Third International Symposium on Sustainable Development (ISSD'12
Third International Symposium on Sustainable Development (ISSD'12
Third International Symposium on Sustainable Development (ISSD'12
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Third</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong><br />
(ISSD’12)<br />
May 31 - June 1, 2012<br />
Sarajevo<br />
Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Proceedings<br />
Volume 2<br />
INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND<br />
SUSTAINABILITY<br />
Sarajevo - 2012<br />
ii
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong> (ISSD2012)<br />
May 31 – June 01 Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina<br />
Publisher:<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University<br />
Editors;<br />
Prof.Dr. Meliha HANDZIC<br />
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdulhamit SUBAŞI<br />
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Ali GÖKSU<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference Partners:<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Texas A&M University-Commerce, USA<br />
Bulent Ecevit University, Z<strong>on</strong>guldak, Turkey<br />
Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey<br />
Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey<br />
DTP & Design:<br />
Erna Ahmetspahić<br />
DTP and Prepress:<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University<br />
Printed by: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University<br />
Circulati<strong>on</strong>: 500 copies<br />
Place of Publicati<strong>on</strong>: Sarajevo<br />
Copyright: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University, 2012<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University Publicati<strong>on</strong> No: 17<br />
ISBN 978-9958-834-16-5<br />
Reproducti<strong>on</strong> of this Publicati<strong>on</strong> for educati<strong>on</strong>al or other n<strong>on</strong>-commercial purposes is authorized without prior permissi<strong>on</strong> from the copyright holder. Reproducti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
resale or other commercial purposes prohibited without prior written permissi<strong>on</strong> of the copyright holder.<br />
Disclaimer: While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the informati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>tained in this publicati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University will not assume<br />
liability for writing and any use made of the proceedings, and the presentati<strong>on</strong> of the participating organizati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>cerning the legal status of any country, territory, or<br />
area, or of its authorities, or c<strong>on</strong>cerning the delimitati<strong>on</strong> of its fr<strong>on</strong>tiers or boundaries.<br />
iii
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference Partners:<br />
ORGANIZERS OF <strong>ISSD'12</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Texas A&M University-Commerce, USA<br />
Bulent Ecevit University, Z<strong>on</strong>guldak, Turkey<br />
Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey<br />
Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey<br />
Local Organising Committee:<br />
Meliha Handzic, Chair<br />
Teoman Duman, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Liais<strong>on</strong><br />
Abdulhamit Subasi, Program Sessi<strong>on</strong>s Coordinator<br />
Ali Göksu, Program Sessi<strong>on</strong>s Coordinator<br />
Emina Alickovic, Review Coordinator<br />
Natasa Tandir, Review Coordinator<br />
Zeynep Kara, Secretary<br />
Nadira Sarajlic, Public Relati<strong>on</strong>s Officer<br />
Kasim Erturk, Treasurer<br />
Ibrahim Kinal, Webmaster<br />
iv
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Scientific Committee<br />
Akyildiz Huseyin Suleyman Demirel University Turkey<br />
Altin Ahmet Bulent Ecevit University Turkey<br />
Ay Gurkan George Washingt<strong>on</strong> University USA<br />
Aydemir Muzaffer Bilecik University Turkey<br />
Bagdigen Muhlis Bulent Ecevit University Turkey<br />
Bayraktaroglu Serkan Sakarya University Turkey<br />
Cinar Ozer Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University Turkey<br />
Coskun Ali Fatih University Turkey<br />
Develioglu Kazim Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
Digrak Metin Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University Turkey<br />
Dogan Hulusi Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
D<strong>on</strong>ko Dzenana Sarajevo University Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Duman Mehmet Artvin Coruh University Turkey<br />
Duman Teoman <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Duran Burhanettin Istanbul Sehir University Turkey<br />
Durna Ufuk Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
Ekiz Huseyin Sakarya University Turkey<br />
Emektar Riza Robert Morris University USA<br />
Ercisli Sezai Atatürk University Turkey<br />
Eroglu Abdullah Suleyman Demirel University Turkey<br />
Eruslu Niyazi M. Yalova University Turkey<br />
Esiyok Dursun Ege University Turkey<br />
Goksu Ali <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Gungor Ibrahim Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
Handzic Meliha <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Inal Emin Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
Ibicioglu Hasan Suleyman Demirel University Turkey<br />
Kalabusic Senada University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Kalayci Seref Suleyman Demirel University Turkey<br />
Kantarci Kemali Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
Karcioglu Resat Ataturk University Turkey<br />
Karlik Bekir K<strong>on</strong>ya-Mevlana University Turkey<br />
Kosecik Muhammet Turgut Ozal University Turkey<br />
Kudabaev Zarylbek I. American University of Central Asia Kirgiz Republic<br />
Musemic Rajfa University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Oguz Cennet Selcuk University Turkey<br />
Ozsoy Ismail Fatih University Turkey<br />
Padem Huseyin <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Pinningt<strong>on</strong> Ashley H. The British University in Dubai UAE<br />
Rose Andrew K. University of California USA<br />
Sari Ramazan Middle East Technical University Turkey<br />
Schwartz Harvey York University Canada<br />
Sitembolukbasi Saban Suleyman Demirel University Turkey<br />
Slotsve George Northern Illinois University USA<br />
Subasi Abdulhamit <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
Toksen Erol Ege University Turkey<br />
Tourk Khairy A. Illinois Institute of Technology USA<br />
Uyar Suleyman Akdeniz University Turkey<br />
Vergil Hasan Bulent Ecevit University Turkey<br />
Witkowski Jaroslaw University of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics Poland<br />
v
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
Preface<br />
These proceedings c<strong>on</strong>tain the papers presented at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Third</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong><br />
<strong>Development</strong> (ISSD 2012). The c<strong>on</strong>ference was organised by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University-Sarajevo<br />
in partnership with Texas A&M University-Commerce, Suleyman Demirel University-Isparta, Akdeniz<br />
University-Anatalya and Bulent Ecevit-Z<strong>on</strong>dulak. It was held in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, from<br />
May 30 to June 01, 2012.<br />
The aim of the symposium was to bring together a diverse community of researchers and practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
interested in exploring a wide spectrum of questi<strong>on</strong>s that relate to sustainability. It served as a forum for<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al and internati<strong>on</strong>al community to meet, generate and share ideas in the field of theoretical,<br />
experimental and applied research.<br />
The focus of ISSD 2012 was <strong>on</strong> “management and technology: issues and challenges”.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>ference solicited papers addressing ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental aspects of sustainable<br />
development. The original research papers submitted to the c<strong>on</strong>ference covered a wide variety of topics<br />
from six tracks. These tracks included: management and organisati<strong>on</strong>s for sustainable development,<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> systems and sustainability, green technologies and strategies, sustainability finance and<br />
accounting, ec<strong>on</strong>omics of sustainable development and marketing perspective <strong>on</strong> sustainability.<br />
These proceedings c<strong>on</strong>tain <strong>on</strong>ly research papers that were selected as a result of a review process<br />
involving at least two reviewers appointed by the organising committee. In additi<strong>on</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>tributed papers,<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>ference program also included poster sessi<strong>on</strong>s and two keynote presentati<strong>on</strong>s from the internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
distinguished researchers:<br />
”Green IS: An Opportunity and Resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for Informati<strong>on</strong> Systems to Make a Difference”, presented<br />
by Associate Professor Helen Hasan, University of Woll<strong>on</strong>g<strong>on</strong>g, Australia<br />
“Management and Sustainability”, presented by Professor Hal Langford, Texas A&M University-<br />
Commerce, USA<br />
As editors, we would like to thank every<strong>on</strong>e who c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the c<strong>on</strong>tent and producti<strong>on</strong> of these<br />
proceedings, namely, the authors, members of the scientific committee, reviewers and the organisers of<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>ference who made this c<strong>on</strong>ference possible.<br />
Meliha Handzic, Abdulhamit Subasi and Ali Goksu<br />
Editors<br />
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
Table of C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
Preface ............................................................................................................................................................................v<br />
Table of C<strong>on</strong>tents .........................................................................................................................................................vii<br />
Full Papers<br />
TRACK 2<br />
OFFLINE SIGNATURE RECOGNITION USING MACHINE LEARNING<br />
Mohammad Ikhsan Bin Zakaria, Gunay Karli .............................................................................................................. 1<br />
A CASE STUDY OF PROBIT MODEL ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMPTION OF PACKED<br />
AND UNPACKED MILK IN TURKEY<br />
Meral Uzunoz, Yasar Akcay ......................................................................................................................................... 9<br />
INTEGRATION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED SYSTEMS INTO LEARNING<br />
ENVIRONMENT: CANKIRI KARATEKIN UNIVERSITY CASE STUDY<br />
Murat Ari, Abdullah Pekel .......................................................................................................................................... 16<br />
H2O PERSISTENCE FRAMEWORK FOR COLUMN ORIENTED DISTRIBUTED (NOSQL) DATABASES<br />
Dino Kečo, Dženana Đ<strong>on</strong>ko ....................................................................................................................................... 22<br />
THE INVESTIGATION OF OPTIMUM WELDING PARAMETERS IN CONNECTING HIGH ALLOYED<br />
X53CRMNNIN219 AND X45CRSI93 STEELS BY FRICTION WELDING<br />
Mehmet Uzkut, Bekir Sadık Ünlü, Selim Sarper Yilmaz, Mustafa Akdağ .................................................................. 29<br />
POSITIVE ATTITUDES OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS TOWARD ONLINE SHOPPING<br />
Ali Acılar .................................................................................................................................................................... 40<br />
A STUDY ABOUT MOBBING ON STUDENTS, THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEIR PERSONALITY<br />
TRAITS AND MENTAL STATUS<br />
Zeki Akinci, Osman Nuri Demirel, Yusuf Yilmaz....................................................................................................... 46<br />
TECHNOLOGIES AIMING TO IMPROVE WORK EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABILITY: PERSONNEL<br />
TRACKING SYSTEMS<br />
Halil Kaygisiz, Abdülkadir Çakir, Eyüp Çaki, Seyit Akpancar .................................................................................. 60<br />
ix
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
SOCIAL ANXIETY AND USAGE OF ONLINE TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNICATION TOOLS AMONG<br />
ADOLESCENTS<br />
Bilal Sisman, Sinan Yoruk, Ali Eleren ........................................................................................................................ 67<br />
THE EFFECTS OF MENTORSHIP ON THE SUCCESS OF FIRMS<br />
Şevket Yirik, Yusuf Yilmaz, Osman Nuri Demirel, Yıldırım Yilmaz ........................................................................ 75<br />
ANALYSIS OF THE HOTEL PERSONNEL’S CONCEPTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE,<br />
ORGANIZATIONAL SILENCE, MOBBING, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN TERMS OF<br />
DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES<br />
Şevket Yirik, Yusuf Yilmaz, Osman Nuri Demirel, Yıldırım Yilmaz, Abdullah Akgün, Hasan Kinay ..................... 82<br />
THE IMPACTS OF USING ADDITIONAL TEACHING MATERIALS ON STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE IN<br />
PACKAGE PROGRAM EDUCATION: THE CASE OF FIDELIO AND SEJOUR<br />
Hasan Kinay, Abdullah Akgün, Hakan Çetin, Yusuf Yilmaz, Zeki Akinci ................................................................. 95<br />
LEGACY OF TURGUT ÖZAL AND THE SUSTAİNABLE TRANSFORMATİON OF TURKEY WITH AK<br />
PARTY GOVERNMENTS<br />
Selami Erdoğan , Eray Acar ...................................................................................................................................... 102<br />
AN EVALUATION OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES’ ROLES IN REGARD TO SOCIAL<br />
SUSTAINABILITY: A DISSCUSSION OF TURKISH DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES’ EXPERIENCE<br />
Mustafa Ökmen, Buğra Özer, Vedat Bal ................................................................................................................ ..111<br />
COMPARISON STUDY OF APPROACHES TO MEASURING POVERTY IMPLEMENTING FUZZY SET AND<br />
CLASSIC SET USING THE HOUSEHOLD DATA OF TURKEY<br />
Alparslan Abdurrahman Basaran, Murat Alper Basaran .......................................................................................... ..117<br />
THE IMPORTANCE OF ERP (ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING) SOFTWARE AND CHOOSING<br />
CRITERIAS FOR BUSINESS<br />
Hakan Çetin, Hakan Akar .......................................................................................................................................... 123<br />
DOES PREDEFINED ERP IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGY WORK FOR PUBLIC COMPANIES IN<br />
TRANSITIONING COUNTRY?<br />
Adnan Kraljić, Denis Delismajlović, Tarik Kraljić ................................................................................................... 130<br />
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
A CROSS – SECTIONAL ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMETAL SUSTAINABILITY PRACTICES<br />
Uçan Okyay .............................................................................................................................................................. 140<br />
UTILISING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR MEASURING IMPACT ON SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY:<br />
SURVEY OF MICROCREDIT ORGANISATIONS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA<br />
Alica Pandzo, Kemal Taljanovic, Selma Jahic ........................................................................................................... 154<br />
WEB TECHNOLOGIES IN EDUCATION<br />
Günay Karli, Miljković Adnan ................................................................................................................................. 168<br />
THE EFFECTS OF AKHISM PRINCIPLES ON TODAY'S BUSINESS LIFE: A CASE IN THE WESTERN<br />
MEDITERRANEAN REGION<br />
Hilmi Uyar, Hasan Erdoğan ...................................................................................................................................... 176<br />
ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE LIFE SATISFACTION OF HOUSEHOLD HEADS LIVING IN<br />
URBAN AREAS: A CASE OF WEST MEDITERRANEAN REGION<br />
Ali Riza Aktas, Burhan Ozkan, Onur Oku ................................................................................................................ 189<br />
ICT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR SUSTAİNABLE SOCİETY: A STORY OF BH TELECOM<br />
Dzihad Zlatar, Meliha Handzic ................................................................................................................................. 198<br />
SUSTAINABILITY & EDUCATION - E-LEARNING WEBSITE<br />
Aida Bulbul, Mela Hadrović, Emil Knezović, Adi Fišević ....................................................................................... 207<br />
E-GOVERNMENT IN A BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA MUNICIPALITY<br />
Kursad Ozlen, Edin Smajic, Serife Ozlen ................................................................................................................. 215<br />
AN ASSESSMENT ON EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT<br />
Emriye Ulu, S. Umit Kiymalioğlu ............................................................................................................................ 226<br />
BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS IN BIH<br />
Kursad Ozlen, Belma Peskic, Aida Dedovic ............................................................................................................. 236<br />
KM APPLICATIONS in BOSNIAN MANAGERIAL PRACTICES<br />
Kursad Ozlen, Zehra Mahmutović, Ensar Mekić, Emina Herić ……………………..……………………………..246<br />
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
E - COMMERCE IN BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA<br />
Serife Ozlen, Merdzana Obralic, Emir Cickusic, Dzenis Ejupi, Emir Dzaferovic .................................................... 259<br />
THE IPARD PROGRAMME IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN UNION RURAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDS<br />
Dilek Memişoğlu, Ayşe Durgun, Sibel Yegül .......................................................................................................... 275<br />
ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC) AND ROLE OF SAUDI ARABIA<br />
Nađa Dreca ................................................................................................................................................................ 289<br />
COOPERATION AND COMPETITION IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS: CASE OF ICT FIRMS<br />
IN KONYA<br />
M. Atilla Aricioğlu, Deniz Göktaş, Birol Mercan ...................................................................................................... 296<br />
COMPARISON OF LINEAR REGRESSION AND NEURAL NETWORK MODELS FORECASTING TOURIST<br />
ARRIVALS TO TURKEY<br />
Selcuk Cankurt, Abdulhamit Subasi .......................................................................................................................... 304<br />
INFORMATISATION OF THE JUDICIARY IN BIH: SUCCESS FACTORS<br />
Nedim Fisekovic, Meliha Handzic ............................................................................................................................ 311<br />
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATION OF LEARNING CONTENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN<br />
ENTERPRISES<br />
Šemsudin Plojović, Enis Ujkanović, Suad Bećirović, Muzafer Saračević ................................................................. 319<br />
A HYBRID DIGITAL VIDEO WATERMARKING METHOD BASED ON DCT AND DWT<br />
Haldun Sarnel, Kadir Ünal ........................................................................................................................................ 327<br />
INVESTIGATION OF SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING BUILDING STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP<br />
Ali Demir, Hakan Başaran, Duygu Dönmez Demir .................................................................................................. 335<br />
MEDICAL DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR DIAGNOSIS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES USING<br />
DWT AND K-NN<br />
Emina Alickovic, Abdulhamit Subasi ....................................................................................................................... 345<br />
CLASSIFICATION OF EMG SIGNALS USING DECISION TREE METHODS<br />
Selami Keleş, Abdulhamit Subasi ………………………..………………………………………………..……...353<br />
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
STOCK MARKET PRICE INDEX RETURN FORECASTING USING ANN<br />
Gunter Senyurt, Abdulhamit Subasi .......................................................................................................................... 366<br />
STOCK MARKET MOVEMENT DIRECTION PREDICTION USING TREE ALGORITHMS<br />
Gunter Senyurt, Abdulhamit Subasi .......................................................................................................................... 373<br />
GIS INTEGRATION AND EVOLUTION INTO THE ALBANIAN SYSTEM EDUCATION AND MARKET<br />
M. Hysenaj , R. Barjami ............................................................................................................................................ 379<br />
COMMERCIAL WEBSITES EVALUATION<br />
Zeid Hazem, Meliha Handzic ................................................................................................................................... 389<br />
A SUGGESTION FOR FORESTRY: ASSIGNING IDLE PUBLIC LANDS TO PRIVATE SECTOR BY<br />
PROJECTING AND PROVISIONING<br />
Mustafa Durman, Murat Fatih Köymen ..................................................................................................................... 397<br />
AN EMPIRICAL ON KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS IN KUTAHYA, TURKEY<br />
Kemal Demirci, Nuray Mercan, Yaşar Aksanyar, Vasfi Kahya, Bayram Alamur .................................................... 403<br />
CIVIL LAW NOTARIES IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: ACTORS IN PREVENTIVE JUSTICE<br />
Šukrija Bakšić, Esad Oruč ......................................................................................................................................... 412<br />
AN APPLICATION ON DETERMINING OF OPTIMUM LOCAL TRANSPORTING SYSTEM AT ADAPAZARI<br />
CITY<br />
Kamil Taskin , Fatih Gumus , Ali Akaytay ............................................................................................................... 420<br />
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS<br />
Hakan Başaran, Muhiddin Bağcı .............................................................................................................................. 431<br />
NEURAL-NETWORK APPLICATIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF INFILLED FRAME<br />
Muhiddin Bağcı, Hakan Başaran ............................................................................................................................... 444<br />
A CROSS – SECTIONAL ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMETAL SUSTAINABILITY PRACTICES<br />
Murat Toksari , Okyay Uçan ..................................................................................................................................... 453<br />
xiii
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT DETECTION BY USING MACHINE LEARNING METHODS<br />
Nejdet Dogru, Abdulhamit Subasi ............................................................................................................................ 467<br />
SUSTAINABILITY AND USING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN DISASTER MANAGAMENT<br />
Fatma Neval Genç, Murat Yılmaz ............................................................................................................................ 473<br />
CLASSIFICATION OF EEG SIGNALS FOR EPILEPTIC SEIZURE PREDICTION USING ANN<br />
Jasmin Kevric, Abdulhamit Subasi ........................................................................................................................... 490<br />
CLASSIFICATION OF FETAL STATE FROM THE CARDIOTOCOGRAM RECORDINGS USING ANN AND<br />
SIMPLE LOGISTIC<br />
Hakan Sahin, Abdulhamit Subasi .............................................................................................................................. 498<br />
AN OVERVIEW OF METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTING SENSORS IN ELECTRONIC NOSE<br />
APPLICATIONS<br />
Özgür Örnek1, Bekir Karlık ...................................................................................................................................... 505<br />
COMPARISON OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN RECOGNATION OF REGULATORY REGION<br />
OF DNA<br />
Günay Karlı, Şenol Doğan ........................................................................................................................................ 515<br />
THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (IISD) WEBSITE IN THE<br />
CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT<br />
Emir Cickusic, Teo Domuz, Anisa Topalovic, Emir Becirovic ................................................................................ 533<br />
THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING AIMED AT BUSINESSES: EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES EXECUTED<br />
BY THE TURKISH PRIVATE SECTOR<br />
Gokhan Ofluoglu , Sibel Buzkan, Sadık Kilic .......................................................................................................... 546<br />
A NEW APPROACH TO MEASURING POVERTY IMPLEMENTING FUZZY SET USING THE HOUSEHOLD<br />
DATA OF TURKEY<br />
Murat Alper Basaran , Alparslan Abdurrahman Basaran ........................................................................................... 563<br />
THE EFFECT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES ON PRIVATE SCHOOL WORKERS’ WORK STRESSES<br />
Hakan Çetin, Taş Sebahattin ................................................................................................................................... 569<br />
xiv
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
OBSTACLES IN COLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION WEBSITES’ DEVELOPMENT: A CASE<br />
FROM BOSNA AND HERZEGOVINA<br />
Merima Bejtagic-Makic , Suncica Hadzidedic .......................................................................................................... 587<br />
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FIELD MAPPING: A CASE OF ISSD2012<br />
Zeynep Kara, Meliha Handzic, Nermina Durmic ..................................................................................................... 594<br />
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAREER PLANNING AND CULTURE: A RESEARCH ON FRENCH AND<br />
TURKISH BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION STUDENTS<br />
Kürşat Özdaşli, Pelin Kanten, Seher Derya, Merve Eroğlu, Fatih Cura .................................................................... 600<br />
THE FACTORS DETERMINED TO THE IMPROVEMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING<br />
COUNTRIES: TESTING A MODEL<br />
Gözde Ergin, Adil Oğuzhan ....................................................................................................................................... 609<br />
xv
Abstract<br />
1<br />
Offline Signature Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Using Machine Learning<br />
Mohammad Ikhsan Bin Zakaria, GunayKarli<br />
Engineering and Informati<strong>on</strong> Technologies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University,<br />
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.<br />
E-mails: mohammad.ihsan.z@gmail.com, gkarli@ibu.edu.ba<br />
Biometric behavior can be recognized through the signature behavior of a pers<strong>on</strong>. It is mostly<br />
used for authorizati<strong>on</strong> and authenticati<strong>on</strong> in legal documentati<strong>on</strong> papers. Signature<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong> has two ways of verificati<strong>on</strong>, dynamic or <strong>on</strong>line recogniti<strong>on</strong> and static or offline<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong>. In this paper we use offline recogniti<strong>on</strong> to analyze signature images using<br />
Artificial Neural Network. We used mark minutia masking as the feature extracti<strong>on</strong>. We<br />
proposed offline signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> using machine learning with supervised learning<br />
algorithm. The aim of using artificial neural network is to automatically find signatures that<br />
match to the owners of the signatures. Based <strong>on</strong> our evaluati<strong>on</strong>, after we compared feed<br />
forward backpropagati<strong>on</strong> and other supervised learning network such cascade-forward<br />
network, it revealed cascade-forward shown the highest accuracy100 % with low mean<br />
square error 0.<br />
Keywords: biometric, offline signature, machine learning<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
Offline signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> is the technique to prevent forgery against security issue <strong>on</strong><br />
legal documentati<strong>on</strong> papers. In many legal companies they use this system to protect their<br />
customers. The process of gathering signature image is d<strong>on</strong>e by taking signatures from<br />
volunteers to sign <strong>on</strong> papers for ten times and we take that signatures scan to the computer<br />
and format as 200 dpi into gray scale image format. Reducing noisy and mark minutia arethe<br />
difficult tasks here, because besides we have to keep the informati<strong>on</strong> of signature images as<br />
valid as we can. There are few methods that applied offline signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> such as<br />
signature regi<strong>on</strong> of interest using auto cropping [1]. The signature images will be cleaned up<br />
from unwanted space or image around signatures. In this method the authors proposed image<br />
auto cropping as it is menti<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>on</strong> image normalizati<strong>on</strong>. In [2] they proposed offline<br />
signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> and verificati<strong>on</strong> scheme which is based <strong>on</strong> extracti<strong>on</strong> of several features<br />
including <strong>on</strong>e hybrid set from the input signature and compare them with the already forms.<br />
In feature extracti<strong>on</strong> [2] they used Euclidean distances from vertical and horiz<strong>on</strong>tal secti<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
of signature. In [3] they proposed offline handwritten signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> which is trained<br />
in low-resoluti<strong>on</strong> scanned signature images using learning vector quantizati<strong>on</strong> classifier. The<br />
accuracy rate [3] was 98% for random test set of 150 handwritten signature images of 10
2<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s. Offline signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> and verificati<strong>on</strong> [4] based <strong>on</strong> four speed stroke was<br />
proposed. In [4] they used stroke angle and stroke speed as feature extracti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This paper is organized into five sessi<strong>on</strong>s. The following is an introducti<strong>on</strong> of the topic in this<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> 1, sessi<strong>on</strong> 2 describes the proposed method, in sessi<strong>on</strong> 3 describe signature image<br />
preprocessing and feature extracti<strong>on</strong>, in sessi<strong>on</strong> 4 describes implementati<strong>on</strong>, results. In final<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> describes c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2.SIGNATURE IMAGE PREPROCESSING<br />
In this paper signature image preprocessing can be d<strong>on</strong>e in six steps as follows: (1)<br />
Histogram Equalizati<strong>on</strong> (2) Fourier Transform (3) Binarizati<strong>on</strong> (4) Signature Directi<strong>on</strong> (5)<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong> of Interest (ROI) Area and (6) Thinning. Thinning image process is <strong>on</strong>e most<br />
particular step in this stage, because thinning produces single layer line of signature. Minutia<br />
marking stage needs thinning before applying bifurcati<strong>on</strong> skim step. Signature image<br />
preprocessing is influenced by the original which was taken using colors pen. Thinning<br />
process produces skelet<strong>on</strong> of signature which has single-pixel image.<br />
2.1. Minutia Marking Feature Extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
During image preprocessing, we include minutia marking as our feature extracti<strong>on</strong>; here the<br />
mask digit skimmed all possible digits with 1s and 0s value. We carried out minutia marking<br />
to state image bifurcati<strong>on</strong> and decisi<strong>on</strong> or terminati<strong>on</strong>. In general we have 3x3 matrices, if the<br />
central pixel is <strong>on</strong>e and have exactly three <strong>on</strong>e-value neighbors; the central pixel is a ridge<br />
branch. If the central pixel is <strong>on</strong>e and has <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e-value neighbor, then the central pixel is a<br />
ridge ending [5].Using minutia detecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the binary skelet<strong>on</strong> would be performed by<br />
labeling as minutiae pixels which is cross number (CN). Some methods c<strong>on</strong>sider the pixels<br />
which CN >= 3 corresp<strong>on</strong>d to bifurcati<strong>on</strong> as shown in figure 1 (a) or if CN = 2 it corresp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
to ridge ending[5], [6].<br />
(a)<br />
Figure 1: (a) Bifurcati<strong>on</strong> (b) Terminati<strong>on</strong> (c) Triple counting branch<br />
(b)<br />
Figure 1 (c) describes the special case which a genuine branch is triple counted. If both<br />
uppermost pixel with value 1 and the rightmost in same 3x3 block has pixel 1, so the two<br />
pixels are marked as the braches [6]. All three figures 1 (a), 1 (b) and 1 (c) are filtered using<br />
bifurcati<strong>on</strong> template. Ridge thinning signature images are filtered using this bifurcati<strong>on</strong><br />
masking. In [5] discussed about mark minutia extracti<strong>on</strong>. The bifurcati<strong>on</strong> template is used to<br />
cover all possible high bit 1s and eliminate 0s bit after thinning process. Basically CN for<br />
pixel P in bifurcati<strong>on</strong> template is in [5] and shown in figure 2 CN is estimated using equati<strong>on</strong><br />
(1).<br />
(c)
3<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
Figure 2: Basic format CN for P<br />
Where Pi is the bi-level pixel value in the neighborhood of P with Pi = 0s or 1s and P1 = P9.<br />
3. IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS<br />
In implementati<strong>on</strong> we used Artificial Neural Network supervised learning to classify<br />
signature images that are given in training and we tested to find the match of signatures and<br />
the owners. We evaluated the result in testing sessi<strong>on</strong>. The experimental platform is the Intel<br />
dual core T3400 2.10GHz, 4 GB RAM, Windows 7 and the software is MATLAB 7.0.0.199<br />
(R.14). On the first part of training and testing, we experimented feed-forward<br />
backpropagati<strong>on</strong> and then followed by other supervised learning network such as Cascadeforward<br />
network, Elman Recurrent network and Learning vector quantizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
3.1. Proposed Method<br />
The offline signature recogniti<strong>on</strong> using machine learning or Artificial Neural Network as<br />
proposed method in this study is illustrated in figure 3.<br />
Figure 3: Block diagram of proposed method<br />
The first step in the proposed method deals with collecting of signatures and scanned them,<br />
the sec<strong>on</strong>d step describes signature image preprocessing in sessi<strong>on</strong> 2. The third step describes<br />
feature extracti<strong>on</strong>, in this step we used minutia marking. The final step describes the<br />
signatures classificati<strong>on</strong> processing using feed-forward backpropagati<strong>on</strong>, cascade-forward<br />
network, Elman recurrent network and learning vector network. One of the sample testing<br />
results for each classificati<strong>on</strong> neur<strong>on</strong>s are plotted in figure 4. Original or genuine signatures<br />
(1)
4<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
were collected from 30 students at <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University; each student gave 10<br />
signatures samples. After c<strong>on</strong>verting 300 signatures into gray scale format, we divided them<br />
into 300 single signature images. The file was analyzed for neur<strong>on</strong> classificati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
following sessi<strong>on</strong> describes ANN classificati<strong>on</strong> and testing results.<br />
3.2. Feed-forward Backpropagati<strong>on</strong> Network (newff)<br />
In this experiment we used feed-forward backpropagati<strong>on</strong> network to calculate mean square<br />
error as the measurement for performance <strong>on</strong> the neural networks. We also c<strong>on</strong>sider the<br />
influence of training algorithm and transfer functi<strong>on</strong> which can change the approximati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
recognized signatures. In figure 4 (a) shows the example of testing results. In that testing<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> we obtained combinati<strong>on</strong> of attributes such as number of inputs, hidden layers,<br />
training algorithm and transfer functi<strong>on</strong>. It was the highest accuracy 66.6667 % and the<br />
lowest mse 0.4286. Table 1 shows the attributes training algorithm and transfer functi<strong>on</strong><br />
influenced the final result of testing. The biggernumber of hidden layers with different<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> of transfer functi<strong>on</strong>s, the bigger time it took the machine to analyze. Moreover,<br />
number of hidden layer and combinati<strong>on</strong> of transfer functi<strong>on</strong>s tansig or logsig did not make<br />
big changes or differences for accuracy rate. The lower result of mean square error, the<br />
higher the rate of accuracy we got. However the results of neural network testing were not<br />
precisely matched but we rounded into the nearest integers. After integers are rounded and<br />
there were compared with the predicted integers or classes.<br />
Input<br />
Table 1 Testing <strong>on</strong> Feed-forward Backpropagati<strong>on</strong> Networks<br />
Architecture of<br />
NN<br />
Training<br />
Algorithm<br />
10 10-1 traingdm logsig, purelin<br />
10 10-1 traingdm tansig, purelin<br />
10 10-1 traingdx tansig, purelin<br />
10 10-10-1 traingdm tansig, logsig, purelin<br />
10 10-10-1 traingdx tansig, logsig, purelin<br />
20 20-10-10-1 traingdm<br />
20 20-10-10-1 traingdx<br />
Transfer Functi<strong>on</strong> MSE Accuracy<br />
tansig, logsig, logsig,<br />
purelin<br />
tansig, logsig, logsig,<br />
purelin<br />
0.714<br />
3<br />
0.571<br />
4<br />
0.571<br />
4<br />
0.476<br />
2<br />
0.476<br />
2<br />
0.619<br />
0<br />
0.714<br />
3<br />
61.9048<br />
%<br />
57.1429<br />
%<br />
57.1429<br />
%<br />
66.6667<br />
%<br />
66.6667<br />
%<br />
52.3810<br />
%<br />
66.6667<br />
%
5<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
20 20-10-10-1 traingdm<br />
20 20-10-10-1 traingdx<br />
logsig, tansig, tansig,<br />
purelin<br />
logsig, tansig, tansig,<br />
purelin<br />
0.619<br />
0<br />
0.428<br />
6<br />
52.3810<br />
%<br />
66.6667<br />
%<br />
The performance of training is influenced by number of hidden layers, training algorithm,<br />
learning methods. Generally,mseis calculated in MATLAB using logic below. In equati<strong>on</strong><br />
(2) it is just additi<strong>on</strong>al descripti<strong>on</strong> of calculating mse using MATLAB. In equati<strong>on</strong> (3), we<br />
used the logic to compare between target output and actual output. We calculate the integers<br />
in target output that are larger or equal to actual output and c<strong>on</strong>verted them into 1s.<br />
3.3. Cascade-forward Network (newcf)<br />
;<br />
Table 2 shows training and testing using cascade-forward networks, we calculated the mseto<br />
find the significant error during our testing.<br />
Input<br />
Architecture<br />
of NN<br />
Table 2 Testing Cascade-forward Networks<br />
Training<br />
Algorith<br />
m<br />
;<br />
(2)<br />
(3)<br />
Transfer Functi<strong>on</strong> MSE Accuracy<br />
10 10-1 trainlm logsig, purelin 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
10 10-1 trainlm tansig, purelin 0.4762 66.6667 %<br />
10 10-1 trainbfg tansig, purelin 0.4286 57.1429 %<br />
10 10-10-1 trainlm tansig, logsig, purelin 0.3810 76.1905 %<br />
10 10-10-1 trainbfg tansig, logsig, purelin 0.5238 61.9048 %<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainlm tansig, logsig, logsig, purelin 0.0952 90.4762 %
6<br />
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20 20-10-10-1 trainbfg tansig, logsig, logsig, purelin 0.5238 61.9048 %<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainbfg logsig, tansig, tansig, purelin 0.4762 52.3810 %<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainlm logsig, tansig, tansig, purelin 0 100 %<br />
Our attributes in table 2 are training algorithm trainlm and trainbfg, where during testing<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> trainbfg spent more time than trainlm to find output. In final testing we obtained 20<br />
inputs with two hidden layers and tansig as transfer functi<strong>on</strong>, we got 100 % matched in<br />
accuracy rate and 0 in mse error. Thus we c<strong>on</strong>cluded that the lowest mse in this network<br />
produced the highest accuracy we got. However, mse does not always affect the changes of<br />
accuracy rate or neural network output. It is because the output of neur<strong>on</strong>s is not always<br />
precise. As a sample of training and testing, figure 4 (b) shows testing result. Figure 4 (b)<br />
shows the testing result with mse 0.4286 and accuracy rate was 71.4286 %.<br />
3.4. Elman Recurrent Network (newelm)<br />
The basic structure table in Elman networks is the same as previous networks in feed-forward<br />
backpropagati<strong>on</strong> and cascade-forward networks as shows in table 3.<br />
Input<br />
Architecture<br />
of NN<br />
Table 3 Testing <strong>on</strong> Elman Recurrent Network<br />
Training<br />
Algorithm<br />
Transfer Functi<strong>on</strong> MSE Accuracy<br />
10 10-1 trainlm logsig, purelin 0.4286<br />
10 10-1 trainlm tansig, purelin 0.1429<br />
10 10-1 trainbfg tansig, purelin 0.6190<br />
10 10-10-1 trainlm tansig, logsig, purelin 0.8095<br />
10 10-10-1 trainbfg tansig, logsig, purelin 0.4286<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainlm<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainbfg<br />
tansig, logsig, logsig,<br />
purelin<br />
tansig, logsig, logsig,<br />
purelin<br />
0.7143<br />
0.7143<br />
57.1429<br />
%<br />
85.7143<br />
%<br />
66.6667<br />
%<br />
71.4286<br />
%<br />
71.4286<br />
%<br />
57.1429<br />
%<br />
42.8571<br />
%
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainlm<br />
20 20-10-10-1 trainbfg<br />
logsig, tansig, tansig,<br />
purelin<br />
logsig, tansig, tansig,<br />
purelin<br />
0.0476<br />
0.4762<br />
95.2381<br />
%<br />
95.2381<br />
%<br />
In this experiment the lowest mse is 0.0476 and the highest accuracy is 95.2381 %. From<br />
table 3 shows that there are two highest accuracy rates but with difference mse, thus the best<br />
output is the <strong>on</strong>e that has lower mse error, even though it has same accuracy and uses same<br />
inputs, hidden layer but different training algorithms. Trainlm shows the lowest mse result.<br />
As a sample of testing sessi<strong>on</strong> in this network, figure 4 (c) shows 71.4286 % accuracy and<br />
0.8095 mse.<br />
3.5. Learning Vector Quantizati<strong>on</strong> (newlvq)<br />
In learning vector quantizati<strong>on</strong>, the hidden layer value has to be positive integers so it became<br />
limited for us to analyze. Relating to the classes, we provided 21 classes of signatures. We<br />
trained 105 signatures and we tested using 21 signatures. In excel file we put additi<strong>on</strong> column<br />
as the name of each classes such as class 1 has five 1s, class 2 has five 2s and so <strong>on</strong>. So here<br />
we provided different kind of table which c<strong>on</strong>sists <strong>on</strong>ly training algorithm, mse and<br />
efficiency.<br />
No. Hidden<br />
Neur<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Class<br />
Percentages<br />
Table 4 Training and testing newlvq<br />
Training Algorithm MSE Accuracy<br />
10 .6 .4 learnlv2 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
20 .6 .4 learnlv2 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
10 .6 .4 learnlv1 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
20 .6 .4 learnlv1 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
10 .8 .2 learnlv2 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
10 .8 .2 learnlv1 0.4286 71.4286 %<br />
Table 4 (d) illustrates combinati<strong>on</strong> of learning algorithm, typical of classes and number of<br />
hidden neur<strong>on</strong>s. The results show us, there are no significant changes during testing either<br />
7
8<br />
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using learnlvq1 or learnlvq2 and hidden neur<strong>on</strong>s. Even though, we combined all possible<br />
values. Thus learning vector quantizati<strong>on</strong> gave the highest accuracy 71.4286 % with 0.4286<br />
mse.<br />
(a)<br />
(c)<br />
Figure 4: (a) Feed-forward backpropagati<strong>on</strong>, (b) Cascade-forward, (c) Elman Recurrent (d)<br />
Learning Vector Quantizati<strong>on</strong><br />
4. CONCLUSION<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> experiments in previous chapter, we can c<strong>on</strong>clude few points which related to the<br />
results. The highest accuracy in feed-forward backpropagati<strong>on</strong> testing result was 66.6667 %<br />
and the lowest mse in that network was 0.4286. In cascade-forward network testing, the<br />
highest accuracy rate was 100 % and the lowest mse in that testing was 0. Moreover, when<br />
we tested Elman, the highest accuracy in that testing network was 95.2381 % and mse was<br />
0.0476.On the other hand, learning vector quantizati<strong>on</strong> network has some differences in<br />
attributes. For instance, we used learnlv1 or learnlv2 as learning algorithm and compet as<br />
training algorithm, so we d<strong>on</strong>’t compare this network with other three network algorithms in<br />
previous evaluati<strong>on</strong>. The highest accuracy in learning vector quantizati<strong>on</strong> was 71.4286 %<br />
with 0.4286 mse. Thus cascade forward network was the best fit in this method, because the<br />
network produced 0 errors and 100 % accuracy with 20 inputs.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Souvola, J. &Pietikainen, M. (2000), Adoptive document image binarizati<strong>on</strong>, The Journal of<br />
The Pattern Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Society, page 225-236.<br />
Bhuyan, M., Sarma, K. K., & Das, H. (2010). Signature Recogniti<strong>on</strong> and Verificati<strong>on</strong> using<br />
Hybrid Features and Clustered Artificial Neural Network (ANN). <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Journal of<br />
Electrical and Computer Engineering.<br />
(b)<br />
(d)
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Khuwaja, G. A. &Laghari, M. S. (2011). Offline Handwritten Signature Recogniti<strong>on</strong>. World<br />
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 59.<br />
Basavaraj, L. &Sudhaker Samuel, R.D. (2009). Offline-line Signature Verificati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Recogniti<strong>on</strong>: An Approach Based <strong>on</strong> Four Speed Stroke Angle. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Journal of<br />
Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol 2.<br />
Zhao, F., & Tang, X. (2006). Preprocessing and postprocessing for skelet<strong>on</strong>-based fingerprint<br />
minutiae extracti<strong>on</strong>, Pattern Recogniti<strong>on</strong> 40 (2007) 1270 – 1281, The Journal of Pattern<br />
Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Society.<br />
Zhili, W. (2002). Fingerprint Recogniti<strong>on</strong>. Unpublished Bachelor’s Thesis, H<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Baptist University.<br />
A Case Study of Probit Model Analysis of Factors Affecting C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
of Packed and Unpacked Milk in Turkey<br />
Meral Uzunoz1, Yasar Akcay2<br />
1Gaziosmanpasa University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Ec<strong>on</strong>omics,<br />
Turkey<br />
2Gaziosmanpasa University Faculty of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic and Administrative Sciences Department of<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omics, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
E-mails: meral.uzunoz@gop.edu.tr,yasar.akcay@gop.edu.tr<br />
This paper focused <strong>on</strong> the effects of some socio-demographic factors <strong>on</strong> the decisi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer to purchase packed or unpacked milk in Sivas, Turkey. The data were collected<br />
from 300 c<strong>on</strong>sumers by using face to face survey technique. Binary probit model has been<br />
used to analyze the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors affecting milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of households.<br />
According to empirical results, c<strong>on</strong>sumers with higher educati<strong>on</strong> and income levels tend to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sume packed milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>. Also, milk price was affective factor packed and<br />
unpacked milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> behavior. The majority of c<strong>on</strong>sumers reads the c<strong>on</strong>tents of<br />
packed milk and is affected by safety food in their shopping preferences.<br />
Keywords: Milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, C<strong>on</strong>sumer preferences, Binary probit model
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1.INTRODUCTION<br />
Milk is a unique food item that needs to be available in the market without any shortage since<br />
it plays a key role in infant feeding and alleviating nutriti<strong>on</strong>al poverty in all other age groups.<br />
It has been perceived by c<strong>on</strong>sumers as an important source of nutrients, especially calcium<br />
for good b<strong>on</strong>e and teeth health (Alwis et al. 2009). Therefore, it is advisable to c<strong>on</strong>sume an<br />
adequate amount of milk and milk products for healthy lifestyle (Hatirli et al. 2004).<br />
Increasing populati<strong>on</strong> and income, together with the growing popularity of dairy products,<br />
particularly am<strong>on</strong>g developing country c<strong>on</strong>sumers is a key factor behind str<strong>on</strong>g demand in<br />
the medium term. Demand c<strong>on</strong>tinues to be encouraged by the growing influence of retail<br />
chains and multinati<strong>on</strong>al companies in these countries, which is facilitating improved<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer access to dairy products. The demand for milk and dairy products is expected to<br />
remain particularly str<strong>on</strong>g in important developing dairy markets such as North Africa, the<br />
Middle East and East Asia, but also in more mature markets such as those in the European<br />
Uni<strong>on</strong>, the United States and Russia. The rate of growth and per capita c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of milk<br />
and milk products remains significantly different am<strong>on</strong>g regi<strong>on</strong>s. LDC (Least Developed<br />
Countries) c<strong>on</strong>sume less than 50 kg per pers<strong>on</strong> per year <strong>on</strong> average, compared with 100 kg<br />
per pers<strong>on</strong> for developing countries, while the developed regi<strong>on</strong>s of North America and<br />
Europe c<strong>on</strong>sume well in excess of 200 kg per pers<strong>on</strong> (in milk equivalent). Such a per capita<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> disparity represents an investment potential and future opportunities for both the<br />
domestic and global dairy sectors (OECD/FAO 2011).<br />
However, per capita milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> in Turkey is low by any comparis<strong>on</strong> due to Turkish<br />
people’s c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> patterns, income levels and nutriti<strong>on</strong>al habits. Turkey is far behind the<br />
European countries and the world in milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> (Pazarlioglu et al. 2007). In Turkey,<br />
annual per capita milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> is 26 lt (WMDA 2011). Per capita milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> are<br />
66,9 lt in EU, 90.0 lt in USA, 91.5 lt in Canada, 108.14 lt in Austria, 78.2 lt in New Zeland,<br />
87.2 lt in Russia, 97.0 kg in Sweden, 80.1 lt in Ukrain (AEPDI 2011).<br />
Milk is c<strong>on</strong>sumed as unpacked fluid milk and packed fluid milk in Turkey. Unpacked fluid<br />
milk, also called street milk in Turkey, refers to milk that is produced at farms without any<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol and packed fluid milk refers to milk produced under fluid milk technology such as<br />
pastorizati<strong>on</strong> or UHT. Respective shares of milk processing plants in total milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
of Turkey are 27% modern dairy factories, 33% for medium sized establishments and dairies,<br />
20% for unc<strong>on</strong>trolled producers, 20% for producers’ self c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> (Pazarlioglu et al.<br />
2007).<br />
The main goal of this study was to determine the effects of some socio-demographic factors<br />
<strong>on</strong> the decisi<strong>on</strong> of the c<strong>on</strong>sumer to purchase packed or unpacked milk.<br />
2. DATA AND METHODS<br />
2.1. Data<br />
The data was obtained by direct interviewing the individual households of 300 residences<br />
who live in Sivas province. The survey was c<strong>on</strong>ducted in June 2009. The sample size was<br />
determined using the Possibility-Sampling Method (Yamane 2001).
