenite, the carbon percentage<br />

of the latter is .875 and the temperature 1330 deg. F.<br />

which is the lowest temperature at which austenite<br />

can exist as a stable substance. These are the figures<br />

as given on the iron cementite equilibrium diagram<br />

for the eutectoid.<br />

In the ordinary treatment of steel equilibrium<br />

hardly ever exists between the phases. This is due<br />

in the first place to the rigidity of the particles, thus<br />

requiring a considerable attractive impulse to be exerted<br />

on them to bring about change of atomic arrangement,<br />

and in the second place the change usually<br />

does take place with considerable velocity, being in<br />

most cases of a spontaneous nature. Carbon steel when<br />

slowly cooled from above the critical range is composed<br />

almost entirely of pearlite if the carbon per-


September, 1925<br />

centage is within the limits .75 per cent to 1.00 per<br />

cent. Pearlite is the eutectoid of the iron-cementite<br />

series. The temperature at which alpha changes to<br />

FIG. 4—.94 carbon steel, size 2 x No. 5, original bar center<br />

of section. Magnified 500 diameters.<br />

gamma iron for eutectoid steel is 1365 deg. F. about<br />

35 deg higher than that given by the diagram.<br />

Since the phases during the process of change<br />

are not usually in equilibrium with each other it is<br />

hardly to be expected that the actual composition of<br />

austenite is as given by the diagram. It does show,<br />

however, for any given case the composition toward<br />

which it tends to change as a limit. It cannot change<br />

beyond this limit since the driving force of the change<br />

arises from the circumstance that the system is tin-<br />

• '• V' - i<br />

.' •,'.-'. "47.; •'-'•'• .i> 77- --",<br />

}<br />

A • .-1^l»ll|'||||||'i-''iv'-- •' ' \ ft<br />

'•" 1 & " ' -V"'- •JrjSfof.''-<br />

•••.7 -• ' . ' '" , ' •''<br />

FIG. 5—.94 carbon steel, size 2 x No. 5, center of section of<br />

bar, heated to 1600 deg. F. fr 5 minutes, quenched in oil.<br />

Magnified 500 diameters.<br />

stable and is proceeding in the direction of a more<br />

stable state, which force no longer exists when the<br />

system reaches a stable state.<br />

When austenite in contact with ferrite is heated<br />

the carbon content of the former decreases as long as<br />

any ferrite exists as such. If the temperature is held<br />

constant at any point the carbon content of the austenite<br />

cannot get less than that given by the diagram.<br />

That is no iron at the instant of change to the gamma<br />

form cannot contain less carbon than that given by<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

335<br />

the diagram for the existing temperature. On heating<br />

cementite in contact with austenite the latter gets<br />

richer in carbon as long as any cementite remains<br />

undissolved. Its limit of solubility while in the solid<br />

state is 1.7 per cent carbon.<br />

As noted above the actual temperature of change<br />

of alpha to gamma iron for steel of eutectoid composition<br />

is 1365 deg. F. about 35 deg. higher than<br />

that given by the equilibrium diagram. At 1365 deg.<br />

the diagram shows that austenite has a range of car-<br />

FIG. 6—Troostite in steel containing 1.50 per cent carbon.<br />

Magnified 150 diameters. (Metallography and Heat Treatment<br />

of Iron and Steel, by A. Sauveur.)<br />

bon percentage limited on the one hand by its composition<br />

when in contact with ferrite and on the other<br />

hand by its composition when in contact with<br />

cementite.<br />

Before cementite can dissolve in iron it must be<br />

in actual contact with it. As the iron cannot change<br />

to the gamma form without the simultaneous solution<br />

of at least that percentage of carbon as given by the<br />

FIG. 7—.94 carbon steel, 2 x No. 5, center of section of bar,<br />

heated to 1600 deg. F. for 30 minutes, quenched in oil.<br />

Magnified 500 diameters.<br />

equilibrium diagram for the existing temperature, the<br />

iron at the planes of contact of the ferrite and cementite<br />

plates of the pearlite will be the first to change<br />

to the gamma form. As that percentage of carbon


.,.,(,<br />

is the lowest of the composition range as given by the<br />

equilibrium diagram for this temperature (1365 deg.)<br />

more carbon will dissolve in it after change takes<br />

place, and thus allow carbon to be carried by diffusion<br />

to the iron not originally in contact with cementite.<br />

In this way the change will progressively proceed<br />

throughout the mass of each ferrite plate.<br />

AiPthe change takes place in a short time and<br />

the carbon is carried by diffusion within this time<br />

from the cementite plates to those particles of ferrite<br />

furthest from any cementite, a concentration gradient<br />

of carbon must exist between these points up to the<br />

instant of complete change to gamma iron. The resulting<br />

austenite at tha instant will be minutely segregated<br />

with respect to carbon having in the loci of<br />

the center of each ferrite plate the lowest possible<br />

percentage of carbon with reference to the equilibrium<br />

diagram and the center of each cementite plates the<br />

highest possible percentage. How long will this segregated<br />

condition exist?<br />

On etching a polished section of cast carbon steel<br />

with Stead's reagent a dendritic structure will be revealed,<br />

which shows the solidification structure. The<br />

fact that it is possible to reveal this structure shows<br />

that segregation as between axes and branches has<br />

occurred at solidification. The cause of this segregation<br />

is the repulsion between carbon and phosphorus,<br />

producing parts of the dendrites that is richer in either<br />

element than other parts. When the dendritic grains<br />

are large this condition will persist even after extremely<br />

long annealing above the critical range.<br />

The segregation produced in eutectoid steel on heating<br />

through the critical range is very minute and will<br />

not last nearly as long as dendritic segregation, but<br />

even in this case it is believed that some time is necessary<br />

for complete diffusion to take place.<br />

It is known that higher carbon steel will require<br />

a less drastic quench to produce a given degree of<br />

hardness than a lower carbon steel. If the carbon content<br />

and rate of cooling is such that martensite is the<br />

product and if a time-temperature cooling curve is<br />

plotted, it will be found that there is no break in the<br />

curve until a temperature of 570 deg. F. is reached.*<br />

If troostite is the product, the lag occurs at 1100 deg.<br />

F These lags are due to the change of gamma to<br />

alpha iron and show that both martensite and troostite<br />

form directly from austenite.<br />

Figs. 5. 6 and 7 are micrographs of the centres of<br />

sections of bars after quenching in oil from above the<br />

critical range. Figs. 5 and 6 shows the structure<br />

when quenched after a 5 min. treatment at 1600 deg.<br />

F. Fig. 7 is the structure produced after a 30 min.<br />

treatment at 1600 deg. F. The dark areas are troostite<br />

and the lighter martensite. It is shown by X-ray<br />

diffraction patterns that both martensite and troostite<br />

consist of grains that belong to the body-centered<br />

space latticed system. Xo lines corresponding to the<br />

face-centered system are found in the patterns of<br />

either martensite or troostite. Thus both martensite<br />

and troostite are composed of alpha iron and cementite<br />

in different states of segregation.<br />

If the conditions are such that both martensite<br />

and troostite appear in the quenched sample, it will<br />

be found that the dark troostite areas have the appearance<br />

of grains crystallizing about neuclei that are<br />

situated at the grain boundaries of the original aus­<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Seating<br />

September, 1925<br />

tenite. The troostite grains owe their dark appearance<br />

to the colloidally dispersed cementite particles present.<br />

Now, since the troostite grains start forming at<br />

the austenite grain boundaries and grow by the transformation<br />

of gamma to alpha iron, it is evident that<br />

they consist of single grains of alpha iron crystallizing<br />

about neuclei, that exist or are formed at the austenite<br />

grain boundaries. The rate of growth of these<br />

grains decreases as the carbon content increases.<br />

It has been shown above that the preliminary condition<br />

of eutectoid steel on heating through the critical<br />

range will consist of a minutely segregated condition<br />

of the austenite and that the probability is that this<br />

condition will not be effaced until the lapse of some<br />

time. The results of the hardness tests show that<br />

continued heating above the critical point will reduce<br />

the hardening power of the steel at quench and the<br />

resulting proportion of martensite to troostite. For<br />

the 30 min. treatment at 1600 deg. F. the steel in<br />

nearly all cases was composed of pure troostite. It<br />

thus appears that the higher carbon plates of the<br />

minutely segregated austenite produced by heating<br />

through the critical range is as effective a bar or<br />

hindrance to the spread or growth of the troostite<br />

grains across or through the austenite grains, as if<br />

the latter had the higher carbon throughout.<br />

•Jeffries and Archer, Science of Metals, 1924, p. 422.<br />

Course in Industrial Engineering<br />

Lehigh University has announced that beginning<br />

next September a four-year course in industrial engineering<br />

will be inaugurated. Recognizing that every<br />

modern enterprise depends on sound financing, adequate<br />

accounting, and intelligent forecasting of economic<br />

developments, the faculty at Lehigh will undertake<br />

to produce engineers as thoroughly grounded in<br />

these fundamentals of business as in mathematics,<br />

physics and scientific subjects. The curriculum is<br />

primarily of an engineering character, and will equip<br />

the student with sufficient technical knowledge to<br />

make him at home in a highly technical environment.<br />

In addition, however, it will include courses in economics<br />

and business that will be of service to those<br />

graduates who enter the less technical departments of<br />

any of the various industries that are essentially technical<br />

in character.<br />

Recording Smoke Detector<br />

An electrical instrument to be attached to power<br />

boilers, to give immediate warning of smoke, has been<br />

developed by the Engineering Corporation, Long<br />

Beach, Cal. The instrument consists of an element<br />

insterted in the boiler flue, which is essentially two<br />

plates between which the flue gases pass. These<br />

plates are in the primary circuit of a transformer; in<br />

the secondary circuit is the sensitive indicating and<br />

recording unit, a graphic instrument of the switchboard<br />

type. The conductance between the plates increases<br />

as the density of the smoke passing between<br />

them, causing a flow of charging current which is<br />

indicated and recorded. The instrument is known as<br />

the Kingsbury recording smoke detector. Patents<br />

have been applied for.


September, 1925<br />

New Acme F<strong>org</strong>ing Machine<br />

To meet the increasing demand in the f<strong>org</strong>ing industry<br />

for f<strong>org</strong>ing and upsetting machines capable<br />

of handling the greatest stresses and performance now<br />

demanded of them, the Acme Machinery Company<br />

has developed an all steel new improved heavy duty<br />

upsetting and f<strong>org</strong>ing machine.<br />

The bed is a one-piece box type, steel casting<br />

strengthened by heavy deep longitudinal and transverse<br />

trusses or ribs. The new tie plate, covering and<br />

reinforcing movable die slide ways on the 3-in. and<br />

larger machines, completes the rugged box construction<br />

and produces a bed, capable of withstanding any<br />

demand that may be made on the machine.<br />

The crank shaft is a high grade special steel heat<br />

treated f<strong>org</strong>ing and has been further strengthened by<br />

increased sizes of diameters and cheeks. It is made<br />

with one double disc crank for operating the header<br />

slide, and one cam for operating the toggle slide or<br />

die closing mechanism. A new type cam has been<br />

developed with a profile which produces a very smooth<br />

operating movement.<br />

The main cluth gear is of web construction for<br />

strength which also eliminates the necessity for unsightly<br />

guard over the whole gear. It is made of a<br />

high grade steel casting, with machine cut teeth, and<br />

is fitted with clutch hub. There are two clutch pockets<br />

in the gear wheel so that the operator has two opportunities<br />

for engaging the clutch in every revolution<br />

of the gear wheel. The clutch gear hub is provided<br />

with a removable bronze bushing of ample proportions.<br />

The machines are fitted with a driving fly wheel<br />

keyed to one end of the driving pinion shaft and is<br />

provided with a friction slip relief safety device<br />

which will relieve the machine of excess strain or pressure<br />

in case the machine should become stalled while<br />

in operation and also protects the motor.<br />

The header slide, Fig. 2, is made of steel and is of<br />

massive proportions. A new feature of suspending<br />

this slide on long wide bronze bearing surfaces in<br />

recesses on top of the bed, eliminates any possibility<br />

of dirt, scale and water coming in contact with these<br />

surfaces, thus maintaining the accurate alignment of<br />

the header slide necessary to produce accurate work.<br />

The long wide side surfaces of the header slide operate<br />

against ground plates accurately fitted into the ways<br />

of the bed. The bearing for the pitman is of one large<br />

diameter and continuous across the full width of the<br />

header slide. The pitman is made of steel, the slide<br />

end having an integral pin the same diameter as the<br />

hub which gives a continuous bearing of one diameter<br />

from end to end of the pin.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

The movable die slide, Fig. 3, is made of steel and<br />

has the same suspended type slide features as the<br />

header slide. It is provided with long wide bearing<br />

surfaces faced with bronze wearing strips. The side<br />

wearing plates are accurately ground and fitted into<br />

place. The rear view of the movable die slide, Fig. 4,<br />

shows the long large diameter bronze bushings which<br />

carries the ends of the toggles in place. Fig. 1 shows<br />

movable die slide ways and wearing plates in the bed,<br />

and also the planed shoulders which receive the heavy<br />

steel cover and reinforcing plate. This construction<br />

is used on all 3-in. machines and larger.<br />

337<br />

The toggle slide is of two piece steel construction.<br />

The lower half is carried on large wearing plates operating<br />

in the toggle slide ways of the bed. The top<br />

half carries the relief mechanism together with the<br />

hardened steel rollers on which the cam operates. By<br />

removing six bolts the top half can be removed and<br />

full access had to crank shaft for scraping bearings or<br />

removal. j£r<br />

FIG. 1—Movable die slide ways in bed.<br />

FIG. 2—Header slide and pitman.<br />

FIG. 3—Movable die slide, die side.<br />

These machines are provided with an improved<br />

vertical automatic relief which consists of a strong<br />

spring in a vertical spring case. It is so arranged that<br />

a comparatively slight pressure by the spring exerts a<br />

very great pressure on the gripping dies. Nevertheless,<br />

if anything should get caught between the face<br />

of the dies, causing an excessive pressure on the machine,<br />

this spring will yield and relieve the machine<br />

from all excess pressure.<br />

The machines are also equipped with an improved<br />

automatic friction slip device in the flywheel, which<br />

relieves the machine of excess strain in case of accident.<br />

It is also a safety device for the motor, when<br />

the machine is motor driven.<br />

The single toggle is used on the smaller machines.<br />

Fig. 6, and the double toggle on 3-in. and larger sizes,


338<br />

Fig. 5. The long toggle pins are integral with their<br />

connecting body and are of one long large diameter<br />

giving great bearing area and rigidly back up the die<br />

whether the work is being done in the top, bottom, or<br />

center impression. The double toggles on the heavier<br />

machines maintain an aboslute parallelism of the sliding<br />

die to the stationary die in the fore and aft plane.<br />

The toggles operate in removable bronze bushings.<br />

The machines are fitted with an automatic stock<br />

gauge for measuring accurately the amount of stock<br />

to be used for making the different f<strong>org</strong>ings. A backstop<br />

of simple construction is provided which is very<br />

FIG. 4—Movable die slide, toggle side.<br />

FIG. 5—Double toggle cluster.<br />

FIG. 6—Movable die slide with single toggles.<br />

A brake of ample size is so arranged that every<br />

time the clutch is disengaged it automatically stops<br />

the machine in the proper position with the dies open<br />

readv to receive the material to be worked on.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

September, 1925<br />

.A. powerful shear is standard equipment on all machines<br />

up to and including the 2y2-in. size. It is actuated<br />

from the toggle slide and has limited capacity to<br />

shear hot, round or square stock. The shear jaws are<br />

designed so the insertion of new blades or inserts can<br />

be made quickly.<br />

All wearing parts are provided with cast iron, steel<br />

or bronze bushings, wearing plates or liners, which<br />

are easily replaced in case of wear.<br />

Oil reservoirs and grooves insure ample lubrication<br />

to header slide, movable die slide, and toggle slide.<br />

Other bearings are provided with oil wells thus providing<br />

ample lubrication.<br />

New Brown Recording Pyrometer<br />

A new recording pyrometer which combines with<br />

highest accuracy, a combination of unusually desirable<br />

features, has been developed during the past five years<br />

by the Research Department of the Brown Instrument<br />

Company, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

FIG. 1—New Brown recording pyrometer.<br />

This company has been making pyrometers for 65<br />

years and its history shows continuous development<br />

and improvement of scientific instruments.<br />

Many features in the recording pyrometer just developed<br />

are radically new and patents have been applied<br />

for covering these improvements, some of which<br />

are listed below.<br />

The new Brown recorder has a die cast black enam­<br />

strong and convenient. It is made of a heavy section eled aluminum case. The dimensions are 15 in. high,<br />

steel I-beam with adjustable sliding head, so arranged 14 in. wide and 9 in. deep, requiring a minimum<br />

that it can be easily adjusted to different lengths of amount of wall space considering the unusually wide<br />

work.<br />

7-in. chart (Fig. 1).<br />

The instrument is built to make a single record,<br />

a duplex record with two records side by side, or in<br />

multiple form produces as many as 12 records on one<br />

chart.


September, 1925<br />

It operates on the frictionless principal in which a<br />

pointer swings freely and at intervals of every 30 seconds<br />

is depressed on a carbon or inked ribbon producing<br />

a mark on the chart. These marks are so close<br />

together as to form a continuous line. The marking<br />

ribbon and chart last two months before renewal is<br />

required and no inking is necessary.<br />

The marking ribbon is above the paper so that the<br />

mark is produced on the front side of the paper where<br />

it shows clearly. The marking ribbon in the single<br />

and duplex recorder after each mark on the chart is<br />

moved back disclosing the last impression so that the<br />

record is clearly visible immediately after it is produced.<br />

A platen is supplied on which notes can be recorded<br />

on the chart with pen or pencil.<br />

FIG. 2—Recorder opened up to show assembly.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

A glass knife edge is furnished for tearing off the<br />

paper and is located directly below the driving roll.<br />

The paper can be torn off two hours after the last<br />

impression is made. For example, a complete record<br />

for the previous 24 hours and ending 6:00 A. M. can<br />

be torn off about 8:00 A. M.<br />

The galvanometer and the recording chart mechanism<br />

is carried on a hinged frame. When swung aside,<br />

the galvanometer is instantly accessible, and when<br />

closed a housing protects the galvanometer (Fig. 5).<br />

In addition to recording the temperature on the<br />

chart, an indication scale is provided with large figures<br />

legible at a considerable distance. The chart has rectagular<br />

co-ordinates. The time lines are straight<br />

across the chart and not curved as in other instruments.<br />

339<br />

The recorder is driven by an electric clock if a.c.<br />

is available. The current consumed by this clock is<br />

only four watts. Six recorders only consume the<br />

current requred by the common 25-watt incandescent<br />

lamp. The electric clock eliminates hand winding and<br />

no governor or other means is needed to secure accurate<br />

timing. Where a.c. is not available, a hand wound<br />

clock can be supplied.<br />

The chart speed can readily be changed and is supplied<br />

for a number of combinations. The standard<br />

chart speed is one inch an hour but by reversing two<br />

gears a speed of four inches per hour is obtainable.<br />

Speed combinations are available from one-quarter<br />

inch an hour to six inches per hour.<br />

With a standard chart speed of one inch per hour,<br />

about 12 hours of chart is visible through the front of<br />

the case.<br />

The instrument as a pyrometer incorporates automatic<br />

cold junction compensation including the Brown<br />

patented index for adjusting a compensated pyrometer<br />

to the correct initial starting point on open circuit.<br />

A re-roll attachment is furnished where desired to<br />

roll up the chart automatically over a long period of<br />

time.<br />

As a multiple recorder, this instrument incorporates<br />

an automatic switch with gold contacts mounted<br />

on bakelite and immersed in oil, which prevents any<br />

possibility of tarnishing of the contacts from corrosive<br />

gases in the atmosphere.<br />

The multiple recorder switch includes a dial with<br />

index for indicating the number of the thermocouple<br />

or furnace which is being recorded at the time. The<br />

record lines are made in different color combinations<br />

on the chart and the switch dial is numbered and colored<br />

to correspond.<br />

The simplicity of this instrument is one of its most<br />

marked advantages. This is appreciated when it is<br />

considered that the instrument has no solenoids, no<br />

motors requiring governors for speed control, no hand<br />

winding where the electric clock is used, no inking<br />

of pen and no frequent renewal of the chart which<br />

lasts two months.<br />

Undoubtedly this new recording instrument marks<br />

a radical step forward in the development of instruments<br />

for measuring temperatures, electricity, speed<br />

and gases.<br />

May Take Up Tin Can Making<br />

A group of sales officials of the Trumbull Steel<br />

Company, Warren, Ohio, is planning to enter the<br />

manufacture of tin cans, and it is proposed to utilize<br />

as a manufacturing property a plant on the westerly<br />

outskirts of Warren built several years ago by the<br />

Ward Baking Company as a research laboratory and<br />

for manufacturing. This plant, comparatively new, is<br />

in first class condition. While this project is being<br />

sponsored by sales officers of the Trumbull company,<br />

it is understood the latter interest has no direct connection<br />

with it. Last year the Trumbull company<br />

disposed of a subsidiary can making interest at Baltimore,<br />

Md.<br />

The Hupp Motor Car Corporation, 3501 East Milwaukee<br />

Street, Detroit, has awarded a contract to the<br />

Everett Winters Company, Book Building, for an<br />

addition to cost $165,000 with equipment.


340<br />

Horace C. Knerr has resigned from his position as<br />

Chief Metallurgist, U. S. Naval Aircraft Factory, after<br />

seven and one-half years of service. He will engage<br />

in professional practice as Consulting Metallurgical<br />

Engineer, specializing in heat treatment and metallography<br />

of steel and light alloys, with nffice at 1500<br />

Green Street, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

'M. A. YYeidmayer, formerly branch manager for<br />

Black & Decker at the Detroit office, is now associated<br />

with the United States Electrical Tool Company in<br />

charge of its Philadelphia office.<br />

* 4c *<br />

C. H. Scaffe, who was connected with the St. Louis<br />

office of Black & Decker, is now associated with the<br />

United States Electrical Tool Company as special representative<br />

operating from the general office at Cincinnati.<br />

Sir Arthur Balfour, president Balfour Steel Company,<br />

Sheffield, England, will address the Cleveland<br />

Engineering Society and Associated Technical Societies<br />

of Cleveland September 2 on the invitation of<br />

the Cleveland Section of the American Society for<br />

Steel Tieating. Previous to the meeting a dinner<br />

will be served. It was announced previously that he<br />

would visit Cleveland early in August but the date of<br />

the meeting was changed.<br />

•#• s|e "f"<br />

E. B. Harkness was elected secretary, A. W. Carlisle,<br />

treasurer, and H. Morrison, auditor of the Illinois<br />

Steel Company, Chicago, the changes having been<br />

occasioned by the recent death of Thomas J. Hyman,<br />

secretary-treasurer, Mr. Morrison was also elected a<br />

director of the company, succeeding Mr. Hyman. Mr.<br />

Harkness has been identified with the Illinois Steel<br />

Company for 28 years.<br />

* * *<br />

Roysel John Cowan, metallurgist. National Malleable<br />

Steel Castings Company, Toledo, Ohio; Alvin<br />

William Holmes, metallurgist, Muncie, Ind.; James<br />

Sebold Vanick, research metallurgist, International<br />

Nickel Company, Bayonne, N. J., and Sidney David<br />

Williams, metallurgical engineer. Midland, Pa., will be<br />

proposed for membership in the Iron and Steel Institute<br />

at the autumn meeting, September 9-11 at Birmingham,<br />

England. Irvin Ge<strong>org</strong>e Knoebel, Belleville,<br />

111., student in the Missouri School of Mines and<br />

Metallurgy, is proposed for associate membership.<br />

* * *<br />

William O. Hotchkiss. state geologist of Wisconsin,<br />

and member of the faculty of the University of<br />

Wisconsin for many years, has accepted the presi­<br />

Forcing- Si amping - Hear 'tearing<br />

September. 1925<br />

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PERSONALS<br />

He is one of the best known geological authorities in<br />

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the<br />

i hi i<br />

world<br />

hii .1<br />

and a mineralogist and metallurgist widely<br />

known.<br />

Mr. Ge<strong>org</strong>e A. Lennox has been appointed Assist­<br />

* * *<br />

ant General Sales Manager of the Driver Harris Com­<br />

Charles S. Proudfoot has been appointed general<br />

pany with headquarters at the main office and plant<br />

manager of the United States ferroalloys division of<br />

at Harrison, N. J. Mr. Lennox has been with this<br />

the Vanadium Corporation of America at Niagara<br />

company for a number of years serving in practically<br />

Falls. He formerly was electrical engineer for the<br />

all departments and is unusually well fitted to carry<br />

Cambria plant of the Bethlehem Steel Company and<br />

on the important and responsible work which has been<br />

prior to that was with Carnegie Steel Company.<br />

given to him in this new position.<br />

* * *<br />

* * *<br />

M. L. Frey, formerly assistant research metallurgist<br />

with the Holt Tractor Company, Peoria, 111., now<br />

known as the Caterpillar Tractor Company has joined<br />

the technical staff of the Gerlinger Electric Steel Casting<br />

Company. West aA.1Hs, Wis., as chief metallurgist<br />

and research engineer. Mr. Frey, together with Fred<br />

Grotts of the Holt Company, have contributed to<br />

technical literature on heat treatment of cast iron and<br />

cast steels.<br />

P R. Crowell recently resigned from the Storm<br />

Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, East Springfield, Mass., to<br />

take a sales appointment with the Air Reduction Sales<br />

Company, St. Louis, to succeed R. D. Hatton resigned.<br />

J. H. McKelvey has been elected vice president in<br />

charge of sales, J. M. Baggott as secretary and H. L.<br />

Inger. assistant secretary, according to announcement<br />

by John L. Green, president.<br />

* * *<br />

J. C. Dawes has been appointed a member of the<br />

sales staff at Pittsburgh for the International Oxygen<br />

Company, Newark, N. J. Mr. Dawes formerly was<br />

with the Weldcraft Company, Pittsburgh.<br />

* * *<br />

T. D. Lynch, manager of the material and process<br />

engineering department, Westinghouse Electric &<br />

Manufacturing Company, was elected a member of the<br />

board of directors of the American Society for Testing<br />

Materials at the recent annual convention in Atlantic<br />

City.<br />

* * *<br />

Noah F. Young has been elected president of the<br />

Lumen Bearing Company, Buffalo, at the meeting of<br />

its board of directors last week. Mr. Young, who is<br />

38 years old, started with the company 19 years ago as<br />

assistant cashier. He later became cashier, assistant<br />

treasurer, treasurer, and at the stockholder's meeting<br />

last February was made general manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Edward Busch has been appointed district manager<br />

for Ohio and Indiana for the Hevi Duty Electric Company,<br />

Milwaukee, manufacturers of multiple unit furnaces.<br />

Mr. Bush, formerly with Tate Jones & Company,<br />

Pittsburgh, furnace manufacturers, will have<br />

his headquarters at 879 The Arcade, Cleveland.<br />

* * *<br />

Charles H. Dishman has been appointed district<br />

representative at Kansas City, Mo., by the National<br />

Enameling & Stamping Company, Inc., Granite City,<br />

111. For several years he had been with the Carnegie<br />

Steel Company, first in Pittsburgh and later representing<br />

them together with the Illinois Steel Companv.<br />

Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Company and American<br />

Sheet & Tin Plate Company, New Orleans.


September, 1925<br />

Barney Nelson, for the last few years plant manager<br />

of the American F<strong>org</strong>e & Machine Company,<br />

Canton, Ohio, has resigned to take charge of the f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

division of Fairbanks-Morse & Company, plant at<br />

Beloit, Wis. Mr. Nelson has been in the f<strong>org</strong>ing business<br />

for 19 >ears.<br />

H. H. Davis has been made assistant to the president<br />

of the Titusville F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Titusville, Pa.<br />

He formerly was assistant general manager of sales<br />

for the Molybdenum Company of America.<br />

* * #<br />

Fred M. Randlett has been appointed district manager<br />

of the Pacific northwest territory by Robert W.<br />

Hunt Company, inspecting, testing and consulting<br />

engineer. Mr. Randlett for the past eight years has<br />

been chief engineer of the water department of Portland,<br />

Ore. Prior to that he was with the New York,<br />

New Haven & Hartford Railroad and Stone & Webster,<br />

Inc. He is a member of the American Society<br />

of Civil Engineers. American Water Works Association<br />

and other engineering societies.<br />

* # *<br />

Robert Roadhouse has been appointed to the service<br />

staff of the Ferro Enamel Supply Company, Cleveland,<br />

having previously been with the enameling department<br />

of the Benjamin Electric Manufacturing<br />

Compan) , plant at Des Plaines, 111.<br />

* * *<br />

J. Harry Main, formerly supervisor of purchases<br />

for the General Motors Corporation, has been appointed<br />

Detroit district representative of the General Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Buffalo, with offices at Detroit.<br />

* * *<br />

Joseph J. Tynan, at one time general manager of<br />

the Union Iron Works, San Francisco, has been elected<br />

vice president of the Bethlehem Steel Company,<br />

Bethlehem, Pa., in charge of Pacific coast activities.<br />

He succeeds Leigh B. Norris, Pacific coast representative<br />

who has resigned. Mr. Norris came to the Bethlehem<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization through the Cambria Steel Company.<br />

He was formerly sales representative of the<br />

latter and of its successor, the Midvale Steel & Ordnance<br />

Company at New York.<br />

* * *<br />

Harry Z. Callender has been elected vice president<br />

in charge of sales of the Whitman & Barnes Manufacturing<br />

Company, Akron, O., manufacturer of twist<br />

drills and reamers. Mr. Callender joined the company<br />

in September, 1895, as an order clerk in the Cincinnati<br />

office. After five years there he became traveling<br />

representative in the South. For 16 years he was<br />

traveling for the company, being transferred to A^kron<br />

in 1918 where he assisted in the re<strong>org</strong>anization of the<br />

sales department. Mr. Callender was acting assistant<br />

sales manager since August, 1924.<br />

* * *<br />

S. A. Dinsmore, for several years district sales<br />

manager in Chicago for the Standard Gauge Steel<br />

Company, Beaver Falls, Pa., has been transferred to<br />

the Chicago office of the Union Drawn Steel Company,<br />

with which the Standard Company recently was<br />

merged. B. H. Elliott is western sales manager of<br />

the Union Drawn Steel Company.<br />

Wm. J. Priestley, formerly in Pittsburgh as metallurgical<br />

engineer for the Electro Metallurgical Sales<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing-Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

341<br />

Corporation, has been transferred to the home office,<br />

30 East Forty-second street, New York, as assistant<br />

general sales manager of this company and in similar<br />

capacity for the electrode division of the National Carbon<br />

Company. R. S. Poister, formerly with the United<br />

Alloys Steel Corporation, Canton, Ohio, and now with<br />

the Alan Wood Iron & Steel Company, Norristown,<br />

Pa., has been employed to succeed Mr. Priestley,<br />

October 1, as metallurgical engineer in Pittsburgh.<br />

* * *<br />

Harry B. Lindsay has been appointed sales manager<br />

of the refractories division of the Norton Company,<br />

Worcester, Mass. Mr. Lindsay will take over<br />

the work of Charles W. Saxe, who will now devote<br />

his whole time to the engineering and production end<br />

of the department.<br />

Ben H. Miller, manager of production, United Alloy<br />

Steel Corporation, Canton, Ohio, has resigned. He<br />

has been with the United company for the past 14<br />

years. He expects to enjoy an extended vacation prior<br />

to engaging in other work.<br />

* # *<br />

R. J. Wysor, who has been assistant general manager<br />

of the Cambria works, Bethlehem Steel Corporation,<br />

at Johnstown, Pa., since the acquisition of the<br />

Midvale Steel & Ordnance Company by the Bethlehem<br />

company, has resigned that position to become<br />

assistant general manager of the Jones & Laughlin<br />

Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh. Before going to Johnstown<br />

Mr. Wysor had been assistant general manager<br />

of the Sparrows Point plant, Bethlehem Steel Corporation.<br />

* * *<br />

Clifford B. Bellis, formerly a member of the editorial<br />

staff at Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering,<br />

has opened an office at 161 Milk Street, Boston, as consulting<br />

metallurgist. He specializes on steel and technical<br />

publicity writing.<br />

* # *<br />

T. V. Buckwalter, who has been chief engineer for<br />

the Timken Roller Bearing Company, Canton, Ohio.<br />

was made vice president in charge of engineering at<br />

the July meeting of the directors of the company.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

William McConway, aged 83, president of the Mc-<br />

Conway & Torley Company, Pittsburgh, steel manufacturer,<br />

died in St. Francis Hospital that city, July<br />

28th following an operation after four weeks' illness.<br />

^ =£ %<br />

Charles H. Kingsbury, formerly associated with<br />

Niles-Bement-Pond Company, died suddenly August<br />

7, aged 62 years, at Quincy, Mass. He became Boston<br />

representative of the Niles-Bement-Pond Company in<br />

1897, but retired from business in 1910 because of<br />

poor health. He enjoyed a wide acquaintance among<br />

New England machine tool men.<br />

The Steel Furnaces Corporation, 19 West Fortyfourth<br />

Street, New York, capitalized at $500,000 will<br />

exploit patents of special annealing processes and furnaces,<br />

applicable to a wide variety of steel products,<br />

particularly tin plate, sheets, wire and cold rolled strip<br />

steel. K. A. Herrman is vice president.


342 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

niiiiiiiiiiimmmiiiiiiiiiimiiitiiiiimniiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiim<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

iiiiiiiititiiiiiiiiiiiiTiiiiiiiHiuiii]ii]niiiini)iiinTiiiiiiiiii]iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiii]iiiiiiiiiijiii!iiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiitiijiiii'


September, 1925<br />

The Gibb Welding Machines Company's line comprises<br />

arc, spot, and seam welders.<br />

* * *<br />

A large shop addition will be built immediately by<br />

the Northwest Engineering Works at Green Bay,<br />

Wis., to meet demand for its crawler type crane, which,<br />

is its principal product. General sales offices are in<br />

the Steger Building, Chicago.<br />

General Motors Corporation has taken over the<br />

patent rights of Gray-Hawley Manufacturing Company<br />

for the manufacture of pressed steel mufflers,<br />

heaters and exhaust systems. The buyer also has<br />

taken over the tools, dies, jigs and equipment used in<br />

the production of these accessories and the orders<br />

and contracts of the Gray-Hawley Company. The<br />

latter will continue to manufacture other automotive<br />

devices.<br />

* * *<br />

Carnegie Steel Company has exercised its option<br />

on a tract of 80 acres at Baton Rouge. La., which it<br />

buys as a site for a future steel transfer station and<br />

distributing point for the South and for export. Construction<br />

of the transfer station will be undertaken<br />

when the Ohio River becomes navigable throughout<br />

the year, which is expected to take place in the next<br />

five years.<br />

* * *<br />

A general consulting engineering service in metallurgy,<br />

production and application of aluminum and<br />

aluminum alloys, will be offered by Robert J. Anderson.<br />

Cleveland and Pittsburgh. The variety of service<br />

includes advice and information on aluminum ores.<br />

alloys, duralumin, electrical applications, fabrication<br />

and stamping, foundry practice, heat treatment, melting<br />

and furnaces, motor car applications, permanent<br />

mold work, rolling mill practice, etc. Service includes<br />

also development work, examinations, investigations.<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization, production research, surveys for financial<br />

interests, expert testimony for litigation, etc. Mr.<br />

Anderson's office will be at 221 Amber Street, E. E.<br />

Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

Haynes Stellite Company, manufacturers of stellite<br />

metal cutting tools and other articles of high speed,<br />

rust and corrosion resisting alloys, has just completed<br />

concentration of the company's activities at its plant<br />

at Kokomo, Ind. All service in connection with the<br />

company's products will hereafter be direct from the<br />

plant. Headquarters for administration, sales and<br />

engineering activities will be at Kokomo, under the<br />

direction of G. G. Chisholm, general manager.<br />

Wilson Foundry & Machine Company, Pontiac,<br />

Mich., D. R. Wilson, general manager, has bought the<br />

plant and equipment of the Michigan Drop F<strong>org</strong>e<br />

Company, adjacent to its plant. It will be used for expansion<br />

of the purchasing company<br />

Dennison Alloy & Steel Castings Company, Dennison,<br />

Ohio, has purchased the patent rights, patterns,<br />

molds, finished and unfinished products of the bankrupt<br />

Martin Shovel Company, Greensburg, Pa. The<br />

company was engaged in the manufacture of shovels<br />

and gasoline tractors. Offices were maintained at<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sf amping - Heaf Treating<br />

343<br />

Greensburg. Manufacturing is to be done in Dennison.<br />

W. T. McNut is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The American Taximeter Company, 16 Wrest Sixtyfirst<br />

Street, New York, recently incorporated, plans to<br />

manufacture recording instruments. Nothing definite<br />

has been decided in the matter of manufacturing.<br />

R. L. Hubler is president<br />

The Harley plant, Indian Motorcycle Company,<br />

East Springfield, Mass., was not sold at auction recently<br />

as scheduled because of unsatisfactory bids.<br />

Equipment, however, was sold, among the buyers being<br />

Moore Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Storms Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, M. Alport, Springfield and Billings<br />

Spencer Company, Hartford, Conn. The Harley<br />

plant was equipped for drop f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

* * *<br />

M. P. Dahl Tool & Die Company. Indianapolis,<br />

Ind., will remove soon to a new building at Twelfth<br />

and Illinois Streets, where it will have increased facilities.<br />

* * *<br />

Illinois Bronze & Iron Works is the new name of<br />

the former Illinois Bronze & Stamping Company. Its<br />

capital also has been increased from 100 shares no<br />

par value to 400 shares no par value.<br />

& ^ ^<br />

A-\tlas Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Lansing, Mich., has<br />

moved its new plant, built to give larger production<br />

facilities.<br />

# * *<br />

C. C. Elsener has entered business as the Diamond<br />

Machine Works, 1215 South Fifty-second Avenue,<br />

Cicero, 111., a suburb of Chicago, as engineer and designer<br />

of special machinery, dies, tools, metal stampings<br />

and auto parts.<br />

* * *<br />

Gibb Wielding Machine Company, Bay City, Mich.,<br />

successor to Gibb Instrument Company, manufacturer<br />

of electric welding equipment, has appointed Arthur<br />

Jackson, 32 Glenholme Avenue, Toronto, Ont., as sales<br />

representative for Ontario and Eastern Canada.<br />

A. O. Smith Corporation, Milwaukee has shipped<br />

its first complete unit for converting crude oil into<br />

gasoline and by-products. This equipment was made<br />

possible by development of a new electric arc welding<br />

process which first was applied to manufacturing casing<br />

couplings for joining pipe lines and later to refinery<br />

vessels. The unit consists of four cracking stills,<br />

one bubble tower and a reflux exchanger, weighing<br />

215 tons.<br />

# * *<br />

The Welded Products Company, Birmingham,<br />

manufacturing oil and gasoline steel tanks has purchased<br />

adjacent property and will double the capacity<br />

of its plant.<br />

* * *<br />

The Michigan Sheet Metal Works, Lansing, Mich.,<br />

is having plans drawn for a one-story addition to<br />

double, approximately, the present capacity. Considerable<br />

additional machinery will lie installed. E. B.<br />

Harrington is president.


344 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Sfamping- Heaf Treating<br />

•niiiimiiiiiiniiiiimiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiimiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiNiiiiiiiiiuiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuininiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

nriiiniuiiiifiii»iniiiiiiiiiiiiiij»nii)iii»»iiiiiiiiijiiiii(iiiif}iiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiri]iiiiiiiiiiiii itiiiiiiuutfniuiuiiuiiiiiQtnnaniiiiiiiuinHiiiiuiiiinnnniRniainaiiuiiittttia<br />

Coal and Ash Handling — Link-Belt Company,<br />

Chicago, has issued a book of 68 pages, describing new<br />

methods in boiler houses. Installations of the Peck<br />

carrier in the boiler houses of many public buildings<br />

are shown, such as the new Tribune Tower in Chicago.<br />

and in many industrial plants throughout the United<br />

States. Data of interest to engineers and architects<br />

are given.<br />

Underfeed Stokers — Detroit Stoker Company,<br />

General Motors Building, Detroit. Bulletin of 32 pages<br />

containing a number of fuel bed cross sections showing<br />

conditions of the fire with respect to all distribution<br />

and movement toward the dumps. One section<br />

of the book is devoted to the application of the stoker<br />

to both low and high set boilers.<br />

* * *<br />

Blowers — Low and high pressure blowers produced<br />

by the P. H. & F M. Roots Company, Connersville,<br />

Ind., are described in two bulletins just issued.<br />

Detailed construction and operation, engineering data<br />

and specifications and typical installations are given.<br />

* * *<br />

Gloves — The line of steel sewed gloves, mittens,<br />

hand pads, leggings, aprons, arm protectors, etc., as<br />

manufactured by the Industrial Gloves Corporation,<br />

Chicago, is shown in a 24-page booklet. The description<br />

of each commodity is accompanied by an illustration.<br />

* * *<br />

Furnaces and Ovens — A folder containing bulletins<br />

descriptive of industrial coning units and equipment<br />

is being sent out to the trade by F. J. Ryan &<br />

Company, Philadelphia. Separate inserts are devoted<br />

to the products marketed by the company. When<br />

completed the folder will include nearly 60 bulletins.<br />

Aftercoolers — Complete discussion on aftercoolers<br />

used in conjunction with air compressors is presented<br />

in an eight-page bulletin by the Pennsylvania<br />

Pump and Compressor Company, Easton, Pa. Crosssectional<br />

illustrations in addition to construction data<br />

are given special attention.<br />

* * *<br />

Safety — "Maintaining Interest in Safety" is the<br />

subject of a pamphlet issued recently by the National<br />

Safety Council. The booklet is illustrated with photographs,<br />

charts, etc., and includes a list of the titles of<br />

the various motion picture films that are being distributed<br />

by the institution.<br />

* * *<br />

Safe Acetylene Practice — What to do and what<br />

not to do in handling acetylene and other gases have<br />

been made into a booklet by the Oxweld Acetylene<br />

Company. Chicago, which is being circulated to users.<br />

Safety codes from other sources also are recommended<br />

to the end that accidents be eliminated.<br />

Air Preheaters — The primary use for this product<br />

is the preheating of air to be tiled in boiler furnaces<br />

by means of the heat ordinarily wasted in flue gases<br />

September, 1925<br />

and the subject is covered thoroughly in a 14-page<br />

booklet now being sent to the trade by the Combustion<br />

Engineering Corporation, New York. The unit<br />

made by the corporation is illustrated and described.<br />

* * *<br />

Electrical Equipment — The Westinghouse Electric<br />

& Manufacturing Company, is distributing its new<br />

1925-27 catalog of electrical supplies. The catalog<br />

presents a complete representation of the apparatus<br />

manufactured by the Westinghouse company, or obtainable<br />

through its district offices or agent jobbers,<br />

and gives detailed information on electrical supplies.<br />

The publication, which contains 1200 pages and is<br />

profusely illustrated with 4500 engravings, lists all<br />

new apparatus designed and manufactured in the past<br />

two years, as well as the previous established types.<br />

A-brief description of the company's industrial motors<br />

and controllers, power and marine equipment, large<br />

switchboards and oil circuit breakers and railway supplies<br />

also is included. Four indexes for the convenience<br />

of the user have been included in the catalog.<br />

A very complete subject index in the front of the<br />

book is printed on blue paper so that it can be quickly<br />

located, and a style number index for checking invoices<br />

is located in the back of the booK. A classified<br />

index under such group headings as central stations,<br />

electric railways, industrial plants, mines, etc., gives<br />

n complete list of apparatus applicable to each of these<br />

groups of industries, and a thumb index enables the<br />

user to locate any section of the, catalog with the least<br />

inconvenience.<br />

* * *<br />

Enamels and Enameling Equipment — Ferro<br />

Enamel Supply Company, Cleveland, has issued a<br />

booklet of 72 pages and cover, illustrated, showing the<br />

line of enamel in equipment, materials and supplies<br />

handled by this company, which makes a specialty of<br />

installations of complete enamel plants.<br />

* * *<br />

Automatic Scales — The Toledo Scale Company,<br />

Toledo, Ohio, has issued a circular entitled "Invisible<br />

Losses," stressing the importance of measuring materials<br />

by weight or by count and shows how errors<br />

may be avoided by automatic visible weighing. Being<br />

the first of a series of circulars dealing with conditions<br />

in plants as found by a study being made of methods<br />

in various industries.<br />

* * *<br />

Electric Recorder — A bulletin by Charles Engelhard,<br />

Inc., 30 Church Street, New York, illustrates its<br />

electric recorder and specifications for ordering various<br />

types, with advantages of its devices.<br />

* * *<br />

Grinders — Norton Company, Worcester, Mass.,<br />

has issued a booklet on grinding wheels, stands and<br />

accessories. The descriptions of motor driven and<br />

belt driven stands are given with tables of the various<br />

sizes manufactured.<br />

* * *<br />

Stainless Steel and Iron — American Stainless<br />

Steel Company, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburgh,<br />

Pa., has issued a circular entitled "Meeting a Nation's<br />

Need." outlining briefly the point of interest of stainless<br />

irons and steels to the consumer, jobber and dealer<br />

and manufacturer.


gllliiiiiimiiillllllillliliiiiMimi iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiii 111111111111111 •• t min 11 ii t in ti ti iiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiii<br />

E =<br />

| r<strong>org</strong>ing-Srampmg-flcw^^ j<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., OCTOBER, 1925 X.,. 10<br />

T h e V a l u e o f R e a d i n g<br />

A R E you "keeping pace with modern progress"? The daily<br />

circulation of the newspaper shows that the majority of the<br />

L people of today are interested in keeping in touch with the<br />

events of the world at large, but do they show the same interest in<br />

the developments of the industry in which they are engaged?<br />

The executives of every company, while they do not know the<br />

particular duties of each employee, have a thorough knowledge of<br />

the general workings of each department. A thorough understanding<br />

of our own work is absolutely necessary, but a general<br />

idea of what the other fellow is doing is also essential. The business<br />

world of today is one of competition; it is not at a standstill;<br />

it is working its way up to the heights. To keep our place in line,<br />

we should bring into play all our stored-up ability, and climb to<br />

the head of the procession.<br />

The workings of the industrial world are no longer secrets.<br />

Almost every industry has formed its associations and societies,<br />

where the developments and inventions are freely discussed, where<br />

the best methods of procedure and economical operations are given<br />

wide publicity. If you would keep pace with progress and give to<br />

the industry in which you are engaged your best efforts, you must<br />

read constructive literature.<br />

fiiiiumMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiioiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiii iiiiiuiiiiiiiii i iimiiii iiiiuri?<br />

345


346 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

October, 1925<br />

H e a t T r e a t m e n t o f C a s t A l - C u - F e - M g A l l o y<br />

The Author Discusses the Heat Treatment of Sand-Cast Al-Cu-<br />

Fe-Mg Piston Alloy—Principles of Heat Treatment Are<br />

A M O N G the light materials commonly used for<br />

pistons and other parts operating at elevated<br />

temperatures is the 88.5 aluminum — 10 copper<br />

- 1.25 iron — 0.25 magnesium alio}-. Ordinarily this<br />

has been employed in permanent mold casting, which<br />

affords pistons which arc- closer to size and weight tolerances<br />

than those which are produced by sand-casting,<br />

a much slower and less economical though satisfactory<br />

method of manufacture. Then, too, the chillcast<br />

metal, with its usually finer grain size, develops<br />

in the cast condition better tensile and hardness properties<br />

than the less rapidly cooled sand-cast metal.<br />

The possibilities in the heat treatment of this alloy<br />

have not been widely appreciated. While sonic manufacturers<br />

have actually been quenching and artificially<br />

aging (reheating) pistons or annealing them before<br />

The strength and hardness of the sand-cast 88.5<br />

aluminum 10 copper 1.25 iron - 0.25 magnesium alloy<br />

may be strongly increased to about 35,000 lb. per sq.<br />

in. and 120, respectively, by a heat treatment which involves<br />

heating at 925 deg. F. for 5 hr., quenching in<br />

boiling water, and aging at 300 deg. F. for 16 hi. or<br />

at 400 deg. F. for 2 hr. Quenching from temperatures<br />

much less than 925 deg. F. results in inferior strength<br />

but not necessarily lower hardness. Very little is to<br />

be gained by soaking the alloy at 925 deg. F. for more<br />

than 5 hr. At much in excess of 975 deg. F. the alloy<br />

starts to melt The presence of this condition cannot<br />

be detected from the hardness and the quenched alloy,<br />

but it can be deduced from the inferior strength of test<br />

specimens which should always be heat treated with<br />

castings. Air-quenching produces less uniformity and<br />

lower ultimate strength than does quenching in boiling<br />

water. The percentage of elongation of the alloy in any<br />

machining condition of to treatment stimulate is the practically growth nil. and The distortion metal­<br />

which lography otherwise of the alloy might is of occur much during value as their a method operation of<br />

in control the engine, to proper it has heat often treatment. been the practice to place<br />

pistons in service in the cast condition.<br />

The present paper describes a portion of the research<br />

on the properties of piston alloys undertaken<br />

by the .Metals Branch of the Material Section. Engineering<br />

Division, Air Service, I". S. A., at McCook<br />

Field, Dayton, Ohio. The principles of the heat treatment<br />

are applicable both to the sand and the chillcast<br />

alloy, with greater intensification of the resultant<br />

tensile and hardness properties in the case of the<br />

latter.<br />

Material.<br />

The parent ingot (Melt 3427) for this investigation,<br />

whose calculated composition was 10 Cu, 1.25 Fe,<br />

0.2.1 Mg, in accordance with the requirements of Air<br />

Service Specification 11.024. was made in a 300-lb.<br />

batch by melting down the proper quantities of aluminum<br />

ingot, aluminum-copper-iron hardener, and alum­<br />

•Chief, Metals Branch. Material Section, Engineering Divi<br />

in. Air Service. IT S. A.. McCook Field. Dayton, Ohio.<br />

Applicable Both to Sand and Chill Cast Alloy<br />

By SAMUEL DANIELS, A.B., Met.E.*<br />

inum-copper hardener together and the magnesium<br />

metal just before pouring. The analysis of these materials<br />

follows:<br />

Metal<br />

Al ingot . .<br />

Al-Cu-Fe<br />

Al-Cu<br />

Mg slab<br />

Melt<br />

Copper<br />

. . 324(1 0.02<br />

3095 25.11<br />

. . . 328(1 40.78<br />

2013<br />

-Per ih ire i lomposlt on<br />

Iron Silicon M<br />

0.52 0.54<br />

13.38<br />

0.38<br />

6.24<br />

agnoBium<br />

99.5 +<br />

The maximum furnace temperature during melting<br />

was 1370 deg. F and the pouring temperature 1300<br />

deg. F.. the measurements being taken with a bare<br />

chromel-alumel couple and a Leeds & Northrup potentiometer.<br />

The metal was pigged into 5-lb. ingots.<br />

The actual analysis of Melt 3427 was as follows:<br />

Copper 9.66%<br />

Iron . , 1.38<br />

Magnesium , 0.28<br />

Silicon 0.40<br />

The properties of one standard TBI sand-cast mold<br />

of this melt were, five days, after casting:<br />

Ultimate strength, Ib./sq. in 25,210<br />

Elongation in 2 in., per cent 1.0<br />

Brinell, 500 kg 80<br />

Procedure — Foundry.<br />

Thirty molds (three specimens to the mold, as in<br />

Fig. 1) ot standard TBI specimens, were sand cast<br />

for this experimentation in two lots, molds 1 to 11,<br />

FIG. 1—Standard (TBI) Air Service mold of sand-cast<br />

tension test specimens.<br />

inclusive, being cast as Melt 3925 and molds 14 to 30,<br />

inclusive, as Melt 3712. Equal parts of ingot and of<br />

gates made up the metal charge.<br />

With the use of oil as fuel, Melt 3712 was ready<br />

for pouring in 45 and Melt 3925 in 35 minutes. The<br />

pouring temperature was 1300 deg. F. in each case and<br />

the maximum furnace temperature was but slighlv<br />

higher. The molding sand was a coarse grade of<br />

Sanduskv.


October, 1925<br />

Instead of stamping each test specimen with the<br />

appropriate melt number, the entire series of 30 molds<br />

was marked "S" The molds were numbered from 1<br />

to 30, inclusive, as outlined above and the individual<br />

test specimens were given the proper mold and A, B,<br />

C number according to the bar position in the mold.<br />

Chemical Analysis.<br />

No chemical analysis was made either of Melt<br />

3712 or 3925. Their composition was accepted as being<br />

that of Melt 3427, from which they were alloyed.<br />

Heat Treatment.<br />

The schedule of heat treatment is given "as part<br />

of Table I and was so planned that the effect of<br />

quenching temperatures between 850 and 1025 deg. F<br />

by 25 deg. F. intervals and of boiling water and air as<br />

Mold<br />

12<br />

13<br />

14<br />

15<br />

16<br />

17<br />

18<br />

19<br />

20<br />

21<br />

22<br />

23<br />

24<br />

25<br />

26<br />

27<br />

1<br />

2<br />

3<br />

4<br />

5<br />

6<br />

7<br />

8<br />

9<br />

10<br />

11<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heaf Treat md<br />

347<br />

quenched, within 24 hours all specimens were aged at<br />

300 deg. F for 16 hours and then air-cooled. The<br />

heat treatment was accomplished in heats 585, 589,<br />

590, 591, 592. 595, 600, 601, 638, 639, and 654.<br />

Mechanical Testing.<br />

After the completion of aging at 300 deg. F.,<br />

the specimens were subjected to tensile and hardness<br />

tests, these following a period of aging at room temperature.<br />

Specimens from Group 1 were completely<br />

tested with from 7 to 18 days; while upon those from<br />

Group 2 tensile tests were made within from 5 to 11<br />

days and hardness tests within from 38 to 45 days.<br />

As far as is known, lapse of time before testing has no<br />

bearing on the mechanical properties of this piston alloy,<br />

provided the final step in heat treatment has<br />

comprised aging at 300 deg. F. for 16 hours.<br />

TABLE I—AVERAGE TENSILE AND HARDNESS PROPERTIES OF AL-CU-FE-MG ALLOY<br />

A. Group 1. Effect of Quenching Temperature and Medium<br />

Heat Tre, itment<br />

850— 5BW<br />

850— 5A<br />

875— SBW<br />

875— SA<br />

900— 5BW<br />

900— 5 A<br />

925— 5BW<br />

925— 5A<br />

950— 5BW<br />

950— 5A<br />

975— SBW<br />

975— 5A<br />

1000— SBW<br />

1000— 5 A<br />

102S— SBW<br />

1025— 5 A<br />

As cast<br />

925— 54 BW<br />

925— 1BW<br />

925— 2BW<br />

925— SBW<br />

925— 8BW<br />

925—16BW<br />

925—24 BW<br />

925—48BW<br />

92S—72BW<br />

925—96BW<br />

300-16*<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

300-16<br />

B.<br />

Ult. Strength.<br />

Ib./sq. in.<br />

30,080<br />

27,260<br />

30,900<br />

26.220<br />

29,110<br />

30,980<br />

37,870<br />

29,010<br />

35,580<br />

31,500<br />

34,760<br />

30,440<br />

22,390<br />

22,520<br />

Group 2. Effect of<br />

25,840<br />

34,540<br />

33,230<br />

34,180<br />

36,570<br />

35,040<br />

38,430<br />

37,780<br />

38,780<br />

38,190<br />

37,050<br />

Elongation in<br />

2 in., percent<br />

0.8<br />

0.7<br />

0.8<br />

0.5<br />

0.8<br />

0.5<br />

0.5<br />

0.5<br />

0.5<br />

0.5<br />

0.5<br />

0.7<br />

0.5<br />

0.5<br />

Crumbled in<br />

Crumbled in<br />

Brinell.<br />

500 kg.<br />

108<br />

102<br />

110<br />

111<br />

123<br />

112<br />

117<br />

119<br />

126<br />

117<br />

120<br />

107<br />

11')<br />

110<br />

furnace during<br />

furnace during<br />

Time at Quenching Temperatures<br />

Rockwell.<br />

Yg in. ball<br />

3,800<br />

7,600<br />

2.000<br />

4,200<br />

2,000<br />

3,800<br />

5,200<br />

9,100<br />

1,600<br />

7,000<br />

12,800<br />

700<br />

4,200<br />

7,900<br />

soaking at 1025 deg. F<br />

soaking at 1025<br />

• Hp atpH at 850 detr. F '. for 5 h( )urs, quenched in boi ling water, and aged at 300 de g. F. for 16 hour;<br />

A = Air quenched.<br />

quenching media would be determined from one group<br />

of specimens; and that the effect of time at quenching<br />

temperature would be ascertained from the second<br />

group. The proper quenching temperature for Group<br />

2 experiments was found from the initial work with<br />

bars from Group 1. Five hours was selected as the<br />

standard soaking period because previous data indicated<br />

that satisfactory resuts issued.<br />

All specimens were placed on plates and were heated<br />

for quenching in an automatically controlled furnace<br />

which could be held to within q= 10 deg. F. The<br />

specimens were not touched during treatment but were<br />

quenched directly from the plates. Air-quenched test<br />

bars were cooled in still air. After having been<br />

1.0<br />

1.0<br />

1.0<br />

1.0<br />

1.0<br />

0.7<br />

0.7<br />

1.0<br />

0.5<br />

1.0<br />

1.0<br />

88<br />

111<br />

115<br />

119<br />

125<br />

111<br />

122<br />

113<br />

112<br />

109<br />

104<br />

88<br />

96<br />

99<br />

100<br />

97<br />

96<br />

97<br />

98<br />

97<br />

99<br />

96<br />

Observations<br />

Range in Properties<br />

Lit. Str..<br />

Ib./sq. in.<br />

3,600<br />

2,600<br />

4,300<br />

3,800<br />

6,700<br />

4,500<br />

9,200<br />

1.400<br />

3.100<br />

2,300<br />

1,000<br />

Brinell<br />

No.<br />

4<br />

4<br />

15<br />

4<br />

5<br />

10<br />

13<br />

6<br />

5<br />

9<br />

8<br />

4<br />

8<br />

7<br />

2<br />

7<br />

10<br />

2<br />

10<br />

7<br />

5<br />

7<br />

4<br />

1<br />

7<br />

A 20,000-lb. Olsen machine was employed for the<br />

tension test. The percentage of elongation was obtained<br />

by fitting the pieces of the ruptured test specimen<br />

closely together and measuring with dividers to<br />

the nearest 0.01 in. the extension in 2 in. of gage<br />

length.<br />

One Brinell hardness and two Rockwell hardness<br />

tests were made on flatted and smoothly ground surface<br />

of one-half of each broken test bar. The Brinell<br />

test was made with a 10 mm. ball under 500 kg. load<br />

applied for 30 seconds; and the Rockwell test with a<br />

y$ in. ball under a 100 kg. load and readings on the B<br />

scale,


.US<br />

All results recorded are the average oi three bars<br />

(from one mold) heat treated simultaneously. In a<br />

few cases one specimen of the three to a treatment contained<br />

dross in such quantit) that the ultimate<br />

strength was perceptibly lowered. In such event the<br />

values were discarded. The data from the mechanical<br />

testing are compiled in Table I.<br />

Metallography.<br />

A half-inch section was cut from the r;s(.-r end<br />

of the middle (B) bar of each mold of test bars, but<br />

QUCHCHINCTLMPFROTURE DtC. F"<br />

SOO 925 950<br />

FIG. 2—Effect of quenching temperature and of quenching<br />

medium n Al-Cu-Fe-Mg alloy. Cu 9.66, Fe 1.38,, Mg 0.28.<br />

Si 0.40. Time at quenching temperature 5 hours. Specimens<br />

aged at 300 deg. F. for 16 hours after quenching as<br />

indicated.<br />

only such sections were polished as seemed likely.<br />

judging from the tensile properties, to be of interest.<br />

Metallographic samples only from molds 1, 5, 11, 12.<br />

13, 19, 24, and 25 B were, therefore, prepared.<br />

The samples were examined both as unetched and<br />

as etched, all in the nitric acid quench, and some in<br />

two per cent aqueous hydrofluoric acid. The nitric<br />

acid quench, described by Dix*. consists in dipping the<br />

specimen for about 30 seconds in a 20 per cent aqueous<br />

solution of nitric acid at 70 cleg. C, and quenching<br />

directly into cold water. This procedure outlines the<br />

boundaries of the particles of hard compounds, sta;ns<br />

the CuAl2 compound dark brown or black, and apparently<br />

distinguishes the iron-bearing constituents<br />

from one another by bringing out their boundaries and<br />

hence heightening the color contrast. The so-cadeo<br />

"X" (iron-silicon-altiminttm"') compound remain: a<br />

Observations on the Occurrence of Iron and Silicon in<br />

Aluminum. T. A. I. M. E„ Vol. 69, p. 957. (1923).<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Tieating<br />

1<br />

October, 1925<br />

watery gray while the FeAl8 constituent apears to be<br />

purple. Satisfactory results are not always obtained.<br />

The hydrofluoric acid reagent proved, however, to<br />

be valueless for etching this alloy. The same opinion<br />

has been evolved when the solution was use 1 on other<br />

aluminum-base alloys containing copper. Then, too,<br />

it reveals latent scratches; and while it defines the<br />

boundaries of the compounds, it tarnishes the matrix.<br />

More success has attended its use on copper-free alloys,<br />

on which it acts much like the nitric acid quench,<br />

although it does not darken the CuAL compound.<br />

All metallographs used in this report are of unetched<br />

structures unless otherwise stated.<br />

Results.<br />

The mechanical test data in Table 1 are interpreted<br />

as graphs in Figs. 2 and 3, and the metallography of<br />

the alloy is illustrated in Figs. 4 to 1 3 inclusive.<br />

Discussion of Results — A. Cast Alloy.<br />

The 88.5 Al-10 Cu-1.25 Fe-0.25 Mg alloy shortly<br />

after having been sand cast has an ultimate strength<br />

of about 25,000 lb. per sq. in., an elongation in 2 in. of<br />

1 per cent, and a Mrinell hardness of about 85. It is<br />

-55.000<br />

2Q000<br />

1<br />

Si<br />

1<br />

ft<br />

3<br />

W/M/irE £$&»,<br />

UJ"


October, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

• fe «. • 7 -r ***= jr ' .•r\. J I ..<br />

•*> \ i & &> -- i* ,<br />

ft ' f ^ *!