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2<br />
( Nt . p.<br />
q)<br />
n 2 2<br />
( d N t . p.<br />
q)<br />
where N is the number of households in Sivas province (63153) (TURKSTAT 2009), t is z<br />
number is the required c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval (for 95 percent c<strong>on</strong>fidence interval t = 1.96), p is<br />
possibility for an event to occur (the rate of c<strong>on</strong>suming packed milk, 0.5), q is the possibility<br />
for an event not to occurring (the rate of not c<strong>on</strong>suming packed milk, 0.5), d is acceptable<br />
error rate during sampling (0.0564).<br />
2.2. Methods<br />
The probit model is a statistical probability model with two categories in the dependent<br />
variable (Liao, 1994). Probit analysis is based <strong>on</strong> the cumulative normal probability<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong>. The binary dependent variable, y, takes <strong>on</strong> the values of zero and <strong>on</strong>e (Aldrich<br />
and Nels<strong>on</strong> 1984). Binary probit model was employed to the survey data to see the effects of<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic and demographic variables <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sumer purchase decisi<strong>on</strong> of packed and<br />
unpacked milk.<br />
In the binary probit model, packed milk preference (PACKMILKPREF) was taken as 1,<br />
while unpacked milk as 0. It is assumed that the ith household obtains maximum utility it has<br />
packed milk preference rather than unpacked <strong>on</strong>e.<br />
The probability pi of choosing any alternative over not choosing it can be expressed as in<br />
equati<strong>on</strong> (1), where ɸ<br />
variable (Greene 2011).<br />
Yi<br />
pi= prob<br />
<br />
<br />
2 <br />
<br />
2<br />
x<br />
<br />
1/<br />
2 t<br />
i<br />
<br />
1 X ( 2<br />
) exp dt<br />
(<br />
x )<br />
i<br />
The relati<strong>on</strong>ship between a specific variable and the outcome of the probability is interpreted<br />
by means of the marginal effect, which account for the partial change in the probability. The<br />
marginal effect associated with c<strong>on</strong>tinuous explanatory variables Xk <strong>on</strong> the probability<br />
P(yi=1|X), holding the other variables c<strong>on</strong>stant, can be derived as equati<strong>on</strong> 2 (Greene 2011);<br />
p<br />
x<br />
i<br />
ik<br />
<br />
( x ) <br />
i<br />
k<br />
where represents the probability density functi<strong>on</strong> of a standard normal variable.<br />
The marginal effect <strong>on</strong> dummy variables should be estimated differently from c<strong>on</strong>tinuous<br />
variables. Discrete changes in the predicted probabilities c<strong>on</strong>stitute an alternative to the<br />
marginal effect when evaluating the influence of a dummy variable. Such an effect can be<br />
derived from equati<strong>on</strong> 3 (Greene 2011).<br />
(<br />
x , d 1)<br />
(<br />
x,<br />
d 0)<br />
(3)<br />
The definiti<strong>on</strong> bel<strong>on</strong>g to variables are defined in Table 1. In the study, the variables<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered affecting choices of households between preference alternatives are: gender<br />
(GEN), age (AGE), educati<strong>on</strong> (EDU), professi<strong>on</strong>al status (PS), marital status (MS),<br />
household size (HS), income (INC), milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> (MILKCON), milk price (MILKPRI),<br />
(1)<br />
(2)
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reas<strong>on</strong> of milk preference (PREFREA) and place of milk buying (MILKPLACE). In earlier<br />
studies (Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002; Fuller et al., 2004; Hatirli et al., 2004; Vandermersch<br />
and Mathijs, 2004; Peng et al., 2006; Pazarlioglu et al., 2007; Celik et al., 2006; Akbay and<br />
Tiryaki, 2008; Alviola and Capps. 2009; Kilic et al., 2009; Tiryaki and Akbay, 2010)<br />
properties such as household size, gender, age, educati<strong>on</strong>, professi<strong>on</strong>al status, marital status,<br />
household income, ethnicity, and advertising were studied as exogenous variables.<br />
Table 1. Definiti<strong>on</strong> of Variables<br />
Variables Definati<strong>on</strong><br />
MILKPRE (Milk preference) 1= Packed milk; 0= Unpacked milk<br />
GEN (gender) 1= Male; 0= Female<br />
AGE (age) 0= 18-25; 1= 26-35; 2= 36-44; 3= 45 or older<br />
EDU (Educati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
PS (Professi<strong>on</strong>al Status)<br />
0= Illiterate and primary school graduates; 1= Sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
school graduates; 2= High school graduates; 3=<br />
University graduate; 4= Post graduates<br />
1= Employee; 2= Labourer; 3= Self employed; 4= Offprofessi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
5= Retired<br />
MS (Marital Status) 0= Married; 1= Single; 2= Divorced<br />
HS (Household Size)<br />
INC (Income)<br />
MILKCON (Milk C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Average household size. Number of People<br />
(People/Family)<br />
Average m<strong>on</strong>thly household income;<br />
(TL/M<strong>on</strong>th/Household)<br />
Average m<strong>on</strong>thly milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
(kg/M<strong>on</strong>th/Household)<br />
MILKPRI (Milk Price) Packed milk price (TL/kg), unpacked milk price (TL/kg)<br />
PREFREA (Reas<strong>on</strong> of Milk<br />
Preference)<br />
MILKPLACE (Place of Milk Buying)<br />
0= Price; 1= Trade mark; 2= Taste; 3= Natural, organic<br />
4= hygiene, package<br />
1= home delivery 2= selling point 3= supermarket 4=<br />
handsellers 5= local bazaar 6= buying from village<br />
In this study, in order to determine the most appropriate model the variables described<br />
above, it was made various model experiments and was tested whether statistically significant<br />
at 1% significance level or not. As a result, three estimators (EDU, INC, MPRICE) in the<br />
probit model were found statistically significant at 1% level. Final model is below;
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MILKPREi = β0 + β1EDUi + β2INCi + β3MILKPRIi + εi<br />
3. RESULTS<br />
The male resp<strong>on</strong>dents c<strong>on</strong>stitute 64.34% of total resp<strong>on</strong>dents while female resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stitute 35,66 % of it. Average age was 38.04. Educati<strong>on</strong>al attainment was classified into<br />
five categories, illiterate and primary school graduates (14.33%), sec<strong>on</strong>dary school graduates<br />
(8.33%), high school graduates (39.67%), university graduate (36.67%) and post graduates<br />
(2.00%).<br />
Average household size was found to be 3,95 people that is lower than the average household<br />
size (4.50 people) of Turkey (TURKSTAT 2011).<br />
Households earning less than $349 c<strong>on</strong>stituted 10 percent of total resp<strong>on</strong>dents, households<br />
earning between $350 and $1050 (49 percent) and households earning higher than $1051 (41<br />
percent). The survey results illustrate that average annual income of households was found<br />
$8003 that was lower than the annual income per capita ($8215) of Turkey (UN 2011).<br />
In Sivas, per capita average annual milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> is 39.96 kg per capita whereas it is 26<br />
kg in Turkey (WMDA 2011; 8). 71.3% of households preferred packed milk while 28.7%<br />
unpacked milk. 41.86% of illiterate and primary school graduates and 82.30% of university<br />
graduates c<strong>on</strong>sume packed milk. While 73.33% of c<strong>on</strong>sumer in low income group c<strong>on</strong>sume<br />
unpacked milk, 90.24% of c<strong>on</strong>sumer in high income group c<strong>on</strong>sume packed. 39.54% of<br />
households preferred unpacked milk as a priority because of cheaper than packed milk. The<br />
most important reas<strong>on</strong>s were quality (28,64%) and hygiene (28.64%) for packed milk choice<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>sumers.<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>dent c<strong>on</strong>sumed unpacked milk provided by home delivery (62.79%) and buying from<br />
village (16.28%). Households c<strong>on</strong>sumed packed milk preferred supermarket (89.09%) and<br />
selling point (10.91%). According to the results, c<strong>on</strong>sumers made a point of sell-by date<br />
(44.09%), taste (36.82%) and brand (9.09%) for packed milk.<br />
Table 2 presents results estimated from binary probit model. The model is significant at 1%<br />
level of probability. The estimated coefficients and standard errors reveal which factor<br />
influence resp<strong>on</strong>dents c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> intenti<strong>on</strong>s for fresh milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>. A statistically<br />
significant coefficient suggests that the likelihood of c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of product will increase/<br />
decrease as the resp<strong>on</strong>se <strong>on</strong> the explanatory variable increase/decrease (Borooah 2002).<br />
McFadden Pseudo coefficient of determinati<strong>on</strong> (R2) was calculated about 0.288. This value<br />
represents that variables placed in the model explain high level the probabilities of packed<br />
and unpacked milk choice of c<strong>on</strong>sumers. Three estimators (EDU, INC, MPRICE) in the<br />
probit model were found statistically significant at 1% level.<br />
Table 2. Estimates of the binary probit model<br />
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z- Statistic Probability Marginal<br />
Effects<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stant -0.36167 0.76226 -4.745 0.0000 -1.0164<br />
EDU 0.29694 0.12694 2.339 0.0193 0.0835
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INCOME 0.00057 0.00022 2.548 0.0108 0.0161<br />
MPRICE -0.61494 0.51561 6.110 0.0000 -0.0089<br />
Log-likelihood -136.6527<br />
Restricted Log-L -187.5953<br />
Pseudo-R 2 0.288<br />
x 2 (df =11) 105.66<br />
Significance level<br />
Akaike Info<br />
Criteria<br />
0.000<br />
0.991<br />
<strong>on</strong>sumer’s educati<strong>on</strong> level (EDU) was found out an important socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic factor for the<br />
probabilities of packed and unpacked milk choice of c<strong>on</strong>sumers. In estimated model,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> level variable was statistically important at significant level 1% and related<br />
positively. As educati<strong>on</strong>al level increases, tendency to c<strong>on</strong>sume rises packed milk and<br />
decreases unpacked fluid milk. Educati<strong>on</strong>al level might be a good starting point to increase<br />
the awareness of c<strong>on</strong>sumers c<strong>on</strong>cerning fluid milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> (Pazarlıoglu et al. 2007).<br />
Estimated model results support to this hypothesis.<br />
According to the estimated results, household’s income level (INCOME) is <strong>on</strong>e of the factors<br />
affecting their packed and unpacked milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> behavior. This variable is included in<br />
the model because low-income families may c<strong>on</strong>sume more unpacked milk when milk prices<br />
are lower. There is a positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between packed c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sumers’ income<br />
level and it is statistically significant at the level of 1%. For a household with high income<br />
level, the probability of c<strong>on</strong>suming packed milk decreased by <strong>on</strong>ly 1.6%. It would emphasize<br />
that when income level rised, packed milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> increased. This result is a significant<br />
and expected. Thus, households preferred unpacked milk (39.54%) as a priority because of<br />
cheaper than packed milk. When increased in income level, c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> preferences of<br />
households tend to the packed milk. It is a known fact that unpacked milk was unhygienic.<br />
Therefore, it is said that households tend to the c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of unpacked milk because of<br />
their ec<strong>on</strong>omic difficulties.<br />
On the other hand, milk price (MPRICE) was determined as other main factors affecting their<br />
packed and unpacked milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> behavior. Price was the primary reas<strong>on</strong> menti<strong>on</strong>ed in<br />
the survey for not purchasing packed fluid milk, as it was perceived as being quite expensive<br />
compared to unpacked fluid milk. In average, Turkish c<strong>on</strong>sumers have been sensitive to price<br />
of foods which they c<strong>on</strong>sume (Kilic et al. 2009). This variable found out significant at 1%<br />
level and was related negatively. This sign indicated that c<strong>on</strong>sumers who were sensitive to<br />
price were less likely to c<strong>on</strong>sume packed milk. According to the results, implied that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumers preferred price of packed milk are expensive compared to unpacked milk were<br />
less likely to c<strong>on</strong>sume packed milk. When milk price increased, the probability of packed<br />
milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> decreased 0,9%.<br />
4. CONCLUSIONS<br />
This study focused <strong>on</strong> the socio-demographic factors influencing milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> in Sivas,<br />
Turkey. The findings of this study show that c<strong>on</strong>sumer’s socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic characteristics were<br />
affected unpacked and packed milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> preferences. According to the results from<br />
binary probit model; educati<strong>on</strong>, income and milk price are significant and associated with<br />
packed and unpacked fluid milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>. According to empirical results, c<strong>on</strong>sumers
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with higher educati<strong>on</strong> and income levels tend to c<strong>on</strong>sume packed milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>. Also,<br />
milk price was affective factor packed and unpacked milk c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> behavior. In the light<br />
of the findings, the necessary policies are needed as providing of accessibility to adequate<br />
price, healthy, safety food and a mechanism reached to the level of per capita milk<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> in developed countries. Also, <strong>on</strong> the basis of the results of this study, it would<br />
be expected seller’s and companies’ marketing strategies <strong>on</strong> packed milk by looking at<br />
specific c<strong>on</strong>sumer preferences.<br />
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Akbay, C. and Tiryaki, G.Y. (2008). Unpacked and Packed Fluid Milk C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> Patterns<br />
and Preferences in Turkey, Agricultural Ec<strong>on</strong>omics, 38(1), 9-20.<br />
Aldrich, J.H. and Nels<strong>on</strong>. F.D. (1984). Linear Probability, Logit, and Probit Models.<br />
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publicati<strong>on</strong>s, Inc.<br />
Alviola IV,P. and Capps, O, Jr. (2009). Household Demand Analysis of Organic and<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al Fluid Milk in the United States, Dep.of Agr. Eco.Texas A&M Uni.,<br />
Res.Report.<br />
Alwis, A.E.N., Edirisinghe, J.C. and Athauda, A.M.T.P. (2009). Analysis of Factors<br />
Affecting Fresh Milk C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> Am<strong>on</strong>g The Mid-Country C<strong>on</strong>sumers, Tropical<br />
Agricultural Research & Extensi<strong>on</strong>, 12(2),101-107.<br />
Borooah, V.K. (2002). Logit and Probit: Ordered and Multinomial Models. Series<br />
Quantitative Applicati<strong>on</strong>s in the Social Science, No 138, Tousand Okas: Sage Publicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Celik, Y., Bilgic, A., Karlı, B. and Celik, S. (2006). Factors Affecting Milk C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
Pattern in Southern Anatolian Regi<strong>on</strong>: An Applicati<strong>on</strong> of a Two-stage Ec<strong>on</strong>ometric Model,<br />
Bodenkultur, 57(2), 57-64.<br />
FAPRI (2012). World Dairy: 2011 Agricultural Outlook, http://www.fapri.iastate.edu<br />
Fuller, F.H., Beghin, J.C. and Rozelle, S. (2004). Urban Demand for Dairy Products in China:<br />
Evidence from New Survey Data, Working Paper 04-WP 380, Iowa, USA.<br />
Greene, WH (2011). Ec<strong>on</strong>ometric Analysis, Seventh Editi<strong>on</strong>. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.<br />
Hatirli, S.A., Ozkan, B., and Aktas, A.R. (2004). Factor Affecting Fluid Milk Purchasing<br />
Sources in Turkey, Food Quality and Preference, 15(6),509-515.<br />
Kilic, O., Akbay, C. and Tiryaki, Y. (2009). Factors Affecting Packed and Unpacked Fluid<br />
Milk C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, Agricultural Ec<strong>on</strong>omics– Czech, 55(11),557–563.<br />
Liao, T.F. (1994). Interpreting Probability Models: Logit, Probit, and Other Generalized<br />
Linear Models, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publicati<strong>on</strong>s, Inc., California, USA.<br />
OECD/FAO (2011). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2011-2020, URL http://dx.doi.org<br />
Pazarlioglu, M.V., Miran, B., Ucdogruk, S. and Abay, C. (2007). Using Ec<strong>on</strong>ometric<br />
Modelling to Predict Demand for Fluid and Farm Milk: A Case Study from Turkey, Food<br />
Quality and Preference, 18,416–424.<br />
Peng,Y., West, G.E. and Wang, C. (2006). C<strong>on</strong>sumer Attitudes and Acceptance of CLA-<br />
Enriched Dairy Products, Canadian Journal of Agricultural Ec<strong>on</strong>omics, 54(2006), 663–684.
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Tiryaki, G. and Akbay, C. (2010) C<strong>on</strong>sumers’ Fluid Milk C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> Behaviors in Turkey:<br />
An Applicati<strong>on</strong> of Multinomial Logit Model, Quality and Quantity, 44,87–98.<br />
TURKSTAT (2009). Regi<strong>on</strong>al Statistics, URL http://tuikapp.tuik.gov.tr<br />
TURKSTAT (2011). Turkey’s Statistical Yearbook, 2010. Publicati<strong>on</strong> No: 3522, Ankara.<br />
WMDA (2011). Dairy and Products Sectoral Report, West Mediterranean <strong>Development</strong><br />
Agency, http://baka.org.tr/uploads/1303486719SUT-URUNLERi-TURKCE-KATALOG.pdf<br />
Yamane, T. (2001). Basic Sampling Methods, Literatur Publishing, Istanbul.<br />
UN (2011). World Statistics Pocketbook. URL http://data.un.org/CountryProfile<br />
Integrati<strong>on</strong> And Sustainability Of Technology-Enhanced Systems Into Learning<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment: Cankiri Karatekin University Case Study<br />
Ari Murat1, Pekel Abdullah2<br />
1Cankiri Karatekin University, Chairman of Informatics Department, Cankiri, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
2Marmara University, School of Foreign Languages, Istanbul, Turkey<br />
E-mails: mari@karatekin.edu.tr, abdullah.pekel@hotmail.com<br />
As a result of the c<strong>on</strong>tinuous search for global competitiveness through providing the society<br />
with high quality educati<strong>on</strong> in the light of emerging technologies, Cankiri Karatekin<br />
University has embarked <strong>on</strong> a strategic planning and a pilot study <strong>on</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> to Distance<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> (DE). Providing <strong>on</strong>-demand training for professi<strong>on</strong>al development, lifel<strong>on</strong>g<br />
learning, career change aimed at quite varied groups in society, Cankiri Karatekin University<br />
sets its sight <strong>on</strong> maximizing the quality of communicati<strong>on</strong> and intellect sharing between<br />
academic staff as well as enabling the effective assessment of their academic performance<br />
thanks to the integrated e-learning/distance educati<strong>on</strong> and corporate communicati<strong>on</strong> platform.<br />
According to this tested project based model, distance educati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure and<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al e-materials have been prepared and used as a supplement to formal educati<strong>on</strong>. By<br />
this means, ensuring students’ and teachers’ readiness is aimed for the success of the future<br />
pure distance educati<strong>on</strong> programs. The study evaluates the pilot project titled “Integrated Elearning<br />
and Teaching Envir<strong>on</strong>ment” by Cankiri Karatekin University, which was founded in<br />
2007 and strives for developing as a globally competitive academic instituti<strong>on</strong> by employing<br />
an effective and efficient model in the use of technology in educati<strong>on</strong>. The technical<br />
background features as well as results of the pilot project have been evaluated and further<br />
suggesti<strong>on</strong>s have been presented, c<strong>on</strong>sidering distance educati<strong>on</strong> practices in the world in<br />
general and, in particular, the potential that Turkish Higher Educati<strong>on</strong> and Cankiri Karatekin<br />
University carry in the field.<br />
Keywords: Distance Educati<strong>on</strong>; e-learning; Life L<strong>on</strong>g Learning; Instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>; Teaching Envir<strong>on</strong>ment
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1.INTRODUCTION<br />
The biggest difference between an <strong>on</strong>line, virtual classroom and the traditi<strong>on</strong>al classroom is<br />
the way instructi<strong>on</strong> is delivered. In a traditi<strong>on</strong>al classroom, the instructor is the center of<br />
learning and informati<strong>on</strong> is presented orally or through tangible text. The text can be engaged<br />
through active reading activities like highlighting, making notes in margins, and underlining<br />
and circling important informati<strong>on</strong>. The course material can be discussed in class and<br />
whatever questi<strong>on</strong>s or arguments arise can be answered and discussed face to face during the<br />
class period. In a traditi<strong>on</strong>al classroom setting, the teaching and learning happen <strong>on</strong> a<br />
synchr<strong>on</strong>ous schedule.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>versely, <strong>on</strong>line instructi<strong>on</strong> occurs asynchr<strong>on</strong>ously. The instructor and the learners are<br />
separated by time and space. Online courses take advantage of the Internet as a teaching and<br />
learning envir<strong>on</strong>ment; it’s open, distributed, dynamic, globally accessible, filtered, interactive<br />
and archival in nature, (Elmore 2008). In <strong>on</strong>line learning, the instructor acts as a guide to the<br />
process of learning rather than its director. Dependence <strong>on</strong> the instructor is reduced and<br />
students are empowered to take resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for their own learning referred to as Kosak et<br />
al. (2004). Text still plays an important role in <strong>on</strong>line learning but now the text can be<br />
manipulated, searched, revised and updated and appears in short, and c<strong>on</strong>cise chunks, which<br />
can be distributed through a wide array of multimedia. Discussi<strong>on</strong> of the text is d<strong>on</strong>e through<br />
<strong>on</strong>line forums, live chats or e–mail messages. This situati<strong>on</strong> involves references to Maguire<br />
(2002).<br />
The rapid advancement in Informati<strong>on</strong> Technologies has globally influenced the educati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems, and the integrati<strong>on</strong> of technology into educati<strong>on</strong> has increased the inclinati<strong>on</strong><br />
towards Distance Educati<strong>on</strong> (DE). Online courses are becoming increasingly popular<br />
especially with the n<strong>on</strong>–traditi<strong>on</strong>al student. The <strong>on</strong>line students tend to be a mid-career adult<br />
returning to school. Also, many students see <strong>on</strong>line courses as a more c<strong>on</strong>venient way to go<br />
to school (Yang 2010). The trend does not seem to be slowing. In 2007, there was a 12.9<br />
percent growth rate for <strong>on</strong>line enrollments which exceeded the 1.2 percent growth of the<br />
overall higher educati<strong>on</strong> student populati<strong>on</strong> (Zhen 2008). Universities are offering more<br />
<strong>on</strong>line courses to meet the demand.<br />
It is important to draw attenti<strong>on</strong> to two issues. First of all, DE is not a supplement to<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al formal educati<strong>on</strong>. Tailor-made hardware, less<strong>on</strong> materials and technology-based<br />
assessment methodology is employed in DE. Such a system is composed of the latest<br />
hardware technology available. Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, DE is not a form of instructi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
underdeveloped countries use, <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>trary, most developed countries utilize DE systems<br />
within formal – informal educati<strong>on</strong> system.<br />
Newly-formed universities face numerous challenges, <strong>on</strong> rather limited instituti<strong>on</strong>al budget,<br />
in competing with the universities that have l<strong>on</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong>al background. Thus, <strong>on</strong>ly the<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s, which appreciate and keep pace with the latest technology, can go bey<strong>on</strong>d the<br />
existing fr<strong>on</strong>tiers in higher educati<strong>on</strong> and elevate their competitiveness.<br />
In this study, Cankiri Karatekin University’s DE need analysis has been discussed. Besides,<br />
system features and the results of the pilot study titled “Integrating e-Learning-Teaching<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Project” have been evaluated. It is evident that the system is likely to play a<br />
prominent role in determining training systems according to Lifel<strong>on</strong>g Learning practices.
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1.1. Advances in Distance Educati<strong>on</strong> Field in Turkey and the Present Situati<strong>on</strong><br />
In parallel with the competitive global c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, Turkey has been intensively working <strong>on</strong><br />
the targets and strategies involving open and distance educati<strong>on</strong> in pursue of its targets related<br />
to higher educati<strong>on</strong>. Beginning with THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BANK LOANS and<br />
ECONOMIC GROWTH in TURKEY: 1995-2010<br />
Emre Sezici, Murat Yaman the Open Educati<strong>on</strong> System at Anadolu University, the efforts<br />
has gained perspective through TUBITAK-BILTEN DE Feasibility Study in 1997, and within<br />
this framework Feasibility Analysis of Nati<strong>on</strong>-Wide Distance Educati<strong>on</strong> Alternatives study<br />
has probed then-current telecommunicati<strong>on</strong> infrastructure, needs analysis, alternative models<br />
and cost-benefit al<strong>on</strong>g with copyrights in DE. As an additi<strong>on</strong> to that, DE Regulati<strong>on</strong>s was<br />
accepted and The Nati<strong>on</strong>al Committee of Informatics was founded in 1999. Such operati<strong>on</strong><br />
areas as The Regulati<strong>on</strong> of Cross-University Communicati<strong>on</strong> and IT-Based Distance Higher<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong>, provisi<strong>on</strong> of less<strong>on</strong>s delivered via client/server matching between universities,<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong> of independent course/program launch with the authorizati<strong>on</strong> of YOK, and course<br />
crediting are within The Nati<strong>on</strong>al Committee of Informatics’ scope of authority. As the final<br />
step, UADMK-TUBA has been founded to provide support for the DE efforts (YOK 2011).<br />
Turkey is a dynamic country and has a rather young populati<strong>on</strong> with 35 milli<strong>on</strong> people under<br />
30 years old. Large porti<strong>on</strong> of the young populati<strong>on</strong> are students. According to the recent<br />
statistics by The Ministry of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Educati<strong>on</strong> (MEB), a total of 14.115.892 students attend<br />
various schools and instituti<strong>on</strong>s of MEB. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, around 3.180.000 students receive<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> at more than 170 universities. When calculated, these figures comprise almost 25%<br />
of the total populati<strong>on</strong> of the country. 1.7 milli<strong>on</strong> students take university admissi<strong>on</strong> exam<br />
every year; however, <strong>on</strong>ly 400.000 of these are able to be placed in a higher educati<strong>on</strong><br />
program due to the lack of capacity problems (MEB 2011). Countries from the Balkans and<br />
Caucasus, Central Asia, Middle East, North and Central Africa demand higher educati<strong>on</strong><br />
opportunities from Turkish higher educati<strong>on</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>s as these countries are within the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al and cultural sphere of influence of Turkey, which emerges as a center of attracti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
terms of educati<strong>on</strong>. IT potential has been used effectively in supporting DE. It is preferred<br />
and promoted, thus increases its popularity day by day.<br />
2.ÇANKIRI KARATEKIN UNIVERSITY AND DE<br />
As of January 2012, there are a total of 176 universities, 108 of which are state universities<br />
and 68 which are the <strong>on</strong>es bel<strong>on</strong>g to foundati<strong>on</strong>s, in Turkey. As more than 110 of these<br />
universities were founded after 1992, they have yet to fully complete their physical or<br />
academic development stage. According to Student Selecti<strong>on</strong> and Placement Center (OSYM)<br />
2009 statistics, more than 3.180.000 students are within Turkish Higher Educati<strong>on</strong> System.<br />
While 1.366.000 of these students c<strong>on</strong>tinue their studies at Open Educati<strong>on</strong> Faculty,<br />
1.640.000 students attend state universities and 176.000 students attend private universities.<br />
31 associate degree programs at 14 universities, 1 degree completi<strong>on</strong> program, 3 degree<br />
programs at 1 university, and 19 masters programs at 15 universities are available via<br />
Distance Educati<strong>on</strong>. Around 24.000 students receive educati<strong>on</strong> through distance educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Besides, according to OSYM statistics, 111.000 teaching staff are employed within Turkish<br />
Higher Educati<strong>on</strong> System. 50.000 of these currently work at the underdeveloped universities<br />
that were opened in 1992 and after. Academic staff training and academic staff support<br />
programs through DE are increasing their popularity as an effective in-service training tool<br />
(YOK 2011)
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Çankırı Karatekin University (CKU), established in 2007, is rapidly developing with 6<br />
faculties, 4 institutes, 1 college, and 4 vocati<strong>on</strong>al schools and serves around 5500 students<br />
through 266 academic pers<strong>on</strong>nel and 199 administrative staff. CKU appreciates the<br />
advantages that DE technologies will bring as an effective tool in competing within higher<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> sector. As a newly established university, CKU develops its technological<br />
infrastructure in order to meet the hardware-related and physical needs. Technological and<br />
topological features of the platform used in the pilot applicati<strong>on</strong> shown in Figure 1 will be<br />
presented in the following secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure 1: CKU Blended Learning Online Schema<br />
3. APPLICATION OF PILOT PROJECT<br />
3.1 Project Goal<br />
Delivering the Integrated Learning-Teaching Envir<strong>on</strong>ment (ILE) soluti<strong>on</strong> that enables the<br />
existing Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) and other Learning Toolsets to functi<strong>on</strong> as <strong>on</strong>e<br />
individual Virtual Learning Envir<strong>on</strong>ment (VLE) towards University.<br />
Our immediate ILE Objectives will transform the existing IWB from its initial stage into an<br />
integrated learning-teaching envir<strong>on</strong>ment for the masses built <strong>on</strong> a reusable and sustainable<br />
learning-teaching framework envisi<strong>on</strong>ed by the University.<br />
3.2. Standard ILE Features<br />
Included in the following subsecti<strong>on</strong> but not limited to Assessment, Less<strong>on</strong> Soluti<strong>on</strong>, Wiki<br />
Soluti<strong>on</strong>, Glossary Soluti<strong>on</strong>, The Choice Activity, Course Soluti<strong>on</strong>, Workshop Soluti<strong>on</strong>, and<br />
Photo Gallery are existing comp<strong>on</strong>ents within this ILE. Herein, we will briefly elaborate <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong>e of the soluti<strong>on</strong>s within the ILE. The overall ILE software and all existing comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
given below are shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2: ILE Architecture diagram describing the 3 main working groups (stakeholders/executives,<br />
teachers, and students) and its integrati<strong>on</strong> into the system.<br />
4. INSTRUMENTS, DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS<br />
In order to interpret the impact that the ILE had <strong>on</strong> the students’ learning outcomes, two<br />
instruments will be used in this study: 1) the students’ final exam marks in the different<br />
courses that same group of students attended during the same academic year by means of data<br />
obtained from faculty archive about final exam results, and 2) a twelve item survey, which<br />
measures students’ assessment of ILE usefulness based <strong>on</strong> the instrument developed by Wang<br />
(2009). This survey included items relating to student interacti<strong>on</strong> and active learning by<br />
means of the ILE system, and based <strong>on</strong> a five point Likert scale. The scale ranged from<br />
“Str<strong>on</strong>gly Disagree” to “Str<strong>on</strong>gly Agree”. Students’ satisfacti<strong>on</strong> total score could range from<br />
a very low satisfacti<strong>on</strong> level of 10 to a very high satisfacti<strong>on</strong> level of 50.<br />
The data collected via first instrument is going to be analyzed for group comparis<strong>on</strong> using the<br />
independent samples t-test for students’ exam outcomes. The statistics assess whether the<br />
means of two groups are statistically different from each other in order to be able to compare<br />
them. The data will be analyzed further with the SPSS. We hope that, we will get all statistics<br />
data at the end of this semester. In this study the first outcomes and system architecture were<br />
evaluated without statistics.<br />
5. DISCUSSION<br />
We have structured the DE organizati<strong>on</strong> in two steps: step <strong>on</strong>e is to transform traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
teaching practices into technology-enabled <strong>on</strong>es, in order to keep up with modern teaching<br />
methodologies in higher educati<strong>on</strong> as well as to establish instituti<strong>on</strong>al background for future<br />
DE practices. There are numerous instances of such approaches which merge traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
classroom practices with the <strong>on</strong>line collaborative work, also called blended-learning or hybrid<br />
learning. We have agreed that gradual transiti<strong>on</strong> from the traditi<strong>on</strong>al practices to the blended<br />
learning and further, distance learning phase, is necessary for the successful structuring as<br />
well as positive outcomes.<br />
Blended courses make good use of advantages both face-to-face and <strong>on</strong>line teaching practices<br />
would provide. To illustrate, the students are able to discuss and analyze the topics that were<br />
already covered <strong>on</strong>line through digital self-study materials, Q&A sessi<strong>on</strong>s, topic forums, self<br />
assessment quizzes. Besides, <strong>on</strong>line discussi<strong>on</strong>s enabled the students in the way that they<br />
could not in classroom envir<strong>on</strong>ment. As every<strong>on</strong>e has a say without time or other social<br />
pressures, <strong>on</strong>line discussi<strong>on</strong>s give many students the opportunity to express themselves more<br />
openly compared to the <strong>on</strong>es d<strong>on</strong>e in a regular class. Many students are reluctant to speak in<br />
class because of shyness, uncertainty, or language issues. The ability to take their time to<br />
compose questi<strong>on</strong>s and answers in an <strong>on</strong>line discussi<strong>on</strong> is an advantage to many students, and<br />
instructors report much higher participati<strong>on</strong> levels <strong>on</strong>line than in class. Many students tend to<br />
avoid c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> in classroom because of introversi<strong>on</strong>, difficulty with oral expressi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
for some other pers<strong>on</strong>al issues.<br />
6. CONCLUSION
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Online courses are growing in popularity and demanded particularly by n<strong>on</strong>-traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
students. Even though more and more universities are offering <strong>on</strong>line courses, faculty<br />
members are still reluctant to teach <strong>on</strong>line courses. They are c<strong>on</strong>cerned about planning and<br />
developing the courses, the overall quality of <strong>on</strong>line courses and the lack of credit toward<br />
merit, promoti<strong>on</strong> and tenure. Cankiri Karatekin University is a newly formed university and it<br />
is yet to complete its physical and academic structure. Thus, CKU aims at setting high<br />
standards by integrating technology based systems into its programs, c<strong>on</strong>sequently<br />
eliminating the drawbacks of the structural weaknesses. With this aim in hand, it prepares its<br />
academic background for setting up DE programs by analyzing DE systems and launching<br />
pilot projects. There are two comp<strong>on</strong>ents in DE: first <strong>on</strong>e is to have academic staff that<br />
possess the required know-how and expertise in using basic IT skills; sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>on</strong>e is to create<br />
quality and pre-leveled c<strong>on</strong>tent. Therefore, universities are required to have the necessary<br />
academic background and hardware infrastructure regarding these two comp<strong>on</strong>ents.<br />
Otherwise, seemingly capable systems can turn into technological waste.<br />
CKU has chosen to merge the opportunities that the accumulated know-how in the area<br />
brings and its own dynamics in order to create academic and intellectual value. Towards the<br />
target set ahead, gradual and proporti<strong>on</strong>al growth of the technological and relevant academic<br />
prerequisites have been sought for. Therefore, blended-learning practices are intended to<br />
form academic and system related basis of the future DE programs by avoiding trial-error<br />
programs in distance educati<strong>on</strong> and developing the programs that address the specific needs<br />
of the target group.<br />
In this study, Cankiri Karatekin University’s DE needs analysis has been discussed within DE<br />
course development in the world and Turkey and as an alternative soluti<strong>on</strong>, an integrated<br />
learning and teaching envir<strong>on</strong>ment platform provided by Birtel as well as Corporate<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> Platform has been piloted as an assisting tool in formal educati<strong>on</strong> and its first<br />
outputs have been evaluated. Further outputs will be analyzed with SPSS after collecting all<br />
the data at the end of semester.<br />
The following study will evaluate the statistical data and compare the success and system<br />
competence levels of the teachers and students, who are adapted to the distance educati<strong>on</strong><br />
system, and those, who have directly started distance educati<strong>on</strong> program. Preparati<strong>on</strong> of a<br />
survey has been started in order to determine comparable success determining competencies<br />
of the teachers and students, who earlier attended distance educati<strong>on</strong> programs without<br />
probati<strong>on</strong>ary period in different universities.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />
The installati<strong>on</strong> and maintenance of the platform that c<strong>on</strong>stitutes the infrastructure of the<br />
distance educati<strong>on</strong> system, Softfoundry and Vmeet, has been provided by Birtel Network<br />
Technologies free of charge.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Elmore, H.W. (2008). Toward objectivity in faculty evaluati<strong>on</strong>. Academe, volume 94<br />
number 3, URL, http://aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2008/MJ/<br />
Kosak, L., Manning,D., Dobs<strong>on</strong>, E., Rogers<strong>on</strong>, L., Cotnam, S., Colaric, S. & McFadden, C.,<br />
(2004). Prepared to teach <strong>on</strong>line. Perspectives of faculty in the University of North Carolina
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system. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administrati<strong>on</strong>, volume 7, number 3. URL,<br />
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall73/kosak73.html<br />
Maguire, L.L., (2002). Literature review-Faculty participati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>on</strong>line distance educati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Barriers and motivators. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administrati<strong>on</strong>, volume 8,<br />
number 1, 2002. URL,<br />
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/spring81/maguire81.html<br />
Yang, Y., (2010). Roles of administrators in ensuring the quality of <strong>on</strong>line programs.<br />
Knowledge Management & E–Learning, volume 2, number 4, 2010. URL, http://kmeljournal.org/ojs/index.php/<strong>on</strong>line-publicati<strong>on</strong>/article/viewArticle/80<br />
Zhen, Garthwait,Y. A. & Pratt, P., (2008). Factors affecting faculty members’ decisi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
teach or not to teach <strong>on</strong>line in higher educati<strong>on</strong>. Online Journal of Distance Learning<br />
Administrati<strong>on</strong>, Volume 11, number 3. URL,<br />
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall113/zhen113.html<br />
Republic of Turkey Ministry of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Educati<strong>on</strong> (MEB). URL,<br />
http://www.meb.gov.tr/english/indexeng.htm<br />
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http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/c<strong>on</strong>tent/view/527/222/<br />
Garris<strong>on</strong>, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D., (2008). Blended learning in higher educati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
framework, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s, Inc.<br />
[Holden, J. T. & Westfall, P., (2010). An Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Media Selecti<strong>on</strong> for Distance<br />
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learning systems. Computers & Educati<strong>on</strong>, Vol. 53, No.3, pp. 761-774.<br />
H2O persistence framework for column oriented distributed (NoSQL) databases<br />
Abstract<br />
Dino Kečo, Dženana Đ<strong>on</strong>ko<br />
University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Electrical Engineering<br />
Zmaja od Bosne bb, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
E - mails: dino.keco@gmail.com, dd<strong>on</strong>ko@etf.unsa.ba<br />
Cloud architectures are most comm<strong>on</strong>ly used in cases when large scale data processing is<br />
required. Building applicati<strong>on</strong>s for cloud architectures requires a lot of engineering<br />
experience, especially in cases of data persistence. Persistence in cloud architectures is solved<br />
using NoSQL database models. In this paper we are working with column oriented NoSQL<br />
database model. Main research goal of this paper is building of new persistence framework<br />
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for column oriented NoSQL databases. H2O (HBase to Object) framework is created to<br />
resolve problem of mapping objects into rows in column oriented database and to provide<br />
effective mechanisms for data retrieval. Main focus of this framework is to support<br />
persistence of domain models presented by standard UML language. Current implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
supports storing c<strong>on</strong>tent into HBase NoSQL database. Core engine of H2O framework is<br />
built <strong>on</strong> top of XPath standard. All mappings between domain model attributes and columns<br />
in row are represented using XPaths. These paths are used to transform object into row and<br />
vice versa. H2O framework c<strong>on</strong>tains comp<strong>on</strong>ent for integrati<strong>on</strong> with Hadoop map reduce<br />
processing library to simplify writing of Hadoop map reduce parallel programs. We took two<br />
hardware platforms of same price. First platform have HBase 0.90.1 and H2O installed and<br />
other have installed Oracle 11g and Hibernate framework. We are comparing performance of<br />
these two platforms from aspects of retrieval and persistence of objects. Result of our<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong> is that NoSQL model is better from aspects of retrieval by primary key but shows<br />
lower performances in save operati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Keywords: NoSQL, persistence, distributed, HBase, Hadoop, mapping, framework, UML,<br />
map-reduce<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
Problem of mapping and persistence of objects in relati<strong>on</strong>al database model was open<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> for about 15 years [1]. This problem is resolved by ORM frameworks like<br />
Hibernate. Mapping and persistence of objects into NoSQL database model is even harder to<br />
solve because difference between models is much larger. Our work is focused <strong>on</strong> developing<br />
framework which will resolve these two problems.<br />
H2O framework is object/row mapping tool that provides user friendly interface to<br />
persistence applicati<strong>on</strong> layer. This interface is developed using DAO (data access object)<br />
design pattern.<br />
Because NoSQL database model is easy to integrate with map reduce programs, in this paper<br />
we present H2O modules which are used for integrati<strong>on</strong> with Hadoop map reduce library [5].<br />
Mainly these modules are used to simplify process of creating map reduce jobs.<br />
This paper makes the following research c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
We present model of new persistence framework.<br />
We present implementati<strong>on</strong> of H2O framework with support for HBase database.<br />
We present modules for integrati<strong>on</strong> with Hadoop map reduce library.<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 2 provide more detailed explanati<strong>on</strong> of mapping and persistence problem. In secti<strong>on</strong><br />
3 we present model of H2O framework. Secti<strong>on</strong> 4 provides implementati<strong>on</strong> details with focus<br />
<strong>on</strong> main comp<strong>on</strong>ents. We present model and implementati<strong>on</strong> of comp<strong>on</strong>ents used for<br />
integrati<strong>on</strong> with map reduce library in secti<strong>on</strong> 5 and we c<strong>on</strong>clude in secti<strong>on</strong> 6.
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2. PROBLEM FORMULATION<br />
All business applicati<strong>on</strong>s have domain model which is presented by graph of classes. In most<br />
cases these classes are presented using UML modeling language. Main persistence problem is<br />
mapping of graph of objects into format suitable for storing. In this case we are mapping<br />
graph of objects into key value database storage.<br />
ORM problems like granularity, subtypes, identity, data navigati<strong>on</strong>, relati<strong>on</strong> to associati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
etc. [1] are even harder to solve because data models are much more different. C<strong>on</strong>cepts like<br />
inheritance, encapsulati<strong>on</strong> and polymorphism doesn't exist in key value storages and because<br />
of that it is necessary to find appropriate replacement for those c<strong>on</strong>cepts. What H2O is trying<br />
to resolve is illustrated <strong>on</strong> Fig 1. and model of <strong>on</strong>e soluti<strong>on</strong>, based <strong>on</strong> xpath standard [6], is<br />
presented in next secti<strong>on</strong> of this paper.<br />
Fig 1. C<strong>on</strong>ceptual illustrati<strong>on</strong> of mapping problem for key value distributed storages<br />
On the left side of Fig 1. we have graph of domain objects, while <strong>on</strong> the right side we have<br />
key value database storage. H2O needs to find best possible way to map data presented like<br />
graph of objects into row of key values storage and to keep data c<strong>on</strong>sistent in any possible<br />
case.<br />
3. FRAMEWORK MODEL<br />
In this secti<strong>on</strong> we present model of H2O framework and it basic comp<strong>on</strong>ents which are<br />
presented <strong>on</strong> Fig 2.
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Fig 2. H2O basic comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
Entry point comp<strong>on</strong>ent for user of H2O is Sessi<strong>on</strong>, which provides basic methods (get, create,<br />
update and delete) to work with database. Main comp<strong>on</strong>ent of H2O framework is<br />
MappingEngine which performs c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> of graph of objects into key value row and vice<br />
versa. IndexingEngine is comp<strong>on</strong>ent which provides support for indexing. PersistenceEngine<br />
is comp<strong>on</strong>ent which is used for interacti<strong>on</strong> with specific database implementati<strong>on</strong>. In this case<br />
we are using HBase persistence engine. IndexingEngine and PersistenceEngine should be<br />
implemented by user for specific database and index implementati<strong>on</strong>s. MappingEngine, most<br />
important and most complicated, comp<strong>on</strong>ent is based <strong>on</strong> customized xpath standard which is<br />
capable to describe additi<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong> about each path in graph of objects. This<br />
customizati<strong>on</strong> is needed to describe data types (class) of nodes in graph of objects.<br />
Problem of subtypes, which is main problem in ORM, is resolved in H2O by creating<br />
different mappings for each of subtypes available. Although ORM persistence frameworks<br />
have multiple strategies for persistence of subtypes [1] all of them are compatible with each<br />
other. Because of that fact in H2O we are supporting just <strong>on</strong>e mapping strategy for subtypes.<br />
If there is a need for cycles in domain model that can't be resolved using xpath because xpath<br />
is structure driven, which causes infinite loops in mappings. Because of this new comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
is introduced, Serializati<strong>on</strong>Engine, which uses <strong>on</strong>e of standard serializati<strong>on</strong> frameworks for<br />
data serializati<strong>on</strong>. Introducti<strong>on</strong> of serializati<strong>on</strong> enables H2O to handle cycles because<br />
serializati<strong>on</strong> frameworks are data driven [7]. Any user of H2O framework can easily<br />
implement his own strategy of data serializati<strong>on</strong> by extending interface of<br />
Serializati<strong>on</strong>Engine.<br />
4. IMPLEMENTATION<br />
In this secti<strong>on</strong>, we are presenting API which provide H2O framework for data persistence and<br />
data retrieval. As part of this secti<strong>on</strong> we present basic comparis<strong>on</strong> of persistence
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performances between H2O/HBase and Hibernate/Oracle databases. For each comparis<strong>on</strong> set<br />
we have used same hardware platforms. We have used PowerEdge M805 Dell Blade servers<br />
with two Quad Core Xe<strong>on</strong> processors and 128 GB of RAM memory. For Hibernate/Oracle<br />
test we have used two M805 servers c<strong>on</strong>nected to Oracle cluster, and for H2O/HBase we<br />
have used VM Ware virtualizati<strong>on</strong> and created 8 hosts for setting up HBase cluster. Each<br />
node had 2 cores and 32 GB of RAM memory. Oracle RAC versi<strong>on</strong> 11g is used for setting up<br />
Oracle database while HBase 0.90.1 versi<strong>on</strong> is used for HBase cluster.<br />
Even if there is a big difference between relati<strong>on</strong>al and key/value database models, API <strong>on</strong><br />
DAO layer is same for any database if DAO design pattern is used in applicati<strong>on</strong> architecture.<br />
H2O framework is built for applicati<strong>on</strong>s which will use DAO design pattern in their<br />
architecture. Main advantage of this is that all business applicati<strong>on</strong> can be modeled using<br />
standard modeling languages like UML and persist that model into any type of database.<br />
On Fig 3. we present DAO API which is provided by H2O framework for any kind of<br />
database implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Fig 3. API provided by H2O framework<br />
As shown in Fig 3. H2O provides basic CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
We have performed three tests to compare Oracle database and Hibernate as persistence<br />
framework and HBase and H2O <strong>on</strong> the other side. We have performed following tests:<br />
Data retrieval by primary key: In this experiment we m<strong>on</strong>itor speed to read <strong>on</strong>e record<br />
(record size 2KB) from database by primary key. We performed these tests with different<br />
number of records persisted in databases. Results of this tests are presented <strong>on</strong> Fig 4. As<br />
shown <strong>on</strong> Fig 4. Relati<strong>on</strong>al database doesn't scale well when # of records is greater than 64<br />
M.<br />
Data persistence with increasing number of objects in graph: In this experiment we m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
speed to persist <strong>on</strong>e record but with variable record size (nodes in graph). Results <strong>on</strong> Fig 5.<br />
shows that HBase/H2O is much slower than relati<strong>on</strong>al database, which is caused by<br />
MappingEngine. MappingEngine comp<strong>on</strong>ent doesn't have multi-threaded processing and that
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is main reas<strong>on</strong> for slowness. Definitely there is open space for optimizati<strong>on</strong> of this<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent.<br />
Data persistence with static number of objects in graph: In this test we are inserting records in<br />
database with variable number of records inside database. Results <strong>on</strong> Fig 6. shows that insert<br />
in database is static regarding number of records persisted in database.<br />
Fig 4. Data retrieval by primary key<br />
Fig 5. Data persistence with increasing number of nodes in domain graph<br />
Fig 6. Data persistence with static number of nodes in domain graph
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5. MAP REDUCE INTEGRATION<br />
Inspired by the map and reduce primitives present in functi<strong>on</strong>al languages, Google proposed<br />
the Map Reduce [3] abstracti<strong>on</strong> that enables users to easily develop large-scale distributed<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>s. Mechanisms of fault tolerance is handled inside of map reduce library by reexecuting<br />
failed tasks.<br />
In this model, the computati<strong>on</strong> inputs a set of key/value pairs and produces a set of output<br />
key/value pairs. The user of the map reduce library expresses computati<strong>on</strong> as two functi<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Map and Reduce. Map written by user, takes an input pair and produces a set of intermediate<br />
key/value pairs. The map reduce framework then groups together all intermediate values<br />
associated with same intermediate values key and passes them to reduce functi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
Reduce functi<strong>on</strong>, also written by user, accepts intermediate key I and set of values for that<br />
key. It merges together these values to form a possibly smaller set of values.<br />
H2O framework goes <strong>on</strong>e step more in abstracti<strong>on</strong> over map reduce framework. Custom<br />
adapters inside H2O framework enables that value inside key/value pair be a graph of<br />
objects. This provides user more flexible and more user friendly interface to work with. This<br />
enables faster development of map reduce applicati<strong>on</strong>s where complexity of persistence and<br />
mappings is hidden inside of H2O framework.<br />
Because, H2O framework is build to work with Hadoop implementati<strong>on</strong> of map reduce<br />
library, adapters for integrati<strong>on</strong>, known as H2OInputFormat and H2OOutputFormat are<br />
named by Hadoop naming standard.<br />
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK<br />
H2O is created to solve problem of mapping between graph of domain objects and row in<br />
key/value storage. As presented in this paper there is a lot of open space for improvements in<br />
MappingEngine comp<strong>on</strong>ent. Also support for other implementati<strong>on</strong>s of key/value storages<br />
like Cassandra should be implemented.<br />
Main reas<strong>on</strong> why H2O is created is to speed up development process by using standard UML<br />
modeling techniques and to solve all problems related to persistence. This will enable users to<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> business logic instead of technical details. Integrati<strong>on</strong> with Hadoop map reduce<br />
library provides easy way to write parallel applicati<strong>on</strong>s and not even to worry about data<br />
persistence.<br />
For future we plan to create an open source project from H2O to involve more people into<br />
this and to gather new ideas.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Christian Bauer and Gavin King (2006.) - Java Persistence with Hibernate Sec<strong>on</strong>d Editi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Hibernate in Acti<strong>on</strong>, Manning,<br />
Ming-Yee Iu and Willy Zwaenepeol - HadoopToSQL a MapReduce Query Optimizer,<br />
EuroSys (2010),<br />
Jeffrey Dean and Sanjay Ghemawat - MapReduce: Simplifed Data Processing <strong>on</strong> Large<br />
Clusters, OSDI (2004),
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HBase web page - hbase.apache.org,<br />
Hadoop web page - hadoop.apache.org,<br />
Jxpath web page - comm<strong>on</strong>s.apache.org/jxpath,<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong>JSON web page - jacks<strong>on</strong>.codehaus.org<br />
The investigati<strong>on</strong> of optimum welding parameters in c<strong>on</strong>necting high alloyed<br />
X53CrMnNiN219 and X45CrSi93 steels by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding<br />
Mehmet Uzkut1, Bekirsadik Ünlü, Selimsarper Yilmaz2, Mustafa Akdağ3<br />
1Celal Bayar University, Vocati<strong>on</strong>al High School, Department of Machinery,<br />
45400, Turgutlu,Manisa, Turkey<br />
2Celal Bayar University, Vocati<strong>on</strong>al High School, Department of Machinery,<br />
45020, Manisa, Turkey<br />
3Gediz University,Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,<br />
Menemen, Izmir, Turkey<br />
E-mails: mehmet.uzkut@bayar.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@bayar.edu.tr, selim.yilmaz@bayar.edu.tr,<br />
mustafa.akdag@gediz.edu.tr<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, different welding parameters are applied to two different steels with high alloys<br />
and mechanical and metallographical investigati<strong>on</strong>s were performed. Thus, the optimum<br />
welding parameters were investigated for these materials and working c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. 12.30<br />
diameter steel bars made up of 1.4871 (X53CrMnNiN219) & 1.4718 (X45CrSi93) steel were<br />
used as experimental material. The material loss increased with increase in fricti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
rotating pressure. The highest hardness and fracture energy were obtained in B5 group.<br />
Keywords: Fricti<strong>on</strong> Welding, Welding Parameters, Microstructure.<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
Joining has increasingly been used in the material technology because materials having<br />
different mechanical properties need to be efficiently joined to increase material’s<br />
performance. The most suitable method of joiningtwo different alloyed steel is welding(Anık,<br />
1983). After welding process, the properties of welding z<strong>on</strong>e naturally becomedifferent from<br />
the properties of alloyed steels andthis difference maycause someproblems.The use melting<br />
welding methods, am<strong>on</strong>g many kinds of welding methods, has also increased these
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problems(Yılmaz, 1993). Phase diagrams and properties of joining materials are important<br />
factors in determining welding properties (Bargel and Schulze, 1988). Some problems also<br />
arise because the materials to be joined are different alloys and some additi<strong>on</strong>alcomp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
are needed to effectively join them. Many different z<strong>on</strong>esappear in c<strong>on</strong>necting z<strong>on</strong>e<br />
depending <strong>on</strong> compositi<strong>on</strong> and material properties (Yılmaz, 1993). Deposite remain of the<br />
melting welding methods,welding faults of porosity and inside tightens of cooling are the<br />
important disadvantages of these methods and they reduce the strength of welding.<br />
Therefore,solid statewelding methods are more suitable sincemelting welding faults do not<br />
significantly occur there(Tülbentçi and Yılmaz, 1989).<br />
Vill(1962) has c<strong>on</strong>ducteda study to determine optimum c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of fricti<strong>on</strong> welding<br />
parameters. He has determined that fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure coming from welding parameters are of<br />
great importance,the cycling number of turning comp<strong>on</strong>ent’s sensitivity is the least<br />
paramaterand it can be fixed in a wide space depending <strong>on</strong> the materials used.<br />
Moreover,Tyleotehas determined that fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure affects the heat of space surface and<br />
supplies the required moment.He has also determined that forging pressure and cycling<br />
number are the most important parameters (Tylecote, 1968). It can be said that low welding<br />
periods have supplied the best welding z<strong>on</strong>e in low carb<strong>on</strong> steels,which requires applying<br />
forging pressure of <strong>on</strong>e sec<strong>on</strong>d as well as applying high forging pressure (Lucas, 1971). Low<br />
welding periods andhigh forging pressure values forma thinner grainular structure for low<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> steels (Duffin and Crossland, 1971).In notch impact test results, better mechanical<br />
propertieshave been obtained <strong>on</strong>high cycling numbers between 1200 and 4200 rpm according<br />
to other c<strong>on</strong>stant parameters (Voinov, 1972). A fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure of 30-65 MPa, and a<br />
forgingpressure of 75-140 MPamust be applied for low carb<strong>on</strong> steels and a fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure<br />
of 70-210 MPaand a forging pressure of 100-420 MPa for medium carb<strong>on</strong> steels (Welding<br />
Handbook, 1980).<br />
In another study, Ishibashi et al. (1993) determined that forging pressure value must be<br />
appliedtwice as much as that of fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure for stainless steels.Ina study <strong>on</strong> tool steels, it<br />
has been advised that the welding temperature and in turn fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure should be high<br />
enough so that no faults <strong>on</strong> welding z<strong>on</strong>es will occur(Tanicheva, et al., 1989). Initally,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al arc welding and then solid state joining methods were applied <strong>on</strong> welding<br />
processes of stainless steels (Gooch et al., 1996). Today, fricti<strong>on</strong> welding is <strong>on</strong>e of the solid<br />
state joining techniques used widely for stainless steels. Bol’shokov et al.(1972) reported that<br />
fricti<strong>on</strong> welding <strong>on</strong> vacuum c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> improved mechanical properties of joined materials.<br />
With the technological development in the valve manufacturing industry, the exhaust valves<br />
of normal and diesel engines are manufactured from two different types of steels. The<br />
“handling” parts of exhaust valves are manufactured from 1.4718 (X45CrSi93) steel which is<br />
tough, ductile and resistant against wearing due to fricti<strong>on</strong> while the “head “parts are<br />
manufactured from 1.4871 (X53CrMnNiN219) steel which shows a very good resistance<br />
against oxidati<strong>on</strong>, and hot corrosi<strong>on</strong> caused by lead oxide and other burning products. Today,<br />
this steel couple is joined by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding(Uzkut, 1999). Fricti<strong>on</strong> welding is <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
methods which have some c<strong>on</strong>siderable share am<strong>on</strong>g the other c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al welding<br />
methods. The most important parameters in fricti<strong>on</strong> welding are fricti<strong>on</strong> time, fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
pressure, forging time, forging pressure and rotati<strong>on</strong>al speed (Uzkut, 1999; Şahin and Akata,<br />
2003).<br />
Welding faults in the valve manufacturingmay occur due to thermal and mechanical stresses.<br />
Therefore, optimizing welding parameters are essential. The determinati<strong>on</strong> of optimum<br />
welding parameters and joining z<strong>on</strong>es will minimize these faults <strong>on</strong> welded parts (Uzkut,
31<br />
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1999). In this study, optimum welding parameters of high alloyed X53CrMnNiN219 and<br />
X45CrSi93 steels used in automotive industry were determined by joining fricti<strong>on</strong> welding<br />
and by doing tensile, notch impact, metallography and microhardness tests.<br />
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES<br />
X53CrMnNiN219 (1.4871) and X45CrSi93 (1.4718) high alloyed steels were used in the<br />
experiments. Standards of materials are shown in Table 1,chemical compositi<strong>on</strong> of materials<br />
in Table 2-3,standard measurements of welded tensile samples in Table 4, mechanical<br />
properties of materials in Table 5.Rotati<strong>on</strong> number (n) and forging time (t2) werekept<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant and fricti<strong>on</strong> time (t1), fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure (P1), and forging pressure (P2) had different<br />
levels. C<strong>on</strong>stant parameters and values for 12.3 mm diameter were determined as follows:<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stant parameters and values are as follows: experimental bar diameter is12.3 mm (H9),<br />
during welding process,rotati<strong>on</strong> number of spining parts is 3000 rpm, during machining<br />
process,rotati<strong>on</strong> number of spining parts is 1500 rpm, fricti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tact time is 0.4 s, brake<br />
delaying time is 0.1 s, forging delaying time is 0.8 s, forging time is 2 s, fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure<br />
rising time is 1 s, forging pressure rising timeis 1 s, and waiting time at the end of forging<br />
time is 1 s. The levels of studied parameters were as follows: fricti<strong>on</strong> time (2.70, 3.70, or 4.70<br />
s), fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure (138, 207, or 276), and forging pressure (345, 414, or 480 MPa).The<br />
specimens subjected to fricti<strong>on</strong> pressureof 138 MPa is called group A, and fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure<br />
of 207 MPa group B, and fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure of 276 MPa group C.<br />
Tensile test, <strong>on</strong>e of mechanical tests, was carried <strong>on</strong> by 5 t<strong>on</strong>e capacity universal 1114 model,<br />
INSTRON type depending <strong>on</strong> TS-138 (Turkish Standard). Tensile velocity was taken as 1<br />
mm/min at tensile test. Notch impact test was carried <strong>on</strong> at 25 0C depending <strong>on</strong> TS-269.<br />
Notch was opened <strong>on</strong> welding line as standart. Some suitable standart measurements were<br />
applied <strong>on</strong> specimen.<br />
1.4871 materials were etched for 10 s and 1.4718 materials at 3 s by 5 % nital <strong>on</strong> optical tests.<br />
These tests were carried <strong>on</strong> in CARL ZEISS JENA type optical microscope atDokuzEylül<br />
University laboratories (Izmir, Turkey). A 1360 pyramide point Vickers type was used for<br />
microhardness tests. Microhardness tests were carriedout at distance of 10 µm to welding and<br />
parallel to welding cross-secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> this study 80 g load was used for these tests; however, a<br />
load from 25 g to 100 gcould be applied <strong>on</strong> microhardness tester. Microhardness tests were<br />
carried out in CARL ZEISS JENA type microhardness tester at DokuzEylül University<br />
labaratories. SEM tests were carried out <strong>on</strong> by using JEOL JXA-733 type at DokuzEylül<br />
University laboratories (Izmir, Turkey).<br />
Material<br />
DIN<br />
X53CrMnNiN<br />
219<br />
X45CrSi93<br />
Table 1. Standards of materials.<br />
W.Nr<br />
1,4871<br />
1,4718<br />
AF NORM<br />
Z52CMN21-<br />
09<br />
Z45CSİ10<br />
BS<br />
349S52<br />
401S45<br />
EURO NORM<br />
X53CrMnNiN219<br />
X45CrSi8
Material<br />
1.4871(theor<br />
ical)<br />
1.4871<br />
(analysis)<br />
1.4871<br />
(standard)<br />
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Material<br />
1.4718<br />
(theorical)<br />
1.4718<br />
(analysis)<br />
d0 (mm)<br />
6<br />
Material<br />
C<br />
0.48-<br />
0.58<br />
0.50<br />
Table 2. Chemical compositi<strong>on</strong> of 1.4871 material.<br />
Si<br />
<br />
0.30<br />
0.27<br />
Mn<br />
7-<br />
10<br />
8.1<br />
9<br />
Chemical compositi<strong>on</strong> (% wt)<br />
Cr<br />
20 -<br />
22<br />
20.11<br />
Ni<br />
3.25 -<br />
4.5<br />
3.90<br />
N<br />
0.38 -<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
P<br />
Max.<br />
0.050<br />
0.025<br />
Table 3. Chemical compositi<strong>on</strong> of 1.4718 material.<br />
C<br />
0.40 - 0.50<br />
0.42<br />
Si<br />
2.70 -<br />
3.30<br />
2.73<br />
Chemical compositi<strong>on</strong> (% wt)<br />
Mn<br />
0.80<br />
0.47<br />
Cr<br />
8 - 10<br />
8.71<br />
P<br />
Max.<br />
0.040<br />
0.017<br />
Table 4. Standard measurements of welded tensile samples.<br />
d1 (mm)<br />
8<br />
h (mm)<br />
25<br />
l 0 (mm)<br />
60<br />
(l0 = 10 d0)<br />
l v (mm)<br />
Table 5.Mechanical properties of 1.4871 and 1.4718 materials.<br />
Diamet<br />
er<br />
(mm)<br />
12.258-<br />
12.300<br />
Lengt<br />
h<br />
(m)<br />
3.5-<br />
4.0<br />
Circularr<br />
y (mm)<br />
Max.<br />
0.03<br />
Mechanical properties<br />
Surface<br />
Roughness<br />
(m)<br />
Max. 0.8<br />
66<br />
Hardn<br />
ess<br />
(HRC<br />
Max. )<br />
40<br />
S<br />
Max.<br />
0.030<br />
0.001<br />
S<br />
Max. 0.030<br />
0.001<br />
l t (mm)<br />
125<br />
Tensile<br />
Strength<br />
(MPa)<br />
950-1250
1.4871 (test)<br />
33<br />
1.4718<br />
(standard)<br />
1.4718 (test)<br />
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12.280-<br />
12.290<br />
12.258-<br />
12.300<br />
12.280-<br />
12.290<br />
4.0<br />
3.5-<br />
4.0<br />
4.0<br />
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
3. 1. Mechanical Properties<br />
0.005-<br />
0.02<br />
Max.<br />
0.03<br />
0.005-<br />
0.01<br />
0.3-0.8<br />
Max. 0.8<br />
0.6-0.8<br />
37-40<br />
29-35<br />
29-32<br />
1120<br />
950-1125<br />
1030<br />
When tensile tests results were examined, mechanical properties of group B were betterthan<br />
those of group A or C. The basicrepresentative property of groupB is that fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure is<br />
207 MPa. Break out did not occurin welding z<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> B4, B5, and B6. Comm<strong>on</strong> determining<br />
characteristic of this group is that fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure (P1) and forging pressure (P2)values were<br />
takenc<strong>on</strong>stant whereas fricti<strong>on</strong> time is variable <strong>on</strong> these groups. Yield and tensile strength<br />
were similar. As a result, it can be seen that fricti<strong>on</strong> time is a determining parameter am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
these three groups. In determining optimum welding parameters,breaking point in tensile bar,<br />
the suitability of post-tensi<strong>on</strong>ing yield and tensile strength values for acceptable values of<br />
materials and percentage of extent quantity havesignificance.Fractures in 1.4871<br />
materialoccurred out of welding z<strong>on</strong>e in group B5. Yield strength was 854 MPa, tensile<br />
strength value was1081 MPa.<br />
When notch impact tests results are examined,it has been determined the energy quantities<br />
spent to break the samples of group B are more than those of the other two groups and the<br />
samples of B5 in group B spent the highest energy quantity.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> microhardnessresuts,microhardness values did not increase ingroup B5 samples, but<br />
microhardness valuessignificantly increased 4 mmaway from centre. The microhardness<br />
value was 400 HV in outer cross secti<strong>on</strong> for 1.4871 materials,while it was 439 HV in centre.<br />
Microhardnesswas 483 HV in the centrewhile it was 439 HV in outer cross secti<strong>on</strong> for 1.4718<br />
materials. The cooling was the slowestin the centre of materials. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, element<br />
diffusi<strong>on</strong> in materials centretakes much l<strong>on</strong>ger time. In additi<strong>on</strong>, movement and mechanical<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong>were alsominimalin the center due to material deformati<strong>on</strong>. Therefore, it is<br />
determined that the highest microhardness value is in the center of materials.The variati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
microhardness values depending <strong>on</strong> distant are shown in Fig. 1.The hardnessdistributi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were determined by using optical and scanning electr<strong>on</strong> microscope.<br />
Fig.1. Variati<strong>on</strong> of hardness of B5 sample in welding z<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
Hardness (HV 0.08)<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
P 1=207 MPa, P 2=414 MPa, t 1= 3.70 s<br />
Welding interface<br />
1.4871 steel 1.4718 steel<br />
0<br />
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300<br />
Distance from welding centre (μm)
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Length shortening quantities <strong>on</strong> post welding and effects of parameters <strong>on</strong> length shortening<br />
are explained by graphics depending <strong>on</strong> parameter groups in Fig. 2. As seen in figures,<br />
variati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> length shortenings depending <strong>on</strong> welding parameters is linear. A significant<br />
material loss due to burning occurs in 1.4718 materials<strong>on</strong> fricti<strong>on</strong> welding joints. Total<br />
material loss reaches the highest values in the parameter groups having the highest fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
time. When we regard all these criteria; A9, B3, B5, B6, B8, B9, C4, C7 and C8, parameter<br />
groups differ from other groups according to the length shortening quantities. Efficient length<br />
shortening quantities can notbe obtained for 2.7 s fricti<strong>on</strong> time. By increasing fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
pressure and forging pressure values it is determined that there is much more material loss in<br />
the groupssubjected to4.7 s fricti<strong>on</strong> time. Length shortening quantities could not be obtained<br />
at low fricti<strong>on</strong> time in group B samples. In the light of these results, group B5 can be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered ideal for length shortening.<br />
Total length shortening quantity (mm)<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
300 350 400 450 500<br />
Forging pressure (MPa)<br />
Fig.2. Quantities of total length shortening depending <strong>on</strong> fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure for varry fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
time (P2= 414 MPa).<br />
In joining A6061 alloy and SUS304 stainless steel by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding, it has been observed<br />
that high forging pressures affect the joining strength positively and tensile strength of<br />
notched samples increaseswith forging pressure and maximum effectiveness of joining is<br />
seen as 87-93 %percent (Ochi etal., 1996).<br />
In another study, energy absorpti<strong>on</strong> of normalized welding joining is rather more than a<br />
normalized <strong>on</strong>e, and energy transiti<strong>on</strong> temperature has been determined at about 24 0C at<br />
normalized welding joining. This temperature is harm<strong>on</strong>ious with temperature <strong>on</strong> fracture<br />
surface. Crack proceeding strength of normalized welding joining is higherthan that of a<br />
normalized <strong>on</strong>e. Impact bending strength of normalized welding joining is almost the same as<br />
hot processed metal (Kato et al., 1996).<br />
Şahin et al.(1996)c<strong>on</strong>ducted tensile and microhardness tests, heat and SEM studiesin welding<br />
z<strong>on</strong>e to determine heat affected z<strong>on</strong>e (HAZ)metalurgical variati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> Al-Al, Al-Steel, and<br />
steel-steel using different parameters of fricti<strong>on</strong> welding.They reported that welding<br />
parameters significantly affected yield, tensile and fracture strength and HAZ z<strong>on</strong>e near the<br />
Al was wider <strong>on</strong> Al-steel joinings. Preperati<strong>on</strong> measures of welding joining must be taken as<br />
P1=138 MPa<br />
P1=207 MPa<br />
P1=276 MPa
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1-10 mm per welding joining by c<strong>on</strong>sidering length shorteningduring surface preperati<strong>on</strong>in<br />
welded joints (Anık, 1983).<br />
Ogawa et al.(1993)reported high material lossin fricti<strong>on</strong> welding of S45C steel, so it has to be<br />
examinedfor its ec<strong>on</strong>omical impact. In this study, low hardness thin grained ferrite, and<br />
pearlite layer occured <strong>on</strong> HAZ. Slope of hardness distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> joining z<strong>on</strong>e has been<br />
determined to be low at wider space.<br />
Şahin(2005)determined optimum welding parameters as follows: fricti<strong>on</strong> time (4 s), fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
pressure (110 MPa) and tensile strength (600 MPa) <strong>on</strong> high-speed steel (HSS-S6) and<br />
medium carb<strong>on</strong> steel (AISI 1040). He determined hardness of welding z<strong>on</strong>e as 700 HV.<br />
Şahin(2007) determined that optimum welding parameters as fricti<strong>on</strong> time 9 s, fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
pressure 60 MPa and tensile strength 800 MPa <strong>on</strong> stainless steel (AISI 304). He determined<br />
hardness of welding z<strong>on</strong>e as 200 HV. In these studies, the tensile strength of the joints<br />
increased with the fricti<strong>on</strong> time and pressure, and it raised a maximum, but it decreased for<br />
more fricti<strong>on</strong> time and pressure (Şahin, 2005; Şahin, 2007). Ateş et al. (2003) determined<br />
fricti<strong>on</strong> time as 6 s, fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure 70 MPa, and tensile strength 850 MPa <strong>on</strong> MA 956 ir<strong>on</strong>based<br />
superalloy. They determined hardness of welding z<strong>on</strong>e as 700 HV. In this study, tensile<br />
strength increased with forging pressure and with fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure up to a certain value in<br />
HAZ.<br />
Özdemir(2005) and Özdemir et al. (2007)determined that hardness of welding z<strong>on</strong>e as about<br />
1000 HV <strong>on</strong> AISI 304 and AISI 4340 steel.In these studies, for excellent welding parameters<br />
“the fricti<strong>on</strong> time was held as short as possible, while the rotati<strong>on</strong>al speed, fricti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
forging pressure was chosen as high as possible. Satyanarayana et al.(2005)determined that<br />
hardness of welding z<strong>on</strong>e as about 270 HV, and notch tensile strength 690 MPa <strong>on</strong> AISI 304<br />
and AISI 430 steel.The differences in our results and those of other previous studies may be<br />
attributed to the fact that their materials and welding parameters were different from ours.<br />
3. 2. Microstructure Properties<br />
When microstructure results are examined, it has been observed that fricti<strong>on</strong> time does not<br />
cause any noticeable differences in inner microstructure due to low fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure ingroup<br />
A samples. Heat affected z<strong>on</strong>e (HAZ) is observed to be thicker ingroup C samples. These<br />
z<strong>on</strong>es are seen to be much wider especially in the groups, bel<strong>on</strong>ging to the values of<br />
increasing forging pressure and fricti<strong>on</strong> time. Mechanical orientati<strong>on</strong> and wider HAZ are<br />
observed <strong>on</strong> group C5 and 1.4871 materials. Mechanical orientati<strong>on</strong> of grains is certainly<br />
seen from central to outer <strong>on</strong> grains. Certain microstructure and standart thickness HAZ were<br />
observed <strong>on</strong> group B samples (Fig. 3).
36<br />
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Fig.3. Mechanical orientati<strong>on</strong> and Fe2C carburs of B5 sample in welding central (x45).<br />
When forging pressure resuts are examined; in the inner structure of groups the high forging<br />
pressure values from central to outer mechanical orientati<strong>on</strong> in grains, coming out due to<br />
deformati<strong>on</strong> during welding is observed (Fig. 3). This orientati<strong>on</strong> is possible for each of<br />
thetwo materials. Standart thickness and more obvious HAZ are seen ingroup B samples (Fig.<br />
4).<br />
Fig.4. Grain flattening of B5 sample in HAZ of 1.4871 material (x450).<br />
When tensile and notch impact tests results are examined, better mechanical were obtained in<br />
group B5 samplesas compared with the other groups. When optical microscope images of<br />
group B5 are examined; martensitic microstructure of 1.4718 materials waspresent at a<br />
distant z<strong>on</strong>e of welding. Austenitic microstructure of 1.4871 materials is seen at a z<strong>on</strong>e way<br />
from welding. Black z<strong>on</strong>es occured in microstructures are Fe2C carburs <strong>on</strong> austenit grain<br />
boundaries and some austenit grains. SEM image of 1.4718 and 1.4871 material<br />
microstructure in a z<strong>on</strong>e away from welding was shown as 4000 times magnified in Fig. 24.<br />
SEM image of welding interface in two materials was shown as 4000 times magnified in Fig.<br />
5.
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
Fig.5. SEM image of welding interface in two materials (x4000).<br />
Şahin(2005; 2007), Ateş et al. (2007), Özdemir(2005) and Özdemir et al. (2007), and<br />
Satyanarayana et al. (2005)observed thin grained structure in welding z<strong>on</strong>e, and observed<br />
grain orientati<strong>on</strong> in HAZ in medium carb<strong>on</strong> steels, and stainless steels.Ateş et al. (2007)<br />
reported that HAZ and grain orientati<strong>on</strong> in microstructure increased with increasing fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
pressure. They reported that HAZ and grain orientati<strong>on</strong> in microstructure decreased with<br />
increasing forging pressure. In our study, similar microstructure results were obtained.<br />
4. CONCLUSIONS<br />
In this study, the optimum welding parameters were determined in materials during the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> of X53CrMnNiN219 and X45CrSi93 steels by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding.Based <strong>on</strong> the<br />
findings of this research, the following c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s can be drawn:<br />
1. Efficient length shortening quantities can not be obtained in the samples in which fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
time is applied as 2.7 s. It has been determined that there has been more material loss with<br />
increased fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure and forging pressure in the groups where the highest fricti<strong>on</strong> time<br />
was 4.7 s. While the ideal length shortening is 7-10 mm, it is 8.85 mm for B5.<br />
2. Break from welding z<strong>on</strong>e is not observed <strong>on</strong> the samples of group B5 <strong>on</strong> tensile tests. For<br />
tensile properties, B5 parameter group has been determined as an ideal parameter group.<br />
3. The highest fracture energy (toughness) <strong>on</strong> tensile tests was observed in group B5.<br />
4. Profiles hardness of A group occured <strong>on</strong> near 1.4871 material of welding z<strong>on</strong>e, and the<br />
highest value of hardness of these samples occured near 1.4718 material of welding z<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
The slope of hardness profile <strong>on</strong> group B and C was much higher than that of group A in the<br />
welding z<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
5. Carbur formati<strong>on</strong>s were clearly observed al<strong>on</strong>g directi<strong>on</strong> lines of HAZ and mechanical<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> group B5 optical micrscope images. Austenitic structure occured <strong>on</strong><br />
microstructure distant welding z<strong>on</strong>e 1.4718 and martensitic structure occured <strong>on</strong> 1.4871<br />
material <strong>on</strong> distant welding z<strong>on</strong>e. Next to welding z<strong>on</strong>e, gain shortening and grain flatness<br />
occured as perpendicular deformati<strong>on</strong> in 1.4871 materials.<br />
37
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6. Optimum welding parameters;fricti<strong>on</strong> time(t1) was determined as 3.7 s, fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure<br />
(P1) was determined as 207 MPa, forging pressure (P2) was determined 414 MPa <strong>on</strong> B5<br />
group and joining by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding 1.4871 and 1.4718 materials.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Anık, S., 1983, Welding Technology, (in Turkish), İstanbul, 259-69.<br />
Ateş, H., Türker, M., Kurt, A., 2007, Effect of fricti<strong>on</strong> pressure <strong>on</strong> the properties of fricti<strong>on</strong><br />
welded<br />
MA956 ir<strong>on</strong>-based superalloy, Materials and Design, 28: 948-53.<br />
Bargel, H. J., Schulze, G., (Güleç, Ş., Aran, A.), 1988, Materials, (in Turkish), Gebze.<br />
Bol’shokov, M. V., 1972, The vacuum fricti<strong>on</strong> welding of high – melting and high –<br />
temperature alloys, Auto Welding; 60-2.<br />
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impact<br />
fracture behavior of fricti<strong>on</strong> welded joints, Society Mechanical Engineering, 62: 22-36.<br />
Lucas, W., 1971, Process parameters and fricti<strong>on</strong> welds, Met. C<strong>on</strong>st. and British, Welding<br />
Journal, 7: 293- 97.<br />
Ochi, H., Ogawa, K., Yamamoto, Y., Hashinaga, S., Suga, Y., Ohnishi, T., 1996, Static<br />
strength of fricti<strong>on</strong> welded joint of 6061 aluminium alloy to SUS 304 stainless stell, Journal<br />
of Japan Institute of Light Met, 46: 500-04.<br />
Ogawa, K., Yamaguchi, H., Kaga, S., Sakaguchi, K., 1993, Optimizati<strong>on</strong> of fricti<strong>on</strong> welding<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for S45C carb<strong>on</strong> stell using a statistical technique, Transacti<strong>on</strong> of the Japan<br />
Welding<br />
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properties<br />
of fricti<strong>on</strong> welded AISI 304 to 4340 steel, Materials and Design, 28: 301-07.
39<br />
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Satyanarayana, V. V., Reddy, G. M., Mohandas, T., 2005, Dissimilar metal fricti<strong>on</strong> welding<br />
of austenitic-ferritic stainless steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 169: 128-<br />
37.<br />
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stell<br />
samples, Journal of Materials Engineering Performance, 5: 89-9.<br />
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(AISI<br />
304) joined by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding, Materials and Design, 28: 2244-250.<br />
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welding”,<br />
(in Turkish), Istanbul Technical University, İstanbul, 303-14.<br />
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different steels <strong>on</strong> joining by fricti<strong>on</strong> welding, PhD Thesis, (in Turkish), Manisa.<br />
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Welding Prod., 7: 51-4.<br />
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PhD<br />
Thesis, (in Turkish), Y.T.Ü., İstanbul, 1-55.
Abstract<br />
40<br />
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Positive Attitudes of Undergraduate Students toward Online Shopping<br />
Ali Acılar<br />
Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi<br />
ali.acilar@bilecik.edu.tr<br />
In recent years, computers and the Internet have become an important part of modern<br />
societies. These technologies have influenced almost all aspects of daily life; from educati<strong>on</strong><br />
to communicati<strong>on</strong>, from entertainment to business. Al<strong>on</strong>g with the spread of the Internet use,<br />
the acceptance of <strong>on</strong>line shopping has been growing, especially in the developed parts of the<br />
world. However, electr<strong>on</strong>ic commerce is still in its infancy in developing countries. In this<br />
study, the author explored positive attitudes of undergraduate students toward <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping and examined the associati<strong>on</strong> between positive attitudes of undergraduate students<br />
toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping and their demographics variables: gender, age and income. And<br />
attitudes of <strong>on</strong>line shoppers and n<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>line shoppers toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping were compared.<br />
Participants of this study were undergraduate business students in a public university in<br />
Turkey. A paper-based questi<strong>on</strong>naire was used c<strong>on</strong>taining five-point Likert type scale to<br />
explore students’ attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping. A total of 314 students voluntarily<br />
participated to the study. It is found that in general participants have positive attitudes toward<br />
<strong>on</strong>line shopping. Online shoppers have more positive attitudes than n<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>line shoppers<br />
toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping. Generally male students have more positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping than female counterparts. There is a positive correlati<strong>on</strong> between income level and<br />
positive attitude toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping; as m<strong>on</strong>thly family income increases, participants<br />
have more positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping.<br />
Keywords: Online shopping, undergraduate students, positive attitudes<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
Electr<strong>on</strong>ic commerce has become a worldwide phenomen<strong>on</strong> (Mahmood, Bagchi & Ford,<br />
2004). According to Nielsen’s 2008 report, more than 85 percent of the world’s <strong>on</strong>line<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> has used the Internet to make a purchase (Nielsen, 2008). The volume of businessto-c<strong>on</strong>sumer<br />
(B2C) e-commerce transacti<strong>on</strong>s has c<strong>on</strong>tinued to increase. According to the<br />
United States Census Bureau, the total volume of B2C e-commerce transacti<strong>on</strong>s in the United<br />
States was estimated to be 298 billi<strong>on</strong> dollars in 2009 with an increase of 2.1 percent from<br />
2008 (United States Census Bureau, 2010). As a developing country, in Turkey, Internet use<br />
and B2C e-commerce transacti<strong>on</strong>s have also increased. The Interbank Card Center (BKM)<br />
reported that, in Turkey, while domestic and internati<strong>on</strong>al e-commerce transacti<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
domestic cards were total of 1.8 billi<strong>on</strong> Turkish liras (TL) (The total number of transacti<strong>on</strong>s =<br />
17,668,587) in 2005, it reached to 14.1 billi<strong>on</strong> TL (The total number of transacti<strong>on</strong>s =<br />
96,138,157) in 2010 (BKM, 2011), (1 TL is about 0.55 U.S. dollars, December 06, 2011).