350 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Brinell of 98, which properties arc considerably different<br />

from those already cited for Melts 3427 an I 3925,<br />

both tested five days after the cast.<br />

B. Cast and Heat-Treated Alloy.<br />

In Fig. 2 are plotted the data referring to the effect<br />

of quenching temperature and medium. If the properties<br />

of the cast alloy, given above, are compared to<br />

those in the figure, it will be seen that when quenched<br />

in boiling water the alloy started to gain in strength<br />

and in hardness at a quenching temperature of 850<br />

deg. F (or lower). When quenched in air, however,<br />

the alloy did not improve much in ultimate strength<br />

if the quenching temperature was appreciably below<br />

about (a00 deg. F. Air-cooling did better the hardness,<br />

nevertheless, for a quenching temperature as low as<br />

850 deg. F. (or lower). Neglecting for the moment<br />

the consideration of the intermediate range of temperature,<br />

it will be noticed in Fig. 2 that the initial<br />

melting point of the material is demarcated by a<br />

severe drop in the curve of ultimate strength for a<br />

quenching temperature of 1000 deg. F<br />

The quenching temperature of (,25 deg. F. was<br />

selected as the most desirable, whether the alloy be<br />

quenched in boiling water or in air.<br />

For the boiling water quench and this quenching<br />

temperature, an ultimate strength of nearly 38.000 lb.<br />

per sq. in. and a Brinell hardnes of 117 was obtained.*<br />

TABLE II<br />

HEAT TREATMENT AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES<br />

OF SPECIMENS SHOWN' IN PHOTOMICROGRAPHS<br />

... .. „ ,_ . , rit. sir. Elongation Brinell<br />

Fig. J>o Heat Treatment Ibs./sq. in. -J in. percent 500 kg.<br />

4 As cast 25.840 1.0 88<br />

5 As cast 25.840 1.0 88<br />

'. 025— SBW ,300-16 36.570 1.0 125<br />

7 025— 5A 300-16 20.010 .8 123<br />

8 025—OdBW 300-16 37.050 1.0 104<br />

0 1000— 5BW 300-16 22.300 .5 110<br />

Id 100(1— 5A 300-16 22,520 5 110<br />

11 As cast<br />

12 As cast<br />

13 As cast<br />

14 025— SBW 300-16 .....<br />

15 025— SBW 300-16 .....<br />

16 025--06BW 300-16<br />

17 1000— SBW 300-16<br />

18 1000— SA 300-16<br />

10 1000 - 5A 300-16<br />

(The equivalent of these properties may be obtained<br />

by heating at 925 deg. F. for 5 hours, quenching in<br />

boiling water and aging at 400 deg. F. for 2 hours.)<br />

A quenching temperature of 900 deg. F. or lower<br />

does not develop the maximum possible ultimate<br />

strength, although the Brinell hardness approximates<br />

that proceeding from the 925 deg. F. quench. It is<br />

probably true that quenching from 950 or even from<br />

975 deg. F (into boiling water) is just as efficacious<br />

as quenching from 925 deg. F.. considering tensile and<br />

hardness properties only; but the hot shortness of the<br />

alloy increases with temperature as does the danger<br />

of approaching the initial melting point ( 1004 deg. F.)<br />

(>f the material when the furnace is operated under<br />

The condition, possible commercial by Mg Fig. percentage alloy 2 strength may forfeited and conditions. he Table of disregarded elongation when the I, major This which heat for contingency of it treated portion show is this always that alloy, at of practically the its 1000 is illustrated<br />

whatever Al-Cu-Fe-<br />

maximum deg. nil. F.. it><br />

October, 1925<br />

reverting to an ultimate strength lower than it had as<br />

sand-cast. At 1025 deg. F., it crumbled in the furnace.<br />

Attention should be directed to the Brinell hardness<br />

of the A;<br />

that from the 925-5BW 300-16 treatment was 117.<br />

This fact emphasizes indisputably the fact that Brinell<br />

hardness alone cannot be tied as a criterion of the<br />

acceptability of heat-treated pistons. Unless tension<br />

test specimens are heat treated with the pistons there<br />

is no assurance that commercial heat treatment has<br />

not irreparably embrittled them. In this alloy, as in the<br />

Al-Cu-Xi-Mg alloy, tension test specimens heat treated<br />

with pistons and yielding an ultimate strength of less<br />

than about 30.000 lb. per sq. in. when quenched in<br />

boiling water and aged at 300 deg. F for 16 hours<br />

surely indicate either quenching from too low a temperature<br />

or burning (melting of the CuAl.-Al eutectic),<br />

despite the fact that the Brinell hardness may be<br />

acceptable.<br />

For the alloy as air-quenched practically the same<br />

major conclusions may be drawn as were derived from<br />

the study of quenching in boiling water. For aircooling,<br />

however, the choice of 925 deg. F as a quenching<br />

temperature is considerably more arbitrary than<br />

that when quenching in boiling water was being considered.<br />

It is safe to say, nevertheless, that to develop<br />

the maximum ultimate strength for air-cooling,<br />

which is some 7,000 lb. per sq. in. lower than that obtained<br />

by quenching in boiling water, the alloy must<br />

not be quenched from below a temperature of 900 deg.<br />

F. The ultimate strength and hardness coming from<br />

air-cooling from any temperature within the range<br />

from 900 deg. F. beyond to 975 deg. F. are comparable,<br />

but they are as a whole inferior, correspondingly, to<br />

the properties of the alloy as quenched in boiling water<br />

from over the same range of temperature. Another<br />

conclusion that may be drawn and which will be amplified<br />

presently, is that air-quenching does not produce<br />

such uniform results as quenching in boiling water.<br />

In the second group of experiments, in which the<br />

tension specimens were soaked for from y2 to 96 hours<br />

at 925 deg. F.. quenched in boiling water, and aged<br />

at 300 deg. F. for 16 hours, it was observed (Fig. 3)<br />

that the maximum ultimate strength developed was<br />

about 39,000 11). per sq. in. with a soaking period of<br />

16 hours. More protracted periods at the quenching<br />

temperature were not productive of greater strength.<br />

Even as short a soaking period as y2 hr. gave an ultimate<br />

strength of 34,540 lb. per sq. in. and a Brinell<br />

hardness of 111. a marked improvement over the properties<br />

of the alloy as cast. The trend of the curve<br />

of strength is gradually upward with time from y2<br />

hr. to 16 hr. The 5-hr. treatment, which is that regularly<br />

used at McCook Field, was a midway point.<br />

Xote should be made in Table I that the 5-hr. treatment<br />

at 925 deg. F. and the boiling water quench in<br />

both groups of experiments (Molds 18 and 5) gave an<br />

ultimate strength of about 37,000 lb. per sq. in., and<br />

a Brinell hardness of about 120. The possible value<br />

of Rockwell hardness tests is not to be deduced from<br />

other this operation er quenching periods It group parts is thought that are of in subjected experiments.<br />

boiling not the that a 5-hr. guarantee water) to in soaking elevated the is treatment of most a homogeneity; temperatures 925 advisable. deg. of pistons F. (before during Short­ longer<br />

and


October, 1925<br />

H i ^uJ3^£---,.r<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

\ 16 !<br />

FIG. 12—As sand-cast. CuAL, dark gray Fe-bearing skeleton<br />

and allied particles passing into half-tone Fe-bearing<br />

needles. X 500.<br />

FIG. 13—As sand-cast. Purple skeleton (dark gray), adjoining<br />

filigree and needles of Fe-bearing compound (half-tone).<br />

the latter intersecting CuAL<br />

quench. X 1000.<br />

(black). Etched; nitric acid<br />

FIG. 14—CuAL rounded and necked-down and Fe-bearing<br />

needles unaltered by short heat treatment. Compare with<br />

FIG. differentiated Fig. 15—Fe-bearing 11. X 500. by nitric needles acid quench and skeletons (etch). apparently X 1000. not<br />

18<br />

4<br />

351<br />

FIG. 16—CuAL particles about grain further rounded by long<br />

heat treatment. Compare with Figs. 11 and 14. X 500.<br />

FIG. 17—Filigreed CuAL (light), needles, and circularly arranged<br />

mixture of the two (lower left). This structure<br />

produced by incipient melting. X 500.<br />

FIG. 18—Solution of Fe-bearing (skeleton) compound (dark<br />

gray) as well as of CuAL, but not of needles, produced by<br />

incipient melting, '•/. 500.<br />

FIG. 19—Same type of structure as shown in Fig. 18, but<br />

(See broken etched Table in up, II nitric and for CuAL heat acid treatment quench. black. X and Needles 500. physical intact, properties.)<br />

skeletons


352 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

periods are probably not necessary. In fi\e hours the<br />

casting strains should be removed and the casting attain<br />

the maximum growth (before machining).<br />

A few words should be said concerning the uniformity<br />

in strength and hardness of the alloy in any<br />

given condition, whether as cast or as heat-treated.<br />

In Table I is given the range between minimum and<br />

maximum in ultimate strength and in Brinell hardness<br />

in the three specimens to a treatment. In one case<br />

the variation in strength was only 700 lb. per sq. in.,<br />

an in another it was as high as 12.800 lb. per sq. in.,<br />

which is seen to be a broad range, because no test specimen<br />

was weighted in this compilation ii it possessed<br />

an abnormal fracture. When the range in ultimate<br />

strength was calculated as a percentage of the ultimate<br />

strength, using those values for strength which lay<br />

between 29.000 and 39,000 lb. per sq. in. (Table I), it<br />

was found that the average range was sonic 13 per cent<br />

of the average ultimate strength. Since the average<br />

ultimate strength was about 34.000 lb. per sq. in., the<br />

average range was about 4.500 lb. per sq. in. Ten per<br />

cent would probably be a fair allowable ratio of range<br />

for ultimate strengths falling between 18.000 and<br />

28.000 lb. per sq. in.<br />

Boiling water is to be preferred to air as a quenching<br />

medium from the standpoint of uniformity of tensile<br />

properties. Of the six heat treatments in Group<br />

1 which did not meet the ratios stated above (excluding<br />

Molds 24 and 25, taken into the melting zone) four<br />

comprised air-quenching and two quenching in boiling<br />

water. Four of six molds air-quenched and but two of<br />

six quenched in boiling water were not uniform. In<br />

Group 2 only two of the 10 molds quenched in boiling<br />

water did not meet the standard.<br />

Metallography.<br />

The metallography of this alloy is illustrated in<br />

Figs. 4 to 19 inclusive.<br />

As sand-cast the alloy is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 at<br />

low magnification and in Figs. 11 to 13. inclusive, at<br />

higher magnification. Fig. 4 represents the average<br />

structure and Fig. 5 that in a segregated area, both<br />

unetched. Besides large quantities of roughly triangular,<br />

sometimes filigreed. pinkish-white patches of<br />

CuAI., (light colored particles in Figs. 11 and 12) there<br />

were a moderate quantity of watery gray needles and<br />

filigreed areas of one iron-bearing compound, the<br />

needles generally cutting through CuAI., (Figs. 11. 12.<br />

13. 14, 16. 17, 18, and 19). A considerably smaller<br />

amount of harder, purplish skeletons and other nondescript<br />

particles of a second iron-bearing constituent<br />

were also present, being especially prominent in segregated<br />

areas (dark gray in Figs. 5, 11. 12, 13. 15, 18,<br />

and 19). These two iron-bearing constituents were<br />

often intimately associated (Figs. 11, 12 and 13). Unetched,<br />

the difference in color between the two was<br />

not very sharp, but etching with the nitric acid quench<br />

often heightened this color contrast, and also turned<br />

the Cua'M;, brown or black, as shown in Fig. 13, under<br />

oil immersion at 1.000 diameters. It was found at<br />

times that this quench did not always define between<br />

needles and skeletons in color I Fig. 15); that it revealed<br />

a duplex condition in the particles of the skeletons<br />

themselves; and that it resolved apparentlv solid<br />

particles of CuAL into what might be taken for a true<br />

eutectic structure, provided the specimen was not<br />

etched too deeph. In addition to these constituents<br />

there were Mack oxide films and a few other small<br />

October, 1925<br />

black particles, some of which were blue Mg.,Si tarnished<br />

during polishing as shown in Fig. 11. Pinholes<br />

were numerous.<br />

Heat treatment affected but two of these compounds,<br />

the CuAI, and the iron-bearing skeletons. The<br />

specimens soaked at 850 deg. F. before quenching were<br />

not distinguishable from the alloy as cast, although<br />

the tensile and hardness properties were different. In<br />

the specimens treated at 925 deg. F for 5 hours,<br />

whether quenched in boiling water or in air, both<br />

structures, which were similar except for a greater<br />

degree of segregation in the latter (Figs. 6 and 7),<br />

exhibited partial breaking up of the network of CuAI,.<br />

by solution (Fig. 14). The continued soaking at 925<br />

deg. F. for 96 hours caused even more severe attack<br />

upon the network structure (Fig. 8). Though some<br />

of the triangular patches of excess CuAI, still persisted,<br />

the rounded form (Fig. 16) was predominant. In<br />

this condition of treatment, the aluminum-rich solid<br />

solution is probably saturated with dissolved CuAL,.<br />

The progress of the solution of CuAI,, may be followed<br />

in Figs. 11, 14, and 16, the metallographs representing<br />

in order triangularity, necking-down, and rounding.<br />

When the alloy was treated at 1000 deg. F. (and at<br />

1025 deg. F., undoubtedly), not only was an incipient<br />

grain growth noted, but the CuAlz assumed a filigree<br />

or lace-work form (Fig. 17) conspicuous in the specimen<br />

quenched in boiling water (Fig. 9), but less so in<br />

that quenched in air (Fig. 10), in which the particles<br />

were coarser. This filigree structure in itself would<br />

not be indicative of burning—for it is often observed<br />

in the 92 Al-8 Cu alloy as cast—but large grain size<br />

and numerous small circular or semi-elliptical areas of<br />

CuAL intimately associated with one or both of the<br />

iron-bearing constituents, occurring apparently in the<br />

center of grains (Figs. 9 and 17. lower left), are usually<br />

tell-tale. In the burned alloy, too, one of the ironbearing<br />

constituents, evidently the purple compound.<br />

underwent disintegration from the skeleton to the<br />

rounded form depicted in Figs. 18 and 19 commingled<br />

with the lighter-colored CuAI.. The iron-bearing<br />

needles did not seem to be affected by the treatment.<br />

It is possible that the purple constituent contains copper.<br />

Particles of silicon were identified in the specimen<br />

heated at 1000 deg. F for 5 hr. and air quenched.<br />

New Manual Contactor<br />

The CR-1049 manual contactor recently placed on<br />

the market by the General Electric Company is a new<br />

motor-circuit switch for easily disconnecting both<br />

motor and control from the line under practically all<br />

conditions except a dead short circuit. It consists of<br />

contact elements mounted on insulated shafts and connected<br />

through a snap-action mechanism to the operating<br />

handle on the outside of a sheet-steel case.<br />

Both case and handle can be locked in the open<br />

position, thus preventing unauthorized persons from<br />

closing the device. Xo provision is made for locking<br />

the handle in the closed position, since the contactor<br />

will open the load with full safetv to the operator.<br />

Silver contact tips are used on all 'sizes with the exception<br />

of the 50-ampere. thus cutting down the contact<br />

resistance.<br />

In designing the enclosing cases, consideration<br />

was given to space required for making soldered connections,<br />

to aid those who will install these contactors


October, 1925<br />

Ibrging- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

D e v e l o p m e n t s in D r o p F o r g i n g<br />

*<br />

P r o d u c t i o n<br />

A Brief Review of the Most Prevalent Defects in Rolled Steel<br />

Found by Regular Bar Inspection—Accurate Checks<br />

A BRIEF review of the most prevalent defects in<br />

rolled steel, found by regular bar inspection,<br />

may be of some interest. They are pipe, unsound<br />

center and bursts or ruptures on the inside, and<br />

seams, laps, scabs and slivers on the outside, and occasionally<br />

evidence of burning. Pipe is a central defect<br />

originating in the shrinkage cavity in the top of<br />

the ingot and is due to insufficient croppage. Unsound<br />

center or excessive porosity may consist of the<br />

segregated and impure metal immediately beneath<br />

this zone, but may also be characteristic of the heat<br />

throughout and due to improper refining of the metal,<br />

or overoxidation. Pipe may be usually distinguished<br />

by shear tests or fracture tests, but in some cases may<br />

be so faint as to necessitate a coarse or fine etch oh<br />

a properly prepared surface. Secondary pipe which<br />

may occur in material rolled from small-end-up ingots<br />

is most difficult to detect, as perfectly sound steel is<br />

found on either side of it in the bar. For internal<br />

flaw in bars such as unsound or segregated center,<br />

shearing tests are usually inadequate and etch tests<br />

are necessary. Internal ruptures or bursts are more<br />

prevalent in steels of higher alloy content and may be<br />

detected by fracture or etch. Most surface defects on<br />

bars are classed as seams, or scabs and slivers, although<br />

the former cover imperfections of various origins.<br />

Defects known generally as seams may be due<br />

to over-fills, tinder-fills, rolling laps, rolled in chip<br />

marks, guide scratches, crossed rolls, poor roll surface,<br />

etc., or they may originate in the ingot, elongate<br />

in rolling to billets and persist through the next conversion<br />

into bars. Transverse cracks in the skin of an<br />

ingot roll out into seams in finished bars if not chipped<br />

out in the bloom or billet form. Sub-cutaneous gas<br />

pockets form light sub-surface seams. Scabs and<br />

slivers usually may be attributed to poor ingot surface.<br />

The extent to which these defects in bars give<br />

trouble in f<strong>org</strong>ing in most cases is not difficult to<br />

forecast. Guide scratches which are often mistaken<br />

for seams should cause absolutely no trouble unless<br />

unusually deep. Slight over-fills, if not lapped, do<br />

not open in f<strong>org</strong>ing, but most other forms, unless so<br />

light as to scale off in the heating furnace, are very<br />

likely to cause serious trouble in the finished f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

In many cases the above, which may be considered<br />

primary inspection and consisting of check analysis,<br />

dimensional check, examination for soundness and<br />

surface condition, is supplemented by shear inspection<br />

on such types where analysis is such as to make cold<br />

shearing difficult if not hazardous. Recently, types of<br />

steel have been satisfactorily cold sheared where formerly<br />

other than hot shearing was considered out of<br />

the question. The steel plants, through closer temperature<br />

control on the finishing mills, and more definite<br />

regulation of cooling of their product, have accomplished<br />

much in shearing quality.<br />

Case Hardening Test.<br />

As a rule after the steel has been subjected to these<br />

*F rom U-lc\ News, Tulv. lr25.<br />

Possible on F<strong>org</strong>ing Qualities of Steel<br />

353<br />

tests it may be stocked with assurance that it will<br />

meet all requirements. However, for special purposes<br />

there are other qualifications which must be met. A<br />

number of specifications are now received incorporating<br />

the McQuaid-Ehn test, of which all should have<br />

a comprehensive idea of its intent and general features.<br />

A thorough explanation of this test would be<br />

quite long and highly technical, but a few words<br />

should be able to convey its purpose together with<br />

the general method of procedure and observations in<br />

its execution. The McOuaide-Ehn test is to predetermine<br />

whether a particular heat of steel will give satisfactory<br />

results in case hardening. Often, for some<br />

unknown reason, soft spots are encountered in the<br />

case of case hardened parts, characteristic of a particular<br />

heat of steel. The analysis is correct, the steel<br />

is sound, it is satisfactorily free from microscopic defects.<br />

Likewise no fault can be attributed to case<br />

hardening operations, which show satisfactory response<br />

on other heats of steel. The McQuaid-Ehn<br />

test will show conditions characteristic of heats which<br />

will harden satisfactorily and of those in which trouble<br />

is encountered. Furthermore, in gears made from certain<br />

heats, distortion after hardening is much greater<br />

than in others, and more difficult to control. This<br />

test enables a forecast on this condition. The mechanical<br />

procedure is as follows : Carburizing of suitable<br />

samples at definitely prescribed temperatures for<br />

a sufficient length of time to obtain a hyper-eutectoid<br />

(approximately 1.00 to 1.10 carbon) case, cooling in<br />

pots after carburizing, polishing and etching these<br />

samples, and finally studying under the microscope.<br />

Microscopic Study.<br />

From a microscopic study the steel is classed as<br />

''normal" steel, which should give satisfactory results<br />

in case hardening, and "abnormal" steel which may<br />

give unsatisfactory results in case hardening. There<br />

are, of course, almost unlimited transitional stages between<br />

"normal" and "abnormal" and their classification<br />

must necessarily depend on experience and personal<br />

judgment. Briefly, characteristics of "normal"<br />

steel are, in the hyper-eutectoid case, large, well defined,<br />

pearlite grains with excessive carbides or<br />

cementite in the form of coarse network around the<br />

pearlite grains and grading down into a core consisting<br />

of large angular grains of pearlite and ferrite. In<br />

"abnormal" steel the hyper-eutectoid case consists of<br />

much smaller and less uniform grains of pearlite with<br />

the excess cementite occurring in smaller envelopes<br />

around the pearlite, and in some cases as patches of<br />

massive cementite. In the most "abnormal" instances<br />

the pearlite breaks down into patches of<br />

cementite and ferrite. The core in such steel shows<br />

much finer grained pearlite and ferrite than in "normal"<br />

steel, and is often quite banded. The cause of<br />

the "abnormal" condition has been attributed to overoxidized<br />

condition of the steel, but this has not been<br />

universally accepted. In checking material for Mc­<br />

Ouaide-Ehn characteristics tests may be taken by the<br />

consumer from finish rolled material. The time for


354 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieahng<br />

the making of tests by the steel manufacturer should<br />

be when material is in the semi-finished form and<br />

before approving a heat for application on a particular<br />

order. A convenient method of such sampling is in<br />

the form of chips from blooms. Some steel manufacturers<br />

have based tests on ladle sample, which is<br />

considered less reliable. The McQuaid-Ehn test, if<br />

properly conducted and interpreted, is a valuable contribution<br />

in quality control,-but does not solve all case<br />

hardening troubles, the fault may not and often does<br />

not lie with the steel.<br />

Soundness.<br />

For soundness, in relatively few cases the porosity<br />

or macro-etch test has been used, and this test at<br />

times otters great advantages in predetermining the<br />

quality of steel. The chief disadvantage in its application<br />

are lack of standardization (acids, acid<br />

strengths, time and temperature factors, etc.) and lack<br />

of ability to properly interpret and put to practical<br />

use the results. In many cases, such as investigations<br />

for internal rupture, snow-flakes, bursts, etc., the test<br />

is infallible. The practical execution of this test consists<br />

in submitting to action of acid solution properly<br />

prepared surfaces of longitudinal and transverse sections<br />

cut from material submitted for examination.<br />

< )l different acids and percentages of dilution, a 50<br />

per cent hydrochloric solution is preferable for general<br />

purposes, varying the time in accordance with the<br />

nature of the material examined.<br />

The microscope is at times used as a means of<br />

establishing the suitability of heats for certain important<br />

uses. It offers an excellent means for the<br />

study of structure and freedom of steel from sonims.<br />

but it may be abused, and in the hands of the inexperienced<br />

cause more harm than good. It is a very difficult<br />

matter to base the acceptance or rejection of a<br />

heat of steel solely on microscopic examination for<br />

impurities, when the field or fields examined represent<br />

such an infinitesimal portion of the material involved.<br />

Furthermore, no standards are available and<br />

any- decisions must necessarily- be based on the personal<br />

opinions of the investigators, and such opinions<br />

are wide and varied.<br />

Fibre tests, but rarely used, embrace the study of<br />

fractures made after subjecting material to a sorbitizing<br />

treatment.<br />

X-Ray and Magnetic Testing.<br />

There appears in the near future but slight probability<br />

of the general adoption of magnetic or X-ray<br />

testing for other than special work, where the cost of<br />

the finished product is very great as compared with<br />

steel costs or where a failure would result disastrously.<br />

Magnetic testing has evolved through the defectoscope,<br />

a means of determining defects or flaws;<br />

through the magnetoscope, composition and mechanical<br />

properties. A most valuable feature of such control<br />

is that no material is destroyed or disfigured in<br />

the execution of tests. This method has been put into<br />

practical use on turbine bucket wheels, gears, saws,<br />

elevator cable, rails, etc. While there is at present<br />

neither prospects for the steel manufacturer being<br />

able to run the product of his mills through a defectoscope,<br />

nor a probability that the f<strong>org</strong>ing manufacturer<br />

will so test his vast production, it does appear<br />

that apparatus of this type may be advantageously<br />

applied for special requirements.<br />

October, 1925<br />

X-ray examination has been put to practical usage<br />

for the detection of internal defects, but the time and<br />

expense involved render its scope too limited for<br />

quantity production.<br />

The foregoing has dwelt more particularly in consideration<br />

of stock for f<strong>org</strong>ing purposes.<br />

Shearing the Stock.<br />

Before using under the hammer, stock must be<br />

first sheared to suitable lengths or multiples. It is<br />

impossible on steels of higher alloying content to<br />

draw a definite line as to what analyses will and what<br />

will not satisfactorily cold shear. Such variables as<br />

size, condition of shears, high or low side of range in<br />

hardening elements, and even weather conditions<br />

have pronounced effect. Under most favorable conditions<br />

it may be assumed that standard analyses of<br />

chrome-vanadium, chrome, carbon, low-chromc-nickcl<br />

and 3y per cent nickel steels will cold shear in sizes<br />

up to 2y in. round or square with a carbon content<br />

ti]) to .45 maximum. With carbon as high as .50 or<br />

.55 these types can usually be sheared cold with<br />

safety in sizes up to \y in. round or square. These<br />

limits are given more in the nature of a warning than<br />

as a recommendation. A little heating Before shearing<br />

steel approximating these limits is by no means<br />

an extravagance. In extremely cold weather much<br />

improvement may even be effected on certain types<br />

of steel by raising temperatures but slightly, from<br />

yard to room temperature for instance, or just sufficient<br />

to relieve the intense chill from the steel. Requiring<br />

special attention in cold shearing are capacity<br />

of shears, their alignment, condition of knives and<br />

hold down.<br />

Trouble in cold shearing may be evidenced in several<br />

forms. The stock may break off sharply, or spall<br />

on the corners; it may show a very fine crack across<br />

the sheared surface or it may be strained to such an<br />

extent upon shearing that while no crack is perceptible,<br />

one opens from a few hours to a few days after.<br />

The latter condition may prove the most serious, as<br />

shear inspection will not reveal the trouble and such<br />

stock may rupture further when brought to f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

heat.<br />

Fins or ragged edges should be avoided in shearing<br />

as they may "lap in" during f<strong>org</strong>ing. Often it is<br />

necessary to grind badly finned edges. This difficulty<br />

can usually be eliminated by closer alignment of shears<br />

and maintenance of proper knife edges.<br />

To Reduce Variety of Taper Roller Bearings*<br />

As the result of a conference held on June 15 at<br />

the suggestion of the division of simplified practice, it<br />

was conceded that there are too many varieties of<br />

taper roller bearings, and it was deemed feasible and<br />

advisable to eliminate some of these existing varieties.<br />

The best procedure to be followed was divided into<br />

three steps: (1) Representatives of leading producers<br />

of taper roller bearings to meet and formulate recommended<br />

standard "current" and "service" lists; (2)<br />

these lists to be sent to the Society of Automotive Engineers<br />

for approval in accordance with the established<br />

methods of the society: (3) the above society to request<br />

the co-operation of the division of simplified<br />

practice in securing nation-wide adoption of such<br />

approved lists as are found to be acceptable to manufacturers,<br />

distributors, and consumers.<br />

•From Technical News Bulletin. Bureau of Standards.


October, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

C o n v e n t i o n o f S t e e l T r e a t e r s S u c c e s s<br />

Convention and Exposition of American Society for Steel Treat­<br />

ing at Cleveland Successful—Valuable Technical Papers<br />

T H E seventh annual convention and exposition of<br />

the American Society for Steel Treating which<br />

was held at Cleveland the week of September<br />

14th has passed into history as the crowning effort<br />

of the many achievements already credited to this<br />

growing <strong>org</strong>anization. Among the predominating<br />

factors in the success of this year's gathering werti<br />

the unusual facilities of the Cleveland Public Auditorium<br />

for handling the exposition and its convenient<br />

location to the hotels. The capacity crowd was well<br />

taken care of by Cleveland's many- fine hotels, and<br />

with a registration of approximately 5,000 and an attendance<br />

of over 40,000 little if any confusion or disappointment<br />

was experienced in securing hotel accommodations.<br />

Cleveland being located centrally in the iron and<br />

steel field drew a larger attendance of interested members<br />

and guests than any previous convention, the exhibitors<br />

reporting that many orders and inquiries<br />

were received.<br />

Read—Officers for Coming Year Nominated<br />

355<br />

Exceptionally large attendances marked the technical<br />

sessions this year. At other conventions of the<br />

society the absence of preprints of the papers to be<br />

presented tended to hold down the discussion. The<br />

preprinting of papers this year was a departure over<br />

previous meetings and greatly stimulated interest in<br />

the discussions. The technical sessions were more<br />

efficiently- handled than ever before because this year<br />

is the first time that the steel treaters have made anyr<br />

determined effort to handle papers on a definite schedule<br />

with timed discussion.<br />

On Wednesday morning the annual business<br />

meeting of the society was held at Hotel Cleveland.<br />

Mr. W H. Eisenman, secretary, reported that the<br />

membership was 3,360 on August 31 as against 3,062<br />

a year ago. The gain of 298 or 11 per cent is in keeping<br />

with the progress reported by the society for the<br />

last few years.<br />

Mr. Eisenman briefly commented on the work of<br />

the recommended practice committee, stating that to<br />

FIG. 1-Birdseye view of the interior of the Auditorium, shewing general arrangement of booths.


,5t,<br />

date 243 pages of data sheets covering 38 subjects had<br />

been issued. He also announced that the 1926 convention<br />

and exposition will be held in Chicago the<br />

week of September 20th. The exposition will be held<br />

at the Municipal Pier and it is expected that all who<br />

desire space will be accommodated. This year 90 requests<br />

for space were turned down for lack of facilities.<br />

The annual banquet was held at the Hotel Cleveland<br />

on Thursday. The toastmaster was Ge<strong>org</strong>e M.<br />

Graham, vice president Chandler Motor Car Company,<br />

Cleveland. W. R. Hopkins, city manager of<br />

Cleveland, made the principal address of the evening,<br />

speaking on "City Governments." This was followed<br />

by conferring on Dr. Charles F. Brush an honorary<br />

membership in the society. W S. Bidle, president of<br />

the society, announced that Arthur G. Henry of Chicago<br />

had been honored with a founder membership by<br />

the board of directors, the presentation to be made at<br />

the convention next year in Chicago.<br />

Dr. H. H. Lester, research physicist, Watertown<br />

Arsenal, Watertown. Mass.. was the recipient of the<br />

Henry Marion Howe medal for the best technical<br />

paper presented during the year. Dr. Lester's paper<br />

was "X-ray Tests Applied to the Problems of the<br />

Steel Industry." Mrs. II. M. Howe, widow of Dr.<br />

Howe, was present for the ceremony. "The Physicology<br />

of Laughter" was the title of an entertaining<br />

talk given by C. M. Nemcomb, humorist of Lakewood,<br />

Ohio. W. H. Eisenman. secretary of the society,<br />

concluded the program with a few remarks.<br />

Valuable papers were presented and discussed on<br />

many phases of steel treating. The following abstracts<br />

cover abut half of the papers read. The remaining<br />

papers will be abstracted in the Xovember issue.<br />

Welding Steel Tubing and Sheet With Chromium-Molybdenum<br />

Welding Wire*<br />

By F. T. Siscof and H. W. Boulton^<br />

In welding chromium-molybdenum steel seamless<br />

tubing and chromium-vanadium steel sheet, chromiummolybdenum<br />

welding wire produces a weld which has<br />

a more desirable and uniform structure than low carbon<br />

welding wire. In welding chromium-molybdenum<br />

steel tubing to plain carbon steel tubing chromiummolybdenum<br />

steel welding wire is not greatly superior<br />

and may even be inferior to low carbon welding wire.<br />

Welded chromium-molybdenum steel tubing has a soft<br />

area about V\ inches from the weld due to localized annealing,<br />

at which spot failure in tension will occur unless<br />

the structure is made uniform by heat treatment.<br />

Heat treatment consisting of quenching in water followed<br />

by tempering greatly improves the structure of<br />

welded chromium-molybdenum steel tubing and<br />

chromium-vanadium steel sheet, at and near the weld.<br />

With tempering temperatures of 1000 deg. F. (538<br />

deg. C.) and above, the ultimate strength and elongation<br />

are much superior to the untreated tubes and<br />

sheet. Chromium-molybdenum steel welding wire is<br />

more difficult to melt and work than low carbon wire,<br />

but if done by a skillful operator produces a weld<br />

that is, ordinarily, perfect in every case.<br />

*Published by permission of the Chief of Air Service, War<br />

Department.<br />

•{-Metallurgist. Engineering Division, Air Service, War Department,<br />

McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio.<br />

JTest Engineer. Engineering Division. Air Service. War<br />

Department. McCook Field, Dayton. Ohio.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Oil Burning Equipment for<br />

Industrial Furnaces<br />

By M. H. Mawhinney*<br />

October, 1925<br />

This paper reviews the installation and operation<br />

of oil burning equipment, starting with the storage<br />

tank and including the auxiliary equipment. It covers<br />

in a general way the chief points of trouble for supplying<br />

fuel to the furnace.<br />

The author discusses the correct arrangement of<br />

the bricks inside the furnace. He points out that this<br />

arrangement must be correct for the satisfactory burning<br />

of ail. The principal considerations are: the<br />

burner holes, flues and ports, combustion volume and<br />

baffles.<br />

The troubles encountered in lighting a cold furnace<br />

are discussed and the correct procedure to followin<br />

this operation is given.<br />

The location and remedy of troubles, other than<br />

purely mechanical failures, are discussed at some<br />

length.<br />

•Engineering Department. General Furnace Companv,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Irregular Carburization of Iron and Iron<br />

Alloys—The Cause and Prevention<br />

By W. J. Merten*<br />

The experiments on carburizing of steels, conducted<br />

by the author and a careful study made of the carburizing<br />

process in its various details, points decidedly<br />

toward a general omission, by practical metallurgists,<br />

of fundamentals, including the conditions of the<br />

materials, processes, and equipment for satisfactoryresults.<br />

It is the purpose of this paper to point out these<br />

conditions, setting forth the physico-chemical reactions<br />

within the carburizing container. It shows that<br />

the chemistry of the steel plays only a minor role in<br />

the success of the satisfactory production of a proper<br />

depth and uniformity- of case, and that the physical<br />

structure of the steel and the mechanical arrangement<br />

of steel articles and carburizers for correct chemical<br />

reactions are the major factors.<br />

•Metallurgical Engineer. Westinghouse Electric & Ma<br />

facturing Company. East Pittshurgh, Pa.<br />

What Happens When Metal Fails<br />

by "Fatigue"?<br />

By H. F. Moore*<br />

This paper presents a picture of what happens<br />

when metal fails by fatigue under repeated stress. It<br />

is the picture which the author sees, and he has attempted<br />

to present it in everyday terms, rather than<br />

to develop a formal theory.<br />

He pictures two actions going on in a metal under<br />

repeated stress: one a strengthening action and the<br />

other a destructive action. If the destructive action<br />

overbalances the strengthening action the metal will<br />

fail.<br />

;•„*!!) nrrge oLlnvestigation of Fatigue of Metals, University<br />

ot Illinois, Urbana, 111.


October, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating OS I<br />

FIG. 2—A glance at several of the many finely conceived exhibits which featured the Steel Treaters' Convention.


358 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

The Chemical Composition of Tool Steels<br />

By J. P. Gill and M. A. Frostf<br />

In tin- papef the authors have discussed in considerable<br />

detail the chemical composition of various types<br />

of tool steel-. The authors point out that while the<br />

chemical composition of a steel is basic, nevertheless<br />

the nature of the structure of the steel, as viewed under<br />

the microscope, is of much importance.<br />

This paper presents the chemical compositions of<br />

many steels which have been analyzed by the authors<br />

and also presents the chemical limits used by several<br />

manufacturers of tool steel.<br />

The authors state that in their opinion any effort<br />

at this time toward the standardization of tool steel<br />

specifications by any buyer or <strong>org</strong>anization would be<br />

detrimental to the best interests of all.<br />

October, 1925<br />

•Metallurgist, Vanadium Alloys Steel Companv, Latrobe, •Metallurgist. Air<br />

Pa.<br />

H'liiei Chemist, Vanadium Alloys Steel Company. Latrobe, Field. Dayton, Ohio.<br />

Pa.<br />

Service. War Department, McCook<br />

Acid Open Hearth Steel Melting Practice<br />

Electric Furnace Steel<br />

By F. T. Sisco*<br />

The basic electric process is used for the manufacture<br />

of high grade alloy and tool steel ingots, occasionally<br />

for castings. The acid process is used principally<br />

for castings. The advantages of the electric<br />

process are: (1) extreme flexibility and (2) high<br />

quality steels produced in tonnage lots. The direct<br />

arc furnace with a non-conducting hearth is used almost<br />

exclusively in the United States. In the basic<br />

electric process the scrap is melted under oxidizing<br />

conditions that may be closely controlled. Melting<br />

may thus be with complete oxidation, with partial oxidation,<br />

or without oxidation. Under average conditions<br />

melting with partial oxidation is productive of<br />

the highest grade steel. As there are no oxidizing<br />

gases present in the electric furnace, iron oxide in the<br />

form of. iron ore, roll scale or the oxide on the sera])<br />

must be used to supply the oxygen. The silicon and<br />

most of the manganese are oxidized and removed by<br />

the time melting is completed. The oxidation of the<br />

silicon is complete and the oxidation of the manganese<br />

can be controlled. The removal of the phosphorus depends<br />

upon the basicity- of the slag, an excess of oxvgen<br />

and a relatively- low temperature. In melting<br />

with complete oxidation, practically- all of the phosphorus<br />

is eliminated; in partial oxidation part of the<br />

phosphorus is removed; and in melting without oxidation<br />

the phosphorus is unaffected. The oxidation of<br />

the carbon is also dependent upon the amount of<br />

oxygeif present and takes place most rapidly at a high<br />

temperature. After the oxidizing slag is removed the<br />

metal may be recarburized with ground electrodes or<br />

other form of carbon. Recarburization is usuallv<br />

necessary in melting with complete oxidation, but in<br />

general is not good practice.<br />

Deoxidation and desulphurization take place in<br />

the final period and are accomplished by means of a<br />

very basic, fluid slag containing an excess of carbon,<br />

calcium carbide or both. Deoxidation takes place first<br />

in the slag where ferrous and manganese oxides are<br />

reduced to their respective metals. The deoxidation of<br />

the molten bath occurs at the plane of contact between<br />

metal and slag by migration of dissolved ferrous oxide<br />

from metal to slag to restore the disturbed equilibrium.<br />

Practically all of the ferrous oxide in the metal is thus<br />

eliminated. Part of the manganese oxide in the bath<br />

is deoxidized. The remainder remains in the metal<br />

until it reacts with silica later in the period. The<br />

addition of ferro-manganese is made after the slag is<br />

deoxidized. Ferro-silicon is added to degasify the<br />

metal and remove carbon monoxide. The reaction<br />

product, silica, reacts with suspended manganese oxide<br />

to form manganese silicate, which is liquid at bath<br />

temperature and which coalesces into particles large<br />

enough to rise to join the slag. The deoxidizing slag<br />

desulphurizes almost completely. Calcium carbide is<br />

a more efficient desulphurizing agent than carbon.<br />

After deoxidation and desulphurization are complete<br />

and all of the alloys added, the temperature is adjusted<br />

and the heat tapped. Electric steel is usually poured<br />

cold to restrain piping and cracking.<br />

By Radclyffe Furness*<br />

In this paper the author outlines briefly the characteristics<br />

of the acid open hearth furnace, and gives<br />

the contributing cause of the superiority of acid open<br />

hearth steel over the basic.<br />

The melting charge is discussed and methods given<br />

for controlling the elements in the bath, as well as<br />

the proper time to make the additions.<br />

The addition of ore to the bath is considered and<br />

the author gives the proper conditions of the bath to<br />

obtain satisfactory- results from oring the heat.<br />

A^cid open hearth slags are discussed; consideration<br />

is given to the temperature of the bath, iron and manganese<br />

oxide being present. The fluidity of the slag<br />

is discussed.<br />

The author emphasizes the importance of the<br />

proper "condition" of the bath, stating that this has a<br />

great influence on the defects which may appear in<br />

the finished product, such as "flakes."<br />

•Superintendent, Melting and F<strong>org</strong>e Department, Midvale<br />

Company, Nicetown, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Graphitization at Constant Temperature<br />

By H. A. Schwartz*<br />

The preparation of this article was motivated mainly<br />

by a desire to demonstrate that the graphitizing<br />

reaction is not the erratic and poorly- understood phenomenon<br />

which some metallurgists believe it to be,<br />

but rather, that it is the expression of the operation<br />

of entirely definite natural laws, as well established<br />

as any in physical chemistry. It is further desired to<br />

emphasize the fact that, although these laws are simple<br />

in principle, the physical constants involved are<br />

functions of so many variables that their application<br />

becomes distinctly complex and not to be safely undertaken<br />

except after a thorough knowledge of the<br />

circumstances.<br />

The material presented consists of a mathematical<br />

analysis of the data of graphitization. As a result of<br />

this treatment, a means for the laboratory determination<br />

of graphitizing rate, as a physical constant of anv<br />

given hard iron, is outlined. This method is new so<br />

far as the author is aware, and constitutes the only


October. 1925<br />

practical application, here given, of the theoretical<br />

principles considered.<br />

It is demonstrated that the rate of graphitization<br />

is determined by the rate at which carbon can migrate<br />

in iron. The progress of graphite formation with time<br />

is shown to be an expression of the changing migratory<br />

distances, and concentration gradients produced<br />

by the reaction.<br />

This demonstration, also, is believed to lie new.<br />

The procedure by which the mathematical characteristics<br />

of the observed graphitization curve are used to<br />

determine the character of the physico-chemical processes<br />

occurring is also, perhaps, sufficiently unusual,<br />

to possess interest for the theoretical metallurgist. The<br />

writer does not recall any other similar problem which<br />

has been solved by this method of attack.<br />

Reference is made to the range through which the<br />

graphitizing rate varies in commercial material. The<br />

effect of silicon on this constant is discussed. For a<br />

variety of reasons, none of the other variables which<br />

affect this constant have been considered, and the<br />

reader is cautioned against any belief that the cumulative<br />

effect of the many variables involved can be<br />

summed up from assumptions as to their effect separately.<br />

Partly on account of these theoretical perplexities,<br />

and also because it was desired to focus the<br />

attention upon metallurgical principles only, nothing<br />

in the nature of operating data has been included.<br />

The malleable metallurgist may, perhaps, find here an<br />

explanation of some of the fundamentals of his process.<br />

but no suggestions as to desirable or objectionable<br />

practices.<br />

•Manager of Research, National Malleable & Steel Castings<br />

Company, Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

A Study of Dendritic Structure and Crystal<br />

Formation<br />

By Bradley Stoughton* and F. J. G. Duckf<br />

The authors of this paper discuss the formation of<br />

dendritic crystals in over-heated high carbon steel and<br />

present a study of such crystallization. Comparison<br />

is made, both in structure and hardness, with a normal<br />

file steel of approximately the same composition.<br />

Evidence is offered, through the inter-crystalline<br />

rupture of the over-heated steel, that the amorphous<br />

metal hypothesis does not hold when the crystals are<br />

large and there are correspondingly large surfaces of<br />

cement. Following the same reasoning, it is thought<br />

possible that the inter-crystalline rupture of metals at<br />

high temperatures is due to the large size of the crystals<br />

at those temperatures, as contrasted with their<br />

small size at normal temperatures.<br />

It is assumed that the smaller crystals, as well as<br />

the inter-lamellar crystals, that occur throughout the<br />

eutectoid areas, were formed as a result of the tremendous<br />

pressure brought about by the expansion of<br />

the material in its change from austenite to pearlite.<br />

Several photo-micrographs are presented in support<br />

of these conclusions.<br />

It is also stated that the Brinell hardness numbers<br />

of any steel vary inversely as the size of its constituent<br />

crystals, although no attempt is made to show any<br />

relation between them.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

•Professor of Metallurgy, Lehigh University, Bethlehem.<br />

Pa<br />

tlnstructor in Metallurgy, Lehigh University, Bethlehem,<br />

Pa.'<br />

359<br />

The Carbon Content of Pearlite in Iron-Carbon<br />

Alloys Containing One Per Cent Silicon<br />

By Anson Hayes* and H. U. Wakefieldt<br />

The authors review a modification of the diagram<br />

for pure iron-carbon alloys, which was constructed to<br />

conform to experimental data. The carbon concentration<br />

of point C had not previously been determined.<br />

The authors have obtained a value for the<br />

carbon content of this point and the principal object<br />

of this paper is to report the findings of the investigation.<br />

•Professor of Physical Chemistry and Metallography, Iowa<br />

State College, Ames, Iowa.<br />

tAssociated with Dr. Haves.<br />

The Dilatometric Method of Heat Treatment<br />

By O. E. Harder*. R. L. Dowdellf and A. C. Forsyth:<br />

In the present paper the writers are reporting the<br />

progress in the use of the dilatometric method of heat<br />

treatment and the application of that method to the<br />

study of dimensional changes in such materials as graycast<br />

iron. Two slightly different pieces of apparatus<br />

have been constructed and used. The details of construction<br />

and the results obtained are given.<br />

•Professor of Metallography, School of Mines, University<br />

of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Minn.<br />

tlnstructor in Metallography, School of Mines, University<br />

of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.<br />

|Foundry Department, Bethlehem Steel Companv, Bethlehem,<br />

Pa.<br />

On the Nature of Some Low Tungsten<br />

Tool Steels<br />

By M. A. Grossmann* and E. C. Bainf<br />

This paper is one of a series on the constitution<br />

certain steels which have wide commercial application.<br />

The authors have considered in this paper lowtungsten<br />

tool steels which contain 3.00 per cent tungsten<br />

and somewhat over 1.00 per cent carbon. The<br />

steels investigated were of two types—oil and water<br />

hardening. The hardness, toughness, shrinkage, and<br />

microscopic properties of these steels were studied,<br />

and the results plotted.<br />

•Metallurgist, United Alloy Steel Company. Canton. Ohio.<br />

fMetallurgist, Union Carbide and Carbon Research Laboratories,<br />

Long Island City, N. Y.<br />

Why Metal Warps and Cracks<br />

By J. F. Keller*<br />

The author of this paper has presented and has discussed<br />

in simple terms, the various factors which come<br />

into play in causing iron and steel bodies to warp or<br />

crack when subjected to heat.<br />

He illustrates by means of diagrams and experiments<br />

the manner in which these factors cause the failure<br />

of metallic bodies. Several photographs are included<br />

which show the effect of external strains.<br />

•In charge of university extension work, Purdue University,<br />

Lafayette, Ind.


.,oo<br />

Carburization by Solid Cements<br />

By W. E. Day. Ir7<br />

Thi- paper deals with the carburizing process when<br />

using solid compounds. The author discusses the<br />

points which have the greatest bearing on the commercial<br />

application of the process.<br />

The production of carburizing gases from the<br />

cement and their reaction on the steel are covered;<br />

also a study is made of the mechanism through which<br />

the carbon is conveyed from the surface inward.<br />

Photomicrographs and curves are included, showing<br />

results of the investigation.<br />

•Metallurgist, International Motor Company, New Bruns<br />

wick, N. I.<br />

Application of the Mathematics of Probability<br />

to Experimental Data as a Basis for Appropriate<br />

Choice of Ferrous Materials<br />

By B. D. Saklatwalla* and H. T. Chandlert<br />

The number of alloy steels which are now in use<br />

make the problem of selecting the most suitable alloysteel<br />

a perplexing one. In this paper the authors suggest<br />

a method of reasoning which should be of practical<br />

value in solving this problem. The "law of error"<br />

and "the law of frequency" are considered.<br />

Probability curves are given in which the Brinell<br />

hardnesses are plotted against the frequency number<br />

of castings in foundry practice. This graphic method<br />

of representation gives more satisfactory results than<br />

mere averages of numbers.<br />

•Vice President. Vanadium Corporation ol America,<br />

Bridgeville, Pa.<br />

tMetallurgical Engineer. Vanadium Corporation of America,<br />

Bridgeville. Pa.<br />

Some Factors Affecting Coercive Force and<br />

Residual Induction of Some Magnet Steels<br />

By J. R. Adams* and F. E. Gloecklerf<br />

In this article the authors have considered the coercive<br />

force and residual induction of magnet steels<br />

as applicable to commercial problems.<br />

The metallurgical factors that have the greatest<br />

influence on these values are: composition, melting,<br />

casting, rolling or f<strong>org</strong>ing and heat treatment.<br />

The authors have covered each of these factors and<br />

give a number of tables which show the effects of<br />

these factors upon the magnet steels which were investigated.<br />

•Superintendent, Research Department. Midvale Company,<br />

Nicetown, Philadelphia. Pa.<br />

tAssistant Superintendent. Heat Treating Department,<br />

Midvale Companv, Nicetown. Philadelphia. Pa.<br />

Refractories Institute Meets October 29th<br />

The fall meeting of the American Refractories Institute<br />

will be held at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.<br />

Xew York City, on October 29th, beginning at 10<br />

o'clock in the morning.<br />

The program, in addition to regular business matters,<br />

includes a number of technical papers and a detailed<br />

discussion of the work of the institute. Of<br />

especial interest to consumers of refractories will be<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

October, 1925<br />

the part of the program dealing with specifications.<br />

The research division of the refractories fellowship at<br />

Mellon Institute, working in co-operation with advisorv<br />

committees of technical men, is making a critical<br />

study of the existing tests for refractories and accumulating<br />

data on furnace conditions so that satisfactory<br />

specifications can be written. An outline of the<br />

plans that have been made for such work will be given<br />

and a progress report made.<br />

A banquet will be served in the evening at 7<br />

o'clock at which some notable speakers will be present.<br />

Among them is Senator (ie<strong>org</strong>e Wharton Pepper.<br />

Non-members are invited to attend both the<br />

general meeting and the banquet. Reservations for<br />

the latter should be made by addressing M. C. Booze,<br />

2202 Oliver Building, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Flotation of Enamels*<br />

The problem of improving practice in preparing<br />

enamels for application to metal shapes previous to<br />

firing has attracted considerable attention among<br />

enamelers because of the difficulty of maintaining a<br />

slip of uniform consistency. Accordingly, the bureau<br />

has undertaken a study of the factors governing the<br />

behavior of enamels suspended in water, as used for<br />

coating metal shapes.<br />

Enamel frit, of glasslike consistency, shattered bysudden<br />

cooling in water or air, is ground in ball mills<br />

with water, addition of clay and a salt usually being<br />

made to help keep the particles of frit in suspension,<br />

The metal shapes may be coated with this slip by<br />

either dipping or spraying, and either method requires<br />

that the slip be uniform in consistency from day to<br />

day. Two methods are being employed in investigating<br />

the problem. One is to study in a fundamental<br />

way the mechanism of known changes in properties<br />

due to variations in method of preparation. The other<br />

is to vary the kinds and amounts of the constituents<br />

and note their effect upon the important physical<br />

properties of enamel slips.<br />

In the more fundamental method of investigation<br />

several types of experiments were made, including the<br />

following: (a) Spectroscopic examination showed that<br />

materials dissolved from the frit during grinding contained<br />

sodium, potassium, silicon, aluminum, calcium,<br />

manganese, nickel, and in some cases other elements;<br />

(b) tests upon finely- ground frit and clay (separate<br />

constituents of enamel slip) showed that a particular<br />

salt commonly used for adjusting the consistency of<br />

slips had quite different effects upon the respective<br />

suspensions of these materials; and Cc) this fact suggested<br />

the possibility that the two materials in suspension<br />

carried opposite electrical charges. Study of<br />

the movement of the particles under the influence of<br />

an electric current, however, indicated that the charges<br />

were alike.<br />

Tests made in accordance with the second method<br />

of study indicate that the practice of discarding mill<br />

water, which has accumulated on top of enamel slips<br />

upon standing, tends to reduce the thickness of the<br />

coat in which they are able to adhere when applied<br />

to the metal. The composition of the frit, which influences<br />

the properties of the liquid phase because of<br />

its effect on the solubility of the frit, also affects this<br />

thickness.<br />

•From Technical News Bulletin, Bureau of Standards.


October, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 361<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

Si<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

CHAPTER VII—HEAT TREATMENT<br />

Plainly, it would be a hopeless task to attempt<br />

PART 1<br />

to take up the specific treatment of individual parts<br />

in a text of this nature. But this, fortunately, is not<br />

FUNDAMENTAL PURPOSES AND EFFECTS<br />

necessary, because the correct application of simple<br />

scientific principles, with intelligence, judgment and<br />

SPECIFIC methods of heat treatment are nearly as care, will solve each individual problem. In this<br />

diverse as the products of the steel industry. respect, heat treatment is and always will be, an art,<br />

Two objects made of the same steel, but of different<br />

size and shape, or intended for different kinds<br />

of service, will, as a rule, require different heat treatments<br />

to develop their best properties. There is a<br />

great variety of carbon and alloy steels in use. each<br />

of which has characteristics more or less different<br />

from the others and which calls for corresponding<br />

modifications in treatment.<br />

Broadly speaking, heat treated steel products may<br />

be divided into two classes: a—Tools; b—Structural<br />

Parts. Under the first heading would come metal<br />

cutting tools for lathe, planer, drill-press and milling<br />

machine; files, punches, dies, hammers, axes, woodworking<br />

tools, cutlery, razors, needles, plows, spades,<br />

picks, rock-drills, saws, wrenches, etc. The second<br />

heading includes parts of engines, machines, auto­<br />

depending for success upon the intelligence and skill<br />

used by the heat treater in applying the principles of<br />

the science of physical metallurgy. Once the best<br />

methods for an individual case have been worked out.<br />

the process may be standardized and even made automatic<br />

in the treatment of large numbers of parts of<br />

the same kind, as is done, for example, in the automobile<br />

industry.<br />

The purpose of the present chapter is to discuss<br />

in a broad way, the application of the scientific principles<br />

which have been presented in the preceding<br />

chapters, and some of the precautions to be taken<br />

in the practice of the art, affording the student a foundation<br />

upon which to work out the specific problems<br />

which he may encounter.<br />

mobiles, aircraft, and locomotives; springs, frames. Fundamentals.<br />

axles, bodies, wheels, gears, steel cable and wire, guns, In getting down to the fundamentals of heat treat­<br />

rifles, armor, shells, propeller shafts for vessels, ment, it may clarify matters to consider three things:<br />

watch springs, magnets, ball and roller bearings, etc.<br />

Every reader could add many items to each list, and<br />

every item might be subdivided into various kinds.<br />

forms, and sizes, each requiring a treatment somewhat<br />

different from the rest.<br />

The types of treatment would vary all the way<br />

from the simple heating and air cooling given to<br />

large f<strong>org</strong>ings for moderately stressed parts, to the<br />

delicate treatment for watch springs or needles, the<br />

First—What are the purposes of heat treatment,—that<br />

is, what changes do we want t» bring<br />

about in the character or properties of the metal?<br />

Second—What are the effects of heat treatment<br />

in a metallurgical sense,—what internal changes<br />

can it produce?<br />

Third—By what processes are these effects<br />

achieved and the desired results accomplished?<br />

accurately controlled treatment for punch and die Suitable Steel Prime Essential.<br />

work and the double, triple or quadruple<br />

for case hardened alloy steel gears.<br />

treatment<br />

It is well to keep in mind that the steel treater<br />

is dependent upon the steel maker to furnish him<br />

with a product of the desired composition which is<br />

The author is Consulting Metallurgist, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

sound, and free from serious flaws, inclusions and<br />

Copyright, 1925, H. C. Knerr.


502<br />

segregation. Xo steel is perfect, but good steel must<br />

have been properly made from suitable raw- materials,<br />

properly poured, and properly hot worked.<br />

The steel treater cannot change the composition<br />

of the steel, (except to a quite limited extent through<br />

the surface) and he cannot remove mechanical defects<br />

or inclusions, or any but very minor segregations.<br />

Even the best and most skillful heat treatment<br />

will develop only those properties in a piece of steel,<br />

of which it is inherently capable, and no more. On the<br />

other hand, good steel badly treated may turn out<br />

much worse than a fair grade of steel well treated.<br />

Purposes of Heat Treatment.<br />

Although heat treatment includes a very broad and<br />

complex field of operations, its purposes I the things<br />

which it is desired to accomplish by heat-treatment)<br />

may be classified under a few headings, as follows:<br />

1—1 lomogenizing<br />

2—Hardening and strengthening<br />

3—Softening<br />

-1—Toughening (producing a combination of<br />

strength and ductility)<br />

5—Relieving internal stresses.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

October. 1025<br />

poses outlined above, are also comparatively few in<br />

number, and might be listed as follows:<br />

1—Diffusion, that is, bringing about a more<br />

uniform distribution of chemical components.<br />

(More effective with certain elements than others,<br />

and ineffective with some).<br />

2—Recrystallization (grain refinement), and<br />

grain growth or readjustment.<br />

3—Varying the state, form and distribution of<br />

the hardening substances present.<br />

4—Adding or removing carbon or other elements<br />

through the surface.<br />

Industrial processes of heat treatment simply bring<br />

about one or more of these effects, in order to accomplish<br />

the desired purposes of the treatment. This<br />

may be illustrated by a few examples:<br />

Homogenizing is accomplished by holding the<br />

piece (ingot, casting or f<strong>org</strong>ing) at a high temperature<br />

for a long time, in order to allow the<br />

carbon and some other elements which were unevenly<br />

distributed during solidification, to diffuse<br />

through the crystalline grains, and distribute themselves<br />

more uniformly through the solid mass.<br />

Hardening and strengthening is accomplished<br />

FIG. 122—Annealed sheet steel. C, .39; Mn, .52; P, .013; S, .02; Si, .04. All 100 x, ail etched 5 per cent picric acid (Dr G<br />

W. Kelley.) (a) (left)—Homogenized, by heating to 170D deg. F., holding for 24 hours and cooling in furnace Structure<br />

pearlite and ferrite. Moderately coarse, (b) (Center)—Homogenized as in (a), then fully annealed by reheating to<br />

1440 deg. F., holding y2 hour, and cooling in furnace. Note grain refinement. Slightly harder and stronger than (a)<br />

Pearlite and ferrite. (c) (Right)—Homogenized as in (a), then normalized, by reheating to 1440 deg F holding for<br />

y2 hour and cooling in air. More grain refinement and slightly greater hardness and strength than (b) ' Dark areas<br />

tending toward sorbite.<br />

Certain other purposes might be mentioned, such<br />

as coloring the surface (bluing, browning, etc.), but<br />

these are incidental, and aside from the point in the<br />

present discussion.<br />

Some heat treating operations accomplish two or<br />

more of these primary purposes, such as softening<br />

and stress relieving during tempering, or softening<br />

and homogenizing during annealing. Certain of these<br />

purposes are accomplished only after several operations,<br />

for example in case hardening, which first requires<br />

the absorption of carbon through the surface,<br />

then a double quenching and then tempering, in order<br />

that the case may be made hard and the interior tough.<br />

Effects of Heat Treatment.<br />

The effects, or internal (metallurgical) changes<br />

which can be brought about in steel by heat treatment,<br />

in order to accomplish the fundamental pur-<br />

by grain refinement and by taking the hardening<br />

substances, such as carbon or carbide, into solid<br />

solution and then causing them to be precipitated<br />

in fine particles, uniformly distributed, so that they<br />

exert the maximum interference with slip. In<br />

case-hardening, carbon is taken into solid solution<br />

through the surface.<br />

Softening is accomplished by producing grain<br />

growth, or readjustment of crystalline particles,<br />

and by causing the hardening constituents to<br />

arrange themselves so that they will exert less<br />

interference with slip. This includes annealing,<br />

spheroidizing, and tempering. Softening is also<br />

brought about by removing carbon through the<br />

surface, i. e., by decarburization.<br />

The softening of malleable iron includes a<br />

change in some or all of the carbon from the combined<br />

state as carbide, to the free state as graphite,


October, 1925<br />

redistribution into rounded particles, and removal<br />

through the surface.<br />

Toughening is a combination of certain hardening<br />

and softening effects.<br />

Relieving internal stresses is accomplished by<br />

heating to moderate temperatures, thereby permitting<br />

a readjustment of crystalline particles, which<br />

might be considered as a special form of grain<br />

growth.<br />

By keeping these four fundamental effects in mind,<br />

our conception of the numerous processes of heat<br />

treatment is greatly simplified. A clear understanding<br />

of the action which takes place at the critical points,<br />

and of the principles of hardening by slip interference,<br />

as explained in the preceeding chapters, is of course<br />

essential.<br />

Processes of Heat Treatment.<br />

The operations or processes by which the internal<br />

changes are brought about in steel, which in turn<br />

accomplish the various purposes of heat-treatment,<br />

may also be classified under a few broad headings.<br />

as follows:<br />

1—Annealing<br />

2—Hardening<br />

3—Tempering<br />

4—Carburizing (or case hardening).<br />

The distinction between these operations is not<br />

always very sharp. In fact it is very difficult to draw<br />

a line between some of them. Moreover, certain heat<br />

treating terms have come to have different meanings<br />

in different localities, and in different industries. This<br />

naturally leads to confusion. Progress has recentlybeen<br />

made by various scientific <strong>org</strong>anizations toward<br />

clearly defining the meaning of heat treating terms.<br />

However, the definitions of such terms as "annealing",<br />

"normalizing", "hardening", "tempering", and others.<br />

are still necessarily rather broad, because of the variety<br />

of operations which have long been spoken of<br />

under each of these heads, and because of the difficulty<br />

of clearly distinguishing between these operations in<br />

some cases. This difficulty will be evident from the<br />

descriptions of the processes which follow.<br />

PART 2—ANNEALING<br />

Annealing is generally understood to mean a softening<br />

process. Its purposes are various, and include :<br />

1—Softening to facilitate cold working, cold<br />

forming or cutting, etc.<br />

2—Removal of hardness due to cold working.<br />

3—Removal of stresses due to cold working, or<br />

of cooling stresses in castings, etc.<br />

4—Grain refinement (moderate) of castings<br />

and of hot worked metal.<br />

5—Homogenizing.<br />

6—Malleablizing cast iron.<br />

Annealing is accomplished by heating to the desired<br />

temperature, holding long enough to complete<br />

the desired changes, and cooling. The annealing temperature<br />

may be above or below the critical range.<br />

If above, cooling is slow, so as to avoid hardening<br />

effects. If below, cooling may be slow or rapid, according<br />

to circumstances or preference, since no hardening<br />

results from quenching below the At point.<br />

For grain refinement, the annealing temperature<br />

must, of course, be above the critical range, but only<br />

moderately above.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

For homogenizing, the temperature is usuallymuch<br />

above the critical range, because the diffusing<br />

action is more rapid at high temperatures. Homogenizing<br />

is, therefore, usually accompanied by grain<br />

growth. The grain may then lie refined, if necessary,<br />

by another form of treatment. (See Fig. 122 A and<br />

B.) The homogenizing process as applied to ingots in<br />

the soaking pit has already been discussed.<br />

Full Annealing.<br />

Heating above the critical range, followed by slow<br />

cooling, is termed "full annealing." The work is<br />

FIG. 123—Fully annealed tool steel. Carbon about 1.10 per<br />

cent. Lamellar pearlite and net-work of cementite. (500 x.)<br />

(A. H d'Arcambal.)<br />

FIG. 127—Spheroidized tool steel. Carbon about 1.10 per<br />

cent. Globules of cementite in ferrite. (500 x.) (A. H.<br />

d'Arcambal.)<br />

usually allowed to remain in the furnace during co<br />

ing, the source of heat being shut off or reduced, so<br />

as to insure gradual and uniform cooling. The resulting<br />

structure is ordinarily pearlitic, with free ferrite<br />

or free cementite if the steel is hypo- or hyper-eutectoid.<br />

(See Figs. 122B and 123.) This does not produce<br />

so great softness as the spheroidizing treatment.<br />

3&


364 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Heating to too high a temperature, or for too long a<br />

time, will coarsen the grain structure.<br />

Instead of allowing the piece to cool in the furnace,<br />

it is sometimes removed and covered with a<br />

heat insulating material such as powdered lime, infusorial<br />

earth, ashes or sand.<br />

Normalizing.<br />

A special form of annealing is "normalizing"<br />

This consists in heating to a temperature moderately<br />

above the critical range, holding long enough to insure<br />

complete saturation, but not to cause coarsening of<br />

FIG. 124—Section of steel rail, heated greatly above critical<br />

range and cooled in air. About .50 per cent C. Very<br />

coarse grain, but dark areas sorbitic. (125 x.) (Huester,<br />

in author's lab.)<br />

FIG. 125—Normalized 3y2 per cent nickel steel. About .40 per<br />

cent C. Small bar normalized, producing finely divided ferrite<br />

and sorbite. Partially hardened. (100 x.) (Huester,<br />

author's lab.)<br />

the grain, and cooling in still air. The result depends<br />

upon the composition of the steel and the dimensions<br />

of the piece. In a medium or low carbon steel piece.<br />

about one inch in diameter, or larger, normalizing<br />

will produce a structure of pearlite and ferrite, of<br />

< >ctober, 1925<br />

fairly fine grain, resembling Fig. 1121'.. If the piece is<br />

small or thin or if the carbon content is high the structure<br />

may be partly or entirely sorbitic as in Fig. 112C.<br />

Previous cooling strains and the effects of cold working<br />

will be removed. This treatment is inexpensive, and is<br />

used very extensively in the treatment of large f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

requiring moderate strength and good ductility,<br />

and where surface scaling is not objectionable. When<br />

normalizing produces a sorbitic structure it results<br />

in moderately hardening the piece, if it was previously<br />

in a pearlitic state. Fig. 124 shows the effect of overheating<br />

in normalizing.<br />

Many alloy steels would-be greatly hardened by<br />

normalizing, which would produce in them a sorbitic,<br />

troostitic or martensitic structure. Such steels are<br />

called "air hardening" steels. Fig. 125 shows a specimen<br />

partly hardened by normalizing. Some steels<br />

would even be' austenitic after normalizing, notably<br />

those very high in manganese or nickel.<br />

Spheroidizing.<br />

When severe forming or cold working operations<br />

are called for, as in low carbon steel sheets intended<br />

• w %<br />

'M&-<br />

.<br />

-' -•-•>.• i - ^ i m * ./y<br />

w?7S9K' • Ar|d "-'.•. " »*a. jl<br />

k r : ; ^ M<br />

FIG. 126—Spheroidized low carbon steel sheet. About .20 per<br />

cent C. First fully annealed, then reheated to about 1300<br />

deg. F., and cooled in air. Dark areas partially spheroidized<br />

pearlite. Soft and ductile. (500 x.)<br />

for deep drawing work, or in order to produce the<br />

easiest machining properties in high carbon steel, the<br />

spheroidizing treatment is customary. This consists<br />

in heating for a considerable time to a temperature<br />

just below the critical range (below Ax) to permit<br />

the cementite to gather into rounded globules of maximum<br />

size. In this condition the cementite has the<br />

least hardening effect in steel. (See Figs. 126 and<br />

127.) A somewhat similar effect is produced by heating<br />

to above the critical range, and cooling very slowly,<br />

as in a large furnace, so that some spheroidizing<br />

takes place while the steel is passing through the temperatures<br />

moderately below the critical range.<br />

Annealing After Cold Working.<br />

To remove the hardening effects of cold working,<br />

annealing is usually done at a temperature slightly<br />

below the critical range. This has a maximum softening<br />

effect, as it tends to spheroidize the cementite


October, 1925<br />

which may be present, and does not cause severe oxidation<br />

or scaling of the work. Oxidation is often<br />

entirely avoided by packing the work in retorts so<br />

as to exclude the air. This preserves the bright finish<br />

which was present after cold rolling.<br />

Castings.<br />

For iemoving cooling stresses from castings, or<br />

the like, annealing below the critical range would<br />

probably suffice. This, however, would not refine the<br />

grain, nor accomplish any homogenizing. Steel castings<br />

may therefore be heated somewhat above the<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

365<br />

A double treatment is often applied to castings.<br />

This consists in first homogenizing, at a • high temperature,<br />

allowing to cool below the critical range,<br />

and then reheating to slightly above the critical range<br />

and cooling in air, (normalizing) to produce grain<br />

refinement. (See Figs. 128 and 129.)<br />

American Iron and Steel Institute Program<br />

The twenty-eighth general meeting of the American<br />

Iron and Steel Institute will be held at the Hotel<br />

Commodore, New York City, on Friday, October<br />

23rd. There will be the usual sessions, morning and<br />

afternoon, at which Judge Gary will give his address<br />

and technical papers will be read. This will be followed<br />

by a banquet in the evening. The technical<br />

papers which will be read at the morning and afternoon<br />

sessions are as follows:<br />

Address of the President, Elbert H. Gary, Chairman,<br />

United States Steel Corporation, New York, N. Y.<br />

"Low Temperature Distillation of Coal," M. W Ditto,<br />

General Manager, Socony Burner Corporation<br />

(subsidiary of Standard Oil Company of New<br />

York), New York.<br />

"Silicon Steel," Dr. W E. Ruder, General Electric<br />

Company, Schenectady, N. Y.<br />

"Stainless Steel," D. G. Clark. Manager, Firth-Sterling<br />

Steel Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

"Higher Temperatures and Better Economy in Use<br />

of Liquid Fuels," Max Sklovsky, Chief Engineer,<br />

Deere & Company^.<br />

"Alloy Steels Up-to-Date," F E. Clark, Sales Engineer,<br />

National Alloy Steel Company7<br />

"Manufacture and LTse of Wrought Iron," A. G.<br />

Smith, Engineer of Tests, New York, N. Y.<br />

"Ely Process of Manufacturing W'rought Iron,"<br />

F. H. Dechant, William H. Dechant & Sons.<br />

"Rowe Process of Manufacturing- Wrought Iron,"<br />

James P Roe, Reading Iron Companv, Reading.<br />

Pa. -WH i<br />

"Aston Process of Manufacturing Wrought Iron,"<br />

James Aston, Chief Metallurgist, A. M. Byers<br />

Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

STATEMENT OF THE OWNERSHIP. MANAGEMENT, ETC., OF<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

[Required by the Act of Congress of August 24, 1912]<br />

Name of Publication: F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating, published monthly<br />

at Pittsburgh, Pa. [Report "f October, 1925.]<br />

FIG. 128—Steel casting, as cast. Carbon about .30 per cent.<br />

Very coarse. (100 x.) (H. J. Huester, in author's lab.)<br />

FIG. 129—Steel casting after homogenizing and normalizing.<br />

(100 x.) (H. J. Huester, in author's lab.)<br />

Publisher—The Andresen Co., Inc., 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Editor—D. L. Mathias, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Managing Editor—L. L. Carson, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Business Manager—L. L. Carson, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Names and Addresses of stockholders holding 1 per cent or more of total<br />

amount of stock:<br />

L. L. Carson, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

critical range, held for a fairly long period, to favor P. C. Andresen, 1014 House Bldg.. Pittsburgh. Pa.<br />

diffusion of any segregated elements, and then cooled C. J. Keller, 5840 Solway St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

at a moderate speed. When the original structure M. M. Zeder, 108 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

has been verv coarse, due to slow cooling in the mold, R. H. Thiess, 426 Byrne Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif.<br />

this refines "the structure and improves the physical Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders holding 1 per<br />

properties. It is therefore akin to a hardening treat­<br />

cent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities:<br />

ment, as well as having a homogenizing and stress<br />

None.<br />

relieving effect.<br />

L. L. CARSON, Business Manager.<br />

Sworn to (My and commission subscribed expires before March CHAS. me this 5, A. 23rd 1927.)<br />

SEIBERT. day of September, Notary Public. 1925.