41<br />
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Online shopping has become a popular way to purchase almost everything from electr<strong>on</strong>ics to<br />
books and CDs to tickets and clothing. However there are c<strong>on</strong>siderable numbers of people<br />
still hesitating to buy <strong>on</strong>line because of various reas<strong>on</strong>s, such as security and privacy.<br />
Security issues, <strong>on</strong>line fraud, reduced opportunity for sensory shopping, the postp<strong>on</strong>ement of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> or enjoyment of tangible products until physical delivery, poor design interface,<br />
privacy c<strong>on</strong>cerns, limited product selecti<strong>on</strong>, and lack of face-to-face interacti<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
salespeople are some of the challenges that are often cited in the literature as obstacles for<br />
B2C e-commerce (Tamimi, Sebastianelli and Rajan, 2004). Barriers to <strong>on</strong>line shopping can<br />
be categorized such as functi<strong>on</strong>al and psychological barriers (Rudolph, Rosenbloom and<br />
Wagner, 2004), as the major barriers which create customer resistance to innovati<strong>on</strong>s do<br />
(Ram and Sheth, 1989). According to Ram and Sheth (1989), functi<strong>on</strong>al barriers are likely to<br />
arise if c<strong>on</strong>sumers perceive significant changes from adopting an innovati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
psychological barriers arise when the innovati<strong>on</strong> causes some c<strong>on</strong>flict with customers' prior<br />
beliefs. Usage, value and risk barriers refer to functi<strong>on</strong>al barriers, whereas traditi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
image barriers c<strong>on</strong>stitute psychological barriers (Ram and Sheth, 1989).<br />
Demographics and lifestyle characteristics of customers play an important role in their buying<br />
habits (Mahmood, Bagchi & Ford, 2004). While gender differences exist in choosing to visit<br />
different types of website, possibly based <strong>on</strong> the different pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits of males and<br />
females, these differences also exist in <strong>on</strong>line shopping experiences (Yang, Lester and James,<br />
2007). Garbarino and Strahilevitz (2004) found that females perceive a higher level of risk in<br />
<strong>on</strong>line purchasing than do males. Jen-Hung and Yi-Chun (2010) studied gender differences in<br />
adolescents' <strong>on</strong>line shopping motivati<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> utilitarian and hed<strong>on</strong>ic motivati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
surveying high school students in Taiwan and found that males hold significantly more<br />
positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping <strong>on</strong> utilitarian motivati<strong>on</strong>s (for example,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venience, lack of sociality and cost saving) than the females whereas, females put more<br />
emphasis <strong>on</strong> hed<strong>on</strong>ic motivati<strong>on</strong>s (for example, adventure, sociality, fashi<strong>on</strong> and value) <strong>on</strong><br />
Internet c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>. Hashim, Ghani and Said (2009) found that males tend to become more<br />
<strong>on</strong>line shopper compared to females. And their study supports that while males tend to be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venience shoppers due to the high commitment <strong>on</strong> work and study, females tend to be<br />
recreati<strong>on</strong>al shoppers and would prefer to do their shopping using the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al way<br />
(Hashim, Ghani & Said, 2009). Rodgers and Harris (2003) revealed that females were less<br />
emoti<strong>on</strong>ally satisfied with <strong>on</strong>line shopping than males, most likely because females skeptical<br />
of <strong>on</strong>line shopping and did not find it as c<strong>on</strong>venient as males. In their study, males reported<br />
greater trust in <strong>on</strong>line shopping and perceived the Internet as a more c<strong>on</strong>venient shopping<br />
outlet than did females. Overall, males had more positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping<br />
than females (Rodgers and Harris, 2003). Previous studies have reported that age also affects<br />
attitude toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping. Hashim, Ghani and Said (2009) reported that there is<br />
significant difference <strong>on</strong> the attitude toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping differentiated by age. Their<br />
study results revealed that those who are between 30 to 39 years old do more <strong>on</strong>line shopping<br />
compared to those between 20 to 29 years old and those over 40 years old. Sulaiman, Ng, and<br />
Mohezar (2008) found that age is <strong>on</strong>e of the affecting variables in e-ticketing adopti<strong>on</strong>; eticketing<br />
is more popular am<strong>on</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>sumers, age between 26 to 35 years old than 18 to 26<br />
years-old customers. Income levels affect the Internet users’ <strong>on</strong>line shopping propensity<br />
(Zukowski and Brown, 2007). M<strong>on</strong>suwe, Dellaert and Ruyter (2004) reported that c<strong>on</strong>sumers<br />
with higher household income intend to shop more <strong>on</strong>line than lower income c<strong>on</strong>sumers do.<br />
Teo (2006) found that <strong>on</strong>line shopping adopters tend to have higher income level than n<strong>on</strong>adopters.<br />
Mahmood, Bagchi and Ford (2004) found that the factors of trust and ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s make a significant positive c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to <strong>on</strong>line shopping behavior.
42<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
While security and privacy issues c<strong>on</strong>tinue to play an important role in affecting customers<br />
purchasing decisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong>line, understanding the attitudes of Internet users toward <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping also important for understanding the dynamics of customers’ behavior in <strong>on</strong>line<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. In this study, the author explores the positive attitudes of undergraduate<br />
students toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping and examines the associati<strong>on</strong> between positive attitudes of<br />
undergraduate students toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping and their demographics variables: gender, age<br />
and income. Attitudes of <strong>on</strong>line shoppers and n<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>line shoppers toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping<br />
were also compared.<br />
2.METHODOLOGY<br />
2.1.Instrument<br />
A paper based questi<strong>on</strong>naire was used in order to examine students’ attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping. Students’ attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping were assessed using eleven five-point<br />
Likert-scale questi<strong>on</strong>naire items (1 = str<strong>on</strong>gly disagree, 5 = str<strong>on</strong>gly agree) adapted from<br />
Yang, Lester and James (2007). The questi<strong>on</strong>naire also includes demographic questi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
2.2. Participants<br />
Participants of this study were undergraduate business students in a public university in<br />
Turkey. Participants were selected according to c<strong>on</strong>venient sampling. The participati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
voluntary and an<strong>on</strong>ymous. A total of 314 resp<strong>on</strong>dents completed the questi<strong>on</strong>naire, of which<br />
311 were used for the purpose of this study. The sample included 194 female students<br />
(62.4%) and 117 male students (37.6%). The average age of the participants was 20.81<br />
excluding missing values. Majority of the participants are experienced Internet users. More<br />
than 70 percent of the participants have been using the Internet for more than 3 years. While<br />
55 percent of the participants use the Internet less than 9 hours weekly, 19.9 percent of the<br />
participants use it more than 24 hours weekly. 171 participant students (54.98%) stated that<br />
they have been shopped <strong>on</strong>line at least <strong>on</strong>ce.<br />
2.3. Data Analysis and Results<br />
The resp<strong>on</strong>dent students generally have positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping. Figure 1<br />
shows the resp<strong>on</strong>dents’ agreement with selected statements about <strong>on</strong>line shopping.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cerning informati<strong>on</strong>, majority of the participants agree that Internet provides easy access<br />
to informati<strong>on</strong> about goods/services (78.8 percent) and Internet provides comprehensive<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about goods/services (71.6 percent). Regarding purchasing goods <strong>on</strong>line, 79.6<br />
percent agree that they can order things from distant places and 78.6 percent agree that they<br />
can purchase goods at any time of the day. 68.4 percent agree that they can access to a great<br />
variety of products. But c<strong>on</strong>cerning price, 55.8 percent believe that they can get better price<br />
<strong>on</strong>line. 53.7 percent believe that <strong>on</strong>line shopping saves walking from store to store. And 53.7<br />
percent agree that they can stay home and shop.
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Figure 1: Resp<strong>on</strong>dents’ agreement with statements about <strong>on</strong>line shopping<br />
Table 1 presents the results of t-test c<strong>on</strong>cerning participant students’ attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping regarding gender. According to the results of t-test, there were significant<br />
differences between males and females in their attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping in six items.<br />
Generally male students have more positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping than female<br />
students. Males agree that <strong>on</strong>line shopping saves walking from store to store more than<br />
females do. Females do not agree that <strong>on</strong>line shopping saves walking from store to store, it<br />
requires less effort and they can get better prices as much as males do. Male students agree<br />
that they can order things from distant places; they can purchase goods at any time of the day<br />
and they can choose from a greater variety of models of the product more than female<br />
students do.<br />
1. It provides easy access to informati<strong>on</strong><br />
2. It provides comprehensive informati<strong>on</strong><br />
3. I can purchase goods and services faster<br />
4. I can stay home and shop<br />
5. It saves walking from store to store<br />
6. It requires less effort <strong>on</strong> my part<br />
7. I can get better prices<br />
8. I can order things from distant places<br />
9. I can purchase goods at any time of the day<br />
10. I can choose from a greater variety of models of the product<br />
11. I can gain access to after-sales services <strong>on</strong>line<br />
Gender<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
F<br />
M<br />
Mean<br />
3.99<br />
3.85<br />
3.84<br />
3.85<br />
3.76<br />
3.53<br />
3.25<br />
3.47<br />
3.21<br />
3.53<br />
3.43<br />
3.77<br />
3.33<br />
3.63<br />
3.82<br />
4.08<br />
3.82<br />
4.06<br />
3.60<br />
3.86<br />
3.47<br />
3.66<br />
SD<br />
0.90<br />
1.08<br />
0.99<br />
1.06<br />
1.01<br />
1.12<br />
1.18<br />
1.10<br />
1.23<br />
1.17<br />
1.10<br />
0.98<br />
1.19<br />
1.14<br />
1.05<br />
0.77<br />
1.06<br />
0.82<br />
1.08<br />
0.97<br />
1.02<br />
1.04<br />
Mean<br />
Diff.<br />
t<br />
0.14 1.17 0.242<br />
-0.01 -0.11 0.912<br />
0.22 1.76 0.080<br />
-0.22 -1.61 0.108<br />
-0.32 -2.28 0.023*<br />
-0.33 -2.77 0.006**<br />
-0.30 -2.19 0.029*<br />
-0.26 -2.49 0.014*<br />
-0.24 -2.21 0.028*<br />
-0.26 -2.23 0.027*<br />
-0.19 -1.55 0.123<br />
Table 1: Differences between gender groups in their attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping<br />
SD = Standard deviati<strong>on</strong>, * indicates significant at the 0.05 level, ** indicates significant at the 0.01 level<br />
p
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1. It provides easy access to informati<strong>on</strong><br />
2. It provides comprehensive informati<strong>on</strong><br />
3. I can purchase goods and services faster<br />
4. I can stay home and shop<br />
5. It saves walking from store to store<br />
6. It requires less effort <strong>on</strong> my part<br />
7. I can get better prices<br />
8. I can order things from distant places<br />
9. I can purchase goods at any time of the day<br />
10. I can choose from a greater variety of models of the product<br />
11. I can gain access to after-sales services <strong>on</strong>line<br />
Online<br />
shopper<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Yes<br />
No<br />
Mean<br />
4.04<br />
3.82<br />
3.94<br />
3.73<br />
3.86<br />
3.45<br />
3.63<br />
2.97<br />
3.55<br />
3.05<br />
3.78<br />
3.28<br />
3.78<br />
3.04<br />
4.17<br />
3.61<br />
4.19<br />
3.57<br />
3.97<br />
3.36<br />
3.80<br />
3.22<br />
SD<br />
0.90<br />
1.05<br />
1.01<br />
1.02<br />
1.02<br />
1.06<br />
1.11<br />
1.11<br />
1.22<br />
1.16<br />
1.01<br />
1.07<br />
1.11<br />
1.13<br />
0.87<br />
0.99<br />
0.87<br />
1.00<br />
0.93<br />
1.09<br />
0.93<br />
1.06<br />
Mean<br />
Diff.<br />
t<br />
0.22 1.95 0.052<br />
0.21 1.84 0.066<br />
0.41 3.44 0.001**<br />
0.66 5.21
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3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
10 .04 .12 * .32 ** .29 ** .34 ** .50 ** .48 ** .52 ** .57 ** .62 ** .70 ** 1<br />
11 -.03 .10 .26 ** .27 ** .34 ** .49 ** .50 ** .56 ** .51 ** .62 ** .62 ** .60 ** 1<br />
Table 3: Results of correlati<strong>on</strong> analysis<br />
3. CONCLUSIONS<br />
This study, which is part of <strong>on</strong>going research, has investigated the positive attitudes of<br />
undergraduate students toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping. The findings suggest that in general<br />
participant students have positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping. It is found that <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shoppers have more positive attitudes than n<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>line shoppers, as expected. In general male<br />
students have more positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping than female students. There is a<br />
positive correlati<strong>on</strong> between income level and positive attitude toward <strong>on</strong>line shopping; as<br />
m<strong>on</strong>thly family income increases, participants have more positive attitudes toward <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping.<br />
The findings of the present study should be viewed in the light of its limitati<strong>on</strong>s. First, the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venience sampling technique was used for the selecti<strong>on</strong> of the sample. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, the survey<br />
was c<strong>on</strong>ducted am<strong>on</strong>g students in the Department of Business Administrati<strong>on</strong> in a public<br />
university in Turkey.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Garbarino, E. and Strahilevitz, M. (2004) Gender differences in the perceived risk of buying<br />
<strong>on</strong>line and the effects of receiving a site recommendati<strong>on</strong>, Journal of Business Research, 57,<br />
768-775.<br />
Hashim, A., Ghani, E. K. and Said, J. (2009) Does C<strong>on</strong>sumers’ Demographic Profile<br />
Influence Online Shopping?: An Examinati<strong>on</strong> Using Fishbein’s Theory, Canadian Social<br />
Science, 5(6), 19-31.<br />
Jen-Hung, H. and Yi-Chun, Y. (2010) Gender differences in adolescents' <strong>on</strong>line shopping<br />
motivati<strong>on</strong>s, African Journal of Business Management, 4(6), 849-857.<br />
Kim, S., R. Williams and Lee, Y. (2004) Attitude Toward Online Shopping and Retail<br />
Website Quality, Journal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>sumer Marketing, 16(1), 89-111.<br />
Lohse, G. L. and Spiller, P. (1999) Internet retail store design: How the user interface<br />
influences traffic and sales, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communicati<strong>on</strong>, 5(2), Retrieved<br />
August 8, 2011, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol5/issue2/lohse.htm<br />
Mahmood, M. A., Bagchi, K. and Ford, T. C. (2004) On-Line Shopping Behavior: Cross-<br />
Country Empirical Research, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Journal of Electr<strong>on</strong>ic Commerce, 9(1), 9-30.<br />
Mengli, M. (2010) A Study <strong>on</strong> Factors Affecting C<strong>on</strong>sumers’ Attitude Towards Online<br />
Shopping and Online Shopping Intenti<strong>on</strong> in Bangkok, Thailand, Proceedings of the 7th<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> Innovati<strong>on</strong> & Management, 1847-1853. Retrieved May 25, 2011,<br />
from http://www.pucsp.br/icim/ingles/proceedings/papers_2010_2.html<br />
M<strong>on</strong>suwe´, T. P., Dellaert, B. G. C. and Ruyter, K. (2004) What drives c<strong>on</strong>sumers to shop<br />
<strong>on</strong>line? A literature review, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Journal of Service Industry Management, 15(1),<br />
102-121.<br />
Nielsen (2008) Over 875 Milli<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sumers Have Shopped Online -- The Number of<br />
Internet Shoppers Up 40% in Two Years, Retrieved August 8, 2011, from<br />
http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/press-room/2008/over_875_milli<strong>on</strong>_c<strong>on</strong>sumers.html
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Ram, S. and Sheth, J. N. (1989) C<strong>on</strong>sumer resistance to innovati<strong>on</strong>s: the marketing problem<br />
and its soluti<strong>on</strong>s, The Journal of C<strong>on</strong>sumer Marketing, 6(2), 5-14.<br />
Rodgers, S. and Harris, M. A. (2003) Gender and E-Commerce: An Exploratory Study,<br />
Journal of Advertising Research, 43(3), 322-329.<br />
Rudolph, T., Rosenbloom, B. and Wagner, T. (2004) „Barriers to <strong>on</strong>line shopping in<br />
Switzerland, Journal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>sumer Marketing, 16(3), 55-74.<br />
Seock, Y. K. and Nort<strong>on</strong>, M. J. T. (2008) College Student’ Perceived Attributes of Internet<br />
Websites and Online Shopping, College Student Journal, 42(1), 186-198.<br />
Sulaiman, A., Ng, J. and Mohezar, S. (2008) E-Ticketing as a new way of buying tickets:<br />
Malaysian percepti<strong>on</strong>s, Journal of Social Science, 17(2), 149-157.<br />
Tamimi, N., Sebastianelli, R. and Rajan, M. (2004) Examining the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between<br />
demographics and the frequency of <strong>on</strong>line purchasing, Proceedings of 9th Asia-Pacific<br />
Decisi<strong>on</strong> Sciences Institute C<strong>on</strong>ference, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from<br />
http://iceb.nccu.edu.tw/proceedings/APDSI/2004/pdf/097.pdf<br />
Teo, T. S. H. (2006) To buy or not to buy <strong>on</strong>line: adopters and n<strong>on</strong>-adopters of <strong>on</strong>line<br />
shopping in Singapore, Behaviour & Informati<strong>on</strong> Technology, 25(6), 497-509.<br />
The Interbank Card Center (BKM) (2011) E-commerce Transacti<strong>on</strong>s, Retrieved July 23,<br />
2011, from http://www.bkm.com.tr/bkmen/istatistik/sanal_pos_ile_yapilan_eticaret_islemleri.asp<br />
United States Census Bureau (2010) E-Stats, Retrieved July 23, 2011, from<br />
http://www.census.gov/ec<strong>on</strong>/estats/2009/2009reportfinal.pdf<br />
Yang, B., Lester, D. and James, S. (2007) British and American attitudes toward buying<br />
Online, Oxford Journal, 6(1), 18-27.<br />
Zukowski, T. and Brown, I. (2007) Examining the Influence of Demographic Factors <strong>on</strong><br />
Internet Users’ Informati<strong>on</strong> Privacy C<strong>on</strong>cerns, In Proceedings of SAICSIT C<strong>on</strong>f.'2007, 197-<br />
204.<br />
A Study About Mobbing On Students, The Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Between Their Pers<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
Traits And Mental Status<br />
Zeki Akinci, Osman Nuri Demirel, Yusuf Yilmaz<br />
Akdeniz University, Turkey<br />
E-mails: zakinci@akdeniz.edu.tr, <strong>on</strong>uridemirel@mynet.com, yusufyilmaz@akdeniz.edu.tr<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this study is to assess the effect of psychological violence (mobbing) <strong>on</strong> the<br />
mood of students attending colleges and <strong>on</strong> how the mood affects their traits. In this c<strong>on</strong>text,<br />
the effect of the violence level as psychological impact <strong>on</strong> the mood of students was<br />
examined in the process of pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits. The sample group of the study c<strong>on</strong>sists of 250
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last class students studying at a social sciences vocati<strong>on</strong>al school in Antalya, Turkey.<br />
Behaviour scale for psychological violence, scale of pers<strong>on</strong>ality characteristics and<br />
depressi<strong>on</strong> scale were used in the study. Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of mobbing of the students came from<br />
rural areas with low-income are higher than city dwellers students with normal or high<br />
income levels. However, it was observed that male students were exposed to mobbing more<br />
than female students.<br />
Keywords: Psychological violence, pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits, mood<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
1. MOBBING<br />
According to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Labour Organisati<strong>on</strong> (ILO), mobbing is defined as, "<br />
behavior in attitudes for the purpose of manifesting individual or group sabotage, revenge,<br />
cruel, malicious or insulting " (Karavardar, 2009). At the same time, mobbing is identified as<br />
a problem rapidly growing in workplaces by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong>. Mobbing,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stituting behavior to the target pers<strong>on</strong> for humiliating and intimidating. This type of<br />
behavior are laid out with the open or secret using verbal or n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors (Lewis et<br />
al., 2002).<br />
Mobbing is d<strong>on</strong>e expressing hostile and unethical communicati<strong>on</strong> in a systematic way in<br />
working life that is applied by <strong>on</strong>e or a few people against a pers<strong>on</strong> to make <strong>on</strong>e helpless and<br />
defenseless according Leymann'a (1996). Mobbing behavior is usually performed, covering a<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g period.<br />
According Tınaz (2008), eight chapters are grouped under the facts underlying the<br />
mobbing behavior. These are:<br />
Enforcing individual to get the rule of group accepted<br />
To enjoy from hostility<br />
Only the pleasure<br />
Boredom<br />
Reinforce prejudices<br />
Believe that they have exclusive rights<br />
Selfishness<br />
The risk of mobbing targets is valid for every<strong>on</strong>e in all businesses and cultures. Although<br />
mobbing process mechanism in the process develops in different ways in different offices<br />
typically it is observed in a very typical and a similar way. Four different types of individual<br />
are in danger of being victimized in workplaces (Huber, 1994):<br />
Only <strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong>: This pers<strong>on</strong> can be a single male / female working in an office whether<br />
he/she works with the large numbers of female or visa versa in a workplace.<br />
A different pers<strong>on</strong>: any pers<strong>on</strong> who is n<strong>on</strong>-fusible and different from others, This can be an<br />
individual dressed in a different manner as well as impaired or foreign pers<strong>on</strong>. Sometimes,<br />
being just <strong>on</strong>e single pers<strong>on</strong> within married pers<strong>on</strong>s in an office, or being a married pers<strong>on</strong><br />
within singles is a sufficient reas<strong>on</strong> to be victim of mobbing. Mobbing possibility is very high<br />
of minority people to be involved in a group.
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Successful people: has a major achievement, winning the admirati<strong>on</strong> of the supervisor or<br />
direct administrati<strong>on</strong> of a customer or a pers<strong>on</strong> who praises, can easily envied by colleagues.<br />
All kind of games are played from behind of individuals, rumors can be removed and expose<br />
to work sabotage.<br />
New particapated pers<strong>on</strong>: Prensence of a popular pers<strong>on</strong> working in that positi<strong>on</strong> before, or<br />
have very much liked than the new arrival <strong>on</strong>e with higher quality than the other pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
working there increases the risk of being victim of mobbing.<br />
Workplace mobbing, takes place in four phases (Tınaz et al, 2008).<br />
In the first stage, the c<strong>on</strong>flict is in questi<strong>on</strong><br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d stage, there is the start of the workplace psychological harassment<br />
The third stage, the introducti<strong>on</strong> of business management and false ascripti<strong>on</strong> and definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
could be menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
In the fourth stage, there are moving away from working life<br />
Mobbing, as the results of both the victim exposed to mobbing is of great importance both<br />
in terms of business (Tinaz, 2008). According to the report of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Labour<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong> (1998), mobbing in terms of business, medium-and l<strong>on</strong>g-term, interpers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>s, and undermine the entire business envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
2. PERSONALITY<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality is the own image factors affecting behaviors <strong>on</strong> thinking and feeling. The<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ality encompasses all the behaviors, which are c<strong>on</strong>stantly under the influence of<br />
internal and external stimuli of the individual c<strong>on</strong>stituting psychological, biological, genetic<br />
properties and all the abilities acquired, motives, emoti<strong>on</strong>s, desires, habits. (Tınar, 1999:93).<br />
However, people built distinctive form of a relati<strong>on</strong> with other members which can be<br />
defined as a c<strong>on</strong>sistent and structured in internal and external envir<strong>on</strong>ment (Cüceoğlu, 1997:<br />
404).<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality is the complex of the ensemble of a number of features. But all this came<br />
together and combined with an individual <strong>on</strong> the basis of features, mainly the issues related to<br />
the three main divisi<strong>on</strong>s. Generally, a double functi<strong>on</strong>, which may be associated with <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
three slice. In fact, in this issue it is not possible to make a distincti<strong>on</strong> in the form of clear and<br />
precise lines. This is an abstracti<strong>on</strong> and generalizati<strong>on</strong>s to better understand the formati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ality. By such an approach, the c<strong>on</strong>cept c<strong>on</strong>sists of three slices. These are the character,<br />
temperament and talent. Interpers<strong>on</strong>al differences, differences in the relati<strong>on</strong>ship of these<br />
features will lead to differences or features (Erdogan, 1994: 244-245).<br />
Character: Pers<strong>on</strong>ality and the c<strong>on</strong>cept "character" is the most frequently used in the same<br />
sense, Character, refers to the social and moral property of pers<strong>on</strong>ality. Character, is like a<br />
skelet<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>ality. The c<strong>on</strong>cept of the character is closely related to social values and<br />
moral rules with its envir<strong>on</strong>ment (Zel, 2001: 27).<br />
Temperament: The sec<strong>on</strong>d aspect of pers<strong>on</strong>ality is mood. In fact, character significantly<br />
depends <strong>on</strong> temperament (temperament). Temperament is a significant aspect of c<strong>on</strong>tinuous<br />
and cyclical. The behavior is seen as the evoluti<strong>on</strong> of social, moral aspects, temperament,<br />
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which is the c<strong>on</strong>tinuous part of these aspects. The hereditary aspect of the property show<br />
individual attitudes, which should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as the propert of pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Talent: is the most important skill c<strong>on</strong>stituting the third slices of pers<strong>on</strong>ality. Talent, owned<br />
by an individual refers to the entire mental and physical abilities. It is all of the form of<br />
features to analyze, realize outcome and perform some of the facts, such as the totality of<br />
mental properties.<br />
2.1. Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Type A and B<br />
The stress was firstly revealed by two cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman in the late<br />
1960s. It is perceived to be the c<strong>on</strong>cept of "type A" and "type B" pers<strong>on</strong>ality styles that has<br />
today wide acceptance (Luthans, 1995:406). Pers<strong>on</strong>ality type has been closely associated<br />
with daily lives of individuals and at the levels of exposured stress. According to the findings<br />
<strong>on</strong> this subject, type A has higher heart disorders probability then type B. (Vecchio, 1995:<br />
498).<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, in middle and lower echel<strong>on</strong>s of organizati<strong>on</strong>s type A pers<strong>on</strong>ality were more<br />
successful than individuals, but B pers<strong>on</strong>ality individuals are more successful than A toplevel,<br />
since they are patient and detailed thought. In this case, it is possible to say that might<br />
be more successful by making shifts individuals with Type A and type B in accordance with<br />
the requirements of time and envir<strong>on</strong>ment,. However, it should be known that the probability<br />
of achieving seems within the individuals (Luthans, 1995: 407).<br />
Behaviors of type A are aggressive, impatient and very much intended. They want to be<br />
more successful as quickly as possible. Lively, energetic feel, and hold themselves do not<br />
tolerate. With the behavior of type B is the individual, <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>trary less competitive, less<br />
devoted to work and less susceptible to time. Such people are in less c<strong>on</strong>flict with time and<br />
more balanced to life and has very comfortable. Running in a stable speed and feel more<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence in himself. It can not be said A type more or less successful than B type pers<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, Friedman and Rosenman said that there was no pure people as type A or type B,<br />
instead, it might have expressed more inclined to <strong>on</strong>e of two types. For example, <strong>on</strong>e often<br />
exhibits a type A pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits, but can be a calm and quiet for a short time, in some cases<br />
he can even forget the time (Moorhead and Griffin, 1992: 463).<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality type of discovered by researchers has been associated closely with eachother<br />
at both levels of exposure to stress in their daily lives of individuals. Following lists is the<br />
"Feel and the complex moti<strong>on</strong> referred to as the properties of pers<strong>on</strong>s " type A and B by<br />
Rosenman Friedman and (Luthans, 1995: 304):<br />
Tablo 1: A and Type B Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Traits<br />
Type A Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Traits Type B Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Traits<br />
They are in acti<strong>on</strong> every time. They are interested in time<br />
Quick walk. Patient<br />
Quick eat. Do not like to brag.
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Quick walk. Do for fun, not to win games and sports.<br />
Impatient. Inside of a comfortable way to rest.<br />
Do two things at a time. Are not under the pressure of finishing the job<br />
immediately<br />
There is no free time. They are earnest pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The numbers are against the obsessi<strong>on</strong>s. Never do not rush<br />
Numbers tend to measure success<br />
Aggressive.<br />
Competitive.<br />
Are under c<strong>on</strong>tinuous pressure of time<br />
3. DEPRESSION<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> is a feeling of deep gloom, in a state of thought, speech and moti<strong>on</strong> slowdown,<br />
recessi<strong>on</strong>, worthlessness, smallness, weakness, reluctance, thoughts and feelings of<br />
pessimism is a syndrome with symptoms such as slowing down the physiological functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Öztürk, 1985). For example, fail in get a job, fall in entered an exam, losing-close relatives<br />
cause emoti<strong>on</strong>ally depressi<strong>on</strong> in situati<strong>on</strong>s. State of emoti<strong>on</strong>al distress can be short put,<br />
sometimes days, it can also take weeks or even m<strong>on</strong>ths. Here are some of the features in<br />
humans depressi<strong>on</strong> (South, 2009: 307-308):<br />
<strong>on</strong>eself to feel worthless and inadequate,<br />
to lose the joy of life,<br />
self-c<strong>on</strong>stantly feeling tired,<br />
to look at people and events pessimistically,<br />
the pers<strong>on</strong>'s c<strong>on</strong>tinuous speech,<br />
to complain c<strong>on</strong>stantly.<br />
The outer appearance of the pers<strong>on</strong> who is neurotic depressi<strong>on</strong>, usually depressed, sad and<br />
hopeless. There is a fake-view of depressive pers<strong>on</strong> with grotesqueness or expressi<strong>on</strong>-less<br />
face. Each event is seen from the pessimistic directi<strong>on</strong>, he has no interested in any activity<br />
giving pleasure, may not be al<strong>on</strong>e, can sit for hours by staring. He can complain of<br />
difficulties living in low c<strong>on</strong>centrating. Sleep disturbances, restlessness, can cause symptoms<br />
such as irritability and internal tensi<strong>on</strong> (Kutash, 1965: 967).<br />
According to the theory developed by Beck and his colleagues, depressi<strong>on</strong> is not mainly<br />
disorder of feeling it is a cognitive disorder. Three important cognitive disorders are refered<br />
to the formati<strong>on</strong> of depressi<strong>on</strong> (Beck, 1979):<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>'s self negative view: Depressive people feel algae itself, incomplete, defeated, serves<br />
as worthless and inadequate. Believes, and sees itself being no-loved rejects himself due to<br />
omissi<strong>on</strong>s.
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Negative overview to experiences: Depressed people interpret it as an indicati<strong>on</strong> of the lack<br />
of envir<strong>on</strong>ment interacti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Negative look to the future: People desperate future, in the dark, deprived and feels<br />
frustrated.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits may be a risk factor for depressi<strong>on</strong>. Difficulty in coping with stress and<br />
interpers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships throughout the life of an individual creates a neurotic, dependent,<br />
obsessive, introverted, low self-esteem, n<strong>on</strong>-aggressive, anxious, pessimistic pers<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
traits, which are reported to be developing things more <strong>on</strong> the depressi<strong>on</strong> (Unal, 2000).<br />
4. METHOD<br />
4.1. Populati<strong>on</strong> and Sampling<br />
The study populati<strong>on</strong> were c<strong>on</strong>sisted of students in the Akdeniz University. The sampling<br />
was d<strong>on</strong>e from the last grade students attending School of Social Sciences in Akdeniz<br />
University. Students was chosen from <strong>on</strong>es since students had spent more time. They could<br />
also better evaluate the school and their spiritual status behavior c<strong>on</strong>taining the mobbing. A<br />
total of 300 questi<strong>on</strong>naires were distributed to students, and of 300 questi<strong>on</strong>naire 271 could<br />
be received and was statistically evaluated by 90.3% ratio as re-cycle.<br />
4.2. Data Collecti<strong>on</strong> Tool<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al Informati<strong>on</strong> Form. In this form, questi<strong>on</strong>s are asked in order to obtain informati<strong>on</strong><br />
the participants age, gender, reading program, income level, family, school and<br />
accomodati<strong>on</strong>. Furthermore, questi<strong>on</strong>s were asked as "had they the opportunity what would<br />
be their choice?" to the students and to choose between two opti<strong>on</strong>s was requested. The<br />
answers were evaluated to be "choice opportunity" score to these questi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Mobbing Survey In the first running of questi<strong>on</strong>naire 45 questi<strong>on</strong>s covering the<br />
"psychological intimidati<strong>on</strong> Leymann (LIPT) Scale" developed by the first researcher<br />
Leymann (1996) and 14 questi<strong>on</strong>s of Rakness Einarsen (1997) <strong>on</strong> mobbing and appropriate<br />
40 questi<strong>on</strong>s of "Negative Behavior (NAQ) Scale" developed by Denise Salin (Salin, 2001)<br />
were used. These issues in the form of judgments took place in survey and answering were<br />
asked as the <strong>on</strong>e mark of the opti<strong>on</strong>s related to himself ¨to be "always", "often", "sometimes",<br />
"rarely" and "never". "5-point Likert Scale " was used to be scaling method of basic research.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Questi<strong>on</strong>naire Pers<strong>on</strong>ality type, is a modified versi<strong>on</strong> of the Jenkins activity<br />
survey (Jetkins, Ayzanski and Rosenman, 1971). In this study, to identify the pers<strong>on</strong>ality <strong>on</strong><br />
the structure of A and B, pers<strong>on</strong>ality scale of Durna were used (Durna, 2004). 20 items were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered (Moorhead and Griffin, 1992: 465; Baltaş and Baltaş: 2000: 148-150) to be the<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics of a scale c<strong>on</strong>taining. habits, attitudes towards time under various<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, envir<strong>on</strong>ment, relati<strong>on</strong>ships, thoughts and feelings about.<br />
These issues in the form of judgments took place in survey and answering were asked as<br />
the <strong>on</strong>e mark of the opti<strong>on</strong>s related to himself ¨to be "always", "often", "sometimes", "rarely"<br />
and "never". "5-point Likert Scale " was used to be scaling method of basic research.
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Analysis of Mental Status Questi<strong>on</strong>naire. Beck Depressi<strong>on</strong> Index (BDI) developed in order to<br />
measure emoti<strong>on</strong>al, cognitive, somatic, and motivati<strong>on</strong>al comp<strong>on</strong>ents by a self-report scale<br />
(Beck, 1961). BDI is <strong>on</strong>e of the most frequently tools used giving informati<strong>on</strong> about himself<br />
<strong>on</strong> research and clinics. Although the main objective is to evaluate the symptoms of<br />
depressi<strong>on</strong> in a comprehensive way it is allow the assessment of cognitive c<strong>on</strong>tent. The scale<br />
is composed of 21 items, two items <strong>on</strong> emoti<strong>on</strong>s, eleven items <strong>on</strong> cogniti<strong>on</strong>s, two-material<br />
behavior, five-item <strong>on</strong> physical symptoms, an item is divided to the symptoms within<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s. A questi<strong>on</strong>naire c<strong>on</strong>sisting of 21 questi<strong>on</strong>s were used in the evaluati<strong>on</strong> of BDI. Each<br />
item is composed of four head.<br />
4.3. Data Analysis<br />
For the purpose of the study, independent sample t test (Independent Samples T-Test) and<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used. In making binary comparis<strong>on</strong>s, Scheffe<br />
cases in homogeneity of variance; Tamhane test was used in cases not provided. The data was<br />
analyzed using SPSS 17.0 sofware by 0.05%. 0.05-0.01 levels of significance were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered during investigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
5. RESULTS AND COMMENTS<br />
5.1. Demographic Properties<br />
Demographic findings <strong>on</strong> individuals included in the study are given in Table 1.<br />
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants<br />
Variable N %<br />
Gender Female 142 52,4<br />
Male 128 47,2<br />
Total 270 99,6<br />
Age 18-19 70 25,8<br />
20-21 135 49,8<br />
22 and above 64 23,6<br />
Total 269 99,3<br />
Programme Educati<strong>on</strong> in the Daytime 143 52,8<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> in the Evening 128 47,2<br />
Total 271 100<br />
Income level Low 54 19,9<br />
Medium 193 71,2
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Family's place of<br />
residence<br />
High 23 8,5<br />
Total 270 99,6<br />
Village 44 16,2<br />
County 32 11,8<br />
City 195 72,0<br />
Total 271 100<br />
Staying with family Yes 138 50,9<br />
No 132 48,7<br />
Total 270 99,6<br />
Choose a school 1-4 183 67,5<br />
What would be your<br />
choice if the<br />
opportunity<br />
5-8 35 12,9<br />
9-12 37 13,7<br />
13 and above 16 5,9<br />
Total 271 100<br />
Same school 105 38,7<br />
Different school 166 61,3<br />
Total 271 100<br />
In examining the demographic characteristics of resp<strong>on</strong>dents, 52.4% of resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
indicating gender females, 47.2% percent is composed of males. 25.8% of the participants<br />
examined the age groups' range as 18-19 ages, 20-21 ages by 49.8% and the age above of 22<br />
by 23.6%. 52.8% of the participants are attending day-school, 47.2% percent are in the night -<br />
academic programs. In terms of income levels, 19.9% of resp<strong>on</strong>dents were reported to be<br />
low, 72.2% percent moderate and 8.5% is seen to have high levels of income. Participants'<br />
families, 16.2% percent in the villages, and 11.8% lived in towns by 72% in cities of the<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents live together with their families by 50.9% and 48.7% lives in an envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
separated from their families. The participants prefers are examined in view of attending<br />
school as a choice, 67.5% percent of those who chose the first of four preference, 12.9%<br />
percent of those who chose between the fifth and the eighth choice, those who choose<br />
between nine and twelve chosen by 13.7%, and 5.9% is between 13 and further chooser.<br />
Participants had the opportunity to make a choice again, 38.7% was stated to "would choose<br />
the same school", and 61,3% had "would choose another school,".
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5.2. Results <strong>on</strong> gender differentiati<strong>on</strong><br />
Table 2: The Independent Samples T Test Results of The Students Regarding Their<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality, Depressi<strong>on</strong> and Percepti<strong>on</strong> of Mobbing According to Gender Variable<br />
Level N Mean Std. Deviati<strong>on</strong> Std. Error Mean df t P<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Female 132 61,9167 10,22274 ,88978 257 -1.643 ,102<br />
Male 127 63,8976 9,12943 ,81011<br />
Mobbing Female 140 50,1786 12,93162 1,09292 263 -4,198 ,000**<br />
Male 125 61,8000 29,76873 2,66260<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> Female 134 30,3209 8,26588 ,71406 259 -,864 ,388<br />
Male 127 31,2520 9,13563 ,81066<br />
**. The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level.<br />
When the Table 2 is examined, a significant difference is not found between pers<strong>on</strong>ality and<br />
depressi<strong>on</strong> according to gender variable. On the other hand, percepti<strong>on</strong> of male students <strong>on</strong><br />
mobbing are higher than female students at 0.01 significant level.<br />
5.3. Results <strong>on</strong> differentiati<strong>on</strong> by age<br />
Table 3: ANOVA Analysis <strong>on</strong> Pers<strong>on</strong>ality, Depressi<strong>on</strong> and Percepti<strong>on</strong> of Mobbing in terms<br />
of Age.<br />
Age<br />
Sum of<br />
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Between Groups 361,885 2 180,943 1,913 ,150<br />
Mobbing<br />
Within Groups 24119,882 255 94,588<br />
Total 24481,767 257<br />
Between Groups 423,625 2 211,813 ,391 ,677<br />
Within Groups 141383,068 261 541,698<br />
Total 141806,693 263<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> Between Groups 9,349 2 4,674 ,061 ,941<br />
Within Groups 19579,155 257 76,183
Age<br />
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Sum of<br />
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Between Groups 361,885 2 180,943 1,913 ,150<br />
Mobbing<br />
Within Groups 24119,882 255 94,588<br />
Total 24481,767 257<br />
Between Groups 423,625 2 211,813 ,391 ,677<br />
Within Groups 141383,068 261 541,698<br />
Total 141806,693 263<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> Between Groups 9,349 2 4,674 ,061 ,941<br />
Within Groups 19579,155 257 76,183<br />
Total 19588,504 259<br />
When the Table 3 is examined, a significant difference is not found between depressi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ality and mobbing according to age variable of the students in ANOVA analysis.<br />
5.4. Findings related to differentiati<strong>on</strong> by program category<br />
Table 4: The Independent Samples T Test Results of The Students Regarding Their Pers<strong>on</strong>ality,<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> and Percepti<strong>on</strong> of Mobbing According to Program Category Variable<br />
Level N Mean Std. Deviati<strong>on</strong> Std. Error Mean df t P<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Daytime 137 61,7372 9.63547 0.82321 258 -1,909 ,057*<br />
Evening 123 64,0407 9.80415 0.88401<br />
Mobbing Daytime 139 54,2518 22.85274 1.93834 264 -1,061 ,290<br />
Evening 127 57,2677 23.47658 2.08320<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> Daytime 135 30,1630 8.65957 0.74530 260 -1,227 ,221<br />
Evening 127 31,4803 8.70582 0.77252<br />
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.<br />
When the Table 4 is examined, a significant difference is not found between mobbing and<br />
depressi<strong>on</strong> according to program category variable. On the other hand, percepti<strong>on</strong> of evening<br />
program students <strong>on</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>ality are slightly higher than daytime program students at 0.05
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significant level. Accordingly, the evening educati<strong>on</strong> students can be said to be pr<strong>on</strong>e to Type<br />
A students of daytime educati<strong>on</strong> can be said to be pr<strong>on</strong>e to Type B pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits.<br />
5.5. Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for differentiati<strong>on</strong> according to the category of income Level<br />
Table 5: ANOVA Analysis <strong>on</strong> Pers<strong>on</strong>ality, Depressi<strong>on</strong> and Percepti<strong>on</strong> of Mobbing in terms of<br />
Family Income.<br />
Income<br />
N Mean<br />
Std.<br />
Deviati<strong>on</strong><br />
Sum of<br />
Squares df<br />
Mean<br />
Square F P<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Low 52 64,6731 10,12611 B. Groups 259.011 2 129.506 1,370 ,256<br />
Middle 184 62,4076 9,61227 W. Groups 24207.089 256 94.559<br />
High 23 61,3478 9,69821 Total 24466.100 258<br />
Total 259 62,7683 9,73806<br />
Mobbing Low 54 61,4074 27,20399 B. Groups 6312.071 2 3156.036 6,090 ,003**<br />
Middle 188 52,7074 17,27366 W. Groups 135784.555 262 518.262<br />
High 23 66,8696 43,04575 Total 142096.626 264<br />
Total 265 55,7094 23,20010<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> Low 54 34,5185 10,54504 B. Groups 957.217 2 478.608 6,598 ,002**<br />
Middle 184 29,7500 7,70866 W. Groups 18715.895 258 72.542<br />
High 23 30,2174 9,40965 Total 19673.111 260<br />
Total 261 30,7778 8,69861<br />
**. The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level.<br />
When the Table 5 is examined, there is no differences between the income levels of students<br />
and percepti<strong>on</strong>s of the pers<strong>on</strong>ality. A significant difference were observed between<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s of depressi<strong>on</strong> and mobbing at the 0.01 level. High income group to the students'<br />
exposure to mobbing rate is higher than others. Depressi<strong>on</strong> levels of low-income group are<br />
higher than other income groups of students.
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5.6. Findings about where her family lives differentiati<strong>on</strong> by category<br />
Table 6: ANOVA Analysis <strong>on</strong> Pers<strong>on</strong>ality, Depressi<strong>on</strong> and Percepti<strong>on</strong> of Mobbing in terms of<br />
Family’s Place of Residence.<br />
Family's place of<br />
residence N Mean<br />
Std.<br />
Deviati<strong>on</strong><br />
Sum of<br />
Squares df<br />
Mean<br />
Square F P<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality Village 42 63.5000 9.83337 B. Groups 132.235 2 66,117 ,692 ,502<br />
County 32 64.4063 8.59429 W. Groups 24564.977 257 95,584<br />
City 186 62.4032 9.94872 Total 24697.212 259<br />
Total 260 62.8269 9.76504<br />
Mobbing Village 44 65,5227 29.93286 B. Groups 5143.399 2 2571.699 4,938 ,008**<br />
County 30 52,5667 15.15138 W. Groups 136975.323 263 520.819<br />
City 192 53,9271 21.92216 Total 142118.722 265<br />
Total 266 55,6917 23.15809<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong> Village 41 33,7073 11.44387 B. Groups 444.633 2 222,316 2,989 ,052*<br />
County 32 31,2188 8.48427 W. Groups 19267.047 259 74,390<br />
City 189 30,1005 7.92152 Total 19711.679 261<br />
Total 262 30,8015 8.69044<br />
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.<br />
**. The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level.<br />
When the Table 6 is examined, there is no differences between family’s place of residence<br />
and percepti<strong>on</strong>s of the pers<strong>on</strong>ality. A significant difference is observed between percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of mobbing at the 0.01 level and a partial difference is observed in the percepti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
depressi<strong>on</strong> at 0.05 level. Rural origin students' percepti<strong>on</strong>s of mobbing were higher than other<br />
students. However, students’ with rural origin percepti<strong>on</strong>s of depressi<strong>on</strong> were slightly higher<br />
that of the other students.<br />
5.7. Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for School Choice Opportunity differentiati<strong>on</strong> by category<br />
Table 7: ANOVA Analysis <strong>on</strong> Pers<strong>on</strong>ality, Depressi<strong>on</strong> and Percepti<strong>on</strong> of Mobbing in terms of the<br />
Opportunity to Choose.
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your choice if the<br />
opportunity N Mean<br />
Std.<br />
Deviati<strong>on</strong><br />
Std. Error<br />
Mean<br />
df t P<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality 1,00 103 63,1359 9,77296 ,96296 258 ,413 ,680<br />
2,00 157 62,6242 9,78579 ,78099<br />
Mobbing 1,00 103 54,8835 21,06773 2,07586 264 -,452 ,652<br />
2,00 163 56,2025 24,43640 1,91401<br />
Depresy<strong>on</strong> 1,00 104 30,0288 8,11741 ,79598 260 -1,168 ,244<br />
6. CONCLUSION<br />
2,00 158 31,3101 9,03701 ,71895<br />
School life, c<strong>on</strong>stitutes an envir<strong>on</strong>ment in which students spend a large porti<strong>on</strong> of their<br />
days. The Students who have different ideas, expectati<strong>on</strong>s, experiences, pers<strong>on</strong>alities, lives<br />
and the life plans come together in the school life. Despite these differences, unintended<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences can occur within these pers<strong>on</strong>s who have to do training together. Students can<br />
exhibit undesirable behavior against student friends due to the problems living in private<br />
lives, targets they want to reach.<br />
Due to differences in behavior lasting persistent and l<strong>on</strong>g period may cause psychological<br />
intimidati<strong>on</strong> and mobbing. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, students are exposed to many adverse c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and behaviors under intense stress experienced in the school envir<strong>on</strong>ment. This behavior<br />
causes being unhappy of students exposed to mobbing, which leads to both psychologically<br />
and physically disorder.<br />
At the end of this study it has been understood that many students against negative<br />
behavior exhibit different resp<strong>on</strong>ses by the effect of pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits. According to results of<br />
study, type A pers<strong>on</strong>ality characteristics which have higher pr<strong>on</strong>e to percepti<strong>on</strong>s of mobbing<br />
than students pr<strong>on</strong>e to pers<strong>on</strong>ality related to type B.<br />
Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of mobbing of the students came from rural areas with low-income are higher<br />
than city dwellers students with normal or high income levels. However, it was observed that<br />
male students were exposed to mobbing more than female students.<br />
As a result, school boards should support the students <strong>on</strong> how begining and c<strong>on</strong>tinue of<br />
mobbing process can be prevented. Psychological resistance, searching of possessed rights,<br />
perceived social support and measurements to copy with stress and awareness should be<br />
raised by educati<strong>on</strong> programs.
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REFFERENCES<br />
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Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive Therapy of<br />
Depressi<strong>on</strong>, New York, Guilford.<br />
Cüceloğlu, D. (1997). İnsan ve Davranışı: Psikolojinin Temel Kuramları. Remzi Kitapevi,<br />
İstanbul.<br />
Erdoğan, İ. (1994). İşletmelerde Davranış. Beta Basım Yayım, İstanbul.<br />
Güney, S. (2009). Davranış Bilimleri. Nobel Yayınevi, Ankara.<br />
Huber, B. (1994). Mobbing: Psychoterror am Arbeitsplatz, Niedernhausen, Falken.<br />
Karavardar, G. (2009). İş Yaşamında Psikolojik Yıldırma ve Psikolojik Yıldırmaya Direnç<br />
Gösteren Kişilik Özellikleri ile İlişkisi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. İstanbul Üniversitesi<br />
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.<br />
Kutash, S. B. (1965). Psych<strong>on</strong>euroses. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of Clinical<br />
Psychology, 12: 71-78.<br />
Lewis, J., Coursol, D. & Wahl, K. H. (2002). Addressing Issues of Workplace Harassment:<br />
Counseling The Targets. Journal of Employment Counseling, 39: 109–116.<br />
Leymann, H. (1996). The C<strong>on</strong>tent and <strong>Development</strong> of Mobbing at Work. European Journal<br />
of Work and Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Psychology, 5(2): 165-184.<br />
Luthans, F. (1995). Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Behavior. Literatür Yayıncılık, İstanbul<br />
Moorhead, G. & Griffin, R. W. (1992). Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Behavior. Hought<strong>on</strong> Mifflin<br />
Company, Bost<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Öztürk, M.O. (1985). Psikanaliz ve Psikoterapi. Sevinç Matbaası, Ankara.<br />
Tınar, M. Y. (1999). Çalışma Yasamı ve Kişilik. Mercek Dergisi, MESS, 14.<br />
Tınaz, P. (2008). İşyerinde Psikolojik Taciz. Beta Yayıncılık, 2.Baskı, İstanbul.<br />
Tınaz,P., Bayram, F. & Ergin,H. (2008). Çalışma Psikolojisi ve Hukuki Boyutlarıyla<br />
İşyerinde Psikoljik Taciz (Mobbing), Beta Yayınevi, İstanbul.<br />
Ünal, Y. (2000). Depresy<strong>on</strong> ve Kişilik. Duygudurum Bozuklukları Dizisi, 1(2): 72-76.<br />
Vecchio, R.P. (1995). Organizatioanl Behavior, Fort Worth: Dryden Press, England.<br />
Zel, U. (2001). Kişilik ve Liderlik: Evrensel Boyutlarıyla Yönetsel Açıdan Araştırmalar,<br />
Teoriler ve Yorumlar. Seçkin Yayıncılık, Ankara.
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Technologies Aiming To Improve Work Efficiency And Sustainability: Pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
Tracking Systems<br />
Abstract<br />
Halil Kaygisiz1, Abdülkadir Çakir1, Seyit Akpancar, Eyüp Çaki1<br />
1Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey<br />
2Rize University, Rize, Turkey<br />
E-mails: halilkaygisiz@sdu.edu.tr, abdulkadircakir@sdu.edu.tr,<br />
sakpancar@yahoo.com,eyupcaki@sdu.edu.tr<br />
In this study, by dealing with pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems used in business sector, it is<br />
examined their effects <strong>on</strong> business productivity and sustainability of these effects. Pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
tracking systems are computer-based electr<strong>on</strong>ic systems which enable to record business<br />
entry and exit times and preparati<strong>on</strong> of the daily and m<strong>on</strong>thly reports. It is aimed to increase<br />
business efficiency by ensuring the c<strong>on</strong>tinuati<strong>on</strong> and sustainability of pers<strong>on</strong>nel.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems, according to applicati<strong>on</strong> of RFID (Radio Frequency<br />
Identificati<strong>on</strong>), are performed by using biometric and barcode technologies. RFID can work<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tactless different from biometric and barcode technologies. RFID is the most comm<strong>on</strong><br />
technology used in Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems because of this advantage.<br />
It is thought that staff awareness will increase <strong>on</strong> the use of tracking systems in the workplace<br />
with this study discussed the sustainability and dealing with the benefits of the Pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
tracking systems enabling the detecti<strong>on</strong> of workplace entry and exit times of workers.<br />
Keywords: Radio Frequency Identificati<strong>on</strong>, Pers<strong>on</strong>nel Tracking Systems, Sustainability,<br />
Business Efficiency, Identificati<strong>on</strong> Technologies<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
It needs to ensure the c<strong>on</strong>trol of employees in order to work much more quickly and<br />
efficiently in companies that have many employees. In workplaces, in order to increase the<br />
productivity of pers<strong>on</strong>nel and maintain c<strong>on</strong>trol of the pers<strong>on</strong>nel can be achieved by using<br />
tracking systems. Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems: having software and hardware equipments and<br />
developed for m<strong>on</strong>itoring and c<strong>on</strong>trol of factory staff, are a c<strong>on</strong>trol mechanism that follows<br />
the m<strong>on</strong>thly fees, all working hours and overtime of staff. With this system, business<br />
enterprises are able to follow, without any fault and forgetting, that staff work how many<br />
days and hours of within a specified period; lost time such as permit, late coming, early going<br />
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no-coming. Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems are the c<strong>on</strong>temporary systems of the key productivity.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems provide to obtain mainly scoring payroll, and a wide variety of<br />
reports related to c<strong>on</strong>tinuity of c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
2. PERSONNEL TRACKING SYSTEMS<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems are the systems which provide m<strong>on</strong>itoring work, overtime,<br />
absenteeism, leave, rest periods and the calculati<strong>on</strong>, employees in the workplace is a<br />
workplace inputs / outputs to be authorized. Employers with these systems are intended to<br />
provide the most efficient use of the total workforce.<br />
Thanks to pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems, caused by human factor errors are minimized during<br />
the preparati<strong>on</strong> of payroll. In additi<strong>on</strong>, these obtained reports help the top management of<br />
enterprises by lighting the way to get more reliable decisi<strong>on</strong>s for the future.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems, enterprises that perform calculati<strong>on</strong>s by hand due to lost time and<br />
human error factor in the preventi<strong>on</strong> of the damage caused to the ec<strong>on</strong>omies provided by<br />
businesses, such as follow-up of operati<strong>on</strong>al staff brings discipline and modernity. The<br />
business which is able to c<strong>on</strong>trol the pers<strong>on</strong>nel costs of staff and working hours c<strong>on</strong>trol, can<br />
also capture the chances of becoming more effective in highly competitive markets<br />
(Buyurgan, N. at al., 2009).<br />
Firstly, the follow-up of pers<strong>on</strong>nel has been followed up with procedure of the signature. It<br />
has not found safe by business since staff write working hours themselves. In order to ensure<br />
the safety, it needed manpower, that is, an additi<strong>on</strong>al staff to c<strong>on</strong>trol. In order to c<strong>on</strong>firm the<br />
correctness of the staff working hours used card instead of staff c<strong>on</strong>stitutes the beginnings of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems. Punch clocks, has been followed up by giving each individual<br />
named and an<strong>on</strong>ymous tally cards.<br />
After scoring cards, with the systems of barcode cards, pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking have been d<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
By developing pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems, proximity systems have been used. It has began to<br />
establish a remote c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with the development of devices c<strong>on</strong>nected TCP / IP protocol.<br />
With recent technological advances, a lot of systems have become used for pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
tracking (Pala, Z., 2007).<br />
3. TECHNOLOGIES USED PERSONNEL TRACKING SYSTEMS<br />
In pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems, many automatic identificati<strong>on</strong> systems are used. The process<br />
of identificati<strong>on</strong> automatically makes life easy and most systems are designed for it. Each of<br />
these systems used a different technology, have different characteristics (Pala, Z., 2007).<br />
In pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems, automatic identificati<strong>on</strong> systems can be grouped mainly in 5<br />
groups (Fig. 1):<br />
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1. OCR: Optical Character Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Systems<br />
2. Biometric Identificati<strong>on</strong> System (Face Recogniti<strong>on</strong>, Fingerprint recogniti<strong>on</strong> ... etc.).<br />
3. Barcode Systems<br />
4. Smart Card Systems<br />
5. RFID: Identificati<strong>on</strong> with Radio Frequency<br />
Figure 1. Automatic identificati<strong>on</strong> systems (AUTO-ID)<br />
3.1. OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION SYSTEM (OCR)<br />
Optical character recogniti<strong>on</strong> systems (OCR), provides an understanding of different f<strong>on</strong>ts are<br />
read by machines. In scanners, to scan text and images, these systems are used. However,<br />
because the system is expensive, the field of using remains in a narrow frame. There are<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems based <strong>on</strong> identificati<strong>on</strong> of signatures that are taken in entry and<br />
exit of staff.<br />
3.2. BIOMETRIC RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
Biometrics, <strong>on</strong> the basis of assets can be defined as the science of measuring and counting.<br />
Biometrics, developed to determine the user's identity by recognizing the physical and<br />
behavioral characteristics of a computer-c<strong>on</strong>trolled, is a general term used for automated<br />
systems. Therefore, there are not any problems such as forgotten or stolen in the loss of the<br />
card or encrypted systems.<br />
Biometric systems aim to provide access c<strong>on</strong>trolled passage of individuals, that is, it is<br />
allowed for authorized pers<strong>on</strong>s it is denied to access the passage / the transiti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
unauthorized pers<strong>on</strong>s (Tuğaç, B., 2007).
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Types of biometric recogniti<strong>on</strong> system used in pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems:<br />
• Face Recogniti<strong>on</strong> System<br />
• Fingerprint Recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
• Voice Recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
• Iris Recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
• Retina Recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
(a) (b) (c) (d)<br />
Figure 2. Biometric Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Systems a)Face recogniti<strong>on</strong> device b)Fingerprint<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong> device c)Voice recogniti<strong>on</strong> device d)Iris recogniti<strong>on</strong> device<br />
3.2.1. FACE RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
Facial recogniti<strong>on</strong> systems work <strong>on</strong> the basis of comparis<strong>on</strong> by computer-aided that already<br />
committed to the database face images with an unknown face. These systems are used to<br />
select individuals within the access c<strong>on</strong>trol or crowd (Fig. 2a). The main problem in facial<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong> systems, with low quality pictures can cause problems in the comparis<strong>on</strong> whom<br />
wearing glasses, etc. accessories (Dağoğlu, M., 2006).<br />
3.2.2. FINGERPRINT RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
The fingerprint is unique and does not change according to age or other characteristics. Every<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> has different fingerprints Therefore; fingerprint is <strong>on</strong>e of the most reliable means of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al authenticati<strong>on</strong> (Fig. 2b). The fingerprint is a fingerprint recogniti<strong>on</strong> algorithm for<br />
each of the received image is different and unique feature of fingerprint ID code by creating a<br />
customized database extracts and saves. Each fingerprint code at the base of data is different<br />
for each pers<strong>on</strong> (Jain, A. K. ve Ross, A., 2004).<br />
3.2.3. IRIS RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
Iris recogniti<strong>on</strong> does not require close c<strong>on</strong>tact between the user and the reader and is an<br />
useful biometrics technology. The basic idea in iris recogniti<strong>on</strong> technologies is to perform <strong>on</strong>
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layer of the iris of the eye by taking the picture (Fig. 2c). This image taken from a database<br />
with a pers<strong>on</strong>'s iris removed and processed in accordance with the characteristic values. Then<br />
this characteristic in the database is used to the aim of comparing (Jain, A. K. ve Ross, A.,<br />
2003).<br />
3.2.4. VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
Sound biometry, emerged, determining changes over time in the sound frequency, is a system<br />
used to identify the pers<strong>on</strong> (Fig. 2d).<br />
The advantage of audio systems is the use of hands and eyes freely, but as in the case of the<br />
excitement, fear and chills, changes in sound volume, speed and quality, make identifying<br />
difficult. In today's technology, voice recogniti<strong>on</strong> tools with recorded sound are also possible<br />
deceiving. Therefore, applicati<strong>on</strong> of this technique is not safe (Dağoğlu, M., 2006).<br />
3.2.5. RETINA RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the principle scanning the retina by the unique structure of the optical systems is<br />
high reliability of this technology but it is difficult to use, since the user must look at a certain<br />
point. Although technology is adequate, it has not been accepted for this reas<strong>on</strong> (Tuğaç, B.,<br />
2007).<br />
3.3. BARCODE RECOGNITION SYSTEMS<br />
Today, Barcodes are <strong>on</strong>es of used in many areas and at least <strong>on</strong>e cost-effective automatic<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong> systems.<br />
Nowadays, the generally rectangular, the thickness of the thin lines are drawn parallel to each<br />
other and it is a symbol created by the black bars occurring in the gaps between the lines<br />
(Dağoğlu, M., 2006).<br />
3.4. SMART CARD SYSTEMS<br />
Smart cards are called “smart cards” including plastic cards into the “chips”<br />
(microprocessor). This is known as the main reas<strong>on</strong> for smart cards, high informati<strong>on</strong><br />
transport, processing, using data <strong>on</strong> the card, write and delete capabilities 'microprocessor' is<br />
carried out through.<br />
The applicati<strong>on</strong>s of smart card technology opened new fields of applicati<strong>on</strong> faster than<br />
before, magnetic media, such as to render safe and low cost, which cannot be possible so far<br />
(Jain, A. K. ve Ross, A., 2004).
3.5. RFID<br />
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RFID systems have similarities with smartcard systems. The main differences are adjacent to<br />
smart cards; data is exchanged between the data carrier device and the reader using radio<br />
waves rather than being used with the c<strong>on</strong>tact surface offers c<strong>on</strong>siderable (Kılınç, T., 2007).<br />
Without human impact/c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the RFID system design are motivated to collect<br />
creati<strong>on</strong> of informati<strong>on</strong>. It is a newer technology according to barcode technology and a<br />
system having advantages. The use around the world has been increasing year by year (Altun<br />
Z., 2010).<br />
The main advantage of RFID technology systems is characteristic of functi<strong>on</strong>ing that does<br />
not require c<strong>on</strong>tact with the visi<strong>on</strong> and the line Labels, snow, ice, fog, paint, dirt, inside the<br />
box, and a warehouse-like vehicle can also be read visually and envir<strong>on</strong>mentally challenging<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. RFID reader with a short resp<strong>on</strong>se time of 100ms and a lot (several hundred), the<br />
label can be read almost simultaneously. With labels combined with sensors can be obtained<br />
very important informati<strong>on</strong> about the status of the product. In RFID technology, it is much<br />
more secure about security <strong>on</strong> the magnetic cards since the data can be c<strong>on</strong>veyed by being<br />
encrypted thanks to many other features. In additi<strong>on</strong>, not needing physical c<strong>on</strong>tact enables<br />
ease of use. For example, with RFID technology credentials can be read in your wallet<br />
(Ismael, N.M., 2010).<br />
4. SUMMARY and CONCLUSION<br />
In this study, it is researched the technologies to improve business efficiency and<br />
sustainability in their workplace in order to ensure that research <strong>on</strong> tracking systems used by<br />
staff researched used. In additi<strong>on</strong> to increasing the efficiency of business today has great<br />
significance in maintaining the Auto-ID systems, pers<strong>on</strong>nel tracking systems with optical<br />
character recogniti<strong>on</strong> systems, biometric identificati<strong>on</strong> systems, barcode systems, smart card<br />
systems and radio frequency identificati<strong>on</strong> system is used. C<strong>on</strong>trol technology with the<br />
development of more secure systems can be d<strong>on</strong>e by employees in the workplace. Although<br />
Employee tracking systems improve business efficiency, there are lacks in terms of data<br />
security. With the development of future systems more reliable and stable in the workplace<br />
will be provided the maximum level of receiving and maintaining productivity.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Altun Z. (2010) RFID Okuyucunun Geliştirilmesi. Sakarya University, Ph.D. thesis, 108p,<br />
Sakarya.<br />
Buyurgan, N., Hardgrave, B.C., Baylor, J.L. and Walker, R.T. (2009) RFID in healthcare: a<br />
framework for uses and opportunities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Journal of Advanced Pervasive and<br />
Ubiquitous Computing, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 1-25.
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Dağoğlu, M. (2006) Radyo Frekans Tanımlama Sistem Tasarımı ve Üretimi, Hacettepe<br />
University, Ph.D. thesis, Ankara.<br />
Ismael, N.M. (2010) Radyo Frekans Kimlik Tanımı (RFID), Selçuk University, Ph.D. thesis,<br />
104p, K<strong>on</strong>ya.<br />
Jain, A. K., Ross, A. (2004) Mutlibiometric Systems, Communicati<strong>on</strong>s of the ACM, Vol. 74,<br />
pp. 34-40.<br />
Jain, A. K., Ross, A. (2003) Informati<strong>on</strong> fusi<strong>on</strong> in biometrics., Pattern Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Letters,<br />
Vol. 24, pp. 2115-2125.<br />
Kılınç, T. (2007) RFID Sistemlerin İncelenmesi ve Sağlık Sektöründe Kullanılması, Maltepe<br />
University, Ph.D. thesis, İstanbul.<br />
Pala, Z. (2007) RFID Teknolojisi İle Otomasy<strong>on</strong> Bir Uygulama Olarak: Otopark Takibi,<br />
Yüzüncü Yıl University, Ph.D. thesis, Van.<br />
Tugaç, B. (2007) Radyo frekans ile kimlik tanıma, Yıldız Teknik University, Ph.D. thesis,<br />
İstanbul.
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Socıal Anxıety And Usage Of Onlıne Technologıcal Communıcatı<strong>on</strong> Tools Am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Adolescents<br />
Abstract<br />
Bilal Sisman1 ,Sinan Yoruk2, Ali Eleren1<br />
1Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and Administrative Science Faculty, Department of Administrative<br />
Afy<strong>on</strong> Kocatepe University, Turkey<br />
2Educati<strong>on</strong> Faculty, Department of Educati<strong>on</strong> Science<br />
Afy<strong>on</strong> Kocatepe University, Turkey<br />
E-mails: bilalsis@hotmail.com, syoruk@aku.edu.tr,aeleren@hotmail.com<br />
With the growing popularity of Internet communicati<strong>on</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g adolescents, the<br />
Internet, <strong>on</strong>line social sites, instant messaging and cell ph<strong>on</strong>es have become an important<br />
social tool for their development. For adolescents who perceive low friendship quality,<br />
Internet use for communicati<strong>on</strong> purposes predicted less depressi<strong>on</strong>, whereas Internet use for<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-communicati<strong>on</strong> purposes predicted more depressi<strong>on</strong> and more social anxiety. This study<br />
examined teens’ use of social interactive technologies and the role that social anxiety plays<br />
<strong>on</strong> how adolescents communicate with others (technology or face-to-face). The questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
was prepared to apply in Afy<strong>on</strong>karahisar, Manisa and Uşak cities in order to measure any<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social anxiety and choise of communicati<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g adolescents.<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>naire datas were gathered from High School adolescents (ranged from 15-18;<br />
freshman, sophomore, junior and senior) included 544. Adolescents almost d<strong>on</strong>’t use<br />
messanger sites and mail address. They generally use instant message with their cell ph<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
They spend 1-2 hours for a day by listening music and avarage 30 minutes during the day by<br />
using Facebook. More than half of teens have cell ph<strong>on</strong>es that able to call, message and<br />
access to Internet. The findings of the current study found that females are using text<br />
messaging more than males. However, males are playing games for a l<strong>on</strong>g time than females.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, females are feeling more uncomfortable talking with others face-to-face than<br />
males. And, females also prefer talking with some <strong>on</strong> computer instead of talking face-to-face<br />
than males. Similarly, females prefer making new friends with some<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> computer more<br />
than males.<br />
Keywords: Social Anxiety, Communicati<strong>on</strong> Tools, Technology, Adolescents<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
The use of socially interactive technologies, such as <strong>on</strong>line social sites, text messaging or<br />
instant messaging is rising am<strong>on</strong>g young people (Pierce, 2009). Am<strong>on</strong>g adolescents, the<br />
Internet has become indispensable for instrumental purposes such as school work informati<strong>on</strong><br />
gathering as well as for communicati<strong>on</strong> purposes. The communicati<strong>on</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
Internet, such as e-mail, instant messaging (IM), blogs and chat rooms have entrenched<br />
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themselves in the lives of adolescents and the Internet has become an important social c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
in the lives of adolescents today. In fact, a nati<strong>on</strong>al survey of adolescents (10-17 years of age)<br />
revealed that in the year before they were surveyed 25% of Internet users had formed casual<br />
<strong>on</strong>line friendships (Wolak et al., 2002; Subrahmanyam and Lin, 2007).<br />
Instant messaging is also an increasingly popular form of communicati<strong>on</strong>. A study by the<br />
Pew Internet and American Life Project found that 53 milli<strong>on</strong> Americans use IM, and 36% of<br />
these users reported using IM <strong>on</strong> a daily basis (Shiu and Lenhart, 2004). IM is a textbased<br />
form of communicati<strong>on</strong> in which two or more people exchange text messages in realtime<br />
using the Internet (Lenhart, 2005).<br />
Some researches suggest that socially interacitve technologies allow users to avoid or replace<br />
face-to-face communicati<strong>on</strong> (Nie and Erbring, 2000). If the pers<strong>on</strong> is shy (socially anxious)<br />
and feels uncomfortable withy face-to-face interacti<strong>on</strong>s, these technologies may serve as a<br />
useful tool for avoiding such unpleasant situati<strong>on</strong>s and therefore may replace face-to-face<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> (Pierce, 2009).<br />
US, Canadian and Dutch studies have shown that the vast majority of adolescents spends<br />
several hours daily <strong>on</strong>line. Further surveys show that adolescents c<strong>on</strong>sider the Internet a<br />
highly important medium in their everyday social life and use it to form and maintain social<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships (Selfhout et al., 2009).<br />
Social anxiety, social fobia and shyness are features that seen every individuals of all ages.<br />
Both adolescents and adults who have social anxiety against life and their envir<strong>on</strong>ment scope,<br />
has led to more research <strong>on</strong> them. This study is related <strong>on</strong> teens that high school level about<br />
15-18. The reas<strong>on</strong> selecting this age range takes plece the beginning of puberty and the end of<br />
puberty. Because, puberty is a vital phase for growing of young people and determine their<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>alities. The study is not <strong>on</strong>ly for Afy<strong>on</strong>karahisar teens but also Uşak and Kütahya<br />
provinces are included. The purpose of this study is to research adolescents’ use of <strong>on</strong>line<br />
sites, computers, text messaging, cell ph<strong>on</strong>es and instant messaging related to social anxiety<br />
effectives technological tools versus face-to-face communicati<strong>on</strong>. Because, especially 15-20<br />
years-old-teens have been noticed to use <strong>on</strong>-line communicati<strong>on</strong> means having faster and<br />
interactive features rather than having face-to-face communicati<strong>on</strong> while talking to their<br />
friends or their parents. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, in this study, whether the reas<strong>on</strong> for this choice has a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with social anxiety or gender will be researched.<br />
1.1.Internet Use Am<strong>on</strong>g Teens<br />
Usage of the Internet c<strong>on</strong>tinues to increase worldwide. Colley and Maltby (2008) indicated<br />
that, in the UK 57% of households now have access, in comparis<strong>on</strong> to 46% four years ago<br />
(Nati<strong>on</strong>al Statistics, 2006). The Digital Future Project in the US has found that 78.6% of<br />
Americans went <strong>on</strong>line in 2005, with an accompanying increase in the amount of time spent<br />
per week <strong>on</strong> the Internet (Centre for the Digital Future, 2005 ).<br />
Many of the studies in this area have been c<strong>on</strong>ducted with university students, in part because<br />
of their widespread use of the Internet as a social tool; indeed such use am<strong>on</strong>g students is<br />
increasing. In additi<strong>on</strong>, a number of studies have found a high prevalence of social anxiety<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g university students who may then turn to the Internet as a way of regulating,<br />
challenging or escaping their social fears (Shepherd and Edelmann, 2005). Many university<br />
students commenting that thety are shy in social stuati<strong>on</strong>s, but are more open, easy going <strong>on</strong>
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the net, in chat rooms. They are shy about approaching people at a party or in large group, for<br />
example, but not about talking to people in chat rooms.<br />
1.2. Cell Ph<strong>on</strong>e Use Am<strong>on</strong>g Adolescents<br />
Auter (2007) researched thatsome of them related to adolescents and young adults use the cell<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>e differently than their parents and other older users. They prefer to c<strong>on</strong>sider it their<br />
primary ph<strong>on</strong>e – in lieu of the traditi<strong>on</strong>al landline ph<strong>on</strong>e – for its. Some studies have found<br />
little or no difference in use based <strong>on</strong> gender (e.g., DeBaill<strong>on</strong>, 2003; DeBaill<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Rockwell, 2005). Other studies have found, however that boys tend to be more intrigued with<br />
technical aspects of the devices, while girls tend to prefer the interpers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>nectivity – and<br />
spend more time using their ph<strong>on</strong>es for voice calls (Henders<strong>on</strong> et al., 2002; Rakow and<br />
Navarro, 1993; Skog, 2002). In fact, while women in <strong>on</strong>e study felt the ph<strong>on</strong>es resulted in<br />
more freedom, male teens found the additi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>nectivity a c<strong>on</strong>straining inc<strong>on</strong>venience<br />
(Auter, 2007).<br />
A recent Pew Internet research study found that approximately 33% of teens have a cell<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>e. Of the 33% of teens who reported owning a cell ph<strong>on</strong>e, approximately 64% said they<br />
had sent text messages. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the Pew study found that of the young cell ph<strong>on</strong>e users,<br />
teenage girls tended to use text messaging much more than their male counterparts. Older<br />
teens (17 year olds) also reported sending more text messages <strong>on</strong> average than younger teens.<br />
Although cell ph<strong>on</strong>e use and text messaging have risen am<strong>on</strong>g U.S. teens, their popularity<br />
remains c<strong>on</strong>siderably less than European teens (Lenhart et al., 2005; Pierce, 2009).<br />
Seventy-five percent of teenagers now own cell ph<strong>on</strong>es, and 25% use them for social media,<br />
54% use them for texting, and 24% use them for instant messaging. Thus, a large part of this<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>’s social and emoti<strong>on</strong>al development is occurring while <strong>on</strong> the Internet and <strong>on</strong> cell<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>es (Hinduja and Patchin, 2007).<br />
2. SOCIAL ANXIETY<br />
Social anxiety has variously been referred to as both shyness and social phobia. Social<br />
phobia, (also known as social anxiety disorder) is at the more extreme end of the c<strong>on</strong>tinuum<br />
of social anxiety and “includes a collati<strong>on</strong> of symptoms which unlike shyness can vary in<br />
severity throughout <strong>on</strong>e’s life” these symptoms are <strong>on</strong>ly elicited in certain social situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Leary, 1983). In c<strong>on</strong>trast shyness while at the less severe en of the social anxiety c<strong>on</strong>tinuum<br />
is more likely to be a life l<strong>on</strong>g charecteristic of an individual’s temperament which is<br />
experienced in every social occurences (Lecrubier et al., 2000; Shepherd and Edelmann,<br />
2005).<br />
Individuals are often motivated by a need to feel a sense of bel<strong>on</strong>ging, however, those with<br />
social anxiety may find it difficult to fulfill this social need because of the Internet. For<br />
socially anxious individuals, the Internet and socially interactive technologies (text<br />
messaging) can have both positive and negative results. Kraut et al (1998) found that <strong>on</strong>line<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> greatly reduced face-to-face social interacti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2.1.Social Anxiety, Gender Differences and Online Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
The two previously menti<strong>on</strong>ed theoretical approaches might adhere to different types of<br />
Internet activities that may have differential effects <strong>on</strong> well-being. One type of activities
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surfing, which can be described as visiting web sites <strong>on</strong> the Internet for n<strong>on</strong>-communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
purposes. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to surfing, Instant Messaging (IM-ing) c<strong>on</strong>sists of sending messages<br />
directly to others <strong>on</strong>e has invited to the <strong>on</strong>line c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. Because of its dyadic, real-time,<br />
and private format, IM-ing has been seen as an excellent ‘training ground’ for adolescents in<br />
terms of their social skills ( Morgan & Cotten, 2003; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). A survey<br />
study showed that am<strong>on</strong>g freshmen college students whereas increased time spent IM-ing<br />
was uniquely associated with less reported depressi<strong>on</strong>, increased time spent surfing was<br />
uniquely associated with more reported depressi<strong>on</strong> (Morgan and Cotten, 2003).<br />
Females usually have more negative attitudes toward computers and greater computer anxiety<br />
than males. Researhes <strong>on</strong> computer self-efficacy in general also revealed that males <strong>on</strong><br />
average have better computer self-efficacy than females (Hackett, 1985). Similarly, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
might expect adolescent girls to be more worried than boys about peers' negative evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of them. Indeed, surveys have found that adolescent girls are more c<strong>on</strong>cerned than boys about<br />
others' judgments of their appearance and behavior. Moreover, rates of internalizing problems<br />
are higher am<strong>on</strong>g girls than boys and adult women are about twice as likely to be socially<br />
phobic as men (Schneier et al., 1992). Thus, adolescent girls may be more vulnerable than<br />
boys to feelings of social anxiety, and this may have implicati<strong>on</strong>s for their social functi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
(La Greca and Lopez, 1998).<br />
On the other hand, Shaw and Giacquinta (2000) discovered that educati<strong>on</strong>al technology<br />
students reported using computers more frequently, for a wider array of purpose, and for<br />
greater number of hours each week than students in the Educati<strong>on</strong>al Administrati<strong>on</strong>, Business<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> and Higher Educati<strong>on</strong> programs. They also reported completing more formal<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> and more positive attidudes toward the value of computers in academic students<br />
(Sam et al., 2005).<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> et al. (2001) predicted that women would use e-mail more and men use the Web for<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> more, based <strong>on</strong> the greater interpers<strong>on</strong>al orientati<strong>on</strong> of women and greater task<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong> of men. This predicti<strong>on</strong> was supported in a large sample of Anglo-American<br />
undergraduates, even after computer self-efficacy, l<strong>on</strong>eliness and depressi<strong>on</strong> were c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
for. Wasserman and Richm<strong>on</strong>d-Abbott (2005) found that women use e-mail slightly but not<br />
significantly more than men but that men use chat rooms more. Shepherd and Edelmann<br />
(2005) study to explore social anxiety and Internet use in relati<strong>on</strong> to regulati<strong>on</strong> of social fears.<br />
It is hypothesised that high social anxiety will be associated with low ego strength as well as<br />
greater scores <strong>on</strong> the Internet.<br />
3.METHODS<br />
3.1.Purpose<br />
Given the significant popularity of instant messaging, text messaging and other socially<br />
interactive technologies am<strong>on</strong>g teens, it is important to examine their use. Since social<br />
anxiety can effect <strong>on</strong>e’s type of social interacti<strong>on</strong>, it is prominent to examine if social anxiety<br />
is influencing how adolescents communicate with others and which technology. The purpose<br />
of this study is to research adolescents’ use of <strong>on</strong>line social sites, cell ph<strong>on</strong>es, test messaging<br />
and instant messaging and if social anxiety influences technology versus face-to-face<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>. So, the following hypotheses are proposed:<br />
H1: Females use socially interactive technology (text messages, cell ph<strong>on</strong>es, e-mail, instant<br />
messages) more than males.
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H2a: There is a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between not feeling comfortable talking with others in pers<strong>on</strong><br />
and feeling more comfortable talking with others <strong>on</strong>line.<br />
H2b: There is a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between not feeling comfortable talking with others in pers<strong>on</strong><br />
and feeling more comfortable messaging with others.<br />
H2c: There is a positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social anxiety (social phobia) and making new<br />
friends <strong>on</strong>line.<br />
H2d: There is a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the amount of their families’ m<strong>on</strong>thly income and social<br />
anxiety.<br />
H3: Males are more social anxiety with face-to-face interacti<strong>on</strong>s than females.<br />
H4: Males are feeling more comfortable talking with others through a social interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
technology than females.<br />
3.2.Participants and Datas<br />
Participants c<strong>on</strong>sisted of 544 students from six High Schools in Afy<strong>on</strong>karahisar, Kütahya and<br />
Uşak cities. The age of the participants ranged from 15 to 18. 32.4% were freshman, 24.1%<br />
were sophomore, 28.1% juniors and 15.4% were seniors. The sample c<strong>on</strong>sisted of 227<br />
(41.7%) males and 317 (58.3%) females.<br />
We first were c<strong>on</strong>tacted the principals and asked permissi<strong>on</strong> in order to survey some classes<br />
<strong>on</strong> school. After that teachers was choosen to gain a sample of students from each school<br />
year. After obtaining permissi<strong>on</strong> from teachers, each students were warned about survey able<br />
to tell it their parents. The survey was applied in the students’classrooms and teachers was<br />
present during all testing. All students received the same instructi<strong>on</strong>s and their identity would<br />
remain secret. Each participant completed a report questi<strong>on</strong>naire.<br />
3.3. Measures<br />
The first two questi<strong>on</strong>s of the questi<strong>on</strong>naire c<strong>on</strong>sisted of primarily demographic questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
such as age, sex, year in school, and general informati<strong>on</strong>s. The next series og questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
included items of the students’ comfort level in interacting with others face-to-face, <strong>on</strong>line<br />
talking, cell ph<strong>on</strong>e or text messaging. Questi<strong>on</strong>s were prepared by using both nominal (yes or<br />
no) and 5 point likert-type scales. Cr<strong>on</strong>bach α for social anxiety and technological<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> is acceptable. (α=62.4)<br />
4.RESULTS<br />
3.7% stated the amount of chlidren who separate from their families is not adequate for<br />
measuring the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social anxiety and family stuati<strong>on</strong>. First of all,<br />
participants were asked about type of technological tools they had use.<br />
88.9% reported having Pers<strong>on</strong>el computer.<br />
79.2% reported having Internet <strong>on</strong> their PC.<br />
92.6% stated that having messanger adress.
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73% reported having e-mail accounts.<br />
96.7% reported having cell ph<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
72.2% reported having text messaging capabilities <strong>on</strong> their cell ph<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
84.3% stated having <strong>on</strong>line social sites and most of them are using facebook (49.2%). Most<br />
of the other have more than <strong>on</strong>e membership in social sites (twitter, myspace, linkedin etc).<br />
The fallowing next questi<strong>on</strong>s asked how much time adolescents use each of their time <strong>on</strong><br />
their technological tools <strong>on</strong> average day. Table 1 shows the results.<br />
Table 1. Technological tools use<br />
9 h +<br />
(%)<br />
7-8 h<br />
(%)<br />
5-6 h<br />
(%)<br />
3-4 h<br />
(%)<br />
1-2 h<br />
(%)<br />
30 min<br />
(%)<br />
Msn 0.4 0.4 0 0.6 4.3 13.6 80.7<br />
İnstant<br />
message<br />
Cell<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Social<br />
sites<br />
3.7 2.2 4.6 10.8 17.5 23.6 37.5<br />
0.6 0.2 0.4 2.2 11.9 56.9 27.8<br />
0.7 1.7 1.5 8.0 29.0 33.3 25.8<br />
Music 3.9 2,4 5.0 10.3 39.0 31.8 7.6<br />
Game 0.7 0.9 1.3 4,3 17.7 24.0 51.0<br />
Mail 0.9 0.2 0.2 1.1 3.9 12.8 80.9<br />
İnternet 1.1 0.4 1.1 6.7 26.8 40.1 23.8<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e(%)<br />
As shown in Table 1, adolescents almost d<strong>on</strong>’t use messanger sites and mail address. They<br />
generally use instant message with their cell ph<strong>on</strong>es. They spend 1-2 hours for a day by<br />
listening music and avarage 30 minutes during the day by using Facebook. More than half of<br />
teens have cell ph<strong>on</strong>es that able to call, message and access to Internet. All following<br />
hypothesis were examined to 95% level of c<strong>on</strong>fidence.<br />
Hypothesis 1 stated that females use socially interactive technology (text messages, cell<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>es, e-mail, instant messages) more than males. Females (M:1.08, SD:1.9) reported that<br />
they are using text messaging more than males and significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between text<br />
messaging and interactive technology (M:1.52, SD:2.31, p:0.019). In additi<strong>on</strong>, males (M:0,3,<br />
SD:0.75) reported that they are playing games for a l<strong>on</strong>g time than females and there is a<br />
gender differences between playing games <strong>on</strong> computer and social technology using (M:1.06,<br />
SD:1.66, p:0.000). There is not gender differences in use of instant messaging, e-mail, social<br />
network sites and chat rooms.
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Hypothesis 2a posited that there could be a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between not feeling comfortable<br />
talking with others in pers<strong>on</strong> and feeling more comfortable talking with others <strong>on</strong>line. When<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e have to talk face to face, feeling anxiety was positively correlated with feeling<br />
comfortable with others through cell ph<strong>on</strong>es and social media sites (r:0.445, p: 0.000).<br />
Hypothesis 2b related that there would be a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between not feeling comfortable<br />
talking with others in pers<strong>on</strong> and feeling more comfortable messaging with others. Results<br />
revealed, there isn’t a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social anxiety of face-to-face interacti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
feeling comfortable with others via messaging (p:0.204).<br />
Hypothesis 2c reported that there would be a positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social anxiety<br />
(social phobia) and making new friends <strong>on</strong>line. There isn’t any relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social<br />
anxiety and making new friends <strong>on</strong>line (p:0.072, t: 1.801). but, there is a negative relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between <strong>on</strong>line communicati<strong>on</strong> without face-to-face interacti<strong>on</strong>s and feeing anxiety when<br />
having to talk face-to-face (p:0.024).<br />
Hypothesis 2d revealed that there would be a relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the amount of their<br />
families’ m<strong>on</strong>thly income and social anxiety. The regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis showed, their isn’t a<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the amount of families’ m<strong>on</strong>thly income with social interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
technologies (p: 0.230, r: 0.134).<br />
Hypothesis 3 stated that males are more social anxiety (not comfortable with others by<br />
talking) face-to-face interacti<strong>on</strong>s than females. Significance was not found for this<br />
hypothesis. However, females are feeling more uncomfortable talking with other face-to-face<br />
than males (Levene’s test p:0.017). There is just significant differences feeling comfortable<br />
by talking with social media sites with gender (p:0.003), that is; famales (M:2.12, SD:0.92)<br />
are more uncomfortable than do males (M:1.86, SD:0.99, p: 0.000).<br />
Hypothesis 4 posited that males could more prefered talking with others through a social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> technology than females. There are significant difference, but <strong>on</strong>ly prefer talk with<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> computer instead of talking and make new friends with some<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> computer.<br />
Females (M:3.71, SD:0.96) prefer talking with some <strong>on</strong> computer instead of talkin face-toface<br />
than males (M:3.48, SD:1.05, p: 0.009). Similarly, females (M:4.14, SD:1.04) prefer<br />
making new friends with some<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> computer more than males (M:3.62, SD:1.19, p: 0.000).<br />
5.DISCUSSİON AND CONCLUSION<br />
In Turkey, cell ph<strong>on</strong>e, text messaging, instant message and social sites membership are<br />
recognized as the most important medium of communicati<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g adolescents. Internet<br />
access via PCs and mobile ph<strong>on</strong>es plays very significant role Turkey adolescents.<br />
Technology tools effect teens’ social emoti<strong>on</strong>s against their families and friends. This study<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated that teens are using socaily interactive technology to communicate with others<br />
and it serves social anxiety and decreasing face-to face communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The findings of the current study found that females are using text messaging more than<br />
males. However, males are playing games for a l<strong>on</strong>g time than females. In additi<strong>on</strong>, females<br />
are feeling more uncomfortable talking with others face-to-face than males. And, females<br />
also prefer talking with some <strong>on</strong> computer instead of talking face-to-face than males.<br />
Similarly, females prefer making new friends with some<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> computer more than males.<br />
Bey<strong>on</strong>d the results of this study, we examined something very important stuati<strong>on</strong> related to<br />
adolescents’ today currents. While the age of participants were increasing, the time spend in<br />
social media is decreasing. The reas<strong>on</strong> for such c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> revealed that, senior students have<br />
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to work more for university exams during educati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>. So, they can’t spend their time<br />
<strong>on</strong> social media sites.<br />
Many studies in this area is c<strong>on</strong>ducted for university students. The use of Internet as a social<br />
tool is more comm<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g at this age adolescents. But this study is related to high school<br />
level for students and we examined the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between social anxiety and the use of<br />
Internet, cell ph<strong>on</strong>e as a technological tools. Further studies may apply for university<br />
students.Finally, adolescents who may be shy, have social fobia, and feel anxiety about<br />
talking with some<strong>on</strong>e, vairous and different technologies provide reliable opportunity for<br />
them to c<strong>on</strong>tact with them. It is possible to reproduce the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s of technology for our<br />
world. Althought this technology facilities the lives of people, it sometimes breaks the peace.<br />
Technology has changed the way we live todayand also changing our communicati<strong>on</strong> skills<br />
with high costs. Only time will tell what is going <strong>on</strong> in the future. Parents and teachers have<br />
great resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities for this subject.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Auter P. J., (2007) Portable Social Groups: Willingness To Communicate, Interpers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> Gratificati<strong>on</strong>s, and Cell Ph<strong>on</strong>e Use Am<strong>on</strong>g Young Adults, Inetrnati<strong>on</strong>al J.<br />
Mobile Communicati<strong>on</strong>s, 5(2) 139-156.<br />
Colley, A., and Maltby, J., (2008) Impact Of The Internet On Our Lives: Male and Female<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al Perspectives, Computers In Human Behavior, 24, 2005-2013.<br />
Hinduja S, Patchin J. (2007) Offline C<strong>on</strong>sequences Of Online Victimizati<strong>on</strong>: School<br />
Violence And Delinquency. J Sch Violence. 6(3): 89 –112.<br />
La Greca, A. M. and Lopez N., (1998) Social Anxiety Am<strong>on</strong>g Adolescents: Linkages With<br />
Peer Relati<strong>on</strong>s and Friendships, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(2), 83-94.<br />
Lenhart, A. (2005) Protecting Teens Online. Pew Internet and American Life Project. URL:<br />
http://www.pewInternet.org/.<br />
Morgan, C., and Cotten, S. R. (2003) The Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Between Internet Activities and<br />
Depres-sive Symptoms in a Sample of College Freshmen. CyberPsychology and Behavior,<br />
6(2), 133–142.<br />
O’Keeffe, G. S., and Pears<strong>on</strong>, C., (2011) The İmpact of Social Media <strong>on</strong> Children,<br />
Adolescents and Families, Journal of American Academy Of Pediatric, 800-805.<br />
Pierce, T., (2009) Social Anxiety and Technology: Face-To-Face Communicati<strong>on</strong> Versus<br />
Technological Communicati<strong>on</strong> Am<strong>on</strong>g Teens, Computers İn Human Behavior, 25, 1367-<br />
1372.<br />
Sam, H. K., Othman, A. E. A., and Nordin, Z. S. (2005) Computer Self-Efficacy, Computer<br />
Anxiety, and Attitudes Toward The Internet: A Study am<strong>on</strong>g Undergraduates in Unimas.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong>al Technology & Society, 8 (4), 205-219.<br />
Selfhout, M. H. W., Branje, S. J. T., Delsing, M., Bogt, T. F. M., and Meeus W. H. J., (2009)<br />
Different Types Of Internet Use, Depressi<strong>on</strong>, and Social Anxiety: The Role Of Perceived<br />
Friendship Quality. Journal of Adolescence, 32 819-833.<br />
Shepherd, R. M., and Edelmann, R. J., (2005) Reas<strong>on</strong>s For İnternet Use and Social Anxiety,<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>ality and Individual Differences, 39, 949-958.<br />
Subrahmanyam S. and Lin, G., (2007) Adolescents On The Net: Internet Use and Well-<br />
Being, Adolescence, 42(168), 659-677.