3(/.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treatii^<br />

October, 1925<br />

F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g t h e S e l e c t i o n o f F u e l '<br />

The Ultimate Choice Should Be Based on Cost per Unit of Goods<br />

Manufactured, and the Various Secondary Advan­<br />

PROBaA.BLY no problem of equal practical importance<br />

to a manufacturer is more difficult to<br />

solve than the selection of the most suitable fuel<br />

and furnace and the prediction of the results obtainable.<br />

Yet, the industrial gas man is continually being<br />

called on to do ju^t that thing for it is his purpose to<br />

convince the manufacturer that gas is the fuel he<br />

should use. The basic principles of combustion are<br />

common to all fuels but the many differences in the<br />

details of their application dependent on manufacturing<br />

requirements render choice difficult, the more so.<br />

because there has always been a lack of experienced<br />

men who understand these fundamentals and can exercise<br />

judgment and discretion in making their decisions.<br />

The very complexity that a close study of fuels reveals<br />

is also the reason for their varied usefulness.<br />

For example, each different use requires certain special<br />

properties in the fuel so that it shall be suitable<br />

for the installation at hand. Gaseous fuels have the<br />

widest range of adaptability- without doubt, but their<br />

generally high cost has made adoption slow even<br />

where the local gas company has been progressive in<br />

furthering their use.<br />

However, it is most important to emphasize that<br />

bare fuel costs are not and should not be determining<br />

factors in influencing fuel selection. The ultimate<br />

choice should be based, first, on the cost per unit of<br />

goods manufactured, and second on the various secondary<br />

advantages of convenience and cleanliness to<br />

which it is often difficult to assign a direct value but<br />

which nevertheless are most important.<br />

In general it is the use to which a fuel is to be put<br />

that dictates the choice. But. in heating operations<br />

where more than one fuel can be used, due consideration<br />

should be given to all the factors just mentioned.<br />

Furthermore, it is to be noted that while natural fuels<br />

exist in great variety, it is both good engineering and<br />

in the interests of conservation of our natural resources<br />

to manufacture other fuels from them, thus<br />

besides securing two heating fuels, gas and coke, we<br />

save most valuable by-products. These facts indicate<br />

that the relative merits of the various fuels should be<br />

studied quite closely and the first step towards this<br />

end is a classification of fuels as shown in Fig. 2.<br />

Fuels, as indicated, can be solid, powdered, liquid.<br />

gaseous or delivered in the form of electrical energy<br />

directly available for use. The efficiency of their<br />

utilization on a Btu. basis is not a constant but varies<br />

with temperature of operation, design of furnace,<br />

actual operation conditions as well as other lesser factors.<br />

It is important in this connection to avoid the<br />

unfair but common practice of crediting a fuel for improvements<br />

resulting when a cheap, ttnsuited, inefficiently<br />

run furnace is replaced by an efficient, speciallydesigned<br />

apparatus expertly operated on another fuel.<br />

This procedure has frequently resulted in the selection<br />

•From a book prepared by tin. Industrial Gas Section of<br />

the American Gas Association.<br />

tages of Convenience and Cleanliness<br />

of very expensive fuels, particularly electricity, to<br />

perform heating operations more efficiently, comparing<br />

the results as found in practice and neglecting the<br />

fact that the same result could be accomplished with<br />

the cheaper fuel if the same care and thought were<br />

given to the design of its furnace as is given, for example,<br />

to electrical equipment. As one prominent furnace<br />

maker has aptly stated, "There is no one type of<br />

furnace or form of heat energy (combustible or electric)<br />

that has a monopoly on uniformity of heating or<br />

economy of operation."<br />

Even though, from the viewpoint of thermal efficiency,<br />

much depends on the furnace, yet one fuel<br />

can be inherently better than another because of its<br />

physical properties. Of all the fuels gas possesses the<br />

most advantages, some of which are reiterated below.<br />

1. Combustion is easily controlled, the atmosphere<br />

can be kept oxidizing, reducing or neutral, as desired.<br />

It is free from sulphur compounds (traces only,<br />

allowed by legal standards) rendering it very suitable<br />

for direct fired metallurgical operations.<br />

2. Flexibility of gas as a fuel is evident, turn of<br />

a valve and an unlimited supply of heat is available.<br />

In event of coal shortage, public utilities get priority<br />

orders.<br />

3. Temperature control can be affected through<br />

pyrometers or for low temperatures by direct acting<br />

thermostats.<br />

4. Gas requires no storage space. Coal yards<br />

occupy costly space; oil storage requires costly tanks<br />

and generally increases the fire risk.<br />

5. Gas burns clean, no smoke, no soot, no ashes.<br />

In the selection of fuels, not only the fuel but also<br />

the furnace merits special attention and study. Consider<br />

then some of the outstanding features of good<br />

furnace design so that an intelligent selection can be<br />

made from the great number of types available. The<br />

chief points to consider in good furnace design include<br />

the following:<br />

a. Wherever possible continuous furnaces with<br />

counter-current flow of heat and materials should be<br />

installed because these not only have the greatest<br />

capacity for a given space but also the best fuel economies.<br />

The choice is influenced by the size, shape and<br />

weight of materials being heated; by the quantity and<br />

rate of movement through the heating chamber.<br />

b. Automatic temperature control not only insures<br />

uniform results but will yield better operating<br />

efficiencies than are possible with manual control.<br />

c. Greater attention paid to the methods of utilizing<br />

the available heat will repay itself many times.<br />

Perfect combustion, good insulation, no leakage losses<br />

are all elements of great importance. In continuous<br />

ovens considerable heat is often carried away by the<br />

conveying mechanism.<br />

d. Structurally, the design of gas furnaces has not<br />

always been as satisfactory as could be desired. First<br />

cost is not so important in furnace design as permanency<br />

and freedom from repairs. Special attention


October, 1925<br />

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368 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

should be given to the refractory linings for high temperature<br />

work.<br />

e. Finally working conditions must be considered<br />

for these influence both choice of furnace and the results<br />

obtainable. The selection of a furnace resolves<br />

into a compromise. The better furnaces are high in<br />

first cost, repairs arc less frequent but mure expensive,<br />

floor space pccupied is large; on the other hand their<br />

operation is satisfactory and efficient, the quality of<br />

the product is good and better shop conditions prcbail.<br />

f. In all of the discussion of fuels and furnaces,<br />

the importance of skilled operatives must be carefullyconsidered.<br />

Given the best of equipment, the most<br />

efficient fuel, and as much automatic apparatus as<br />

hitman ingenuity has been able to devise, the human<br />

element must still be dealt with and its effect upon the<br />

nature of our product, an effect which, in many cases.<br />

is allowed to be most detrimental, merely because the<br />

shortsightedness and false economy of the management<br />

has prevented the employment of a man who<br />

knows his tools — the furnace and the fuel. It is a<br />

waste of money to install highly efficient furnaces<br />

equipped with pyrometers and heat salvage devices.<br />

all of which are obviously expensive, without providing<br />

adequate intelligent supervision, capable of observing<br />

and maintaining the quality of the product.<br />

Figs. 1 and 2 which summarize the more important<br />

factors governing the selection of fuels and furnaces<br />

are adapted from similar charts furnished through the<br />

courtesy of the W. S. Rockwell Companv of New<br />

York.<br />

Relative Thermal Efficiency.<br />

It is a well known fact that most industrial heating<br />

processes are carried on at fuel efficiencies far below<br />

the values obtainable and insisted upon in other operations<br />

of equal importance; particularly is this so, because,<br />

in this country at least, but little attention has<br />

been given to the advantages of heat saving devices.<br />

The solid fuels require considerable excess air for<br />

combustion, limiting the maximum possible efficiencies<br />

right from the start. The liquid fuels too, require<br />

excess air. although not as much as the solid ones.<br />

Only gas can be operated on the theoretical quantities<br />

required. If the flue products leave at a sufficiently<br />

low temperature, the heat in the flue products can<br />

be recovered, but with solid fuels stack temperatures<br />

must be maintained in order to secure the necessarydraft.<br />

Thus, even at low temperatures only comparatively<br />

low efficiencies are obtainable. At higher temperatures<br />

the effects become more and more marked<br />

because not only do the flue losses increase but also<br />

the radiation, leakage and other less important losses.<br />

So many factors influence the efficiency of a furnace,<br />

the total useful heat available and the temperatures<br />

attained, that the prediction of the results with<br />

accuracy is a very difficult problem especially- when<br />

dealing with recuperative systems.<br />

In the above discussion electricity as a heating<br />

medium has been omitted for which extravagantlyhigh<br />

efficiencies are often claimed. Efficiency is not<br />

a function of the fuel so much as of its method of<br />

utilization. Electricity, for example, can be used in<br />

heat treating furnaces at very high efficiencies if the<br />

furnace is perfectly insulated, the work continuous<br />

and of such a nature that the time consumed for each<br />

batch i^ comparatively long and if the doors and other<br />

October. 1925<br />

openings fit tightly. On the other hand not much<br />

better than 50 per cent of the results under the above<br />

conditions could be expected if the work is intermittent,<br />

if the doors must be opened frequently, thus<br />

producing the equivalent of an "excess air" loss in<br />

combustible fuels, if insulation is not perfect or if any<br />

detail of construction and operation has not been most<br />

carefully considered.<br />

And so with other heating methods whether coal.<br />

coke, oil or gas is the fuel. Operation and construction<br />

often count for more than the fuel. However,<br />

considering successively various major heating operations<br />

such as : baking at 450 deg. F.; heat treating at<br />

1,600 deg. F.; f<strong>org</strong>ing at 2,300 deg. F.; and metal melting<br />

at 2,800 deg. F.; it will be found that the maximum<br />

possible efficiencies obtainable with different fuels<br />

rapidly diverges. Therein lies a big advantage to a<br />

fuel whose cost on a Btu. content basis is as high as<br />

gas but whose usefulness increases the higher the<br />

operating temperature. Considering the advantages<br />

of recuperation in increasing flame temperatures and<br />

efficiency the opportunities that are still open for the<br />

further extension of gas as the ideal fuel can be realized.<br />

It has been noticed that the value of the fuels<br />

diverges as the temperature rises. The theoretical<br />

thermal efficiency of gas decreases slowly enough to<br />

offset the initial price advantage of coal or oil, particularly<br />

if in the future better equipment becomes<br />

available and heat saving devices arc adopted. The<br />

applications of electricity, too. are being extended very<br />

rapidly; and if the cost of electricity- decreases sufficiently,<br />

a point may be reached where the comparative<br />

cost even on a Btu. basis will not be unfavorable<br />

to electric heat. As a matter of fact for the highest<br />

temperatures such a comparison even at present prices<br />

may not be entirely unfavorable. However, here lies<br />

the opportunity of the progressive gas man to firmly<br />

establish gas as the industrial fuel, now—to induce<br />

manufacturers to heat by gas, not by selling them the<br />

cheapest equipment, but by selling the best and most<br />

efficient.<br />

Gas, as the agent for all industrial heating, is wait-<br />

;ng ready to be eageny used as fast as trained men ire<br />

available to solve the problems that still are hindering<br />

development. Every manufacturer wants for his<br />

shops modern, efficient methods, speeding up his production<br />

and relieving his workmen of as much drudgery<br />

as possible. For this no greater or better medium<br />

than gas is available.<br />

Cost Curves and Their Use.<br />

Determining what the cost of a particular operation<br />

would be, using some other fuel and at some other<br />

efficiency value is only a matter of elementary arithmetic,<br />

but for greater convenience Chart I has been<br />

plotted. This comparative fuel cost chart gives the<br />

cost of 100,000 effective Btu. derived from coal, oil.<br />

gas, or electricity for any efficiency value. Coal of<br />

12,500 Btu. per lb.; oil of 20,000 per lb.; gas of 550<br />

Btu. per cu. ft. and electricity with 3,412 Btu. per<br />

kwh., have been taken as a basis for these curves.<br />

The several curves for each fuel are designed to cover<br />

a wide range in price; coal from $5 to $20 per ton of<br />

2'°2o^S'; dl fr°m 5c t0 20c Per &all°n; gas from 50c<br />

to $2.00 per M. cu. ft.; electricity from lc to 10c per<br />

kwh. If the particular fuel costs in question fall between<br />

the plotted values it is an easy matter to interpolate,<br />

the curves being in direct arithmetical ratio to<br />

one another.


October, 1925 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

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369


370 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

October, 1925<br />

JOO The use of these curves can best be illustrated by<br />

an example:<br />

Example 1. What would be the relative cost of<br />

heating a f<strong>org</strong>e by gas, coal and electricity?<br />

40 60 SO 100<br />

c~mc/£//cr /a/per c£/yr<br />

FIG. 3.—Comparative Fuel Costs<br />

-c o Electricity 3,412 Btu. per kwh.<br />

Gas<br />

Coal<br />

Oil<br />

550 Btu. per cu ft.<br />

12,500 Btu. per lb.; short ton<br />

20,000 Btu. per lb. S.Gr. 0.8<br />

Gas efficiency 30%<br />

Coal efficiency 12%<br />

Electricity efficiency 65%<br />

From curves<br />

Gas would cost<br />

Coal would cost<br />

Electricity would cost<br />

Cost $1.25 per M.<br />

Cost $15.00 per ton<br />

Cost 2I/2C per kwh.<br />

$0.75 per 100,000 Btu.<br />

.50 per 100,000 Btu.<br />

1.13 per 100,000 Btu.<br />

It is necessary to establish approximate efficiencies<br />

for different industrial processes so that comparisons<br />

can be made. These curves are applicable to any fuel<br />

cost comparisons irrespective of the use of the fuel.<br />

In order to determine relative fuel costs and to find<br />

ways and means to convince the customer that gas is<br />

his best fuel it is often necessary to analyze his existing<br />

fuel efficiencies in order to find out where the<br />

greatest room for improvement exists. Each individual<br />

heating operation will be found different from<br />

the others, and as such, should be separately treated,<br />

rather than to apply the easy comparative fuel efficiencies<br />

so often given in the handbooks for selecting<br />

the right fuel. Consider, therefore, how to find the<br />

fuel efficiency of a given process.<br />

Output<br />

By overall efficiency is meant the ratio of<br />

Input<br />

which can be expressed as:<br />

(Lbs. of material heated) X (Temp, rise) X (Mean Sq. Heat)<br />

(Quant, of fuel needed to heat material) X (Btu. value of fuel)<br />

The efficiency on this basis gives no indication of<br />

how the difference between total and useful heat is<br />

lost. In fact the only item in that difference which<br />

can be determined with even a semblance of accuracyis<br />

the flue products loss. The loss from conduction<br />

and radiation is most difficult to determine. The<br />

amount of heat required to bring the furnace to temperature<br />

can only be roughly approximated.<br />

To calculate or predict what could be done with<br />

gas in an existing installation involves knowing the<br />

appliances which will be used. In a conversion, however,<br />

the following can be assumed:<br />

First, unless the insulation can be improved, which<br />

is often very vital, the radiation loss is likely to be<br />

the same as it was before conversion. The insulation,<br />

therefore, should be given careful consideration. The<br />

electrical people have developed the insulation of their<br />

equipment so far that one can conveniently lay their<br />

hands on the outside of furnaces in which the temperature<br />

is above 2,000 deg. F. Initial expense in this item<br />

soon will pay for itself.<br />

Second, the flue gas loss can be reduced to a minimum<br />

with gas by keeping a neutral atmosphere and<br />

approaching as near to perfect combustion as possible.<br />

To save the heat in the flue products at high temperature<br />

use ample size recuperators and cut down this<br />

loss as far as possible. Improvements in efficiency<br />

represent corresponding savings in fuel consumption<br />

and, therefore, reductions, in the cost of the process,<br />

provided, of course, that the cost of improving the<br />

efficiency is not greater than the savings effected.<br />

Third, automatic temperature controls yield better<br />

economy than manually operated furnaces. Pyrometers<br />

are not for laboratory use only. They are essential,<br />

practical parts of every installation.


October, 1925<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

D i r e c t P r o c e s s for M a n u f a c t u r e o f S t e e l<br />

Iron and Steel Produced Direct from Ore in One Single Process<br />

Are Superior to Either Open-Hearth or Bessemer<br />

T H E following paper describes a series of experiments<br />

in the direct smelting of ore by electric<br />

means, carried out at the Electro-Chemical Section<br />

of the Royal Technical High School at Stockholm<br />

during the years 1923-25. It may be mentioned that<br />

the Electro-Chemical Section of the above-mentioned<br />

establishment, the principal of which is Professor Wilhelm<br />

Palmer, is equipped with a special electro-metallurgical<br />

laboratory, open at a nominal cost to qualified<br />

inventors, so that they may elaborate their ideas to<br />

the benefit of the industry by carrying out experiments<br />

on a sufficiently large scale to be of practical and<br />

scientific value.<br />

The object of these trials was to ascertain whether<br />

malleable iron and steel can be extracted direct and<br />

continuously from iron ore, and at the same time to<br />

reduce the percentage of phosphorus and sulphur content<br />

in the ore and coal. An electric furnace was<br />

specially constructed for the purpose, working with a<br />

load of about 30 kilowatts.<br />

A few trials alone sufficed to establish that iron<br />

with carbon from 0.02 per cent and upwards could be<br />

produced without difficulty. In order to prove that<br />

this was not merely a chance result from a small number<br />

of smeltings, 65 such trial reductions were made<br />

in a furnace of the particular construction mentioned,<br />

the results of which fully bore out that the method<br />

pursued was on the right lines. The effects were so<br />

encouraging that, on the initiative of Mr. G. Cornelius<br />

and Mr. A. Hammarberg of Stockholm, it was decided<br />

to test the process thoroughly on a reasonably large<br />

industrial scale at the iron works at Hagfors, Sweden.<br />

An electric furnace with a load of 250 to 300 kilowatts<br />

was used, and up to the time of writing 114 tappings<br />

have been made.<br />

Analyses made at the chemical laboratory at Hagfors<br />

show the composition of the product to be:<br />

Carbon — from 0.02 per cent to 1.32 per cent.<br />

Phosphorus — from 0.003 per cent to 0.017 per cent.<br />

Sulphur — from 0.009 per cent to 0.077 per cent.<br />

*Paper presented at the September meeting of the (British)<br />

Iron and Steel Institute.<br />

tStockholm.<br />

No. of<br />

Tapping.<br />

19<br />

26<br />

27<br />

41<br />

42<br />

42-1<br />

56<br />

16<br />

60<br />

Yield<br />

Point.<br />

Kg./mm.;<br />

24.3<br />

22.2<br />

25.4<br />

31.8<br />

36.2<br />

45.8<br />

Products, According to Author's Claims<br />

Tensile<br />

Breaking<br />

Strength.<br />

Kg./mm.-<br />

32.4<br />

32.5<br />

35.3<br />

40.8<br />

45.8<br />

37.7<br />

45.8<br />

47.2<br />

89.8<br />

By HENNING FLODINf<br />

TENSILE TESTS<br />

Elongation*<br />

per<br />

Cent.<br />

34.0<br />

30.0<br />

28.5<br />

29.5<br />

12.0<br />

29.0<br />

25.0<br />

24.7<br />

8.5<br />

.371<br />

The following results of tests carried out by Mr. O.<br />

Caspersson, engineer, indicate the physical and mechanical<br />

properties of the iron and steel produced:<br />

It may here be observed that, during one of the<br />

furnace runs at Hagfors, the author was requested to<br />

vary the proportion of carbon in several successive<br />

tappings:<br />

Required.<br />

Per cent Carbon<br />

(1) 0.40<br />

(2) 0.20<br />

(3) 0.80<br />

Results.<br />

Per cent Carbon<br />

0.42<br />

0.23<br />

0.78<br />

Thus it was found that there was no difficulty<br />

whatever in producing iron and steel of any desired<br />

carbon percentage at successive tappings without interruption<br />

of the process, showing that the process can<br />

be controlled in the same manner and quite as easily<br />

as the discontinuous open-hearth process. The manganese<br />

and silicon contents are controlled in the same<br />

manner as in the open-hearth process. From the heat<br />

No. 3 containing 0.78 per cent carbon, an ingot was<br />

taken and rolled out at the Forsbacka Ironworks,<br />

Sweden, and the material was used for making chisels<br />

for pneumatic hammers, drills, and miners' sledges.<br />

mainly for the purpose of testing the material. The<br />

chisels have proved to be fully equal to those made<br />

of the firm's own Bessemer steel, and nearly as good<br />

as those made of special steel alloy for the cutting out<br />

of blanks of hard steel and chrome steel (1.40 per cent<br />

chromium. 1.10 per cent carbon). The drill penetrated<br />

0.4 metre into granite in a wet borehole without<br />

regrinding, and 0.6 metre into hard sandstone bored<br />

dry. Better results cannot be obtained with the best<br />

Bessemer steel. The sledges were even superior to<br />

those made of 1A Bessemer steel.<br />

The total radiation surface of the experimental furnace<br />

at Hagfors was 30 square metres, and when running<br />

empty the furnace took about 100 kilowatts. At<br />

a load of 300 kilowatts the furnace was therefore working<br />

with 200 effective kilowatts.<br />

A 3000-kilowatt furnace has a radiation surface 2.5<br />

times larger than the experimental furnace, or 70<br />

Reduction<br />

of<br />

Area.<br />

59<br />

64<br />

65<br />

63<br />

61<br />

73<br />

54<br />

43<br />

15<br />

*The elongation is measured on a gauge length of 10 times the diameter of the test-piece.<br />

Condition of Test-Piece<br />

As rolled.<br />

Turned from 25 mm. square, rolled bar.<br />

Turned from 28 mm. square, rolled bar.<br />

Turned from 12 mm. round, rolled bar.<br />

Wire, as rolled.<br />

Wire, as rolled and annealed.<br />

Turned from 28 mm. square, rolled bar.<br />

As rolled.<br />

Turned from 28 mm. square, rolled bar.


37. f<strong>org</strong>ing - S tampiw? - Heat Treating<br />

square metres, so that the heat loss would be 2.33 X<br />

100 = 233 kilowatts.<br />

In this furnace the effective load is therefore 3000<br />

— 233 = 2,767 kilowatts. The losses due to watercooling<br />

in the mould.-, in contact rings and refrigeration,<br />

etc., amount to 263 kilowatts, making the total<br />

loss 500 kilowatts.<br />

The loss on current at a load of 300 kilowatts in<br />

the experimental furnace was 33.3 per cent. In the<br />

3000-kilowatt furnace it was 16.65 per cent. The loss<br />

on transformers and lines is not included, as the<br />

measurements were taken close to the furnace. For<br />

this moderate expenditure of energy the price is not<br />

so important a factor as one would be induced to expect<br />

at the first glance.<br />

At a load of 300 kilowatts 1 ton of iron was produced<br />

in the experimental furnace, with an expenditure<br />

of 2700 kilowatt-hours. Deducting 100 kilowatthours<br />

for empty running, the production thus amounted<br />

to 111 kilogrammes per hour.<br />

The 3000-kilowatt furnace is to work with a net<br />

amount of 2500 kilowatts (3000 less 500 kilowatts<br />

loss). The production will therefore be:<br />

2500 kwh. X HI kg. per hour _ , ,QO ,<br />

The<br />

thus be<br />

388 per hour<br />

200 kwh.<br />

gross expenditure of energy in the furnace wil<br />

3000 = 2,162 kwh. per ton of iron.<br />

1.388<br />

The heat content of the waste gases amounts to<br />

between 2.700 and 2,900 calories.<br />

If in Scandinavia the cost of hydro-electric energyis<br />

put at 50 to 60 crowns (55 to 66 shillings) per kilowatt-year,<br />

it is evidently cheaper than steam-power.<br />

According to American statistics, the price of waterpower<br />

is $15 to ^25 per kilowatt-year, and the cost<br />

FIG. 1. Ingots produced by direct process.<br />

of power from large steam-power stations is $20 to<br />

$25 per year. These prices of course only hold good<br />

for a constant load by day and night. With regard<br />

to future power stations installed at a great cost to<br />

take a maximum load for some few hours per dayonly,<br />

the conditions are of course different.<br />

With respect to the method itself, it is unnecessary<br />

to point out that in this direct process the previous<br />

production of pig iron is dispensed with. The process<br />

works direct on a mixture of ore and coal in a single<br />

furnace, and the product is in the form of malleable<br />

October. 1025<br />

iron and steel capable of being teemed into chills or<br />

other moulds in the usual manner. The process, however,<br />

does not only work direct as "one single process,"<br />

but is continuous, interruptions occurring only at the<br />

moments of tapping, when the continuous feeding in<br />

of the mixture of ore and coal ceases, to recommence<br />

immediately after the tapping is complete. The operations<br />

must, of course, be carried out in such a manner<br />

that the furnace is fed with the mixture of coal and<br />

FIG. 2. Fracture of Ingot made by direct process.<br />

ore in quantities corresponding to the capacity of the<br />

amount of electric energy supplied for reduction and<br />

fusion.<br />

The reduction of the iron proceeds uninterruptedly<br />

and continuously. The metallic iron particles reduced<br />

from the ore may be compared to a line rain continual<br />

ly dropping through the slag bath to the bottom of<br />

the furnace, where the molten malleable iron constantly<br />

accumulates. Practically speaking, the iron is in a<br />

fit condition at any moment for tapping in varying<br />

quantities in proportion to the rate of reduction, and<br />

it is hardly- to be imagined that a higher degree of<br />

continuity can be reached in any process for the production<br />

of iron.<br />

The raw materials used at Hagfors in the experimental<br />

furnace are Swedish haematite ore, and both<br />

English pit coal and Swedish charcoal. Xo refinement<br />

in special furnaces is necessary- for the removal of<br />

phosphorus and sulphur to a sufficiently low point,<br />

the process being based on the principle that in the<br />

reaction the molecules are in contact, thus facilitating<br />

the transfer of the phosphorus and sulphur to the slag.<br />

A specially low-carbon material produced bv the "one<br />

single process" may perhaps meet certain requirements<br />

for electric and magnetic purposes, and the product<br />

is generally suitable for any purpose where an extremely<br />

low percentage of carbon in the iron is desired.<br />

After the thorough tests to which both the<br />

iron and steel materials produced at Hagfors have<br />

been subjected, the author is satisfied that their qualityis<br />

superior both to the open-hearth and the Bessemer<br />

products. While it is true that no scientific investigations<br />

have been made into the causes which makesuch<br />

results possible, we are justified in assuming that<br />

the superiority of the product of this electric process<br />

is due to the relative absence of gases and the small<br />

amount of slag. The process works constantly under<br />

exclusion of air. and with a slight over-pres'sure in<br />

the furnace.


October, 1925<br />

Improved Timken Bearing<br />

An improved type of Timken tapered roller bearing,<br />

differing from the well-known Timken bearing in<br />

major refinements, but retaining all essential elements,<br />

which have characterized Timken tapered design, is<br />

now in production.<br />

Nickel-molybdenum steel of special Timken formula<br />

has been adopted for all bearings. The inclusion<br />

of the alloys, nickel and molybdenum, produce a steel<br />

possessing properties of grain texture, toughness,<br />

hardening, heat treating and machining which reflect<br />

favorably in the life of anti-friction bearings.'<br />

Varied refinements in the bearing itself are noteworthy.<br />

The design of the roll has been changed so<br />

that the surface of the large end presents a right<br />

angle relation to the center line of the roll. The contact<br />

then between the large end of the roll and the<br />

rib of the cone is in two areas, the rib of the cone<br />

being slightly undercut. This two-area contact insures<br />

perfect axial alignment between the center line<br />

of the roll and the center line of the bearing at all<br />

times. Likewise there is always absolute line contact<br />

between-the surface of the roll and the surface of the<br />

cone, and between the surface of the roll and the surface<br />

of the cup.<br />

An added purpose served by the two area contact<br />

is self-alignment of rolls on cone in the cup without<br />

resorting to a cage fixture to retain the alignment.<br />

The primary purpose served by the cage is to retain<br />

the rolls, properly spaced about the cone, and to make<br />

the cone with its set of rollers a unit assembly. The<br />

skewing of the roll on the cone raceway is impossible,<br />

since the two areas on the end of the roll make generously<br />

separated points of contact with the shoulder<br />

or rib of the cone, as shown in the illustration.<br />

The Timken cage has been improved along with<br />

the cone and roller assembly. Previously, the cage<br />

was cold pressed into the shape of a cup, the bottom<br />

stamped out and the pockets for the rolls punched<br />

out, one at a time, by an automatic punch press. The<br />

result of this single stamping operation was positive<br />

uniformity of cage pockets, yet a progressive error in<br />

alignment, due to stretching of the metal, as the in-<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

373<br />

dexing fixture advanced the metal cage to the final<br />

perforation. To correct this microscopic error, a multiple<br />

perforating die was developed which perforates<br />

all roll pockets in the cage, by a single impact. To<br />

further safeguard against any possibility of error during<br />

this operation, due to distortion, an inwardly<br />

turned flange has been retained on the smaller side of<br />

the cage. To insure smoothness and a perfect fit of<br />

the rollers in the cage the lateral edges of the cage<br />

are swedged inward so that the contour of the sides<br />

ol the cage pocket conform to the contour of the roll.<br />

This operation is termed "winging." Dies similar to<br />

the multiple perforator are used, so that all cage<br />

pockets are winged simultaneously. The inwardlyturned<br />

flange and the result of the winging operation<br />

are shown in the illustration.<br />

With the advent of more quietly running parts in<br />

certain machine installations the Timken Company<br />

has kept pace by reducing the noise in the bearing to<br />

a very marked degree, by the self-aligning principle<br />

and the accurately perforated cage. These special installations<br />

require a very definite uniform standard<br />

of quietness. To accomplish this uniformity, speciallytested<br />

bearings are required. For this purpose an<br />

electrical sound testing machine was developed which<br />

measures the noise in a running bearing by means of<br />

an electric current. A sounding box connected to a<br />

telephone receiver, and a set of radio tubes, carry the<br />

amplified noise vibrations of a running bearings to a<br />

galvanometer connected to an arbitrarily indexed dial.<br />

Erratum<br />

Attention is called to a typographical error which<br />

occurred in the advertisement of the Roessler & Hasslacher<br />

Chemical Company, appearing in the September<br />

issue of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating. The<br />

price quoting "Cyanegg" (sodium of cyanide 96/98<br />

per cent with 51/52 per cent cyanogen content) at<br />

22 cents per pound, should have been 20 cents, f.o.b.<br />

Perth Amboy. N. J., or Xew York, or from local stock<br />

in Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Chicago., Los<br />

A


,74 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

Five Arm Stripper Piece<br />

It is not often that one comes across a f<strong>org</strong>ing as<br />

illustrated in Fig. 1, and in connection with the manufacture<br />

of such a component the lay mind would conjure<br />

up a vision of the malleable casting process.<br />

Upon noticing the span of the arms—14 in. diameter<br />

circle—the reader may be surprised to know that the<br />

specified weight of the whole of the stripper piece<br />

must be under five pounds. The weight of a finished<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing is usually a guide to the estimator as to the<br />

price to be charged, because it is principally by experience<br />

of work done on the basis of a fixed amount<br />

per pound of metal used, taking into account also the<br />

simplicity- or complexity of the f<strong>org</strong>ing operation, that<br />

the price can be correctly estimated. Some f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

come under and others over the average, and the component<br />

now under review certainly comes in the category<br />

of being well above the average. Four arms<br />

Fig. I<br />

Section on Line EE<br />

Looking From Direction of Arrow<br />

Section at Aft<br />

Fig5<br />

Showing the method of f<strong>org</strong>ing a five arm stripper piece.<br />

would have presented a much simpler problem, and<br />

the method of f<strong>org</strong>ing was not decided upon until<br />

several others had been tried.<br />

Fig. 4 gives an idea of the lightness of the arms,<br />

and the enlarged section at AA gives the shape. It<br />

will also be noticed that the ends of the arms are at<br />

right angles to the arms, which greatly increases the<br />

cost of f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Two pairs of dies are used. The first pair, Fig. 2,<br />

form the center of the f<strong>org</strong>ing only. The material<br />

specified is a good grade of iron, and this was a big<br />

factor in determining the method of f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

October. i9l5<br />

Pieces B and C, Fig. 3, (both of circular material)<br />

are bent to shape as shown, heated to a welding temperature<br />

and lightly welded together, after which<br />

they are returned to the fire. Piece D, Fig. 5, formed<br />

from the bar, is heated at the same time as B and C,<br />

after which all the pieces are placed in dies as illustrated<br />

in Fig. 2, and welded with several sharp blows<br />

under a steam hammer, which makes a good sound<br />

job and very little flash.<br />

The section of arm in die, Fig. 2, is of the same<br />

diameter as the material used, so that the center boss<br />

only is worked upon in this operation. Each arm is<br />

cut cold under the shear to a length gauge from the<br />

center, thus ensuring uniformity.<br />

The final f<strong>org</strong>ing dies are shown in Fig. 1. No tag<br />

way is necessary^ as the f<strong>org</strong>ing is laid in the dies<br />

direct. For heating, an enclosed type oil-fired furnace<br />

with sliding doors is used. When hot the end of each<br />

arm has to be flattened and set on one side with the<br />

same blow, this operation being necessary because<br />

the ends do not form at all well when f<strong>org</strong>ed in any<br />

other way. The stripper is then placed in dies and<br />

given a printing blow, returned to the furnace and<br />

brought to a good heat, finished off with three or<br />

four good blows, the flash being quickly removed and<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing set in dies. Special care has to be taken<br />

in handling the component after it has been printed<br />

in the dies because the slightest touch on the furnacesides<br />

would Nickel move in an High-Speed arm, and this Tool would Steel* have to be<br />

put An back attempt again is in usually its place made or the to f<strong>org</strong>ing avoid the scrapped. introduction<br />

of nickel into high-speed tool steels, although<br />

cobalt, which is chemically very similar to nickel, is<br />

generally considered a useful addition to such steels.<br />

This is just the reverse of the situation found in alloysteels<br />

for automotive use, for example, in which<br />

nickel plays a useful role, while cobalt is not used.<br />

Some high-speed tool steels contain small amounts<br />

of nickel coming from the melting stock used. It is<br />

increasingly difficult to secure melting stock free from<br />

nickel, because of the use of scrap in blast furnaces<br />

and in steel-making processes. With the prevalence<br />

of alley steel in present-day industrial uses, any lot of<br />

scrap is almost certain to contain some nickel steel.<br />

The performance in taking roughing cuts of highspeed<br />

tool steels made up in the laboratory, to which<br />

relatively large amounts of nickel were intentionally<br />

added was studied at the bureau. Three and a half<br />

per cent nickel in the low tungsten or high tungsten<br />

types of high-speed steel was found to have no injurious<br />

effect upon the life of the tool. With the normal<br />

carbon content, however, the machining qualities of<br />

the annealed steel were adversely affected, the steels<br />

being almost impossible to machine. Tools formed<br />

by grinding gave good performance.<br />

By i educing the carbon content from 0.7 to 0.5<br />

per cent the steel which contained 3.5 per cent of<br />

nickel could be machined and showed normal performance<br />

m toughing cuts. These experiments indicate<br />

that small amounts of nickel in a high-speed tool steel<br />

the carbon content of which is properly regulated<br />

should exert no deleterious effect.<br />

This work was a part of the study of the effect of<br />

nickel, cobalt, tantalum, and molybedenum in highePeed<br />

•From Technical t0Dl steel, News which Bulletin, will Bureau soon of be Standards.<br />

published in full.


October, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

D e f e c t i v e M a t e r i a l a n d<br />

*<br />

P r o c e s s e s<br />

The Main Object of This Paper Is to Commend the Use of Simple<br />

Means of Investigation for Defects Such as Pickling,<br />

W H E N steel was first melted, about 1740, and<br />

for one hundred years thereafter, the material<br />

available to purchasers was an iron-carbon alloy<br />

varying only in the amount of carbon it contained;<br />

and to an insignificant extent in other elements of its<br />

composition. In due time the steel makers realized<br />

that steel could be made harder or softer by varying<br />

the kind of material charged into the melting crucible.<br />

In those early days the raw material consisted exclusively<br />

of carburized bar iron, the resulting cast steel<br />

was harder or softer depending upon the extent to<br />

which the raw materials were carburized before melting.<br />

At a much later date more or less uncarburized<br />

iron and charcoal were charged together so that the<br />

carburization took place in the crucible during the<br />

melting operation.<br />

This practice appears to prove clearly that the<br />

different degrees of hardness of the melted steel was<br />

due to the different amounts of carbon it contained<br />

and this was actually the case. It is by no means<br />

certain that any considerable number of the active and<br />

successful steel makers realized that the correlated<br />

group of physical properties of the steel bore anydefinite<br />

relationship to the carbon content. This direct<br />

relationship did not appear and could not appear<br />

until chemical analysis became part of steel making<br />

routine, which did not occur until after 1860 or 1870.<br />

It would probably be misleading to suggest that<br />

the maker of crucible steel was seriously handicapped<br />

for want of a chemical laboratory. On the contrary,<br />

so long as he was making small ingots, he managed<br />

very well without a chemical laboratory. After the<br />

ingots were made, their ends were broken off to expose<br />

a fractured surface and the breaking or "topping"<br />

operation was continued until all trace of pipe material<br />

was removed. If the ingot contained blowholes,<br />

or showed signs of having been cast from a veryr high<br />

temperature, it was scrapped. This laborious "topping"<br />

operation secured what chemical analysis cannot<br />

ensure, viz., sound ingot material. It also enabled<br />

the observant craftsman to see fractures across the<br />

full section of the ingot and to deduce therefrom an<br />

impression of the general conditions under which the<br />

ingot had been cast; and most important of all to<br />

determine from the appearance of the fractured surface<br />

the degree of hardness of each ingot and the particular<br />

category into which it should be classified for<br />

making this or that kind of tool. As a good steel<br />

maker could distinguish from the appearance of fractured<br />

surfaces a variation in hardness corresponding<br />

to .02 or .03 per cent carbon it may be concluded that<br />

this means of observation was developed to an extraordinary<br />

extent. A description of how they distinguished<br />

the fine shades of difference between fractured<br />

surfaces has never appeared in print and prob­<br />

•Paper read before the Coventry (England) Engineering<br />

Society and reprinted from the Journal of the (British) Association<br />

of Drop F<strong>org</strong>ers and Stampers.<br />

Etching and Sulphur Printing<br />

By HARRY BREARLEY<br />

37':<br />

ably never will. The most eloquent of such observers<br />

would have difficulty in explaining verbally, even with<br />

the aid of illustrative examples, how it was done.<br />

This brief sketch of the technology of early steelmaking<br />

explains why in cases of failures or complaints<br />

relating to the use of steel, the steel maker was the<br />

judge and jury combined. It may also explain why it<br />

became the practice in the steel trade to shoot all<br />

complaints back to the steel maker and hold him responsible<br />

unless he could clear himself. It was undoubtedly<br />

an advantage to both parties in the early<br />

days to bring troubles directly to the notice of experienced<br />

men trained in the observation of minute<br />

differences, who were also in a position to remedy a<br />

FIG. 1—Crazy cracks in valve f<strong>org</strong>ings revealed by pickling.<br />

defect. So far as the available skill would reach,<br />

procedure was directed, instructive and generally produced<br />

the desired effect. The procedure was the best<br />

possible, within its limitations.<br />

In these later days consideration of defects in materials<br />

or processes is not so simple and the balance of<br />

capability is not so heavily weighted in favor of the<br />

steel makers. Conditions are more complex and questions<br />

arise of defective materials and processes in relation<br />

to structural steels—a class of materials which<br />

before the days of the pneumatic chipping hammer<br />

received scant attention and were rarely the subject<br />

of complaint.<br />

The changed conditions have been brought about<br />

by :<br />

1. The introduction of drop f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

2. The use of high tensile steels for structural<br />

purposes.<br />

3. The heat treatment of steel including casehardening.<br />

4. The use of parts made as light as possible<br />

for heavy loads applied continuously or occasionally.


.71, F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

These altered condition-, have caused defects in<br />

materials and processes to be a subject for constant<br />

supervision; and at times a source of contention not<br />

only between the maker and user of materials but<br />

also between the departments of the same firm engaged<br />

in carrying out a sequence of processes.<br />

The greater number of the questions in dispute<br />

might be settled by experience and common sense. It<br />

is becoming the custom, however, for steel makers to<br />

refer these questions to research laboratories, and<br />

the consumers seem to be moving in the same direc-<br />

Sulfrhur Print from lon


October, 1925<br />

of them opened out at this stage. It happens sometimes,<br />

as in this case, that the cracks are numerous<br />

and superficial. They may not be easily detected by<br />

examining the scaled bar. But they are easily visible<br />

after pickling whether they be single cracks originating<br />

from a sheared end or crazy cracks forming the<br />

dainty pattern seen in Fig. 1. Such defects as make<br />

material less reliable in service are usually hidden defects.<br />

They may even arise from precautions taken<br />

to avoid defects.<br />

It sometimes happens that the precautions intended<br />

to increase the reliability of an article actually decreases<br />

its reliability. A Brinell impression, ' a example,<br />

made on a hardened steel object in order to<br />

prove its fitness is always a potential defect. In rare<br />

cases the crack appears at once (Fig. 3), but in most<br />

cases it can be made to appear by pickling. During<br />

pickling the evolved hydrogen is absorbed bv the steel.<br />

FIG. 5—Cracks on roughly machined surface, (x 15.)<br />

This increases the brittleness of the steel and causes<br />

the stress in and about the Brinell impression to form<br />

radiating cracks as seen in Fig. 3.<br />

Similarly, stamp marks used for identification purposes<br />

may cause cracks. Whether the stamping is<br />

done "hot" or "cold" hardening stresses will reach an<br />

abnormal intensity about the lettering. There may<br />

finally be an obvious connection between the identification<br />

mark and the failure, or a connection apparently<br />

so remote that its existence is questionable.<br />

Whether the article has to be hardened or not the position<br />

of the stamped idenification mark and the design<br />

of the lettering used are worth consideration. Some<br />

letters are safer to use than others. As a matter<br />

of interest the alphabet and the numerals were impressed<br />

cold on strips of .9 per cent carbon steel. The<br />

impressions were made with a Brinell machine using<br />

a load of 5,000 kilos. The strips }4 >n- by V\ in- were<br />

then quenched in water from a uniform temperature<br />

of 760 deg. C. The cracks which originated are shown<br />

as unbroken lines in Fig. 4. The strips were then<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping- Heat Tjeating<br />

377<br />

pickled, and ihc cracks which formed arc shown in<br />

Fig .4.<br />

Articles are frequently machined in order to remove<br />

surface imperfections. The intention is excellent<br />

but the results are often disastrous. Very few surface<br />

imperfections are so deceptive as those concealed in a<br />

roughly machined surface. It seems so much a matter<br />

of course that after machining the surface should be<br />

free from defects. As a matter of fact, a roughlymachined<br />

surface is full of defects which lead to manyfailures.<br />

A rough-turned bar direct from the lathe is really<br />

a kind of threaded bolt; the depth and pitch of the<br />

thread being depended on the cut and feed used in<br />

the turning operation. A lathe tool, moreover, does<br />

FIG. 6—Bending tests showing effect of degree of<br />

rough machining.<br />

not cut in the sense that a razor or a surgeon's knife<br />

cuts. On examination the turnings are seen to consist<br />

of small pieces sheared one up against the other. The<br />

turnings can be crumbled under light pressure along<br />

the shear planes. It is proper, therefore, to regard a<br />

turned axle for example, as a surface from which<br />

greater or lesser pieces of steel have been sheared or<br />

torn away. If the skin of a rough-turned axle could<br />

lie peeled off, say to the depth of one millimetre, it<br />

would be brittle however tough the undistorted material<br />

itself might be.<br />

A-\long the groove left by a turning or shaping tool<br />

may be observed the periodic occurrence of small<br />

cracks or gaps lying at right angles to the direction


378 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Tieating<br />

in which the work has moved past the tool (in turning)<br />

or the tool has moved over the work (in shaping)<br />

as indicated in Fig. 5. These small gaps are caused<br />

by the edge of the tool pushing the layer of steel before<br />

it until such time as the steel can move no further<br />

without breaking. At the spot where the steel,<br />

distorted by the moving tool, thus breaks, one of the<br />

small gaps is formed. This accounts for the gaps being<br />

periodic; the size and spacing of them depends<br />

on the cut and feed. On a turned axle the gaps lie<br />

along the axle and across the direction in which the<br />

axle will be stressed in service; they may not, therefore,<br />

do much harm. It is easy, however, to see<br />

that the gaps in other objects may lie in a direction<br />

which under service conditions would facilitate the<br />

extension of the gap into a serious crack or a complete<br />

fracture.<br />

An example of the general effect of rough-machined<br />

surface is shown in Fig. 6, which represents bent<br />

test pieces made from the same bar but finished with<br />

different degrees of smoothness. The depth of groove,<br />

amount of distortion, and intensity of gaps on the<br />

surface decrease from right to left. When deflected<br />

under a hydraulic press the bars broke after bending<br />

through angles which vary according to the condition<br />

of the machined surface. These tests show the advisability<br />

of grinding the machined surfaces of highlystressed<br />

structural parts. The grinding allowance<br />

should be sufficient to remove not only the peaks of<br />

the grooves, but also to thoroughly bottom the gaps<br />

or tears and the distorted surface. Smoothly ground<br />

surfaces as compared with roughly ground surfaces<br />

are also important. Rough grinding on a coarsegrained<br />

wheel can produce considerable surface distortion<br />

and also other evil effects. In this respect<br />

rough grinding is hardly preferable to finished turning.<br />

Non-Destructive Test for Wire Rope<br />

A test which could be applied to steel hoisting rope<br />

to show whether it is in safe condition or not, and<br />

which would not require the cutting of a sample from<br />

the rope, would be of great value. Every industry<br />

and operation which depends on wire rope for hoisting<br />

and haulage purposes is anxious to learn of some<br />

method by which the condition of ropes can be determined<br />

in service.<br />

For some time the Bureau of Standards, Depart<br />

ment of Commerce, has been investigating the possibility<br />

of applying some form of magnetic test to<br />

wire rope to determine its condition, as it is known<br />

that breaks in the individual wires, worn places, etc.,<br />

as well as the stress of the rope, affect its magneticpermeability.<br />

The development of any practicable<br />

test is a difficult matter, because of the many variables<br />

which must be considered.<br />

In order to design intelligently apparatus for the<br />

non-destructive testing of wire rope it is necessarv<br />

to know the nature and magnitude of the effects involved.<br />

One of the causes of deterioration of rope is<br />

wear, and the Bureau has recently- completed an investigation<br />

of the effect of wear on the magnetic properties<br />

and tensile strength of steel wire such as is used<br />

in the manufacture of wire rope.<br />

The Bureau found that wear increases the magnetic<br />

permeability- for low magnetizing force, and decreases<br />

it for higher values; in other words, opposite<br />

October. 1925<br />

readings are secured, depending on the magnetizing<br />

force employed. A load on the wire produces a similar<br />

effect, though it is much less in magnitude, and is<br />

probably caused by a redistribution of the internal<br />

stress in the wire. This change in magnetic properties<br />

is accompanied by an increase in the tensile<br />

strength.<br />

The complete results of this investigation are given<br />

in Scientific Paper No. 510 of the Bureau of Standards,<br />

copies of which can be obtained from the Superintendent<br />

of Documents, Government Printing Office,<br />

Washington, D. C, at five cents each.<br />

Testing Automobile Steels by Sparks<br />

A novel method of inspecting automobile steels to<br />

determine quickly the chemical composition is the<br />

spark test, which, although by no means new, has<br />

only recently been adopted as a routine method of<br />

inspection in large scale production in the Buick<br />

plant, said J. C. Ross, general superintendent of the<br />

Buick Motor Company, in an address at the production<br />

meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers<br />

in Cleveland recently.<br />

The spark test depends on the fact that minute<br />

quantities of certain elements in steel alter the appearance<br />

of the sparks emitted when the material is<br />

ground on an abrasive wheel. It is performed with<br />

a small portable grinding machine that can be carried<br />

from place to place and plugged into a light-socket by<br />

a long cord. A binful of stock can be sparked on the<br />

ends of the bars without removing or handling the<br />

material.<br />

Carbon, the most important element in steel, excepting<br />

iron, has a very pronounced influence on the<br />

spark. In testing medium and low-carbon steels by<br />

this method, the carbon can be determined within<br />

2/100th or 3/100th per cent by using a suitable standard<br />

of known carbon content. Nickel in steel also<br />

gives a characteristic spark, as do chromium, tungsten<br />

and vanadium. One-half of 1 per cent of nickel<br />

can be readily detected, which allows easy differentiation<br />

to be made between standard steels.<br />

In sorting mixed stock, the spark test is of great<br />

help. Individual bars can be rapidly and cheaply<br />

"sparked" and placed in their proper' classifications.<br />

In the Buick plant, all piston-pin tubing stock is spark<br />

tested as a routine method of inspection. Stock for<br />

certain other parts, such as shackle bolts, is handled<br />

in the same way. It is essential that the cores of these<br />

parts, which are case hardened, should have a carbon<br />

content of not more than y4 of 1 per cent, for a higher<br />

carbon induces brittleness.<br />

Gas Need Not Fear Competition<br />

With gas appliance manufacturers engaged in intensive<br />

research to improve gas-fired installations in<br />

industrial plants, the future of the manufactured gas<br />

industry in the heating field is assured, says the United<br />

States Investor, an authority on public utility securities.<br />

This publication also says that, in any competition<br />

with electricity for heating, the gas interests have<br />

little, if anything, to fear.<br />

"Where proper attention has been given to the<br />

factors of design and efficiency, gas heating appliances<br />

have replaced electrical' appliances," the Investor<br />

says.


October, 1925<br />

"Except for minor applications and specialized<br />

processes where imbedded heat is necessary, gas will<br />

undoubtedly win out. This will be the first major<br />

victory of gas over electricity, and it will be the making<br />

of the gas industry.<br />

"With the growing scarcity and increasing price<br />

of coal and oil, gas becomes more readily salable.<br />

Not only that, but it represents a great saving in<br />

labor, because there is no handling charge, and it is<br />

more easily controlled. There is less wastage with<br />

gas, and this makes it much more desirable. Some<br />

recent installation figures find furnaces have produced<br />

a 7 per cent fuel saving.<br />

"The gas industry is now on the threshold of its<br />

greatest era of prosperity, because it is founded on<br />

business now in competition. As the possibilities from<br />

gas in industrial processes are understood more and<br />

more, manufacturers will enter the field with improved<br />

appliances.<br />

"The whole subject of industrial gas service opens<br />

up possibilities that one can only guess at now. Ten<br />

years from now it will be the biggest gas load. There<br />

is no way of stopping it. Even if the gas utilities<br />

were to lie down on the job, and they are not going<br />

to do that, the manufacturers of gas appliances are<br />

going to push forward. Wherever oil is now being<br />

used, gas can be used more economically with modern<br />

burners. Gas will replace oil in another 20 years."<br />

Standards for Graphic Presentation<br />

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers has<br />

requested the American Engineering Standards Committee<br />

to take up the subject of standardization of<br />

graphs, and the latter has authorized the appointment<br />

of a representative special committee to consider the<br />

questions of sponsorship and scope.<br />

Graphical presentation of statistical and quantitative<br />

data belonging to the most varied fields of human<br />

endeavor has made enormous progress, particularly<br />

during the last decade. Charts, diagrams or graphs<br />

put life into the dullest of statistics and make the<br />

facts "stick out" and tell their own story at a glance<br />

of the busy executive.<br />

Organization and process charts, "pie" and "bar"<br />

diagrams, curves showing the increase in sales or in<br />

population, relative costs, etc., have all their usefulness,<br />

and usually there is a best which should become<br />

the "standard" way of drawing each of them.<br />

New diagrams and graphs of all sorts appear almost<br />

daily in all kinds of periodicals, books, and miscellaneous<br />

publications. It seems very desirable to compare<br />

notes and to get the consensus of opinion of competent<br />

judges in order to lay down the basic ideas and<br />

safe rules to be followed by the ever increasing number<br />

of those who have to prepare charts.<br />

In 1914 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers<br />

<strong>org</strong>anized a joint committee to develop standards<br />

for graphic presentation. This committee was<br />

made up of representatives of four <strong>org</strong>anizations. It<br />

published its first and only report in 1917. This report<br />

was so favorably received that it has been reprinted<br />

several times. In 1921 the management division of<br />

the society took over the work, enlisting the co-operation<br />

of the Society of Industrial Engineers, the American<br />

Statistical Association, and the Taylor Society.<br />

These groups have decided that the work should be<br />

so broadened that national standardization on the subject<br />

could be brought about. Hence the request to the<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

379<br />

American Engineering Standards Committee, the<br />

national clearing house for industrial standardization,<br />

whose procedure insures that the desired consensus<br />

of opinion will be effectively reached for the benefit of<br />

all interested parties.<br />

Cast Iron Pipe<br />

For a century, pipes made of cast iron have been<br />

used more extensively than any other kind, in western<br />

Europe and America, for conveying and distributing<br />

water to communities. Pipes of this material, laid in<br />

trenches in the ground in 1665, still supply water to<br />

the fountains of Versailles. Philadelphia has cast iron<br />

pipes reported to have been in service for more than a<br />

hundred years. In many other communities also cast<br />

iron pipes have given good service for long periods.<br />

But like other objects of iron, pipes are the prey of<br />

corrosion.<br />

Though cast iron pipe rusts on the surface, seldom<br />

pitting or scaling off, yet corrosion reduces the capacity<br />

of pipes for carrying water, sometimes forming<br />

rough lumps of rust, called tubercles, inside the<br />

pipe. Not only do the tubercles reduce the bore of<br />

the pipe, but they also cut down the water-carrying<br />

capacity by their roughness, acting as a friction brake<br />

on the flowing water. Tuberculation proceeds rapidly<br />

at certain stages and under certain special conditions<br />

of water. Sometimes these tubercles so nearly fill<br />

small pipes after a number of years, that but little<br />

water gets through.<br />

Devices for scraping the rust from the insides of<br />

pipes have been mechanically' successful, but it has<br />

been a common experience that some of the pipes tuberculate<br />

again in shorter time than they did original^.<br />

It has long been known that cement, now so familiar<br />

in highway pavements, sidewalks, bridges, buildings,<br />

and water reservors, would inhibit tuberculation<br />

of iron embedded in it. Also, cement can be given<br />

a very smooth surface. Years ago, water pipes were<br />

made of thin sheet iron lined and covered with cement<br />

mortar. Pipes of this kind did good service for a<br />

period, but, owing to structural weaknesses, they have<br />

passed out of common use.<br />

The problem resolved itself into getting a thin,<br />

smooth, strong coating of cement on to the inside of<br />

cast iron pipes of all sizes, and making the coating<br />

stick so tenaciously that it would withstand the hard<br />

bumps of transportation and of laying in the trench.<br />

The coating must cover every spot of the interior of<br />

the pipe.<br />

Charleston, South Carolina, like many another<br />

city, due to the nature of the water, experienced for<br />

years a material reduction in the carrying capacity of<br />

its cast iron pipes. This loss was most readily observable<br />

in the 24-inch main, 12 miles long, from the<br />

pumping station to the center of the distribution system.<br />

It increased the coal bill for pumping, reduced<br />

the quantity and pressure of water in the city, and<br />

hastened the time when more money must be invested<br />

in pipes. The pumping main had been cleaned three<br />

times. Each time its capacity was restored substantially<br />

to that of a new pipe, but after each cleaning the<br />

loss increased rapidly. Following the last cleaning,<br />

80 per cent of the benefit had disappeared in thirty<br />

days. Pipe that would not tuberculate so badly was<br />

much needed. Consequently, in 1921, J. E. Gibson,


38'<br />

manager and engineer oi the Charleston Water Department,<br />

worked out with the Research Department<br />

of the American Cast Iron Pipe Company the possibility<br />

of using standard cast iron pipe lined with cement.<br />

The company built an experimental plant and undertook<br />

to make cement-lined cast iron pipe. At first,<br />

Rosendale, or "natural," cement was used, the coating<br />

being 3/16 inch thick in pipes 4 to 10 inches in diameter<br />

and y inch thick in 12-inch to 24-inch pipes.<br />

Xatural cement was preferred in the beginning because<br />

quicker setting and less subject to shrinkage<br />

and hair-like cracks. Each pipe (12 feet long) was<br />

stood on end with an iron cone, point up, at the bottom.<br />

Cement mortar in just the right condition was<br />

poured into the pipe around the cone. The cone was<br />

then drawn up out of the pipe, distributing the mortar<br />

into a thin, dense, smooth coating.<br />

During 1922 and 1923, the process was much improved.<br />

Portland cement was substituted for the<br />

weaker natural cement. The pipe, open at both ends,<br />

is now placed, with its axis horizontal, on revolving<br />

rollers. A rich mixture of cement of proper consistency<br />

is distributed over the interior surface of the<br />

pipe while it is being revolved, .\fter the cement is<br />

uniformly distributed, the pipe is rotated at a higher<br />

speed for about 25 seconds. These changes make possible<br />

a thinner, denser and more strongly adherent<br />

lining. Incidentally, it was discovered that the jarring<br />

vibration of the pipe as it was rapidly rotated drew<br />

some of the water in the mortar to its inner surface,<br />

thus making the inside of the pipe smooth.<br />

Apparently this engineering investigation has<br />

vielded an acceptable solution of an old waterworks<br />

problem, increasing the durability and service value of<br />

cast iron pipe, and, above all. preventing loss of capacity<br />

though tuberculation.<br />

Contributed by H. Y. Carson, Member, American Society of<br />

Civil Engineers. Research Engineer, American Cast Iron Pipe<br />

Company, Birmingham, Alabama.<br />

How Research Work Is Improving Cars<br />

The research department of the Society of Automotive<br />

Engineers has been promoting a test to determine<br />

the most economic fuel that would act well in<br />

present carbureters and engines and still permit the<br />

greatest yield of gasoline from a barrel of crude oil,<br />

said Harry L. Horning, president of the society, in an<br />

address before the Chicago section recently. That<br />

has now been determined, he said, and a number of<br />

by-products of the investigation are very valuable.<br />

"It has been learned from the research work that<br />

we have been trying to lubricate with mud. When oil<br />

from the cylinder walls is analyzed, it is found to be<br />

diluted by the products of combustion and partial combustion,<br />

wearings from the cylinder walls, carbon, and<br />

gasoline or kerosene. It is that dirty mixture that<br />

is used for lubricating the top piston ring. In the<br />

automobile shows we have seen oil cleaning devices<br />

for reducing dilution, which shows one of the results<br />

of research work. With the new system the oil stream<br />

is divided and one part is filtered while the rest is<br />

being used.<br />

"We shall see wide adoption in the next year or<br />

two of means for cleaning engine oil as it is being<br />

used," said Mr. Horning. "We have found that bydirect<br />

lubrication of the cylinder with clean oil we<br />

could cool the pistons to such an extent that a badly<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

October, 1925<br />

knocking engine ceased to knock. When some means<br />

of putting clean oil on th e bearing surfaces is adopted<br />

generallv it will not be uncommon for an engine to<br />

go 125,000, 150,000 or 175.000 miles without having a<br />

bearing adjusted.<br />

"Other engineers are dealing with the dilution<br />

problem by more thorough vaporization of the fuel<br />

mixture, and the hot-spot manifold or some modified<br />

tvpe of it is now almost universal. In one of the<br />

most significant designs the engineers have tried to<br />

give a very hot mixture at low engine loads and a<br />

much cooler mixture at full load, and the system has<br />

given remarkable acceleration on the road.<br />

"Great improvement has been made in the design<br />

of engines so far as relates to combustion. Engineers<br />

have attacked the problem through the carbureter, the<br />

manifold, the location of the spark plugs and by other<br />

means. A consistent serious effort has been made by<br />

designers to make the engine more efficient. I think<br />

you will see air cleaners widely adopted in the next<br />

year. A thoroughly good air cleaner can increase the<br />

life of an engine enormously.<br />

"Engineers are paying considerable attention to<br />

methods of attaching the engine to the chassis so that<br />

the chassis would not take up the vibrations of the<br />

engine. The society's research department is concluding<br />

an investigation of vibration at the Bureau of<br />

Standards. It is surprising to learn that a vertical<br />

vibration of l/1000th of an inch and a lateral vibration<br />

of l/500th of an inch can be verv disagreeable if<br />

repeated often enough."<br />

Listing Physical, Chemical and Metallurgical<br />

Laboratories<br />

The Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, is<br />

frequently requested to make tests of engineering materials<br />

for commercial <strong>org</strong>anizations and individuals.<br />

In accordance with law, the bureau makes manytests<br />

for other government departments. Due to the<br />

large amount of official work, it is the policy of the<br />

bureau not to make tests for private individuals if<br />

other laboratories can do the work.<br />

In order to direct persons to laboratories equipped<br />

for tests, the bureau is preparing a list of physical,<br />

chemical, and metallurgical laboratories.<br />

The bureau will be glad to send a questionnaire<br />

to anyone who can give information about laboratories.<br />

Write to the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C,<br />

for the "Questionnaire on Commercial Testing Laboratories."<br />

Detection of Aluminum in Non-Ferrous<br />

Materials*<br />

The bureau has completed the tests of a new method<br />

for the rapid detection of small amounts of aluminum<br />

in certain nonferrous materials, such as spelter,<br />

brass, bronze, and bearing metals. By this method<br />

js little as 0.005 per cent of aluminum can be detected<br />

in a 1-gram sample in less than 10 minutes, if the<br />

amounts of tin and lead do not exceed 10 and 25 per<br />

tent, respectively. In alloys containing higher percentages<br />

of these elements, the detection of such small<br />

amounts of aluminum is not as satisfactory, and a<br />

longer test that requires about 30 minutes gives better<br />

results.<br />

*From Technical News Bulletin, Bureau of Standards


October, 1925<br />

Rate of Heating Steel Important<br />

When heated rapidly steel of 1.4 per cent carbon reaches its<br />

critical point at 760 deg. C.<br />

This interdependance of time and temperature is<br />

not sufficiently appreciated by hardeners, but it is<br />

extremely important as an overheat of 30 deg. such<br />

as must so easily occur in practice, besides leading to<br />

a coursening of the grain with a consequent shorter<br />

life, also leads to greater liability to crack, and distort<br />

in quenching.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Bonding Strength of Fire Clays*<br />