Abstract<br />
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
The Effects Of Mentorship On The Success Of Firms<br />
Şevket Yirik,Yusuf Yilmaz, Osman Nuri Demirel, Yıldırım Yilmaz,<br />
Abdullah Akgün,Hasan Kinay<br />
Akdeniz University, Turkey<br />
This study analyzes the effects of mentorship applicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the success of enterprises. Field<br />
work is carried to in the 5-star hotels who are active during 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths in the Manavgat<br />
regi<strong>on</strong> of Antalya (Turkey). The study is supported by 260 hotel pers<strong>on</strong>nel and 250<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel resp<strong>on</strong>ded. The study tries to find out if there is a relati<strong>on</strong> between the applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
of mentorship in the enterprises and issues such as value given to the employees, increase of<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> exchange within the firm, enrichment of relati<strong>on</strong>s between the pers<strong>on</strong>nel,<br />
development of career provided, performance and efficiency increase of the employees.<br />
Keywords: Mentorship, Firm Success, Tourism, Hotel.<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
Mentorship is not <strong>on</strong>ly to share the characteristics embedded in the pers<strong>on</strong>; it is something to<br />
aid people to improve and show how to get them. In the business life, the mentorship is so<br />
important especially for the new employees. It helps them to get know the company. It is also<br />
a tool to transfer the knowledge and skills of the organizati<strong>on</strong> to the people who mark out for<br />
a brilliant future.<br />
The aim of this study is to search the affects of mentorship applicati<strong>on</strong>s for the business<br />
performance.<br />
2.Background<br />
Values and Instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture. Main topics in the agenda of the managers and the owners<br />
are related to increase the revenue and the profit, to develop new ideas, to create high<br />
performance teams and to reduce the risks. In order to reach these goals they are taking many<br />
initiatives and applying new methods such as reengineering, paying high salary and b<strong>on</strong>uses,<br />
having different training and providing external motivati<strong>on</strong>. On the other hand, the least<br />
focused but probably the most effective <strong>on</strong>e is creating “instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture”. It can be<br />
defined as rules, criteria and judges which are not written. It is a value system which defines<br />
the way of thinking of employees and the managers. The c<strong>on</strong>cept of instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture can<br />
also act as a moral plaster that gather the people in the organizati<strong>on</strong>s. Appropriate<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture supports in getting the goals of the organizati<strong>on</strong> through ensuring a<br />
platform for the employees to lend their soul to their work. By doing this, the employees<br />
behave as patriot and brave soldiers who they believe the war they are in not as ladr<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
Instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture occurs firstly with the respectful behavior of managers to their<br />
subordinates, the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the people, support and solidarity, company values,<br />
shared things and other elements. On the other hand, to increase the instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture to<br />
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the right level and to manage and to develop it in a c<strong>on</strong>tinual manner is a matter of expertise<br />
which is not merely known nowadays. It is, therefore, needed for many instituti<strong>on</strong>s to get<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sultancy services. If we believe that the factor behind the successful company is the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment where the people add something and balance their business and private life in a<br />
good way, we have to take this subject into our agenda not as a luxury but a necessity.<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> is the transfer of informati<strong>on</strong> or knowledge from <strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> to another. It is<br />
vital for human beings to express themselves as social being. It is a process of knowledge<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>, transfer and percepti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Knowledge and experience transfer are two topics important for the instituti<strong>on</strong>al culture<br />
literature. There are different people in the organizati<strong>on</strong>s with different past, knowledge,<br />
world view, mental structure and the motivati<strong>on</strong>. Knowledge cannot be piled without<br />
gathering the implicit knowledge of these people which are the most valuable treasury of the<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>. To share the implicit knowledge, a comm<strong>on</strong> space is needed. Comm<strong>on</strong> space<br />
refers to the c<strong>on</strong>ceptual combinati<strong>on</strong> of physical, virtual and mental spaces which facilitate<br />
the required activities for knowledge creati<strong>on</strong> process and sharings to happen. The works in<br />
the comm<strong>on</strong> space should be as far as productive and comphrensive. Knowledge oriented<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s requires to develop and apply business culture strategy (Güçlü, Sotirofski,<br />
2006).<br />
Career development, <strong>on</strong> the other hand, has been <strong>on</strong>e of the main topics in nowadays business<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment because of the change of the relati<strong>on</strong> between organizati<strong>on</strong> and employee,<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong> structure and the expectati<strong>on</strong>s of the employees. Management approaches like<br />
downsizing, outsourcing, total quality management, people-oriented management, change<br />
management, learning organizati<strong>on</strong> which are all result of the globalizati<strong>on</strong> have led the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of career to change. To invest in employees and to improve their skills will provide<br />
competitive advantage in the global business envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Performance and Productivity. Performance management is a new subject. The performance<br />
of an organizati<strong>on</strong> is the output at the end of a period or outcomes of the activities. These<br />
outcomes can be regarded as the rate of reaching the goals determined by the organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For companies, it is possible to have some goals (profitability, productivity, efficiency etc.).<br />
Productivity is related to the inputs and outputs and it refers what extent to the organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
uses its resources. It is the main part of performance (Yükçü and Atağan, 2009).<br />
Mentor and Mentee . Mentorship is arbitrary or professi<strong>on</strong>al, <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e relati<strong>on</strong>ship which<br />
aims to support and encourage the pers<strong>on</strong> (Özkalp vd., 2006: 55). Daresh (2004) sees the<br />
mentorship as a process of pers<strong>on</strong>al improvement. It is a process that is c<strong>on</strong>ducted under the<br />
supervisi<strong>on</strong> of such people who has guiding, protecting and leading skills. Mentor is the <strong>on</strong>e<br />
who holds such characteristics. Gettys (2007), <strong>on</strong> the other hand, states that the mentorship is<br />
a mutual cooperative process and experienced mentor guide his/her student to improve<br />
his/her knowledge and skills (Gettys, 2007: 7-8).<br />
Two c<strong>on</strong>cepts need to be menti<strong>on</strong>ed here: Mentor and mentee. Mentor is a supervisor and<br />
guides the pers<strong>on</strong> to help him/her to develop his/her career through supporting, teaching and<br />
listening. The term “mentor” is used to define a pers<strong>on</strong> who shares his/her expertise and<br />
knowledge with other people. Mentee or protegé’ is the <strong>on</strong>e who benefits the mentorship<br />
service.
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3. RESEARCH<br />
3.1.Method and Hypotheses<br />
This study is modeled according to the descriptive method and relati<strong>on</strong>al scanning<br />
model. Relati<strong>on</strong>al scanning models aim to define the existence and level of relati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
two or more variables. The hypotheses of the study are as follows:<br />
H1: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the value that<br />
the mangers show to their subordinates<br />
H2: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the<br />
increase in knowledge transfer in the organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
H3: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the<br />
increase in communicati<strong>on</strong> level in the organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
H4: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and career<br />
development of the employees<br />
H5: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the<br />
increase of performance and productivity of the employees<br />
3.2. Sampling and Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
The study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted in Manavgat, Antalya. The unit of study is hotel employees.<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>naire method was used to collect the data. Questi<strong>on</strong>naires were distributed to 260<br />
employees and 250 of them were collected with a turn rate of 96%.<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>naire c<strong>on</strong>sists of 6 parts. In the first part demographics take place. Sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
part dedicated to organizati<strong>on</strong>al commitment. There are 5 items in this part. This and the<br />
following parts, the 5-point Likert scale was used with “1” indicating Absolutely Disagree<br />
and “5” indicating Absolutely Agree. The Cr<strong>on</strong>bah’s Alpha of this scale is 0.811.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Third</str<strong>on</strong>g> part is related to the survival in the company and there are 4 items in this part.<br />
The Cr<strong>on</strong>bah’s Alpha of this scale is 0.875.<br />
Performance questi<strong>on</strong>s are in the fourth part and there are 3 items with 0.911<br />
Cr<strong>on</strong>bah’s Alpha. Communicati<strong>on</strong> is in fifth part. There are 3 items in this scale and the<br />
reliability is 0.729. Management related questi<strong>on</strong>s are in the last secti<strong>on</strong>. 6 items take place<br />
in this part. The Cr<strong>on</strong>bah’s Alpha is 0.838.<br />
3.3.Data Analysis<br />
Demographics are gathered using frequency tables. For the Likert scale questi<strong>on</strong>s , firstly<br />
reliability then the normality test were d<strong>on</strong>e. Simple regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis were used for<br />
commitment, performance, communicati<strong>on</strong>, and management scales. The significance level is<br />
determined as 0.05.
3.4. Findings<br />
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3.4.1.Demographics<br />
Gender N % Educati<strong>on</strong> N %<br />
Male 118 47.2 High School 16 6.4<br />
Female 132 52.8 Undergraduate 173 69.2<br />
Age Master 47 18.8<br />
19-22 34 13.6 Ph.D 14 5.6<br />
23-26 91 36.4 Positi<strong>on</strong><br />
27-30 67 26.8 Manager 45 18<br />
31-34 12 4.8 Employee 205 82<br />
35-38 10 2.5 Nu.of Hotels worked<br />
before<br />
39-42 8 3.2 0 73 29.2<br />
43-45 7 2.8 1 162 64.8<br />
46-49 9 3.6 1+ 15 6<br />
50-more 12 4.8<br />
Years in the hotel<br />
0-1 41 16.4<br />
2-4 59 23.6<br />
5-6 52 20.8<br />
7-9 27 10.8<br />
10-12 17 6.8<br />
13-15 16 6.4<br />
16-18 11 4.4<br />
19-21 19 7.6<br />
22-more 8 3.2<br />
Half of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents are below the age of 27. Most of them (%69) holds university degree.<br />
65% of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents (162 pers<strong>on</strong>) stated that this is their sec<strong>on</strong>d jobs whereas this ratio is<br />
%29 (73 pers<strong>on</strong>) for the first time worker. 40% (100 pers<strong>on</strong>) of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents have been<br />
working in their current hotel for less than 5 years. 71 pers<strong>on</strong> (28.4%) have been working for<br />
more than 10 years in the same hotel.
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3.4.2.Findings of Hypothesis Tests<br />
Five Hypotheses are tested with lineer regressi<strong>on</strong> test.<br />
H1: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the value that<br />
the mangers show to their subordinates<br />
R2 Adjusted R2 Standard Error p<br />
0,063 0,071 0,865 0,032<br />
There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong> between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong>s and the value that the<br />
managers show to their subordinates.<br />
H2: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the<br />
increase in knowledge transfer in the organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
R2 Adjusted R2 Standard Error p<br />
0,041 0,039 0,095 0,028<br />
The result of regressi<strong>on</strong> analysis show that there is a significant relati<strong>on</strong> between the<br />
mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong>s and the knowledge transfer in the organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
H3: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the<br />
increase in communicati<strong>on</strong> level in the organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
R2 Adjusted R2 Standard Error p<br />
0,274 0,075 0,462 0,011<br />
There is a<br />
significant relati<strong>on</strong> between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong>s and the increase in<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> level in the organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
H4: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and career<br />
development of the employees<br />
R2 Adjusted R2 Standard Error p<br />
0,051 0,001 1,126 0,021<br />
According to the result of the regressi<strong>on</strong> test there is a significant relati<strong>on</strong> between the<br />
mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and career development of the employees<br />
H5: There is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the<br />
increase of performance and productivity of the employees
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0,159 0,04 0,691 0,023<br />
Hypothesis 5 is accepted as the significance level is below 0.05 (0.23). It means that there is a<br />
significant relati<strong>on</strong> between the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong> and the increase of performance<br />
and productivity of the employees.<br />
4. DISCUSSION<br />
Today’s competitive envir<strong>on</strong>ment requires the companies to have the qualified human<br />
resources as the most important capital. It is no surprising to see the employee satisfacti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
be in the agenda of the companies. One way of increasing the satisfacti<strong>on</strong> level and abilities<br />
of employees and improving the professi<strong>on</strong>al skills is the mentorship implementati<strong>on</strong>s in the<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
We need from time to time somebody to c<strong>on</strong>sult who will share his/her expertise and guide<br />
us. Mentorship provides this through transferring the experiences of senior people to less<br />
experienced people in the organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The success of mentorship program in the organizati<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> analyzing the need<br />
carefully and assign the right pers<strong>on</strong> as mentor to the mentee. It is also important to get<br />
feedback c<strong>on</strong>tinually from both mentor and mentee from the beginning of the program in<br />
order to revise the c<strong>on</strong>tent of the program in time. Mentorship programs are not compulsory<br />
programs. Mentors and mentees should meet periodically and have improvement focused<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. Working <strong>on</strong> projects can also be influential for the effectiveness of the<br />
program.<br />
Well designed mentorship programs add value to the instituti<strong>on</strong>, mentor and mentee.<br />
Mentorship programs;<br />
Helps the organizati<strong>on</strong> values to be espoused by the employees,<br />
Helps to transfer the instituti<strong>on</strong>al knowledge form <strong>on</strong>e generati<strong>on</strong> to another in the<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong> and facilitate the adapti<strong>on</strong> of new comers<br />
Helps mentees to work with the mentors in a <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e learning relati<strong>on</strong>ship which can aid<br />
the employees in their career development<br />
Helps mentors to feel the pleasure of preparing the future leaders<br />
According to the result of the study, the organizati<strong>on</strong>s implementing mentorship benefit from<br />
these programs in different ways. The employees feel themselves as valuable for the<br />
company. This affects the business performance in a positive manner through the increase in<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> level in the organizati<strong>on</strong>, and the decrease in leaving the job which all<br />
together leads to increase in productivity and quality in producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
R2 Adjusted R2 Standard Error p
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Daresh, J. (2004). Mentoring school leaders: Professi<strong>on</strong>al Promise or Predictable Problems?<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong>al Administrati<strong>on</strong> Quarterly. 40(4): 495-517.<br />
Gettys, S.G. (2007). The Role of Mentoring in Developing Beginning Principals'<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Leadership Skills. Unpublished Dissertati<strong>on</strong>, University of Missouri-Columbia.<br />
Güçlü N. & Sotirofski, K. (2006). Bilgi Yönetimi, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(4): 351-<br />
371.<br />
Güler, E.Ç. (2006). İşletmelerin E-İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi ve E-İşe Alım Süreçlerindeki<br />
Gelişmeler. Ege Üniversitesi Dergisi, 1(6): 17-23.<br />
Özkalp, E., Kırel, Ç., Sungur, Z. & Cengiz, A.A. (2006). Örgütsel Toplumsallaşma Sürecinde<br />
Mentorluk ve Mentor'un Yeri ve Önemi: Anadolu Üniversitesi Araştırma Görevlileri Üzerine<br />
Bir İnceleme. [The Place and İmportance of the Mentorship and the Mentor in the Process of<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Socializati<strong>on</strong>: A Study <strong>on</strong> Research Assistants at Anadolu University.],<br />
Anadolu University Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2): 55–69.<br />
Yükçü, S. & Atağan, G. (2009). Etkinlik, Etkililik ve Verimlik Kavramlarının Yarattığı<br />
Karışıklık. Atatürk Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 23(4): 1-1
Abstract<br />
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Analysis Of The Hotel Pers<strong>on</strong>nel’s C<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s Of Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice,<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence, Mobbing, Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment In Terms Of<br />
Demographic Variables<br />
Şevket Yirik, Yusuf Yilmaz, Osman Nuri Demirel,Yıldırım Yilmaz,<br />
Abdullah Akgün, Hasan Kinay<br />
Akdeniz University, Turkey<br />
This study analyses the c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s of organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice, organizati<strong>on</strong>al silence,<br />
mobbing, organizati<strong>on</strong>al commitment in terms of demographic variables in hotel<br />
management. Field work is carried out in the 5-star hotels that are active during 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths in<br />
the Manavgat regi<strong>on</strong> of Antalya (Turkey). The study is supported by 229 hotel pers<strong>on</strong>nel and<br />
all resp<strong>on</strong>ded. The study reveals that factors such as gender, age, educati<strong>on</strong>al level,<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al rank and positi<strong>on</strong> have c<strong>on</strong>siderable effects <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s of instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
devoti<strong>on</strong>, mobbing, instituti<strong>on</strong>al repose and instituti<strong>on</strong>al justice.<br />
Keywords: Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice, Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence, Mobbing, Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Commitment<br />
1.THEORETICAL BACKGROUND<br />
1.1.Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice<br />
Originally, the c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> of organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice is based <strong>on</strong> “Equity Theory” of Adams in<br />
1965 (Baş and Şentürk, 2011: 33). Organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice is whether there is equity or not<br />
comparing what the employees bring in the company according to the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s the<br />
employees made to the company (time, work, earnings). Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice is examined<br />
under three headings; distributive justice, procedural justice and pers<strong>on</strong>al interacti<strong>on</strong> justice.<br />
(Cohen-Charash and Spector, 2001: 279; St‐Pierre and Holmes, 2010: 1171).<br />
1.2. Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence was proposed by Hirschman in 1970; however, it was first used as a<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong> by Morris<strong>on</strong> and Milliken in 2000 (Erenler, 2010). Organizati<strong>on</strong>al silence can be<br />
seen when the employees do not express their views and c<strong>on</strong>cerns about the company<br />
(Morris<strong>on</strong> and Milliken, 2000).<br />
The employee silence, <strong>on</strong> the other hand, can be defined as not revealing <strong>on</strong>e’s feelings, not<br />
sharing with others and c<strong>on</strong>cealing the problems by remaining silent and keeping <strong>on</strong> working<br />
as if nothing happened. There may be many reas<strong>on</strong>s why the employee prefers to remain<br />
silent. These can be stated as the behavioural habits, c<strong>on</strong>sciousness and decisi<strong>on</strong> mechanisms<br />
(Blackman and Sadler-Smith, 2009: 571-572). The instituti<strong>on</strong>al reas<strong>on</strong>s of the organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
silence are as follows:<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Reas<strong>on</strong>s
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Injustice Culture<br />
Silence Climate<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Culture<br />
Managerial Reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Negative Feedback Fears of Managers<br />
Prejudices towards Work and Worker<br />
Character of the Manager<br />
Homogeneity of the Management Team<br />
Individual Reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Lack of C<strong>on</strong>fidence<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sidering Talking Risky<br />
Fear of Isolati<strong>on</strong><br />
Past Experiences<br />
Fear for Damaging the Relati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Character and Pers<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al and Cultural reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Cultural Structure and Norms<br />
Power Distance<br />
1.3. Mobbing<br />
Latin origin word, mobbing means “psychological violence, disturbance and harassment”.<br />
The term mobbing was first suggested by Lorenz in 1960, a scientist who was observing<br />
animal behaviours (Davenport et. al., 2003: 3). In the beginning of 1980s, Leymann<br />
determined that these kind of outrageous and negative behaviours were taking place in<br />
workplaces. Although Leyman met this behaviour style in 1980s, the studies indicate that this<br />
behaviour goes far bey<strong>on</strong>d (Leymann, 1996: 166). In 1983, in Norway, the mobbing that 3<br />
teenagers were subject to ended with the suicides of these three teenagers. Hereup<strong>on</strong>, a<br />
broadened investigati<strong>on</strong> was carried out by the Ministry of Educati<strong>on</strong> and violence and<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s of the victims were revealed. Programs in the USA, England and Germany, in the<br />
1990s, started to be applied for protecting the kids and the youth (Olweus, 1993). However,<br />
the first study in Turkey about mobbing was c<strong>on</strong>ducted in 2003 (Yavuz, 2007: 7).<br />
World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong> (WHO) defines mobbing as, attitudes and behaviours that damage<br />
physical, psychological and moral development of the individuals or groups by using power<br />
against them (Akgeyik vd., 2009: 98). The disturbing behaviours of mobbing that even ends<br />
in the resignati<strong>on</strong> of the employees have risen a lot recently.<br />
1.4. Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment can be said to exist when the employees are willing to stay in<br />
the organizati<strong>on</strong> and adopt the beliefs of the company as their own and dedicate their work in<br />
accordance with company’s interests (Becker, 1960: 32).
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The factors effecting the organizati<strong>on</strong>al commitment are studied under four subtitles; factors<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerning work and duty, working place and working c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure<br />
and demographic factors (Topaloğlu et. al., 2008: 953).<br />
Approaches of organizati<strong>on</strong>al commitment can be gathered under three titles; attitudinal<br />
commitment, behavioural commitment and normative commitment (Kitapçı, 2006:75).<br />
2. METHODOLOGY<br />
2.1. The Aim of the Study<br />
This study aims to introduce whether the percepti<strong>on</strong>s of organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice, organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
silence, mobbing and organizati<strong>on</strong>al commitment of the hotel employees differ in terms of<br />
demographic variables or not. In this respect, the differences in the percepti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice, organizati<strong>on</strong>al silence, mobbing and organizati<strong>on</strong>al commitment of the<br />
hotel employees were examined regarding their age, gender, educati<strong>on</strong>al background and<br />
work experience.<br />
2.2. Sampling<br />
The universe of the study is the 5 star hotel employees in the city of Antalya. Due to the time<br />
and financial difficulties experienced in reaching the universe, random sampling was used. In<br />
this c<strong>on</strong>text, the sampling of this study is 229 employees of a 5 star hotel in Antalya. The<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>naire was distributed to 229 people and all was resp<strong>on</strong>ded. No invalid questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
was determined while analyzing the data.<br />
2.3. Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>naires were used as a means of data collecti<strong>on</strong>. Questi<strong>on</strong>naire was composed of 5<br />
main parts. In the first part, Pers<strong>on</strong>al Informati<strong>on</strong> Form; in the sec<strong>on</strong>d part, Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Commitment Scale; in the third part Mobbing Scale; in the fourth part Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence<br />
Scale; in the fifth part Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice Scale was used.<br />
2.3.1. Pers<strong>on</strong>al Informati<strong>on</strong> Form<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>s like gender, age, educati<strong>on</strong>al background, work experience, salary, positi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
weekly working hours were in the form in order to determine the demographics of the hotel<br />
employees.<br />
2.3.2. Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment Scale<br />
The Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment Scale developed by Meyer and Allen (1991) was used. The<br />
scale had 19 items and prepared in accordance with 5 points Likert Scale ( 1= Absolutely<br />
disagree, 5= Absolutely agree). Since the 3rd, 4th, 6th and 13 the items of the scale include<br />
negative statements, they were coded with reverse coding method. Thus, it was stated that the<br />
higher the score from the scale is, the more the commitment of the employee has. The
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reliability of the scale was high in many studies in which it was used. For this study, the<br />
reliability of the scale was determined as 0, 744 and was highly reliable.<br />
2.3.3. Mobbing (Psychological Violence) Scale<br />
The appropriate questi<strong>on</strong>s for this study about mobbing were chosen from the LIPT<br />
(Leymann Inventory of Psychological Terror) , the questi<strong>on</strong>naire versi<strong>on</strong> of which was<br />
developed by Klaus Niedl and were selected from the Negative Acti<strong>on</strong> Questi<strong>on</strong>naire (NAQ)<br />
, the questi<strong>on</strong>s of which were developed by Stale Einarsen, Björn Inge Raknes, Stig Berge<br />
Matthiesen and Odd (Mercan, 2007: 120). The Mobbing Scale including 14 items was<br />
examined in accordance with 5 points Likert Scale (1= Absolutely disagree, 5= Absolutely<br />
agree). With a minimum score of 5 and maximum score of 70, the mobbing (being subject to<br />
psychological violence) was said to be increasing when the total score rises. In these studies,<br />
the reliability of the scale (α ) was observed to be c<strong>on</strong>siderably high and the reliability and<br />
validity were proved. For this study, the reliability of the scale was observed as 0, 959 and<br />
was found to be highly reliable.<br />
2.3.4. Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence Scale<br />
The questi<strong>on</strong> form designed by Çakıcı ve Çakıcı (2007) was used for preparing the questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about organizati<strong>on</strong>al silence. The scale c<strong>on</strong>sisted of 28 questi<strong>on</strong>s and was examined in<br />
accordance with 5 points Likert type. ( 1= Absolutely disagree, 5=Absolutely agree). The<br />
most appropriate 13 out of 28 questi<strong>on</strong>s were chosen for the study. The minimum score was 5<br />
and the maximum score was 65 and it was stated that the higher the total point was, the more<br />
the organizati<strong>on</strong>al silence becomes. Many studies that this scale was used indicated that this<br />
scale was a c<strong>on</strong>siderably reliable <strong>on</strong>e. As for this study, the reliability of the scale was<br />
determined as 0,951 and was rather high.<br />
2.3.5. Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice Scale<br />
While preparing the questi<strong>on</strong>s about Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice, 20 item- Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice<br />
Scale of Niehoff and Moorman (1993) was used (Yıldırım, 2002). The scale was evaluated in<br />
accordance with 5 points Likert type. ( 1= Absolutely disagree, 5=Absolutely agree). With<br />
the evaluati<strong>on</strong> of each resp<strong>on</strong>se for each statement, the score of organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice was<br />
found. The minimum score was 5 and the maximum score was 100 and it was stated that the<br />
higher the total point was, the more effective the organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice applicati<strong>on</strong>s are.<br />
Many studies in which this scale was used indicated that this scale was a c<strong>on</strong>siderably<br />
reliable <strong>on</strong>e. As for this study, the reliability of the scale was determined as 0,956 and was<br />
indicated to be c<strong>on</strong>siderably high.<br />
3. Data Analysis<br />
In this study, Independent Samples T Test and ANOVA were used in accordance with the<br />
aim of the study. Data analysis was made using SPSS 17.0 package program. .05 and .01<br />
significance levels are used in the study.
4. Findings<br />
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4.1. Demographics<br />
Demographic profiles of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents can be seen in Table 1.<br />
Table 1. Demographics<br />
Variables n %<br />
Gender<br />
Age<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Work<br />
Experience<br />
Salary<br />
Female 117 51,1<br />
Male 112 48,9<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
25-30 32 14,0<br />
31-36 95 41,5<br />
37-42 38 16,6<br />
43 and over 64 27,9<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
Primary School 31 13,5<br />
High School 51 22,3<br />
Vocati<strong>on</strong>al School 26 11,4<br />
Undergraduate 75 32,8<br />
Graduate 46 20,0<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
2-6 years 41 17,9<br />
7-11 years 117 51,1<br />
12-16 years 71 31,0<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
1500 TL and less 67 29,2<br />
1501-2000 TL 21 9,2<br />
2001-2500 TL 29 12,7
Positi<strong>on</strong><br />
Weekly<br />
Working Hour<br />
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2501-3000 TL 20 8,7<br />
3001-3500 TL 47 20,5<br />
3501 and more 45 19,7<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
Worker 68 29,7<br />
Assistant 22 9,6<br />
Expert 14 6,1<br />
Middle Level Manager 47 20,5<br />
Senior Manager 78 34,1<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
41-60 hour 80 34,9<br />
61-80 hour 145 63,3<br />
81 hour and more 4 1,8<br />
Total 229 100,0<br />
As it is seen in Table 1 the ratio of female and male is nearly the same. The dominant age<br />
group is between 31 and 36 (41.5 %). Above half of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents are graduated from the<br />
university (52.8%). Most of them have been working for less than 12 years (69%). Majority<br />
of them are in the group of 7 and 11 years as working experience (51%).<br />
Workers (29.7%) and senior managers (34.1%) are two dominant groups and the salaries are<br />
less than 1.500 TL. (29.2%) and more than 3.000 TL.(40.2%). People are working mostly<br />
between 61-80 hours in a week (63.3%).<br />
4.2. Reliability Analysis<br />
Reliability is determined with Cr<strong>on</strong>bach’s Alpha. The reliability results can be seen at Table<br />
2.<br />
Table 2. Reliability Analysis Results<br />
N Cr<strong>on</strong>bach’s<br />
Alpha
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Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment 18 0,744<br />
Mobbing 14 0,959<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Silence 13 0,951<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Justice 10 0,956<br />
It seems that reliability of all the scales is high.<br />
4.3. Normality Tests<br />
The normality tests are d<strong>on</strong>e in this part of the study. To test the normality, Kolmogorov-<br />
Smirnov Z test was applied using the total points of the scales. This normality tests were d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
to determine which tests were appropriate to examine the hypotheses tests.<br />
Table 3. Results of Normality Tests<br />
Kolmogorov-<br />
Smirnov Z<br />
p<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Commitment 3,610 0,000<br />
Mobbing 4,116 0,000<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Silence 2,405 0,000<br />
Organisati<strong>on</strong>al Justice 4,000 0,000<br />
According to the Table 3, total scores of the scales do not seem to fit the normal distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
(p
** p
** p
** p
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According to the work experience of the hotel employees the difference at the significance<br />
level is 0.01 for the organisati<strong>on</strong>al commitment, mobbing, organizati<strong>on</strong>al silence and<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al justice.<br />
4.8. Findings According to Differences in Positi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Table 8 shows the Kruskal Wallis H test results of differences in positi<strong>on</strong> for organisati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
commitment, mobbing, organisati<strong>on</strong>al silence, and organisati<strong>on</strong>al justice.<br />
Table 8. Findings According to Positi<strong>on</strong>- Kruskal Wallis H Test Results<br />
Scale Group N Mean<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Commitment<br />
Rank<br />
Assistant 22 109,68 159,880 0,000 **<br />
Middle Level Manager 47 179,47<br />
Senior Manager 78 125,58<br />
Expert 14 206,50<br />
Worker 68 41,19<br />
Mobbing Assistant 22 160,32 152,276 0,000 **<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Silence<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Justice<br />
Middle Level Manager 47 67,55<br />
Senior Manager 78 77,91<br />
Expert 14 58,50<br />
Worker 68 187,31<br />
Assistant 22 131,86 170,593 0,000 **<br />
Middle Level Manager 47 81,72<br />
Senior Manager 78 80,37<br />
Expert 14 7,50<br />
Worker 68 194,40<br />
Assistant 22 84,50 142,661 0,000 **<br />
Middle Level Manager 47 114,40<br />
Senior Manager 78 166,08<br />
Expert 14 198,50<br />
Worker 68 49,50<br />
2<br />
<br />
P
** p
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Baş, G. & Şentürk, C. (2011). İlköğretim Okulu Öğretmenlerinin Örgütsel Adalet, Örgütsel<br />
Vatandaşlık ve Örgütsel Güven Algıları. Educati<strong>on</strong>al Administrati<strong>on</strong>: Theory and Practice,<br />
17(1), 29-62.<br />
Becker, H.S. (1960). Notes <strong>on</strong> the C<strong>on</strong>sept of Commitment. American Journal of Sociology,<br />
66(1), 32-40.<br />
Blackman, D. & Sadler-Smith, E. (2009). The Silent and the Silenced in Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Knowing and Learning. Management Learning, 40(5), 569-585.<br />
Cohen-Charash, Y. & Spector, P. E. (2001). The Role of Justice in Organizati<strong>on</strong>s: A Meta<br />
Analysis. Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Behavior and Human Decisi<strong>on</strong> Processes, 86(2), 278-321.<br />
Çakıcı, A. & Çakıcı, C. (2007). İş gören Sessizliği: K<strong>on</strong>uşmak Mı Zor, Sessiz Kalmak Mı<br />
Zor?, 15. Ulusal Yönetim ve Organizasy<strong>on</strong> K<strong>on</strong>gresi, Sakarya, 389-400.<br />
Davenport, N., Swartz, R.D. & Eliot, G.P. (2003). Mobbing: İşyerinde Duygusal Taciz,<br />
(Çev.: Osman Cem Önertoy), Sistem Yayıncılık, İstanbul.<br />
Erenler, E. (2010). Çalışanlarda Sessizlik Davranışının Bazı Kişisel Ve Örgütsel Özelliklerle<br />
İlişkisi: Turizm Sektöründe Bir Alan Araştırması. Yayınlanmış Doktora Tezi, Hacettepe<br />
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Ankara.<br />
Kitapçı, H. (2006). “TKY’de Karar Almaya Katılımın ve Örgütsel Bağlılığın Kişisel<br />
Performansa Etkisi”, Bilig, 39, 73-86.<br />
Leymann, H. (1996). The C<strong>on</strong>tent and <strong>Development</strong> of Mobbing at Work. Europen Journal<br />
of Work and Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Psychology, 5, 165-184.<br />
Mercan, N. (2007). Örgütlerde Mobbing’in Örgüt İklimiyle İlişkisine Yönelik Bir Araştırma.<br />
Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,<br />
Kütahya.<br />
Meyer, J. P. & Allen, N. J. (1991). A Three-Comp<strong>on</strong>ent C<strong>on</strong>ceptualizati<strong>on</strong> of Organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Commitment. Human Resources Management Review, 1, 61-89.<br />
Morris<strong>on</strong>, E. W. & Milliken, F.J. (2000). Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Silence: A Barrier to Change and<br />
<strong>Development</strong> in a Pluralistic World. The Academy Of Management Review, 25(4), 706-725.<br />
Niehoff, B.P.I. & Moorman, R.H. (1993). Justiee as a Mediator of the Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Between<br />
Methods of M<strong>on</strong>itoring and Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Citizenship Behavior. Academy of Management<br />
Journal, 36(3), 527-556.<br />
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at School What We Know and What We Can Do, Oxfort,<br />
Blackwell.<br />
St‐Pierre, I. & Holmes, D. (2010). The Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between Organizati<strong>on</strong>al Justice and<br />
Workplace Aggressi<strong>on</strong>. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66(5), 1169‐1182.<br />
Topaloğlu, M., Koç, H. & Yavuz, E. (2008). Öğretmenlerin Örgütsel Bağlılığının<br />
Bazı Temel Faktörler Açısından Analizi, Kamu-İş, 9(4), 949-967.<br />
Yavuz, H. (2007). Çalışanlarda Mobbing (Psikolojik Şiddet) Algısını Etkileyen Faktörler:<br />
SDÜ Tıp Fakültesi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Süleyman<br />
Demirel Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Isparta.<br />
Yıldırım, F. (2002). Çalışma Yaşamında Örgüte Bağlılık ve Örgütsel Adalet İlişkisi.<br />
Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
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The Impacts Of Using Additi<strong>on</strong>al Teaching Materials On Students’ Performance In<br />
Package Program Educati<strong>on</strong>: The Case Of Fidelio And Sejour<br />
Abstract<br />
Hasan Kinay, Abdullah Akgün, Hakan Çetin, Yusuf Yilmaz, Zeki Akinci<br />
Akdeniz University<br />
E-mails: kinay@akdeniz.edu.tr, akgun@akdeniz.edu.tr, hakanc@akdeniz.edu.tr,<br />
yusufyilmaz@akdeniz.edu.tr, zakinci@akdeniz.edu.tr<br />
This study has been carried out to examine the effects of the use of additi<strong>on</strong>al teaching<br />
materials <strong>on</strong> student's performances, during educati<strong>on</strong>al activities regarding the use of<br />
package programs in the tourism sector. The study design called for two separate groups.<br />
Students were provided with a laboratory for study outside of course hours. 73 students took<br />
part in practice sessi<strong>on</strong>s outside of course hours, while a total of 145 students took the<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong>s. While researching the effects of using course books, 93 students took classes<br />
having been provided course books, while a further 97 students took the classes without<br />
course books. A post test c<strong>on</strong>trolled experimental design was used to compare the two<br />
groups. The study was carried out with third year students of the Akdeniz University, School<br />
of Tourism and Hotel Management in the fall term of the 2011 – 2012 educati<strong>on</strong>al year. To<br />
gather data <strong>on</strong> the effectiveness of usage of course books, the Fidelio program instructors<br />
applied a test with 10 open ended questi<strong>on</strong>s, prepared by employees working in the sector and<br />
using the program and the researchers. For the laboratory effectiveness study, a post test<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sisting of 10 questi<strong>on</strong>s was prepared by the researchers together with sector employees<br />
and applied to the students. The results of the study were evaluated using the SPSS 15.0<br />
statistical software package. Based <strong>on</strong> the findings, the researchers have made<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the use of course books and laboratory study outside of class hours in<br />
applied courses such as package program instructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Keywords: Additi<strong>on</strong>al Teaching Materials, Package Program Educati<strong>on</strong>, Package Program<br />
Usage<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
We are living in an age where global competiti<strong>on</strong> pressures are increasing, informati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
produced rapidly and the informati<strong>on</strong> produced is c<strong>on</strong>sumed even faster than it is being<br />
created; the informati<strong>on</strong> age. This age is characterized by an increased flow of informati<strong>on</strong><br />
between organizati<strong>on</strong>s, individuals and instituti<strong>on</strong>s, where the effectiveness of this interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
is high. The increase of the amount of informati<strong>on</strong>, triggered by computer use, has affected<br />
all sectors, including the tourism and hotel sector.<br />
The tourism sector bases activities <strong>on</strong> the producti<strong>on</strong> of services, requiring an active<br />
workforce, while some positi<strong>on</strong>s, such as customer service and recepti<strong>on</strong>, necessitate a face to
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face relati<strong>on</strong>ship with customers, meaning that there is a need for qualified pers<strong>on</strong>nel. In the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stantly changing and developing society, it is clear that individuals who can use<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> technologies in an efficient way will be c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be highly qualified and<br />
will be more successful (Kurbanoğlu and Akkoyunlu, 2002). For this reas<strong>on</strong>, those wishing to<br />
find employment in the tourism sector must be skilled in the use of at least <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
automated systems that are widely used, in order to find employment more easily. The<br />
effective use of informati<strong>on</strong> technologies in the tourism industry, in hotels, catering<br />
establishments, travel companies and sub-units of these organizati<strong>on</strong>s, facilitates the<br />
management of human resources and increases the efficiency of employees. If human<br />
resources can benefit from informati<strong>on</strong> technologies, the quality and global competitiveness<br />
of the tourism industry will increase (Alkaya, 2006).<br />
A study performed in 2004 shows that the greatest issue encountered in computer use in<br />
hotels stems for the users, but more specifically, the training of users. The same study<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cludes that “problems caused by the training of users must be decreased” (Kınay and<br />
Kınay, 2004).<br />
An examinati<strong>on</strong> of curricula of schools providing tourism educati<strong>on</strong> shows that the vast<br />
majority include courses <strong>on</strong> automated systems used in the sector. The most encountered<br />
problem in automati<strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> is that students are not able to repeat and practice what the<br />
learn in class. Even if the student is able to perform all of the tasks as described by the<br />
instructor, as the students are not able to repeat these tasks outside of the classroom, they<br />
usually come to the next sessi<strong>on</strong> having forgotten all they have learned. However, being<br />
“informed” in the informati<strong>on</strong> age means to develop learning capacities, use informati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
obtain new skills and turn this into a c<strong>on</strong>sistent form of behaviour (Yıldırım, 2001). Failure to<br />
utilise skills learned in class outside of the classroom means that learning has not really taken<br />
place.<br />
In informati<strong>on</strong> technologies educati<strong>on</strong>, whether a student owns a computer, how effectively<br />
the student uses computers in daily life, and the social envir<strong>on</strong>ment all affect the quality of<br />
the learning process. A study performed <strong>on</strong> “informati<strong>on</strong> technology educati<strong>on</strong> in primary<br />
schools shows that gender, the educati<strong>on</strong>al status of the parents, whether the family owns a<br />
computer, whether the parents assist the child with homework, the student's percepti<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
attitudes towards studying all have a statistically significant effect (Demir, 2008).<br />
In the transiti<strong>on</strong> from an industrial society to informati<strong>on</strong> society, educati<strong>on</strong>al models also<br />
exhibit significant changes. In transiti<strong>on</strong>ing to an informati<strong>on</strong> society, the teacher's role as a<br />
guide, the student learning through teamwork, management based <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>aladministrative<br />
leadership, learning based <strong>on</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>al initiative, variable educati<strong>on</strong>s programs,<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al learning and multi-faceted c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>al learning criteria become important. In<br />
this c<strong>on</strong>text, learning through computer laboratory activities, with peers, through debate and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sulting other resources and by joint activities that allow students to complement each<br />
other, is c<strong>on</strong>sidered to have the potential to be high quality and sustainable.<br />
Many studies show that the use of additi<strong>on</strong>al teaching materials has a positive effect <strong>on</strong><br />
student success. The effect of computer assisted instructi<strong>on</strong> has been shown to have a positive<br />
effect in science classes (Altunay and Şeker, 2008), English classes (Akdağ and Tok, 2008),<br />
and educati<strong>on</strong> with autistic children (Bayram, 2006).<br />
2. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND PACKAGE PROGRAMS
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All technology used in gathering, processing, storing, transmitting through networks and<br />
presenting informati<strong>on</strong> to users, including communicati<strong>on</strong> and computing technologies, may<br />
be referred to as “informati<strong>on</strong> technologies” (T<strong>on</strong>ta,1999).<br />
<strong>Development</strong>s in informati<strong>on</strong> technology have also affected the field of software. Two<br />
important developments have taken place in the field of software for end users in an<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>text. Firstly, instead of specific programs with a single aim developed by in<br />
house software experts or end users, organizati<strong>on</strong>s are using package programs developed by<br />
software companies. This trend began with the emergence of affordable and easy to use<br />
software packages designed for micro computers. Today, package programs are available for<br />
almost every sector and are developed and marketed by software companies.<br />
3. USAGE OF PACKAGE PROGRAMS IN THE TOURISM SECTOR<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sidering that electr<strong>on</strong>ic trade is becoming widespread and will take up an important share<br />
in the total trade volume of all countries, informati<strong>on</strong> technology has become an important<br />
issue (Gölönü, 2006). Computer based automati<strong>on</strong> systems have become an important<br />
infrastructural element in the tourism sector. To address this need, many software companies<br />
have developed automati<strong>on</strong> software systems specifically for hotels.<br />
Tourism companies are required to gather informati<strong>on</strong> regularly, store this informati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
recall it when necessary. Travel agents are required to fill in forms regarding the products or<br />
services that they market as intermediaries, such as accommodati<strong>on</strong>, independent catering<br />
services from restaurants, cafes and bars etc., yacht and boat rental companies, other travel<br />
agencies organizing city tours, airlines, car or limousine rental companies, railways, maritime<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> companies, and those providing guidance services in museums and places of<br />
interest in order to achieve c<strong>on</strong>tinuity in their services and therefore achieve efficiency and<br />
customer satisfacti<strong>on</strong>. Therefore, travel agencies are marketing informati<strong>on</strong> in a sense. In this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text, travel agencies depend <strong>on</strong> correct and timely informati<strong>on</strong> in their operati<strong>on</strong>s, and<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> technologies are a vital aspect in management.<br />
As the tourism sector is based <strong>on</strong> the producti<strong>on</strong> and development of informati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> technologies are highly significant. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, there is a multitude of<br />
package programs for tourism operators <strong>on</strong> the market and it is almost impossible to find a<br />
tourism agency that does not use package programs. Most of the software developed for the<br />
tourism sector targets travel agencies and organizati<strong>on</strong>s providing accommodati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
4. PACKAGE PROGRAM EDUCATION IN TOURISM EDUCATION<br />
INSTITUTIONS<br />
Software companies marketing to the tourism sector provide most of their automati<strong>on</strong><br />
software to educati<strong>on</strong> instituti<strong>on</strong>s providing tourism educati<strong>on</strong> for free or a modest fee. For<br />
example, PROTEL, a company representing the Fidelio program provides free educati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
instructors giving recepti<strong>on</strong> courses in universities, in the scope of the Tourism Educati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Employment Support Project. If the instructor achieves a score of 70 or higher in the<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> at the end of the training, the Fidelio program is provided to the educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong> free of charge. SAN Bilgisayar, the producer of the Sejour program, used in travel<br />
agency automati<strong>on</strong>, provided the program to schools free of charge, but now is struggling to
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cope with the demand and charges a modest fee. Some other programs such as Newage and<br />
Tourkuaz are free to try or have demo versi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
5. METHODOLOGY<br />
5.1. Aim of the Study<br />
The aim of the study is to identify whether the use of course books and laboratory<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s outside of class hours, c<strong>on</strong>stituting additi<strong>on</strong>al teaching materials, has an effect <strong>on</strong><br />
student success in applied vocati<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong> technology courses. Furthermore, this study<br />
aims to identify if schools and administrators providing IT systems educati<strong>on</strong> should facilitate<br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong> of resources and space for students to study outside of class hours, to achieve<br />
higher quality and permanency in learning processes.<br />
5.2. Research Methods<br />
The study c<strong>on</strong>sisted of two parts. 73 students took part in laboratory applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s outside of class hours, and took the examinati<strong>on</strong> which was taken by a total of 145<br />
students. To examine the effectiveness of the use of course books, 93 students were provided<br />
with course books, while 97 students were not. The study used a post test c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
experimental design. The populati<strong>on</strong> for the study was all students receiving package<br />
program educati<strong>on</strong>, while the sample selected c<strong>on</strong>sisted of third year students at the Akdeniz<br />
University, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, department of travel and<br />
accommodati<strong>on</strong> management. The data was gathered based <strong>on</strong> the results of the test that was<br />
performed. All data was analyzed using the SPSS 15.0 program.<br />
5.3.Hypothesis<br />
Assuming that practice <strong>on</strong> the computer is necessary for students to be successful in<br />
package program educati<strong>on</strong>, our hypothesis was as follows<br />
H1: Practice with the package program in the computer laboratory outside of class hours,<br />
together with peers, has a positive effect <strong>on</strong> academic success.<br />
Assuming that students required course books as well as computer practice to be<br />
successful in package program educati<strong>on</strong>, our hypothesis was as follows:<br />
H2: Apart from computer practice in package program educati<strong>on</strong>, the distributi<strong>on</strong> of course<br />
books has a positive effect <strong>on</strong> academic success.<br />
6. FINDINGS<br />
In this secti<strong>on</strong>, we will examine the hypothesis formulated above. Table 1 displays the<br />
correlati<strong>on</strong> between students practice in computer laboratories outside of class hours and<br />
course success.