Increasing interest is being shown by manufacturers,<br />

with a view to obtaining the best results in<br />

hardening, and a greater reduction in wastage.<br />

It is now almost common knowledge that the hardening<br />

of steel does not depend upon temperature<br />

alone, but is also governed by the rate of heating.<br />

Temperature<br />

r-<br />

1<br />

\<br />

o f<br />

f<br />

Recent laboratory- work, undertaken in co-operation<br />

with the Federal Specifications Board in preparing<br />

the proposed specification for fire clay, included<br />

the determination of those properties of a fire clay<br />

which might indicate its bonding power in refractory<br />

clay walls.<br />

Sixteen fire clays, representing the different types<br />

and grades now used commercially, were submitted<br />

for test in connection with this investigation. These<br />

fire clays were subjected to a bond test, the following<br />

o\,<br />

y,<br />

i<br />

/<br />

f1r o/Stee/ /&/6s.<br />

Corbon Cont ent /4%<br />

Pyrometer < ?tee/ | | 1<br />

h/itb/n Fur nac the e Temp ta ^rat ure 380<br />

*,<br />

V<br />

x'<br />

M"t)<br />

I'<br />

method being used : Three bricks were cemented together<br />

by first dipping them into the fire clay to be<br />

tested, which had been mixed with water to a creamyconsistency.<br />

An additional layer of the fire clay, wetted<br />

to a troweling consistency, was then spread over<br />

the faces to be cemented together, and good "rubbed<br />

joints" were finally made. These piers were then<br />

burned to 1,350 deg. C, held for one and one-half<br />

hours at this temperature, and allowed to cool with<br />

the kiln to room temperature. Each pier was removed<br />

from the kiln by gripping only the top brick. If the<br />

pier remained intact, the clay was considered to have<br />

successfully passed the test. All but one of the 16 fire<br />

clays submitted passed the test.<br />

In addition to this examination, each pier was<br />

Steel with carbon content of 1.4 per cent reaches its critical<br />

point at a temperature of 730 deg. C. when heated slowly.<br />

loaded transversely^, and the breaking strength determined.<br />

These values were found to vary from 3,580<br />

pounds to 80 pounds (direct load over 7-inch span).<br />

Careful examination of each pier after breaking<br />

This last factor is too often ignored with the result showed that in the case of those breaking at low values<br />

that although full file hardness is obtained, yet really large cracks were present in the fire clay, while those<br />

satisfactory "life" is not secured in the articles treated. that withstood a greater force were dense, homogene­<br />

It will be seen from the temperature curves that ous bonds, and broke with a sharp fracture from the<br />

when heated slowly the steel reaches its critical point face of the brick. In one pier the clay bond was even<br />

at a temperature of 730 deg. C. but if heated more stronger than the brick used, and this pier broke<br />

quickly the critical temperature is 760 deg. C as through the center of the middle brick. Since these<br />

shown by the magnetic indicator.<br />

data cover clays from all the important districts they<br />

Temperature<br />

have proved of great assistance in preparing specifications<br />

for fire clav.<br />

*From Technical News Bulletin, Bureau of Standards.<br />

New Building for General Electric<br />

381<br />

Plans for the immediate erection of a large warehouse<br />

and office building at Santa Fe Avenue and<br />

Fifty-second Street, Los A


3R2 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Automatic Cut-Off Saw<br />

A new automatic cut-off saw. developed by the<br />

Cochrane-Bly Company, Rochester. X. Y., and known<br />

as their No. 21-SA, is designed primarily- for cutting<br />

bars, tubes and extruded sections of non-ferrous<br />

metals, but can also be used for cutting wood, fiber.<br />

hard rubber, bakelite. etc., or by using as an abrasive<br />

disc it will cut magnet steel, hardened drill rod. tool<br />

bits, porcelains, etc.<br />

The machine illustrated has a pump and tube connections<br />

to the blade housing and will deliver a jet<br />

of oil or compound on each side of the blade and close<br />

up to the collars. Centrifugal force distributes the<br />

lubricant, thus cooling the entire blade and lubricating<br />

the teeth. A reservoir in the column holds a liberal<br />

supply of the desired liquid.<br />

The carriage has an adjustable travel of y2 in. to<br />

4y in. and a speed range varying from 1 to 30 strokes<br />

per minute with 18 changes. The carriage is also adjustable<br />

with relations to the vise so as to compen-<br />

F*£.<br />

fJmtt<br />

BBpPTJt^i<br />

^W<br />

'•""•Ml*,<br />

§§*L*v<br />

m<br />

r<br />

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M 0<br />

^<br />

W *jS<br />

•<br />

*<br />

Cochran-Bly Automatic Cut-Off Saw.<br />

sate for wear of blades and for varying position of<br />

work in the vise. The vise is operated automatically<br />

in time with the movement of the carriage and will<br />

accommodate work 4 in. in diameter. The movement<br />

of the vise jaw can be varied from nothing up to y2 in.<br />

The spindle runs in Timken roller bearings mounted<br />

in dust-proof cases.<br />

The machine has an automatic positive clutch<br />

which is engaged by means of the foot treadle. If<br />

treadle is released the machine will make one stroke<br />

and stop with blade in back position. If treadle is<br />

held or locked, machine runs continuously. The operating<br />

cams are susceptible of change to give speeds up<br />

to 120 strokes per minute and automatic feeds can<br />

be provided for special jobs. The machine arranged<br />

for belt drive weighs about 2,150 pounds net, and<br />

occupies Connersville floor space Blower of about Company. 48x50 Connersville, in.<br />

Ind.,<br />

has issued a bulletin. No. 23-A. describing the Connersville<br />

"Boston type" blowers in medium capacity<br />

for operating pressures of 3 to 10 lb. per sq. in.<br />

October, 1925<br />

i i i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiii luiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniii<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

inininiiiiiiiiniiiniiiii iiiiiiminiiiiniiiiiiiiii iniiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiililiin<br />

The Brown Instrument Company, Philadelphia,<br />

Pa., wishes to announce the opening of a Los Angeles<br />

branch at 363 New High Street, Los Angeles, Calif.,<br />

with Mr. S. F. Godfrey, late of the Braun Corporation,<br />

as District Manager. Articles of incorporation having<br />

been filed in California, this branch will carry<br />

stock and conduct its own accounting direct with its<br />

customers. Users of Brown pyrometers, recording<br />

thermometers, electric CO, meters, electric S02<br />

meters, pressure gauges, tachometers, draft gauges,<br />

etc., will appreciate this new branch office. A complete<br />

repair department is maintained and customers<br />

are assured of thorough Brown service in every way.<br />

* * *<br />

Following the purchase of the carbide business of<br />

the Gas Tank Recharging Company, of Milwaukee,<br />

Wisconsin, including acetylene plants in Milwaukee<br />

and Bettendorf, Iowa, and a carbide plant at Keokuk,<br />

Iowa, the aAt Reduction Sales Company has created<br />

a new district with office in Milwaukee at 1296 Forest<br />

Home Avenue, in which city an Airco oxygen plant<br />

has been in operation for some time. The new district<br />

is in charge of J. S. Strate, district manager. The<br />

new district territory comprises parts of Wisconsin.<br />

Michigan, Ilinois and Iowa within an average radius<br />

of about 100 miles.<br />

* * *<br />

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company is the name of<br />

a new concern that has applied for incorporation<br />

papers under the laws of the State of Delaware to engage<br />

in the development and manufacture of aeronautical<br />

engines. The company will occupy the part of<br />

the manufacturing facilities of the Pratt & Whitney<br />

Company, Hartford, Conn., that was formerly the<br />

Pope-Hartford Motor Plant, and will be jointly owned<br />

by the Pratt & Whitney Company, other important<br />

manufacturing interests and men experienced in the<br />

aeronautical industry. Fred B. Rentschler is president,<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e J. Mead, vice president, and E. L. M<strong>org</strong>an,<br />

secretary and treasurer. Mr. Mead will direct<br />

the engineering work of the new company, having had<br />

an extensive experience in this field. Hartford was determined<br />

upon for the location due to the favorable<br />

manufacturing conditions and its reputation for high<br />

grade mechanics with experience in precision work.<br />

* * *<br />

Dennison Alloy & Steel Casting Company, Dennison,<br />

Ohio, has purchased the patent rights and holdings<br />

of the Martin Tractor Shovel Company, Greensburg,<br />

Pa. The Dennison company has re-equipped its<br />

plant for the manufacture of the Martin tractor shovel,<br />

and will begin operation on that product within the<br />

next two months, with D. S. Jones as manager.<br />

* * *<br />

.Axme Brass Works, Holland, Mich., has installed<br />

a brass f<strong>org</strong>ing department, which will operate three<br />

hammers, the first of which, weighing 14,000 pounds<br />

is in operation. The company has a contract requiring<br />

delivery of 2,200 f<strong>org</strong>ings daily.<br />

larger Mich., Fenton plant Alman Machine to accommodate Westman, Tool * * president, & increased Die * Company, is production.<br />

completing Fenton, a


F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating 382A<br />

R O D M A N<br />

P R O D U C T S<br />

Sealright<br />

C a r b o<br />

Case Hardening Compounds<br />

Longer life and uniform quality.<br />

A luting material that does not corrode the<br />

containers. It prolongs their life indefinitely.<br />

Quenching Oil<br />

A faster oil with uniform quenching char­<br />

acteristics.<br />

R O D M A N CHEMICAL C O M P A N Y<br />

VERONA, PA.<br />

Detroit, 408 Manistique Street<br />

St. Louis, 2024 Railway Exchange Bldg.<br />

Pacific Coast Representatives:<br />

Waterhouse & Lester Company<br />

San Francisco and Portland<br />

New England Heat Treating Service Co., Inc.<br />

112 High Street, Hartford, Conn.<br />

Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating


39,3 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat "Beating<br />

Allmetals Foundries, Inc., 402'' West Kinzie Street,<br />

Chicago, recently <strong>org</strong>anized to manufacture brass.<br />

bronze and aluminum castings, has established its<br />

plant and is in full production<br />

* * *<br />

The Spencer Turbine Company, Hartford. Conn..<br />

has started work on a new plant addition which is to<br />

be a two-story brick building. 152 feet long and 43<br />

feet wide. The company manufactures turbo compressors,<br />

blower- and ventilation and cleaning systems.<br />

The new addition is but one step in a general plan<br />

For expansion.<br />

* * *<br />

I-.. W. Bliss Company has removed its Detroit office<br />

from the Dime Bank Building to the General Motors<br />

Building.<br />

* * *<br />

Contracts to design and build two continuous ingot<br />

heating furnaces for installation at the new seamless<br />

tube mill of the Youngstown Sheet & Tube<br />

Companv. at East Youngstown, Ohio, recently were<br />

placed with the Chapman-Stein Furnace Company.<br />

Mt. Vernon, < >. The furnaces will be of the recuperative<br />

type and will have a capacity- of 15 tons an hour.<br />

Coke oven gas probably will be used as fuel.<br />

* * *<br />

President A. L. Humphrey of the Westinghouse<br />

Air P.rake Company, which also owns the Union<br />

Switch & Signal Company, states that the companyhas<br />

entered into a contract with the Pennsylvania<br />

Railroad for installation of the Union's system of<br />

continuous induction automatic train control, involving<br />

the equipping of more than 700 locomotives and<br />

more than 1,000 miles of double track at an expenditure<br />

of between $6,000,000 and $7,000,000.<br />

* * *<br />

Hay State Collapsible Tube Company. Leominster,<br />

Mass., manufacturer of metallic tubing, recently <strong>org</strong>anized,<br />

will occupy a building formerly- used by the<br />

Modern Tool & Die Company, at Leominster.<br />

* * *<br />

The Chicago Nipple Manufacturing Company, 1966<br />

Southport Avenue, Chicago, has purchased the Cenco<br />

Manufacturing Company, 19 West Kinzie Street, Chicago,<br />

manufacturer of pressed steel floor and ceiling<br />

plates, perforated hanger bars and similar products<br />

Operations of the Cenco company will be transferred<br />

to the present plant of the purchaser, and a year hence<br />

the Chicago Nipple plant may be enlarged. C Erwin<br />

Norman is in charge of this branch.<br />

* * *<br />

A Finkl & Sons Company. 1326 Cortland Street.<br />

Chicago, 111., is having sketches made for a machine<br />

shop of brick and steel. 100x200 feet, and will probably<br />

build in 1926.<br />

* * *<br />

Michigan Crown Fender Company. Ypsilanti.<br />

Mich., has disposed of its plant and business to the<br />

United Stove Company.<br />

* * *<br />

The Sinko Tool & Manufacturing Company, doing<br />

a general stamping, tool and die business has<br />

moved "from Halsted and North Avenues, Chicago.<br />

into its new plant at 351-59 North Crawford Avenue,<br />

Chicago. 1. Sinko is president.<br />

October, 1925<br />

Cincinnati Enameling Company, Elmore and Miller<br />

Streets Cincinnati, has sold its plant and business to<br />

the Porcelain Enamel & Manufacturing Company,<br />

Baltimore, Md.<br />

* * *<br />

The Lindberg Steel Treating Company, which has<br />

been at 413 N. Carpenter Street, Chicago, has moved<br />

into its new quarters at 221-23 Union Park Boulevard.<br />

Chicago.<br />

Lindell F<strong>org</strong>e & Machine Company, Lansing.<br />

Mich., is building a machine shop addition for which<br />

the foundation has been completed.<br />

* * *<br />

Federal Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Lansing, Mich.,<br />

i- adding to its equipment to increase production, installing<br />

recently a press, electric ovens and other machinery.<br />

mi iiiiiiiii minimi miliii n iiiiiiiiiinmimm<br />

PERSONALS<br />

i mimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii<br />

Mr. S. Horace Disston, vice president in charge of<br />

sales, of Henry Disston & Sons, Inc.. Philadelphia.<br />

addressed the Purchasing AAgents Association of<br />

Pittsburgh at its regular meeting and dinner September<br />

15 and exhibited a three-reel motion picture showing<br />

how Disstons saws, tools and files are made.<br />

* * *<br />

lames B. Armstrong has been appointed district<br />

sales manager for the Lebanon Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company<br />

and the Lebanon Steel Foundry with offices at 303<br />

Fifth Avenue, New York City. Mr. Armstrong was<br />

for several vears connected with the Bethlehem Steel<br />

Company's 'New Yo'rk office, at first being in charge<br />

of the sale of drop f<strong>org</strong>ings and later handling pig<br />

iron sales. During the past year he represented<br />

Henry H. Adams & Company in the New York territory.<br />

* * *<br />

John McConnell, formerly vice president in charge<br />

of operations of the United Alloy Steel Corporation.<br />

Canton, Ohio, has joined the <strong>org</strong>anization of the Donner<br />

Steel Company, Inc., Buffalo, in a consulting and<br />

advisory capacity.<br />

* ,* *<br />

I esse L. Jones, in charge of the chemical and experimental<br />

laboratory of the Westinghouse Electric<br />

& Manufacturing Company, East Pittsburgh, Pa., has<br />

been named a director of the American Foundryrmen's<br />

Association and also appointed as chairman of the<br />

important grey iron casting committee.<br />

J, Harry Main, former supervisor of purchases for<br />

General Motors Corporation, has been appointed Detroit<br />

district representative of the General Drop F<strong>org</strong>e<br />

Company, Buffalo, with offices in Detroit.<br />

* * *<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e B. Troxell, research engineer for the Bethlehem<br />

Steel Company, Bethlehem, Pa., has just returned<br />

to the United States from an extended trip to<br />

Europe where he visited steel plants in France, England,<br />

Germany- and Belgium.<br />

* * *<br />

W. H. Fulweiler. chemical engineer of the United<br />

Gas Improvement Company, Philadelphia, Pa., has<br />

been elected president of the American Society for<br />

Testing Materials.


Heavy Duty<br />

End Mill<br />

rt;<br />

The Tomkir.s Johrmon Co.<br />

Angle<br />

Cutter<br />

Die-Sinking<br />

MILLING CUTTERS<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

T - J<br />

For Speed, Accuracy and Smoothness<br />

These Cutters are produced from high<br />

grade, special high speed steel, hardened and<br />

heat treated.<br />

Cutter for Keller<br />

Die Sinking<br />

Machine<br />

They are designed to give a sharp cutting edge that will<br />

give long service. We also make a three flute Cutter which<br />

9 eliminates almost any vibration of the Die Sinking machine,<br />

as there is always one flute in the cut.<br />

Careful selection of material, skilled workmanmanship<br />

and strict inspection insures the<br />

quality of these Cutters and guarantees<br />

their satisfaction. Investigate<br />

these better Cutters.<br />

They save you money<br />

Write for this illustrated<br />

catalogue containing<br />

Price List and<br />

Standards of the T-J<br />

Die - Sinking Milling<br />

Cutters.<br />

on every job.<br />

Roughing<br />

Cutter<br />

383-A<br />

End Mill<br />

T h e T o m k i n s - J o h n s o n C o m p a n y<br />

Sales Office 614 Free Press Bldg. Jackson, Michigan Detroit, Michigan<br />

Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating


.M F<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Edward Busch, who for several years has been connected<br />

with Tate Jones & Company, furnace manufacturers<br />

of Pittsburgh, Pa., has been appointed district<br />

manager of the Hevi-Duty Electric Company,<br />

Milwaukee. Wis., for the sale of electric furnaces and<br />

equipment in the ( >hio and Indiana territory, with<br />

offices at 879 Arcade Building. Cleveland. Ohio.<br />

* * *<br />

Herman I.. Barnes, Chicago, associated for several<br />

years with Whitman i\ Barnes and the Sexton Mfg.<br />

Company, has been made general manager of the<br />

American F<strong>org</strong>e (\ Machine Company, Canton, Ohio,<br />

and has assumed his duties there.<br />

* * *<br />

\\ II. Clark has been appointed general stiperintendent<br />

of the Lebanon Iron Company, Lebanon, Pa.,<br />

succeeding John C. Brown, resigned.<br />

* * *<br />

I). II. McAvov has been appointed manager of the<br />

research department of the Hyatt Roller Bearing<br />

Company, being succeeded as commercial manager by<br />

W. E. Jones. A. II. Beggs succeeds W. O. Nettleton.<br />

who has resigned as advertising manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Dr. R. W. Woodward has resigned as chief metallurgist<br />

of the Whitney Mfg. Company, Hartford,<br />

Conn., manufacturer of chains and hand milling machines<br />

to become associated with Stanley- P Rockwell<br />

Company, consulting metallurgical engineers of<br />

that city. The latter company is now placing on the<br />

market an instrument for use in precise heat treatment<br />

of steel, and Dr. Woodward will have charge of<br />

this department as well as being available for general<br />

consulting practice. Dr. Woodward was formerlychief<br />

of the section of mechanical metallurgy at the<br />

United States Bureau of Standards.<br />

* * *<br />

J. \Y. Griffiths, recently connected with the Bethlehem<br />

Steel Company- as superintendent of open<br />

hearths, has established himself as a consultant with<br />

companies experiencing difficulties in special steel<br />

manufacture. His address is 1306 Twelfth Street,<br />

X. W., Canton, Ohio. Mr. Griffiths has been in the<br />

steel industry for 25 years, formerly having been with<br />

the L'nited Alloy- Steel Corporation, Canton, Ohio,<br />

and the Central Steel Company, Massillon, Ohio.<br />

William C. Wetherill, widely known in engineering<br />

and industrial circles and formerly associated with<br />

the Link Belt Engineering Company, the Weatherill<br />

Finished Castings Company and the Keystone Screw<br />

Companv. has joined the staff of the Department of<br />

Commerce as director of investigations into the utilization<br />

of metals, the introduction of simplified practice<br />

and the elimination of waste in the metalworking<br />

industries.<br />

ijc ^c if:<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

Silas J. Llewellyn, a prominent figure in the iron<br />

and steel industry at Chicago, president of the Interstate<br />

Iron & Steel Company, died at his home in<br />

Evanston. 111.. September 3, after an illness of nearly<br />

six months.<br />

* * *<br />

Edward De Mille Campbell, professor at the University<br />

of Michigan and prominent in the activities of<br />

technical and engineering societies, died September<br />

19 at his home in Ann Arbor.<br />

October, 1925<br />

miimiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii uiiiihiiiiii mlihii i iiiiiiiiiiiuiniiiiiin iniiiiiiHiiiiiiiniiiiii iiiiiiimiiimiim;<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

>i:mu minimi mini! I " ' I lul ' " a<br />

Steel Hardening — A folder by the Stanley P.<br />

Rockwell Company, Hartford, Conn., describes the<br />

methods for determining the critical temperature of<br />

steel being given hardening treatment to insure<br />

quenching at the proper moment.<br />

* * *<br />

Electric Drawing Furnace - - Leeds & Northrup<br />

Companv, manufacturers of electrical measuring instruments,<br />

Philadelphia, has issued a booklet explaining<br />

correct methods of drawing steel to obtain best<br />

qualities and describes its electric furnace for this purpose<br />

and the method of using it.<br />

* * *.<br />

Pressure Indicator and Recorder — Republic Flow-<br />

Meters Company, Chicago, has issued a circular illustrating<br />

the use of its electrical level and pressure indicator<br />

and recorder. It is an application of the principle<br />

of the standard flow meter produced by this<br />

company and may be used to record pressures at a<br />

distance, to give better regulation.<br />

* * *<br />

Electric Welding—American Electric Fusion Corporation,<br />

2610 Diversey Avenue. Chicago, 111., has issued<br />

a publication entitled "A. E. F. Welding Illustrated,"<br />

containing an article on the principles of<br />

electric spot, butt, and seam welding.<br />

* * *<br />

Exhaust Fans — American Blower Company.<br />

Detroit, Mich., issued Bulletin No. 3506 illustrating and<br />

describing "ABC" steel plate exhaust fans, Type E.<br />

A very complete set of tables compiled from tests made<br />

in accordance with the provisions of the standard<br />

code for exhaust fans is included.<br />

Stainless Steel — American'Stainless Steel Company,<br />

Commonwealth Building, Pittsburgh, Pa., issued<br />

a publication entitled "Stainless In Industry,"<br />

devoted to the possibilities of stainless iron and steel,<br />

and pointing out the advantages of this material when<br />

a combination of mechanical strength, ductiliy and resistance<br />

to corrosion, tarnish effect at high temperatures,<br />

erosion, or abrasion is required.<br />

* * *<br />

Electric Welding — Lincoln Electric Company.<br />

Cleveland, Ohio, issued an instruction manual entitled<br />

"Lincoln 'Stable Arc' Wrelder." This book explains<br />

the methods used for the installation and maintenance<br />

of the Lincoln "Stable Arc" welding equipment in a<br />

series of nine lessons in arc welding, covering also the<br />

methods of procedure for standard operations. A<br />

preface is provided, directing how the manual may be<br />

studied to best advantage. This is followed by instructions<br />

for uncrating new equipment, locating it<br />

to best advantage, wiring, maintenance and general<br />

methods. Then follow the nine lessons pertaining to<br />

different phases of electric arc welding.<br />

* * *<br />

Welding — Theory- and practice of electric welding<br />

are treated in a bulletin by the American Electric<br />

Fusion Corporation, Chicago, which strips the subject<br />

of technical features, tells it simply and describes its<br />

apparatus for obtaining the desired results in the shop.


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£ =<br />

| Ixjrgmg-oicanping-IiGail.^^ |<br />

§ Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., NOVEMBER, 1925 No. 11 =<br />

T h e B a r r i e r t o P r o g r e s s<br />

MR. CHARLES M. SCHWAB recently remarked at a society meeting, "If<br />

you have come together for mutual protection and benefit, you have done<br />

a good day's work." When Charlie Schwab rises to speak he invariably has<br />

something to say, and that something born amidst the hard experiences which<br />

surround the steel worker and the steel executive.<br />

When Schwab was general superintendent of Homestead, the Armor<br />

Plate Department was the most mysterious and the most closely guarded<br />

spot in the works. Any of the ten thousand workers outside the Armor Plate<br />

were welcome anywhere in the huge plant, except in that department. Even<br />

the regular plant repair crews, electrical or mechanical, were denied admittance<br />

on breakdowns. Inside was guarded the most secret of secret processes.<br />

Twenty years later, when the doors were left open during the rush of war<br />

preparation, the Armor Plate was found to contain three large f<strong>org</strong>ing presses<br />

and two rows of heating furnaces.<br />

This instance is not an isolated case. Our industrial companies are filled<br />

with "secrets" which each holds sacred, or at least so considers. Most of<br />

these secrets are in the Armor Plate class, they are myths or they are obsolete,<br />

the treasured fallacies of single-track minds.<br />

Today Mr. Schwab will tell you he believes in openly discussing with<br />

everyone his processes and costs providing they are willing to reciprocate.<br />

That sounds like heresy, but it is practical co-operation, which after all must<br />

be the foundation stone of our continued industrial prosperity.<br />

inimiiiin iiiiiiiiiii 11 iiiiimi 11111 iiiiiiiii i mn iiiiiiiii mini iniiuin<br />

385


386 F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

H E A T T R E A T M E N T and M E T A L L O G R A P H Y of STEEL<br />

KNERR<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

CHAPTER VII—PART III<br />

HARDENING AND TEMPERING<br />

T l I E heat treating operation known as "hardening"<br />

may be described a^ heating slightly above the<br />

critical range, holding at this temperature until<br />

recystallization, solution and diffusion have taken<br />

place and then cooling rapidly enough to retain a<br />

martensitic, troostitic or sorbitic structure.<br />

The distinction between hardening and full annealing<br />

or normalizing, lies chiefly in the rate of cooling<br />

from above the critical range. If this is veryslow,<br />

as in full annealing, the result is a pearlitic<br />

structure of moderately large grain size, and nearly<br />

maximum softness. If cooling is more rapid, as in<br />

normalizing, a finer pearlitic structure, or a sorbitic<br />

structure will result, except in certain alloy steels,<br />

where troostite. martensite or even austenite may be<br />

retained. Here, there evidently will be a hardening<br />

effect, and it follows that no sharp line may be drawn<br />

between hardening and annealing where the definition<br />

of the latter includes normalizing. In the low anneals,<br />

in which the temperature is not carried above the A,<br />

point, no hardening can. of course, take place. Compare<br />

Figs. 122 A. B. C, 125 and 126.<br />

The microstructure, and consequentlv the degree<br />

of hardening brought about in a piece of steel, will<br />

depend upon its composition and the rate at which it<br />

is cooled through the critical range. As the speed of<br />

cooling increases, sorbite, troostite, martensite or even<br />

austenite will be produced, with corresponding physical<br />

properties. There may of course be a mixture<br />

of two or more of these constituents. The cooling<br />

speeds required to produce the high constituents will<br />

be less as the amount of carbon increases. Most alloying<br />

elements have a similar influence. The rate of<br />

cooling will depend upon the dimensions of the piece<br />

The author is Consulting Metallurgist. Philadelphia, Pa<br />

Copyright, 1925, H. C. Knerr.<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

and the medium or method by which it is cooled. This<br />

will be discussed further on.<br />

In hardening operations, it is usually desired to<br />

cool as rapidly as possible without subjecting the piece<br />

to excessive cooling stresses. Cooling is ordinarily<br />

done by "quenching" the piece in water, oil, or other<br />

liquid medium.<br />

Rapid cooling through the critical range causes<br />

maximum refinement of the ferrite grains (which may<br />

be submicroscopic in size) and maximum dispersion<br />

of the carbide particles, as explained in Chapter VI.<br />

Slower cooling permits the formation of larger ferrite<br />

grains and carbide particles. Maximum hardness is<br />

obtained by the formation of martensite, and less hardness<br />

but more ductility, by the formation of troostite<br />

or sorbite. The speed of cooling might be controlled<br />

so as to retain the desired one of these structures at<br />

room temperature, with its corresponding combination<br />

of hardness and ductility. Such control however,<br />

is seldom practicable, and even if it were, might not<br />

produce entirely satisfactory results. The rapid cooling<br />

of steel unavoidably sets up internal stresses in<br />

the mass, because of the unequal contraction of the<br />

outer and inner layers, or of unequal sections. These<br />

stresses have a weakening effect and may cause failure<br />

of the piece. They may be removed by reheating<br />

the piece to moderate temperatures.<br />

It is, therefore the usual practice to cool the piece<br />

rapidly, producing a greater hardness than is actually<br />

required, and then to re-heat to some temperature<br />

below the critical range. This is called tempering.<br />

Tempering.*<br />

1 he effects of tempering are to reduce or remove<br />

internal stresses, reduce hardness and increase<br />

*This operation has also been called "drawing" or "drawing<br />

back", but because of the many meanings of the word drawing,<br />

its use in this sense is hardly desirable, and is being abandoned.<br />

^Tempering" is much more definite. The use of the word<br />

'temper" in place of "harden," as is sometimes done, is misleading<br />

and incorrect.


November, 1925<br />

ductility. The extent of these effects will vary<br />

with the tempering temperature used, the duration o'f<br />

the heating and with the composition of the steel.<br />

Tempering permits a readjustment of the particles<br />

which have been strained in rapid cooling, and causes<br />

growth of the carbide particles and of the ferrite grains<br />

in which they are imbedded. Each of these effects<br />

requires time. The time for completion of the effect<br />

is longer, the lower the temperature. However, it is<br />

unwise to use a higher temperature than necessary<br />

in tempering steel, with the object of saving time.<br />

Internal Stresses.<br />

It has been mentioned (Chapter III) that very<br />

drastic quenching is necessary to retain an entirely<br />

FIG. 130—Fully annealed, then heated to 1500 deg. F. for 20<br />

minutes and quenched. Lightly etched to show boundaries<br />

of original austenite grains. Carbon .30 per cent (125 x.)<br />

FIG. 131—Same as Fig. 130, but heated to 1625 deg. F., before<br />

quenching, showing grain growth due to overheating.<br />

(125 x.)<br />

austenitic structure in carbon steel at room temperature,<br />

even when the carbon content is high. However,<br />

when steel of fairly high carbon content is quenched<br />

with the purpose of producing maximum hardness<br />

and a martensitic structure, some austenite may be,<br />

and often is, retained in a finely divided state, mixed<br />

with the martensite. This austenite is usually too finely<br />

divided to be recognized under the microscope.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping - Heat Treating 387<br />

Long standing at room temperature, or moderate heating,<br />

tends to transform it into martensite, and the<br />

transformation is, of course, accompanied by an increase<br />

in hardness and increase in volume (martensite<br />

being harder but less dense than austenite). Such<br />

expansion, if it occurs at room temperature, may set up<br />

internal stresses in the piece great enough to cause<br />

rupture<br />

According to Jeffries (13), freshly formed martensite<br />

may hold a considerable quantity of its carbon<br />

content in a state of atomic dispersion within the minute<br />

grains of alpha iron of which it is composed. Such<br />

martensite may be either that retained after quenching<br />

(making up the bulk of the piece), or that resulting<br />

from the transformation of the small quantity<br />

of austenite which was retained therewith, as just<br />

described. Since alpha iron (ferrite) has little solvent<br />

power for carbon, this condition is unstable, and the<br />

carbon tends to precipitate in the form of carbide<br />

particles. It will do so slowly, on standing at room<br />

temperature, or more rapidly if heated to moderate<br />

temperatures. The formation of carbide particles in<br />

FIG. 132—Fully annealed by heating to 1625 deg. F., holding<br />

30 minutes and cooling in furnace. Carbon .30 per cent<br />

Yield stress, 40,000 psi; Ult. stress, 70,000 psi; elongation,<br />

27 per cent; reduction area, 60 per cent; brinell hardness,<br />

150.<br />

(Figs. 132 to 135 inclusive, all 500 x. Specimens all from<br />

in dia. Quenched in oil with vigorous agitation.)<br />

this way in steel is accompanied by an increase in<br />

hardness, and by a decrease in volume. If this<br />

decrease in volume, or shrikage, occurs at room temperature,<br />

internal stresses may be set up, which exceed<br />

the strength of the metal, and therefore cause spontaneous<br />

cracking.<br />

In addition to stresses set up by unequal cooling,<br />

previously mentioned, there are therefore two effects<br />

which mayr cause internal stresses in freshly quenched<br />

steel, namely, expansion, due to the transformation<br />

of austenite into martensite, and contraction, due<br />

to the precipitation of carbide particles in martensite.<br />

If these two effects occur simultaneously, at the same<br />

or nearly the same location in the piece, they will


388 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

tend to neutralize each other. If, on the other hand,<br />

one of these effects occurs in the interior of the piece,<br />

while the other is occuring nearer the surface, they<br />

will evidently oppose each other, so that the stresses<br />

which result from them will add up, thereby increasing<br />

the likelihood of cracking.<br />

At elevated temperatures, such as are used in tempering,<br />

the steel is apparently able to adjust itself<br />

sufficiently to relieve these internal stresses so that<br />

cracking is avoided. High carbon steel parts should<br />

therefore be tempered immediately after quenching.<br />

FIG. 133a—Same as Fig. 132. then heated to 1375 deg. F. for<br />

20 minutes and quenched. Brinell 200.<br />

FIG. 133b — Same, tempered at 800 deg. F. Yield stress,<br />

46,000; ultimate stress, 92,000; elongation, 23 per cent; reduction<br />

of area, 55 per cent; brinell hardness, 155.<br />

Quenching Temperature.<br />

In order to obtain maximum hardening, it evidently<br />

is necessary to secure maximum refinement<br />

of the ferrite grains, and uniform distribution of the<br />

carbide particles, in a size in which they will exert<br />

the greatest interference with slip (that is, in a state<br />

of critical dispersion), as was explained in Chapter VI.<br />

Hypo-Eutectoid.<br />

In the case of a hypo-eutectoid steel, this will mean<br />

heating to a temperature slightly above A„ holding<br />

long enough to insure complete absorbtion and diffusion<br />

of the free ferrite, so that the austenite grains<br />

so formed will represent a uniform solid solution of<br />

carbon in gamma iron. In order to avoid excessive<br />

growth of the austenite grains, it will mean that the<br />

temperature must not be much above A3, and must<br />

not be held longer than necessary.<br />

Figs. 130 and 131 illustrate the effect of over-heating<br />

a hypo-eutectoid steel before quenching. The<br />

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FIG 134a—Quenched at 1425 deg. F. Brinell, 245.<br />

FIG. 134b—Same, tempered at 800 deg. F. Yield stress, 52,000;<br />

ultimate stress, 97,000; elongation, 28 per cent; reduction<br />

of area, 60 per cent; Brinell, 192.<br />

specimens were etched so as to bring out the traces<br />

of the original austenite grain boundaries. The actual<br />

microstructure is martensitic. When the structure<br />

above the critical range was coarse, the properties of<br />

the steel after quenching are impaired, even though<br />

its structure then is martensitic, troostitic or sorbitic,<br />

and too fine to be resolved under the microscope.<br />

The bad influence of coarse grained austenite is in-


November, 1925<br />

herited, so that the piece is likely to be brittle and<br />

have a lowered resistance to shock. This is true no<br />

matter what the carbon content of the steel, although<br />

the effect is probably most pronounced in high carbon<br />

steels. Overheating must therefore be avoided.<br />

Underheating, that is, not heating completely<br />

through the critical range, is equally unsatisfactory,<br />

for in this case, the hardening constituent, carbide,<br />

or carbon, is not uniformly distributed and therefore<br />

cannot exert maximum hardening effect. If a hypoeutectoid<br />

steel in heated above Aj but not tip to As, and<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

FIG. 135a—Quenched at 1500 deg. F. Brinell 390.<br />

FIG. 135b.—Same, tempered at 800 deg. F. Yield stress, 68,-<br />

000; ultimate stress, 113,000; elongation, 19 per cent; reduction<br />

of area, 60 per cent; brinell, 230.<br />

quenched, the areas which were originally pearlitic,<br />

together with that portion of the surrounding ferrite<br />

which was taken into solid solution to form austenite,<br />

will be hardened, but the remaining ferrite will be<br />

unaffected. This is illustrated in accompanying series of<br />

photomicrographs, showing a piece of .30 per cent carbon<br />

steel which was first annealed, Fig. 132, and specimens<br />

of which were then heated to various temperatures<br />

from the A1 point to the A3 point and quenched.<br />

389<br />

Fig. 133a, representing the specimen quenched just<br />

above A1( is particularly interesting. The light gray<br />

areas are martensitic. These areas replace the original<br />

pearlite grains, which were changed into austenite<br />

containing .90 per cent carbon, on heating through<br />

Av Bordering these martensitic areas are dark<br />

patches of troostite. These represent the austenite<br />

whose carbon content was lower than .90 per cent,<br />

which was formed by the absorbtion of some of the<br />

ferrite by the areas which were originally pearlitic (or<br />

by diffusion of carbon from those areas into the adjacent<br />

ferrite). The remaining, white, areas are ferrite,<br />

which was unchanged by the treatment. The specimen<br />

shown in Fig. 134a, was heated nearly to the A3 point.<br />

The dark areas are troostite, or a martensite of lower<br />

carbon content than .90 per cent, since the carbon from<br />

the pearlite areas had greater opportunity to diffuse.<br />

Unaffected ferrite areas are smaller than in Fig. 133a.<br />

Fig. 135a shows the structure produced by heating<br />

through the critical range, and in which no free ferrite<br />

is visible. Figs. 133b, 134b, and 135b, show the structure<br />

produced by tempering the same specimens at 800<br />

deg. F.<br />

Eutectoid.<br />

A eutectoid steel evidently must be heated slightly<br />

above the Aj 2 3 point, and held long enough to permit<br />

the completion of the change from pearlite into austenite,<br />

and uniform diffusion of the carbon. To avoid<br />

grain growth, the temperature must not be higher nor<br />

held longer than necessary. The speed of cooling<br />

will depend upon the results desired. If great hardness<br />

is called for, as in metal cutting tools, water<br />

quenching, to produce a martensitic structure, will<br />

be required. For many purposes the more moderate<br />

hardness and greater toughness of a troostitic or sorbitic<br />

structure will suffice, and the work may be cooled<br />

by quenching in a milder medium, such as oil.<br />

Hyper-Eutectoid.<br />

For hyper-eutectoid steels, the problem is a little<br />

less simple. The treatment depends to some extent<br />

upon the original condition of the steel. If the steel<br />

has been fully annealed, its structure will consist of<br />

grains of pearlite, surrounded by a network of free<br />

cementite. (See Fig. 123.) On heating through the<br />

A: „ 3 point, the pearlite grains will be transformed<br />

into fine grained austenite, just as in a eutectoid steel,<br />

but the free cementite will remain practically unaffected.<br />

Quenching in this condition would transform<br />

the austenitic areas into areas of martensite,<br />

troostite or sorbite, but these areas would still be<br />

surrounded by the original cementite net-work. Such<br />

steel would be hard, but the network of cementite<br />

would render it brittle. It would, in fact, be likely<br />

to crack in quenching.<br />

On the other hand, heating the piece to a temperature<br />

above the Acm point, so as to absorb all of the<br />

cementite, would cause coarsening of the austenite<br />

grains, and this steel, if quenched, would therefore<br />

also be brittle and inferior. A double treatment avoids<br />

both of these difficulties. The steel is first heated<br />

above Acm, held long enough to absorb and diffuse<br />

the excess cementite and then cooled at a moderate<br />

speed, as by air cooling, if the piece is small, or<br />

quenching in hot water or oil, if large, so as to avoid<br />

danger of cracking. This moderately rapid cooling<br />

prevents the cementite from gathering into large particles,<br />

or separating at the grain boundaries, and re-


390 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

tains it uniformly distributed through the mass in fine<br />

particles. The piece is then reheated slightly above<br />

A, 8 ,, held long enough to produce a fine grained<br />

austenite. but no longer, and quenched in the same<br />

manner as for a eutectoid steel. This will leave the<br />

excess cementite finely distributed, through the fine<br />

grained, hardened mass, giving the maximum hardness<br />

with a minimum of brittleness.<br />

FIG. 136—Hyper-eutectoid carbon tool steel spheroidized and<br />

then heated above A,, •, •., but below Acm, and quenched.<br />

Globules of undissolved carbide distributed through martensitic<br />

structure. (500 x.)<br />

FIG. 137—Tool steel, 1.10 per cent carbon, heated to 2100 deg.<br />

F. and quenched in water. Traces of large austenite grains<br />

visible. Structure martensite. Brittle. (150 x.) (A. W. F.<br />

Green.)<br />

High carbon steels, however, are seldom furnished<br />

to the user in the state which has just been described<br />

as fully annealed. Such steels are usually given a<br />

spheroidizing treatment, or low anneal, to produce<br />

the maximum softness and ease of machining. The<br />

cementite in them is therefore in the globular state.<br />

distributed fairly uniformly through the mass, and<br />

there is no network at the grain boundaries. (See<br />

Fig. 127). When this steel is heated through the<br />

November, 1925<br />

A, 2 3 point, its carbon, up to a maximum of .90 per<br />

cent, will go into solid solution. Any carbide in excess<br />

of the eutectoid composition will remain undissolved,<br />

unless the temperature is raised above the<br />

A, ., 3 point, and in order to completely take such<br />

excess carbide into solid solution, the temperature will<br />

have to be raised to the Acm point, exactly as in the<br />

case of the fully annealed steel with its carbide network.<br />

If the spheroidized steel is quenched from just<br />

above the A, 2 3 point, globules of carbide representing<br />

the carbon in excess of 0.90 per cent will be found<br />

distributed through the martensite, troostite or sorbite<br />

which was produced in quenching. See Fig. 136.<br />

Such carbide masses will not have the embrittling;<br />

effect of a network, and will contribute to the hardness<br />

of the piece, and its resistance to wear, but their hardening<br />

effect must be less than if they were in a finelydivided<br />

state, approaching that of critical dispersion.<br />

The double treatment is to be recommended therefore,<br />

for spheroidized as well as fully annealed hypereutectoid<br />

steel although it is of greatest importance in<br />

the latter.<br />

Fig. 137 shows the result of overheating a piece<br />

of 1.10 per cent carbon steel, traces of the verycoarse<br />

austenite grains being plainly visible in the<br />

martensitic structure. Quenching cracks frequently<br />

follow such boundaries.<br />

To Reduce Splitting on a Pressed Steel Draw<br />

Splitting occurs frequently when steel has to h<<br />

drawn into irregular shapes that include points when<br />

the stretch is severe and near an edge. Examination<br />

shows that these cracks will start at the outside edge<br />

and run inward. Closer examination reveals that th<br />

crack usually starts at a point where two die steels<br />

join in the blanking die, leaving a serration across the<br />

blank or where there was a nick in the punch or die.<br />

It has been found that where the trouble has occurred<br />

on a drawing operating on automobile siderails,<br />

the per cent of rejection was materially reduced<br />

by setting up a grinder on a vertical axis and by then<br />

running the blank edge at the point of draw longitudinally<br />

against the wheel while the blank was kept<br />

flat, or, in other words, at right angles to the direction<br />

of the draw. This removed the cross scratches.<br />

changing the markings on the edge to ones that ran<br />

lengthwise rather than across the edge. Apparently<br />

the point was gained by eliminating all markings and<br />

scratches that could act in either direction and location<br />

to start a split in the steel as it was stretched<br />

over the point of difficult draw.<br />

Makes Temperature Tests<br />

As a part of its investigations on metal roofing<br />

materials, the Bureau of Standards, Washington, recently<br />

completed some measurements on the roof of<br />

the National Museum in order to determine the relative<br />

values of air and roof temperatures on a hot day.<br />

The air temperature was found to be 86 deg. F. and<br />

the roof 131 deg. F. Installation of a recording<br />

pyrometer now is being planned to give a complete<br />

record over a period of time. Because changes in<br />

temperature cause expansion and contraction and<br />

must be considered in roofing design, it is pointed out<br />

that knowledge of these temperature relations is important.


November, 1925<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating<br />

A n n e a l i n g I r o n a n d S t e e l Electrically<br />

The Author of This Paper Covers Briefly the Aging, Normalizing<br />

and Annealing of Iron and Steel—Several Typical<br />

T H E ferrous metals — iron, steel and alloys of<br />

the latter — like most other metals, develop a<br />

degree of hardness when rolled, drawn, f<strong>org</strong>ed or<br />

cast. In addition to this quality, castings contain<br />

strains caused by uneven cooling in the mould and it<br />

is to relieve these strains and to impart softness to<br />

the metal that iron and steel are annealed.<br />

The annealing of iron and steel is accomplished by<br />

heating the metal to a temperature of from 1400 deg.<br />

F. to as high as 1900 deg. F., depending on the alloy,<br />

after which the material is slowly cooled down to<br />

normal temperature.<br />

The following table gives the approximate annealing<br />

temperatures for iron, carbon steel and some of<br />

the more common alloy steels:<br />

Metal Temperature, Deg. F.<br />

Iron castings 1200 to 1400<br />

Iron castings, aging 1000<br />

Carbon 'steel castings 1500 to 1650<br />

Carbon steel castings, normalizing 1600 to 1700<br />

Manganese steel castings 1750 to 1900<br />

Carbon steel f<strong>org</strong>ings 1500 to 1650<br />

Carbon steel cold rolled sheet, strip, wire 1300 to 1650<br />

Silicon steel sheet 1500<br />

Aging iron castings and normalizing steel castings<br />

have been included in the foregoing table because<br />

of the similarity of the process and the purpose<br />

of the latter. It has been mentioned above that iron<br />

castings contain strains due to the fact that the metal<br />

has not cooled at a uniform rate throughout when the<br />

castings were made. If no artificial method were employed,<br />

time would, to a large extent, take care of the<br />

matter, as the tendency is for the strains to equalize.<br />

and create a condition of equilibrium. But, if this<br />

method is depended on to correct conditions, the castings<br />

must be stored for a long period before machining;<br />

if machined first and allowed to age afterward, it<br />

would subsequently be found that, as the strains were<br />

relieved, a certain amount of warpage or distortion<br />

had occurred during the process. This distortion<br />

could readily make the casting useless and, if the latter<br />

were already in service, serious damage might result<br />

to the machine or structure of which the casting<br />

formed a part.<br />

This aging or relieving of strains can be accomplished<br />

in, relatively, a very short time by heating the<br />

casting to a temperature of about 1000 deg. F. and<br />

then cooling down slowly to normal temperature. Regarding<br />

the actual softening effect of this treatment,<br />

the metal is only partly annealed.<br />

Normalizing.<br />

Normalizing is the term applied to a process, the<br />

purpose of which is refinement of grain structure in<br />

steel castings, previous to heat treatment. The metal<br />

•Report prepared for the N. E. L. A.<br />

fManager, Industrial Heating Sales, General Electric Company,<br />

Schenectady, N. Y.<br />

Electric Furnace Installations Discussed<br />

By HAROLD FULWIDERf<br />

391<br />

is heated to a temperature of 1600 to 1700 deg. F.,<br />

which is well above the critical, and then cooled rapidly<br />

by quenching in air. This treatment refines the<br />

structure of the metal and alters the state of certain<br />

ingredients so that, with the subsequent quenching<br />

or hardening and drawing, maximum uniformiy of<br />

strength and temper is secured.<br />

Annealing.<br />

Iron and steel castings, when taken from the mould,<br />

due to the state of the carbon content, are more or<br />

less hard. If they are to be used in rough form, no<br />

treatment is required on this account, although the<br />

steel castings may be strengthened by heat treating,<br />

in which event they are first normalized as described<br />

FIG. 1—Electric heat treating furnace equipped with automatic<br />

temperature control. Dimensions of heating chamber<br />

15 ft. 10 in. wide, 27 ft. 7 in. long and 8 ft. 7 in. high.<br />

Maximum operating temperature 1000 deg. F., 620 kw., 550<br />

volt, 3 phase.<br />

above. All castings which are to be machined, however,<br />

must first be annealed or softened to improve<br />

their machinability. This requires heating to temperatures<br />

ranging from 1400 deg. F., for iron, to as high<br />

as 1900 deg. F., for manganese steel, after which the<br />

metal is slowly cooled to normal temperature.<br />

When steel is made into f<strong>org</strong>ings, cold rolled into<br />

sheets and strips or drawn into wire, the working<br />

of the metal imparts a certain amount of hardness<br />

which must be removed by annealing before subjecting<br />

the material to subsequent operations. Thus f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

must be softened for machining and sheets must<br />

be put in suitable condition for drawing and forming<br />

operations. Wire is annealed after each draw to reduce<br />

wear of dies and increase ductility of the metal.<br />

There is then a final anneal or heat treatment to make<br />

the wire suitable for commercial use. The temperatures<br />

required vary from about 1300 deg. F., for sheets<br />

and wire, to 1500 deg. F., for f<strong>org</strong>ings. This latter


392 r<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

temperature is also necessary for some of the alloy<br />

steels. such as silicon sheets used in the manufacture<br />

of motors, transformers, and other electrical apparatus.<br />

Heating Mediums.<br />

Until about four years ago, all commercial annealing<br />

was carried on in fuel-fired furnaces using coal,<br />

coke, oil or gas, and these methods are still in quite<br />

general use. In the past few years, however, there<br />

has developed in the metal work industries a recognition<br />

of the great importance of more accurate and<br />

uniform heat treatment of metals, including annealing.<br />

aging and normalizing.<br />

The tendency is now. where maximum quality and<br />

uniformity- of product are desired, to give consideration<br />

to the electric furnace for these operations. The<br />

actual cost of the electric energy used will, in most<br />

instances, be higher than the bare cost of fuel would<br />

be. but this is frequently justified by the results to be<br />

secured. In general, the electric furnace gives a better<br />

and more uniform product with less loss from<br />

scale, and quite often! savings are realized which<br />

result in a lower over-all cost of product.<br />

A properly designed electric furnace operates with<br />

a verv uniform distribution of heat and at no time is<br />

the temperature of the heat source much above the<br />

annealing temperature. This means that the metal is<br />

FIG. 2—Car type annealing furnace. Inside dimensions 5 ft.<br />

wide, 6 ft. 10 in. long by 4 ft. high. Connected load 120<br />

kw. Operating temperature 1600 deg. F.<br />

heated through to just the right degree and will have<br />

the uniform grain structure which characterizes a perfect<br />

anneal. There are no hard spots to slow down<br />

machining operations and castings are less likelv to<br />

break under strain and. as there is no overheating nor<br />

flow of air through the furnace, scaling will be reduced<br />

to a minimum.<br />

Temperature Control.<br />

The furnace temperature is controlled automatically<br />

and is maintained more closely and accurately<br />

than is possible with the average fuel-heated furnace,<br />

and this is accomplished with a minimum of attendant<br />

labor. Usually the annealing process may be<br />

carried out over night, thus permitting the use of<br />

off peak power purchased at minimum cost. Night<br />

operation does not necessarily require night labor or<br />

FIG. 3—Car bottom direct heat furnace for annealing steel<br />

castings. 1600 deg. F. Weight of charge 8 tons. Inside<br />

dimensions 6y2 ft. wide, 9 ft. deep, 3 ft. high.- Connected<br />

load 200 kw.<br />

attendance because the furnace may be charged late<br />

in the day, after which the power is turned on in the<br />

evening by a time switch which subsequently cuts off<br />

the furnace at the end of a pre-determined time period.<br />

The charge is removed in the morning when the men<br />

have returned to work. Often the same furnace is<br />

used during the day for other heat-treating operations.<br />

Where the work to be annealed must be kept free<br />

from scale, as is the case with punchings, it is necessary<br />

to pack the steel in annealing boxes before loading<br />

into the fuel-fired furnace. These boxes are closed<br />

with a cover to exclude the air and, if made of iron,<br />

they are of heavy construction to resist the oxidation<br />

which results from repeated use. Boxes made of heatresisting<br />

alloys have a longer life but cost much more.<br />

In either case, fuel is consumed in heating the boxes<br />

and( when it is realized that, not infrequently, the<br />

weight of boxes equals that of their contents, it is<br />

obvious to what extent these containers reduce the<br />

capacity of the furnace and increase the amount of<br />

fuel required for annealing.<br />

Characteristics of Electric Heating.<br />

The characteristics of the electric furnace permit a<br />

construction and method of loading which result in<br />

the furnace itself serving as the annealing box or container.<br />

Thus, the electric furnace eliminates the items<br />

of expense for containers, saves the cost of energy for<br />

heating the latter and gives greater productive capacity<br />

with less floor space.<br />

There are other advantages for the electric furnace<br />

which are important, if somewhat intangible. Improvement<br />

of shop conditions is now generally recognized<br />

as beneficial to both employer and employee.<br />

The latter is appreciative and does better work and<br />

more of it, if the surrounding temperature permits<br />

him to work in comfort and the air he breathes is free


November, 1925<br />

from injurious gases and dirt. If conditions are pleasant,<br />

labor turnover, one of the most serious items of<br />

expense today, is reduced to a minimum or virtually<br />

eliminated. Probably the electric furnace does more<br />

to bring about good shop conditions than any other<br />

modern appliance, and this should always be given<br />

due consideration in determining the type of furnace<br />

to be adopted for heat treating work.<br />

Summarizing, the electric furnace for annealing<br />

gives uniform high quality of product, minimizes labor<br />

of attendance, reduces losses, gives greater productive<br />

capacity without increase of labor, saves the cost of<br />

annealing boxes and energy for heating same, and<br />

contributes greatly to the reduction and elimination of<br />

labor turnover. And it should be noted that the trade<br />

is beginning to demand electricially annealed iron and<br />

steel products.<br />

The following is a brief description of a few typical<br />

installations where the electric furnace has been<br />

adopted on account of the advantages just enumerated<br />

:<br />

Aging Large Castings.<br />

A manufacturing plant, confronted with the problem<br />

of aging large iron castings weighing upward of<br />

50 tons and of considerable variation in section, found<br />

that, with a fuel-heated furnace of the size required<br />

for such work, it was impossible to maintain a sufficiently<br />

uniform temperature throughout the furnace<br />

chamber. Accordingly, an electrically heated furnace<br />

(Fig. 1) of the car-bottom type was installed, equipped<br />

with ribbon units or windings located on the side<br />

walls and in the bottom of the car. The unit windings<br />

are so distributed as to compensate for door and end<br />

loss of heat, and uniformity of temperature is secured<br />

with less than one-third the variation encountered in<br />

the fuel furnace.<br />

This furnace is 16 feet wide, 28 feet deep and<br />

8y2 feet high inside, and has a connected load of 620<br />

kilowatt. The castings are heated to a temperature<br />

of 1000 deg. F. The aging cycle requires, in this case,<br />

about 48 hours; the power is on for from 12 to 14<br />

hours heating the charge to temperature, after which<br />

the power is cut off and the castings are allowed to<br />

cool in the furnace for 36 hours when the charge is<br />

removed at a temperature possibly somewhat higher<br />

than 400 deg. F.<br />

An electric foundry producing both steel and brass<br />

castings from electric melting furnaces is also using<br />

the electric furnace for annealing its product. The<br />

installation (Fig. 2), consists of two car-bottom furnaces,<br />

each 5 feet wide, 7 feet deep and 4 feet High,<br />

with a 120 kilowatt connected load. The steel castings<br />

are annealed at 1600 deg. F. These furnaces<br />

were installed over two years ago, after inspecting<br />

various furnaces in other plants, and have been in<br />

continuous operation ever since with but minor repairs<br />

on the cars, doors and sand seal.<br />

Annealing Electrically.<br />

Another steel foundry has been using a car-bottom,<br />

electric furnace (Fig. 3), for about two years, annealing<br />

miscellaneous steel castings. This furnace is 6y2<br />

feet wide, 9 feet deep and 3 feet high, with 200 kilowatt<br />

connected load. The average charge is about<br />

eight tons annealed at 1600 deg. F. The illustration<br />

shows this furnace with a typical charge of castings<br />

of various shapes and sizes ready to be annealed.<br />

One large manufacturer is now using 14 electric<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

393<br />

furnaces, having a total connected load of about 2200<br />

kilowatt for annealing silicon steel sheets and punchings.<br />

These furnaces are of the elevator type (Fig. 4)<br />

in which a car bottom is used for loading. This form<br />

of furnace is supported several feet above the shop<br />

floor on structural steel columns and the car with its<br />

FIG. 4—Hydraulic elevator type electric furnace for annealing<br />

stator and rotor punchings. 200 kw., three phase, 500<br />

volts.<br />

charge is run under the furnace and then elevated<br />

means of a hydraulic hoist. Thus the charge is<br />

brought into the heating chamber and the bottom<br />

opening of the latter is closed by the car top with a<br />

sand seal. This type of furnace is more effective in<br />

excluding the air than the ordinary car-bottom type<br />

with the sliding door at the end.<br />

The use of heavy annealing boxes required formerly<br />

with the fuel furnaces has been entirely eliminated,<br />

the electric furnace itself serving as the container.<br />

There is saved the cost of annealing boxes as well as<br />

their maintenance and the cost of energy for heating<br />

such containers. The capacity of the furnace is greatly<br />

increased with a material saving in floor space, and<br />

working conditions in the shop are vastly improved.<br />

Everything considered, the cost of annealing has been<br />

reduced approximately 50 per cent.<br />

The work is now turned out free from scale and<br />

uniformly well annealed. One of the smallest of these<br />

furnaces is 7 feet long, 2 feet wide, and \y2 feet high,<br />

with 130 kilowatt connected load. Eleven heats of 3y><br />

tons each are secured per week with an economy of<br />

about 11 kilowatt hours per 100 pounds.<br />

Adds More Standards<br />

The American Society for Testing Materials. 1315<br />

Spruce Street. Philadelphia, Pa., has just issued a<br />

pamphlet which contains 36 revised or newlyr adopted<br />

standards of the Society. Some of the- specifications<br />

made are those on hard drawn trolley wire, seamless<br />

brass and muntz metal for condenser tubes and ferrule<br />

stock, etc.


394 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

D e f e c t i v e M a t e r i a l a n d P r o c e s s e s<br />

The Main Object of This Paper Is to Commend the Use of Simple<br />

Means of Investigation for Defects Such as Pickling,<br />

A GREAT number of defects come to light, in<br />

service or under test conditions when there is no<br />

suspicion of anything being wrong. It is possible<br />

to judge the surface condition of raw steel by inspection<br />

or ensure its goodness by machining. But the condition<br />

of its interior cannot be explored except byetching<br />

or sulphur printing, two forms of inspection<br />

which are not much used at present although many<br />

are aware of their value in isolated cases, of which the<br />

following is an example:<br />

The round billets supplied to tool makers are frequently<br />

pierced on a rotary piercer. During this operation<br />

the hot billet is rapidly revolved and fed forward<br />

over the end of a conical piercing point. The<br />

friction of the rotating discs or rolls on the outside<br />

of the billet, and the piercing point on its inside, tends<br />

FIG. 7—Longitudinal section of partly pierced tube showing<br />

effects of shearing action.<br />

to shear the hollow billet in the thickness of its walls.<br />

Actual shearing may take place as seen in Fig. 7,<br />

which represents the partly pierced billet cut longitudinally<br />

in order to release the piercing point. The<br />

production in this way of two tubes where only one<br />

was intended is not regarded favorably by the tube<br />

maker.<br />

The interest of this mishap lies in its unexpected<br />

cause, a sulphur print of the sectioned surfaces is shown<br />

in Fig. 8. Fig. 9 is a sulphur print of a section cut<br />

through the part where the inner and outer tubes<br />

were not separated.<br />

It is to be observed that the partly pierced billet<br />

has sheared along a surfac ewhich sharply divides it<br />

into low sulphur and high sulphur material. Drillings<br />

taken from the two parts had the following composition<br />

:<br />

•Paper read before the Coventry (England) Engineering<br />

Society and reprinted from the Journal of the (British) Association<br />

of Drop F<strong>org</strong>ers and Stampers.<br />

Etching and Sulphur Printing<br />

By HARRY BREARLEY<br />

PART II<br />

Outer Part<br />

Carbon 06%<br />

Silicon Trace<br />

Manganese 40%<br />

Sulphur 023%<br />

Phosphorous 017%<br />

Inner Part<br />

.14%<br />

Trace<br />

.46%<br />

.077%<br />

.034%<br />

FIG. 8—Sulphur print from section shown in Fig. 7. Note<br />

that shearing has taken place on a plane dividing high and<br />

low sulphur material.<br />

Reference is made to sulphur because its distribution<br />

can be detected by the particular method of printing<br />

adopted. The carbon and phosphorus also are<br />

segregated but none of these segregates are directly<br />

responsible for the defect. ()n the sulphur prints represented<br />

in Figs. 8 and 9 a number of dark spots are<br />

visible; these are especially noticeable in Fig. 9 along<br />

the line between the inner and outer pieces. These<br />

dark spots clearly indicate that the ingot from which<br />

the billet was made was a blown ingot. Its history<br />

was probably something like the following: The fluid<br />

steel cast from a fairly high temperature first chilled<br />

against the inside of the mould into an envelope of<br />

*r» ».."«; ay^f*"<br />

FIG. 9—Sulphur print on a section cut where inner and<br />

outer tubes were not separated.<br />

chill crystals. These chill crystals now form the<br />

outer tube of the defective specimen. After the chill<br />

crystals had completely formed, the fluid interior of<br />

the ingot began to liberate gases which kept the mass<br />

in continual movement until its freezing temperature


November, 1925<br />

was reached. This movement of the partly fluid ingot<br />

accounts for the fairly general distribution of sulphur<br />

in its interior. The dark spots represent blowholes<br />

entangled in the pasty steel and into these blowholes<br />

the very richest segregates would be squeezed as the<br />

adjacent solid crystals began to contract. These blowholes<br />

would ultimately be most abundant on or about<br />

the planes dividing the chill crystals from the interior<br />

metal.<br />

The explanation would no doubt be more convincing<br />

if a piece of the ingot from which the billet was<br />

prepared could have been examined. This was not<br />

possible, but Fig. 10 is a sulphur print taken from an<br />

ingot made as described. It is easy to see the likeness<br />

to the defective billet both as to outer chill crystals<br />

and especially as to the line of blowholes on the interior<br />

surface of the chill crystals.<br />

Three kinds of defects arise from grinding, viz.,<br />

hard patches, soft patches, and defective surfaces,<br />

which are not particularly hard or soft. An example<br />

of defective surfaces is to be found on most railway<br />

tires which have been heavily braked. Under the repeated<br />

heating and cooling caused by frictional resistance<br />

between the brake and the tire the tread develops<br />

numerous small cracks. It is difficult to de-<br />

FIG. 10—Sulphur print from blown ingot.<br />

termine whether the tread is alternatively hardened<br />

and softened or not. It becomes mechanically hardened<br />

of course, and that in itself accompanied by local<br />

flow in the steel as indicated in Fig. 11 may ultimately<br />

produce the shelling illustrated in Fig. 12, which is<br />

usually associated with deep seated cracks as seen in<br />

Fig. 13. Occasionally the brake may overlap the tire<br />

flange and if the braking is frequent and heavy the<br />

flange is sure to form transverse cracks, as seen in<br />

Fig. 14, which may penetrate some two or three millimeters<br />

into its surface. A high tensile steel tire can<br />

easily be fractured through one of the cracks.<br />

On grinding, a soft surface may be hardened, or a<br />

hard surface may be softened. Some flat spring steel<br />

bars in the rolled condition were being prepared for<br />

tensile testing when the milling machine broke down.<br />

They were finally shaped on a heavy grinding machine.<br />

On testing, every ground piece broke prematurely<br />

and on examination small cracks were apparent<br />

on each of the ground surfaces as indicated in<br />

Fig. 15. After polishing and etching it was clear<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

395<br />

that under severe grinding the extreme surface had<br />

become hot enough to harden under the conductive<br />

cooling effect of the mass of the spring bar. The thin<br />

layer of hardened steel on the ground edge of the<br />

bar may be clearly seen in the top part of Fig. 15,<br />

and the numerous small cracks are also visible.<br />

FIG. 11—Microphotograph showing flow on tread of<br />

locomotive tire.<br />

On the other hand the softening of the surface of<br />

hardened steel by grinding is not an uncommon occurence.<br />

Many parts are made that are hardened<br />

before grinding and great care must be exercised to<br />

prevent the appearance of defects in this operation.<br />

The fact that grinding sparks are visible, whatever<br />

amount of cooling water is used, is an indication that<br />

some part of the ground surface has been momentarilv<br />

heatecl. Each spark is a particle of incandescent metal<br />

FIG. 12—Shelling on tread of locomotive tire.<br />

or a small molten glouble of steel torn from the ma<br />

with force enough to raise its temperature far beyond<br />

visible redness. The furrow left on the torn surface<br />

has also been heated to some extent, though one can<br />

form only a rough estimate of the actual temperature<br />

attained.


396 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Soft places produced on grinding hard surfaces are<br />

easily disclosed by means of etching with an alcoholic<br />

solution of nitric acid.<br />

Distinct results can sometimes be produced by verydilute<br />

solutions of nitric acid in water. A solution of<br />

a few tenths per cent of nitric acid contained in a receptacle<br />

in which the bright object can be suspended<br />

for 10 minutes or more will often give clear evidence<br />

when stronger solutions acting more rapidly will be<br />

confusing-.<br />

FIG. 13—Deep-seated cracks on tread of "shelled" tire.<br />

The hardening of drop-f<strong>org</strong>ing die blocks offers<br />

many problems and brief reference to this subject<br />

might be of interest. The direction in which the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing grain lies and the general soundness and<br />

suitability of material for die blocks are now being<br />

taken care of by a recently drafted specification. But<br />

how hard should the hardened dies be made, and howdeep<br />

will the hardening effect penetrate? On examining<br />

a series of broken dies two kinds of defects<br />

recurred with great frequency. The hardened faces<br />

were too shallow and the dies had been insufficiently<br />

tempered before using.<br />

Fig. 16 is a contact print of a section through a<br />

circular block which had cracked badly in both radial<br />

and peripheral directions. The depth of hardness penetration<br />

is indicated byr the dotted line, but is otherwise<br />

made visibile by the diffused condition of the<br />

surface material. The layer of hardened steel is most<br />

shallow in the depression where the working stresses<br />

FIG. 14—Transverse cracks on flange of tire due to<br />

heavy braking.<br />

are greatest. On Brinelling a case-hardened object<br />

the hard surface is damaged because it cannot follow<br />

the distortion of the softer material underneath it without<br />

cracking. In the same way the hardened surface<br />

of a die block if too shallow, is readily distorted into<br />

a crack by temperature effects or it may be directly<br />

stressed into a crack by the hammer blows. It is<br />

obvious that the die block represented by Fig. 21<br />

November, 1925<br />

would be most likely to break at the bottom of the<br />

semi-circular impression because in that position the<br />

steel was only superficially hardened.<br />

Of a score hardened die blocks examined eight of<br />

them at least had probably gone into service either<br />

untempered or tempered only at low temperatures.<br />

This seemed apparent from the high Brinell hardness<br />

numbered (500 to 600) of the material on the working<br />

face but not in the actual impression. In the impres-<br />

,v£3 \*mmgm*4it**<br />

FIG. IS—Cracks in layer of hardened steel caused by<br />

rash grinding.<br />

sion itself the material was much softer and it was<br />

generally softest in the largest part of the impression.<br />

These observations suggest that the hardened and insufficiently<br />

tempered dies were further tempered in<br />

and about the impression byr the hot steel brought into<br />

contact with these parts. As no condition could be<br />

more favorable to cracking, the fact that each block is<br />

reported to have cracked after a very short life is not<br />

surprising.<br />

The impression in a hardened die must inevitably<br />

be tempered during the actual f<strong>org</strong>ing operation and<br />

the tempering effect will ultimately reach a maximum<br />

and proceed no further. If such tempering is inevita-<br />

FIG. 16—Macro print from cracked die block. Note shallow<br />

hardness penetration on working face indicated by dotted<br />

line.<br />

ble it would be better to temper the whole block to<br />

that extent under controlled conditions.<br />

A final reference is made to the burning of steel<br />

because makers of billets, bars, rods and tubes, as<br />

well as f<strong>org</strong>ers, burn material without knowing it, and<br />

are, therefore, prone to believe that such a mishap<br />

does not occur in their furnaces. It would help greatly<br />

if every person responsible for the hot working of<br />

(Concluded on page 411)


November, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treatic<br />

E f f e c t i n g E c o n o m i e s I n A F o r g e P l a n t<br />

The Author Cites Several Examples to Show How Production<br />

Costs Can Be Reduced—Experienced Foremen Should<br />

W H E N reading the various trade, business, and<br />

management journals, there are invariably to<br />

be found one or more articles pertaining to<br />

industrial efficiency, expounding the benefits, or relating<br />

the experiences to be gained from planned<br />

production, factory investigations, and cost control.<br />

These, together with the wide movement of classes<br />

to teach foremen broader business principles, would<br />

lead one to believe that but very little improvement,<br />

if any, could be made in most manufacturing plants.<br />

This view would be still more strongly held if one<br />

visited the plants, being careful not to observe too<br />

closely the manufacturing methods, or the activity of<br />

the workers, but merely confining the visit to interviewing<br />

the foreman about production methods, cost<br />

reduction, and other phases generally covered under<br />

the topic of industrial efficiency. From such conversations<br />

the conclusion will be drawn that with foremen<br />

so intelligently informed, nothing has been overlooked<br />

to obtain the highest possible production at a minimum<br />

cost. Upon turning the attention to the manufacturing<br />

processes we perceive idleness here and<br />

"soldiering" there. As for poor machinery and inefficient<br />

methods, the least said the better. The highly<br />

efficient plant takes on a different aspect.<br />

When one has a large acquaintance among men<br />

from various manufacturing plants, "shop talk" invariably<br />

occurs among the members of the various plants.<br />

Each boasts such high efficiency that the desire to<br />

visit these excellent plants is strong, but when one<br />

makes arrangements, and finally the visit is made, the<br />

high expectations are seldom realized.<br />

Such conditions are an example of the common<br />

saying: "It may be all right in theory, but it does<br />

not work out in practice." In this particular case it<br />

would be more correct to state "We believe in the<br />

theory of industrial efficiency, but not in the practice<br />

of it." Experience with such conditions has brought<br />

the writer to the conclusion that the reason why foreman<br />

believe in the theory of industrial efficiency is<br />

that they will gain favor with the main office eAxecutives.<br />

They assume the cloak of industrial efficiency<br />

to hide their real feelings and beliefs. In the main,<br />

their entire feelings and sympathies are for the worker.<br />

Very little cost reduction or improved methods of<br />

production increase originate with the department<br />

heads. By far the greater number of improvements<br />

originate outside of the department, and are put into<br />

operation against the approval of the department head.<br />

Some foremen resist changes so stubbornly that it<br />

becomes necessary to discharge them in order to initiate<br />

savings.<br />

The most serious fault of many foremen is the<br />

assumption that whatever production they can obtain<br />

is about all that can be expected. The days of slave<br />

driving have long since passed out of existance, but<br />

Be Placed in Charge of All Departments<br />

By JOSEPH HAAS*<br />

•Assistant Superintendent, Ontario Silver Company,<br />

Muncie, Ind.<br />

397<br />

the worker should honestly earn his pay by conscientious<br />

effort. Since workers have to remain in a plant<br />

nine hours a day, they should strive to do all they can,<br />

and not try to see how little they can get awayr with.<br />

It is the duty of the foreman to insist upon this, even<br />

at the cost of his help considering him "hard-nosed."<br />

We hear so much about "fair treatment of the employee"<br />

and that the foreman must obtain the co-operation<br />

of his men in order to run his department<br />

efficiently. But the writer has yet to find a group of<br />

workmen that will not take advantage of the foreman<br />

who is a "good-fellow" among his men. Experience<br />

has shown that a "hard-nosed" foreman who will fight<br />

as hard for his men when the management tries to<br />

impose upon them, as he will to make them produce<br />

for the profit of the company, receives more respect,<br />

and co-operation from them, although they may<br />

grumble among themselves about the foreman's expectations,<br />

when things come to a show-down.<br />

It is not the purpose to increase the theoretical<br />

literature on industrial efficiency, but merely to cite<br />

a few examples of opportunities that foremen allow to<br />

slip by them by not practicing the industrial efficiency<br />

theory that they claim they know all about when<br />

speaking with the big boss. The following instances<br />

relate to economies in a f<strong>org</strong>e department which was<br />

a part of a medium size manufacturing plant:<br />

The foreman of the f<strong>org</strong>e department was a tall,<br />

heavily built, loud-voiced man, with whom no one<br />

could get along. He had come to this factory to work<br />

in the tool room from an automobile plant, where he<br />

had been employed as a time-study man and rate setter.<br />

So he wras well informed in modern industrial<br />

efficiency. At least, he gave this impression, and the<br />

management believed they had a "find." In the role<br />

of a tool maker he had made f<strong>org</strong>ing dies, worked<br />

upon f<strong>org</strong>e room repairs and had become well acquainted<br />

with the department. It had tiecome necessary<br />

to make a change in the f<strong>org</strong>e department, and<br />

as this man seemed to have potential possibilities,<br />

he was placed in charge. Almost immediately his head<br />

became too large for his shoulders, and his importance<br />

too great for the good of the business. However, he<br />

was allowed to continue mainly because the entire<br />

plant had undergone a re<strong>org</strong>anization, and he was<br />

an improvement over his predecessor. Furthermore,<br />

there was a great amount of work to be done in other<br />

departments. When at last attention was turned upon<br />

his department, it became evident that he was the<br />

stumbling block to progress. Various small improvements<br />

that he would not block were put into effect<br />

while those that would effect substantial savings failed.<br />

Patience was finally exhausted, and he was let out.<br />

The new foreman hired was from outside of the <strong>org</strong>anization.<br />

This was done so that the stage could be<br />

set more readily to initiate cost reductions and improvements<br />

that had previously been obstructed.


398 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Up to this time, f<strong>org</strong>ings were credited to the f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

department as production. They had to be straightened<br />

after heat treatment. This was done by hand.<br />

holding the f<strong>org</strong>ing upon an anvil and striking with<br />

a hammer. Five men were required for a normal<br />

production of 1.000 dozen carbon steel f<strong>org</strong>ings per<br />

day. Where stainless steel f<strong>org</strong>ings were run the five<br />

men produced 500 dozen. One of the men received<br />

50 cents per hour, and the others 45 cents, making<br />

a daily payroll for this operation of 20.70. The costs<br />

on this operation are as follows:<br />

TABLE I<br />

Carbon Steel Stainless Steel<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings F<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

Production per day 1000 dozen 500 dozen<br />

Xumber of employees 5 5<br />

Daily payroll..., $20.70 $20.70<br />

Production per man 200 dozen 100 dozen<br />

Cost per 100 dozen.... .... $2.08 $4.16<br />

Various efforts to increase production with less<br />

than five men failed. Difficulty to keep help was experienced,<br />

and many complaints had to be taken from<br />

the foreman. The fact that an experienced man could<br />

sit down for nine hours, and double the production of<br />

any of the operations carried no weight with the foreman.<br />

It could not be done every day. However,<br />

sufficient data was gathered showing in detail the<br />

amount of loafing actually- done by the operators.<br />

The production of the experienced man was used as<br />

a basis to set this operation on a piece work basis<br />

under the new foreman, and today this operation<br />

requires but two men for a normal production of 1,200<br />

dozen carbon steel f<strong>org</strong>ings. or 600 dozen carbon<br />

steel f<strong>org</strong>ings and 375 dozen stainless steel f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

The daily payroll now is $12.00 per day for 1,200<br />

dozen carbon steel f<strong>org</strong>ings compared with $20.70 for<br />

1,000 dozen. For 600 dozen carbon and 375 dozen<br />

stainless steel, the daily payroll is $11.63 against<br />

$20.70 for 500 dozen stainless steel f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

TABLE II<br />

Carbon Steel Stainless Steel<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings F<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

Production per day 1200 dozen 375 dozen<br />

Number of employees 2 1<br />

Rate per 100 dozen $1.00 $1.50<br />

Operator's daily earning.. $6.00 $5.63<br />

It has been customary- to pack f<strong>org</strong>ings from the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing operators into boxes for the next operation.<br />

To do this required four men. Three to do the packing<br />

and one for trucking. The weekly payroll for this<br />

was $80.00 to pack and truck on an average of 10.500<br />

dozen f<strong>org</strong>ings. Under the new foreman the packing<br />

was placed on piece work at 28 cents per 100 dozen.<br />

All the packing is now done by one man, whose<br />

weekly earnings are $30.00 per week compared with<br />

$20.00 per week previously. The two other packers and<br />

the trucker were discharged. The trucking is now<br />

done by the department time clerk, who previously"<br />

had spent his spare time loafing around the production<br />

operators disturbing them. The total weeklyexpense<br />

for this work now is $30.00 compared with<br />

$80.00.<br />

The data compiled on daily production of drop<br />

hammers and rolls are too massive to incorporate in<br />

this article and would be of no direct benefit. Only<br />

the final results will be mentioned. Previous to changing<br />

the foreman, it required to maintain a weekly<br />

production of 5,000 dozen f<strong>org</strong>ings, five drop hammers<br />

and six rolls. To maintain this same production, at<br />

November, 1925<br />

present only four drop hammers and five rolls are used.<br />

Since nine men now produce what eleven men did<br />

formerly, each man is earning more money as the<br />

piece rates remained the same. The company's saving<br />

is reflected in a lower overhead on the department.<br />

Formerly a breakdown meant decreased production,<br />

which had to be made up by working overtime, but<br />

with one hammer and one roll idle no delays are<br />

experienced.<br />

The hardening unit was next taken in order to try<br />

out a long advocated economy. It had required four<br />

men to run this department, two men to harden, one<br />

to draw, and one to tumble and pack. This job was<br />

placed upon a group piece rate system, and the Tables<br />

III and IV present an interesting study. The wages<br />

of the three men now handling this work are $39.00,<br />

$30.00 and $25.00, respectively as compared to $35.00<br />

$27.50 and $21.50.<br />

TABLE III<br />

FORGE HARDENING RECORD—DAY WORK SYSTEM<br />

No. of Total<br />

Total Production<br />

Total Pay<br />

Employes Man Hrs.<br />

Production Man Hrs<br />

$103.30<br />

4 202<br />

7509-0* 37-0*<br />

102.50 7624-0 38-0<br />

4 200<br />

119.50 9189-0 37-0<br />

6 24854 96.25 6775-0 35-6<br />

4 190<br />

79.40 3004-0 19-0<br />

4 158<br />

49.50 3904-0 43-0<br />

4 90<br />

76.05 5162-0 37-6<br />

105.00<br />

4 138<br />

6417-0 32-0<br />

105.00<br />

4 200<br />

5997-0 30-0<br />

•Production is given in dozens. 105.00 5625-0 28-0<br />

1 200<br />

94.50<br />

TABLE 4663-0 26-0<br />

4<br />

IV 200<br />

FORGE<br />

4<br />

HARDENING 180 RECORD—GROUP RATE<br />

PIECE SYSTEM<br />

No. of Total Total Stainless Steel Total Prod.<br />

Employes Man Hrs Pay Prod. Prod. Prod. Man Hr.<br />

3 135 $85.50 1290-0 3847-0 5139-0 38-0<br />

3 150 95.62 594-0 5963-0 6557-0 43-0<br />

3 150 95.87 573-0 5957-0 6530-0 43-6<br />

92.27 1097-0 4760-0 5857-0 39-0<br />

3 150<br />

66.31 633-0 1977-0 2610-0 24-0<br />

3 109 84.52 944-0 2672-0 3616-0 27-6<br />

3 132 95.30 1209-0 4846-0 6055-0 40-6<br />

3 150 75.09 1568-0 2731-0 4299-0 36-6<br />

3 118 70.53 1053-0 2939-0 3992-0 36-3<br />

3 110 96.67 3045-0 1668-0 4713-0 33-6<br />

This concludes the major portion<br />

3 141 93.55 1909-0 3502-0 5411-0<br />

of the<br />

37-6<br />

more<br />

important economies initiated. All had been attempted<br />

3 under 144 the old foreman but utterly failed.<br />

The reason was always evident at the time of failure<br />

from the attitude taken by the foreman, and was naturally<br />

reflected by the operators. Under the new foreman,<br />

these improvements, claimed as impossible,<br />

have been successfully accomplished.<br />

-•••oifo u o:nrr i i i i: i • 111111 r ji u [iiro r o i i n n j o 11 u n; i u n: 11.: n u 111 n j i • • r (i m i o 11:1111 k i l ( m < j 11 > 11 n<br />

COMING MEETINGS<br />

iiiniimiiiiiiiiim iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinni<br />

The American Society for Steel Treating, Winter<br />

Sectional Meeting at the Hotel Statler, Buffalo, N.<br />

V.. January 21 and 22, 1926. W. H. Eisenman, secretary.<br />

4600 Prospect Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

* * *<br />

Annual meeting of the American Society of Mechanical<br />

Engineers at the Engineering Societies<br />

Bldg., 29 W. 39th St., New York City, November<br />

30 to December 4. Calvin W. Rice, secretary.


November, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

-:•:-<br />

D e v e l o p m e n t s in D r o p F o r g i n g P r o d u c t i o n<br />

A Brief Review of the Most Prevalent Defects in Rolled Steel<br />

Found by Regular Bar Inspection—Accurate Checks<br />

BEFORE using under the hammer, stock must be<br />

first sheared to suitable lengths or multiples.<br />

It is impossible on steels of higher alloying content<br />

to draw a definite line as to what analyses will<br />

and what will not satisfactorily cold shear. Such<br />

variables as size, condition of shears, high or low<br />

side of range in hardening elements, and even weather<br />

conditions have pronounced effect. Under most favorable<br />

conditions it may be assumed that standard analyses<br />

of chrome-vanadium, chrome-carbon, low-chromenickel<br />

and 3y-\ per cent nickel steels will cold shear<br />

in sizes up to 2y> in. round or square with a carbon<br />

content up to .45 maximum.<br />

With carbon as high as .50 or .55 these types<br />

can usually be sheared cold with safety in sizes up<br />

to iy in. round or square. These limits are given<br />

more in the nature of a warning than as a recommendation.<br />

A little heating before shearing steel<br />

approximating these limits is by no means an extravagance.<br />

In extremely cold weather much improvement<br />

may even be effcted on certain types of<br />

steel by raising temperatures but slightly, from yard<br />

to room temperature for instance, or just sufficient to<br />

relieve the intense chill from the steel. Requiring<br />

special attention in cold shearing are capacity of<br />

shears, their alignment, condition of knives and hold<br />

down,<br />

Trouble in cold shearing may be evidenced in several<br />

forms. The stock may break off sharply, or spall<br />

on the corners, it may show a very fine crack across<br />

the sheared surface or it may be strained to such an<br />

extent upon shearing that while no crack is perceptible,<br />

one opens from a few hours to a few days<br />

after. The latter condition may prove the most serious,<br />

as shear inspection will not reveal the trouble<br />

and such sotck may rupture further when brought<br />

to f<strong>org</strong>ing heat.<br />

Fins or ragged edges should be avoided in shearing<br />

as they may "lap in" during f<strong>org</strong>ing. Often it<br />

is necessary to grind badly finned edges. This difficulty<br />

can usually be eliminated by closer alignment<br />

of shears and maintenance of proper knife edge.<br />

Heating.<br />

During heating of stock in the furnace at the<br />

hammer much more material is ruined than is generally<br />

assumed. It is a simple matter for the operator<br />

to detect when steel is being burnt, and to immediately<br />

remedy conditions before the loss is great, but<br />

it is not so readily apparent when the over-heating<br />

is only sufficient to cause incipient burning, or to seriously<br />

impair the structure of the steel beyond the<br />

point of reclamation by heat treatment to develop<br />

saisfactory properties. Usually there is no warning<br />

during too rapid heating of "tender" steels, of the ill<br />

effects which such practice produces.<br />

*From U-loy News.<br />

Possible on F<strong>org</strong>ing Qualities of Steel<br />

PART II<br />

399<br />

In steels of higher alloying contents, particularly<br />

chrome-nickel, with and without additional elements<br />

such as vanadium, molybdenum, etc., internal defects<br />

will result from rapid heating. The condition becomes<br />

more acute as the carbon content increases. Preheating<br />

slowly to a temperature between 600 deg. F.<br />

and 1200 deg. F. and then finish heating to f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

temperature is necessary. This can best be accomplished<br />

by the use of a separate furnace for pre-heating,<br />

although in some cases entirely satisfactory results<br />

may be obtained by pre-heating on the front of<br />

the hearth of the f<strong>org</strong>ing furnace, or "double rowing."<br />

Under-heating is less frequently encountered on<br />

account of handicaps promptly manifested to the hammerman.<br />

The result is decreased production, misalignment<br />

of dies, decreased life of dies and rods,<br />

increased maintenance costs on equipment, and at<br />

times die and rod breakage.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing furnaces should be so designed as to permit<br />

proper time cycle for soaking stock to constant<br />

head and to operate under soft rather than cutting<br />

flame, avoiding direct flame impingement on the<br />

charge and excessive air.<br />

Cold Shuts and Laps.<br />

During f<strong>org</strong>ing operations there are many manners<br />

in which defects may be introduced into f<strong>org</strong>ings,<br />

and controversies as to whether their origin is in the<br />

steel itself or in its fabrication often take place. In<br />

some cases a decision may be simple, in others almost<br />

impossible. Cold shuts and laps are often claimed<br />

to be seams, f<strong>org</strong>ing bursts, pipe; and vice versa. In<br />

most cases one familiar with the method of f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

should be able to decide whether defects are laps,<br />

shuts or seams. In other cases a careful study of the<br />

flow of metal in the various operations under the<br />

hammer should determine the cause of the trouble.<br />

Seams or laps in rolled bars or billets always exist<br />

parallel to the direction of rolling. If the flow of metal<br />

has been such that the defect must have existed in a<br />

direction other than longitudinal with the rolled product<br />

the evidence is quite conclusive as to its origin.<br />

If surface defects are characteristic of a certain position<br />

in f<strong>org</strong>ings the fault is unlikely to be in the steel—•<br />

it is improbable that pieces f<strong>org</strong>ed would have defects<br />

in the same spot on the bar, billet or slab.<br />

Frequent Sources of Trouble.<br />

Enumeration or discussion of all defects encountered<br />

under the hammer is impossible, but a number<br />

of frequent sources of trouble might be briefly considered.<br />

During drawing, fullering or edging operations,<br />

ridges or fins may be formed which fold over and<br />

form laps or shuts during finishing. Excessive working<br />

on the flat of the die or in round sections may produce<br />

internal ruptures, often mistaken for pipe. Rapid<br />

wash heating may produce similar flaws. Restricted<br />

flow of metal in dies and too rapid heating may cause


4m F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

shattered hearts, and this may be aggravated by segregation.<br />

Improper reduction in fullers, edgers, blocking<br />

impressions, or preliminary die f<strong>org</strong>ing, may result<br />

in forcing such large excess of metal through the<br />

flash line in the finishing dies as to result in rupture<br />

which may or may not be revealed in trimming, and<br />

often not discovered until after heat treatment or<br />

failure in service. Incorrect distribution of metal<br />

for the finishing impression frequently causes stock<br />

in finishing operation to tend to flow from small to<br />

large sections, resulting in bad distortion of flow lines,<br />

poor flash distribution, and even splits, which are often<br />

attributed to piped steel. Bending operations, with<br />

improper gathering of stock, may produce crinkling<br />

or folding on the concave side of the bend, which produce<br />

slapping in the finished part. Likewise, unsatisfactorily<br />

executed splitting operations may produce<br />

tears which may lie lapped in finishing.<br />

Front axle f<strong>org</strong>ings probably embody as manyfaults<br />

as any foging produced. Predominating among<br />

imperfections in this part are laps, shuts, flange cracks,<br />

separation along flash line, web ruptures, cross cracks<br />

and shattered centers. Trouble encountered in eyebeam<br />

sections may often be attributed to faulty preliminary<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing opeartions, resulting in the squirting<br />

of metal from the flanges through the parting<br />

line and out in the flash, leaving shattered flanges.<br />

Flaws at or near the flange and web are often due<br />

to improper flow, resulting from too sharp filleting.<br />

Badly strained condition along the flash line is intensified<br />

by cold trimming. Quite uniformly- spaced<br />

cross checks have been encountered practically<br />

throughout the length of the eye-beam section. Steel<br />

defects could not exist in stock in such a direction as to<br />

be responsible. The use of sharp cornered square stock<br />

has rendered the material more susceptible to overheating<br />

or incipient burning on the four corners while<br />

bringing up to f<strong>org</strong>ing heat; heat treatment and<br />

stretching have seriously- strained if not lightly ruptured<br />

the metal; the final pickling with its hydrogen<br />

impregnation has brought about the final ruptures<br />

or in some cases has merely rendered visible previouslyexisting<br />

ones.<br />

Considerable progress has been made in the study<br />

of flow of metal and in making practical application<br />

of the same in die design. Flow should be smooth<br />

around all corners, avoiding throws into the surface.<br />

Its proper regulation is of vital importance in effecting<br />

increased resistance to stress, shock, vibration, and<br />

in such, parts as gears in governing distortion arising<br />

in heat treatment. Coarse etching constitutes a most<br />

satisfactory- means of study. Sections, after machining<br />

and grinding free from tool marks, are etched<br />

in a solution of from 50 to 100 per cent hydrochloric<br />

acid at approximately boiling temperature for a period<br />

usually from one half to one and one-half hours,<br />

washed and dried for examination. For photographing,<br />

a coating of lampblack or India ink will bring out the<br />

lines more distinctly.<br />

Trimming the Flash.<br />

The method of trimming the flash hot or cold, is<br />

dependent upon trimmer capacity, distortion, and<br />

nature of metal and f<strong>org</strong>ing. Hot trimming mav be<br />

done with lighter equipment and less power, and is<br />

necessary on certain sections to avoid distortion, and<br />

on other sections of certain types of steel to avoid<br />

ruptures along the flash line. At times f<strong>org</strong>ings are<br />

allowed to become cold before trimming, but given<br />

a quick heating only sufficient to materially affect the<br />

flash before trimming. Cold trimming is responsible<br />

in many cases for ruptures along the flash line, which<br />

may open either before or after heat treating. The<br />

shape of a f<strong>org</strong>ing governs the necessity of hot trimming,<br />

cutting along lines parallel with fibre having<br />

a greater tendency- to rupture than along ends across<br />

fibre. Separation may be caused by excessively sharp<br />

corners between f<strong>org</strong>ing and flash.<br />

Trimming tears are not limited to the harder steels,<br />

but may occur as readily in very soft steel, which, on<br />

account of its extreme ductility, has a tendency to<br />

drag. Assuming that suitable radius has been employed<br />

on the f<strong>org</strong>ing, sharp cutting dies are the best<br />

preventative.<br />

The restriction of cooling rate on f<strong>org</strong>ings is<br />

only necessary- on a relatively small percentage of<br />

types possessing air hardening properties. Checks.<br />

cracks, bursts, ruptures, etc., may result from rapid<br />

cooling, and in a few types almost invariably occur<br />

in some sections. F<strong>org</strong>ings may be closely packed in<br />

boxes or barrels, free from air and cooled sufficiently<br />

slowly, although at times it is advisable to cool in<br />

lime, rshes or some other slow heat conducting<br />

medium. A typical analysis requiring slow cooling<br />

is carbon, .30/.40; chromium, 1.00/1.50; nickel, 4.00/<br />

5.00. While very slow cooling is not necessary on<br />

many other types, it is advisable to avoid wet floor<br />

or ground and draughts.<br />

A thorough consideration of heat treating operations<br />

is a broad subject in itself and cannot be given<br />

in this paper. The annealing operations but rarely<br />

give any difficulties except perhaps in the oil hardening<br />

gear types where great care must be exercised<br />

to obtain a product sufficiently soft and of proper<br />

structure for machining quality. Continuous furnaces<br />

have effected tremendous time saving in annealing<br />

such material and have been able to accomplish more<br />

in a three to six hour cycle than the stationary types<br />

in a 12 to 24 hour cycle. Quantity of production must<br />

necessarily govern the installation of type of furnace;<br />

sufficient work must be available to make a continuous<br />

furnace what its name implies.<br />

In beat treating operations one of the most important<br />

decisions is on quenching medium which will<br />

produce most satisfactory results. On some ranges of<br />

analysis, sweeping recommendations may safely be<br />

made for water quenching, on others equally positive<br />

for oil quenching, but in many cases a knowledge<br />

of size and shape of the part in question is necessary<br />

before classifying. Often a time quench will produce<br />

most satisfactory results, whereas quenching in water<br />

until cold results disastrously.<br />

Assuming that the identity of heat lots from steel<br />

manufacturers is retained, we most firmly advocate<br />

making a preliminary run in heat treatment on a small<br />

lot and based on these results prescribe definite temperatures<br />

for the balance. This will enable the attainment<br />

of maximum and more nearly uniform results<br />

on the f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

Alliance Steel Products Company, Alliance, Ohio,<br />

has completed its <strong>org</strong>anization by electing David Kendall<br />

president, Homer Kendall vice president, and P.<br />

S. Bottomley secretary and treasurer. Work has<br />

been started on the first unit of its new plant. It will<br />

produce pressed steel and f<strong>org</strong>ings.


November, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

H i g h - F r e q u e n c y I n d u c t i o n F u r n a c e<br />

Although Still in Its Early Stages of Development, It Provides an<br />

T H E use of high-frequency currents for induction<br />

heating has added a new series of physical conditions<br />

to those under which metallurgical operations<br />

may be performed. Although still in its earlystages<br />

of development, it provides an unrivalled means<br />

for rapid experimental and research work on alloy<br />

steels. It is being used for several metallurgical<br />

operations of the utmost importance, notably in the<br />

preparation of new special alloys having desirable<br />

electrical characteristics, which offer -nth opportunities<br />

for acceleration in submarine telegraphy that they<br />

will have a marked influence on inter-continental communications<br />

and commerce.<br />

The early work in connection with high-frequency<br />

furnaces was carried out by Dr. Northrup at Princeton<br />

University, whose brilliant studies on the physical<br />

laws governing induction from high-frequency equipment<br />

led to the evolution of the first metal melting<br />

furnaces.<br />

Low-frequency induction furnaces have been<br />

known for 40 years, and 20 years ago it seemed possible<br />

that they would to a large extent replace the<br />

crucible for high grade steel making. Further development<br />

was, however, prevented by the high capital<br />

expenditure necessary on electrical plant to obtain<br />

the very low frequencies required, the impossibility of<br />

making different alloys in succession, owing to the<br />

fact that part of the charge must be left in the furnace<br />

after each heat to start the next, and the advent of the<br />

arc furnace with its greater refining power. No lowfrequency<br />

induction furnaces are now being used for<br />

steel making in Great Britain, and comparatively few<br />

abroad.<br />

Inductive heating has recently found wide application<br />

in the non-ferrous trade in furnaces having a<br />

vertical slot worked on normal commercial frequencies.<br />

But all these furnaces have the disadvantage<br />

of requiring an iron core, as the result of which the<br />

molten metal is contained in small channels surrounding<br />

the iron core as well as in the main bath of the<br />

furnace. This entails wear and tear of the refractory<br />

material, and great length of furnace banks, as compared<br />

with the total weight of the metal contained in<br />

the furnace.<br />

In the case of high-frequency heating, the ideal<br />

form of container is available, a cylindrical vessel holding<br />

a maximum metal with a minimum of radiating<br />

surface and refractory of material exposed to corrosive<br />

action.<br />

Obviously, inductive heating is superior in thermal<br />

efficiency to any arc furnace or fuel-fired equipment,<br />

owing to the fact that the heat is actually generated<br />

in the charge to be melted, and consequently<br />

there is no loss of heat in the passage through refrartory<br />

containers as in crucible furnaces, or in flue gases<br />

as in the case of open hearth or reverberatory furnaces.<br />

•Paper presented before the (British) Iron and Steel Institute,<br />

September, 1925, meeting.<br />

-[•London, England.<br />

Unrivalled Means for Rapid Experimental and<br />

Research Work on Alloy Steels<br />

By DONALD F. CAMPBELLf<br />

401<br />

The high-frequency furnace has an immensely<br />

steep heat gradient between the molten metal and the<br />

outside of the furnace, the distance between molten<br />

platinum at, say, 1900 deg. C, and a water-cooled copper<br />

coil being only y inch in platinum melting furnaces.<br />

This somewhat extraordinary fact does not<br />

produce excessive heat losses owing to the rate of input<br />

of calories into the charge, and the loss.Tieing a<br />

function of time, is only- considerable during the last<br />

few minutes of the melting operation, when the temperature<br />

of the metal is high.<br />

FIG. 1—Sectional view of high frequency crucile furnace.<br />

The great disadvantage of high-frequency melting<br />

lies in the difficulty and expense of obtaining the<br />

necessary^ equipment to produce high-frequency currents,<br />

this problem being still in its early state of development,<br />

but its solution is advancing along several<br />

different lines with great rapidity.<br />

aA. furnace installation consists of a source of highfrequency<br />

current, with suitable power factor correction,<br />

and a furnace of extreme simplicity' of design.<br />

High-frequency currents may be obtained by<br />

means of rotary generators, valves, or a combinationof<br />

spark gaps and condensers. The latter equipment<br />

was first used by Dr. Northrup, and it has been applied<br />

in the case of the many small furnaces used for


4(12 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

the melting of platinum and for general research<br />

work. Spark gaps and valves arc at present available<br />

for small units only, and are not the robust type of<br />

machinery desirable for metallurgical works, but they<br />

will be gradually- replaced or supplemented by ordinary<br />

rotating high-frequency generators, as the demand<br />

for larger melting units increases. Such machines<br />

can now be obtained of simple and substantial<br />

construction up to 500 kw. capacity, though a high degree<br />

of accuracy and workmanship are required in<br />

their manufacture.<br />

The frequency required varies according to the<br />

size of furnace and quality of metal to be melted. The<br />

design of furnaces and high-frequency- equipment involves<br />

a high degree of electrical and metallurgical<br />

experience, for the factors involved are not all well<br />

understood, and figures obtained from involved mathematical<br />

calculations must be interpreted with liberal<br />

additions of empirical results.<br />

Unfortunately, all high-frequency electrical generators<br />

are expensive at the present time, but it is probable<br />

that the cost will be reduced.<br />

The high-frequency furnace (see Fig. 1) consists<br />

merely of a container or crucible (C) placed inside a<br />

FIG. 2—Installation of high frequency crucible furnace.<br />

flat cylindrical coil (A). The intermediate space between<br />

coil and crucible, which generally does not exceed<br />

1 inch, is filled with zircon or other insulating<br />

material contained in a silica or mica sleeve. The crucible<br />

or container may be of very- thin construction, as<br />

it fulfils a different function from an ordinary- crucible.<br />

If it be y2 inch thick, there is a distance of only 1J4<br />

inches between the coil, which is generally- watercooled,<br />

and the molten metal, which may be heated<br />

to over 2000 deg. C. Thus a greater temperature<br />

gradient is obtained than in any other process of melting<br />

metals in bulk.<br />

As the heat is generated within the metal itself,<br />

the temperature of the crucible is very much lower<br />

than that of the metal and the heat passes from the<br />

metal to the crucible, and is not conducted through<br />

the crucible walls, as in other processes. Consequently<br />

reactions between the metal and the crucible<br />

walls are reduced to a minimum, and crucibles of material<br />

quite inadmissible for melting certain metals by<br />

ordinary- methods stand well in the furnace.<br />

Also the crucible is supported outside by wellpacked<br />

ground zircon, and even if a crack occurs there<br />

is seldom loss of metal, or any tendency for the crucible<br />

to break in pieces. Thus,, an ordinary clay crucible,<br />

such as is used for gold assays, will make from<br />

10 to 30 heats of nickel-iron alloys containing less<br />

than 0.02 per cent of carbon. This proves that the<br />

conditions under which the crucible works are fundamentally<br />

different from other processes.<br />

As the metal container is an ordinary crucible of<br />

cylindrical form, there is no necessity to leave metal<br />

in the furnace, or to have narrow channels or any of<br />

the other features which have rendered the old type<br />

of induction furnace uneconomical and obsolescent<br />

for the steel trade.<br />

High-frequency furnaces mix the metal intensely,<br />

the surface of the molten metal being pronouncedly<br />

convex, owing to the violent upward current at the<br />

center of the liquid mass. This is a great advantage<br />

for the manufacture of alloys containing metals which<br />

do not readily mix, and difficult alloys can be melted<br />

with exceptional uniformity.<br />

The frequencies used may be termed high or medium,<br />

and have varied from 20,000 to 400 periods per<br />

second, the lower figures being applicable to the<br />

larger furnaces for melting nickel-silver and similar<br />

alloys. Furnaces of a capacity of 600 lbs. are now<br />

working on certain nickel alloys, and this method of<br />

melting is worth consideration by makers of tungsten<br />

and cobalt crucible steel and anyone engaged in the<br />

manufacture of alloys of the highest quality for electrical<br />

work where freedom from carbon is of the<br />

utmost importance.<br />

Capital cost of equipment is high, but this may be<br />

reduced in the future. The rate of melting is rapid,<br />

and the conditions of working exceptionally clean,<br />

accurate, and comfortable for the workmen.<br />

Thermal efficiency' is high, but the total consumption<br />

of kwh. per ton melted is in excess of good arc<br />

furnaces. This may be improved in the future, as<br />

the excessive losses occur in the comparatively undeveloped<br />

equipment now used for producing highfrequency<br />

current and are not inherent in the furnace<br />

system. The power factor of the furnace is low, but<br />

this can be counteracted to any desired degree by the<br />

use of one of the various devices well known to electrical<br />

engineers, such as condensers or synchronous<br />

motors, which involve some capital expenditure, but<br />

do not add appreciably to the working cost.<br />

High-frequency heating may be found useful in<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing and heat treatment of steel, especially in<br />

the case of small objects of irregular shape, as the<br />

heating effect is to a great extent independent of the<br />

shape of the object submitted to the field. At present<br />

the principal application of this method of heating<br />

is in the preparation of alloys of "nickel and iron<br />

with small percentages of other metals, and the lowest<br />

possible amount of carbon, which are used for the<br />

manufacture of continuously loaded cables. By the<br />

use of this metal the speed of signaling on long distance<br />

submarine cables has been raised from a maximum<br />

of 300 letters per minute for the old type cable<br />

to 1800 with the continuously loaded cable. This performance<br />

was obtained on a cable from the Azores to<br />

the United States and has given an entirely new


November, 1925<br />

aspect to the economics of submarine cabling, which,<br />

coupled with the secrecy and reliability of this form<br />

of transmission, insures extensive demands for a<br />

larger production of this remarkable series of alloys.<br />

The furnace will also find use in the preparation<br />

of other alloys for telephonic apparatus, transformers,<br />

and in the development of the electrical alloys, which<br />

have not received the attention they deserve either<br />

from metallurgical or electrical engineers, although<br />

they offer a field of research which will certainly<br />

yield good results. Among these may be mentioned<br />

magnet steel containing a high percentage of cobalt.<br />

An installation recently completed in England has<br />

by far the largest melting capacity of any high-frequency<br />

metallurgical works yet erected.<br />

The equipment consists of 42 small converter<br />

units, each of 35 to 40 kv-a. capacity, fitted with furnaces<br />

capable of melting 20 lbs. of nickel-iron alloys<br />

of exceptional purity in 40 to 45 minutes. Two or<br />

more converter units may be used on single furnaces<br />

of double or treble this capacity. The melting capacity<br />

is several tons per day, and a steady and continuous<br />

output is being maintained under strictly commercial<br />

conditions.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

403<br />

As a crucible furnace the equipment illlttstrated in<br />

Fig. 2, has many attractive features, and is worth<br />

the attention of manufacturers who are interested<br />

in the improvement of alloy steels and other metals,<br />

especially those which may find wide application in<br />

the growing demand for improved alloys in the electrical<br />

industry.<br />

The advantages of high-frequency furnaces for research<br />

work are very great, owing to the speed with<br />

which small heats can be made, either in vacuo or in<br />

air. In one instance, where an investigation was<br />

being made into the properties of a series of alloys with<br />

a relatively high melting point, twenty 2-lb. heats were<br />

made in eight hours. The consequent saving of the<br />

investigator's time and the increase in the amount of<br />

work he was able to perform were of the utmost importance.<br />

The discovery of the two principal alloys used for<br />

cable loading, permalloy and mumetal, to which reference<br />

has already been made in this paper, was made<br />

possible by use of a high-frequenccy furnace, and further<br />

investigations are now being made in several different<br />

countries which may result in the discovery of<br />

alloys with properties previously unknown.<br />

R e c u p e r a t i o n in C a r b o n i z i n g S t e e l<br />

By PORTER W. HAY*<br />

CARBONIZATION or case hardening of steel wide and 10 inches deep, with the exception of the<br />

means the" increasing of the percentage of carbon cam shafts, which are packed in 4 in. steel tubes, part<br />

on the surface of the metal, so that by reheating of which are 30 in. long and part 48 in. long, depend­<br />

to redness and quenching in oil or water, the surface ing on the size of the shaft to be treated. The car­<br />

becomes very hard while the interior remains soft bonizing material used is a mixture composed of 60<br />

and tough. Parts which are to withstand excessive parts old and 40 parts new case hardening compound.<br />

wear are given this treatment. These parts are packed During the carbonizing period which lasts from 8 to<br />

in either cast iron boxes or steel tubes with the nec­ 10 hours, a temperature of 1720 deg. F. is maintained.<br />

essary materials for supplying the additional carbon. The gas fired carbonizing furnace shown in the<br />

Such materials are nitrogenons animal matter, bone, illustration constitutes part of the equipment in the<br />

horn, hoof clippings, leather, charcoal, etc. After the heat treating department at the Buda Company. This<br />

boxes or tubes are packed with the parts to be case furnace as "originally built was equipped with oil<br />

hardened and the carbonizing material, they are sealed burners, but in April 1924, the burner equipment was<br />

with fire clay and 'heated in oven furnaces to various changed to utilize low pressure gas as the fuel. Fig.<br />

temperatures depending upon the original carbon con­ 1 shows one half the burners, and also shows the gas<br />

tent of the steel and the characteristics desired of the service crossing the top of the furnace which supplies<br />

case being applied.<br />

the burners on the other side with fuel.<br />

After the furnace and material are heated to the Two methods are employed to attain a uniform<br />

required temperature, the heat is held constant for a<br />

period of time varying with the depth of case desired.<br />

It is generally considered that the carbon will pene­<br />

heat distribution throughout the working chamber of<br />

the furnace. First, the burners on one side are staggered<br />

with reference to those on the other side instead<br />

trate into the steel at the rate of 1/64 of an inch per<br />

hour. Afterwards the boxes or tubes are allowed to<br />

of being directly opposite, and second, the flames are<br />

directed with a slight angle upwards towards the<br />

cool before their contents are removed, after which arched roof of the heating chamber. The walls and<br />

the parts being hardened are reheated to a tempera­ hearth are heated uniformly by the burned gases on<br />

ture ranging from 1400 deg. F. to 1700 deg. F. and their passage from the hot zone of the furnace to the<br />

quenched in either water or oil. This reheating and atmosphere.<br />

quenching hardens the carbon which was added during<br />

the carbonizing period in the oven furnace.<br />

The gases after they are burned, pass down along<br />

the walls into ducts which begin 5 in. above the floor<br />

The Buda Company of Harvey, 111., carbonizes cam and convey the gases under the hearth and towards the<br />

shafts, push rods, and piston pins for automobile central flues, which extend the full length of the fur­<br />

engines, and jack pawls principally, but occasionally nace and terminate directly beneath two stacks. Built<br />

other parts are also case hardened. All these parts within these stacks are two sets of recuperators the<br />

are packed in cast iron boxes 16 in. long, 9 inches purpose of which is to reclaim part of the entrained<br />

heat of the flue gases before they pass out of the stack<br />

•Industrial Gas Department, Public Service Company of<br />

and into the room. This heat is absorbed by air pass-<br />

Northern Illinois.


-11)4 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

ing through the recuperators, which is afterwards used<br />

by the burners.<br />

The recuperators in each stack comprises eight<br />

sections arranged in two tiers of four sections each.<br />

These special alloy steel sections are so designed to<br />

expose a maximum amount of heating surface to the<br />

passage of the hot gases. The direction of flow of air<br />

and gas are opposite, thereby- permitting the hottest<br />

gases to be in contact with the portion of the recuperators<br />

containing the hottest air. This principle<br />

tends to give a better and more balanced heat interchange<br />

from the burned gases to the air which is to be<br />

delivered at the burner.<br />

The air entering the recuperator is supplied at a<br />

pressure of from 18 to 20 ounces by a large rotary<br />

blower. a*\ 5 in. pipe connects the recuperator header<br />

with the air line overhead. This header is 4 in. in<br />

diameter from which is teed four 3-in. connections, one<br />

to each of the four tiers of sections. The lower ends of<br />

the recuperators are connected by means of 3 in. pipe<br />

to a 4 in. header on each side of the furnace. This<br />

Reconstructed furnace showing arrangement of burners.<br />

delivers the hot air from the recuperators to the<br />

five burners through \y2 in. openings and to prevent<br />

the loss of heat from radiation, this header is covered<br />

with asbestos over its full length, as can be seen in the<br />

illustration.<br />

The gas is brought to the furnace by a 3 in. service<br />

which divides near the top into two 2 in. leads,<br />

one to each manifold, of \y2 in. pipe with y in. openings<br />

to each of the burners. The gas pressure at the<br />

burners is maintained at 5 in. of water.<br />

Cast iron burners are mounted on the sides of the<br />

furnace; within these burners are concentric tubes for<br />

the passage of air and gas. The arrangement provides<br />

for a thorough mixture entering the furnace.<br />

The gas and air flow is regulated by the two valves<br />

shown in each burner set up. The gas being controled<br />

directly at the burner and the air bv the slide<br />

valve just beneath. This arrangement, permits<br />

changes in either gas or air flow to be made very<br />

readily and after the operator becomes familiar with<br />

the manipulation of these valves, very- close regulation<br />

of the temperature within may be obtained.<br />

After the furnace had been rebuilt, tests extending<br />

over a period of several months were made, and the<br />

average results were as follows:<br />

Average gas consumption per hour 1,270 cu. ft.<br />

Average length of heat 13.2 hours<br />

Average net weight per heat 433 pounds<br />

Average gross weight per heat 1,800 pounds<br />

The average length of heat given above allows an<br />

average time of eight hours for the carbonizing period<br />

and five and two-tenths hours for the furnace and contents<br />

to attain the desired temperature of 1720 deg. F.<br />

The later period is called the "bringing up" period.<br />

Also, during the tests it was found that this furnace<br />

was completing a heat in about two hours less time<br />

than an oil furnace of the same type and size and was<br />

giving a more uniform case to the parts being hardened.<br />

This was the result of preheating the burner air<br />

and uniformly distributing the heat within the furnace.<br />

Recently tests were made to ascertain the results<br />

obtained with the recuperator. The temperaure outside<br />

of the building was 92 deg. F., and inside the<br />

heat treat room, considerably higher. The air delivered<br />

to the recuperators from the blowers had a temperature<br />

of 105 deg. F., after leaving the recuperator<br />

its temperature was 375 deg. F., showing that the<br />

air had been heated 270 deg while passing through the<br />

recuperator. It is generally conceded that to properly<br />

support combustion a theoretical mixture of live parts<br />

air and one part gas is necessary to give the maximum<br />

burlier efficiency, and when the theoretically correct<br />

proportions of gas and air are used, recuperation with<br />

low pressure gas, saves approximately 15 per cent of<br />

the total gas burned by the furnace.<br />

Another point may be mentioned in reference to<br />

this furnace. It was rebuilt and put into service April<br />

1. 1924, since that time it has averaged between 50<br />

and 60 hours of service per week, and the original brick<br />

work is still within the steel walls. In other words<br />

up to the present time after 15 months of service this<br />

furnace has had no maintenance expense.<br />

Time Sampling*<br />

By D. W. Bruntonf<br />

A sample is a small portion that accurately represents<br />

the whole. To sample a homogeneous fluid or<br />

solid is easy, but to sample precious metal ores is<br />

difficult, for they are heterogeneous. Ore as received<br />

at mill or smelter may be coarse or fine, wet or dry,<br />

rich or poor, and often ranges through all these conditions;<br />

its particles vary from worthless gangue to<br />

flakes of gold.<br />

To determine a basis for payment for the ore and<br />

the process for getting out the metals, accurate sampling<br />

is necessary; but to physical difficulties human<br />

limitations and dishonesty are added. Early simple<br />

methods of sampling proved inadequate. Shovel-sampling<br />

was throwing from the car or wagon into a<br />

separate pile every third, fifth or tenth shovelful.<br />

Conscientious, careful shovelers might get fair samples;<br />

but some shovelers were neither, and some employers<br />

of shovelers were unscrupulous. Cornish<br />

quartering, almost universal a generation ago, gave<br />

fair samples when carried on with skill, care and<br />

•Research Narratives, Engineering Foundation.<br />

tMember American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical<br />

Engineers, Denver, Colo.


November, 1925<br />

common honesty; but there were possibilities of accidental<br />

errors and opportunities for clever manipulation.<br />

First ore was piled in a cone; but dropping<br />

shovelful after shovelful on top of a cone partially<br />

separated the coarse particles instead of mixing. Successful<br />

juggling could so arrange the cone that when<br />

it was flattened into a "pancake" and then quartered<br />

the quarters would have distinctly different proportions<br />

of coarse and fine, of rich and lean ore. Alternate<br />

sectors of the "pancake" were taken for the sample<br />

and others discarded. These operations were repeated<br />

until the sample was small enough for the<br />

assay office.<br />

In smelting lead or copper ores containing gold and<br />

silver, a very high percentage of the metals must be<br />

gotten out in order to make the operation commercially<br />

successful. In the fusion zone of the furnace the<br />

mass should be sufficiently fluid to allow metallic<br />

particles to settle through it like mist condensing into<br />

rain and falling to the earth. To establish this desired<br />

condition a definite chemical composition of the<br />

"charge" is necessary. Sometimes this condition can<br />

be attained by adding fluxes, like iron and lime; but<br />

fluxes cost money. Therefore nearly all successful<br />

custom smelters are located at railroad centers', where<br />

they can draw ore from a great number of mining districts.<br />

By skill and care they can buy a mixture of<br />

ores which will make possible the necessary chemical<br />

combination without admixture of dead flux. Before<br />

the ores are purchased, they must be correctly sampled<br />

and chemically analyzed.<br />

Need for more accurate and cheaper sampling<br />

brought into use various systems based on taking a<br />

portion of the crushed ore from a falling stream.<br />

This method, although much better than the Cornish,<br />

gave results for from accurate; no falling stream of<br />

ore is homogeneous throughout its width no matter<br />

how carefully it may be fed into a vertical or inclined<br />

spout.<br />

The next step was to take the entire stream for<br />

parts of the time. It is not practicable to produce<br />

a stream of pulverized ore contsant in value throughout<br />

its length, any more than it is possible to have the<br />

stream homogeneous across its width; but it was discovered<br />

that by taking a small portion entirely across<br />

the stream at very short intervals, the average of<br />

thousands of these small portions gave a sample so<br />

nearly correct that results could be duplicated almost<br />

exactly. Thus if a falling stream of ore were deflected<br />

into bin A for one-fifth of a second and into bin B for<br />

four-fifths of a second, bin A would receive a 20 per<br />

cent portion, which, if the operation were continued<br />

for a long time, would be an accurate sample. Sampling<br />

would be a function of time and not of quality,<br />

independent of the physical condition of the ore,<br />

whether wet or dry, coarse or fine, rich or poor.<br />

Almost coincidental with the discovery that accurate<br />

samples could be obtained by taking all of the<br />

stream for a portion of the time, came great improvements<br />

in rock-crushing machinery, thus affording possibilities<br />

of constructing more satisfactory samplers<br />

than could have been built 20 or 30 years ago.<br />

At first mechanical sampling machines were complicated,<br />

but as is usual in inventions, simplification<br />

and other improvements came as their use was extended.<br />

Today a time-sampling machine .is almost<br />

indestructible and will operate for years without appreciable<br />

wear except on the cutting edges of the in­<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

405<br />

take spout, which are usually made of saw steel and<br />

so designed that they can be readily replaced. When<br />

this method of sampling is used on ail the ore coming<br />

into a metallurgical plant and the various products,<br />

including the tailings, are sampled in the same manner,<br />

it is possible to account with almost unbelievable<br />

accuracy for all precious metals received, and to show<br />

their exact paths as they leave the works.<br />

Numerous devices for mechanical samplings were<br />

invented, each a gain over hand methods. Finally,<br />

discovery of the value of time as a fourth dimension<br />

in measuring the value of ores enabled an inventor<br />

to construct simple, durable, practical machines which<br />

produce very accurate samples. Furthermore, the<br />

process-could be so arranged as to prevent dishonest<br />

manipulation. By locking and sealing the apparatus,<br />

access to the ore being sampled could be prevented,<br />

and the sample delivered into a "safe" directly attached<br />

to the time-sampling machine. Absolute protection<br />

against dishonesty and error is unattainable,<br />

but science and invention have come close to the goal<br />

in sampling ores.<br />

"Flakes" or "Hair-Cracks" in Chromium Steel<br />

A^t the annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute<br />

in England on May 7, Mr. A Hultgren presented<br />

a paper on "Flakes" or "Hair-Cracks" in Chromium<br />

Steel, with a Discussion on Shattered Zones and<br />

Transverse Fissures in Rails." The contents of this<br />

paper, as given in The Engineer of May 15, 1925, are<br />

sumarized below:<br />

Internal cracks, previously^ denominated "snowflakes,"<br />

"flakes," or "hair-cracks," and found principally<br />

in certain alloy steels, have appeared in largesized<br />

bars and f<strong>org</strong>ings of high-carbon chromium<br />

steel for ball and roller bearings. The formation of<br />

flakes has been studied by rolling and f<strong>org</strong>ing experiments<br />

carried out under varied conditions.<br />

It has been found that such flakes, when present,<br />

invariably formed during cooling after the final hot<br />

working operation, and that their formation is prevented<br />

by retarded cooling. The defect may therefore<br />

be designated as cooling cracks.<br />

Suggestions are given as to the proper method<br />

of retarding the cooling to prevent the formation of<br />

flakes, at the same time avoiding the undesirable<br />

effects of slow cooling on the structure and on the<br />

physical properties of the steel.<br />

The mechanism of the formation of flakes as a<br />

consequence of cooling stresses is duscussed, and the<br />

influence of large dimensions emphasized.<br />

The significance of other factors, such as amount<br />

of inclusions and composition of the steel, as contributory<br />

causes of flakes is discussed.<br />

It is believed that the reheating and the hot working<br />

practice are of minor consequence in this respect.<br />

So-called "silver-streaks" in alloy steels are believed<br />

to be flakes that have been elongated in subsequent<br />

hot working without welding together.<br />

The so-called shattered zones in rails are believed<br />

to contain cooling cracks, formed in cooling after<br />

rolling, as suggested by Howard, and consequently<br />

are identical with flakes.<br />

Primarily the cause lies in the method of melting<br />

and pouring the steel, but any defects which occur<br />

in the ingot can be diminshed or accentuated by proper<br />

or improper heat-treatment.


4(W.<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

November, 1925<br />

I m p r o v e d O x y g e n L a n c e for O p e n H e a r t h<br />

U S E of the oxygen lance for opening tap holes in<br />

open hearth furnaces, once considered valuable<br />

as an emergency expedient only, is becoming<br />

more and more a routine of efficient operation. Many<br />

plants have entirely discarded the bar and sledge in<br />

favor of the more positive action of the lance, and as<br />

experience with this method grows, open-hearth superintendents<br />

are finding that the oxygen lance is not<br />

only quicker and more dependable, but is cheaper as<br />

to materials used and is also preferred by the<br />

workmen.<br />

As detailed descriptions of furnace tapping by the<br />

oxygen lance have been published frequently, most<br />

steel men undoubtedly understand the principles involved.<br />

The large oxygen producers and oxy-acetylene<br />

apparatus manufacturers will gladly aid others<br />

who have had no experience with this method or who<br />

desire to test its merits under actual operating<br />

conditions.<br />

By T. C. FETHERSTON*<br />

-/z"to/8"-<br />

One of the features of this method of tapping is<br />

the fact that the steel or wrought iron pipe which<br />

forms the lance is consumed very rapidly at the hot<br />

end. When refractories or pockets of slag are encountered,<br />

the heat from the burning pipe melts<br />

through the obstruction. This use is justifiable, but<br />

most of the pipe burns merely because it gets red hot<br />

and is bathed in oxygen. The pipe is generally bent<br />

or screwed into a piece of bent pipe forming a handle.<br />

so the workmen can stand off at the side of the tap<br />

hole. While the pipe is not very expensive, the time<br />

required for its replacement in the lance is sometimes<br />

very valuable. Therefore a method to restrict the<br />

consumption of pipe is desirable if the same results<br />

can still be obtained.<br />

A study- of operations from this viewpoint at one<br />

of the great steel plants in the Pittsburgh district has<br />

developed the following simple expedient: Pieces of<br />

iy2-in. scrap hardwood lumber are cut 12 to 18 in.<br />

long. These are used in whatever form is convenient,<br />

round, square or octagon, the last being most general.<br />

They are drilled lengthwise to fit snuglv over the<br />

pipe used in the lance.<br />

These wooden tips are fitted over the end of the<br />

lance, the pipe extending 4 to 6 in, into the tip. There<br />

is no change in the method of operating the lance. It<br />

is sometimes necessary to use a short iron bar, white<br />

hot, to furnish fuel for combustion if the lance encounters<br />

an unusual amount of refractory material,<br />

such as clay from the plug, bits of furnace lining or<br />

heavy slag.<br />

Instead of being entirely consumed, as might be<br />

expected, the wooden lance tip burns away until it has<br />

•New York City.<br />

Wooden tip for oxygen lance.<br />

become smoothed down to a tapered point. When<br />

this condition has been reached the charred section<br />

seems to protect the tip from further rapid combustion.<br />

Sometimes a single wooden tip can be used for<br />

several tappings, depending, of course, upon the<br />

length of time required to open the tap holes. In any<br />

event, these wooden tips make it possible to use a<br />

single length of pipe a number of times, provided<br />

tips are not allowed to burn away to the point where<br />

the end of the pipe is consumed. In opening steel<br />

ladles the wooden tip is especially useful. The chill<br />

to be penetrated is clean metal, hot enough to burn<br />

in the oxygen without any help from the lance pipe.<br />

By replacing the tip from time to time, one piece of<br />

steel pipe will last indefinitely on the teeming<br />

platform.<br />

Another excellent application is in opening the<br />

notch hole in the bottom of the soaking pits, to drain<br />

off an accumulation of scale. Ordinarily it is neces-<br />

sary to cool a pit for several hours down to a temperature<br />

where the lance pipe will not quickly get red<br />

hot throughout its length and burn too rapidly. If it<br />

is undesirable to keep the pit out of service that long,<br />

the lance pipe can be covered from end to end with<br />

these wooden sleeves, which then act as an effective<br />

insulation against the heat.<br />

Heat Treatment of Carbon Steel Die Blocks<br />

By John Obenberger<br />

Carbon steel dies for drop f<strong>org</strong>e work are usually<br />

of .70 to .80 carbon steel, and are to be used only on<br />

plain shape work or short run jobs. The die blocks<br />

should have sufficient mass to withstand the heavy<br />

strain they are subject to, which means that they<br />

should be from 6 in. to 12 in. in thickness, depending<br />

upon the nature of the work to be done.<br />

The first consideration in a carbon steel die block<br />

is high class material, free from pipes or f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

strains, and properly annealed. The die sinking and<br />

other machine work should be completely finished<br />

so that the die is ready for the hammer before hardening.<br />

The next step is to either place the die in a<br />

cold furnace, which must be underfired, and slowly<br />

bring the furnace up to a temperature of 1,450 deg.<br />

F., or in the case of a furnace already up to heat, place<br />

the blocks on the shelf in front of the furnace with<br />

the door closed Fig. 1. As the blocks absorb the heat,<br />

gradually- raise the furnace door until finally the opening<br />

is the same as the height of the Tjlock and fill<br />

in the space around the die blocks with fire brick,<br />

so as to keep the furnace heat from escaping. The<br />

blocks are left in this position until they have absorbed


November, 1925<br />

as much heat as possible, about 550 deg. F., and then<br />

slid into the furnace, at the same time shutting off<br />

the gas or oil. After the blocks are at the same temperature<br />

as the furnace, as indicated by the color,<br />

sufficient time must be allowed for the heat to soak<br />

through to the center of the block. The furnace is<br />

again ligjhted and the temperature brought up to<br />

1,450 deg. F., as indicated by the pyrometer. When the<br />

color of the blocks is uniform, that is the center of the<br />

face is the same as at the corners, let the block soak<br />

for half an hour for a 6 in. x 6 in. x 12 in. block to<br />

two hours for a block 12 in. square. Remove the<br />

die blocks from the furnace and immerse face down in<br />

cooling water to a depth of from 2 in. to 4 in. deep,<br />

depending upon the shape of the impression. Several<br />

2 in. sprays of cold water, Fig. 2, forced against the<br />

impression will hasten the cooling. Leave the block<br />

cool down until the red is leaving the shank and at<br />

this point remove from the cooling bath, turn the<br />

impression up and polish the face so as to note the<br />

color changes as the temperature rises. During the<br />

rise in temperature the face is tested with a scleroscope<br />

until the indicator shows a hardness of 65, and<br />

is then immediately immersed in an oil cooling bath,<br />

fitted with air connection to agitate the oil, and left<br />

in this position until cool. The die blocks should be<br />

suspended on chains and held in the center of the<br />

oil bath, which should contain about 1,400 gallons<br />

and be about 3 ft. deep.<br />

Upon removing the dies from the oil bath, it will<br />

be noticed that the faces are quite straight with<br />

very little warp, and for certain jobs, ready for use.<br />

The shank of the die, however, will be warped and will<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

407<br />

the corners must never be higher than 1,450 deg. F.<br />

The majority of tool breakages are due to improper<br />

heating of the steel, as the damage in most cases is<br />

done before the steel strikes the cooling medium. It<br />

is remarkable how a piece of ordinary high carbon<br />

steel responds to good heat treatment. If owners or<br />

managers of some of our manufacturing plants knew<br />

how much money was actually wasted each day in<br />

their plants on account of improperly treated tools,<br />

not only through tool breakage, but also through loss<br />

of production, they would be greatly surprised.<br />

2/z Cooling Water<br />

A<br />

:<br />

Z"to 4"Deep, depending<br />

'on impression<br />

Ff"OiFerf/oi<br />

L<br />

—u—b-. ,-it-ii—<br />

. 7he 2'Dia Out/ets to be<br />

\ | arranged to suit size<br />

\ ; anc/foFFnofdieb/ock,to<br />

•-if =t-- L be capped wnen not needed<br />

•HI-<br />

FI G. 2—Special arrangement for hardening face of die block.<br />

In regard to position of blocks in the furnace<br />

chamber, the dies should be placed on fire brick so as<br />

to leave about 2}4 in. to 2y2 in. between the block and<br />

the furnace floor to insure good heat circulation. The<br />

thermocouples should be accurate and extend down<br />

far enough so as to be below the top of the die. Always<br />

place the face down where possible, and paint the<br />

impression with cyanide solution so as to eliminate<br />

scale and thus eliminate unnecessary polishing of the<br />

impressions. The methods outlined cover only carbon<br />

steel die blocks and not alloy steel, and are the result<br />

of 25 years' experience in the hardening of carbon<br />

and alloy steel die blocks.<br />

Nickel Deposits on Alloy Steel F<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

By STANLEY A. RICHARDSON, M.Sc*<br />

T H E question has arisen occasionally as to the<br />

nature and cause of a peculiar grayish, moss-like<br />

deposit sometimes seen in small patches and<br />

streaks on f<strong>org</strong>ings and drop-f<strong>org</strong>ings made of alloysteel<br />

containing nickel. These deposits may, in rare<br />

cases, be found on bar stock of the same material. If<br />

an effort is made to remove them, it is found that they<br />

are metallic and quite adherent. Chemical analysis<br />

FIG. 1—Preheating die blocks by placing on shelf in<br />

front of door.<br />

will show generally that they are 75 per cent to 90<br />

per cent pure nickel. Fig. 1 shows the characteristic<br />

appearance of one of the small patches of nickel. This<br />

deposit was observed near the flash on a drop-f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

need replaning, which can be done very easily as this<br />

after pickling.<br />

part of the die was not hardened. With this method The origin of these deposits appears to be trace­<br />

of hardening, the block was not entirely immersed, able to overheating. There is some tendency for a thin<br />

and this is largely responsible for the low breakage coating of apparently high nickel content to separate<br />

experienced. An important factor in the performance from the scale on pickling most scaled pieces, but this<br />

of a die block is thorough annealing before sinking is generally not adherent and is easily removed in the<br />

the impression. No matter how carefully the die is<br />

course of ordinary pickling, or by whatever other<br />

heated for hardening, there is always the risk of<br />

means is adopted for removal of the scale. The mossy,<br />

breakage if the annealing is not properly carried out.<br />

adherent deposits of nickel are evidently "sweat out"<br />

Slow and gradual heating of the steel until it is •Research Metallurgist, Interstate Iron & Steel Company,<br />

of the same temperature throughout is essential, and Chicago, 111.


41 IS Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

or exuded from the metal or the scale in small globules<br />

and may be observed as such after the covering of iron<br />

oxide has been removed by the pickling acid.<br />

The temperature required to produce the sweating<br />

out of the nickel varies somewhat with the composition<br />

of the steel but. in general, it lies above 2000 deg.<br />

F The higher carbon nickel steels appear more susceptible<br />

to this condition than the lower carbon. The<br />

author has observed that under given conditions<br />

(2250-2300 deg. F.) more nickel was deposited on a<br />

.35 per cent carbon, P 4 per cent nickel steel than on<br />

one containing .15 per cent carbon and 3y2 per cent<br />

nickel. It i> known that the addition of carbon to<br />

FIG. 1—Characteristic appearance of small patches of nickel.<br />

pure nickel produces a pronounced lowering of the<br />

melting point of that metal. It is considered possible<br />

that some reaction occurs between the carbon and th*<br />

nickel in the steel which permits the nickel to be<br />

exuded and which accounts for the increase in this<br />

tendency with increase in the carbon content of the<br />

steel. It may be considered, also, that the carbon acts<br />

as a reducing agent and, with the high temperature,<br />

serves to reduce the nickel in the scale to the metallic<br />

state, in which condition it fuses to the surface of<br />

the steel or the f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

It i> not believed by the author that the presence<br />

of these deposits in any reasonable amount is harmful<br />

to the steel or f<strong>org</strong>ings, excepting from the standpoint<br />

of appearance. The deposits are soft enough to<br />

machine off without difficulty. If the f<strong>org</strong>ings are<br />

ground, the nickel might possibly act to gum up the<br />

grinding wheel. The overheating or burning, as the<br />

case may- be, that produced the deposit is evidentlymuch<br />

more harmful than the deposit itself.<br />

At the plant with which the author is connected,<br />

exceptional care is taken in connection with the heating<br />

of all nickel steels to prevent the formation of this<br />

deposit. It would appear advisable, in cases where<br />

this deposit might prove objectionable, for f<strong>org</strong>ers and<br />

drop-f<strong>org</strong>ers likewise to take precautions to prevent<br />

the heating of nickel steel much above 2000 deg. F. or<br />

soaking it for protracted periods in this temperature<br />

range. L'nder normal conditions, no doubt, only the<br />

corners and edges of f<strong>org</strong>ing blanks would be likely<br />

to receive overheating of this nature.<br />

Elevator Tructor for Charging Heat-<br />

Treating Ovens<br />

The increased use of alloy steels in the machine<br />

tool and automotive industries has resulted in great<br />

impetus to the heat treating operation. Gas, oil and<br />

electric furnaces have come into such general use and<br />

the success attained in treating heavier pieces has<br />

brought a demand for better facilities for handling the<br />

output. To keep apace, Elwell-Parker Electric Company.<br />

Cleveland, Ohio, has developed a new type of<br />

portable battery- driven furnace charger.<br />

This unit is propelled by an Elwell-Parker electric<br />

motor and is steered on all four rubber-tired wheels.<br />

The drivers are 22x4y2 in., while the trail or smaller<br />

wheels beneath the load supporting forks carry dual<br />

differentiating 10x6 in. tires.<br />

The load supports consist of two 92x8 in. horizontal<br />

fingers upon which ten 300-pound packed furnace<br />

boxes are placed. The bottom of the furnace is provided<br />

with two slots to receive the lower flanges of<br />

the fingers. The furnace floor between and at each<br />

side of the slots supports the boxes or pots when the<br />

fingers are lowered and withdrawn. The furnace is<br />

set above the floor to provide clearance for the smaller<br />

axle thrust beneath the furnace when charging.<br />

The fingers are secured to two steel arms which<br />

are provided with hardened rollers on ball bearings.<br />

These rollers travel on renewable ways attached to<br />

8-in. upright channels. The lift carriage or elevator<br />

head also carries two stub tooth pinions engaging cut<br />

steel vertical rack on the rear flanges of the uprights.<br />

These pinions are driven or rolled on rack by means<br />

of two grooved drums with differential between. Two<br />

cables on these drums pass over sheaves at top of uprights,<br />

thence to a motor driven hoist over battery<br />

compartment. The lifts are from 11 to 72 inches high<br />

as required.<br />

The unit will be furnished with a double drum<br />

hoist such as used on Elwell-Parker portable cranes<br />

when an extra cable line is required for additional<br />

Elevator tructor for charging ovens at furnaces.<br />

pulling purposes. In this particular installation as<br />

illustrated, the pots are packed, run over a conveyor<br />

to a structural steel rack two feet above the charging<br />

room floor and there picked up by the tructor for<br />

placement in the furnaces.<br />

It formerly- required three men 20 to 25 minutes<br />

to place 10 pots by means of long spades into a furnace,<br />

but with this tool one man raises the furnace<br />

door, delivers and places the pots in two to three<br />

minutes, saving not only time but also heat.


November, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

A d a p t a b i l i t y o f Electric A r c W e l d i n g<br />

By A. G. BISSELL*<br />

A R C welding as a method of fabricating structural<br />

steel is not a new departure. For quite a fewyears<br />

it has been used in steel ship construction<br />

in the assembly of steel ladders, masts, skylights, funnels,<br />

deck stanchions, tanks, etc. Barges and floating<br />

targets have also been entirely assembled, and pipe<br />

lines, gas holders, oil tanks, small bridges and buildings<br />

completely constructed by electric arc welding.<br />

One interesting application of arc welding in the<br />

erection of a structural steel building was recentlymade<br />

at Eola, 111., where the Chicago, Burlington &<br />

Quincy Railroad erected a 60x40-ft. one-story mill<br />

type building, using scrap steel. An exact duplicate<br />

of this building was also constructed by the riveted<br />

method. Data furnished by W. T. Krattsch, engineer<br />

of buildings of the railroad company, shows the following<br />

comparison in erection costs: Arc Welded Riveted<br />

Preparation cost, including material and<br />

$1,000.00<br />

shop fabrication $381.71<br />

339.50<br />

Field erection cost 404.49<br />

$786.20 $1,339.50<br />

It will be noted that the saving in favor of the arc<br />

welded building lies in the minimum of preparation<br />

required—merely^ the cutting of the steel to required<br />

length. No clip angles, gusset plates or butt straps<br />

are necessary, while besides these, the riveted job involved<br />

shop details and layout, punching, painting,<br />

FIG. 1—This test failed to produce any evidence of weakness<br />

in the welded joints.<br />

reaming and shop fabrication. In the riveted structure<br />

27,100 pounds of steel were used, while but 25,619<br />

pounds were used in the welded structure—a reduction<br />

of 5y per cent in favor of the welded type of<br />

construction. The saving in steel and reduction in<br />

total erection cost in this case resulted in a final saying<br />

of 41.3 per cent where arc welding was used in<br />

place of riveting.<br />

While there have been numerous applications of<br />

arc welding in the fabrication of structural steel, test<br />

•General Engineering Department, Westinghouse Electric<br />

& Manufacturing Company.<br />

409<br />

data involving welded joints has not been complete.<br />

Tests were therefore made of welded joints for tensile,<br />

sheer, static, shock and fatigue strength of such<br />

joints, compared to similar joints made by riveting,<br />

and to the steel members welded together.<br />

Using y2 in. and y in. plates beveled at 60 deg.<br />

and arc welded to form a butt joint as a section subjected<br />

to tensile strength tests, it was found that the<br />

joint in the y> in. plate developed an average tensile<br />

•<br />

• V-v^ ' '*• ^^^^^^<br />

W a<br />

, / * ^ V . . , ; t , ... . '•,<br />

/ r •' .'!S.h7e7dsy/<br />

' ' • • "*%.' ~%^Sf^"Tm~v--y->r;.:/' '••;.•!$ JR-g^ -•"' :„y/-<br />

Wm^frr A",.^ *, •'-'• v •-.•<br />

i sRik \ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ '<br />

•" • !ty-.F '-'Jt^*^^*<br />

*•<br />

:,• ::^-::i0y • -77777,,.: 3S*% .^.. , sj -•**'*>. • ;- •.<br />

FIG. 2—Method of welding the structural steel members<br />

of a roof.<br />

strength of 64,400 pounds per sq. in., with an elongation<br />

of 4 per cent in a 1-inch section across the weld.<br />

The steel in which the joint was made had a tensile<br />

strength of between 65,000 and 70,000 pounds per sq.<br />

in., and failure in the piece occurred in both base and<br />

deposited metal. Welding wire used was hard-drawn<br />

mill-steel, having a carbon content of .17 per cent and<br />

a manganese content of .55 per cent.<br />

In sheer test, a similar joint developed 50,550<br />

pounds per sq. in. in sheer, and when subjected to<br />

static tests, a pressure of 40 tons deformed the supporting<br />

beams completely, but failed to produce any<br />

evidence of failure in the welded joints. In fatigue<br />

test, a riveted and welded joint of similar design were<br />

mounted on a vibratory testing machine and subjected<br />

to a vibration or vertical movement of 1/16 in. at the<br />

rate of 1,760 complete cycles per minute. After 18<br />

hours and 20 minutes, there was hardly a joint in the<br />

riveted member which was not thoroughly loosened,<br />

the rivets worn, the rivet holes enlarged, and a number<br />

of portions broken off the main section. None of<br />

the arc welded portions were weakened or damaged,<br />

and it was necessary, in bringing about its destruction<br />

in a continuance of the test, to append weights<br />

to the outer ends of the riveted beams and arms. When<br />

finally the model failed, failure occurred in the beams<br />

and not in the welded joints. Under a sudden shock<br />

of 700 tons administered directly to an arc welded<br />

joint section, the welds did not fail, even though the<br />

structural steel members of the section were severely<br />

strained and deformed.<br />

j


410 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

From the foregoing test results, the practicability<br />

and substantiability of electric arc welding in the fabrication<br />

of structural steel is evident. In no case did<br />

an arc welded joint fail prematurely nor before sections<br />

of the beams joined in the weld failed.<br />

The cost of arc welding, in practically all cases, is<br />

considerably lower than riveting or other processes.<br />

A y-'m. fillet weld can be put in for between 15 and<br />

20 cents per linear foot of bead, depending somewhat<br />

upon the position of the work. This estimate is based<br />

upon labor at $1.00 an hour, welding wire at 10 cents<br />

per pound, and electrical energy at 2 cents per kwh.<br />

H e a l t h C o n s e r v a t i o n A S o u n d B u s i n e s s<br />

TUBERCULOSIS in industry is decreasing. The<br />

death rate during the past 20 years from this disease<br />

for the entire country has been reduced by<br />

one-half. A part of this gain at least may be fairlyattributed<br />

to the sunlight factories, exhaust fans, dustprotecting<br />

masks and other health measures, which<br />

have become commonplaces in industry. Yet physicians<br />

and health workers still urge employers to install<br />

further protecting measures for working men<br />

and women. And many employers are questioning<br />

whether the expense of such equipment is really justified<br />

as a sound business investment.<br />

It requires careful consideration of the studies<br />

which industrial physicians and life insurance company<br />

statisticians have made of tuberculosis incidence,<br />

to understand the uses of what is<br />

known as "industrial medicine." The Metropolitan<br />

Life Insurance Company, for example,<br />

has found that more men than women die of<br />

tuberculosis after the age of 25. They infer<br />

from this that the higher death rate for men<br />

is due to industrial strain, as after the age of<br />

25 women, for the most part, are employed in<br />

the more sheltered occupations of the home.<br />

To substantiate this, they point to the figures<br />

of the war when large numbers of women<br />

entered the industrial field and the tuberculosis<br />

rate among them rose suddenly and stayed up until<br />

the wartime occupations were discontinued. This<br />

would seem to indicate that the wear and tear of<br />

daily industrial labor constitutes a strain hazardous<br />

to health.<br />

The labor turn-over and loss of time through illness<br />

still create a considerable loss to most employers<br />

of labor. To prevent this loss, and experts maintain<br />

that it is preventable, large industrial plants such<br />

as the New York Telephone Company, Metropolitan<br />

Life Insurance Company and the Dennison Manufacturing<br />

Company- have installed departments of preventive<br />

medicine for their workers. In these all sorts<br />

of diseases are diagnosed and treated, their greatest<br />

efforts, however, being sometimes centered on tuberculosis<br />

prevention. This is thoroughly logical, for<br />

wholesome food, fresh air, exercise and sufficient rest.<br />

still the most reliable preventives as well as treatment<br />

for tuberculosis, also build up the physical resistance<br />

so that it can throw off almost any other kind of<br />

germ.<br />

Most to be reckoned with as hazards to the health<br />

of workmen are the dust hazard, impure air and overfatigue.<br />

The problem of undernourishment, too. is a<br />

serious one. To illustrate the latter, it was observed<br />

in the plant of Montgomery. Ward & Company that<br />

a large number of girls fainted every day, therebycausing<br />

a considerable loss of time. By making a<br />

By HELENA LORENZ WILLIAMS<br />

,Merry Christmas<br />

and Good Heallh<br />

chart, the medical director discovered that the amount<br />

of the girls' output was upgrade for the first few hours<br />

of the day when it reached its peak, and that from<br />

then on it receded until the noon hour. After luncheon<br />

there was another rise, although it never reached the<br />

mid-morning peak, and after 3 P. M. the output began<br />

to fall with increasing rapidity until closing time.<br />

The theory of the medical doctor was that the slump<br />

might be due to inefficient feeding. The girls employed<br />

in this plant often travel far to work; they must<br />

be at their desks at 8 o'clock and, consequently, it was<br />

believed that they gave but little attention to their<br />

breakfasts. About 600 girls were put on a feeding of<br />

malted milk. All who seemed to need it were given<br />

a 12-ounce glass of double strength at 10:30 in the<br />

morning and again at 3 in the afternoon. The<br />

"faints stopped as if a miracle had been performed,"<br />

as a result, and the least gain in<br />

weight among the "patients" was 10 pounds<br />

and the most 28 pounds.<br />

Such an experience proves that the physical<br />

appraisal of working men and women<br />

gives the employer a fair knowledge of the<br />

strength of his force. It also helps him to<br />

weed out the weaklings, and to correct easily<br />

remedied defects. An example of the latter<br />

occurred in a rubber footwear factory where, to<br />

the great annoyance of the manufacturer, imperfect<br />

work was going out to the trade. The eyesight of<br />

the inspecting force was checked up. It revealed<br />

the astonishing fact that 20 per cent of the group had<br />

such defective vision that they were useless in this<br />

particular work. After the proper corrective measures<br />

had been made, the quality of that firm's product<br />

was quickly restored to its old level. A large<br />

shoe manufacturing company in the Middle West introduced<br />

a medical service into its plant of 2,000 employes.<br />

Within one year 28 active cases of tuberculosis,<br />

including the works manager, hahd been discovered<br />

and removed for proper treatment.<br />

Industrial health work is being recognized more<br />

and more as a paying investment. According to<br />

Frank L. Rector, M.D., secretary, Conference Board<br />

of Physicians in Industry, New York City, "The gains<br />

in improved morale and continuity of employment, to<br />

say nothing of the humanitarian questions involved,<br />

will make it a profitable investment."<br />

It is one of the aims of the National Tuberculosis<br />

Association and its affiliated <strong>org</strong>anizations to educate<br />

working men and women more in the rules of healthful<br />

living, thereby making them not only happier but<br />

more useful as producers. In order to further this<br />

campaign of education, the eighteenth annual sale of<br />

Christmas seals will be held throughout the country<br />

in December.


November, 1925<br />

Prepares Lecture on Heat Insulation<br />

The Celite Products Company, Los Angeles, recently<br />

prepared a bulletin entitled "High Temperature<br />

Insulation," which is a compilation of data on<br />

the heat transmission methods. It takes into consideration<br />

the fact that the waste of industrial heat<br />

annually in this country is approximately a billion<br />

dollars, heat losses due to conduction and radiation<br />

averaging over 25 per cent of the total available heat<br />

in the fuel. The material was prepared and arranged<br />

primarily to be used with lantern slides as a lecture<br />

to be used by the engineering departments of the leading<br />

universities in the country. To give it a wider<br />

circulation, however, it has been printed.<br />

Automatic Magazine Feed for Inclinable<br />

Presses<br />

An automatic magazine feed for presses which are<br />

fed in an inclined position and which is claimed to<br />

eliminate the hazards connected with hand feeding of<br />

forming die work, has been added to the line of the<br />

F. J. Littell Machine Company, 4125 Ravenswood<br />

Avenue, Chicago. Material increase of production is<br />

also claimed, due to the feed catching every stroke of<br />

the press. The feed can be operated at the rate of<br />

70 to 75 pieces per minute, at which rate the capacity<br />

for a 9-hour day would be approximately 30,000 pieces,<br />

which is pointed out as being two or three times'<br />

faster than by hand feeding. A long stroke is used<br />

with this feed so that work is pushed from the magazine<br />

directly to the die without stopping at intermediate<br />

stations. One piece does not push another piece<br />

ahead of it. If a blank should lock in the magazine,<br />

a spring pin is unlatched which stops the magazine<br />

from feeding, which prevents breakage of the parts.<br />

After the forming operation, the work is lifted out<br />

of the die either by the punch or blown out by air. It<br />

is stated that in most cases it is better to lift the work<br />

with the punch, using the bar knock-out in the slide<br />

for pushing the piece off the punch and then blowing<br />

it clear with air. Magazines and pushers of various<br />

shapes can be used with the automatic feed, making<br />

it adaptable to feeding a wide range of forming work.<br />

Old Company Establishes New Department<br />

Bell & Gossett Company of Chicago have just announced<br />

the establishment of a general industrial instrument<br />

department which will pay particular attention<br />

to the engineering phases of pyrometer installations.<br />

To head this department the company has<br />

secured the services of Mr. C. C. McDermott, who is<br />

exceptionally well known throughout the industry.<br />

Mr. McDermott began his experience with the Brown<br />

Instrument Company in their factory at Philadelphia.<br />

Later he joined the <strong>org</strong>anization of the Republic Flow<br />

Meters Company, where he was in charge of the<br />

pyrometer division.<br />

Associated with Mr. McDermott is Mr. R. E.<br />

Soules, who has been with the Bell & Gossett Company<br />

for several years as a pyrometer specialist.<br />

The company announces that large stocks of complete<br />

thermocouples of the various elements commonly<br />

used, as well as protecting tubes of the better<br />

known materials, will be carried at all times.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Practical Hint on Holding Locked Dies<br />

By Harold D. Kelly<br />

4ii<br />

One experienced in drop f<strong>org</strong>ing will appreciate a<br />

device whereby a perfectly matched f<strong>org</strong>ing can be produced<br />

from a pair of locked dies, without undue strain<br />

on the hammer and without the use of dowels.<br />

Ordinarily the dies would be set as in A, Fig. 1, but<br />

the objection to this plan is that, when f<strong>org</strong>ing, the<br />

metal between the dies at b would throw the dies<br />

apart, the top die moving in the direction of arrow d,<br />

and the bottom die moving in the direction of e, thus<br />

producing a mismatched f<strong>org</strong>ing and causing unduestrain<br />

on the hammer.<br />

4"d—""" c<br />

Q yr<br />

x'l ""'"<br />

—-e<br />

FIG. 1.<br />

To overcome this, if the f<strong>org</strong>ing has a 7 deg.<br />

draught, tip the dies by planing off 5 deg. on the top<br />

and bottom dies along the lines x and x', causing the<br />

dies to set in the hammer as in B, Fig. 1. This overcomes<br />

the tendency for the dies to move apart as the<br />

slant on striking surfaces a and c offsets the slant on<br />

striking surface b.<br />

Defective Material and Processes<br />

(Continued from page 396)<br />

steel would spend a day now and again in reheating<br />

steel to different stages of burning and submit the<br />

burnt samples to different degrees of working. A<br />

study of this kind would enable the careful observer<br />

to express an opinion about steel which has been<br />

more or less burned and subsequently f<strong>org</strong>ed or rolled.<br />

To stand at the hammer or rolls and judge the<br />

temperature of the material before it is worked is not<br />

sufficient. The possibilities of an open coke fire, blastdriven,<br />

are well known and it is by no means certain<br />

that the reliability of a reverbatory furnace in this<br />

respect increases with the complexity of its design or<br />

its general economy in fuel. It is consistent with the<br />

greatest possible respect for temperature controls and<br />

recorders, to suggest that the eye of a good workman<br />

or supervisor will be found useful. Why one side of<br />

a stamping only is burnt or why only one part of a<br />

bar shatters on f<strong>org</strong>ing is a problem that one is occasionally<br />

confronted with, but a glance at the effects<br />

will suggest the cause and usually lead to a remedy.<br />

The main object of this paper is to commend the<br />

use of simple means of investigation such as pickling,<br />

etching and sulphur printing which require no elaborate<br />

apparatus and only a moderate degree of skill.<br />

However indispensable the more refined and difficult<br />

laboratory operations and apparatus may be, it is undoubtedly<br />

desirable to encourage in the factory itself<br />

the spirit of inquiry and the use of such means of investigation<br />

as are appropriate to factory conditions.


412 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating November, 1925<br />

aA Carefully Prepared List of Books on cTWetallurgy^<br />

and cAllied Subjects<br />

The Electro-Metallurgy of Steel Physico-Chemical Properties<br />

Enginereing Steels<br />

Gow<br />

of Steel<br />

Aitchison<br />

Illustrations, tables, 5^x8^, cloth,<br />

Edwards<br />

An exposition of the properties of<br />

367 pages. $7.50.<br />

Second edition, thoroughly revised,<br />

steel for engineers and users to secure<br />

CONTENTS — Historical Development of illustrated, 8vo. $6.00.<br />

economy in working and efficiency of<br />

Electric Furnaces; Definition of A. C. Char­ CONTENTS—Constitution of Metallic Sys­ result. 119 illustrations, 116 plates and<br />

acteristics; Application of Single and Polyphase tems, Structure of Metals; Iron; Constitution 2 folding plates, 5y,x&y2, cloth, 427<br />

Currents; Generation and Control of Single 'of the Iron Carbon System; Microstructure 01 pages. $6.00.<br />

and Polyphase Currents; Automatic Regulators, Iron-Carlton Steels; Solidification of Steel CONTENTS—Steel Melting Processes; the<br />

Accessory Instruments; Power Consumption ingots; Iron-Carbon Steels; Phosphorous; Sul­ Casting and Working of Steel; the Heat Treat­<br />

ami Contributor; Factors; Electro-Metallurgphur: Burning and Overheating of Steel; Dement of Steel; Mechanical Testing of Steel;<br />

ical Methods "f Melting and Refining Cold formation and Strain-Hardening of Metals; The Plain Carbon Steels; Alloy Steels; Cose-Hard-<br />

Charges; Liquid steel Refining; Ingot Cast­ Properties of Cold-Drawn Wire and the Effect ening Steels: Cold Worked" Steels; Tool Steels;<br />

ing; Application of Electric Furnace to Foun­ of Acid Cleaning; Cementation and Case- Appendices; The Influence of Sharp Corners and<br />

dry Practice; Characteristic Principles and Hardening; Materials Methods and Their of Testing Application Hardness; Scratches; Young's Modulus of Elasticity;<br />

Features of Furnace Design; Modern Types Theories to Engineering of Hardening Design by Quneching; Special Properties of Steels at High Temperatures;<br />

of Electric Metallurgy Steel Furnaces; of Steel Refractory Ma­ Allcut Steels; and Tungsten-Carbon' Miller Steels; High-Speed Professor Robertson's Axial Loading Shackles;<br />

terials, Harbourd Their and Hall Application to Furnace Con- 221 Tool illustrations, Steels; Manganese; 519 pages, Chromium; 8vo., Electrical Avery "Izod" Impact Testing Machine; Charpy<br />

Vol. Btruction; I. Seventh Furnace edition, Lining, thoroughly Lining Repairs; Conductivity cloth. $12.50. and Constitution.<br />

Pendulum Impact Testing Machine; Stanton<br />

revised, Propertes, 200 Manufacture illustrations, of Carbon 577 Electrodes; pages, CONTENTS—The Influence of Materials on Repeated Hardening Blow Impact and Testing Tempering Machine; of High<br />

8vo„ Rapid Methods cloth. $12.00. of Analysis for Bath Samples; Engineering Designs; Different Kinds of Steel, Alternating in Theory Stress and Testing Practice Machine; Brinell<br />

Index. CONTEXTS—The Manufacture of Steel— Stresses and Their Uses in Design; Testing and Reiser Ball Test Machine; Derihon "Hardness Testing"<br />

The Bessemer Process; The Basic Process; Measurement of Stresses; Strain Measuring Ap­ Translated Machine; Johnson from the Ball-Hardness German of the Testing Ma-<br />

Manufacture of Steel in Small Converters; paratus; Impact Testing, The Measurement of crine; third Lee and Reverse enlarged Testing edition Machine; by Arthur the At*<br />

Chemistry of the Acid Bessemer Process; Hardness; Chemical Composition and Micro- cherly Morris Bend and Testing Herbert Machine; Robson. Bibliography 5x7-)4. of<br />

Chemistry of the Basic Bessemer Process; Structure of Materials; Micro-Structure and Original cloth, 130 Papers pages. on the $2.50. Hardness of Metals.<br />

(las Producers; The Open Hearth or Siemens Composition of Steel; Chemical Composition and CONTENTS—Definition and Classification;<br />

Process; Basic Siemens Process; The Pro­ Micro-Structure of Cast Iron, Malleable Iron Chemical and Physical Properties and Their<br />

duction of Steel Castings; The Production of Castings; Steel Castings, Non-Ferrous Metals, Casual Connection; Classification According to<br />

Shear and Crucible Steel; Production of Steel and Alloys; The Heat Treatment of Steel and Use; Testing for Quality; Hardening; Investi­<br />

in the Electric Furnace; Armor Plate Manu­ Other Materials; Carbon Steels; Alloy Steels; gation of the Causes of Failure in Hardening;<br />

facture; Direct Processes of Steel Manufacture. An Introduction to the Study of<br />

Case-Hardening Steels; Iron and Steel Castings, Regeneration of Steel Spoilt in the Furnace;<br />

Finished Steel—Mechanical Testing of Mate­<br />

Physical Metallurgy<br />

Mechanical Treatment of Steel Including Malleable Iron and Semi-Steel Cast­ Welding.<br />

rials; Carbon and Iron; The Influence of Si,<br />

S,<br />

Harbourd<br />

P, Mn,<br />

and<br />

As,<br />

Hall<br />

ings;<br />

Rosenhain<br />

Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys Bearing Chemical Analysis of Iron<br />

Cu, Sn, Sb, etc., on the Phys­ 140<br />

Seventh<br />

ical Properties<br />

edition,<br />

of<br />

thoroughly<br />

Steel; Special<br />

re­<br />

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illustrations,<br />

The Inspection<br />

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Materials;<br />

375 pages.<br />

Non- Blair, Andrew and Alexander<br />

Steels or<br />

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399 illustrations,<br />

Heat Treatment<br />

567<br />

of<br />

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Steel; Micro­<br />

8vo.,<br />

Metallic<br />

(^Metallurgy<br />

Materials,<br />

Series.)<br />

Examples<br />

$4.00.<br />

of Practical Ap­ Eighth edition, revised. 102 illusscopical<br />

cloth. $12.00.<br />

plication<br />

CONTENTS—Introductory.<br />

; Tables.<br />

Structure and trations, 318 pages, 8vo., cloth. $5.00.<br />

Examinations of Steel; Typical Steel Constitution of Metals and Alloys. Microscopic CONTENTS—Apparatus for the Preparation<br />

Plants;<br />

CONTENTS—The<br />

Photomicrographs.<br />

Mechanical<br />

Appendices.<br />

Treatment of Examination of Metals; The Metallurgical Mi­ of Samples; General Laboratory Apparatus; Re­<br />

Steel — General Principles. Reheating — liecroscope; The Microstructure of Pure Metals agents; Distilled Water; Acids and Halogens:<br />

heating Furnaces; Handling Material at the and of Alloys: Thermal Study of Alloys; The Gases; Alkalies and Alkaline Salts; Salts of<br />

Reheating Furnaces: Details of Rolling Mills; Constitutional Diagram and the Physical Prop­ Alkaline Earths; Metals and Metallic Salts;<br />

The Five Leading Types of Mill; The Operaerties of Alloys; Typical Alloy Systems; The Reagents for Determining Phosphorous; Methtion<br />

of Rolling; Rolls for Three-High Mills; Iron-Carbon System. The Properties of Metals ods for the Analysis of Pig-Iron, Bar-Iron, and<br />

Special Mills; Handling Material at the Rolls; as Related to Their Structure and Constitution. Steel; Determination of Sulphur, Slag and Ox­<br />

The Supply of Power; The Supply of Power Mechanical Practical Testing of Microscopical<br />

Metals; Effect of Strain ides, Phosphorus, Manganese, Carbon, Total<br />

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on the Structure of Metals; Thermal Treatment Carbon, Graphitic Carbon, Combined Carbon,<br />

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Greaves of Metals; and Mechanical Wrighton Treatment of Metals, in­ Titanium, Copper, Nickel and Cobalt, Chrom­<br />

—Their Uses and Outputs; Common Mills—<br />

Full-page cluding Casting; plates, Defects charts, and tables, Failures in Metals ium, Aluminum, Arsenic, Tin; Methods for the<br />

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Tungsten, Oxygen in Steel and Iron, Nitrogen<br />

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CONTENTS—Introduction; Preparation of in Steel and Iron, Iron in Steel and Iron;<br />

By<br />

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F<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

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Tube-Making;<br />

483 pages,<br />

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285<br />

ing:<br />

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Properties of Ingot Iron, Wrought Iron, Struc­ Ferro-Silicon, Ferro-ManganeBe and Manganese<br />

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CONTENTS—The<br />

Future of the Steel<br />

Testing<br />

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Tempering and Toughening. Case Carburizing. Work; Structure and Properties of Hardened and Coke: Apparatus for the Determination of<br />

Case Hardening. Thermal Treatment. Heat and Tempered Carbon Steels; Structures and Metals by Electrolysis; Tables; Index.<br />

Generation. Heat Application. Carbon Steels. Properties of Alloy Steels, and Effect of Heat Microscopic Analysis of Metals<br />

Nickel Steels. Chrome Steels. Chrome Nickel Treatment; Non-Metalic Inclusions and Defects Osmond and Stead<br />

Steels. Vanadium Steels. Manganese, Silicon in Steel; Structure and Properties of Pig Iron, Third edition, revised and corrected<br />

and Other Alloy Steels. Tool Steel and Tools. Cast Iron and Malleable Cast Iron; Effect of by L. P. Sidney. 313 pages, 8vo.,<br />

Miscellaneous Treatments. Pyrometers and<br />

Critical Range Determination.<br />

Impurities in Copper; Structures and Properties<br />

of micrographs.minum; Alloys Alloys and Structure of Bearing Copper 8ubject of Metals. with Index. Aluminum Zinc, Index Tin Alloys, of and PhotoAlu­ Zinc<br />

cloth. $4.00.<br />

tomical and the book ures of Analysis Carbon every with Identification Selected ures The Polishing, Phenomena Pathological and which is 195 respect. new Metallography, now Steels, covers Steels, of photomicrographs, render edition in Carbon of Grinding, It of such preparation Metallography, the is Burning, it of very important Segregation Detailed Steels, thoroughly Primary Biological this etc., beautifully and Overheating, extremely diagrams the subjects Examination Constituents al-so comprises Metallography,<br />

up in Micrographir<br />

Micrographs<br />

the to illustrated Steel valuable and as Science date etc.<br />

featAnafig­ and of<br />

in


November, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Siamping - Heaf Treating<br />

Microscopic Examination of Steel Technical Analysis of Steel and<br />

Strength of Materials<br />

Fay<br />

Steel Works Materials<br />

Poorman<br />

By Henry Fay, Professor of Ana­ Sisco<br />

313 pages, 6x9, 211 illustrations.<br />

lytical Chemistry and Metallography, 543 pages, 6x9. $5.00.<br />

$3.00. In this new book Professor<br />

Massachusetts Institute of Technol­ The aim of the book is fivefold: 1. To give Poorman's ability to appreciate the stuogy.<br />

8 pages, 6x9, 1 figure and 55 pho­ to the routine analyst who hopes to advance, dent's difficulties and to simplify and<br />

tomicrographs, cloth. $1.50.<br />

the best known methods for the analysis of spe­ clarify the explanations of abstruse<br />

CONTENTS—Slowly Cooled Steels. Rapidly cial steels and steel works materials and a points is again apparent. Throughout<br />

Cooled Steels. Annealed Steels. Non-Metallic bird's-eye view of the problems encountered in the work a large number of illustra­<br />

Impurities. Microstructure. Slag. Streaks. operating a routine laboratory. 2. To emphasize tive examples have been worked out in<br />

Heat Treatment. Composition. The Effect of the need of speed in analytical control. 3. To detail to aid the student in mastering<br />

Work on Grain Size. 10-inch Rifle, Model of give the industrial chemist the best, simplest the relation between theory and appli­<br />

1895. 14-inch Gun Lever. 12-inch Navy and most rapid methods for the analysis of any cation. The book offers a well-bal­<br />

Gun. Polishing. Etching.<br />

sample of steel or steel works materials that he anced, vigorous text.<br />

Steel Foundry<br />

may encounter. 4. To give to the college stu­ CONTENTS—Elastc Stresses and Deforma­<br />

Hall<br />

dent in metallurgical chemistry the methods of tions; Tension and Compression; Ultimate<br />

New second edition, 55 illustrations, steel analysis with emphasis on, not how the Stresses and Deformations: Tension and Com­<br />

334 pages, 6x9. $4.00.<br />

work should The be Fatigue done, but of how Metals it is done, in the pression ; Shearing Stresses and Deformations;<br />

CONTENTS—I. Introductory; II. General works Gough laboratory. 5. To give to the steel Riveted Joints; Shear and Moment in Beams;<br />

Considerations Governing the Choice of a worker, Numerous from illustrations, furnace helper diagrams, to general super­ Stresses in Beams; Deflection of Cantilever and<br />

Method of Steel Making; III. The Crucible intendent, tables, 6x10, an account, cloth, 324 readily pages. comprehended, $10.00. Simple Beams; Fixed and Continuous Beams:<br />

Process; IV. The Bessemer Process; V. The perhaps, This work of the contains steel laboratory practically and all the its availprob­ Beams of Constant Strength; Beams of Two<br />

Open Hearth Process; VI. The Electric Furlems.able information with regard to its subject, Materials; Industrial Resilience Furnaces. in Beams; Principles Torsion of<br />

nace; Electric VII. Summary, Furnaces Special in the Deoxidizers, Iron including accounts of the most recent re­ Shafts; and Combined Furnace Stresses; Calculations<br />

Suler's Column<br />

Ladles; VIII. and Moulding, Steel Industry<br />

Pouring and Digging searches; The importance, to designers of Formula; Trinks Rankin's Column Formula; Straight<br />

Out; Rodenhauser, IX. Heat Schoenawa, Treatment and Vom Annealing; Baur X. structures and machines, of an understanding Line By Column W. Trinks, Formula; M.E., Column Consulting in General; En­<br />

Finishing, Dr. Dipl. Straightening Ing. W. and Rodenhauser,<br />

Welding; XI. of the phenomena of "Fatigue of Metals" has Deflection gineer, Professor of Beams by of Area Mechanical Moment Method; En­<br />

Laboratories; E.E., and J. XII. Schoenawa. Building Up Impurities Translated in now achieved universal recognition, and this Deflection gineering, of Head Beams of by Department Equivalent Cantilever of Me­<br />

Steel. from the original and rewritten by C. volume has been prepared primarily to satisfy Method; chanical Curved Engineering, Beams and Hooks. Carnegie Insti­<br />

H. Vom Baur, E.E., formerly Chief this demand.<br />

tute of Technology. Volume I. 319<br />

Engineer, American Electric Furnace CONTENTS—Repeated Stress Testing Ma­ pages, 6x9, 255 figures, cloth. $4.50.<br />

Company. Third edition, revised, 460 chines ; Endurance Limit of a Ferrous Metal; CONTENTS—Introduction. Heating Capac­<br />

pages, 133 figures, two full-page Relation Between the safe Range of Stress and ity of Furnaces. Fuel Economy of Furnaces.<br />

plates, cloth. $4.50.<br />

the Mean Stress of the Cycle; The Limiting Heat-Saving Appliances in Combustion Fur­<br />

Thoroughly describes electric furnaces de­ Range of Stress of a Metal as a Physical Charnaces. Modern Strength Open and Durability Hearth of Plant Furnaces,<br />

signed solely for the iron and steel industry, acteristic of the Metal; Elasticity and Its Re­ Movement Hermanns of Gases in Furnaces.<br />

"written from a practical standpoint by practical lation to the Science Fatigue of Metals; Metals Correlation of Diagrams, tables, 7x10, cloth, 307<br />

men. Deals first with the construction and the the Jeffries Fatigue and Range Archer of a Metal and the Results pages. $10.00.<br />

appartus, and second, with the practical use of of 200 Other illustrations, Mechanical Tests; 500 pages, Fracture 6x9. of Metals This is a book on the one hand for the steel<br />

furnaces and their metallurgical reactions. Under $5.00. Statical and Repeated Stresses; Various works staff and managers, on the other hand for<br />

A Metallographic Study on<br />

Theories CONTFNTS of Fatigue — Introductory; Failure and Associated Electrons, technical and higher grade students.<br />

Tungsten Steels<br />

Phenomena; Atoms and Molecules; Various Suggested Crystalline Methods Structure of of The book opens with a short history of the<br />

Hultgren<br />

Rapidly Metals; Determining The Amorphous Fatigue Metal Ranges. Hypothesis; Bibli­ Siemens-Martin process, and after outlining the<br />

By Axel Hultgren, Chief of Research ography. Grain Growth Appendix. and Recrystallization; Mechanical metallurgical theory, consideration is given to<br />

Laboratory of A. B. Svenska Kulla- Properties of Metals; Compounds of Metals; the layout of steel works and the detailed<br />

garfabriken (S. K. F.), Gothenburg, Metallic Solid Solutions; Constitution of Alloys; examination of the work which each section<br />

Sweden. 95 pages, 6x9, 5 full-page Structure and<br />

Iron<br />

Properties<br />

and<br />

of<br />

Steel<br />

Aggregates; Hard­ has to perform Numerous plans point the moral<br />

diagrams, 76 photomicrographs, cloth.<br />

Tiemann ness of Metals; Hardening of Steel.<br />

and emphasize the difference between good and<br />

$3.00.<br />

New second edition, 514 pages, flex­ bad practice, for the question of economy in<br />

CONTENTS—Part I. The Transformation<br />

ible pocket size, illustrated. $4.00. transport is intimately involved.<br />

of Tungsten Steels During Different Heat Treat­<br />

This is a dictionary, an encyclopedia, a Those concerned with the design and workments<br />

and the Structures Thereby Formed.<br />

hand-book on iron and steel all in one. The ing of melting furnaces will find here invalu­<br />

Part II. Carbides in Tungsten Steels. Supple­<br />

metallurgist, the mill superintendent, and the able data and comparison. Important sections<br />

ment Concerning Carbides in Other Alloy<br />

salesman will find it of daily use. The book on producers, charging machines, crane ar­<br />

Steels. Appendix Investigations on Tungsten<br />

presents nearly 8,000 terms and definitions of rangements, waste-heat boilers and all those<br />

Steels by Honda and Murakami.<br />

processes and equipment so arranged that you secondary improvements which can determine<br />

Rapid Methods for the Chemical<br />

can find exactly what you want quickly. It the balance between profit and loss, follow.<br />

Analysis of Special Steels, Steel<br />

brings together and translates the varied nomen­ CONTENTS—Introduction: Historical and<br />

Making Alloys and Graphite<br />

clature of the mill, the laboratory and the Statistical Data on the Open Hearth Process.<br />

Johnson<br />

office. For those who use steel, for those who The Metallurgical Principles of the Open<br />

By Charles Morris Johnson, Chief<br />

manufacture steel and steel products, and for Hearth Process. The Location of the Steel<br />

Chemist and Director of Research De­<br />

those who sell steel, it is a valuable guide to, Works in Relation to Other Plant; Supply of<br />

partment, Park Steel Works, Crucible<br />

the necessary information as to processes and Raw Material; Supply of Liquid Iron; Provi­<br />

Steel Company of America. Third edi­<br />

methods. This new second edition is almost sion of Heat; Removal of the Products; Railtion,<br />

revised, 552 pages, 6x9, 70 figures,<br />

twice as large as the first edition. The chief way Sidings. Relative Location of the Indi­<br />

Send order and remittance<br />

cloth. $6.00.<br />

increase to FORGING-STAMPING-HEAT in the text is due to more extended<br />

TREATING<br />

vidual Departments: Raw Material and Fur­<br />

An unusually thorough revision, including Book all Department—Box discussions of subjects, such 65, as heat Pittsburgh, treatment, nace Pa.<br />

Material Stores; Transverse Sections of<br />

of the important new metals as well as new<br />

physical propertes, and testing, and to numer­ the Open Hearth Steel Works; Various Bays<br />

methods for the analysis of older ones. Anyone<br />

ous investigations of the more theoretical as­ of the Steel Works. Details of Equipment;<br />

who knows general chemistry can follow the<br />

pects of the subject, particularly those included Buildings; Furnaces; Gas Producers; Anxiliaiy<br />

author's instructions and get real results.<br />

under metallography.<br />

Waste malesses—Present Machinery.<br />

prove Steel fication Biblography. Efficiency. Works: the Heat Plant; Thermal Boilers;<br />

Arrangements<br />

Index. Recovery The Applications Application Efficiency Duplex Supervision of<br />

and<br />

Tar and of and of from<br />

Efforts<br />

Triplex Open of Richer Prospects. the Hearth<br />

to<br />

ProcTherGasi­ Gases:<br />

Im­<br />

413


414<br />

'iii'miiiinuumiiiiiii'imiiiim uiiiiiiiiiin i'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mi iiiiniiuniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinimiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiffiiiiii<br />

P E R S O N A L S<br />

;ii/iii.;m iiiiiiiiii'ur n n i i mi.i i, mi 'i i.'iininiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinilill<br />

II. Terhune, well known in the drop f<strong>org</strong>ing industry<br />

as a capable engineer and salesman, and who for<br />

many years was connected with Billings & SperTcer<br />

Company, also later with Chambersburg Engineering<br />

Company, has joined the sales staff of the Erie Foundry<br />

Company, Km-. Pa., builders of high grade f<strong>org</strong>e<br />

shop equipment, including steam f<strong>org</strong>ing hammers,<br />

hoard and steam drop hammers, trimming presses, etc,<br />

* * *<br />

David Dawborn, sales engineer with the Allis-<br />

Chalmers Manufacturing Company of Milwaukee, was<br />

killed in an automobile accident in .Milwaukee, on<br />

October 1. Mr. Dawbarn came to Milwaukee from<br />

Liverpool, England, to study factory methods at the<br />

main plant of the company.<br />

* * *<br />

Fred E. Bright, former president of the Hess-<br />

Bright Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia, died<br />

on October 6 at Greenwich, Conn. He was in his<br />

sixty-ninth year.<br />

X. A. Mears now is general manager of the plant<br />

of the Chicago F<strong>org</strong>e & Manufacturing- Company,<br />

Chicago.<br />

G. W. Knight has resigned as chief engineer of the<br />

Atlas Steel Corporation. Dunkirk. X. Y., to become<br />

general manager of the Pennsylvania Salt Company,<br />

Natrona, Pa.<br />

Albert F. Breitenstein has been appointed works<br />

manager of the Geometric Tool Company, Xew<br />

Haven, Conn.<br />

J. L. Jones, manager of the experimental laboratory<br />

of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing<br />

Company, has been made chairman of the gray iron<br />

castings committee of the American Foundrymen's<br />

Association.<br />

* * *<br />

\Y. H. B. Ward, vice president and superintendent<br />

of operations of the Trumbull Steel Companv, Warren,<br />

Ohio, has resigned as superintendent, but remains<br />

as officer and director. He has been connected<br />

in a managerial capacity with the company since its<br />

formation.<br />

* * *<br />

Dr. William F. M. Goss, former president of the<br />

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and of the<br />

Railway Car Manufacturers Association, has retired<br />

from business and has moved to Barnstable, Mass.<br />

* * *<br />

R. A. McClelland has resigned as hot mill superintendent<br />

of the Newport Rolling Mill Companv,<br />

Xewport. Ky., to become assistant general superintendent<br />

of the Central Steel Companv. Massillon,<br />

Ohio.<br />

* * *<br />

Richard B. Mellon, Pittsburgh, has been elected a<br />

director of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing<br />

Company to fill the vacancy caused by the death<br />

of William McComvay.<br />

* * *<br />

A. W. F. Green, metallurgist. John Illingworth<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - S f amping - Heat Iroating<br />

November, 1925<br />

Steel Company, Philadelphia, gave an illustrated talk<br />

on the manufacture of carbon crucible steel before the<br />

Hartford Chapter, A. S. S. T., at the October meeting.<br />

* * *<br />

R. (j. Bullock, formerly chief engineer for the Art<br />

Metal Construction Company, Jamestown, N. Y.,<br />

manufacturer of metal furniture, has been appointed<br />

works manager of all of the company's plants.<br />

* * *<br />

J. D. Jones, general manager of the Algoma Steel<br />

Corporation, has been appointed a director of the Lake<br />

Superior Corporation, the Algoma Steel Corporation,<br />

and the subsidiary companies, including the Cannelton<br />

Coal Company,<br />

* * *<br />

Fred W Kulicke has been appointed sales engineer<br />

of the Budd Wheel Company, to succeed B. W.<br />

Brodt, who resigned. For the past nine years Mr.<br />

Kulicke has been connected with the A^twater Kent<br />

Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia.<br />

J. H. Alain has been appointed sales representative<br />

in Detroit for the General Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company of<br />

Buffalo, X. Y.<br />

* * *<br />

D. G. Caywood, who for several years has been<br />

manager of the Boston branch of the Black & Decker<br />

Manufacturing Company, has been promoted and will<br />

now act as a special representative for the company<br />

on various types of special work. aA.. D. Gciger, formerly<br />

salesman in the Kansas City branch of the<br />

Black & Decker Manufacturing Company, has been<br />

selected to take Mr. Caywood's place in the Boston<br />

branch.<br />

* *• *<br />

Mr. P J. Riccobene has recently joined the home<br />

office sales <strong>org</strong>anization of the Uehling Instrument<br />

Company, 473 Getty Avenue, Paterson, N. J. Mr.<br />

Ricobene is a graduate ot Xew York University in the<br />

Department of Mechanical Engineering and is a Junior<br />

Member of the A. S. M. E.<br />

OBITUARIES<br />

William B. Dukeshire, treasurer of the Dukeshire<br />

Steel & F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Maspeth, L. I., died September<br />

25, in the Long Island College Hospital, aged 36<br />

years. Mr. Dukeshire was educated at Stevens Institute<br />

of Technology and formerly was treasurer of the<br />

Century Steel Company, Poughkeepsie.<br />

* * *<br />

Oliver Transue, president of Transue & Williams<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Corporation, Alliance, Ohio, died in a Cleveland<br />

hospital October 19, after a three weeks' illness.<br />

He was a director of the Republic Stamping &<br />

Enameling Company, Canton, Ohio, and the Buckeye<br />

Twist Drill Company, Alliance, and was prominently<br />

identified with several banking interests.<br />

* •* *<br />

J. W Grace, father of Eugene G. Grace, president<br />

of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, died in Jefferson<br />

Hospital, Philadelphia. October 12; Mr. Grace, who<br />

was 82 years of age. had been under treatment in the<br />

hospital since last March.


November, 1925<br />

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PLANT NEWS<br />

iiiiiiiiiih iiiiiiiiiini iimiiiiiimiiiiinwiimiinimi in i i minimi , „iii n mn minimum<br />

Poulsen & Xardon Tool & Die Works, Los Angeles,<br />

has moved to larger headquarters at 1255 East<br />

Ninth Stret.<br />

Federal Tool & Alloy Steel Corporation, Brooklyn,<br />

N. Y., has changed its name to the Swedish Iron<br />

& Steel Corporation.<br />

* * *<br />

Robert W. Hunt Company, Engineers, Chicago,<br />

has opened a branch office and cement laboratory<br />

office at Room 420, Alabama Power Company Bldg.,<br />

Birmingham, Ala., in charge of T. C. Peace, resident<br />

manager.<br />

* * *<br />

Trunk Rack Company, Fostoria, Ohio, F. J. Bradley,<br />

president, manufacturer of steel racks for automobiles,<br />

has completed removal of its plant to Ypsilanti,<br />

Mich., where its output will be increased.<br />

Buhr Machine Tool Company, Ann Arbor, Mich.,<br />

recently formed, has taken over the patents of the J.<br />

F. Buhl Machine Tool Company, manufacturer of multiple<br />

drills and taps, and has bought the plant of the<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Products Company, Ann Arbor, Mich., where<br />

production will be carried on.<br />

The Zeh & Hannemann Company, 190 Vanderpool<br />

St., Newark, N. J., manufacturer of presses and other<br />

machinery, has awarded a general contract to William<br />

C. Phelps & Company, 21 Fulton Street, for a<br />

one-story addition to its machine shop, including improvements<br />

in the present shop, to cost $25,000. Fred<br />

A. Phelps, 21 Fulton Street, is architect.<br />

* * *<br />

The business of the Lakeside F<strong>org</strong>e Company,<br />

Erie, Pa., including the buildings, manufacturing<br />

equipment and patterns and tools for the manufacture<br />

of open end and adjustable wrenches, pliers, barrel<br />

spuds, eye bolts and general f<strong>org</strong>ings, is to be sold in<br />

part or whole by the Machine Tool Sales Company,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

* * *<br />

The Federal Pressed Steel Company, Milwaukee,<br />

has plans for an addition to its shop, to cost about<br />

$20,000 with new equipment now being acquired. The<br />

principal product is automobile bumpers, although a<br />

varied line of steel stampings is manufactured. The<br />

main works are at Keefe Avenue and North Pierce<br />

Street.<br />

* * *<br />

The Spicer Manufacturing Company, Pottstown,<br />

Pa., manufacturer of universal joints, drop f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

for automobiles, etc., has plans for a one-story addition<br />

to its No. 4 building, 60x85 ft., to cost $50,000 with<br />

equipment. The main plant of the company is at<br />

South Plainfield, N. J.<br />

* * *<br />

The Valley Mold & Iron Corporation, Sharpesville.<br />

Pa., manufacturer of ingot molds, hearth jackets,<br />

etc, has acquired property at South Chicago, 111., for<br />

a branch plant to cost $1,000,000 with equipment.<br />

Plans are being completed.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hoaf Iroafing<br />

415<br />

The Benton Harbor F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Benton<br />

Harbor, Mich., awarded contract to the Max W. Stock<br />

Construction Company for an addition 39 x 60 ft. to<br />

its hammer shop.<br />

The Hayes Wheel Company, Jackson, Mich.,<br />

manufacturer of steel automobile wheels, is said to<br />

have preliminary plans for an addition on South Horton<br />

Street to cost about $400,000 with equipment.<br />

* # #<br />

The Chrysler Motor Corporation, Newcastle, Ind.,<br />

will install additional machinery at its local plant,<br />

using about 90,000 sq. ft. of floor space vacated recently<br />

by the service department, which has been removed<br />

to Dayton, Ohio. It is expected to provide<br />

facilities for the employment of about 500 additional<br />

persons. Ledyard Mitchell is vice president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Tucker Foundry Company, Medina, X'. Y., has<br />

been formed with a capital of $250,000 to take over<br />

and operate the foundry of the Central Foundry Company,<br />

recently discontinuing production. Iron and<br />

other metal castings will be manufactured. The new<br />

company is headed by A. H. and M. E. Tucker, F. W.<br />

Austin and F. C. Tillman.<br />

* * *<br />

The Glasgow Iron Company, Harrison Bldg.,<br />

Philadelphia, is said to have preliminary plans for rebuilding<br />

the portion of its works at Pottstown, Pa.,<br />

recently destroyed by fire, with loss of about $100,000,<br />

including equipment. The company manufactures<br />

boiler plates, nails and kindred products.<br />

* * *<br />

The Acme Stamping Works, Zeeland, Mich.,<br />

manufacturer of automobile brass fittings, has plans<br />

for an addition totaling about 10,000 sq. ft. to cost<br />

$25,000 with equipment. John A. Donia is president.<br />

* * *<br />

Joseph T. Ryerson & Son, Inc., of Chicago, has<br />

acquired full rights covering the line of horizontal<br />

drilling and boring machines manufactured and sold<br />

by the Harnischfeger Corporation of Milwaukee.<br />

* * *<br />

The Chattanooga Stamping & Enameling Company,<br />

Chattanooga, Tenn., has plans for three onestory<br />

additions, two 50x100 ft. and the other 30x60 ft.,<br />

with additional equipment to increase the present<br />

capacity about 50 per cent. The work is estimated<br />

to cost $50,000.<br />

+ + %<br />

The A. F. Thompson Manufacturing Company,<br />

Eighth and First Streets, Huntington, W. Va., manufacturer<br />

of stoves, etc., is reported to be negotiating<br />

for the purchase of the plant of the Saks Stamping<br />

Company, Westmoreland, W Va., manufacturer of<br />

enamelware. It is proposed to expand the work and<br />

arrange departments for stove manufacture. A. F.<br />

Thompson is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The new drop f<strong>org</strong>ing plant of the Lebanon Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Lebanon, Pa., being erected by the<br />

Truscon Steel Company, will be completed in about<br />

three weeks. Since the destruction of the old plant by<br />

fire some time ago, production has been on a temporary<br />

basis in a small adjacent shop. The present<br />

facilities will be continued in conjunction with the<br />

new plant, as well as the use of the output of 15 hammers<br />

in another nearby shop.


416<br />

Stockholders of the Jamestown Car Parts Manufacturing<br />

Company, Jamestown, X. Y.. manufacturer<br />

of automobile radiators, voted to change the name of<br />

the company to the Jamestown Metal Equipment Corporation.<br />

The company will also manufacture metal<br />

furniture products and is installing equipment in a<br />

new addition for this work. Gustave A. Lawson is<br />

secretary and general manager.<br />

Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio, manufacturer<br />

of the "Stable-arc" welder, is planning to extend<br />

the training course in welding which it has been<br />

conducting for the last two years in co-operation with<br />

the Cleveland School of Technology. The plan provides<br />

for alternating five-week training courses, by<br />

which half of the students' time is spent in the manufacturing<br />

plant and the other half in school. The students<br />

during the time they work in the factory are<br />

paid the same as full time men.<br />

* * *<br />

I'". W. Bliss Company, Fifty-third Street and Second<br />

Avenue, Brooklyn, i\T. V, has moved its Detroit<br />

office from the Dime Bank Bldg. to the General Motors<br />

Bldg., Detroit, Mich.<br />

* * *<br />

General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y., has<br />

made plans for the immediate erection of a large warehouse<br />

and office building at Santa Fe Avenue and<br />

Fifty-second Street, Los Angeles, Calif. The plant<br />

will be used as a distributing center.<br />

The Latrobe Electric Steel Company, Latrobe, Pa.,<br />

has awarded a general contract to the Fort Pitt Bridge<br />

Company, Pittsburgh, for its proposed one-story mill<br />

to cost $130,000 with equipment. M. W. Saxman is<br />

president.<br />

K]c $ $<br />

The Air Reduction Sales Company of Xew York<br />

has served notice to users of oxy-acetylene processes<br />

in regard to the utilization of apparatus of the Messer<br />

and Heylandt types manufactured in Germany. There<br />

is a suit pending now in the U. S. District Court in<br />

Delaware against a user of similar equipment because<br />

it infringes on patents owned by the A*\ir Reduction<br />

Sales Company.<br />

Announcement has been made that the Xational<br />

Enameling & Stamping Company is about to transfer<br />

its general offices from New York to Milwaukee, the<br />

seat of one of its principal production centers. A floor<br />

has been leased in the First Wisconsin Xational Bank<br />

Building.<br />

* * *<br />

The Brown Instrument Company, Philadelphia,<br />

Pa., has opened an office in charge of Mr. J. R. Green.<br />

at 215 East Xew York Street, Indianapolis, Ind., and<br />

one in charge of Mr. G. S. Frazee at Room 1108, Hippodrome<br />

Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.<br />

The Uehling Instrument Company of Paterson, N.<br />

J., recently appointed the Ernest E. Lee Company, 115<br />

South Dearborn Street, Chicago, to represent them in<br />

Xorthern Illinois and Xorthern Indiana in connection<br />

with the sale of CO. recorders, fuel waste meters and<br />

other power plant instruments.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

November, 1925<br />

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TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

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F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Hoaf Treating<br />

R O D M A N<br />

P R O D U C T S<br />

Sealright<br />

C a r b o<br />

Case Hardening Compounds<br />

Longer life and uniform quality.<br />

A luting material that does not corrode the<br />

containers. It prolongs their life indefinitely.<br />

Quenching Oil<br />

A faster oil with uniform quenching char­<br />

acteristics.<br />

R O D M A N CHEMICAL C O M P A N Y<br />

VERONA, PA.<br />

Detroit, 408 Manistique Street<br />

St. Louis, 2024 Railway Exchange Bldg.<br />

Pacific Coast Representatives:<br />

Waterhouse & Lester Company<br />

San Francisco and Portland<br />

New England Heat Treating Service Co., Inc.<br />

112 High Street, Hartford, Conn.<br />

Co-operate: Refer to F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

416-A


.•ml ler, 1025 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Tool Steels—A handsome cloth-bound volume on<br />

tool steels, constituting a handbook for the purchasing<br />

agent, the steel treater and user has been issued by<br />

E. S. Jackman & Company, selling agents for Firth-<br />

Sterling Steel Company, McKeesport. Pa. It is designed<br />

to be useful to the buyer, to the scientifictechnical<br />

man with engineering or metallurgical<br />

training and also to the man in the shop who selects,<br />

treats and uses tool steels. It also is a catalog of the<br />

steels made by this company, with data to guide in<br />

selection of the proper grade.<br />

* * *<br />

Vacuum Recorders — Uehling Instrument Company,<br />

Paterson, N. J. Bulletin Xo. 140 describes<br />

vacuum recorders of the company's make, which operate<br />

on the mercury column principle and employ<br />

no moving parts, springs or diaphragms. Permanent<br />

accuracy is claimed for this principle.<br />

* * *<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ings—Mid-West F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, First<br />

National Bank Bldg., Chicago. Catalog illustrating<br />

light f<strong>org</strong>ings, springs and other parts required by the<br />

agricultural implement industry.<br />

* * *<br />

Gas Regulators—Alexander Milburn Company,<br />

Baltimore. Bulletin No. 200-A, illustrated, describes<br />

Milburn regulators, showing their adaption to reducing<br />

the varying gas pressures as required for welding<br />

and cutting. One section is devoted to manifolds for<br />

oxygen, acetylene and other gases.<br />

* * *<br />

Stokers—Detroit Stoker Company, General Motors<br />

Bldg., Detroit. Bulletin No. 1018, describing the<br />

Detroit underfeed stokers of the single retort type.<br />

Included are a number of fuel bed cross sections<br />

showing conditions of the fire with respect to air distribution<br />

and movement toward the dumps. One section<br />

of the book is devoted to the application of the<br />

stoker to both low and high set boilers. Another section<br />

shows how twin settings serve very large boilers.<br />

Fuel Oil Pumping—Ames Pump & Machinery<br />

Corporation. Xew York. Specification No. 102. describing<br />

the Ames unit system of pumping, heating and<br />

straining fuel oil. with automatic control of temperatures<br />

and pressure. This is designed for mechanical,<br />

steam or air atomizer oil burners.<br />

Draft Instruments—Republic Flow Meters Company.<br />

2240 Diversey Parkway, Chicago. Folder showing<br />

multiple draft indicators, pressure indicators and<br />

recorders for boiler plants.<br />

* * *<br />

High-Temperature Insulation — Celite Products<br />

Company. Los Angeles. Reprint of a lecture compiled<br />

by the company for use by engineering departments<br />

of colleges and universities. This is well illustrated,<br />

both by photographs and line-cuts. It deals with<br />

methods of heat transmission through heated walls.<br />

giving formulas for determining heat losses, etc.<br />

Welding Rods Chicago Steel & Wire Company,<br />

103rd St. and Torrence Ave., Chicago. Booklet de­<br />

417<br />

voted to the properties of steel welding rods for gas<br />

and electric weldings. Data were gathered by the<br />

research department, the first half of the 28 pages<br />

being devoted to general consideration of the subject.<br />

* * *<br />

Stainless Steel and Iron—American Stainless Steel<br />

Company, Commonwealth Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

Circular containing a list of some of the many applications<br />

of stainless steel and iron.<br />

Trucks and Tractors—Crescent Truck Companv,<br />

Lebanon. Pa. Catalogue describing the complete line<br />

of electric industrial trucks, tractors, and trailers made<br />

by this company. Specifications are given for the<br />

different types of trucks, and a wide variety of applications<br />

is illustrated.<br />

* * *<br />

Arc Welding—Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland,<br />

Ohio. Bulletin descriptive of electric arc welding,<br />

with particular reference to the use of the "Stablearc"<br />

welder, which is built for both alternating and<br />

direct current, and may be applied for general welding<br />

in manufacturing.<br />

* * *<br />

Hacksaws—Simmonds Saw & Steel Company,<br />

Fitchburg, Mass., is distributing a booklet entitled<br />

"Hacksaw-ology" containing information on the care<br />

and use of hacksaw blades. The best methods for<br />

cutting different kinds of metals by power or hand<br />

are explained in non-technical terms. Directions for<br />

the proper selection of blades for various cutting operations<br />

and the use of lubricants in power operations<br />

are given. The booklet is made in vest-pocket size<br />

for ready reference.<br />

* * *<br />

Recording Pressure and Vacuum Gages—Brown<br />

Instrument Company. 4532 Wayne Ave., Philadelphia,<br />

Pa. Catalogue 74, illustrating and describing Brown<br />

recording pressure and vacuum gages. The booklet<br />

reproduces some typical charts made with these gages,<br />

and describes their application.<br />

Cranes and Foundry Equipment Whiting Corporation.<br />

Harvey, 111. General catalogue, covering the<br />

complete line of cranes and foundry equipment made<br />

by this concern, including cranes of all types, cupolas,<br />

ladles, tumbling mills, core oven equipment, trucks,<br />

turntables, and trolley systems, air hoists and elevators,<br />

converters and brass foundry equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

Equipment for Drawing Steel—Leeds & Northrup<br />

Company, 4901 Stenton Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Catalog 93, descriptive of the "Homo" method for the<br />

drawing of steel. Considerable technical information<br />

is given regarding the process and the equipment<br />

employed, including the "Homo" electric drawing furnace,<br />

single point recording potentiometer controller,<br />

and automatic control panel.<br />

Monel Metal—The International Nickel Company,<br />

67 Wall St., New York, N. Y., has published a series<br />

of reprints of advertisements placed in the August<br />

1925 issue of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering<br />

by manufacturers, featuring monel-metal products.


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j r<strong>org</strong>iiig-S:Tamping-fl€W 1^^ I<br />

= Vol. XI PITTSBURGH, PA., DECEMBER, 1925 No. 12 |<br />

C O - O P E R A T I O N<br />

T H E principle of open-mindedness that is characteristic of most American<br />

industries has been responsible for much of their success. The<br />

spirit of co-operation that manifested itself during the great war was<br />

a contributing factor to its victorious end. Team work is indispensable to<br />

industrial success. It is as essential in peace as in war.<br />

There is no limit to the credit that should be given to the various technical<br />

and scientific <strong>org</strong>anizations of the country for their part in building up<br />

our great industrial system. Almost without exception, their meetings are<br />

open to all who may care to attend, where executives and laymen meet on<br />

common ground to discuss the numerous problems encountered in every<br />

phase of industry.<br />

Not only are technical and scientific problems brought up for discussion,<br />

but also such items as cost accounting and production efficiency. The closest<br />

attempt to determine costs and to map out efficiency methods without an<br />

attempt to determine costs and to map out efficiency mehods without an<br />

intimate knowledge of the limitations of the available materials, plant and<br />

mechanical equipment would hardly be considered good judgment.<br />

Co-operation is a pre-eminent factor in the successful administration of<br />

industrial activities and dispels antagonism. An industry divided against<br />

itself cannot prosper. In dissension there is weakness.<br />

Industry's need is for real teamwork in the free exchange of technical<br />

information and in the common effort to advance the industry by improving<br />

the quality of the product. There is sound logic in this doctrine and the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing industry is no exception.<br />

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419


420<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

HEAT TREATMENT and METALLOGRAPHY of STEELjJ<br />

December, 1925<br />

A P r a c t i c a l C o u r s e in t h e E l e m e n t s o f<br />

P h y s i c a l M e t a l l u r g y<br />

CHAPTER VII—PART 4<br />

CARBURIZING AND CASE HARDENING*<br />

W E have seen that iron in the Gamma slate, has<br />

the ability to take into solid solution about<br />

0.09 to 1.7 per cent of its own weight of carbon.<br />

This solubility begins at the A, point, where pearlite,<br />

consisting of a mixture of ferrite and cemetite, containing<br />

0.9 per cent carbon by weight, is transformed<br />

into austenite, consisting of Gamma iron holding the<br />

same carbon in solid solution.! Raising the temperature<br />

of the Gamma iron, increases its ability to<br />

dissolve carbon, up to a maximum of about 1.7 per<br />

cent carbon at 1,130 deg. C. Pure iron, or steel containing<br />

less than 0.9 per cent carbon, is completely<br />

transformed into Gamma iron or austenite, when<br />

heated to the A3 point. The position of the A? point<br />

varies, of course, with the carbon content. These<br />

matters are clear from our understanding of the Iron-<br />

Carbon and critical point diagrams, Figs. 109 and 110,<br />

Chapter VI.<br />

The affinity of Gamma iron for carbon, at high<br />

temperatures, is such that, unless already saturated,<br />

it will absorb carbon from an external source, through<br />

its surface, somewhat as a blotter soaks up moisture.<br />

The absorbtion is faster the higher the temperature.<br />

This ability of iron or steel to absorb carbon<br />

through its surface at high temperatures, has long been<br />

known and made use of. It was the principle upon<br />

which steel was first made, by the process known as<br />

*The following references will be found of special interest<br />

on this subject: (15) "Cementation of Iron and Steel," F.<br />

Giolitti, McGraw-Hill Book Company. (16) "Steel and Its<br />

Heat Treatment,' D. K. Bullens. John Wiley & Sons. (17) "Carburizing<br />

and Heat Treatment of Carburized Objects." B. F.<br />

Shepherd. Transactions, A.S.S.T., June 1925. (18) Data Sheets.<br />

A.S.S.T.. Section R.<br />

tAustenite has already been defined as a solid solution of<br />

carbon in Gamma iron.<br />

The author is Consulting Metallurgist, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Copyright. 1925. H. C. Knerr.<br />

cementation, described in Chapter II. More efficient<br />

methods have replaced the cementation process for<br />

making steel, but the principle has found a very important<br />

industrial application to-day in the process<br />

known as carburizing^ or case hardening.<br />

1600<br />

A<br />

1500<br />

1400<br />

1100<br />

u 1200<br />

AU<br />

E 1100<br />

CD<br />

"*». 1000<br />

ft 6<br />

4 900 frt\<br />

»- AUS \<br />

f- 800<br />

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100<br />

600<br />

500<br />

400<br />

/<br />

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LI QUi D<br />

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LIQUID<br />

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I<br />

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FIG. 109—Iron-carbon diagram. (.Archer.)<br />

In this process, a hard surface or "case" of relatively<br />

high carbon content, is produced upon articles<br />

made of low carbon steel, by heating them, above the<br />

critical temperature but below the melting point, in<br />

^Sometimes called "carbonizing", but this term is not favored<br />

in modern usage, because of its association with the process<br />

of charring or converting into a carbonaceous residue. More<br />

specifically, "carburizing" refers to the impregnation of the<br />

metal with carbon, while "case hardening" includes this process<br />

and also that of heat treating the part to harden the carburized<br />

surface. The term "cementation" is also used to indicate<br />

the absorbtion of carbon.