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Table 1: Students activities outside of class hours and Success Rates<br />
Correlati<strong>on</strong><br />
Success<br />
Success 1 .423**<br />
Study Outside<br />
of Class<br />
Study Outside<br />
of Class<br />
.000<br />
146 146<br />
.423** 1<br />
.000<br />
146 146<br />
As shown in Table 1, there is a correlati<strong>on</strong> between the exam results and the time spent by<br />
students in study outside of class hours. The correlati<strong>on</strong> coefficient was found to be .423. As<br />
a result, we can c<strong>on</strong>clude that study in computer laboratories outside of class hours has a<br />
moderate positive effect <strong>on</strong> academic success (Büyüköztürk et al., 2010a). Based <strong>on</strong> this data,<br />
we can accept hypothesis H1.<br />
Table 2 shows the results of a t-test analysis performed <strong>on</strong> independent groups to<br />
identify the effect of the provisi<strong>on</strong> of course books apart from computer practice, <strong>on</strong><br />
academic success in package program educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Table 2: The effect of course books<br />
Course Books N X S df t p<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trol Group 93 44.2151<br />
Experimental<br />
Group 93 64.1935<br />
24.3434<br />
9 92 -5.7684 0,000<br />
21.8996<br />
0<br />
According to the results of the t-test, shown in Table 2, t(92) = -5.7684, p
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7. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
It has been shown that practice with programs outside of class hours and the provisi<strong>on</strong><br />
of a resource book increases the academic success of students receiving applied package<br />
program educati<strong>on</strong>. Therefore, organizati<strong>on</strong>s providing package program educati<strong>on</strong> should<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider acquiring package program demos, course books and other additi<strong>on</strong>al teaching<br />
materials for the use of students in order to increase student learning levels and success rates.<br />
It is clear that the use of additi<strong>on</strong>al teaching materials increases the quality of instructi<strong>on</strong>. A<br />
high quality learning process will doubtlessly lead to a higher level of success. Educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s may also c<strong>on</strong>sider the possibility of allowing students to log <strong>on</strong> to the campus<br />
services from their home computers, in order to practice using package programs. Providing<br />
the demo versi<strong>on</strong>s of package programs for students to install <strong>on</strong> their home computers may<br />
also be an effective way to facilitate the learning process.<br />
This study has examined the effects of the usage of course books and laboratory package<br />
program use outside of class hours. Similar studies may be performed <strong>on</strong> the usage of other<br />
teaching materials. In this study, we have not performed research regarding the permanency<br />
of learning and this may be addressed by other researchers.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Alkaya, Y. (2006). Turizm Endüstrisinde Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamasında İnsan<br />
Kaynaklarının Yönetimi, http://ab.org.tr/ab06/bildiri/99.doc, Accessed 10.04.2012.<br />
Akdağ, M., & Tok, H. (2008). Geleneksel Öğretim ile PowerPoint Sunum Destekli Öğretimin<br />
Öğrenci Erişisine Etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim Dergisi, 33(147), 26-34.<br />
Bayram, S. (2006). Bilgisayar Destekli Özel Eğitim.<br />
www.servetbayram.com/otizmce/http/k<strong>on</strong>gre_makale.doc, Accessed 10.04.2012.<br />
Altunay, A.Y. & Şeker, R. (2008). Bilgisayar Ortamında Hazırlanan Kavram Haritalarının<br />
Bir Öğretim Materyali Olarak Fen Bilgisi Dersinde Kullanılmasının İlköğretim<br />
Öğrencilerinin Başarılarına Etkisi. TSA Dergisi, 12(3): 19-32.<br />
Öğüt, A., Güleş, H.K. & Çetinkaya, A.Ş. (2003). Bilişim Teknolojileri Işığında Turizm<br />
Işletmelerinde Yönetim: Enformatik Bir Bakış. 1. Basım, Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık.<br />
Yılmaz, M.P. (2007). Chermik: Otel Otomasy<strong>on</strong> Sistemi. Elektrik-Elektr<strong>on</strong>ik Bölümü<br />
Dergisi, .<br />
Akova, O., Sarıışık, M. & Akbaba, A. (2007). Seyahat Acentalarında İşgören Bulma ve<br />
İşgören Seçme Yöntemlerine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi<br />
İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 15: 275-296.<br />
Altınöz, M. (2008). Ofis Otomasy<strong>on</strong> Sistemlerinin Bireysel Performans Üzerine Etkisi.<br />
Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 20: 51-63 .<br />
Kınay, F. & Kınay H., (2004), K<strong>on</strong>aklama Işletmelerinde Kullanılan Önbüro Paket<br />
Programları Üzerine Antalya Yöresinde Bir Araştırma. TSE Standart dergisi, 43(510): 70-79.<br />
Kurbanoglu, S. & Akkoyunlu, B. (2002). Bilgi Okuryazarlığı: Bir İlkögretim Okulunda<br />
Yürütülen Uygulama Çalışması. Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 16(1): 20 - 41.<br />
Yıldırım, R. (2001). Öğrenmeyi Öğrenmek. İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık.<br />
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Balay, R. (2004). Küreselleşme, Bilgi Toplumu ve Eğitim. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim<br />
Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 37(2): 61-82.<br />
Gölönü, S. (2006). Gelişen Teknolojiler, Öğrenen Örgütler ve Halkla İlişkiler. Selçuk<br />
Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(3): 73-81.<br />
Düşükcan, M. & Kaya, E.Ü. (2003). İşletmelerde Bilgi Teknolojilerinin Kullanılma Yerleri.<br />
web.firat.edu.tr/daum/docs/13/08düşükcan.doc, Accessed 10.04.2012.<br />
T<strong>on</strong>ta Y. (1999). Bilgi Toplumu ve Bilgi Teknolojisi, Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 13(4): 363-375<br />
Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö., Karadeniz, Ş. & Demirel, F. (2010a). Bilimsel<br />
Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara:Pegem Yayınları.<br />
Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çokluk, Ö. & Köklü, N. (2010b). İstatistik, Ankara:Pegem Yayınları.
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LEGACY of TURGUT ÖZAL and THE SUSTAİNABLE TRANSFORMATİON of<br />
TURKEY with AK PARTY GOVERNMENTS<br />
Abstract<br />
Erdoğan Selami, Acar Eray<br />
Dumlupinar University, Kütahya, Turkey,<br />
E-mails: erdogans274@mynet.com,acar_eray@hotmail.com<br />
Turgut Özal is <strong>on</strong>e of the most important actors in the Turkish Political life. He made<br />
fundamental changes in Turkey between 1983-1993 as a Prime Minister or President of<br />
Turkish Republic. He not <strong>on</strong>ly tried to liberate Turkish ec<strong>on</strong>omy but also political sphere.<br />
Özal, especially focused <strong>on</strong> freedom of speech, freedom of belief and freedom of enterprise.<br />
At the same time, the latest refers to the free market ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Until Özal's period Turkish<br />
political leaders applied the model of mixed ec<strong>on</strong>omy, not free market ec<strong>on</strong>omy, that is, the<br />
structure of Turkish ec<strong>on</strong>omy wasn't entegrate with global markets. İnitially, Özal changed it<br />
and he started to set up export-oriented ec<strong>on</strong>omic model, free interest rates, privatizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
etc... and then, made political reforms; like freedom of speaking the Kurdish language,<br />
dissoluti<strong>on</strong> of 141, 142 and 163. articles of Turkish Ciriminal Code, applicati<strong>on</strong> for full<br />
membership to the European Uni<strong>on</strong>. Unfortunately, his succesors could not able to sustain his<br />
revoluti<strong>on</strong>ary political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic visi<strong>on</strong>. İn this respect, 1990s can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as lost<br />
years for the Turkey. Until AK Parti governments Turkey encountered deep ec<strong>on</strong>omic and<br />
political crises such as April 1994 and 28 February 1997. After from this miserable period,<br />
with the AK Parti government Turkey returned to the Özal's reformist politics both politically<br />
and ec<strong>on</strong>omically. According to the arguments which are menti<strong>on</strong>ed below, Özal's<br />
transformati<strong>on</strong> efforts will be examined from today's view. Besides, what are the main<br />
characteristics of Özal and the AK Parti leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, can we say c<strong>on</strong>tinuity<br />
or divergence between them. İn Today's Turkey, what is the importance of Turgut Özal, can<br />
we say that, Özal's ideas particularly in ec<strong>on</strong>omic field-is being applied by the AK Parti<br />
government.<br />
Keywords: Özal, AK Parti, Free Market Ec<strong>on</strong>omy, Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Crises, Political Reforms,<br />
Turkish Ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
1.Turgut Özal And ANAP (Motherland Party)<br />
Turkey encountered two important problems which were the political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic crises in<br />
the late of 1970s. 24 January 1980 Desici<strong>on</strong>s (Özal architect of desici<strong>on</strong>s), a series of<br />
fundamental ec<strong>on</strong>omic policy changes, couldn’t be carried out by the weak Demirel’s<br />
minority government. These problems paved the way for the military interventi<strong>on</strong> of Turkey<br />
in September 12, 1980. The Junta came to power with overriding objectives, the first <strong>on</strong>e was<br />
to repress the political sphere by applying rigid measures against extremists and the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
objective was for ec<strong>on</strong>omic restructuring (Boratav, 1998: 122 ; Topal, 2000: 122).The 1980
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Military Coup in Turkey was an attempt by the General Kenan Evren and his friends who<br />
were called NSC (Nati<strong>on</strong>al Security Council) to reshape the Turkish political system for the<br />
sustainabledemocratic order. Forthat reas<strong>on</strong>, some measures were implemented between<br />
September Coup 1980 and November 1983 by the military government to reestablish the<br />
Turkish political arena. The new c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> was approved by a referendum in 1982.<br />
(Ergüder, 1991: 152). After that, İn order to regulate party formati<strong>on</strong> and electoral system the<br />
new Political Parties Lawand Electoral Law were enacted in April 1983. Also, It was decided<br />
that, new general electi<strong>on</strong>s would be realized in November 1983.<br />
On the other hand, the ruling military government did not want coaliti<strong>on</strong> government for the<br />
stability of political sphere. To provide this target they introduced %10 electi<strong>on</strong> threshold<br />
which was very high. Similarly, according to this aim, they thougt to allow <strong>on</strong>ly two political<br />
parties to attend the 1983 General Electi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>on</strong>e of them is moderate-right MDP (Nati<strong>on</strong>alist<br />
Domocracy Party), the other is moderate-left HP (Populist Party). But, the powerful Generals<br />
gave permissi<strong>on</strong> reluctanly Özal’s Party ANAP to enter into electi<strong>on</strong>s due to foreign pressure<br />
(Akdoğan, 2001:88; Ahmad, 2007: 189-190). However, the junta supported his own party<br />
(MDP) str<strong>on</strong>gly. İndeed, President Evren had already made a televisi<strong>on</strong> speech before the<br />
electi<strong>on</strong>s, he clearly criticized Turgut Özal and his party (MP), favoured MDP. İn any case,<br />
Evren’s speech didn’t c<strong>on</strong>tributeMDP, but it damaged.At the end, NSC allowed to compete<br />
of the three political parties for the 6 November General Electi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Duringthe electi<strong>on</strong>s campaing it was understood that, Özal was ready for government, he<br />
was talking abuot the measures to recover corrupted (ruined) ec<strong>on</strong>omy, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
transformati<strong>on</strong>, free market ec<strong>on</strong>omy, also selling to the Bosphorus Bridge etc. On the other<br />
hand, the other two leaders (Necdet Calp and Turgut Sunalp) couldn’t say c<strong>on</strong>crete projects.<br />
Especially, MDP was presenting itself as the reprasantative of 12 September Military<br />
Coup.Unlike Özal’s political meetings, their meetings were not exciting to Turkish voters.<br />
Morever, Özal and his party managed to present itself as a civilian force, the most competent<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g other two parties to normalize Turkish democracy and ec<strong>on</strong>omic system. At the same<br />
time, Özal were using more civilian discourse, he meant that his party aut<strong>on</strong>omous from the<br />
military (Akdoğan, 2001: 88).<br />
ANAP was advocating c<strong>on</strong>sensus and tolerati<strong>on</strong> in political sphere unlike MDP and HP.<br />
According to Özal, ec<strong>on</strong>omic problems could be resolved<strong>on</strong>ly by decisive and logical<br />
methods. That is, he meant that their government could overcome these problems. Turkish<br />
People believed him. Only Özal’s Party used positive discources and formulati<strong>on</strong>s, other<br />
parties preferred to say state-oriented rhetoric (Özkazanç, 1996: 1221). At the same time,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> programmes <strong>on</strong> TRT (Turkish Radio and Televisi<strong>on</strong>) c<strong>on</strong>tributed Özal’s<br />
success. At these programmes Özal told his ec<strong>on</strong>omic projects simply and clearly instead of<br />
ideological issues, (Heper, 2011: 206). Özal persuaded Turkish People <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic issues<br />
easily. And, ANAP was able to win the electi<strong>on</strong>s getting a little more votes than 45 percent<br />
(%45.2) 211 deputies (400/211) in the Electi<strong>on</strong>s of November 1983 and come to the power<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly by itself (<strong>on</strong>e-party government).<br />
1.1. Özal’s Governments and Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Transformati<strong>on</strong> of Turkey
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The ideology of the ANAP was based <strong>on</strong> four different political views, nati<strong>on</strong>alism,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servatism, social justice, and market ec<strong>on</strong>omy (ANAP programme, 1983). İn this respect,<br />
Özal claimed that our party was the represantative of the whole society rather than a part of it.<br />
Prime Minister Özal and his party acted carefully in order not to do an acti<strong>on</strong> to disturb the<br />
soldiers (NSC), as it was transiti<strong>on</strong> government and comletely signed the desici<strong>on</strong>s about the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy can be seen. While noticing the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of that time, it is seen that this was a<br />
logical preference. During those years Özal introduced himself as a calculating man by using<br />
a rather moderate language and stressed <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omical issues(Kalaycıoğlu, 2002: 46).<br />
On the other hand, Özal accused the previous governments of being too closed in<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al community and ec<strong>on</strong>omy. According to him, Turkish politicians were hesitating<br />
to be open to the internati<strong>on</strong>al arena and attempting to built a wall around Turkey. İn this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text, closed society and closed ec<strong>on</strong>omy meant an isoleted country. Özal aimed to<br />
changed these closed policies (Topal, 2001: 40).The primacy aim of Özal was to make<br />
structural changes in ec<strong>on</strong>omy and to make the ec<strong>on</strong>omy open to the out side (Kazdağlı<br />
2003: 460) He eventually started to make his decisi<strong>on</strong>s into practice which he had planned<br />
before. The major reforms of Özal roughly (Morgil, 1996: 104-105; Akad: 2000: 267).<br />
- He abolished “The Law of the Protecti<strong>on</strong> of the Value of Turkish Lira” that he had<br />
come from the years of 1930.<br />
- The flexible exchange rate policy was started (It means no devaluati<strong>on</strong> suddenly)<br />
- The c<strong>on</strong>trol of prices was abolished (Black Market ended)<br />
- The importing limitati<strong>on</strong>s and quotas were almost completely abolished<br />
- Out of budget funds applicati<strong>on</strong>s were established in order to get rid of the<br />
bureaucratic formalities<br />
- Reduced beuraucracy for taking driver’s license and passport<br />
- Privatizati<strong>on</strong> efforts, the industrializati<strong>on</strong> policies which are open to foreign<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong> and the encouragement of the industrial and service investments.<br />
Özal is usually remembered for his infrastructural projects that he had made for supporting<br />
the investments. For instance, Fatih Sultan Mehmed Bridge (2.Bosphorus Bridge), Atatürk<br />
Dam, highways, roads, harbours, airports, the comm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> of the teleph<strong>on</strong>e networks of<br />
the villages are appearing at the first sight for evaluating in this respect. İn the different<br />
centres of Anatolia (Denizli, K<strong>on</strong>ya, Kayseri etc.) the firms which were called as “Anatolian<br />
Tigers” were able to exist by means of incentives that Özal had given (Öniş, 2000: 289).<br />
By means of Özal’s radical ec<strong>on</strong>omical transformati<strong>on</strong>s which we have counted above, the<br />
import-substituti<strong>on</strong> period in Turkish ec<strong>on</strong>omy finished, an ec<strong>on</strong>omical model that is exportoriented<br />
had been started with Özal (Çalık, 1992: 6). Thanks to these reforms, it wasn’t<br />
anymore guilt to have foreing currency or foreign cigarettes in your pocket in Turkey. Also,<br />
The absences of goods and queues of goods were no l<strong>on</strong>ger problems though they had been<br />
very comm<strong>on</strong> before 12th September. Özal said that we souldn’t be afraid of making<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong> with the World and gave to importance to the freedom of enterprising. İnstead of<br />
being afraid globalisati<strong>on</strong>, Özal made it stress that it was an oppurtunity for us. He often went<br />
to <strong>on</strong> journeys abroad by making his plane full of businessman. İn his opini<strong>on</strong>, our age was<br />
an age of individuals’, freedoms and oppurtunities. İn this c<strong>on</strong>text, ANAP governments gave
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incentives to the businessmans in every field, for that reas<strong>on</strong>, big success were realized in<br />
private sector, e.g tourism(Kazdağlı, 1996: 100). Besides successful enterprisers emerged in<br />
all the parts of Anatolia. They started to export different goods to all around the World.<br />
Between the years 1983-1989 in which Özal was ruling the country, the average growth rate<br />
in a year in Turkey was more than 5 percent. Again in this period the export of Turkey had<br />
been increased up to 350 percent (Öniş, 2000: 289). On the other side, the ec<strong>on</strong>omic crises<br />
that Turkey was used to, were not seen in Özal’s period. However didn’t <strong>on</strong>ly apply policies<br />
based <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy, but he also wanted to entegrate the ec<strong>on</strong>omical liberalism with the<br />
political liberalism in the following period. We realize that serious steps were made in his<br />
time in the field of democratizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1.2. Özal and Democratizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Özal is generally accused of giving importance and first side to the liberalizati<strong>on</strong> in ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
rather than not making a serious liberalizati<strong>on</strong> in political field. When Özal started to rule the<br />
country in 1983, the guardianship of the soldiers (NSC) was still c<strong>on</strong>tinuing. Whether Özal<br />
wanted political liberalizati<strong>on</strong> or not, there wasn’t a possibility for this in those times. The<br />
sings of political liberalizati<strong>on</strong> can be seen from the year 1987. Later, when we look at his<br />
reforms during his being the President of Republic (1989-1993), we can say that the political<br />
liberalizati<strong>on</strong> was at the top. His most comm<strong>on</strong> reforms are the followings (Dağı, 2003: 249-<br />
269; Acar, 2008: 202; Özbudun, 2003: 110, Barlas, 1994: 287):<br />
- İndividual applicati<strong>on</strong> right to the European Human Rights Commissi<strong>on</strong> was given to<br />
the Turkish citizens (1987)<br />
- Turkey made its applicati<strong>on</strong> for being a full membership of the European<br />
Uni<strong>on</strong>(1987)<br />
- The authority of the European Court of Justice was started to be accepted<br />
- The European and United Nati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> was accepted against torture<br />
- The 141st, 142nd, and 163rd articles of Turkish Criminal Code (TCK) which<br />
prohibited the socialist and the islamic views, were abolished by the pers<strong>on</strong>al efforts<br />
of Özal in April, 1991<br />
- He was the main actor in abolishing the prohibiti<strong>on</strong> of speaking in Kurdish<br />
- Turkey signed The European Social Charter and The Charter of Paris<br />
On the other side, Özal signed some critical events that decreased the influence of the soldiers<br />
and increased and showed the strength of the civilian rulers. İn 1987, he opposed to the<br />
chosing of the General Staff without being asked to him and he appointed the pers<strong>on</strong> he<br />
preferred as the General Staff (Necip Torumtay), not the <strong>on</strong>e who was dictated to him<br />
(Necdet Öztorun). Moreover, he checked a military force with his bermuda short (Heper,<br />
2011: 223).<br />
But the most important of all, he always underlined three freedoms througout his career:<br />
- The Freedom of Thougt
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- The Freedom of Religi<strong>on</strong> and C<strong>on</strong>science<br />
- The Freedom of Enterprise<br />
İn fact, the political philosophy of Özal is hidden in these three sentences. However, Özal had<br />
given importance mostly to the ec<strong>on</strong>omic liberalism in his first ruling period (1983-1987) as<br />
the military guardianship was going <strong>on</strong>, but, especially when he was the president, he was<br />
able to make fundamental reforms in the field of democratizati<strong>on</strong>, he signed many important<br />
progressi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
2. Stagnati<strong>on</strong> Period of Turkey (1990s)<br />
The coaliti<strong>on</strong> governments period started again in Turkey from 1991. The years of 1990s<br />
were the years of ec<strong>on</strong>omical and political crises with the coaliti<strong>on</strong> governments (1994etc.)<br />
On account of the short lasting governments, political chaoses were always lived through.<br />
Worse than this, 28th. February 1997 Post-modern Coup was realized. Turkey lost its<br />
reformative identity in this period, failed the improvments througout the World as it was<br />
struggling with the artificial problems inside the country, its macroec<strong>on</strong>omic balances were<br />
damaged, its banks were robbed etc. On the other hand, the military and civilian bureaucracy<br />
intervened in every part of public life. Also, elected governments and politicians were<br />
threatened. That’s why the years of 1990s are called as the years in which Turkey went back<br />
in ec<strong>on</strong>omic and political liberalism. Nevertless, the most positive thing in this period was<br />
that achieving the full membership status to the European Uni<strong>on</strong> in 1999.<br />
3.The Governing of AK Party and Restarting of Transformati<strong>on</strong> Period<br />
As the DSP-MHP-ANAP Coaliti<strong>on</strong> Government took the country towards financial crises<br />
and was unsuccesful at solving the problem of corrupti<strong>on</strong>, it carried the AK Party to the<br />
government in the November 2002 Electi<strong>on</strong>s. İt was unsuspicious that the success that the<br />
politicians working at AK Party had shown at the municipalities and except from this, the<br />
KOBİs’ and the bourgeoise of Anatolian’s support was effective in this success (Öniş, 2010:<br />
259). Two parties got the right to enter to TBMM after the electi<strong>on</strong>s. AK Party and CHP. AK<br />
Party became the governing party. İn fact, AK Party came to the government after a similar<br />
period of ANAP. Because ANAP had also come to the government as a result of a very deep<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omical and political crises. Undoubtedly, a charismatic leader (Erdoğan) played an<br />
important role in the success of AK Party as it had been like in ANAP (Özal).<br />
AK Party promised that it would do reforms in the field of ec<strong>on</strong>omics, in additi<strong>on</strong> to this, it<br />
would get rid of the problem of basic rights and freedoms. At the same time, AK Party<br />
preferred to make stress <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omical issues and European Uni<strong>on</strong> process insistently instead
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of classical ideological polarizati<strong>on</strong>s. People showed their support to AK Party’s liberal<br />
policies in the 2002 electi<strong>on</strong>s (Altun, 2009:4).<br />
4.AK Party Governments and Re-transformati<strong>on</strong> of The Turkish Ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
Turkey regained its reformative identity that it had lost in the 1990 years with AK Party. The<br />
Party stayed loyal to the free market ec<strong>on</strong>omy and which had been started by Özal in the<br />
period that was after 1980. İn additi<strong>on</strong> to this, Erdogan declared the loyality to European<br />
Uni<strong>on</strong> Process. İt started to apply the targets that it had put forward with patience in 2002<br />
November after it came to government despite some political disadvantages (soldiers and<br />
civilian bureaucracy). Erdogan’s Party also started to work intensely in many fields like<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, healt, building, transportati<strong>on</strong> and others (Koç, 2011).<br />
Besides, it stayed faithful to the IMF agreement that the former government had signed. By<br />
means of successful financial discipline and decisive ec<strong>on</strong>omical reforms, AK Party has<br />
signed a lot of successes. Undoubtedly the European Uni<strong>on</strong> process has been <strong>on</strong>e of the most<br />
important supporting factors to achieve these successes (Öniş, 2010: 269). Once AK Party<br />
became the government, it gave too much importance to this process, at the same time, by<br />
means of this process it strengthened its legitimacy. İt should be pointed that the IMF criteria<br />
are important about decreasing the inflati<strong>on</strong> and net debt amount. The records of Republic<br />
History has been achieved again in this period in the flow of foreing capital (Altun, 2009:<br />
19).<br />
Likewise it had been in ANAP’s (Özal’s period), big successes have been achieved in<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al income and export during AK Party government. İf we look at these rougly<br />
(www.tüik.gov.tr)<br />
- The export which has been 36 billi<strong>on</strong>$ in 2002 increased to 134 billi<strong>on</strong>$ in 2011<br />
- Nati<strong>on</strong>al income which was 230 billi<strong>on</strong>$ in 2002 increased to 735 billi<strong>on</strong>$ in 2011<br />
- The record was d<strong>on</strong>e in privatizati<strong>on</strong> between 2003-2011 (TÜPRAŞ. etc) 34 billi<strong>on</strong>$<br />
İf we look at the results in other fields in order to undertand the dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
transformati<strong>on</strong> in Turkey (www.akparti.org.tr) :<br />
- Turkey has been introduced with High Speed Train<br />
- 13.500 kilometres doubled-road has been built<br />
- TOKİ has been built about 500.000 flats<br />
- Service has been carried even to the farthest villages with the KOYDES and BELDES<br />
projects<br />
- There hasn’t been any city without a university<br />
- Six zeros have been abolished for Turkish Liras<br />
On the other hand, Likewise Özal The Prime Minister Erdoğan took the businessman with<br />
him abroad so as to increase the trade. He abolished the vizas with a lot of countries. İn<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to these the number of turists coming to Turkey has increased to 32 milli<strong>on</strong> from 13
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milli<strong>on</strong> in 2011 (www.dha.com.tr). Accordding to these datas, It is clear that Erdogan’s Party<br />
is developing to Turkey successfully, for that reas<strong>on</strong> a large majority of Turkish voters<br />
support his party increasingly.<br />
5. Democratizati<strong>on</strong> and AK Party<br />
AK Party had given the signals that it would make democratizati<strong>on</strong> steps from the time it<br />
came to the government. The Prime Minister of that period, Abdullah Gül, stressed in his<br />
speech of İCO’s Tahran Summit in May 2003 that the Muslim Countries had needed to care<br />
more about the democratizati<strong>on</strong>, human and women rights (Duran, 2010: 341).<br />
İn the following period, it could be seen that AK Party government was much sincere about<br />
this subject by the motivati<strong>on</strong> of European Uni<strong>on</strong> as well. İf we have to make notice to the<br />
most known reforms (Dağı, 2010: 132-140; Koç, 2011: 15-20, Altun, 2009: 15;<br />
www.akparti.org.tr).<br />
- The applicati<strong>on</strong>s of state of emercency was abolished<br />
- The closing of political parties have been made difficult<br />
- State Security Courts were abolished<br />
- The Law of Getting İnformati<strong>on</strong> has been enacted<br />
- The political propaganda with an other language (Kurdish) than Turkish has been<br />
abolished<br />
- Broadcasting in Kurdish has been made free for private TV and radios. 24 hour<br />
Kurdish broadcasting has been started in TRT 6.<br />
- İt has been allowed to established Kurdish Language and Literature Departments and<br />
İnstituti<strong>on</strong>s at Universities.<br />
- Nati<strong>on</strong>al Unificati<strong>on</strong> and Brotherhood Projects have been started<br />
- A lot of workshops about Alevi Problem has been d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
- On the 12th September, 2010, a large change of C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> which decreased the<br />
influence of the military in politics and brought a positive discriminati<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
women and children has been adopted.<br />
- On the 27th April, 2007, the civilian ruling (AK Party) has objected to the ememorandum,<br />
which was broadcasted in the internet by the General Staff, but AK<br />
Party refused this memorandum and declared counter-memorandum in 28 April 2007<br />
unexpectedly.<br />
The success of AK Party both in the field of ec<strong>on</strong>omy and its democratic standing has been<br />
appreciated by the Turkish public. AK Party has achieved an effective success by increasing<br />
its votes in the 3 general electi<strong>on</strong>s that followed <strong>on</strong>e other.<br />
On the other hand, in 1990s influence of the military was very high in political sphere, but<br />
with AK Party governments, İt changed. When we look at the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between soldiers<br />
and AK Party, Tayyip Erdoğan has signed a cautious reform without damagining and<br />
destroying, by thinking the instituti<strong>on</strong>al reputati<strong>on</strong> of TSK (Turkish Military Forces) (Aydın,
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2012: 4). İn a new period Turkey has entered, the Generals have been giving applicati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
retirement instead of memorandum now (İdiz, 2011: 17). Then, Turkey has been normalizing.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Alev Özkazanç, “Türkiye’de Yeni Sağ”Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türkiye Ansiklopedisi, C.15,<br />
İletişim Yayınları, 1996: Ankara<br />
ANAP Programı (1983)<br />
Argun Akdoğan, Mapping Özal New Hegem<strong>on</strong>ic Project, Doktora Tezi, ODTÜ, 2001:<br />
Ankara<br />
Asaf Savaş Akad, “The Political Ec<strong>on</strong>omy of Turkish İnflati<strong>on</strong>”, Journal of İnternti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Affairs, V.54, 2000<br />
Aylin Topal, The New Right and Özalizm, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Bilkent, 2000: Ankara<br />
Burhanettin Duran, “AKP ve Dönüşümün Aracı Olarak Politika”, H.Yavuz (Editor), AK Parti<br />
ve Toplumsal Değişimin Yeni Aktörleri, Kitap Yayınevi, 2010: İstanbul<br />
Celal Kazdağlı, “Turgut Özal’ın İktisadi Reformları”, İ.Sezal, İ.Dağı (Editoryal), Kim Bu<br />
Özal?, Boyut Kitapları, 2003: İstanbul<br />
Ergun Özbudun, “Özal ve Demokratikleşme”, İ.Sezal (Editör), Devlet ve Siyaset Adamı<br />
Turgut Özal, 20 Mayıs Vakfı, 1996: İstanbul<br />
Ersin Kalaycıoğlu, “The Motherland Party: The Challange of İnstituti<strong>on</strong>alizati<strong>on</strong> in a<br />
Charismatic Leader Party” M.Heper, B.Rubin (Editoryal), Political Parties in Turkey, Frank<br />
Cass Pub., 2002: L<strong>on</strong>dra<br />
Ertan Aydın, “Erdoğan’ın uzlaştırıcı reformizmi” Star Gazetesi Açık Görüş, 26.02.2012<br />
Fahrettin Altun, “12 Eylül’den 12 Haziran’a Siyasi Partiler, AK PARTİ”, Seta Analiz, S.41,<br />
2011: Ankara<br />
Feride Acar, “Turgut Özal” (Çev: Zuhal Bilgin), M.Heper, S.Sayarı (Editoryal), Türkiye’de<br />
Liderler ve Demokrasi, Kitap Yayınevi, 2008: İstanbul
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Feroz Ahmad, Bir Kimlik Peşinde Türkiye, Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2007: İstanbul<br />
İhsan Dağı, “Kimlik Siyaset ve İnsan Hakları Söylemi”, H.Yavuz (Editör), AK Parti ve<br />
Toplumsal Değişimin Yeni Aktörleri, Kitap Yayınevi, 2010: İstanbul<br />
Korkut Boratav, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi, 1908-1985, Gerçek Yayınevi 1998: İstanbul<br />
Mehmet Barlas, Turgut Özal’ın Anıları, Sabah Kitapları, 1994: İstanbul<br />
Metin Heper, Türkiye’nin Siyasal Hayatı,Doğan Kitap, 2011: İstanbul<br />
Mustafa Çalık, “Özal: Türkiye’nin Önünde Hacet Kapıları Açılmıştır”, Türkiye Günlüğü,<br />
sayı.19, 1992<br />
Orhan Morgil, “Turgut Özal ve Ek<strong>on</strong>omi Politikaları”, İ.Sezal (Editor), Devlet ve Siyaset<br />
Adamı Turgut Özal, 20 Mayıs Vakfı, 1996: İstanbul<br />
Semih İdiz,“Muhtıra Değil Emeklilik Dilekçesi Veriliyor” Milliyet Gazetesi, 01.08.2011<br />
Üstün Ergüder, “The Motherland Party (ANAP) 1983-1989” M.Heper, J.Landau (Editoryal),<br />
Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, I.B.Tauris Publishers, New York and L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>:<br />
1991.<br />
Yusuf Ziya Öniş, “Neo-Liberal Globalizati<strong>on</strong> and the Democracy Paradox: The Turkish<br />
General Electi<strong>on</strong>s of 1999” Journal of İnternati<strong>on</strong>al Affairs, V.54, Fall 2000<br />
Yusuf Ziya Öniş, “Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi’nin Ek<strong>on</strong>omi-Politiği”, H.Yavuz (Editör), AK<br />
Parti Toplumsal Değişimin Yeni Aktörleri, Kitap Yayınevi, 2010: İstanbul<br />
Yaşar Taşkın Koç, “Değişim ve Statüko Kıskacında Ak Parti”, Seta Analiz, S.6, 2009:<br />
Ankara<br />
www.dha.com.tr<br />
www.akparti.org.tr<br />
www.tüik.gov.tr
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An Evaluati<strong>on</strong> Of Regi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>Development</strong> Agencies’ Roles In Regard To Social<br />
Sustainability: A Disscussi<strong>on</strong> Of Turkish <strong>Development</strong> Agencies’ Experience<br />
Mustafa Ökmen1, Buğra Özer1, Vedat Bal2<br />
1Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and Administrative Sciences, Department of<br />
2Celal Bayar University, School of Applied Sciences, Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Trade, ,<br />
Manisa, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study focuses <strong>on</strong> the nexus between social sustainability and regi<strong>on</strong>al and local<br />
development. In handling the issue in questi<strong>on</strong>, the work proposes to focus <strong>on</strong> the role played<br />
by regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies in facilitating social sustainability. The study will facilitate<br />
the discussi<strong>on</strong> by reviewing the Turkish experience in regi<strong>on</strong>al development by reviewing<br />
Turkish regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies’ legacy that came <strong>on</strong> the Turkish regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development discussi<strong>on</strong>s in the mid of the very first decade of 2000s. The attempt will be to<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strate that Turkish RDAs cannot handle mechanisms to deal with problems that appear<br />
at social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental levels of the noti<strong>on</strong> of social sustainable development.<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
This study shall dwell <strong>on</strong> the nexus between social sustainability and regi<strong>on</strong>al and local<br />
development. In dealing with the issue in questi<strong>on</strong>, the work proposes to focus <strong>on</strong> the role<br />
played by regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies in facilitating social sustainability. The study will<br />
facilitate the discussi<strong>on</strong> by reviewing the Turkish experience in regi<strong>on</strong>al development by<br />
reviewing Turkish regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies’ legacy that came <strong>on</strong> the Turkish regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development discussi<strong>on</strong>s in the mid of the very first decade of 2000s.<br />
Given the prospect of full membership of Turkey to the European Uni<strong>on</strong> and related never<br />
ending accessi<strong>on</strong> talks and negotiati<strong>on</strong>s with the Uni<strong>on</strong>(Öniş, 2000, Öniş 2003), regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development agencies assumed to bring a wide array of remedies to the <strong>on</strong>going important<br />
problems in regard to the regi<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social disparities embedded in the Turkish<br />
politico-ec<strong>on</strong>omic setting (Reeves,2005). In such respect, the scale of regi<strong>on</strong>al disparities<br />
between the different parts of Turkey has posed itself as a significant problematizati<strong>on</strong> in a<br />
wider dimensi<strong>on</strong> than that of the scale of regi<strong>on</strong>al disparities in the EU (Sungar,2005).<br />
Given the challenge, regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies have been primary actors to deal with<br />
the disparities mostly emerging in ec<strong>on</strong>omic dimensi<strong>on</strong> while Turkey in terms of<br />
geographical size encompasses an area bigger than that of Germany, Italy and Portugal<br />
combined, with an approximating populati<strong>on</strong> of seventy-five milli<strong>on</strong> (Loewendahl-<br />
Ertugal,2005). Despite the fact that most regi<strong>on</strong>al development related instituti<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
programs came to be inextricably linked to the ec<strong>on</strong>omic development disparities first and<br />
foremost, not adequate attenti<strong>on</strong> has been paid to the social sustainability dimensi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
problems (Gibbs,2010). In this respect, the proposed study will problematize respectively:
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On theoretical terms the link between regi<strong>on</strong>al development and the noti<strong>on</strong> of social<br />
sustainability how the ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of ec<strong>on</strong>omic development<br />
may be integrated in a single approach of regi<strong>on</strong>al development.<br />
What the Turkish regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies’ experiences have been <strong>on</strong> the way to create<br />
a nati<strong>on</strong>al regi<strong>on</strong>al development policy while maintaining ties to the EU accessi<strong>on</strong> talks,<br />
thereby setting linkages to the Uni<strong>on</strong>’s regi<strong>on</strong>al development policies.<br />
How the Turkish Regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies have devised mechanisms to integrate<br />
social sustainability schemes to the regi<strong>on</strong>al development policies.<br />
Following the juxtapositi<strong>on</strong> of research problematizati<strong>on</strong>s, the intended study aims to fill in<br />
some gaps. Although there exists a bulk of literature <strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al and local development in the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text of the EU; the lack of research <strong>on</strong> the link of regi<strong>on</strong>al development agencies to social<br />
sustainability schemes in the case of Turkey is striking. In such regard, <strong>on</strong>e other effort of the<br />
paper is to c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards filling the gap in research literature <strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al development in<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> to social sustainability in Turkey.<br />
2. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES (RDAs) AND SUSTAINABLE<br />
DEVELOPMENT NOTIONS IN GENERAL PESPECTIVE<br />
2.1.Rati<strong>on</strong>ales for RDAs and Regi<strong>on</strong>al Policies<br />
In an era of major restructuring and retrenchment of government internati<strong>on</strong>ally, RDAs<br />
assume to play essentially important roles in facilitating and promoting ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
development (Halkier and Dans<strong>on</strong>, 1997). As understood from the dimensi<strong>on</strong>, the ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
role of RDAs has been the pillar characteristic of the rais<strong>on</strong> d’être of the organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Dans<strong>on</strong> et al., 2005, Pike et al., 2006). A standard academic definiti<strong>on</strong> shall also interlink the<br />
role of RDAs to the noti<strong>on</strong> of public policy by stating that RDA is “a regi<strong>on</strong>ally based,<br />
publicly financed instituti<strong>on</strong> outside the mainstream of central and local government<br />
administrati<strong>on</strong> designed to promote indigenous ec<strong>on</strong>omic development through an integrated<br />
use of predominantly ‘soft’ policy instruments.” (Halkier and Dans<strong>on</strong>, 1997). Then the basic<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of such definiti<strong>on</strong> will emphasize the semiaut<strong>on</strong>omous characteristic of RDAs<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing in a multifuncti<strong>on</strong>al and integrated manner. (Halkier, 2011, Halkier etal 1998)<br />
Accordingly, RDAs are given the task of supporting ec<strong>on</strong>omic development through soft<br />
policy means. The soft policy means may stand <strong>on</strong> a wide array of alternatives ranging from<br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong> of advice to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to inducing<br />
networking and learning(Halkier et al., 1998) Lagendijk etal emphasize that such a softpolicy-means<br />
perspective implies a strategic point view that RDAs shall “bridge the gap<br />
between regi<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic policy and other fields of policy that impact up<strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development, building <strong>on</strong> their capacity to collectivize local interests” (Lagendijk,2009).<br />
The importance of RDAs comes from three factors. First and foremost, RDAs develop a<br />
platform for public policy that will have proximate links to the private enterprise al<strong>on</strong>g with a<br />
sound distance that will avoid the abuse that might possibly come from the individual<br />
enterprises and local political interests (Benneworth,2001). Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, RDAs are alternative<br />
bureaucratic bodies more closely related to private enterprises in terms of facilitati<strong>on</strong> of
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regi<strong>on</strong>al development, offering a shelter from day to day political pressures and providing a<br />
more strategic approach to the issue of regi<strong>on</strong>al development in the l<strong>on</strong>g run. These two<br />
factors bring forth a third repercussi<strong>on</strong> that RDAs become more suitable actors involved in<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al policy under the EU Jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>, namely, European Structural Funds. As Halkier<br />
notes, “and as the importance of the European level in regi<strong>on</strong>al development has increased<br />
significantly since the late 1980s, the growing role of RDAs in and bey<strong>on</strong>d the current<br />
borders of the EU undoubtedly owes a lot to the adopti<strong>on</strong> of a l<strong>on</strong>g-term programming<br />
approach within the Structural Funds.” (Halkier, 2011)<br />
In terms of regi<strong>on</strong>al policy paradigms, the pre-1990s regi<strong>on</strong>al policies were designed in a topdown<br />
style, that is to say , the basic rati<strong>on</strong>ale of regi<strong>on</strong>al policy was to “to promote equality<br />
between regi<strong>on</strong>s by redistributing ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity to problem areas by means of a system<br />
of ‘carrots’ and ‘sticks’, primarily relying <strong>on</strong> ‘hard’ policy instruments such as infrastructure<br />
and financial subsidies in order to boost ec<strong>on</strong>omic hardware in the designated regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
through increased investment” (Halkier, 2011). In terms of organizati<strong>on</strong>, the developmental<br />
era emphasized the need to nati<strong>on</strong>ally designate programs via different bureaucratic<br />
departments (Dans<strong>on</strong> et al, 2005). The top-down design of regi<strong>on</strong>al policy signified the<br />
redistributi<strong>on</strong> of growth, thereby increasing ec<strong>on</strong>omic hardware through ‘hard’ resources by<br />
policy instruments which were n<strong>on</strong>-selective and reactive in terms of their nature<br />
(Halkier,2011).<br />
In the post-1990s setting, the making of regi<strong>on</strong>al policies has significantly changed. First and<br />
foremost, RDAs were designates as semi-aut<strong>on</strong>omous bodies which c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the<br />
juxtapositi<strong>on</strong> of regi<strong>on</strong>al based targets (Halkier,2011). Individual regi<strong>on</strong>s became the basic<br />
unit of analyses rather than nati<strong>on</strong>ally-designated units. The rati<strong>on</strong>ale behind top-bottom<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al policy has not changed in its essential sense and rather remained ec<strong>on</strong>omic as the<br />
approach principally aimed to deal with competitiveness of individual firms of localities. The<br />
basic means for public policy became ‘soft’ policy instruments such as advice, networks. In<br />
such regard, RDAs became training units which added up to improving ec<strong>on</strong>omically<br />
relevant knowledge (software) and knowledge exchange (orgware).Moreover, within the<br />
bottom-up approach resp<strong>on</strong>sibility became selective and proactive (Halkier,2011).<br />
2.2.<strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong> and RDAs<br />
Despite the ec<strong>on</strong>omic-centric definiti<strong>on</strong> of RDAs and regi<strong>on</strong>al policy, there is an increasing<br />
awareness of sustainable development noti<strong>on</strong> at the policy level. By 2000s, sustainable<br />
development noti<strong>on</strong>s have been more and more incorporated into the c<strong>on</strong>cerns of spatial<br />
scales in terms of mediati<strong>on</strong> of objectives and ec<strong>on</strong>omic development and other c<strong>on</strong>cerns of<br />
sustainable development (Shearlock etal,2000).<br />
A bulk of literature exists <strong>on</strong> sustainable development, defining the term as development<br />
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generati<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
meet their needs.” (Shearlock etal,2000)Therefore the term has a l<strong>on</strong>g-term visi<strong>on</strong> for society<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with the short term horiz<strong>on</strong>s which add up to l<strong>on</strong>g-term objectives. <strong>Sustainable</strong><br />
development as a term integrates various dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of human acti<strong>on</strong> starting from the local<br />
level to the global level. In such regard sustainable development has a different set of<br />
objectives inclusive of the improvement of the quality of life of both current and future<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s, while safeguarding the earth’s capacity to support life in all its diversity;<br />
promoti<strong>on</strong> of high levels of employment in an ec<strong>on</strong>omy whose strength is based <strong>on</strong>
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educati<strong>on</strong>, innovati<strong>on</strong>, social and territorial cohesi<strong>on</strong> and the protecti<strong>on</strong> of human health and<br />
the envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Noti<strong>on</strong> of its grounds and emphasis <strong>on</strong> democracy, the rule of law and<br />
respect for fundamental rights including freedom, equal opportunities and cultural diversity<br />
(Gibs<strong>on</strong>,2010).<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental dimensi<strong>on</strong>s are the basic pillars of sustainable<br />
development. It is rather a process that facilitates “improvement of the range of opportunities<br />
facilitating individual human beings and communities to meet their needs, as well as to<br />
achieve their aspirati<strong>on</strong>s and full potential over a sustained period of time, while maintaining<br />
the resilience of ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental systems ” (Shearlock etal,2000). There<br />
exist distinct driving forces and objectives for each domain As the ec<strong>on</strong>omy domain strives to<br />
improve human welfare, primarily through increases in the c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of goods and<br />
services, the main focus of the envir<strong>on</strong>mental domain is <strong>on</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> of the integrity and<br />
resilience of ecological systems (Gibs<strong>on</strong>,2010). The social domains underline the need for the<br />
enrichment of human relati<strong>on</strong>ships and achievement of individual and group aspirati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> development becomes the basic object of programs with c<strong>on</strong>tinuous<br />
improvements in the present quality of life at a lower intensity of resource use, thereby<br />
leaving behind for future generati<strong>on</strong>s an undiminished stock of productive assets (i.e.,<br />
manufactured, natural and social capital) that will enhance opportunities for improving their<br />
quality of life (Gibs<strong>on</strong>,2010; Shearlock,2000).<br />
Given the basic perspective drawn above, regi<strong>on</strong>al policy schemes have not been able to take<br />
general approaches that shall integrate the social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental domains of sustainable<br />
development. Most regi<strong>on</strong>al policies devised RDAs in a novel way that would embrace<br />
bottom to up approaches; however RDAs lacked means to integrate social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
domains. Most envir<strong>on</strong>mental policies devised by RDAs globally suffered from the same set<br />
of problems. In spite of European and global recogniti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong><br />
throughout the 1980s, many c<strong>on</strong>crete projects were far away from dealing with the problem<br />
that emerged at social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental levels. As Straaten et al (1999)observe in his<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> of envir<strong>on</strong>mental policies throughout the EU, “the principle of sustainable<br />
development does not alter this situati<strong>on</strong>. On the c<strong>on</strong>trary, all polluting industries accept the<br />
principle of sustainable development as a starting point for the nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy. However,<br />
as so<strong>on</strong> as the polluti<strong>on</strong> in their sector is discussed, they use str<strong>on</strong>g arguments based <strong>on</strong><br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic theories. The government is then always in the difficult positi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
having to dem<strong>on</strong>strate that the implementati<strong>on</strong> of strict envir<strong>on</strong>mental standards will benefit<br />
the ec<strong>on</strong>omy. In many cases they are not able to do this. The situati<strong>on</strong> is also complicated in<br />
the case of transboundary polluti<strong>on</strong>. The traditi<strong>on</strong>al interests of the polluting industries in<br />
some countries may be c<strong>on</strong>trasted with the interests of countries suffering from polluti<strong>on</strong>”<br />
(Straaten et al,1999). Indeed, the RDAs as alternative bodies that could spread the word of<br />
sustainable development could not penetrate through mechanisms that would supposedly<br />
produce soluti<strong>on</strong>s at envir<strong>on</strong>mental level and social levels. Here <strong>on</strong>e should note that<br />
problems of social domain of sustainable devlopment can not become substantial c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
fror RDAs. In particular, cultural integrati<strong>on</strong> and social participati<strong>on</strong>, as two important<br />
problems in the EU integrati<strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> did not c<strong>on</strong>stitute as significant problems that required<br />
immediate remedies.