December, 1925<br />

contact with a material from which carbon may be<br />

absorbed. The inner portion, the carbon content of<br />

which is not materially increased, is called the "core"<br />

When such a piece is suitably heat treated, its surface<br />

will have the hardness and resistance to wear of high<br />

carbon steel, while the core retains the ductility and<br />

toughness of low carbon steel.<br />

Steel of low carbon content lends itself more readily<br />

to manufacturing and fabricating operations such as<br />

700<br />

"PEARLITE PLUS FERRITE<br />

riypo-Euteotoic/<br />

1 I I I I I I<br />

P£r7C£HT CF7r?30F.<br />

FIG. 110—Critical point diagram.<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - float Treating<br />

PEARLITE PLUS CEMEMTiTE<br />

Hyper- Euteotoid<br />

TT7TTT 14 IS<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing, rolling, drawing, machining, stamping, forming,<br />

etc., than does high carbon steel. It also is lower<br />

in first cost, although this saving will be partially offset<br />

or even exceeded by the cost of the carburizing<br />

operation. For many purposes, where parts are required<br />

to withstand wear, a hard surface of moderate<br />

depth is sufficient. Such parts may therefore be made<br />

from low carbon steel, and case hardened, whereas<br />

they would otherwise have to be made from high carbon<br />

steel, with its attending higher manufacturing<br />

costs. In addition to a hard surface for resisting wear,<br />

it is often desirable that a part have a tough and ductile<br />

interior, which will have a high resistance to shock,<br />

and possess the ability to adjust itself to moderate de-<br />

421<br />

other reasons, a very large amount of work is casehardened<br />

today. See Figs. 138 and 139.<br />

Unfortunately, the metallurgical principles underlying<br />

the process of case-hardening have not always<br />

received the attention they deserve, even in plants<br />

which have reduced other heat treating processes to<br />

a scientific basis. This neglect must necessarily result<br />

in a sacrifice in quality or an excessive cost of the<br />

finished product, or both. Case-hardening is one of<br />

the most complex problems which the steel treater<br />

has to handle, and it merits far more careful consideration<br />

than is usually given to it in practice.<br />

The case-hardening process is practically indispensable<br />

for many purposes, but it is not a cure all,<br />

and has numerous draw-backs and pit-falls. Before<br />

FIG. 139a, b, c—Fractures of carburized parts. Rectangular<br />

bar at lower right, C, has been hardened; note refinement.<br />

(Courtesy American Gas Furnace Co.)<br />

undertaking to produce parts by case-hardening, it<br />

is well to make sure that the desired results could not<br />

be obtained more economically by the use of a higher<br />

carbon or alloy steel, with a simple heat treatment.<br />

A comprehensive discussion of case-hardening<br />

would, of course, require much more space than is<br />

FIG. 138—Typical case-hardened parts—spindles, gages, wrist<br />

pins and gears. (Courtesy American Gas Furnace Co.)<br />

available here.<br />

stricted chiefly<br />

The present discussion will be re­<br />

to the fundamental metallurgical<br />

principles involved. Those who wish to make a<br />

formation or overstrain in service, without fracture. further study of the subject, will find much valuable<br />

Parts which require a hard surface are often of such published literature (and also not a little that is based<br />

design that they would be likely to crack in heat more on fancy than fact). The references mentioned<br />

treatment, if made from steel containing enough car­ at the beginning of this section will be found especially<br />

bon to impart the necessary hardness. For these and helpful.


422 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat Treating December. 1925<br />

Principles.<br />

I he process of case-hardening mav be divided into<br />

two steps:<br />

1—Carburization, to produce the case.<br />

2—Heat treatment, to produce the required<br />

properties in case and core.<br />

The nature of each of these Steps will he determined<br />

by the service for which the work is intended, and<br />

will consequently vary greatly with circumstances.<br />

There are four essential requirements to the process<br />

of carburization:<br />

1—A steel suitable for carburization.<br />

2—The carburizing material, from which the<br />

steel may absorb carbon.<br />

3—A temperature sufficiently high to bring the<br />

steel into the Gamma state, to actuate the carburizing<br />

material so that it will give up carbon to the<br />

steel, and to permit absorbtion and diffusion of<br />

the carbon into the steel.<br />

4—Time to allow the required absorbtion and<br />

diffusion to take place.<br />

Steel for Carburizing.<br />

The steel for parts which are to be carburized.<br />

should be of low carbon content, although the presence<br />

of a small amount of carbon, facilitates machining<br />

operations, and adds to the strength and toughness of<br />

FIG. 140—Placing pots in furnace preparatory to pack<br />

hardening. (Driver-Harris Co.)<br />

the case. Steel having a carbon content between 0.10<br />

per cent and 0. 25 per cent is ordinarily used. Where<br />

exceptional hardness of case or toughness of core, or<br />

other special properties are desired, steel containing<br />

certain alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium,<br />

molybdenum, etc., is employed. The behavior and<br />

effects of these elements will be discussed in the section<br />

on Alloy Steels.<br />

A typical and much used plain carbon steel of fair<br />

quality for carburizing has the following composition.<br />

Carbon 0.15 to 0.25 per cent<br />

Manganese 0.30 to 0.60 per cent<br />

Phosphorous 0.45 per cent maximum<br />

Sulphur 0.50 per cent maximum<br />

This is known commercially a* 0.20 carbon open<br />

hearth steel, or SAE Xo. 1020. and some times as<br />

"machine steel," although the latter term is vague, and<br />

covers a multitude of sins. It f<strong>org</strong>es and machines<br />

readily and. when properly annealed, is well adapted<br />

to cold forming operations.<br />

It is important that the steel used, whether it is<br />

a plain low carbon steel or an alloy steel, be of good<br />

quality, sound and homogeneous, and free from segregations,<br />

impurities or inclusions which will have an<br />

unfavorable effect on the process of carburization, or<br />

on the properties of the finished product. For the best<br />

work, tlie sulphur and phosphorous should be low, and<br />

the manganese also fairly low, as in a good grade of<br />

tool steel, for after carburizing, the composition of<br />

the case is practically that of a tool steel.<br />

A defective condition in the steel will not be overcome<br />

in the case-hardening process, but will on the<br />

contrary, be exaggerated. It is likely to result in<br />

uneven carburization, soft spots, exfoliation or scaling,<br />

and other nuisances in the finished product.<br />

Non-metallic inclusions, especially of an oxidizing<br />

character, are one of the most fruitful sources of<br />

trouble in case-hardening. A woody or laminated<br />

9 ".>"•',<br />

' r\ V «,<br />

IT VA<br />

142<br />

FIG. 141—Case, slowly cooled after carburizing at 1700 deg.<br />

F. for sy, hours in commercial compound. (35 x.) Well<br />

graduated from hyper-eutectoid surface (at left), inward<br />

to core (at right). (T. W. Downes.)<br />

FIG. 142—Case, slowly cooled. (100 x.) Well graduated<br />

from eutectoid surface. Slag streaks in steel. (T. W.<br />

Downes.)<br />

fracture is also a sign of undesirable material. Inferior<br />

steels are sometimes referred to as "abnormal"<br />

in case-hardening. They show characteristic irregularities<br />

in microstructure when examined after slow<br />

cooling from the carburizing temperature.<br />

It is good practice therefore, to carburize samples<br />

and examine them microscopically after slow cooling,<br />

before placing a lot of steel in'production for carburized<br />

parts.*<br />

*A test of this nature has been discussed in considerable<br />

detail by E. W. Ehn, Transactions, A.S.S.T., September 1922.


December, 1925<br />

Carburizing Processes.<br />

Carburizing processes are usually classified under<br />

three headings, according to the materials used:<br />

1—Solid;<br />

2—Liquid;<br />

3—Gas.<br />

Strictly speaking, there are but two methods of<br />

carburizing, namely by liquid and gas, since solid<br />

carburizing materials owe their action to the gases<br />

which they generate, when heated to the carburizing<br />

temperatures. Carbon may be absorbed by steel from<br />

either a liquid or gaseous material of suitable composition,<br />

with which it is in contact at sufficiently elevated<br />

temperatures, but little or no carbon is absorbed directly<br />

from a solid carbonaceous material. This has<br />

been proved by tests under a vacuum.<br />

The distinction between the solid and gas process<br />

lies chiefly in the fact that, in the former, the parts<br />

are packed in a container together with the solid carburizing<br />

material, and upon heating, the carburizing<br />

gases are generated within the container, and act<br />

on the steel; whereas in the gas process the parts<br />

are placed in a container through which gas generated<br />

from an external source is caused to flow. The use<br />

of solid carburizers is also referred to as "pack<br />

hardening."<br />

In the liquid process, the parts are immersed in a<br />

bath of a molten salt, or combination of salts of suitable<br />

composition, or the salt is applied in granular<br />

form to the previously heated part, whereupon it<br />

melts and spreads over the surface.<br />

Each of these processes, solid, liquid, and gas, has<br />

distinctive characteristics and advantages, which fit<br />

it for certain types of work.<br />

Solid Process.<br />

When carburizing in solid materials, the parts are<br />

packed in a container with a layer of carburizing material<br />

on the bottom and top, and well surrounding each<br />

piece. Although carbon is absorbed from the gas<br />

generated when the compound is heated, and not<br />

directly from the compound itself, it will be found<br />

that parts which are uncovered, in contact with each<br />

other, or not well surrounded by the compound during<br />

treatment, will have an inferior case, or none at all.<br />

The container usually consists of a box or pot<br />

provided with a cover, and may be of cast iron, cast<br />

or pressed steel, or one of a number of special heat<br />

resisting alloys. For emergency work, a satisfactory<br />

container may be made from steel pipe, with a threaded<br />

cap for a cover, or by welding sheet steel into a box.<br />

The cover should be sealed with fire clay, to retard,<br />

insofar as possible, the escape of carburizing gases,<br />

and prevent the entry of air or oxidizing furnace gases.<br />

If screwed on, the cover should have a small hole to<br />

relieve the pressure of the internal expanding gases on<br />

heating, otherwise an explosion may result.<br />

The size and shape of the container should be<br />

adapted to the work in hand. In large containers a<br />

long time is required for the heat to penetrate to the<br />

center, since solid carburizing materials are relatively<br />

poor heat conductors. Very small containers, on the<br />

other hand, require more labor in handling and packing,<br />

and their own weight and heat capacity is large<br />

in comparison with that of the charge they contain.<br />

Round containers are less likely to lose their shape<br />

by warping, than rectangular ones. All containers<br />

should have stubby feet to raise them from the furnace<br />

floor, so as to allow uniform heating all around-<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

423<br />

The properly packed and sealed containers are<br />

placed in a suitable furnace, whose temperature is then<br />

raised to, or slightly above, that desired for the carburizing<br />

action, and held for a long enough time to<br />

heat the charge uniformly to the desired temperature,<br />

and maintain it at this temperature long enough<br />

to produce a case of the thickness intended.<br />

The time required for the material at the center of<br />

the container of certain size, to reach carburizing temperature,<br />

may be a large part of the total time required<br />

FIG. 143a—Case of carburized machine steel. (35x.) Somewhat<br />

"abnormal" structure, indicating inferior steel. Hypereutectoid<br />

surface at left, core at right. (T. W. Downes.)<br />

FIG. 143b—Same as 143a, showing surface at higher magnification.<br />

(100 x.) Abnormal arrangement of free cementite.<br />

(T. W. Downes.)<br />

for treatment. This time may be determined experimentally<br />

by removing containers after various periods,<br />

and noting when a case has begun to form. A much<br />

better way is to insert a thermocouple, sheathed in a<br />

thin steel tube, to the center of the container, thru a<br />

hole in the wall or cover. (The hole must, of course,<br />

be sealed), and observe the actual rise of temperature.<br />

This temperature is then held long enough to produce<br />

the required depth of case. The furnace tern-


424 Fbrging-Stamping- Heat Treating<br />

perature should also be measured and not allowed to<br />

exceed the carburizing temperature by more than a<br />

few degrees, so that the parts near the inner walls<br />

of the pot will not be over-heated.<br />

Hardwood charcoal is the commonest carburizing<br />

material. Its action is slow, but it tends to produce<br />

a uniform and well graded case, of considerable depth.<br />

The addition of certain materials to wood charcoal,<br />

known as "intensifiers", speeds up its action and increases<br />

its useful life. One of the most important of<br />

these is barium carbonate, about 5 per cent by weight<br />

FIG. 144a—A 3y2 per cent nickel steel, 0.25 per cent carbon,<br />

pack hardened in commercial compound at 1600 deg. F. for<br />

2 hours. Cooled in box. (100 x.) Well graduated case.<br />

hyper-eutectoid surface.<br />

FIG. 144b—Same as 144a, at higher magnification (400 x),<br />

showing very high carbon content at surface. (H. J. Huester,<br />

author's lab.)<br />

having been found as effectual as larger quantities<br />

formerly added. Mineral oils, such as kerosene, and<br />

other hydrocarbons are also employed as intensifiers.<br />

Charred bone and charred leather or similar animal<br />

products, are much used carburizing materials. Their<br />

action is more vigorous than that of charcoal. Many<br />

compounds containing these or other materials in<br />

December. 19/5<br />

various combinations, are on the market. It is usually<br />

safer, and in the end more economical, to select one<br />

or more of these commercial products produced by a<br />

reputable manufacturer, and tested for quality from<br />

time to time, than to attempt to mix one's own<br />

compound.<br />

Uniformity in the material, so that all batches<br />

having the same treatment will be alike, is highly<br />

important.<br />

Solid carburizing compounds lose some of their<br />

strength or effectiveness each time they are used, and<br />

also undergo more or less shrinkage and disintegration.<br />

They should therefore be sifted to remove<br />

powdered material, and 10 per cent to 50 per cent of<br />

fresh material added, and well mixed, before each<br />

successive use.<br />

Some typical cases produced by pack hardening<br />

are shown in the photo micrographs, Figs. 141-144,<br />

inclusive.<br />

Enlargement of Latrobe Electric Steel Plant<br />

The Latrobe Electric Steel Company, Latrobe,<br />

Pa., has made plans for the extension and improvement<br />

of its plant for the purpose of increasing the<br />

production of stainless iron and steel. A new building,<br />

60x400 ft., is under construction for the housing<br />

of a new 10-in., 3-high, 6-stand mill, built by the<br />

Mackintosh-Hemphill Company, Pittsburgh, driven<br />

by a 500-hp. motor. Auxiliary equipment will include<br />

shears, stretchers, straightening machines, and also a<br />

battery of annealing furnaces. A lean-to of this building,<br />

30x200 ft., will house the motors, drives and also<br />

provide space for a machine shop. A Farrell 2-speed<br />

drive is to be installed.<br />

The new building is to be devoted exclusively to<br />

stainless iron and steel, more particularly the latter,<br />

for kitchen, table and pocket cutlery, razors and safety<br />

razor blades and dental and surgical instruments. The<br />

company already has built a new cold-rolling department,<br />

with a mill capable of rolling flats up to 6 in.<br />

wide, with straightening machines, centerless grinders<br />

and draw benches. Double bevel rolling is common<br />

practice in both the hot and cold mills. Rolling the<br />

blank thin at both edges means in the case of table<br />

knives, for example, that the backs and cutting edges<br />

are made in the first operation, and that means less<br />

grinding to reach final form.<br />

Another improvement is a new transformer plant<br />

built in the open, replacing one formerly located indoors<br />

back of the electric furnaces. At an early date<br />

the company will begin the construction of a pickling<br />

and annealing department for its cold-rolling department.<br />

The various changes and extensions will be<br />

completed early next year and the result will be virtual<br />

doubling of the company's capacity.<br />

The Pratt Drop F<strong>org</strong>e & Tool Company, Shelburne<br />

Falls, Mass., operated by the Goodell-Pratt<br />

Company, has plans for a one-story addition to its<br />

drop f<strong>org</strong>e works on William Street.<br />

* * *<br />

The Cleveland Metal Stamping Company, 3100<br />

Payne Avenue, Cleveland, has placed a contract with<br />

Hess Klaus Company, for a two-story building, 120 x<br />

376 ft. H. G. Thompson is general manager. The<br />

Ge<strong>org</strong>e S. Rider Company, Century Building, is the<br />

engineer.


December, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

T h e R e m o v a l o f S c a l e D u r i n g R o l l i n g<br />

Defects Appearing in the Finished Product Are Often Traceable<br />

to Metallurgical Practice, Condition of Moulds, Soak­<br />

E A C H succeeding year the manufacture of steel<br />

into various forms brings forcibly to the attention<br />

of the steel industry the question of defects<br />

in the finished product. In some cases the defects in<br />

the metal can be discovered before reaching the stage<br />

of finished product, while in many other cases it is not<br />

until the final inspection is made and the maximum<br />

expenditure has been made for labor, fuel and power,<br />

that certain flaws are detected which result in the<br />

material being rejected, or being classified under a<br />

different grade and sold at a lower price.<br />

Many of the defects which appear at various points<br />

during the process of conversion from ingots to finished<br />

product can be traced to the metallurgical prac-<br />

FIG. 1—Billet scraper. Scraper shown between No. 3 and<br />

No. 4 stands. Size of billet being scraped zy2 in. square.<br />

ing Pits, Reheating Furnaces or Rolling<br />

By FRANK L. ESTEP*<br />

tice including melting, pouring, the design and condition<br />

of moulds, etc. Some may be traced to the<br />

soaking pits or re-heating furnaces, and a great many<br />

to the rolling. The most common defects are cracks<br />

which did not weld, seams, lines, scabs, blisters, slivers<br />

and scale, and these are due to the rolling operation.<br />

Various methods are used in different plants to<br />

overcome many of the troubles arising from defective<br />

steel. These include chipping the blooms, billets and<br />

slabs to remove cracks, seams and scabs. Various<br />

means have been used to remove a part of the scale<br />

which arises during the process of rolling. These include<br />

the use of water on the steel, chilling to raise<br />

scale, flooding at various passes with high pressure<br />

water, use of steam, rock salt, etc. In addition, different<br />

ways of turning the blooms, billets, etc., have<br />

been tried and slabs are set on edge for certain passes<br />

to crack off the scale by a slight reduction in area.<br />

•New York City.<br />

425<br />

For products where the surface is of extreme importance,<br />

billets and bars are pickled, and in the case<br />

of the manufacture of certain grades of automobile<br />

sheets, "breakdowns" are also pickled. In Europe,<br />

some of the steel companies are turning ingots in a<br />

lathe to remove the outsidej surface before being<br />

heated for piercing and conversion into seamless<br />

tubes. The object of this is to facilitate the operations<br />

of piercing, pilgering, rolling, drawing, etc., and to<br />

increase the yield from ingot to finished product.<br />

If during the rolling of billets scale, slivers and<br />

scabs are removed, there will be a material increase<br />

in the quality of finished product, and in many cases<br />

an increase in the yield of products from billets. Similarly,<br />

if during the process of rolling sheet bars for<br />

sheets and tin plate, and slabs for hot strip, the top<br />

and bottom and edges of the bars are cleaned of heavy<br />

scale and scabe and slivers, there will be a marked<br />

increase in the quality and surface of finished material,<br />

and an increase in yield of finished product from bars.<br />

A scraping device has recently been perfected,<br />

whereby billets and bars can thus be cleaned during<br />

the process of rolling without reducing the tonnage<br />

produced. The results obtained have been most remarkable.<br />

For billets, the scraping device consists of one or<br />

two units per billet mill, each unit consistfhg of two<br />

vertical and two horizontal acting knives, the first<br />

of which scrapes the billet top and bottom as it leaves<br />

the preceding pass, and the second of which scrapes<br />

the billet on the sides. The illustration shown in<br />

Fig. 1 is between stands three and four of a six stand<br />

continuous mill. The size of the billet which is being<br />

scraped is 2y2 in. square, and the finished size on pass<br />

No. 6 is \y in. square. In this particular installation,<br />

a second scraper is installed back of pass No. 6.<br />

The cylinder which actuates the knives are operated<br />

by air and can be so adapted as to be controlled automatically,<br />

closing the knives after the billet enters<br />

both sets of kni-ves, and releasing them after the end<br />

of the billet has been pulled through. The power required<br />

for drawing the billet through the knives is<br />

small and is furnished by the rolls. The knives and<br />

their holders can be stripped out of the machine between<br />

billets during operation without interfering with<br />

the tonnage.<br />

For bars, the device consists of two sets of vertical<br />

acting knives, one preceding the other by about<br />

9 in. and operated by air as in the case of billets. This<br />

can also be made automatic and the knives made to<br />

close and open in proper relation to the beginning<br />

and end of the sheet bar. For the best results on bars,<br />

it has been found necessary to install two scraping<br />

units, one either in front of the last pass or next to<br />

the last pass, and the other preceding the final scraper<br />

by one or two passes. Fig. 2 illustrates the rolling<br />

of a sheet bar with the scraper on the entering side of<br />

No. 4 stand of a six stand mill, scraping the bar at a


42(. f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

thickness of 1-1/16 in., the bar finishing 11.5 per foot in<br />

stand No. 6.<br />

The apparatus necessary to scrape the side of the<br />

bars is comparatively simple, and in principle is the<br />

same as for the top and bottom except that only one<br />

set of knives is used. The side scraper is attached<br />

to and made an integral part of the second top and<br />

bottom scraping unit. In other words, the cleaning of<br />

the edges of the bars is done the same time the bar<br />

has its last scraping on top and bottom.<br />

When cleaning billets, if there are slivered places<br />

on any corner of the billet, or if there is a projecting<br />

fin on the edge of the billet, or as in many cases a<br />

rolled-in fin on top or bottom, the scraping knives will<br />

as a rule scrape off this projecting material similar<br />

to a tool in a lathe. Many of these slivers, fins, etc.,<br />

are found in the sweepings after a rolling period.<br />

FIG. 2—Sheet bar scraper. Scraper shown en entering side<br />

of No. 4 stand. Sze of bar being scraped 8 in. wide by<br />

1 1/16 in. thick. When finished in No. 16 stand, weighs<br />

11.50 lbs. per foot.<br />

Samples of the scrapings when rolling sheet bar<br />

shows a much coarser material for Unit No. 1 than for<br />

the succeeding Unit Xo. 2, and in the sweepings from<br />

No. 2 there will be found scabs, slivers and pieces of<br />

metal which have been scraped off the edges of the<br />

bar.<br />

The knives used for scraping billets and bars are<br />

of special steel. Xo water is necessary on the scraper,<br />

and although the knives show color immediately after<br />

completing the scraping operation, they have an opportunity<br />

to cool and lose their color "before coming<br />

in contact with the next piece of steel. The knives for<br />

bars will scrape 1.000 to 1,500 tons per dressing and<br />

the life has been found to have a range of from 12.000<br />

to 15.000 tons production.<br />

The illustrations shown are for the installation of<br />

the scraper for both billets and bars on a continuous<br />

December, 1925<br />

mill. This type of mill lends itself very readily to<br />

apply the standard scraper, but with certain modifications<br />

the device can be applied to almost any type<br />

of bar mill.<br />

In the plant where the scrapers were first installed,<br />

and where they have been in operation for a number of<br />

years, there has been a maked improvement in finished<br />

material and a decided increase in yield from billets<br />

and bars to rods and sheets. The records of the company<br />

show that for rods and merchant products there<br />

has been an increase in yield of 1.89 per cent after<br />

using scraped billets and in the sheet mill department<br />

for a period of three years after installation of the<br />

scrapers the average increase in yield from bars was<br />

1.50 per cent over a similar period prior to their<br />

installation.<br />

Correction<br />

The source of an article entitled "The Rate of<br />

Heating Steel Important," appearing on page 381 of<br />

the October issue of F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

was omitted. This article was supplied through the<br />

courtesy of Automatic and Electric Furnaces, Limited,<br />

London, England.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing of Multi-Throw Crankshafts<br />

By R. B. Wilhelm<br />

The usual way of manufacturing crankshafts of<br />

the type shown in A, Fig. 1 consists in f<strong>org</strong>ing an<br />

ingot to a section determined by the maximum thickness<br />

and width of the throws. After rough machining<br />

of the journal between the fourth and fifth throw,<br />

this part is heated again and subjected to a twist of<br />

90 degrees. This method necessitates bringing the<br />

-E<br />

s^.<br />

~7 -7^7'-'^ .^7'.<br />

Off f—f-f f f( (<br />

EB^jmHCTffi<br />

-f—f- i-y^t<br />

: n<br />

i r-i i n i i n<br />

3<br />

''ii<br />

L.j ! M<br />

i i in)<br />

I i I<br />

FIG. 1—Two methods of f<strong>org</strong>ing a multinhrow crankshaft.<br />

crankshaft back to the f<strong>org</strong>e after rough machining<br />

on the lathe, which means unnecessary transportation<br />

and a longer time in manufacturing.<br />

Considering these points, the rough f<strong>org</strong>ing, instead<br />

of being in one plane only, was f<strong>org</strong>ed under<br />

at an angle of 90 deg., as shown in B. Machining is<br />

now possible without any interruption. The same<br />

principle may be applied to various designs of crankshafts.<br />

AA.merican Hadfield Steel Company has been incorporated<br />

at Bucyrus, Ohio, and will expand the steel<br />

business formerly carried on as a subsidiary of the<br />

American Clay Machinery Company of the city. It is<br />

planned to build a plant in the South, and two in<br />

Ohio. It will be operated independently of the American<br />

Clay Machinery Company.


December, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

T h e P r o d u c t i o n o f D e e p D r a w n<br />

#<br />

C y l i n d e r s<br />

The Author Discusses the Importance of Selecting the Proper<br />

Stock for Deep Drawn Shells—Lubrication, Annealing<br />

IT is not the purpose of this paper to discredit any<br />

of the various steel manufacturers or rolling mills<br />

that furnish steel for drawing purposes, rather it<br />

is the purpose to try and show that the task of deep<br />

drawing would be a great deal simpler and more<br />

economical if certain standards were adopted and<br />

strictly adhered to by the rolling mills.<br />

and Pickling Require Close Attention<br />

By W. J. GUYER<br />

Let us assume that we propose to draw a shell<br />

6 in. diameter by 22 in. deep of No. 16 gauge (.0625 in.)<br />

steel, B. Fig. 1. First, it is necessary to select the<br />

type of material to be used. After making approximately<br />

30,000 of these shells, full pickled, one pass,<br />

cold rolled, reannealed steel has been adopted as a<br />

standard material, this grade having given the best<br />

results. The reason for using full pickled material<br />

427<br />

are required, but on extremely deep draws, where six<br />

or eight drawing operations are necessary, the percentage<br />

of loss from this cause is very excessive.<br />

The reason for using one pass, cold rolled steel,<br />

is that while the plain hot rolled pickled sheet is more<br />

desirable from a drawing standpoint, the thickness<br />

of the sheet is not very uniform due to the scale being<br />

heavier on one side of the sheet than on the other,<br />

and when this scale is pickled off, it leaves the sheet<br />

thinner where the scale was heaviest. These thin<br />

spots can be guarded against by giving the sheet one<br />

pass through the cold rolls thus thinning down the<br />

high spots and giving a more uniform gauge thickness,<br />

which is very important.<br />

Length of Shell Varies with Gauge of Steel.<br />

In the drawing of a shell 22 in. deep, it will require<br />

a blank weighing approximately 11 lbs., 16 gauge,<br />

(.0625 in.) to make this height. If the material runs<br />

10 per cent light, the shell is bound to be 10 per cent<br />

short of the 22 in., which means that instead of being<br />

22 in. high, it will be only 19.8 in. On the other hand,<br />

if the material should run heavy 10 per cent, then<br />

the shell, instead of coming up to 22 in. high, will<br />

be 24.2 in. Under the best conditions, according to<br />

the present method of buying sheet steel, the buyer<br />

has to provide for a waste of 4.4 in. to be trimmed<br />

from a shell of this size, as there is no mill in existence<br />

today that will roll and guarantee individual sheets<br />

to run closer than 10 per cent of gauge thickness. It<br />

also means eAxtra work to the manufacturer of shells,<br />

for if an accurate gauge thickness is required on the<br />

finished shell it is necessary to order the material<br />

heavier to insure that the mill variation on the extreme<br />

low limit will not run under your requirement. When<br />

the material happens to run heavy, it will add at least<br />

one extra ironing or thinning operation to bring that<br />

portion of the material which runs over, down to<br />

gauge size. If the manufacturer of deep drawn products<br />

could buy sheets rolled to say plus or minus<br />

FIG 1—Showing the variation in length of shells caused by .003 in. to gauge thickness and be sure the variation<br />

difference in gauge of stock.. (Left) Shells 4 in. diameter<br />

would not be greater than this amount on material<br />

by 18 in. long. (Right) Shells 6 in. diameter by 22 in. long.<br />

approximately 1/16 in. thick, it would be economy to<br />

pay extra as it would effect a great saving in the draw­<br />

is that if the bars are pickled before rolling the sheets,<br />

ing operations and the loss of shells not coming up to<br />

there is less danger of a weak spot in the sheet due to<br />

length.<br />

a particle of scale passing through the rolls on the<br />

surface of the sheet. Although the particle of scale Proper Lubrication Essential.<br />

may be small, it will thin out the sheet at this partic­ While it is generally conceded that cold rolled<br />

ular spot. Even though the spot or pit may be so small strip or sheet steel is the best for ordinary purposes,<br />

that it is almost invisible, the strain produced in the hot rolled pickled steel is the most desirable for the<br />

cold drawing of this material will, gradually thin it out drawing of deep shells. The cold rolling of steel pro­<br />

and after several successive drawing operations such duces a very dense surface so that when the material<br />

as is necessary on an extremely deep draw, the metal is drawn between the punch and die, the surface is so<br />

will pull apart producing a hole. This very seldom smooth that the lubricant is forced off at the upper<br />

happens where only two or three drawing operations surface of the die, producing a dry metal to metal<br />

contact between the material and the die. This con­<br />

•Paper presented at the May meeting of the Society. dition The tends to make the soft drawing steel pile or lick<br />

author is Vice President and General Manager of the Inland up on the surface of the die thereby producing deep<br />

Metal Products Corporation, Chicago, 111.


4_'S<br />

scratches lengthwise on the shell. This is not so<br />

noticeable in drawing short shells in one operation,<br />

but is quite serious when more than one operation<br />

is used. On the other hand hot rolled pickled steel<br />

is very porous on the surface from pickling. These<br />

small pores are very desirable as they retain a certain<br />

amount of lubricant as the material is being drawn,<br />

thereby lubricating the surface of the die and eliminating<br />

nearly all of the trouble from scratching.<br />

Aside from the superiority of hot rolled sheets for<br />

this particular work, the difference in cost between hot<br />

rolled and cold rolled is an item of importance. The<br />

shell in question requires approximately 11 lb. of steel<br />

and a difference in price between cold rolled and hot<br />

rolled steel of 2c per pound, representing a saving of<br />

approximately 22c per shell. Where several annealing<br />

and pickling operations are used, such as are necessary<br />

on extremely deep drawing, the surface of the<br />

finished shell will be as good when hot rolled steel is<br />

used as with cold rolled steel.<br />

Careful Annealing Required.<br />

The annealing and pickling of the shells between<br />

successive draws requires careful attention particularly<br />

in extremely deep drawing. On the shell mentioned<br />

herein it is necessary to anneal and pickle six<br />

times. Due to the number of annealing operations<br />

required on each shell care must be taken to insure<br />

uniformity of temperature in the furnace. If sufficient<br />

heat is used to produce a heavy scale at each<br />

annealing, the subsequent pickling operations will<br />

greatly reduce the gauge thickness, which, of course,<br />

is just as serious as if the stock had been under gauge<br />

when received from the mill.<br />

In order to reduce oxidation or scaling to a<br />

minimum, a special semi-continuous furnace was<br />

built, sixteen feet in length by twenty-four inches<br />

wide by twenty-six inches high, open at either end.<br />

With this type of furnace the temperature can be very<br />

accurately controlled, resulting in uniformly annealed<br />

shells, as they must pass through the entire furnace.<br />

In the oven type furnace, with only one door opening,<br />

the method is to load the furnace full and wait for it<br />

to come up to temperature. Invariably the furnace<br />

will be a great deal hotter at the rear than at the<br />

front end. To insure sufficient heat in the coldest<br />

part of the furnace, it is necessary to anneal at a higher<br />

temperature than is necessary for most of the shells.<br />

In the semi-continuous furnace, work is placed in<br />

trays twenty-four inches square and pushed in the<br />

furnace at the front end. As one tray enters in the<br />

front, one emerges from the rear completely annealed,<br />

allowing at all times seven trays in the furnace. As<br />

the work moves along very slowly, it is very easy to<br />

maintain any desired temperature at the hottest part<br />

of the furnace, which is approximately two-thirds of<br />

the way through. As all the shells to be annealed<br />

must pass through the entire furnace an even anneal<br />

is assured. The time between each loading must be<br />

governed by the gauge and size of parts to be annealed,<br />

as the heavier gauge shells require more time<br />

for absorption of heat than the light gauge.<br />

Scale Removed by Pickling.<br />

A^fter annealing there is a very light scale, which<br />

must be removed. Various solutions of soap and<br />

acetic acid have been tried for quenching the hot<br />

annealed product in an attempt to break up this scale,<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

December, 1925<br />

but the results obtained did not warrant continuation.<br />

Therefore, the regular method of pickling with sulphuric<br />

acid bath, 66 deg. acid, cut about 9 to 1 with<br />

water, heated to approximately 100 deg. F. was used<br />

with a portion of one of the standard pickling compounds<br />

added. With the use of this compound the<br />

life of the pickling bath is increased enough io pay<br />

the cost of the compound, at the same time eliminating<br />

over-pickling the shells if they should be left in<br />

the bath too long. The material taken from the bath<br />

is always very clean and free from corrosion and practically<br />

no fumes are thrown off as in the case of the<br />

straight acid and water solution.<br />

Where pickling is necessary between operations,<br />

washing the shells free from acid is a big problem,<br />

unless a pressure washing or cleaning machine is<br />

used. If this work is done by hand in the common<br />

wash tank it is a very slow and costly operation.<br />

When the same operation is required five or six times<br />

on one piece, naturally the cost is very high on the<br />

finished product. If the acid is not thoroughly washed<br />

off, separation of the drawing compound in the next<br />

FIG- 2—(Center) Finished shell with top trimmed and base<br />

welded on. (Bottom) Several operations in the production<br />

of a trap for refrigerator cars.<br />

operation is bound to result. To overcome this difficulty<br />

and cheapen the entire process to a minimum<br />

with the equipment at hand, the shells are first pickled<br />

as explained above, rinsed in clear water and then<br />

dipped in a very weak lime solution. The lime neutralizes<br />

the acid and eliminates trouble with the lubricant<br />

in the next operation.<br />

Life of Die Steels Studied.<br />

The die design and also the kind of steel used for<br />

the drawing dies is a very interesting study. As it<br />

is impossible to produce dies that will not wear out,<br />

the next best thing is to make dies that will give the<br />

most wear for the least money. In order to determine<br />

the most economical material obtainable for dies a<br />

number of tests, extending over several years, have<br />

been made, the results of which are given in Table 1


December, 1925<br />

From this table it will be noted that the wearing<br />

qualities of the high speed steel and the alloy steel are<br />

the same, but the latter is most desirable in several<br />

ways. First, high speed steel costs quite a bit more<br />

than alloy steel, and it is necessary to make the die<br />

TABLE I—WEARING PROPERTIES OF DIE STEELS<br />

Linear feet per<br />

Material .010 dia. wear<br />

Straight .85-95 carbon tool steel 1100<br />

High carbon tool steel, 1.20-1.30 carbon 1600<br />

High speed steel 2000<br />

Alloy tool steel 2.75 carbon, .12 chrome 2000<br />

section heavier to withstand the wedging strains<br />

which are produced as the shells are drawn through.<br />

Second, with high speed steel the life is much less<br />

for a given size draw ring. With the alloy tool steel,<br />

same can be used until worn to the maximum tolerance<br />

allowed. The die can then be reworked,<br />

hardened and ground at a much lower cost than making<br />

up a new die ring from the original f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Prectically as much life is obtained after the second<br />

and third reworking as from the original die.<br />

Production costs are reduced because more shells<br />

can be run with one set-up of the dies and furthermore,<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

429<br />

reasons: First, because they are much lighter and<br />

easier to handle, and second, because they are much<br />

easier to harden. The wall thickness is approximately<br />

one inch and the steel is carburized approximately<br />

y± in. deep on the outside only. With a thin wall<br />

section and uniform carburization, it is possible to get<br />

an extremely hard surface by using a little care in<br />

quenching and the hazard of cracking in the hardening<br />

is reduced very materially. The fact is that no loss<br />

has been experienced in hardening a carburized punch.<br />

This is not true where carbon steel or alloy tool steel<br />

is used, as it is not uncommon to crack a punch in<br />

hardening. The life of a draw punch, such 'as mentioned,<br />

is approximately ten times greater than the<br />

draw ring, due of course ,to the fact that the wear<br />

in drawing is caused only by the die laying the metal<br />

up against it. There is a slight wear in stripping the<br />

sheet, but the greatest wear comes from polishing<br />

off the metal where it lick ups on the punch.<br />

As to the number of operations to be used and<br />

the design of die for a particular job, the writer does<br />

not believe any two men will agree. However, Fig.<br />

3 shows the number of operations used on this particular<br />

job starting with a 24 in. diameter blank of<br />

No. 16 gauge material. The data compiled for the<br />

FIG. 3—Sequence of operations in the production of a deep drawn cylinder 6 in. diameter by 22 in. long. Every operation<br />

is followed by annealing and pickling.<br />

the stopping of the press to polish out scratch marks<br />

in the die is almost entirely eliminated.<br />

Low Carbon Steel Used for Punches.<br />

With draw punches the condition is somewhat<br />

different, as it is necessary to maintain a smooth hard<br />

surface the entire length of the shell to be drawn,<br />

whereas on the die ring only a very short portion is<br />

required as a drawing surface. During the experiments<br />

with the above mentioned die steels it was<br />

found that none of them worked satisfactorily for<br />

draw punches of large diameter. The principle reason<br />

is the difficulty of getting a hollow punch f<strong>org</strong>ed<br />

of high speed steel. In the case of the carbon steel,<br />

it is practically impossible to harden a large punch<br />

without a number of soft spots appearing on the surface.<br />

If there is one soft spot on the punch the size<br />

of a pin head, the metal from the shell will lick or<br />

pile up on this spot and produce a scratch in the shell.<br />

Experiments have proven that the best and most<br />

economical material for punches is low carbon machine<br />

steel or nickel steel carburized. All punches<br />

over four inches in diameter are f<strong>org</strong>ed hollow for two<br />

standard hand books is only intended for draws up<br />

to and even less in length than the diameter of the<br />

shell, because it is almost physically impossible to use<br />

the percentage of reduction that is recommended on<br />

extremely deep drawn shells. However, on first and<br />

second draws, the recommendations given in standard<br />

hand book can be used with very good reults.<br />

C O M I N G MEETINGS<br />

January 20—22—Annual meeting of the Society of<br />

Automotive Engineers to be held in Detroit, Mich.<br />

Coker F Clarkson, secretary, 29 W. 39th Street, New<br />

York, N. Y.<br />

January 21-22—'Winter sectional meeting of th<br />

American Society for Steel Treating at Buffalo, N. Y.<br />

Secretary, W. H. Eisenman, 4600 Prospect Ave.,<br />

Cleveland, Ohio.


430 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating December, 1Q25<br />

A r c W e l d i n g in t h e F o r g i n g I n d u s t r y<br />

Arc Welding Is Intended for the Correction of Small Rather Than<br />

Serious F<strong>org</strong>ing Defects—This Work Should Be Under<br />

A R C welding, introduced from the steel foundry,<br />

has proved a wonderful boon to the f<strong>org</strong>ing industry.<br />

In fact, it would be safe to say that<br />

the introduction has proved in more than one instance<br />

a highly important—if not the chief—factor in enabling<br />

a f<strong>org</strong>e shop to meet price competition which<br />

would otherwise threaten the very solvency of the<br />

business. Not only has arc welding made it possible<br />

to meet the competition, but to du >o with profit. This<br />

i> no extravagant claim, but a condition which can be<br />

vouched for by a number of shops catering to the<br />

great demands of the automobile industry for high<br />

grade f<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

Minor defects, superficial blemishes, flaws and even<br />

more serious faults need no longer condemn a f<strong>org</strong>ing,<br />

or a steel casting. They can be corrected cheaply<br />

and effectively by arc welding, producing a renovated<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing of such high grade that if it is annealed after<br />

the f<strong>org</strong>ing—which i- really unnecessary—the conditions<br />

cannot be located by joints. The scrap pile<br />

may be cheated of virtually all rejections.<br />

In making the repair,-, new material is introduced,<br />

the welds on cooling possessing at least a> high<br />

tensile strength as the original f<strong>org</strong>ings. So far as<br />

ductility is concerned, there is more or less loss, it is<br />

true, for the weld, or filling, metal is of the nature<br />

of cast steel and possesses the ductile properties of<br />

ingot steel. However, the filling metal is easily machined<br />

and the repaired f<strong>org</strong>ing is fully as strong and<br />

for many purposes as dependable as a perfectly sound<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing.<br />

Process of Electric Arc Welding.<br />

The process is an autogenous one and i> used both<br />

for joining metal parts and for adding to metal where<br />

needed. In welding two pieces together, molten metal<br />

is injected between the parts, instead of the parts<br />

being melted and f<strong>org</strong>ed together. The introduction<br />

of the molten metal causes the pieces to fuse together<br />

on contact without the application of pressure. The<br />

filling metal, heated to a state of fluidity, causes the<br />

two pieces literally to flow together.<br />

In electric arc welding, the positive lead, or conductor,<br />

of the service circuit is attached to or laid<br />

on the work to be welded, while the other lead is attached<br />

to the negative electrode manipulated bv the<br />

operator. The arc which is produced by the heat<br />

generated is created by the resistance to the passage<br />

of the electric energy through the air gap separating<br />

the two electrodes—passing from the work, positive<br />

electrode, to the negative electrode held in the hand<br />

of the operator—ami the intensity of the heat developed<br />

is dependent upon the resistance overcome—<br />

size of arc. or width of air gap.<br />

Types of Electrodes.<br />

The negative electrode may be either a carbon<br />

pencil, from l 4 in. to l'j in. in diameter and from<br />

"The Society for Electrical Development, Inc.<br />

the Supervision of a Competent Foreman<br />

By REGINALD TRAUTSCHOLD1'<br />

6 to 12 in. in length, pointed at its working end to<br />

confine the arc to as small space as possible, or a<br />

metal wire of relatively small diameter. When the<br />

carbon pencil electrode is used, it is necessary for the<br />

operator to feed in the filling metal from a melt bar<br />

held in his other hand, but if the metal wire electrode<br />

process is employed, the melt bar is unnecessary.<br />

The metal electrode provides the filling metal by<br />

gradually melting under the intense heat created by<br />

the arc.<br />

Choice of Welding Process.<br />

In by far the majority of welding work, the metal<br />

electrode process is employed, the heat being confined<br />

to a very small area, enabling the operator to deposit<br />

the lilling metal where required with accuracy and<br />

economy. When the carbon electrode process is employed,<br />

it is usually where fast melting is desired and<br />

for heating relatively large areas.<br />

The economical choice is determined, naturally,<br />

by the character of the job, necessitating experience<br />

in the art. However, as a general rule, large and<br />

heavy work can frequently be more expeditiously performed<br />

by the carbon electrode process and the smaller<br />

and more delicate work by the metal wire electrode<br />

process.<br />

Either of the arc welding processes is distinguished<br />

by three highly desirable advantages. 1—Production<br />

of weld at a higher temperature than attainable by<br />

any other known welding system. 2—Unusual convenience<br />

in application. That is, arc welding can be<br />

employed with the utmost ease in an extremely wide<br />

range of work and with apparatus of proper design<br />

is the simplest welding process known. 3—Low cost.<br />

Electrical Requirements and Equipment.<br />

Direct' current is employed at a voltage very much<br />

lower than used for domestic lighting, etc.—15 to 30<br />

volts for metal electrode welding and from 30 to<br />

45 volts for carbon electrode work—necessitating<br />

the regular electric service supply. The relatively<br />

heavy investment so entailed is more than compensated<br />

for, however, by the much lower operating<br />

costs—compared with those entailed in any other system<br />

of welding. Compared to the expense of oxyacetylene<br />

welding, the operating costs in approved<br />

arc welding usually average about half.<br />

If a direct current service supply happens to be<br />

available, resistance can be introduced to cut the<br />

voltage down to that required for welding purposes.<br />

This is hardly approved procedure, for naturally a<br />

very considerable portion of the electric energy is<br />

wasted in overcoming the imposed resistance. In<br />

most cases, however, alternating current service is<br />

available, in which case a motor-generator set is employed<br />

to secure the needed direct current supply.<br />

In such a set, the generator may be of a type supplying<br />

energy at constant voltage or else one which


December, 1925<br />

allows the voltage to vary while the rate of energy<br />

flow remains substantially constant.<br />

The constant voltage direct current is usually<br />

delivered at about 75 volts potential, necessitating the<br />

introduction of resistance ballast at the welder to<br />

reduce the voltage to the correct value for welding.<br />

As in the case of a direct current service supply, the<br />

imposed resistance introduces a waste of current,<br />

though nowhere as serious as when the potential of<br />

a direct current service supply voltage is reduced to<br />

that suitable for welding operations. However, such<br />

waste is doubtless permissible, if several welding outfits<br />

are employed in a plant, as the 75 volt supply can<br />

be carried over the shop on heavy cables to the various<br />

welding outlets without prohibitive transmission<br />

losses. This cannot be done if the voltage of the<br />

welding current supply is delivered by the mot<strong>org</strong>enerator<br />

set at proper welding value. If a single<br />

welding unit is employed, or each unit is complete in<br />

itself with its individual motor-generator set, consequently,<br />

the variable voltage generator set proves<br />

considerably the more economical.<br />

The relative electric energy consumption of the<br />

three systems—direct current service, constant voltage<br />

and variable voltage—are respectively, 5.77, 2.16 and<br />

1. These values, based on actual operating results,<br />

indicates that ordinarily the choice of systems will<br />

lie between the constant and variable voltage sets<br />

operating on alternating current service. If a single<br />

arc welder suffices, the variable voltage set is obviously<br />

the logical selection, but if several welders<br />

are to be employed, the advisable selection entails a<br />

consideration of the capital investment entailed as well<br />

as operating economies.<br />

The constant voltage system offers savings in<br />

motor-generator equipment investment with high distribution<br />

and wiring expenses, while the variable voltage<br />

system entails heavier motor-generator equipment<br />

investment and lower expenses for distribution and<br />

wiring. Either system proves highly efficient, so far<br />

as actual operation is concerned, so much depends<br />

upon the wise economic selection of equipment.<br />

Standard Sets.<br />

Arc welders of various capacity—rated in amperes<br />

—in portable and stationary types are now on the<br />

market and readily procurable. Self contained sets<br />

consist usually of a motor generator unit, a control<br />

panel with switches, meters and necessary regulating<br />

equipment, and suitable leads carrying the electrodes<br />

—the positive electrode being simply a terminal plate<br />

to be attached to or laid on the work and the negative<br />

lead terminating in a holder for the carbon or metal<br />

wire electrode. Many sets include also a unit commonly<br />

known as a stabilizer. This device is in effect<br />

a type of electro-magnet which functions as an accumulator,<br />

feeding back to the welding circuit, without<br />

disturbance to the service supply, should excessive<br />

demands.be made for temporary energy—augmenting<br />

the usual supply of energy for welding purposes.<br />

Arc welding outfits have also been developed for<br />

use where no electric service is available. No motor<br />

is included in such sets, simply a suitable generator<br />

for belt connection to an engine, turbine or line shafting.<br />

In all other respects these sets are similar to<br />

the regular standard equipment for use where electric<br />

service supply is available.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

431<br />

Field for Arc Welding F<strong>org</strong>ings.<br />

The truly remarkable repairs made on defective<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings by electric arc welding may conceivably lead<br />

to placing too great dependence upon it as a corrective<br />

of faulty f<strong>org</strong>ings. Its proper field is for the correction<br />

of small rather than serious f<strong>org</strong>ing defects. It<br />

can quite properly be used for correcting low spots,<br />

parts not properly filled out and certain kinds of<br />

shuts, but the designation of the f<strong>org</strong>ings to be corrected<br />

by arc welding—or any other class of welding—<br />

should always be made by a competent foreman or<br />

superintendent.<br />

While the filling metal can have a tensile strength<br />

and resistance to shearing stresses adequate for correcting<br />

quite serious defects, due consideration must<br />

be given to the question of its ductility and elasticity,<br />

which may be considerably less than those of the<br />

defective f<strong>org</strong>ing. The filling metal is cast, not f<strong>org</strong>ed.<br />

This fact may be quite important. For instance, while<br />

it might be no drawback in correcting f<strong>org</strong>ing defects<br />

in a bracket, it might be quite serious in the case of<br />

correcting defects in an automobile crank.<br />

A f<strong>org</strong>ing giving evidence of having a deep cold<br />

shut in a part subject to heavy stress should rarely<br />

be welded, although it is quite possible to burn down<br />

to the bottom of a deep shut with the carbon electrode<br />

process and to fill in the depression with high grade<br />

filling metal. The weld will be cast metal, however,<br />

and there is no method of heat treatment which can<br />

convert the structure of the added metal to that characteristic<br />

of the surrounding f<strong>org</strong>ing. If it is necessary<br />

to reclaim a f<strong>org</strong>ing with a deep cold shut defect, it is<br />

usually preferable to fill in the defect to a depth not<br />

exceeding about a sixteenth of an inch with the metal<br />

electrode process. This will not materially affect the<br />

metal surrounding the defect.<br />

Overheating the metal in a f<strong>org</strong>ing is always to be<br />

avoided, so far as possible, and it is this fact—as well<br />

as the question of cost—which makes the arc welding<br />

method preferable to the oxy-acetylene flame method<br />

in the reclamation of slightly defective f<strong>org</strong>ings. The<br />

oxy-acetylene flame will heat three to five times the<br />

volume of metal heated when the arc process is employed.<br />

The localization of heat is so much more<br />

pronounced in the arc process, for the heat is applied<br />

only at the exact point at which it is required.<br />

Materials Handling by Modern Methods<br />

The W7estinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company<br />

has just issued. Circular 7378, on Materials Handling,<br />

that show7s the beneficial results to be obtained<br />

in the various industries through the use of electrically<br />

driven machinery for the handling of materials. This<br />

publication is particularly important in view of the<br />

fact that electrically driven machinery for materials<br />

handling is relieving the manpower of the world of<br />

the drudgery of heavy work, and releasing this available<br />

man power for other, more productive work.<br />

The pages of this circular contain information and<br />

data covering the principal groups of materials handling<br />

machines, giving their uses, typical outputs and<br />

the electrical equipment best suited for their successful<br />

operation, and describes the electrical equipment<br />

that the Westinghouse Company has developed for<br />

materials handling machinery. Cranes, hoists, winches,<br />

conveyors, coal loading machines, freight elevators.<br />

trucks, locomotive and dredges are some of the types<br />

of equipment that are described and illustrated.


432 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating December, 192!?<br />

A l l o y S t e e l R e d u c e s D i e B l o c k C o s t s<br />

Nickel Alloy Steel Die Blocks Show a Substantial Saving Over<br />

Plain Carbon Steels—Result of Test Indicates a<br />

IN order to reduce the cost of die blocks, the Moore<br />

Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Company, Springfield, Mass., experimented<br />

with blocks of nickel alloy steel. A very<br />

large variety of f<strong>org</strong>ings are made by this company,<br />

most of which are automobile parts for a number of<br />

manufacturers throughout the country. They also<br />

make many other f<strong>org</strong>ings such as parts for golf<br />

clubs, wrenches of all descriptions, parts for electrical<br />

machinery, etc. The f<strong>org</strong>ings are made from steels<br />

of various degrees of hardness, including hard tool<br />

steel.<br />

In his work it is essential that a steel be used for<br />

the die blocks which will stand up the longest possible<br />

time. With this in mind, various kinds of steel<br />

were tested as to their enduring qualities, and in 1917<br />

nickel alloy steel die blocks were first tried out.<br />

The performance of these blocks lead to subsequent<br />

additional purchases of them. ,A.t the present time<br />

chrome nickel steel die blocks are use almost exclusively.<br />

This metal has been found to be much tougher<br />

and harder than the ordinary carbon steel. In addition<br />

to die blocks, trimming dies are also made of the<br />

same material. The average nickel content of the<br />

steel is 1.5 per cent with a chromium content of about<br />

0.5 per cent.<br />

In the two plants of this company located at<br />

Springfield and Chicopee. Mass., there are 105 f<strong>org</strong>ing<br />

board hammer in operation. These hammers, which<br />

vary in capacity from 800 up to 3,000 pounds, are in<br />

service 16 hours a day. Due to the large variety of<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings made, there are thousands of dies on hand<br />

at the shops. The faces of some of the smaller ones<br />

are 6 in. x 6 in., and the larger one 18 x 22 in.<br />

The different kinds of f<strong>org</strong>ings made vary in weight<br />

from 2 ounces up to 10 pounds apiece. Because they<br />

are comparatively small, precision in the f<strong>org</strong>ing process<br />

is especially essential. When the dies wear down<br />

but a very small amount, they must lie resunk or<br />

discarded.<br />

Do Not Check or Crack.<br />

With the nickel alloy die blocks it is possible to<br />

get more than twice the number of f<strong>org</strong>ings per sinking<br />

than was possible with the ordinary carbon steel<br />

formerly employed due to the greater toughness and<br />

hardness of the nickel alloy. This means a saving<br />

in the cost of making new dies which includes labor,<br />

a large percentage of overhead, and material costs.<br />

Because the dies have to be replaced less often there<br />

is a saving in the machine time of the hammers which<br />

have to be idle a few hours every time a set of dies<br />

must be replaced during the regular working hours.<br />

A further advantage is that these nickel alloy steel<br />

blocks do not check like the ordinary carbon steel<br />

blocks. This checking of the carbon steel die blocks<br />

•General Superintendent. Moore Drop F<strong>org</strong>ing Company.<br />

Springfield, Mass.<br />

Reduction in Cost of 54.6 Per Cent<br />

By EARL C. ABBE*<br />

necessitates the use of_ oil to aid in removing the<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings, but this is not necessary with the nickel<br />

alloy blocks.<br />

Still another advantage of the nickel alloy die<br />

blocks is that they do not crack as easily as the other<br />

blocks. This was especially true after several resinkings<br />

when the die block became comparatively thin.<br />

On some of the work, records have been kept to<br />

determine the number of f<strong>org</strong>ings made with each<br />

die block. As many as 42,990 connecting rods have<br />

been f<strong>org</strong>ed, 7j4 71A ' in. center to center and weighing<br />

TABLE I—COMPARATIVE COSTS OF STEEL<br />

DIE BLOCKS<br />

Cost per set using Chrome Nickel Steel Die Blocks:<br />

Material—1.160 lbs. x $.09 per lb $ 104.40<br />

Labor:<br />

90 hrs. \ $.95 per hr $ 85.50<br />

Machining 6.00<br />

Hardening, grinding and polishing 8.00<br />

Total Labor<br />

Overhead—$99.50 x 150 per cent<br />

Total cost for original set<br />

Resinking cost (three times per set)<br />

Resinking labor $248.75<br />

Changing labor 1.88<br />

Total 3 x $250.63<br />

Cost per set using ordinary Carbon Steel Die Blocks:<br />

Material—1,160 x $.075.<br />

Labor and overhead.<br />

99.50<br />

149.25<br />

$ 353.15<br />

751.25<br />

87.00<br />

223.38<br />

Total cost for original set $ 310.88<br />

Resinking cost (three times) :<br />

$225.76 x 3 677.28<br />

Total cost over entire life of the set $ 988.16<br />

TABLE II.-SAVINGS EFFECTED BY CHROME NICKEL<br />

STEEL DIE BLOCKS<br />

Average number of f<strong>org</strong>ings with<br />

One sinking of nickel alloy blocks<br />

Average number of f<strong>org</strong>ings with<br />

37,000<br />

One sinking of carbon steel blocks 15,000<br />

Life of one set nickel alloy blocks—37,000 x 4 148,000 f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

Life of one set carbon steel blocks—15,000 x 4 60,000 f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

Total cost of carbon steel die blocks for 148,000<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings:<br />

148<br />

—<br />

60<br />

X $988.16 $2,437.46<br />

Total cost of nickel alloy die blocks for 148 000<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ings Saving per set of Nickel Alloy die blocks. ... $1,332.42 1,105.04<br />

Reduction in cost<br />

54.6%<br />

1 pound and 3 ounces when finished, with one sinking<br />

on the nickel alloy steel die blocks. An average number<br />

of connecting rods for each sinking as obtained<br />

from records on 4 different nickel die blocks is 37,000.<br />

With the ordinary carbon steel blocks the average<br />

number of connecting rods f<strong>org</strong>ed for each sinking<br />

of the die was only 15,000.


December, 1925<br />

Substantial Savings Made.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

As shown in Tables I and II, the total first cost of<br />

an original set of nickel die blocks is $353.15. These<br />

particular die blocks are usually resunk three times<br />

thereafter at a cost which is equivalent to the labor<br />

and overhead expense of making the original set of<br />

die blocks; the additional annealing and planing cost<br />

when resinking being about equal to the additional<br />

cost of machinery when the die blocks are first made.<br />

Adding the cost of the three resinkings, the total<br />

cost for a set of dies over their entire period of service<br />

is $1,105.04.<br />

The total cost for the carbon steel blocks, including<br />

the three resinkings, is $988.16 over the entire<br />

period of life. With a set of the nickel steel blocks<br />

an average of 37,000 f<strong>org</strong>ings for each sinking is obtained,<br />

or a total of 148,000 f<strong>org</strong>ings during the life<br />

of one set of blocks. The carbon steel blocks last for<br />

a total of 60,000 f<strong>org</strong>ings. To obtain 148,000 f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

with a set of the nickel alloy die blocks, therefore,<br />

costs $1,105.04. For the same number of f<strong>org</strong>ings<br />

using carbon steel blocks, the cost is $2,437.46. The<br />

saving effected by one set of nickel alloy die blocks<br />

for this job is $1,332.42, which is a reduction in cost<br />

of 54.6 per cent.<br />

A saving in changing labor is effected because<br />

each time a set of die blocks is replaced in a hammer,<br />

an average of 2y2 hours labor is required. The saving<br />

has been determined on the basis that the dies<br />

are changed out of the regular working hours of the<br />

hammer. However, occasionally these changes mean<br />

lost machine time when they have to be made during<br />

working hours, and, because the carbon steel blocks<br />

have to be renewed more than twice as often as the<br />

nickel blocks, there is another saving due to the latter.<br />

Figures Do Lie—Sometimes<br />

While it is the custom to price drop f<strong>org</strong>ings per<br />

piece rather than per pound and which per piece basis<br />

the writer heartily approves—still it is well to roughly<br />

translate them to a mental pound price, that we may<br />

have a better perspective of them.<br />

Some of us have recently become so befogged<br />

with the maze of figures, methods, processes and differentials<br />

left us by the scientific management era<br />

and we have been so busy chasing the elusive minor<br />

elements of Old Man Overhead, that we have overlooked<br />

the fact we are sometimes pricing our product<br />

at net figures that work out less than the pound price<br />

of castings.<br />

If you can make and sell drop f<strong>org</strong>ings in small<br />

quantites at prices less than the basic quantity price<br />

of malleable, or even gray iron in some cases, then<br />

go to it, and stay with it, because this is not intended<br />

for you.<br />

Recently in attempting to analyze some offered<br />

prices, in defense of some current prices that were<br />

challenged as being exhorbitant and apparently so<br />

when compared with the offered prices, it developed<br />

that the offered prices were but one or two cents<br />

more per pound more than the current market rate<br />

of the steel specified for them—and this on quantities<br />

of one thousand only. Others developed that alloy<br />

steel drop f<strong>org</strong>ings including normalizing, were being<br />

offered at less than the large quantity basic rate<br />

of malleable, and barely over the market price per<br />

pound of the steel.<br />

When this was shown to the prospect, even he<br />

readily saw the apparent discrepancy and requested<br />

that the offered figures be checked. The reply was<br />

at some length, entirly academic, laying great emphasis<br />

on how carefully every detail of the estimated<br />

cost of every proposed operation was prepared, computed,<br />

stressed with its proper departmental burden,<br />

and the administrative burden applied as moderately<br />

as conditions would permit, etc., etc. But if the Super-<br />

Accountant who had prepared that cost and price,<br />

had gone at it in the old fashioned way, of saying<br />

the piece will weigh so much and take so much to<br />

make one, which at so much per pound for the stuff<br />

(the market price of the steel) he would have found<br />

that up to this point he cost would have exceeded the<br />

price he offered even before getting into the basic<br />

items of direct f<strong>org</strong>ing and die expense and aside<br />

from whatever burdens, overheads or other such details<br />

that should be added, irrespective of what you<br />

call them or how or why or to what extent if any<br />

you apply them—of course if it was contemplated to<br />

use bargain or liquidated steel then this is another<br />

matter—but we have seen so many such, and on such<br />

a large range of possible sizes, grades, qualities and<br />

quantities of steel that might be required—then possibly<br />

those fellows have discovered a perpetual source<br />

of such material.<br />

Definite figures and specific cases have been purposely<br />

avoided herewith (although they can be afforded<br />

in abundance)—simply to distinguish this article<br />

from one, which might have any inference or<br />

formula as to how you should figure your estimates<br />

or price your Stuff, other than to suggest that after<br />

you have completed your acre or so of figures, to<br />

stand off, look at the piece, say—how much will it<br />

weigh; how much will I get for it; how much per day<br />

will I get for the use of the hammer and crew; how<br />

much will I get for the whole job—rather than to<br />

gamble your dollars and possibly your business and<br />

your future on those verified cost analyses or with<br />

whatever title your Exalted Comptrollership dignifies<br />

them.—The Old Man.<br />

A. S. S. T. Sectional Meeting<br />

The Winter Sectional Meeting of the American<br />

Society for Steel Treating will be held at Hotel Statler,<br />

Buffalo, on Thursday and Friday, January 21 and<br />

22, 1926.<br />

The first meeting of the newly elected directors<br />

will be held at Hotel Statler the day preceding the<br />

opening of the Sectional meeting.<br />

Chairman G. J. Armstrong of the Buffalo Chapter<br />

has his committees actively at work making arrangements<br />

for the meeting and all indications point to<br />

another successful meeting. Chairman Armstrong<br />

has appointed the following committees:<br />

Publicity Committee—Chairman, B. L. McCarthy,<br />

O. W. Mueller, F. G. Moore. Dinner Committee—<br />

Chairman, G. J. Armstrong, W. J. Gamble. Entertainment<br />

and Arrangements—Chairman, O. W. Mueller,<br />

F. B. Lounsberry, W. H. Blocksidge, D. Bell, F. G.<br />

Brost, C. R. Pafenback, F. C. Burkardt, R. E. Sherlock.<br />

Finance Committee—Chairman, B. Clements,<br />

B. D. Wells. Registration Committee—Chairman, B.<br />

L. McCarthy, W. S. Miller, F. L. Weaver.<br />

m


434 Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

F a i l u r e o f Billets D u r i n g F o r g i n g<br />

A lot of 20 f<strong>org</strong>ed medium carbon steel billets<br />

with a cross section of 24 in. by 24 in. and an approximate<br />

weight of 1.500 lbs. was used by a ma-<br />

FIG. 1—Showing location of cracks in f<strong>org</strong>ed billet.<br />

chine company in manufacturing crankshafts, etc.<br />

The carbon content varied from .35 to .50 per cent.<br />

Next to the last of these billets, when taken out of<br />

By R. B. WILHELM<br />

December. 1925<br />

the furnace, showed cracks in two planes perpendicular<br />

to the longitudinal axis of the billet and also a<br />

diagonal one in the front. A sketch showing the<br />

location of the cracks is given in Fig. 1. AAiter dividing<br />

the billet in plane B-B, crack D, (Fig. 1), appeared.<br />

Fig. 2 represents crack A in the front and<br />

crack D in section B-B. The aspect of the fracture<br />

clearly reveals that the crack extended almost over<br />

the entire section except the corners. Fig. 3 shows<br />

the cracks C as indicated in Fig. 1.<br />

Due to the fact that the heating of the billet had<br />

been done very carefully, some inherent defee: was<br />

supposed to be the cause of the failure, as the first 18<br />

similar billets, heated exactly in the same manner,<br />

did not show the slightest defect.<br />

Before heating the last billet of this lot it was<br />

subjected to a thorough examination. A suspicious<br />

spot in the surface is shown in Fig. 4 where the scale<br />

FIG. 2—Upper—Crack A, Lower—Crack D as indicated in Fig. 1. FIG. 3—Crack C indicated in Fig 1 FIG 4 Cracked<br />

scale, a suspicious spot on the surface. FIG. 5—The crack shown was revealed upon polishing and etching the surface<br />

shown in Fig. 4.


December, 1925<br />

is cracked along a line, between the two arrows. Filing<br />

and etching of this part of the billet surface revealed<br />

a crack as shown in Fig. 5. An attempt was<br />

made to remove the crack with a hollow chisel, but<br />

this proved to be unfeasible on account of its depth.<br />

A hole was then drilled and the crack found to be<br />

deeper than one inch. A careful inspection of the<br />

same section did not reveal any further signs of cracks.<br />

Subsequently the billet was slowly brought up to die<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing temperature. As soon as pressure was applied<br />

under a steam hydraulic press, cracks appeared on<br />

three sides of the examined section, similar to wha'c<br />

had been experienced on the billet mentioned previously.<br />

The failure of the second billet doubtlessly<br />

confirmed the supposition concerning the inherent<br />

defect, responsible for the failure of the first one.<br />

It seems strange that only the last two of 20 billets<br />

failed, but this fact is easily explained, considering<br />

that the last billets were those of highest carbon content,<br />

in other words the most susceptible to develop<br />

cracks.<br />

The cause of the cracks was explained as follows:<br />

After f<strong>org</strong>ing the ingot in the steel works it was exposed<br />

to rapid cooling. The temperature decreased<br />

rapidly at the corners, but they were prevented from<br />

shrinking by the hot material with the greater volume<br />

inside. When the center of the billet was cooling<br />

off, the corners formed a rigid frame and thus prevented<br />

the inner material from contraction. If there<br />

had been hair cracks in the ingot, they would have<br />

been noticed during the first f<strong>org</strong>ing operation.<br />

From these considerations it may be concluded that<br />

with proper treatment, especially when cooling and<br />

heating, these troubles would have been avoided.<br />

Research Committee Receives Reports<br />

An all day session of the Joint Research Committee<br />

on the Effect of Temperature on the Properties<br />

of Metals, sponsored by the American Society of<br />

Mechanical Engineers and American Society for<br />

Testing Materials, was held recently at the Cleveland<br />

Hotel, at Cleveland, under the chairmanship of Mr.<br />

G. W. Saathoff.<br />

A report was made by the Sub-Committee on Procurement<br />

of Materials, headed by Mr. H. J. French,<br />

indicating that manufacturers are eager to co-operate<br />

by suplying the necessary materials for physical tests.<br />

A supply is on hand of three types of steel. These<br />

are to be properly heat treated and machined to standard<br />

test specimen shapes and distributed to the cooperating<br />

laboratories. Other materials can be obtained<br />

from manufacturers when needed, upon the<br />

request of the committee.<br />

A report was presented by the Sub-Committee on<br />

Specifications for High Temperautre Tests. This<br />

sub-committee, headed by Mr. L. W. Spring, submitted<br />

devised forms of specifications for short and<br />

long time tests, which had been discussed at the precedeing<br />

meeting. These specificiations, as adopted,<br />

are now in proper form to be released to the co-operating<br />

laboratories. They are accompanied by the<br />

sample log sheets and stress-strain diagram sheets.<br />

for the guidance of all co-operators, so that reports<br />

from various co-operators will be uniform and can be<br />

compared directly as received.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating<br />

435<br />

The Sub-Committee on Co-operating Laboratories,<br />

headed by Mr. C. T. Malcolm, reported that practically<br />

all the laboratories addressed expressed a desire<br />

to co-operate in these investigations to the limit<br />

of their facilities and personnel. The report indicates<br />

that between 20 and 30 laboratories are already<br />

equipped to handle high temperature tests, and practically<br />

all of these have offered the use of their<br />

facilities.<br />

Twelve of these laboratories were selected for the<br />

first group of high temperature tests and the material<br />

on hand will be distributed to them when heat<br />

treated and machined, with the tentative standard<br />

specifications, so that they may proceed with the<br />

active work on these materials.<br />

The present set of tests is for the determination<br />

of the tensile properties of these metals under elevated<br />

temperatures. The committee discussed plans contemplating<br />

contemporary work on other physical<br />

properties of metals at high temperature such as<br />

fatigue phenomena, corrosion, erosion, etc. This work<br />

will be allotted to other co-operating laboratories than<br />

those working on the present group of tests.<br />

The plans were formulated for a survey to obtain<br />

reports from users of metals concerning their experiences<br />

in finding suitable materials for use under severe<br />

service conditions involving abnormal temperatures,<br />

either above or below normal.<br />

The need of an <strong>org</strong>anized attack on this problem<br />

was convincingly attested at this meeting by the<br />

reports which indicated the large number of laboratories<br />

which have already worked on these problems,<br />

by willingness of all parties to contribute information<br />

and to co-operate in the investigations, and by the<br />

fact that the committee already has been consulted<br />

by the users of metals who are in need of information<br />

on this subject in connection with their manufacturing<br />

processes.<br />

Measuring Gases in Metals<br />

Metallurgists have realized for some time that the<br />

presence or absence of gases in steels and cast irons<br />

has an important effect upon the properties of the<br />

metals. Just what this effect is or how to measure<br />

the gases housed in the metal content have been difficult<br />

matters to fathom. The Bureau of Standards, at<br />

Washington, claims to have arrived at a method of<br />

determining accurately the amounts of oxygen and<br />

hydrogen in metals. The analysis, it is said, will<br />

disclose 1/1000 of a gram of oxygen and 1/10,000 of<br />

a gram of hydrogen in 100 grams of iron or steel. A<br />

sample of the metal is sealed inside a fused-silica tube,<br />

the tube is evacuated, the sample is melted in a high<br />

frequency induction furnace, and the gases are collected<br />

and weighed. A complete description of the<br />

process is to be published soon in one of the bureau's<br />

scientific papers.<br />

Great Machinery Sales Building<br />

Machinery dealers are buying space on a co-ope_ative<br />

basis, the investment to be used for the erection<br />

of a 21 story machinery mart across from the new<br />

Union Station, Chicago, 111. The estimated cost is<br />

$8,500,000 and the rentable floor space will be 800,000<br />

square feet. Plans have been drawn by Graham, Anderson,<br />

Probst & Wrhite, 80 East Jackson Boulevard,<br />

Chicago.


436 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Materials Testings—Theory and Practice<br />

By Irving H. Cowdrey, assistant professor of testing<br />

materials and Ralph G. Adams, instructor in<br />

mechanical engineering, Massachusetts Institute of<br />

Technology. 129 pages, 6 x 9, 51 illustrations, cloth,<br />

$1.50, postpaid.<br />

This book gives a concise presentation of the methods<br />

and the fundamental theory of the testing of<br />

materials of construction, with condensed specifications<br />

and properties of the more common ones. A<br />

study of the test will lead to a clearer understanding<br />

of specifications, and will be of assistance in the interpretation<br />

of the results of physical tests.<br />

Contents—Province of the Testing Engineer. The<br />

Report. Testing Machines. Tensile Tests. Graphs.<br />

Compressive Tests. Torsional Tests. Transverse<br />

Tests. Dynamic Tests. Test Specimens and Holders.<br />

Fractures and Their Significance. Hardness Determination.<br />

Cement Testing. Testing of Sand. Timber<br />

Testing. Measuring Devices. Verification of<br />

Testing Machines. Appendix.<br />

Industrial Furnaces, Vol. II<br />

By Professor W. Trinks, M. E., consulting engineer<br />

and professor of mechanical engineering, Carnegie<br />

Institute of Technology. 405 pages, 6x9, 292<br />

illustrations, cloth, $5.50, postpaid.<br />

This new volume, although a continuation of the<br />

first one, is complete in itself and is devoted primarily<br />

to practice. It will be found an invaluable reference<br />

to, (1) men who have to decide on the type of fuel<br />

or heat energy to be used in a specific case; (2) those<br />

who select furnace equipment; (3) sales engineers of<br />

furnace equipment; (4) men who install furnaces, and,<br />

(5) furnace operators.<br />

In this volume a great deal of equipment is described,<br />

and being the only treatise in existence on<br />

the subject, the book will find a wide usage in countries<br />

other than the United States. As far as possible,<br />

fundamental types have been selected for description.<br />

In limiting the descriptive matter to fundamental<br />

types, the author has tried to avoid too many details,<br />

as these vary constantly.<br />

On account of the wide field covered by the subject<br />

of industrial furnaces, the author has found it<br />

necessary to supplement his own experience with that<br />

of others. Consequently, this volume is based not<br />

only upon the author's personal observation, but also<br />

on publications, and upon communications in which<br />

individuals and firms have stated their experience.<br />

aA. great part of the subject matter has been published<br />

piecemeal and has been examined critically by<br />

those who are interested in industrial furnaces. This<br />

tends toward a greater degree of accuracy in the subject<br />

matter.<br />

Contents—Fuels and Sources of Heat Energy.<br />

Combustion Devices and Heating Elements. Control<br />

of Furnace Temperature. Control of Furnace<br />

Atmosphere. Labor-Saving Appliances. Critical<br />

Comparison of Fuels and Furnace Types. Selection<br />

of Fuel and Furnace to Suit Conditions.<br />

Importance of Proper Cleaning<br />

(From U-Loy News)<br />

December, 1925<br />

The process of producing high grade steels involves<br />

many intermediate stages of manufacture which<br />

are exceedingly important, and which deserve greater<br />

consideration than frequently is accorded them.<br />

The steel cleaning department comprises both<br />

chipping and grinding operations. From the nature<br />

and cost of the work, it requires exceedingly careful<br />

and painstaking attention.<br />

The impossibility of making high grade steels by<br />

rule-of-thumb methods, and the variations of certain<br />

production factors entirely out of the control of the<br />

steel maker, make the cleaning department an essential<br />

part of the steel plant. It is true that if every<br />

operation from the production of pig iron to the final<br />

rolling were 100 per cent perfect, no cleaning would<br />

be required. Ideal laboratory conditions, however,<br />

are impossible to maintain in commercial practice, and<br />

the human element is an uncertain variable.<br />

The cleaning of steel consists of removing injurious<br />

surface defects in order to condition the bloom<br />

or bar for the succeeding operation. These defects<br />

may be any of the following: seams, scabs, cracks,<br />

snakes, crow's feet, burnt edges, laps, overfills,<br />

scratches, roll marks, shearing, etc. Experience is<br />

essential to determine which imperfections are injurious<br />

and must be removed in one case, and in another<br />

case passed by on account of being eliminated in the<br />

later working operations.<br />

Alloy steels in particular require very careful cleaning<br />

because many of them possess the property of<br />

exaggerating rather than eliminating defects in subsequent<br />

working.<br />

In order to expose and bring into relief all surface<br />

imperfections, pickling is resorted to. All steel after<br />

rolling is coated with a film of scale (iron oxide)<br />

which sometimes completely hides the surface defects.<br />

Immersion in a bath of sulphuric acid, followed by a<br />

rinsing operation, removes this scale coating, and any<br />

defects present are outlined.<br />

In general bloom cleaning, all soft and mediumhard<br />

steel are cleaned by chipping. Steels too hard<br />

to chip are ground.<br />

Chipping.<br />

Chipping is strictly an individual operation depending<br />

upon the skill, physique and willingness of<br />

the chipper, to say nothing of his facilities and equipment.<br />

High pressure air is required to operate the<br />

pneumatic chipping hammers and adequate air compressors<br />

must be maintained. A chipping hammer<br />

will consume on the average 28 cu. ft. of air per minute<br />

and a pressure of 100 pounds is desired. The first<br />

cost of chipping hammers is high and their upkeep is<br />

a source of frequent and continual expense. The<br />

constant jar and vibration of the chipping hammer<br />

is very tiring and severe on the human operator with<br />

the result that he is compelled to lay off and rest up<br />

frequently. A rugged physique is necessary. The<br />

high rates paid these operators attract but comparatively<br />

few men into the chippers' ranks. Competition<br />

is consequently keen to secure the best possible<br />

operators.<br />

A very important item of chipping equipment<br />

is the chisels used to cut the steel. A satisfactory


December, 1925<br />

chisel must be hard enough to cut comparatively hard<br />

steel and tough enough to withstand breakage. On<br />

medium grade steel one chisel will sometimes cut<br />

several hours, while on hard steel the same chisel<br />

will cut but a very few minutes before it must be<br />

reground.<br />

Rigid supervision is necessary to insure that all<br />

the injurious defects are removed by the chipper.<br />

The chipper is inclined to reduce the amount of chipping<br />

done to a minimum, especially when working<br />

under a bonus incentive. In order to offset this condition,<br />

every side of every bloom or bar must be personally<br />

inspected and released by an experienced and<br />

responsible man assigned to this work alone.<br />

Certain high priced steels receive three cleaning<br />

operations to insure 100 per cent product. First, the<br />

ingot is inspected and any surface defects or irregularities<br />

which might cause trouble later are chipped<br />

out. Second, after the ingot has been rolled down<br />

into a bloom it is pickled and again any surface irregularities<br />

are chipped out. Third, after the bloom<br />

has been rolled on the finishing mill into the size required<br />

by the customer, it is again pickled and after<br />

carefully inspecting it, any surface irregularities are<br />

removed.<br />

Each one of these operations requires time to<br />

perform and this time should be considered when<br />

quality of product is desired. It must be remembered<br />

in this connection that common low priced steels are<br />

not subjected to these cleaning and inspecting operations<br />

with the result that the interval of time between<br />

making in the furnace and shipping to the customer<br />

is correspondingly shorter on low priced steel.<br />

Grinding.<br />

Blooms, billets, and finished stock which are too<br />

hard, or on which for any reason chipping is undesirable,<br />

are ground. The great majority of blooms<br />

and billets are ground without any preliminary pickling.<br />

On finished stock very frequently it is desirable<br />

to pickle before hand grinding.<br />

Bloom and billet grinding is done on swing frame<br />

grinders. These machines are motor-driven and carry<br />

a grinding wheel which is 24 in. in diar.ieter and :ias<br />

a face which is 2 in. wide. For cleaning finished<br />

stock hand grinders, which are pneumatic driven,<br />

with a grinding wheel 8 in. in diameter, are used.<br />

Next to labor the most important and expensive<br />

item in connection with grinding is the wheel used<br />

for grinding. It is essential that this wheel give a<br />

satisfactory finish to the stock when ground, the wheel<br />

must have long life and the cutting rate must average<br />

high. The type of steel to be ground will determine<br />

the wheel to be used. Where the type of steel<br />

varies widely, it is advisable to carry several kinds<br />

of wheels in stock. In general, grinding wheels are<br />

all made from the same electric furnace product,<br />

but they differ in grain size and combination as well<br />

as in the bond used and method of burning. Some<br />

wheels are treated, others are untreated. By treatment<br />

is meant that the pores of the wheel after burning<br />

are filled with some liquid substance like rosin<br />

which has a lubricating effect.<br />

The supervision and inspection on ground stock<br />

must be very keen and considerable experience with<br />

close application is necessary to insure removal of all<br />

imperfections.<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating 437<br />

Lining Furnace Bungs<br />

By Meredith F. King*<br />

In the plant of the Canadian Steel Foundries at<br />

Montreal, annealing furnace bungs of large dimension<br />

are used. The bung casting has a span of 11 ft.<br />

3 in. and is 2 ft. 6 in. wide, with a total weight when<br />

lined of approximately 6,635 lbs. For many months<br />

past this concern has adopted monolithic linings in<br />

place of fire brick for these bungs, on account of<br />

1—Lower cost of refractory material,<br />

2—Lower labor cost,<br />

3—Greatly increased service.<br />

The monolithic lining consists of crushed old fire<br />

brick, bonded with high temperature cement mixed<br />

FIG. 1—A wooden form is used when ramming the<br />

monolithic lining in place.<br />

in proportion to make a plastic mixture which is<br />

rammed with an air hammer into the bung casting, to<br />

a depth of 9 in., in place of laying up fire brick in<br />

these castings to the same depth.<br />

A wood form is used as shown in Fig. 1. This<br />

form is made of rough 1 in. stock which is clamped<br />

securely with 2x4 braces against the sides of the<br />

casting and securely fastened by wire ties drawn<br />

tight. These forms can be repeatedly used for relining<br />

a group of bung castings.<br />

It is the practice of this plant to have a reserve<br />

supply of bungs, and as soon as one is out of service,<br />

it is relined in the manner described. The newly<br />

lined bungs are usually placed on top of a core oven<br />

for 3 or 4 days for drying, after which they can be<br />

easily handled. They are then placed to one side and<br />

allowed to air set thoroughly for about 3 or 4 weeks.<br />

A sufficient number of bung castings are kept on hand<br />

so that an ample supply of lined bungs is always<br />

ready for service.<br />

Lining.<br />

The bung is first placed in the position and the<br />

form securely clamped in place. Before ramming in<br />

the mixture of crushed old fire brick and high temperature<br />

cement, the interior face of the bung casting<br />

is painted with a batter of high temperature cement<br />

which bonds the rammed-in mixture to the<br />

casting-.<br />

•Service Engineer, Quigley Furnace Specialties Company,<br />

New York.


438 F<strong>org</strong>ing - S tamping - Heat "Beating<br />

The refractor}' material used, is crushed old lire<br />

brick reduced to approximately '4 in. mesh, including<br />

the fines. This material is put in a cement mixer,<br />

along with diluted high temperature cement in proportions<br />

of 3,000 lbs. of crushed fire brick to 1.000<br />

lbs. of high temperature cement. To each batch of<br />

this -ize is added a half bag of Portland Cement when<br />

the mixture is about ready for ramming.<br />

The mixture is then dumped in between the sides<br />

of the form to a depth of about 4 in. This material<br />

is then rammed, using a sand air rammer. Ramming<br />

FIG. 2—Furnace being lined and ready for drying.<br />

is not done directly on the material itself, but against<br />

a piece of board which is shifted about to get an even<br />

distribution of pressure.<br />

Labor Saving.<br />

It has been found that with the monolithic lining,<br />

three men can ram four bungs in a day. With fire<br />

brick lining, as formerly used, it required one bricklayer<br />

and three or four laboreres to line one bung in<br />

a day.<br />

Service of Monolithic Bungs.<br />

The majority of the bungs lined by this method<br />

have been good for thirty heats of service. This is<br />

a fair average. Prior to this, 10 heats was considered<br />

especially good for fire brick lining, though the average<br />

life would probably be from six to eight heats.<br />

The Protection of Thermo-Couples in<br />

Electrically-Heated Salt Baths<br />

By L. E. Crease<br />

(From American Machinist)<br />

Suitable protecting sheaths for pyrometers gave<br />

practically no trouble until electrically-heated salt<br />

baths were brought into use in the heat-treating departments<br />

of our industrial plants.<br />

The ordinary gas furnace, in which the work is<br />

heated directly by the flames, presents few difficulties<br />

as far as the pyrometer sheaths are concerned. Cast<br />

iron was soon found to be the most inexpensive material<br />

giving satisfactory service.<br />

Gas or oil-fired baritim-chlordie baths, in general<br />

use throughout the country a few- years ago, in which<br />

the thermo-couple must be submerged in order to give<br />

an exact indication of the temperature, were the cause<br />

December, 1925<br />

of numerous experiments with materials ranging from<br />

silica to nickel and chromium alloys. Unfortunately,<br />

in spite of its excellent qualities as an impenetrable<br />

sheath, silica proved too fragile for any but laboratory<br />

use. Mild-carbon steel was finally adopted in the<br />

form of a tube, one end of which was made air-tight<br />

bv fusing it in order that the salt, when heated to<br />

900 or 950 deg. C, would not force its way through<br />

to the couple. These tubes gave satisfactory results.<br />

When electrically-heated barium-chloride baths<br />

were brought into existence, another phenomenon was<br />

encountered. The action of the electric current, combined<br />

with the corrosive properties of the fused salts,<br />

wore away the metal tube in from three to five days<br />

when running at 850 deg. C. The position of the<br />

pyrometer is shown in Fig. 1 in relation to the electrodes.<br />

This illustration explains, at least partially,<br />

the origin of the trouble which seems to reside in the<br />

contact established between electrode. A, and the pyrometer<br />

sheath, D, by the slag, C, which falls to the<br />

bottom of the crucible and is drawn into the corners.<br />

The current thus passes between electrode B and the<br />

sheath, instead of passing from one electrode to the<br />

other.<br />

No practical remedy being available, protecting<br />

tubes of various compositions were again tested, and<br />

the nickel-chromium alloy triumphed in all but one<br />

point. The slag in this case seems to have an affinity<br />

for the salts and soon joins them, leaving a series<br />

of small holes in the tube through which the salt<br />

penetrates.<br />

A non-porous sheath is required to insure the thermo-couple<br />

against an}- conductor which would short-<br />

FIG. 1—Slowing the position of the pyrometer in the sa'.t<br />

bath. FIG. 2—(Right)—Cross-section to show successful<br />

construction.<br />

circuit the two elements, and non-corrosive metal is<br />

required to protect this sheath.<br />

The results of the previous tests led to the solving<br />

of the problem, which was accomplished by combining<br />

the well known properties of steel and nickelchromium<br />

alloys.<br />

In Fig. 2 is shown the end of a pyrometer mounted<br />

with a double sheath, X being the mild-steel sheath<br />

and K the allov sheath.


December, 1925<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing - Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f C a r b o n a n d S u l p h u r<br />

IN F<strong>org</strong>ing-Stamping-Heat Treating of December<br />

1922, I translated a method for the determination of<br />

sulphur by combustion in oxygen. Mr. A. Vita, the<br />

author of this method, continued his investigation to<br />

include the simultaneous determination of carbon.<br />

Several difficulties had to be overcome. First, it<br />

was found that the top of the graduated burrette was<br />

too small. It was, therefore, enlarged to approximately<br />

100 cc, which proved to be sufficient, if the<br />

double wash bottle, which contains the potassium<br />

iodide—iodate solution is chosen correspondingly<br />

smaller. Those used in the experiment contained<br />

approximately 65 cc. The absorption pipette -also had<br />

to be enlarged considerably.<br />

By RICHARD RIMBACH*<br />

S%<br />

Sample Gravametric<br />

Ferro-Manganese 30% .018<br />

Ferro-Manganese 80% .018<br />

Basic Pig Iron, 1.5% Phosphorus .06<br />

Basic Pig Iron, 1.5% Phosphorus .16<br />

Open Hearth Steel, Acid 046<br />

Open Hearth Steel, Acid 036<br />

Open Hearth Steel, Acid 037<br />

Open Hearth Steel, Acid 058<br />

Onen Hearth Steel. Basic 04<br />

The tests were started with a ferro-manganese<br />

having a carbon content of 4.60 per cent. During the<br />

combustion, as was the case in the determination of<br />

carbon, the leveling bottle was set up on top of the<br />

case. The gases, therefore, entered the potassium<br />

iodide—iodate solution, which was used undiluted (30<br />

gms. of potassium iodide and 3 gms of potassium<br />

iodate per liter), under pressure. The sulphur content<br />

in most cases came out too high and the carbon<br />

•Metallurgist, Pittsburgh, Pa.<br />

439<br />

content too low. If the carbon dioxide was passed<br />

through the potassium iodide—iodate solution under<br />

excessive pressure, part of the carbon dioxide remained<br />

in the solution and freed iodine. For this<br />

reason on the one hand the carbon results were too<br />

low—in amounts up to 0.2 per cent—on the other<br />

hand the sulphur results were too high.<br />

This condition was avoided in that the combustion<br />

was carried on under vacuum by placing the leveling<br />

bottle down low and the concentration of the potassium<br />

iodide—iodate solution was reduced to 1/3 that<br />

given above. In the first part of the wash bottle<br />

20 cc. of the diluted solution was placed and in the<br />

TABLE I Simultaneous Determination<br />

S% C% on the same Sample<br />

Combustion Combustion S% C%<br />

Colorimetric Volumetric Colorimetric Volumetric<br />

.015<br />

.015<br />

.06<br />

.16<br />

.045<br />

.03<br />

.04<br />

.05<br />

.035<br />

4.60<br />

6.88<br />

3.22<br />

3.30<br />

0.31<br />

0.35<br />

0.12<br />

0.10<br />

0.085<br />

.018<br />

.018<br />

.06<br />

.16<br />

.05<br />

.03<br />

.035<br />

.055<br />

.035<br />

4.56<br />

6.84<br />

3.30<br />

3.29<br />

0.30<br />

0.34<br />

0.13<br />

0.095<br />

0.085<br />

second part 10 cc. If after the determination is made<br />

the shade of the solution upon diluting should not<br />

check with the comparison solution of potassium<br />

bichromate; this condition can be remedied by the<br />

addition of several crystals of potassium iodide.<br />

It should be kept in mind that the combustion<br />

boats must be put into the combustion tube at a temperature<br />

of 1,200-1,250 deg. C, that vacuum be created<br />

by lowering the leveling bottle, and then only<br />

(Concluded on page 446)<br />

FIG. 1—Apparatus used fer the simultaneous determination of carbon and sulphur.


440<br />

Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

Users of steel castings occasionally wish to determine<br />

the chemical composition of the metal, because<br />

of difficulty in machining, failure in service, or other<br />

reasons. Sometimes a consumer reports a determination<br />

made by or for him, which varies considerably<br />

from that reported by the foundry. When a complete<br />

investigation of all the factors involved in chemical<br />

anlysis is made, it is frequently found that divergences<br />

in results are due to the slighting of certain procedures,<br />

appreciated fully by the analyst daily making<br />

many steel analyses, but not always by those who<br />

seldom do such work. We learned recently that a<br />

well known commercial laboratory frequently receives<br />

steel samples in such condition as to prevent accurate<br />

analysis. This prompts an explanation regarding unsuitable<br />

samples, from which chemists make determinations<br />

that occasionally form the basis of important<br />

controversy.<br />

Care should be taken to remove all oil or grease<br />

from the surface to be drilled for preparing samples.<br />

Similarly, the tools used in making the drillings should<br />

be free from lubrication and otherwise perfectly clean.<br />

Oils contain considerable carbon; therefore, a very<br />

small amount of grease mixed with the sample will<br />

cause a considerable error in the results obtained on<br />

a carbon determination.<br />

Should there be doubt as to oil contaminating the<br />

drillings, and should there be no possibility of securing<br />

other drillings known to be free from oil, the chips<br />

should be washed in ether two or three times. If<br />

ether is not available, the drillings may be cleaned in<br />

a fairly concentrated solution of caustic potash or<br />

soda, and then dried immediately after immersion in<br />

an alcohol solution.<br />

In addition to being free from oil, the surface to be<br />

drilled should be uncontaminated by scale, dirt, adhering<br />

sand, or other foreign matter. Removal of<br />

these materials can be effected by the shallow grinding<br />

of a small area surrounding the location to be<br />

drilled. Scale, sand, or dirt affects the determination<br />

of any element because of false weight obtained on<br />

the sample used, and precipitates weighed in gravimetric<br />

determinations. If, despite all care that can<br />

be taken, the sample is suspected to contain any of<br />

these foreign materials, they can be removed by the<br />

careful use of a magnet.<br />

December, 1925<br />

cause of the difficulty of fusing the heavy sections of<br />

the chips.<br />

To prevent variable results, due to any segregation<br />

of the elements, it is important to make a very<br />

thorough mechanical mixture of the chips prior to<br />

starting any determination. This is one of the reasons<br />

for the use of small drillings. Segregation in<br />

steel is a phenomenon that is principally caused by<br />

slow cooling. Only by the thorough mixing of small<br />

chips can the analyst be sure of getting determinations<br />

representing average conditions.<br />

Summarizing, incorrect determinations may result<br />

from the following causes:<br />

Carbon<br />

High<br />

(a) Oil in sample.<br />

(b) Sand or dirt in sample.<br />

(c) Splinters from wood drilling block, in sample.<br />

(d) Poor mixing of sample from casting affected<br />

by segregation.<br />

Low<br />

(a) Drillings too large in section.<br />

(b) Drillings too small in section.<br />

(c) Scale in sample.<br />

(d) Burnt chips in sample.<br />

(e) Poor mixing of sample from casting affected<br />

by segregation.<br />

Manganese<br />

Low<br />

(a) Sand or dirt in sample.<br />

(b) Scale in sample.<br />

(c) Poor mixing of sample from casting affected<br />

by segregation.<br />

Silicon<br />

High<br />

(a) Sand or dirt in sample.<br />

(b) Poor mixing of sample from casting affected<br />

by segregation.<br />

Low<br />

(a) Scale in sample (if volatilized).<br />

(b) Poor mixing of sample from casting affected<br />

by segregation.<br />

The determinations for phosphorus and sulphur<br />

are not so readily influenced by the above causes ex­<br />

In drilling the specimen, it is important to discard cept segregation, and except as foreign matter will<br />

all chips formed by the drill within }4 inch of the affect weighing of the chips. Samples taken for these<br />

surface. The surface metal may not represent the two elements are larger than for the three mentioned<br />

body of the casting because the "skin" can be affected previously, so that the relative influence of weight of<br />

by heat treatment operations and by exposure to<br />

atmospheric conditions while at high temperature. It<br />

foreign material is reduced, in determining phosphorus<br />

and sulphur.<br />

may be oxidized, carbonized, or have its sulphur con­ Extended experience acquired in chemical laboratent<br />

raised by the products of combustion during heat tories connected with steel foundries emphasizes the<br />

treatment.<br />

importance of precautions such as have been outlined,<br />

The drill used should be of the flat type, as it produces<br />

finer chips of a more uniform size than does a<br />

twist drill. The latter is apt to penetrate too rapidly,<br />

causing an overheating of the drills. These should<br />

show no color resulting from heat. The chips should<br />

be neither too fine nor too coarse. Those that pass<br />

through a 20-mesh, but remain on a 60-mesh sieve<br />

the substance of which is given in numerous textbooks<br />

describing analytical methods. Chemists who only<br />

periodically have occasion to make steel analyses are<br />

sometimes inclined to minmize the effect of some<br />

specific instructions, necessary to follow in making<br />

accurate determinations, either as the basis for regulating<br />

foundry practice, for confirmation of plant analyses,<br />

or for use in the comprehensive study of dif­<br />

give concordant results. Large drillings do not yield ficulties experienced with the parts analyzed.<br />

their carbon readily in the combustion furnace be­<br />

—Research Group News.


December, 1925<br />

r<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Tieating<br />

P r o v i d i n g U n i f o r m D r a w R i n g P r e s s u r e<br />

MAINTAINING a uniform pressure upon the<br />

draw ring is essential to successful drawing.<br />

There are several ways of obtaining this condition,<br />

but the pneumatic die cusion, manufactured<br />

by the Marquette Tool & Manufacturing Company,<br />

Chicago, 111., probably is the most satisfactory. The<br />

purpose of these cushions in their simplest form is to<br />

provide an even pressures to all parts of the blank during<br />

the entire draw.<br />

To secure the best results, a tank is provided for<br />

each cushion or set of cushions, together with a regu-<br />

/ruxi//ory Tan A V<br />

^-Drairt<br />

Cock<br />

Pressure Gauge<br />

Va/ve<br />

To Mom Line ,-, - ,<br />

or Compressdr Drain LOCK<br />

/Regulating<br />

l/o/ve<br />

Fr"<br />

For f°fcfy<br />

Oiling value<br />

441<br />

face in square inches. In calculating the size of the<br />

cushion equipment required, it is necessary to provide<br />

sufficient piston surface, so that the maximum pressure<br />

desired can be had with the air pressure available.<br />

When a battery of cushions are used on a press,<br />

they usually have a common support and a pressure<br />

pad that fits into the opening of the bed, so that holes<br />

may be made anywhere in the bolster for the draw<br />

ring pins to rest on the pressure pad. It is sometimes<br />

impossible to get enough piston surface with a<br />

single piston on account of the limited opening in the<br />

; nj;;i . i 11 n ci in i i i i n-r<br />

ijr<br />

* o l! °<br />

w<br />

°i°<br />

*<br />

°b<br />

"W<br />

SuspendedBui It-Up Beam for Cushion Support<br />

Pipe to<br />

/Quxilleru- Tonk<br />

Safety l/olve^<br />

Draw Pin Rings<br />

Bottom View of Cushions andManifo/d<br />

(Left)—General arrangement for attaching pneumatic die cushion to press. (Right)—Arrangement used when<br />

two or more cushions are required.<br />

lator valve that automatically maintains any pressure<br />

desired. When the cushions are in operation, the<br />

valves between the tank and cushions should be wide<br />

open so that the air circulates freely, and the entire<br />

volume of air used as a cushion. In actual practice<br />

there is a slight increase in the air pressure during<br />

the draw, but with a tank of sufficient volume, the increase<br />

is so small that it is negligible.<br />

Many types and sizes of cushions are used, depending<br />

upon the large variety of presses and requirements.<br />

However, the general principle of maintaining<br />

an even pressure, that is easily adjusted, remains<br />

the same. As a general rule, for single crank presses<br />

a single cushion with sufficient piston diameter to<br />

handle the capacity of the press is used. For double<br />

crank presses, a battery of cushions is suitable.<br />

There are two factors governing the pressure on<br />

the draw ring, first, the piston surface, second, the air<br />

pressure in pounds applied to the cushion as shown on<br />

gauge. To calculate the pressure on the cushion, the<br />

air pressure in pounds is multiplied by the piston sur-<br />

bed. To take care of this, cushions with two or more<br />

pistons are used, thus increasing the piston surface,<br />

so that sufficient pressure may be had with the available<br />

air pressure.<br />

Cushions of special construction are used in conjunction<br />

with special dies for making a draw and<br />

redraw in one stroke of the press. In conjunction with<br />

pressure control devices, they are used to supply<br />

varied and controllable pressure to pads, dies, etc.<br />

Some of the general advantages may be summed<br />

up as follows: (1) Reduction of the number of drawing<br />

operations. (2) Even pressure supplied to all parts<br />

of the draw ring regardless of gauge, resulting in an<br />

even flange and reduction of breakage. (3) Reduction<br />

of wear on dies by eliminating unnecessary pressure.<br />

(4) Producton of smoother stampings. (5) Reduction<br />

of wear and tear on press. (6) Strength of metal retained<br />

by not subjecting same to excessive or unequal<br />

strain. (7) Increases capacity of press. (8) Draw<br />

ring pressure quickly and easily regulated.


44. Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating December, 1925<br />

zA Carefully Prepared List of Books on cTVletallurgy<br />

and c/illied Subjects<br />

The Electro-Metallurgy of Steel Physico-Chemical Properties<br />

Enginereing Steels<br />

Gow<br />

of Steel<br />

Aitchison<br />

Illustrations, tables, Sy2x%y2, cloth, Edwards<br />

An exposition of the properties of<br />

367 pages. $7.50.<br />

Second edition, thoroughly revised, steel for engineers and users to secure<br />

CONTENTS — Historical Development of illustrated, 8vo. $6.00.<br />

economy in working and efficiency of<br />

Electric furnaces; Definition of A. C. Char- CONTENTS—Constitution of Metallic Sys­ result. 119 illustrations, 116 plates and<br />

acteristios; Application of Single and Polyphase tems: Structure of Metals; Iron; Constitution 2 folding plates, 5y2xSy2, cloth, 427<br />

Currents, Generation and Control of Single of the Iron-Carbon System; Microstructure ui pages. $6.00.<br />

and Polyphase Currents; Automatic Regulators, Iron-Carbon Steels; Solidification of Steel CONTENTS—Steel Melting Processes; the<br />

An cessory Instruments; Power Consumption Ingots; Iron-Carbon Steels; Phosphorous; Sul­ Casting and Working of Steel; the Heat Treat­<br />

and Contributory Factors; Electro-Hetallurgphur; Burning and Overheating of Steel; Dement of Steel; Mechanical Testing of Steel;<br />

ical Methods of Melting and Refining Cold formation and Strain-Hardening of Metals: The Plain Carbon Steels; Alloy Steels; Case-Hard-<br />

Charges, Liquid Steel Refining; Ingot Cast­ Properties of Cold-Drawn Wire and the Effect ening Steels; Cold Worked Steels; Tool Steels;<br />

ing; Application of Electric Furnace to Foun­ of Acid Cleaning: Cementation and Case- Appendices; The Influence of Sharp Corners and<br />

dry Practice; Characteristic Principles and Hardening; Materials Methods and Their of Testing Application Hardness; Scratches; Young's Modulus of Elasticity;<br />

Features of Furnace Design; Modern Types to Theories Engineering of Hardening Design by Ojineching; Special Properties of Steels at High Temperatures;<br />

of Electric Metallurgy Steel Furnaces; of Steel Refractory Ma­ Allcut Steels; and Tungsten-Carbon Miller Steels; High-Speed Professor Robertson's Axial Loading Shackles;<br />

Harbourd terials, Their and Application Hall to Furnace Con­ 221 Tool illustrations, Steels; Manganese; 519 Chromium; pages, Electrical 8vo., Avery "Izod" Impact Testing Machine; Charpy<br />

Vol. struction; I. Seventh Furnace edition, Lining, Lining thoroughly Repairs; cloth. Conductivity $12.50. and Constitution.<br />

Pendulum Impact Testing Machine; Stanton<br />

revised, Propertes, 200 Manufacture illustrations, of Carbon 577 Electrodes; pages, CONTENTS—The Influence of Materials on Repeated Blow Impact Testing Machine; High<br />

8vo., Rapid cloth. Methods $12.00. of Analysis for Bath Samples; Engineering Designs; Different Kinds of Alternating Stress Testing Machine; Brinell<br />

Index. CONTENTS—The Manufacture of Steel— Stresses and Their Uses in Design; Testing and Ball Test Machine; Derihon "Hardness Testing"<br />

The Bessemer Process; The Basic Process; Measurement of Stresses; Strain Measuring Ap­ Machine; Johnson Ball-Hardness Testing Ma-<br />

Manufacture of Steel in Small Converters; paratus; Impact Testing, The Measurement of crine; Lee Reverse Testing Machine; the At-<br />

Chemistry of the Acid Bessemer Process; Hardness; Chemical Composition and Micro- cherly Bend Testing Machine; Bibliography of<br />

Chemistry of the Basic Bessemer Process; Structure of Materials; Micro-Structure and Original Papers on the Hardness of Metals.<br />

Gas Producers; The Open Hearth or Siemens Composition of Steel; Chemical Composition and Hardening and Tempering of<br />

Process; Basic Siemens Process; The Pro­ Micro-Structure of Cast Iron, Malleable Iron Steel, in Theory and Practice<br />

duction of Steel Castings; The Production of Castings; Steel Castings, Non-Ferrous Metals, Reiser<br />

shear and Crucible Steel; Production of Steel and Alloys; The Heat Treatment of Steel and Translated from the German of the<br />

in the Electric Furnace; Armor Plate Manu­ Other Materials; Carbon Steels; Alloy Steels; third and enlarged edition by Arthur<br />

facture; Direct Processes of Steel Manufacture. An Introduction to the Study of<br />

Case-Hardening Steels; Iron and Steel Castings, Morris and Herbert Robson. 5x7^4,<br />

Finished Steel—Mechanical Testing of Mate­ Physical Metallurgy<br />

Including Malleable Iron and Semi-Steel Cast­ cloth, 130 pages. $2.50.<br />

rials, Carbon and Iron; The Influence of Si, Rosenhain<br />

ings; Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys Bearing CONTENTS—Definition and Classification;<br />

S, P, Mn, As, Cu, Sn, Sb, etc., on the Phys­ 140 illustrations, 6x9, cloth, 375 pages.<br />

Metals; The Inspection of Materials; Non- Chemical and Physical Properties and Their<br />

ical Properties of Steel; Special Steels or (Metallurgv Series.) $4.00.<br />

Metallic Materials; Examples of Practical Ap­ Casual Connection; Classification According to<br />

Steel Alloys; Heat Treatment of Steel; Micro­ CONTENTS—Introductory. Structure and<br />

plication; Tables.<br />

Use; Testing for Quality; Hardening; Investiscopical<br />

Examinations of Steel; Typical Steel Constitution of Metals and Alloys. Microscopic gation of the Causes of Failure in Hardening;<br />

Plants; Photomicrographs. Appendices.<br />

Examination of Metals; The Metallurgical Mi­ Regeneration of Steel Spoilt in the Furnace;<br />

Mechanical Treatment of Steel<br />

croscope; The Microstructure of Pure Metals Welding.<br />

Harbourd and Hall<br />

and of Alloys; Thermal Study of Alloys; The Chemical Analysis of Iron<br />

Seventh edition, thoroughly re­<br />

Constitutional Diagram and the Physical Prop- Blair, Andrew and Alexander<br />

vised, 399 illustrations, 567 pages, 8vo., erties of Alloys; Typical Alloy Systems; The Eighth edition, revised. 102 illus­<br />

cloth. $12.00.<br />

Iron-Carbon System. The Properties of Metals trations, 318 pages, 8vo., cloth. $5.00.<br />

CONTEXTS—The Mechanical Treatment of as Related to Their Structure and Constitution. CONTENTS—Apparatus for the Preparation<br />

Steel — General Principles. Reheating—Re­ Mechanical Practical Testing of Microscopical<br />

Metals; Effect of Strain of Samples; General Laboratory Apparatus; Reheating<br />

Furnaces; Handling Material at the Metallography<br />

on the Structure of Metals; Thermal Treatment agents; Distilled Water; Acids and HalogenB;<br />

Reheating Furnaces; Details of Rolling Mills; Greaves of Metals; and Mechanical Wrighton Treatment of Metals, in­ Gases; Alkalies and Alkaline Salts; Salts of<br />

The Five Leading Types of Mill; The Opera­ Full-page cluding Casting; plates, Defects charts, and Failures tables, in Metals Alkaline Earths; MetaU and Metallic Salts;<br />

tion of Rolling; Rolls for Three-High Mills; and 6x9-%, Alloys. cloth, 135 pages. London and Reagents for Determining Phosphorous; Meth­<br />

Special Steel Mills; and Handling Its Heat Material Treatment at the Rolls; New York, 1924. $5.00.<br />

ods for the Analysis of Pig-Iron, Bar-Iron, and<br />

Bullens The Supply of Power; The Supply of Power CONTENTS—Introduction; Preparation of Steel; Determination of Sulphur, Slag and Ox­<br />

By (cont'd); Denison The K. Supply Bullens, of Consulting<br />

Power (cont'd); Specimens for Micro-Examination; Microscope, ides, Phosphorus, Manganese, Carbon, Total<br />

Metallurgist; The Supply of Power president, (cont'd); D. Common K. Bullens Mills Method of Microscopical Examination; Struc­ Carbon, Graphitic Carbon, Combined Carbon,<br />

Co. —Their Second I'ses and edition. Outputs; 483 Common pages, Mills— 6x9, ture of Pure Metals, of Alloys; Structure and Titanium, Copper, Nickel and Cobalt. Chrom­<br />

285 Their figures, Uses and cloth. Outputs $4.00. (cont'd); Rod Mills; Properties of Ingot Iron, Wrought Iron, Strucium, Aluminum, Arsenic, Tin; Methods for the<br />

Continuous CONTENTS—The Billet. Bar, Testing and Strip of Steel. Mills; The Hanture and Properties of Normalized and Annealed Analysis of Alloy Steels; Determination of<br />

Structure dling Material of Steel. in the Stock Annealing. Yard; Hardening.<br />

Laying-Out Carbon Steels, and Effect of Hot and Cold Tungsten, Oxygen in Steel and Iron, Nitrogen<br />

Tempering of the Mill; and F<strong>org</strong>ing Toughening. Steel by Case the Carburizing.<br />

Steam Ham- Work: Structure and Properties of Hardened in Steel and Iron, Iron in Steel and Iron;<br />

Case mer. Hardening. F<strong>org</strong>ing Steel Thermal by the Press. Treatment. Compressing Heat and Tempered Carbon Steels; Structures and Methods for the Analysis of Ferro-Tungsten and<br />

Generation. Steel While Heat Fluid; Application. Tube-Making; Carbon Wire Steels. Draw­ Properties of Alloy Steels, and Effect of Heat Tungsten Metal, Ferro-Molybdenum and Molyb­<br />

Nickel ing; Protecting Steels. Chrome Steel from Steels. Corrosion; Chrome The Nickel Past Treatment: Non-Metalic Inclusions and Defects denum Metal, Ferro-Vanadium, Ferro-Chrome<br />

Steels. and Future Vanadium of the Steels. Steel Trade. Manganese, Silicon in Steel: Structure and Properties of Pig Iron I'erro-Silicon, Ferro-Manganese and Manganese<br />

and Other Alloy Steels. Tool Steel and Tools. Cast Iron and Malleable Cast Iron; Effect of Metal, Ferro-Titanium, Ferro-Phosphorus Iron<br />

Critical Miscellaneous Range Determination.<br />

Treatments. Pyrometers and Impurities of minum; Alloys micrographs. Alloys and Structure of in Bearing Copper; Copper Subject of Metals. with Structures Index. Aluminum Zinc, Index and Tin Alloys, Properties of and PhotoAlu­ Zinc Microscopic Osmond Third tomical ind Carbon the with ures of Analysis Identification elected book every Ores, and by cloth. Metals ures The Polishing, Phenomena Pathnlnjical Coke; and L. which is 195 respect. Limestone, edition, new Metallography, by now and Steels, $4.00. rovers Steels, of P. photomicrographs, Electrolysis; Apparatus render edition in Carbon Stead of Grinding, Sidney. Analysis It of such preparation Metallography, the Clay, is Burning, revised it of very important Segregation Detailed Steels, thoroughly Primary for Biological Slags, this Tables; etc., beautifully of the 313 and Overheating, extremely and diagrams the Metals Fire Determination subjects Examination Constituents comprises pages, also Metallography up Index. corrected in Micrographic<br />

Sands' the to illustrated Steel valuable and as date Science etc.<br />

8vo., Coal Anafeat­ and of<br />

fig­ of in


Decemher, 1925<br />

f<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heaf Treating<br />

Microscopic Examination of Steel Technical Analysis of Steel and<br />

Strength of Materials<br />

Fay<br />

Steel Works Materials<br />

Poorman<br />

By Henry Fay, Professor of Ana­ Sisco<br />

313 pages, 6x9, 211 illustrations.<br />

lytical Chemistry and Metallography, 543 pages, 6x9. $5.00.<br />

$3.00. In this new book Professor<br />

Massachusetts Institute of Technol­ The aim of the book is fivefold: 1. To give Poorman's ability to appreciate the stuogy.<br />

8 pages, 6x9, 1 figure and 55 pho­ to the routine analyst who hopes to advance, dent's difficulties and to simplify and<br />

tomicrographs, cloth. $1.50.<br />

the best known methods for the analysis of spe­ clarify the explanations of abstruse<br />

CONTENTS—Slowly Cooled Steels. Rapidly cial steels and steel works materials and a points is again apparent. Throughout<br />

Cooled Steels. Annealed Steels. Non-Metallic bird's-eye view of the problems encountered in the work a large number of illustra­<br />

Impurities. Microstructure. Slag. Streaks. operating a routine laboratory. 2. To emphasize tive examples have been worked out in<br />

Heat Treatment. Composition. The Effect of the need of speed in analytical control. 3. To detail to aid the student in mastering<br />

Work on Grain Steel Size. Foundry 10-inch Rifle, Model of give the industrial chemist the best, simplest the relation between theory and appli­<br />

1895.<br />

Hall<br />

14-inch Gun Lever. 12-inch Navy and most rapid methods for the analysis of any cation. The book offers a well-bal­<br />

Gun. Polishing. Etching.<br />

New second edition, 55 illustrations,<br />

sample of steel or steel works materials that he anced, vigorous text.<br />

334 pages, 6x9. $4.00.<br />

may encounter. 4. To give to the college stu­ CONTENTS—Elastc Stresses and Deforma­<br />

CONTENTS—I. Introductory; II. General<br />

dent in metallurgical chemistry the methods of tions; Tension and Compression; Ultimate<br />

Considerations Governing the Choice of a<br />

steel analysis with emphasis on, not how the Stresses and Deformations: Tension and Com­<br />

Method of Steel Making; III. The Crucible<br />

work should The be Fatigue done, but of how Metals it is done, in the pression; Shearing Stresses and Deformations;<br />

Process; IV. The Bessemer Process; V. The<br />

works Gough laboratory. 5. To give to the steel Riveted Joints; Shear and Moment in Beams;<br />

Open Hearth Process; VI. The Electric Fur­<br />

worker, Numerous from illustrations, furnace helper to diagrams, general super­ Stresses in Beams; Deflection of Cantilever and<br />

nace ; VII. Summary, Special Deoxidizers,<br />

intendent, tables, 6x10, an account, cloth, 324 readily pages. comprehended, $10.00. Simple Beams; Fixed and Continuous Beams,<br />

Ladles; VIII. Moulding, Pouring and Digging<br />

perhaps, This work of the contains steel laboratory practically and all the its availprob­ Beams of Constant Strength; Beams of Two<br />

Out; IX. Heat Treatment and Annealing; X.<br />

lems.able information with regard to its subject, Materials; Industrial Resilience Furnaces. in Beams; Principles Torsion of<br />

Electric Furnaces in the Iron including accounts of the most recent re­ Shafts; and Combined Furnace Stresses; Calculations Suler's Column<br />

Finishing, Straightening and Welding; XI.<br />

and Steel Industry<br />

searches. The importance, to designers of Formula; Trinks Rankin's Column Formula; Straight<br />

Laboratories; XII. Building Up Impurities in<br />

Steel.<br />

Rodenhauser, Schoenawa, Vom Baur structures and machines, of an understanding Line By Column W. Trinks, Formula; M.E., Column Consulting in General; En­<br />

Dr. Dipl. Ing. W. Rodenhauser, of the phenomena of "Fatigue of Metals" has Deflection gineer, Professor of Beams by of Area Mechanical Moment. Method En­ ;<br />

E.E., and J. Schoenawa. Translated now achieved universal recognition, and this Deflection gineering, of Head Beams of by Department Equivalent Cantilever of Me­<br />

from the original and rewritten by C. volume has been prepared primarily to satisfy Method; chanical Curved Engineering, Beams and Hooks. Carnegie Insti­<br />

H. Vom Baur, E.E., formerly Chief this demand.<br />

tute of Technology. Volume I. 319<br />

Engineer, American Electric Furnace CONTENTS—Repeated Stress Testing Ma­ pages, 6x9, 255 figures, cloth. $4.50.<br />

Company. Third edition, revised, 460 chines; Endurance Limit of a Ferrous Metal; CONTENTS—Introduction. Heating Capac­<br />

pages, 133 figures, two full-page Relation Between the safe Range of Stress and ity of Furnaces. Fuel Economy of Furnaces.<br />

plates, cloth. $4.50.<br />

the Mean Stress of the Cycle; The Linrting Heat-Saving Appliances in Combustion Fur­<br />

Thoroughly describes electric furnaces de­ Range of Stress of a Metal as a Physical Charnaces. Modern Strength Open and Durability Hearth of Plant Furnaces.<br />

signed solely for the iron and steel industry, acteristic of the Metal; Elasticity and Its Re­ Movement Hermanns of Gases in Furnaces.<br />

written from a practical standpoint by practical lation to the Fatigue of Metals; Correlation of Diagrams, tables, 7x10, cloth, 307<br />

men. Deals first with the construction and the the Fatigue Range of a Metal and the Results pages. $10.00.<br />

appartus, and second, with the practical use of of Other Mechanical Tests; Fracture of Metals This is a book on the one hand for the steel<br />

furnaces and their metallurgical reactions. Under Statical and Repeated Stresses; Various works staff and managers, on the other hand for<br />

A Metallographic Study on<br />

Theories of Fatigue Failure and Associated technical and higher grade students.<br />

Tungsten Steels<br />

Phenomena; Various Suggested Methods of The book opens with a short history of the<br />

Hultgren<br />

Rapidly Determining Fatigue Ranges. Bibli­ Siemens-Martin process, and after outlining the<br />

By Axel Hultgren, Chief of Research ography. Appendix.<br />

metallurgical theory, consideration is given to<br />

Laboratory of A. B. Svenska Kulla- Science of Metals<br />

the layout of steel works and the detailed<br />

garfabriken (S. K. F.), Gothenburg, Jeffries and Archer<br />

examination of the woik which e^ch section<br />

Sweden. 95 pages, 6x9, 5 full-page 200 illustrations, Iron and 500 Steel pages, 6x9. has to perform Numerous plans point the moral<br />

diagrams, 76 photomicrographs, cloth. $5.00. Tiemann<br />

and emphasize the difference between good and<br />

New<br />

$3.00.<br />

CONTENTS second edition, — Introductory; 514 pages, Electrons, flex­ bad practice, for the question of economy in<br />

CONTENTS—Part I. The Transformation Atoms ible pocket and Molecules; size, illustrated. Crystalline Structure $4.00. of transport is intimately involved.<br />

of Tungsten Steels During Different Heat Treat­ Metals; This is The a Amorphous dictionary, an Metal encyclopedia, Hypothesis; a Those concerned with the design and workments<br />

and the Structures Thereby Formed. Grain hand-book Growth on and iron Recrystallization; and steel all in Mechanical one. The ing of melting furnaces will find here invalu­<br />

metallurgist,<br />

Part II. Carbides in Tungsten Steels. Supple­ Properties of the Metals; mill Compounds superintendent, of and Metals; the able data and comparison. Important sections<br />

ment Concerning Carbides in Other Alloy Metallic salesman Solid will Solutions; find it of Constitution daily use. of The Alloys; book on producers, charging machines, crane ar­<br />

presents<br />

Steels. Appendix Investigations on Tungsten Structure nearly and Properties 8,000 terms of Aggregates; and definitions Hardof<br />

rangements, waste-heat boilers and all those<br />

processes<br />

Steels by Honda and Murakami.<br />

ness of Metals; and equipment Hardening so of arranged Steel. that you secondary improvements which can determine<br />

can find exactly what you want quickly. It<br />

Rapid Methods for the Chemical<br />

the balance between profit and loss, follow.<br />

brings together and translates the varied nomen­<br />

Analysis of Special Steels, Steel<br />

CONTENTS—Introduction: Historical and<br />

clature of the mill, the laboratory and the<br />

Making Alloys and Graphite<br />

Statistical Data on the Open Hearth Process.<br />

office. For those who use steel, for those who<br />

Johnson<br />

The Metallurgical Principles of the Open<br />

manufacture steel and steel products, and for<br />

By Charles Morris Johnson, Chief<br />

Hearth Process. The Location of the Steel<br />

those who sell steel, it is a valuable guide to<br />

Chemist and Director of Research De­<br />

Works in Relation to Other Plant; Supply of<br />

the necessary information as to processes and<br />

partment, Park Steel Works, Crucible<br />

Raw Material; Supply of Liquid Iron; Provi­<br />

methods. This new second edition is almost<br />

Steel Company of America. Third edision<br />

of Heat; Removal of the Products; Rail­<br />

twice as large as the first edition. The chief<br />

tion, revised, 552 pages, 6x9, 70 figures,<br />

way Sidings. Relative Location of the Indi­<br />

Send order and remittance increase to FORGING-STAMPING-HEAT in the text is due to more extended<br />

cloth. $6.00.<br />

vidual Departments: Raw TREATING<br />

Material and Fur­<br />

discussions of subjects, such as heat treatment,<br />

An unusually thorough revision, including Book all Department—Box 65, Pittsburgh, nace Pa.<br />

Material Stores, Transverse Sections of<br />

physical propertes, and testing, and to numer­<br />

of the important new metals as well as new<br />

the Open Hearth Steel Works; Various Bays<br />

ous investigations of the more theoretical as­<br />

methods for the analysis of older ones. Anyone<br />

of the Steel Works. Details of Equipment:<br />

pect? of the subject, particularly those included<br />

who knows general chemistry can follow the<br />

Buildings; Furnaces; Gas Producers; Auxiliary<br />

author's instructions and get real results. under metallography.<br />

Waste Machinery. malesses—Presentprove Steel Biblography. fication Efficiency. Works: the Heat Plant; Thermal Arrangements Boilers: Index. Recovery * The Application Applications Efficiency Duplex Supervision of and Tar and of of Efforts from and Richer Triplex Open of the Prospects. to Hearth Geses: ProcTherGasiIm­ 443


444<br />

«11lltrt1IIM


December, 1925<br />

mm iimiiiriitimiiiin iiiiiiiiii 11 i inn iiiiiiiii mn m niunniiiliiii mill iiiiiuiiiiiiiii<br />

Fbrging-Stamping - Heat Treating'<br />

PLANT NEWS<br />

in l n M utti i n rimu nn nimiii i iiiinn in 11111111 in n nnnin u i inn i iiiiiiiiii<br />

Brown & Zortman Company,. 327 Second Ave.,<br />

Pittsburgh, has been appointed sales agent for the<br />

Hiles & Jones Company line of machine tools by the<br />

Consolidated Machine Tool Corporation of America.<br />

* * *<br />

A. F. Thompson Mfg. Company, Huntington, W.<br />

Va., has bought control of the Saks Stamping Company,<br />

of that city, and will move its business to the<br />

new plant. Its product is gas stoves. The Saks<br />

Company has manufactured sanitary ware, and it has<br />

not been decided whether this will be continued.<br />

Uehling Instrument Company, Paterson, N. J., has<br />

appointed the Ernest E. Lee Company, 115 South<br />

Dearborn St., Chicago, its sales representative in<br />

northern Illinois and northern Indiana.<br />

* * *<br />

Northwestern Malleable Iron Company, Milwaukee,<br />

will spend about $100,000 in modernizing its annealing<br />

facilities. The present battery of 12 ovens will<br />

be replaced by a new continuous type, 20 x 202 ft.,<br />

reducing the period of annealing from eight to seven<br />

days, with greater uniformity of result. The foundations<br />

are being constructed and bids on the oven work<br />

will be taken shortly, so that the facilities will be<br />

ready for use about February 15 or March 1.<br />

* * *<br />

The Madison Tool & Stamping Company, Madison,<br />

Wis., has taken over the entire business of the<br />

Bracket Company, Lancaster, Wis.<br />

Green & Patterson, Monadnock Building, San<br />

Francisco, has been formed by H. B. Green, formerly<br />

in the San Francisco office of Bethlehem Steel Company,<br />

and P. M. Patterson of W. J. Patterson & Company.<br />

It will act as mill representative for Moltrup<br />

Steel Products Company, Interstate Iron & Steel<br />

Company, Graham Bolt & Nut Company, J. R. Johnson<br />

& Company, Tredegar Company, M<strong>org</strong>an Engineering<br />

Company, Titusville F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Hadfield-Penfield<br />

Company, St. Louis Steel Products<br />

Company and Califo Metal & General Cleanser<br />

Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Western Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Los Angeles,<br />

Calif., is installing a 5,000-pound drop hammer furnished<br />

by the Erie Foundry Company, Erie, Pa. It<br />

is a new type of board hammer, with four rolls instead<br />

of two and is the second one placed in operation.<br />

The first is in the plant of the Chrysler Motor<br />

Company.<br />

* * *<br />

Mott Sand Blast Company, formerly at 24 South<br />

Clinton St., Chicago, has moved its offices, and manufacturing<br />

activities to a new plant at 4611 Flournoy<br />

St., specially equipped for the manufacture of sand<br />

blast equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

Union Drawn Steel Company, Beaver Falls, Pa.,<br />

is erecting rough steel stock houses at its plants at<br />

Massillon, Ohio, and Hartford, Conn., to be completed<br />

by the first of the year.<br />

445<br />

The machine shop and foundry of the Ballard Drop<br />

F<strong>org</strong>e Company, in Seattle, Wash., was destroyed by<br />

fire on October 27. The entire building was burned,<br />

together with the machinery and shop equipment<br />

worth several thousand dollars.<br />

* * *<br />

The Wyman-Gordon Company, Bradley Street,<br />

Worcester, Mass., manufacturer of automobile f<strong>org</strong>ings,<br />

etc., has filed plans for a one-story addition to<br />

cost $44,000 for which a general contract recently was<br />

let to the E. J. Cross Company, Worcester, Mass.<br />

* * *<br />

Frank Mossberg Corporation, Attleboro, Mass., has<br />

been formed with a capital of $94,250 by new interests<br />

to take over the Frank Mossberg Company, with local<br />

plant, manufacturer of wrenches and other tools in<br />

receivership for a number of months. The new company<br />

plans to expand operations. It is headed by<br />

Edward C. Mack, Jr., Salem, Mass., and Charles C.<br />

Gammons, Cohasset, Mass.<br />

H^ ^ •£<br />

The Bergs Stamping Company, Bristol, Va.-Tenn.,<br />

is a new Virginia corporation with $25,000 capital<br />

stock fully paid in. It operates its own plant and<br />

manufactures exclusively the Fergs-Test-Oil device<br />

for operating and locking oil pet cocks on Ford automobiles.<br />

The company has metal stamping equipment<br />

especially designed for its use by the E. W.<br />

Bliss Company, Brooklyn, which is capable of producing<br />

1,500 devices daily. It will be in the market<br />

from time to time for cold rolled stamping steel, wood<br />

fiber, steel spring material, pickled and oiled stamping<br />

steel, round hot-rolled /4-in. mild steel bars, gang<br />

drills and squaring shears.<br />

* * *<br />

The American Stamping Works, 219 S. Peoria<br />

Street, Chicago, manufacturer of steel ceilings, is receiving<br />

bids through M. H. Harris, 11 South LaSalle<br />

Street, Chicago, on a two-story factory to cost $25,000.<br />

* * *<br />

The Acme Stamping & Brass Works, Zeeland,<br />

Mich., will erect a new plant at Holland, Mich., on<br />

site 90 x 126 ft. Jacob Elmbass is president.<br />

* * *<br />

The Federal Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, Lansing, Mich.,<br />

is making extensions in its plant and installing additional<br />

hammers and auxiliary equipment.<br />

* * *<br />

The Milwaukee Die Casting Company, 295-297<br />

Fourth Street, Milwaukee, has acquired adjacent property,<br />

50 x 150 ft., for $40,000 and is planning on a<br />

shop enlargement program which probably will call<br />

for a total investment close to $100,000. Details are<br />

not yet ready for publication, however. H. F.<br />

Schroeder is vice-president and general manager.<br />

* * *<br />

The Ballard Drop F<strong>org</strong>e Company, 1145 West<br />

Forty-sixth Street, Seattle, has awarded a contract to<br />

Strandberg & Robinson, Arcade Building, for a onestory<br />

f<strong>org</strong>e shop, replacing a portion of its works<br />

recently destroyed by fire. Victor A. Marshall is<br />

president.<br />

The machine and f<strong>org</strong>e shops at the Tickleback<br />

Colliery, Shamokin, Pa., were partially destroyed by<br />

fire, November 17. An official estimate of loss has not<br />

been announced. Rebuilding is under consideration.


446 F<strong>org</strong>ing- Stamping - Heat Treating<br />

The Lionel Corporation, 605 S. Twenty-first Street,<br />

Irvington, X. ]., manufacturer of electric toys, has<br />

acquired a tract of 12 acres in Hillside Township, and<br />

plans the erection of a new factory, to cost more than<br />

$75,000.<br />

* * *<br />

The Standard F<strong>org</strong>ings Company. Indiana Harbor,<br />

Ind., is said to be planning the construction of a onestory<br />

foundry to cost $25,000. It is expected to begin<br />

work next year.<br />

* * *<br />

The Inland Metal Products Corporation, 1951<br />

North Hermitage Street. Chicago, has awarded a general<br />

contract to the John Keefer Company, 6638<br />

North Maplewood Avenue, for a one-story plant, 90 x<br />

125 ft., to cost $37,000. E. C. Ecker and Associates,<br />

110 S. Dearborn Street, are architects.<br />

* * *<br />

The Riverside F<strong>org</strong>e & Machine Companv, Jackson,<br />

Mich., has awarded a general contract to the<br />

Austin Companv, Chicago, for a one-story addition,<br />

40 x 125 ft., to cost about $27,000.<br />

* * *<br />

The Heintz Manufacturing Company, Front Street<br />

and Olney Avenue. Philadelphia, manufacturer of<br />

steel automobile bodies, has awarded further contracts<br />

for plant additions to the Robinson Iron cc Steel Company,<br />

Manayunk, to be one-story and to cost $14,000.<br />

December, 1925<br />

Recorders—Devices to record mechanical motion<br />

and electrical operations are featured in a bulletin by<br />

the Bristol Companv, Waterbury, Conn. Various interesting<br />

applications of these recorders are illustrated.<br />

* * *<br />

Carbon Electrodes—A third edition of its book on<br />

"The Carbon Electrode" has been issued by the National<br />

Carbon Company, Inc.. New York. It has been<br />

revised fully to keep abreast of developments in the<br />

making of electrodes for furnace use and a number of<br />

pages of engineering data are included.<br />

* * *<br />

Special Steel—In a current booklet the Haynes<br />

Stellite Company, Xew York, gives information as to<br />

its product, gained from investigations by the Union<br />

Carbide and Carbon Research Laboratories, Inc. This<br />

information lias not been presented previously in<br />

printed form and is assembled in response to many<br />

requests from engineers. It is of much value to the<br />

metal working trades in which card cutting tools are<br />

used.<br />

Fire Brick Cement—A series of leaflets calling attention<br />

to savings in the use of a cement adapted to<br />

heat is being issued by the Botfield Refractories Company,<br />

Philadelphia. Various uses are covered in individual<br />

leaflets.<br />

* * *<br />

Determination of Carbon and Sulphur<br />

(Continued from page 439)<br />

Clamps—A new type of clamp for holding wood<br />

or metal parts while drilling or performing other machine<br />

operations is being sent out by the Practical Die<br />

& Specialty Manufacturing Company, Chicago. Its<br />

advantages are fully illustrated.<br />

should oxygen be passed into the tube. It is essential<br />

that the sample be spread out well and that combustion<br />

begin immediately upon entry of oxygen.<br />

It can be seen from Table 1 that the determinations<br />

of carbon and sulphur by simultaneous combustion<br />

check very closely the values obtained by other<br />

methods. These results are the average of several<br />

determinations.<br />

* * *<br />

F<strong>org</strong>ing Machinery—Xational Machinery Company,<br />

Tiffin, Ohio, has issued a booklet covering machinery<br />

on display at its recent exhibition. It is<br />

largely pictures, with enough type matter to explain<br />

the purpose. Machine operations as carried on at the<br />

exhibit are shown, with the resulting products.<br />

* * *<br />

Recording Pyrometers—Brown Instrument Com­<br />

illll 11III9UII14IIILIIIIIIJIIIU11II HUM I II1111M 111. hill N Nl.lll I 111 11 :iili 11111 lllill II11MIIKEH11111 i:ipii 1111 llllttl 11111IIEM1111IIIMI111 Nlllllltl iiriiiinril 1111 Ulll I' .1J111 pany, Philadelphia, Pa., has issued a bulletin, 1-13,<br />

TRADE PUBLICATIONS<br />

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illustrating and describing a new design of recording<br />

pyrometer which has recently been developed by this<br />

i: ^ concern.<br />

Motors—Polyphase induction motors with cast<br />

* * *<br />

steel frame and roller bearings are featured in a bul­ Alloy Steels—Central Steel Company, Massillon,<br />

letin by the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company, Ohio, is distributing free a celluloid disk, by means<br />

Milwaukee. Full details of construction are presented of which the constituent and heat-treatment for dif­<br />

in photographs.<br />

ferent grades of "Agathon" steels can be readily found.<br />

Compressors—Pennsylvania Pump & Compressor<br />

Company, Eastern, Pa., is distributing a general products<br />

catalog designed to give concisely a comprehensive<br />

view of the company's complete line of products.<br />

Materials Handling—Electrically driven machinery<br />

for handling materials in many branches of industrv<br />

is set forth in a catalog by the Westinghouse Electric<br />

& Manufacturing Companv. East Pittsburgh, Pa. Information<br />

is given of principal groups of materials<br />

handling machinery, giving uses, typical outputs and<br />

electrical equipment best suited to their operation<br />

and describes Westinghouse equipment designed fur<br />

such uses.<br />

Motion and Operation Recorders—The Bristol<br />

Company, Waterbury, Conn., has published Catalog<br />

Xo. 1600 dealing with the mechanical motion and<br />

electrical operation recorders manufactured by this<br />

company. The purpose of the instruments are shown<br />

as well as full size reproductions of typical charts<br />

given. Several methods of applying the recorders<br />

are shown by diagrams. Parts and accessories are<br />

given individual attention.<br />

* * *<br />

Industrial Furnaces—The Chicago Flexible Shaft<br />

Company, 5600 Roosevelt Road, Chicago, 111., has prepared<br />

an illustrated folder describing the Stewart<br />

Industrial furnace equipment.


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