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3. Turkish RDAs in Perspective<br />
By mid 2000s Turkey entered a new phase in which the country witnessed the making of a<br />
great of number of RDAs thanks to the Europeanizati<strong>on</strong> of regi<strong>on</strong>al governance policies. In<br />
such respect Turkish RDAs nurtured in a setting of European Uni<strong>on</strong> and central government<br />
funding (Kayasü etal 2003, Sungar,2005, Loewendahl-Ertugal2005). By 2012, Turkey<br />
established 26 ‘statistical regi<strong>on</strong>s’ at the NUTS-II level, which group together Turkey’s 81<br />
provinces. In this c<strong>on</strong>text RDAs are supposed to play a critical role in mobilizing support and<br />
funding for regi<strong>on</strong>al development projects. As Lagendjik (2011) observes, RDAs are<br />
potentially apt to become strategically important organizati<strong>on</strong>s strengthening regi<strong>on</strong>al forms<br />
of governance and regi<strong>on</strong>al socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic development. In the Turkish case, RDAs become<br />
centers for c<strong>on</strong>sultancies for the European funding. In such regard Turkish RDAs become<br />
highly absorbed in a tensi<strong>on</strong> of, as Lagendjik observes at the European level, “ ‘high politics’<br />
and the necessity to embed themselves in a particular local instituti<strong>on</strong>al and business setting”<br />
(Lagendjik, 2009). While facing ‘top-down’ political-strategic and bureaucratic obligati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Turkish RDAs are obliged to resp<strong>on</strong>d to local demands in terms of governance (partnering,<br />
strategy development), ec<strong>on</strong>omic intelligence, and business needs in a state of instituti<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
and politically c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ed and circumscribed priorities (Reeves,2005).<br />
In terms of integrating the social sustainability dimensi<strong>on</strong>, Turkish RDAs have a l<strong>on</strong>g way to<br />
cover. The main objectives of RDAs still stay at a level of ec<strong>on</strong>omic domain of sustainable<br />
development noti<strong>on</strong>. It should also be noted that given the short life spans of Turkish RDAs,<br />
it may be too early to carry out an assessment. However, given the path of development of<br />
Turkish RDAs, these instituti<strong>on</strong>s should find ways to integrate social sustainable<br />
development noti<strong>on</strong>s into their developmental projects. The ec<strong>on</strong>omic-centered emphasis in<br />
Turkish RDAs , thus, remains an important c<strong>on</strong>cern to which more attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid.<br />
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS<br />
In light of short life span of Turkish RDAs, social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>cerns are not<br />
important references for regi<strong>on</strong>al governance policies. It can definitely be argued that the<br />
sustainable development can be used as a policy-making principle for the Turkish RDAs.<br />
Until now, the noti<strong>on</strong> of sustainable development has not been well operati<strong>on</strong>ally defined due<br />
to the difficulties arising in RDAs’ insistence in shortcomings of ec<strong>on</strong>omic-centered<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong> of regi<strong>on</strong>al governance policies. Although Turkish RDAs menti<strong>on</strong> about the term<br />
‘sustainable development’, there is not much materialized in terms of c<strong>on</strong>crete policies<br />
pursued by these instituti<strong>on</strong>s. Therefore sustainable development should be the basic<br />
reference point in particular for the social and envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>cerns. Most of these<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns ‘objectives are to be realized in the l<strong>on</strong>g-run. In such regard, it is required that<br />
Turkish RDAs become more and more absorbed in the formati<strong>on</strong> of a coherent envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
and social policy with the European regi<strong>on</strong>al policies.
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<strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>8, 79–88 (2000)<br />
Sungar, M., (2005) “Turkish-EU Negotiati<strong>on</strong>s:Prospective Effects <strong>on</strong> Public Administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
and Regi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>Development</strong>”, Turkish Policy Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Fall2005).<br />
Comparis<strong>on</strong> Study of Approaches to Measuring Poverty Implementing Fuzzy Set and<br />
Classic Set Using The Household Data of Turkey<br />
Alparslan Abdurrahman Basaran1, Murat Alper Basaran2<br />
1Hacettepe University, Faculty of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and Administrative Sciences, Department of<br />
Public Finance, 06800, Ankara, Turkey<br />
2Akdeniz University, Faculty of Engineering, Management Engineering Department,<br />
07425,Alanya, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
E-mails: aab@hacettepe.edu.tr, muratalper@yahoo.com<br />
Poverty is <strong>on</strong>e of the issues several industrialized and developing countries encounter in the<br />
world. No country is exempt from this problem and its c<strong>on</strong>sequences. The top list item of the<br />
agendas of both countries and internati<strong>on</strong>al agencies is related to diminishing poverty. Before<br />
taking acti<strong>on</strong> against it, countries and agencies need to measure poverty based <strong>on</strong> collected<br />
data. It is a sophisticated issue having several dimensi<strong>on</strong>s. So far measuring it with available<br />
data has resulted with indicators which show some deficiencies. When poverty is c<strong>on</strong>sidered,<br />
it is a linguistic term and has a vague c<strong>on</strong>cept as menti<strong>on</strong>ed in the theory of fuzzy set.<br />
Therefore, a new approach is proposed in the literature to examine it in order to overcome<br />
those deficiencies menti<strong>on</strong>ed when classic tools are employed. On the other hand, fuzzy set
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theory is a mathematical tool used for linguistic calculati<strong>on</strong>s. For example, when said that<br />
income level is low. Actually everybody knows what it means. But what it means changes<br />
depending up<strong>on</strong> the percepti<strong>on</strong> of the pers<strong>on</strong>. Therefore, measuring low income is a<br />
problematic area. Fuzzy set theory enables practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to calculate those linguistic terms. In<br />
this study, the household data of Turkey of the year 2003 collected annually based <strong>on</strong> almost<br />
25000 is used to calculate both classic poverty indicator(s) and fuzzy poverty indicator in<br />
order to compare those measures. In the end we will show that fuzzy poverty indicator can be<br />
comprehensive in some comparis<strong>on</strong>s. Also, it provides more informati<strong>on</strong> in terms of<br />
understanding the c<strong>on</strong>cept of poverty<br />
Keywords: Poverty, fuzzy set, fuzzy index, <strong>Sustainable</strong> development<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
In the past few decades the measurement of poverty traditi<strong>on</strong>ally took place by determining<br />
whether an individual or a household could be classified as poor depending <strong>on</strong> whether their<br />
income or expenditure was above or below a specific value, the poverty line. In the<br />
measurement of poverty, after determining c<strong>on</strong>crete poverty line the next step is to select<br />
available indices which shows the fracti<strong>on</strong> in the total populati<strong>on</strong>, the intensity of poverty and<br />
the degree of inequality am<strong>on</strong>g the poor called such as respectively the head count, poverty<br />
gap and the severity of poverty index. C<strong>on</strong>trary to these classical approaches, there is a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable and growing both theoretical and empirical, <strong>on</strong> the multi-dimensi<strong>on</strong>al measures<br />
of poverty. According to this approach poverty is a complex and vague phenomen<strong>on</strong> to<br />
separate the populati<strong>on</strong> poor and n<strong>on</strong> poor. (Cerioli & Zani, 1990) criticized the vagueness<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of income and proposed a multi dimensi<strong>on</strong>al measure of poverty using fuzzy<br />
set theory to evaluate living c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in Italian county. (Cheli & Lemmi, 1995)<br />
enhanced the fuzzy c<strong>on</strong>cept method, called Totally Fuzzy and Relative (TFR), by deriving<br />
deprivati<strong>on</strong> indices directly from the distributi<strong>on</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>. According to (Bantilan, Bantilan<br />
& Castro, 1992) the theory of fuzzy set provides a new approach to the use of traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic variables such as income or expenditure to derive new measures of poverty.<br />
Moreover the approach can readily make use of the extensive informati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tained in the set<br />
of standard of living indicators. (Miceli, 1998) assess living c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in Switzerland<br />
following (Cerioli & Zani, 1990) multi dimensi<strong>on</strong>al fuzzy measure of poverty. In this paper,<br />
in the light of technique suggested by (Cerioli & Zani, 1990) and (Miceli, 1998), fuzzy index<br />
poverty is calculated for Turkey from the household survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted in 2003 (The State<br />
Institute of Statistic of The Republic of Turkey, Households Survey, 2003). Also, classic set<br />
theory, which is used in the calculati<strong>on</strong> of regular poverty measures, is employed to calculate<br />
classic poverty measure to compare the fuzzy <strong>on</strong>e with classic poverty measure.<br />
2. Background<br />
Fuzzy set theory first was introduced by (Zadeh, 1965). Since then it has been widely<br />
employed in many disciplines where the data are imprecise. In the classic set theory, an
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object is either a member of a set which is defined by sharp boundaries or not. This implies a<br />
certain membership. However, in the fuzzy set theory, an object is a member of a set with a<br />
degree of membership taking values from the interval [0 1]. In the classic set theory, an<br />
ordinary subset A of a set U is determined by its indicator functi<strong>on</strong>, or characteristic functi<strong>on</strong><br />
defined by<br />
The indicator functi<strong>on</strong> of a subset A of a set U specifies whether or not an element is in A.<br />
There are <strong>on</strong>ly two possible values the indicator functi<strong>on</strong> can take. However, in fuzzy set<br />
theory, any element bel<strong>on</strong>ging to a given fuzzy subset A of set U takes a value between 0 and<br />
1 depending <strong>on</strong> its compatibility with this set. A fuzzy set A of set U is a set whose elements<br />
are ordered pairs which are shown as follows:<br />
where x is a generic element of U and μ (x) is called the degree of membership of x in the<br />
fuzzy set A. Actually fuzzy set A of set U is a functi<strong>on</strong> from U → [0,1]. Also any fuzzy<br />
subset V is a functi<strong>on</strong>. In the fuzzy set terminology µ is called membership functi<strong>on</strong> with the<br />
defined domain which means that the functi<strong>on</strong> which will be defined according to some data<br />
or some linguistic term, for example poverty, is specified by the experts. For a fuzzy set :<br />
U → [0,1], the functi<strong>on</strong> A is called membership functi<strong>on</strong>. Instead of A, μ is used as a<br />
membership functi<strong>on</strong> throughout the paper. For a fuzzy c<strong>on</strong>cept, different functi<strong>on</strong>s A can be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered. The choice of the functi<strong>on</strong> A is subjective and c<strong>on</strong>text dependent. For example,<br />
“young” is a fuzzy c<strong>on</strong>cept and can be defined as follows:<br />
where 40 and 25 are upper bound and lower bound respectively and x is generic term for the<br />
fuzzy set “young”. It is easily verified that this membership functi<strong>on</strong> can take various values<br />
between [0,1]depending <strong>on</strong> values of x . With this background informati<strong>on</strong>, poverty which is<br />
a fuzzy term can be modeled by fuzzy set theory. The classic approach draws a line called<br />
poverty line separating poor and n<strong>on</strong>-poor. But this is not really helpful in differentiating the<br />
difference between a pers<strong>on</strong> or a household just above the poverty line and other pers<strong>on</strong> or<br />
household just below the poverty line in terms of understanding who is in fact poor or n<strong>on</strong>poor.<br />
We are not saying that classic approaches are useless but they have deficiencies and<br />
fuzzy set theory might provide remedies for them. Instead of classic approaches, in this paper<br />
fuzzy index of poverty is employed for the data which are gathered by the Survey of<br />
Households c<strong>on</strong>ducted by The State Institute of Statistics of The Republic of Turkey in 2003.<br />
(1)<br />
(2)<br />
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As menti<strong>on</strong>ed in the related literature, poverty is a multidimensi<strong>on</strong>al structure and requires to<br />
combine different kinds of data. These data include c<strong>on</strong>tinuous and categorical variables,<br />
which are dichotomic and polytomic. In searching <strong>on</strong>e index measuring poverty, both<br />
categoric and c<strong>on</strong>tinuous variables are generally employed and incorporated. This causes<br />
problems both in interpretati<strong>on</strong> and calculati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
3. Fuzzy Index of Poverty<br />
Instead of classic approaches, in this paper fuzzy index of poverty is employed for the data<br />
which are gathered by the Survey of Households c<strong>on</strong>ducted by The State Institute of Statistics<br />
of The Republic of Turkey in 2003. Instead of making composite index which c<strong>on</strong>sists of<br />
both categoric and c<strong>on</strong>tinuous indicators, <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>tinuous variables are selected. In fuzzy set<br />
theory, fuzzifying is very useful means that help calculati<strong>on</strong>s much easier. The four variables,<br />
which are annual disposable income, food expenditures, cloth and footwear expenditures, and<br />
habitable area of the apartment, in this study are c<strong>on</strong>tinuous. To calculate fuzzy index of<br />
poverty, the first step is to fuzzify variables. Half of the median of the distributi<strong>on</strong> is set to<br />
minimum and twice the median of the distributi<strong>on</strong> is set to maximum [4]. Half of the median<br />
as a minimum is used to calculate the relative poverty of income by World Bank [6]. Twice<br />
of median as maximum is used in the paper written by [4]. These lower and upper bounds are<br />
adopted for all the four fuzzy indicators due to the fact that 25000 households have many<br />
outlier cases and median is a robust statistic. The membership functi<strong>on</strong> used in calculating<br />
degree of poverty of households is given as follows:<br />
= (4)<br />
where i, j denote pers<strong>on</strong>s bel<strong>on</strong>ging to poor set (i= 1, 2,...,n) and indicators (j=1,...,k)<br />
respectively and max min u ,u denote twice median and half median values of the distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
respectively. In our study there are 25000 households and 4 indicators. Based <strong>on</strong> the<br />
membership functi<strong>on</strong> above, the pers<strong>on</strong>s between lower bound and upper bound are thought<br />
to be poor with different fuzzy grades in terms of four indicators. First indicator is calculated<br />
based <strong>on</strong> income variable, sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>on</strong>e is for food expenditure variable; third <strong>on</strong>e is for<br />
clothing and footwear expenditure variable and the final <strong>on</strong>e is for habitable area variable.<br />
For example, 0.6 which is that the subscript of 23 denotes sec<strong>on</strong>d pers<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
third indicator which means food expenditures with fuzzy grade 0.6. After calculating<br />
indicators, it is crucial to combine these indicators in a sensible way to obtain a single<br />
indicator that provides informati<strong>on</strong> about the deprivati<strong>on</strong> of the households. In the literature,<br />
there are many proposed ways of combining indicators to obtain a single indicator measuring<br />
deprivati<strong>on</strong> of households, for example, weights can be given by experts or some calculati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are made based <strong>on</strong> the proporti<strong>on</strong> of poor in the populati<strong>on</strong> in terms of the given indicator.<br />
Here the method used in [4] is employed to calculate the weights. The weights have to satisfy<br />
some c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
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(5)<br />
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and<br />
In order to find the weights used in the calculati<strong>on</strong> of fuzzy poverty index, the formula below<br />
is employed.<br />
(6)<br />
where denotes the fuzzy proporti<strong>on</strong> of the poor pers<strong>on</strong>s according to indicator<br />
Weights related to indicators are given in Table 2. Then the indicator that measures<br />
poverty can be calculated as follows:<br />
The last step to obtain fuzzy index of poverty is to find a way of incorporating indicators. In<br />
the literature, fuzzy index of poverty is derived as follows:<br />
However, this is the case when the samples for all indicators are equal. In our calculati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
samples are not equal size so each corresp<strong>on</strong>ding mean for the indicator is calculated then<br />
mean of the means are derived based <strong>on</strong> the formula in (8).<br />
4. EMPIRICAL STUDY AND CONCLUSION<br />
In this paper fuzzy index of poverty is calculated for the data which are gathered by the<br />
Survey of Households c<strong>on</strong>ducted by The State Institute of Statistics of The Republic of<br />
Tukey in 2003. There exist issues in both calculati<strong>on</strong> and interpretati<strong>on</strong> when both categoric<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>tinuous variables are taken into account in measuring poverty in a single indicator.<br />
Therefore <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>tinuous variables are employed when calculating fuzzy index of poverty.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the calculati<strong>on</strong>s, all informati<strong>on</strong> is summarized in Table 1.<br />
(7)<br />
(8)
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Table 1<br />
Disposable Income 0.2219<br />
Food Expenditure 0.2383<br />
Clothe Expenditure 0.1219<br />
Habitable Area 0.1843<br />
FIP 0.1917<br />
Table 2 Weights<br />
Disposable Income 0.32<br />
Food Expenditure 0.35<br />
Clothe Expenditure 0.14<br />
Habitable Area 0.19<br />
As seen from the membership functi<strong>on</strong> in (4), when the values get close to zero, it means that<br />
the pers<strong>on</strong>has a membership grade close to zero is not c<strong>on</strong>sidered poor in terms of the<br />
indicator. In this study the composite single index shows 0.1917 membership grade. If we<br />
examine each indicator carefully, food expenditure and disposable income indicators show<br />
relatively high membership grades, which denote deprivati<strong>on</strong> of the households, when<br />
compared to cloth-footwear and habitable area indicators; especially cloth-footwear indicator<br />
is a surprising result. This can be explained by the fact that textile industry is the <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
most developed industry in Turkey and there is always excess supply which reduces prices.<br />
Also habitable area shows that despite of relatively poor c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in poor houses; square<br />
meter area per pers<strong>on</strong> is wide. Although 25000 households are surveyed, available data for<br />
disposable income are 8421 households. This makes FPI reduce for disposable income. This<br />
might increase FIP.<br />
Also, we summarize the results obtained from the classic measure in Table 3. This work is<br />
the extensi<strong>on</strong> of the study c<strong>on</strong>ducted and presented in EUSFLAT-LFA 2005 in Barcel<strong>on</strong>a-<br />
Spain.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Table 3 Classic Poverty Measure<br />
Food Expenditure 0.1290<br />
Poverty except food 0.2812<br />
Relative Poverty 0.1551
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Bantilan, M.C.S, Bantilan F. T. and de Castro M. M., (1992). “Fuzzy Subset Theory in the<br />
Measurement of Poverty”, Journal of Philippine <strong>Development</strong>, Num: 34, Vol. XIX, pp 97-<br />
127.<br />
Cerioli A., Zani S. (1990). “A Fuzzy Approach to the Measurement of Poverty”, Income and<br />
Wealth Distributi<strong>on</strong>, Inequality and Poverty, in Dangum, C. and Zenga, M. (eds).<br />
Cheli, B., Lemmi, A. (1995). A Totally Fuzzy and Relative Approach to the Multi<br />
Dimensi<strong>on</strong>al analysis of Poverty, Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Notes, vol 24, pp115- 134.<br />
Miceli, D., (1998). Measuring Poverty Using Fuzzy Sets, Discussi<strong>on</strong> Paper no.38,<br />
NATSEM, University of Canberra.<br />
The State Institute of Statistic of The Republic of Turkey, Households Survey 2003.<br />
World Bank, “<strong>Development</strong> Reports”, Attacking poverty, World Bank 2000/2001<br />
Washingt<strong>on</strong>, D.C.<br />
Zadeh A, Fuzzy sets, Informati<strong>on</strong> and C<strong>on</strong>trol 8 (1965) 338-353<br />
The Importance Of Erp (Enterprise Resource Planning) Software And Choosing<br />
Criterias For Business<br />
Abstract<br />
Hakan Çetin1 ,Hakan Akar2<br />
1Akdeniz Universiy, Faculty of Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Department of ComputerEducati<strong>on</strong>andInstructi<strong>on</strong>alTechnology<br />
2Akdeniz University, Department of Informatics<br />
E-mails: hakanc@akdeniz.edu.tr, hakanakar@akdeniz.edu.tr<br />
With the increase of competiti<strong>on</strong> and being used informati<strong>on</strong> technologies by<br />
business’ effectively, the software that organize flow of informati<strong>on</strong> and develop the<br />
interdivisi<strong>on</strong>al integrati<strong>on</strong> have increased. While this study is emphasizing the importance of<br />
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) software for business, reveals choosing criteria. In this<br />
study, firstly, for business ERP system’s basic features, modules and profits are discussed. In<br />
next parts, key c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s when choosing ERP software are emphasized and lastly<br />
discussed how to ERP system put out an approach for business. In c<strong>on</strong>sequence of the<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong>, it is seen that Enterprise Resource Planning software for companies' internal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol activities and interdepartmental integrati<strong>on</strong> is successful and necessary.<br />
Keywords: ERP, Informati<strong>on</strong> Technologies, Planning
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1.INTRODUCTION<br />
The advances in informatics technologies have diminished the world, thus the trade<br />
activities merchandised interstate c<strong>on</strong>veniently can be merchandised all around the world.<br />
These advances have changed business’ commerce routines and approaches. The increasing<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong> has led firms seek reliable soluti<strong>on</strong>s and ERP software administering the process<br />
which passes from provisi<strong>on</strong> to manufacturing via management informati<strong>on</strong> systems are<br />
developed [Klaus et al., 2000].<br />
In this process brought up by competiti<strong>on</strong>, business should use their sources<br />
effectively and efficiently to be afloat, to stand out am<strong>on</strong>g its rivals and come into<br />
prominence (Çelik, 2011). Effective and efficient use of sources depends <strong>on</strong> administering<br />
the process good and taking right strategic decisi<strong>on</strong>s. In this point, informatics technologies<br />
create soluti<strong>on</strong>s to business and some data that help the administrators take right decisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Being business big or small, producing service or goods are not obstacle to<br />
their informati<strong>on</strong> technologies usage. In the future, when informati<strong>on</strong> technologies are<br />
inadequate, business will develop new c<strong>on</strong>cepts and technologies and they will have to share<br />
their c<strong>on</strong>cepts and technologies with other business (İlter, 2007:1-20). The reas<strong>on</strong> for this, in<br />
process of produces more and more innovati<strong>on</strong>s and strategic specialities will be required and<br />
these innovati<strong>on</strong> and specialities will be presented to business usages.<br />
Nowadays, it is seen that business that have classic business administering<br />
insight have been disappeared and they leave their places new business that use informati<strong>on</strong><br />
technologies and systems the most efficiently (İlter, 2007:1-20). This study presents some<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> which show the importance,usage areas, advantages and disadvantages of ERP<br />
software.<br />
2.WHAT IS ENTERPRISING RESOURCE PLANNING?<br />
Informati<strong>on</strong> technologies affect business directly in some areas like electr<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
trade, ERP and informati<strong>on</strong> administering (Arıkboğa, Kaya, 2000:127). Enterprise resource<br />
planning systems with opportunities in the competitive envir<strong>on</strong>ment, business will become<br />
more advantageous. Being Material requirement planning (MRP) and Manufacturing<br />
resource planning (MRPII) systems’ developed versi<strong>on</strong>s, ERP system is a planning and<br />
communicating system c<strong>on</strong>taining all functi<strong>on</strong>s of business (Kumar, 2002: 511).<br />
Nowadays, the systems called as ERPII help to manage modules such as<br />
purchase, accounting and finance, quality c<strong>on</strong>trol, stock management, producti<strong>on</strong> planning,<br />
logistic, human resources, customer care (CRM), marketing and provisi<strong>on</strong> management from<br />
central locati<strong>on</strong> (Aydoğan, 2008: 2). In brief, ERP can be introduced as a software package<br />
that integrates all <strong>on</strong>going flow of informati<strong>on</strong> in a company (Çelik, 2011).<br />
ERP softwares are package programs prepared with modular logic. There are a<br />
lot of ERP software <strong>on</strong> the marketing and nearly all of their basic modules are the same.<br />
Looking at the overall ERP software modules, it is seen that this modules are gathered under<br />
the titles of purchase method, sale and customer care, product design, materials management,<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> management, accounting and finance, human resources and the basic applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
modules (Aydoğan, 2008: 113).
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Businesses that want to use ERP software, process mapping needs to be<br />
acquainted with how things are primarily. ERP software will be removed this way, a road<br />
map to follow. Process mapping is located in two different opti<strong>on</strong>s. The first opti<strong>on</strong> is the<br />
mapping of the current situati<strong>on</strong> and sec<strong>on</strong>d opti<strong>on</strong> is to use best soluti<strong>on</strong>. In ERP software<br />
built <strong>on</strong> mapping the current situati<strong>on</strong> there are built-in performance and software flexibility,<br />
the likelihood of various problems (Kul, 2009: 211-212).<br />
3.THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF ERP SYSTEMS<br />
In increasing competitive envir<strong>on</strong>ment business to make themselves<br />
advantageously benefit from the opportunities offered by informati<strong>on</strong> technologies. In 1960’s<br />
business used inventory management that makes manually and c<strong>on</strong>trol system. In 1970’s<br />
MRP systems that assumed as the beginning of ERP systems are developed. The MRP<br />
systems were rendered computer aided by Joseph Orlicky and this system provided the<br />
necessary support for the determinati<strong>on</strong> of the amount of material (TMMOB, 2006).<br />
In 1980’s the subject of MRP attracted attenti<strong>on</strong>s of software companies and<br />
package programmes were started to develop. In the same years with increasing competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
in business products and producti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol began to be insufficient. MRPIIs were developed<br />
via incorporated rising values such as logistics, finance, sales and accounting planning in the<br />
system (TMMOB, 2006).<br />
In 1990’sincreasing informati<strong>on</strong> traffic in business featured units’<br />
coordinati<strong>on</strong>. Besides, with the distributi<strong>on</strong> resources planning and additi<strong>on</strong> integrated<br />
manufacturing to computers, new softwares were needed. The softwares in that all units are<br />
integrated with each other and datas collected in single center in business were developed. To<br />
this developed package programmes were named Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).<br />
In 2000’s new approaches such as Customer Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Management<br />
(CRM) and Supply Chain Management (SCM) emerged by this way there were needs for<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-business informati<strong>on</strong> systems. With the inclusi<strong>on</strong> of this approaches to the system by<br />
software companies, the ERP system turned to the ERPII (Bircan, 2009).<br />
At the present time, with the accelerati<strong>on</strong> of internet and business’ moving to<br />
this envir<strong>on</strong>ment, some functi<strong>on</strong>s such as B2B, B2C, intranet, PAM, LMS, job flow<br />
management, Project management are needed. With the combinati<strong>on</strong>s of these functi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
enterprise informati<strong>on</strong> systems began to be called as e- Businnes.<br />
4.STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ERP SYSTEM<br />
ERP software can be produced according to the desired sector or needs. no<br />
matter which the industry or field of activity are produced, these softwares’ features are the<br />
same basically. Enterprise Resource Planning systems generally have comm<strong>on</strong> features<br />
(Aydoğan, 2008; BayraktarveEfe, 2006):<br />
ERP software have a modular structure.<br />
ERP software can be customized to meet the needs of companies and developed.<br />
ERP software has hardwired management system that holds both the master data and<br />
data for business process.<br />
With its single interface and integrated structure, ERP software provides flow of<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> to all departments within the business.
3 rd <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Symposium</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo<br />
To manage data accurately and c<strong>on</strong>sistently, real time data entry is needed.<br />
By providing data to be transferred electr<strong>on</strong>ically via the Internet and intranets, ERP<br />
software is compatible with today’s informati<strong>on</strong> technology.<br />
Because it supports many corporate functi<strong>on</strong>s, it has a highly functi<strong>on</strong>al structure.<br />
ERP software has a modular structure. These functi<strong>on</strong>al modules which are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tained in the modular structure can be expressed as principal comp<strong>on</strong>ents such as<br />
Strategic Planning and Management, Accounting Management, Financial Management,<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong> Management, Logistics, Product <strong>Development</strong> and R & D Management, Sales<br />
and Marketing Management, Human Resource Management, Supply Chain Management, E-<br />
Business Applicati<strong>on</strong>s, Customer Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Management.<br />
5. ERP’S BENEFITS AND SELECTION CRITERIA<br />
ERP system uses a wide variety of software and hardware comp<strong>on</strong>ents. For<br />
ERP software is high cost investment, selecti<strong>on</strong> of software is very important to meet the<br />
needs of business. Before choosing the software, firstly business should decide if they will<br />
use ERP system or not. Situati<strong>on</strong>s where it is needed ERP software can be expressed as<br />
follows.<br />
If your business suffer from unknown costs,<br />
If problems of <strong>on</strong>ly specific pers<strong>on</strong>s resolve,<br />
If your actual financial performance is unknown,<br />
If follow up and planning take a lot of time,<br />
If processing errors are increasing,<br />
If the informati<strong>on</strong> requested cannot be accessed easily, takes a week to prepare some<br />
reports,<br />
If there are several c<strong>on</strong>tradicti<strong>on</strong>s in the reports prepared.<br />
If your business suffer from customer loss and customer complaints are increasing,<br />
If existing software restrict the company’s growth,(Onar, 2008).<br />
To be successful the ERP that will be installed in business, it is needed to<br />
choose the software which creates the most appropriate soluti<strong>on</strong>s for the organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
structure, technological systems, corporate objectives and strategies to the business. The<br />
process is so important that during the software decisi<strong>on</strong> even a small mistake made can<br />
cause of big amount of financial loss. (http://www.sumo.com.tr/erpsecimkriter.html).<br />
Therefore, when choosing an ERP, businesses can follow to this 4-stage:<br />
Identificati<strong>on</strong><br />
Research<br />
Recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
Analysis and selecti<strong>on</strong> of applicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
In identificati<strong>on</strong> phase, business should identify its priorities and processes<br />
properly. Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, the soluti<strong>on</strong>s that matches described system should be investigated.<br />
Candidates’ soluti<strong>on</strong> offers appeared in a list that will be obtained from the trail should be<br />
analyzed,demos of software should be looked at, references should be reviewed and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequently a score should be given to each studied software according to its suitability for<br />
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the process and goals. In the selecti<strong>on</strong> process, if an analytical method is used, some criterias<br />
should be based <strong>on</strong> and the selecti<strong>on</strong> should be evaluated according to this criterias. Finally,<br />
before the analysis and selecti<strong>on</strong> process, the selecti<strong>on</strong> criterias should be determined. There<br />
are 15 criteria most comm<strong>on</strong>ly used around the world <strong>on</strong> this issue. Thesecriterias may be<br />
reduced to 5:<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
Technology and Expertise (Know-How)<br />
Flexibility and Scalability of Applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Cost and Ease of Use<br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong> and Ease of Use<br />
According to known criterias, during the selecti<strong>on</strong> of ERP, the method called<br />
as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used. In analytic hierarchy process firstly the<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> criterias are ordered am<strong>on</strong>g each other, and sec<strong>on</strong>dly candidate software are ordered<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g each other. According to this order, the decisi<strong>on</strong> makers decide the ERP system that<br />
provides optimum benefit (Baltalar, 2008).<br />
ERP systems selected for the purpose of business will provide these c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s in general:<br />
(TMMOB, 2006; Kul, 2009; Aydoğan, 2008)<br />
It speeds up the flow of informati<strong>on</strong> via provide the achievement of the desired format<br />
and detailed.<br />
Provides inventory optimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Provides an excellent decisi<strong>on</strong> support system that increases the competitiveness.<br />
It helps managers make better and faster decisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Provides in-house performance m<strong>on</strong>itoring and analysis.<br />
Provides the tools which are needed to sales forecasting, sales channels and dealer<br />
management, market and customer assessment.<br />
Provides increase in manufacturing performance and speed of manufacturing process.<br />
Provides improvement in preparati<strong>on</strong> of orders and financial informati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Provides efficient use of resources, and decrease operating costs by providing<br />
management.<br />
Thanks to flexible structures, provides an easy and rapid adaptati<strong>on</strong> according to the<br />
market c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and changes in the needs of business processes.<br />
Provides development of a comm<strong>on</strong> in-house language and increased coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
between units.<br />
In order to meet customer needs more quickly, giving the necessary support for the<br />
management of customer relati<strong>on</strong>ships, provides increase in customer satisfacti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Provide the right investment decisi<strong>on</strong>s and improve business processes.<br />
Allows customers and suppliers in different regi<strong>on</strong>s to share data faster and to<br />
integrate informati<strong>on</strong> easily.<br />
6. CRITICISM ABOUT ERP<br />
Even though some positive opini<strong>on</strong>s are indicated, in literature and practice<br />
there are some negative opini<strong>on</strong>s about ERP systems. Actually they are not negative opini<strong>on</strong>s<br />
but they are criticisms. The first <strong>on</strong>e of the criticism aimed at business owners and<br />
administrators. Business owners or managers c<strong>on</strong>cerned with the overall costs of purchasing<br />
the software they need, other elements do not receive much more attenti<strong>on</strong> (Gör, ve
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Güneri,2008). This approach leads to a higher risk to face with. Here are the criticisms made<br />
about ERP (Çelik, 2011).<br />
ERP systems cost high expenditure.<br />
ERP system’s setup takes l<strong>on</strong>g time.<br />
These systems have difficulty in adapting to existing and complex softwares.<br />
ERP systems are interested in very large-sized companies.<br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong> of ERP systems are very expensive and require significant<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The company needs restructuring process in order to use modificati<strong>on</strong> system.<br />
ERP systems increases the number of informati<strong>on</strong> technology and pers<strong>on</strong>nel costs.<br />
Even if ERP systems are installed, additi<strong>on</strong>al systems are needed for proper operati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These criticisms are important for the development of the system. Definitely<br />
there are some deficiencies in all systems. The important thing is to complete the missing<br />
parts.<br />
7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION<br />
<strong>Development</strong> of technology and changing competitive c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
promoted many middle-and upper- level business to find different soluti<strong>on</strong>s. Integrated<br />
software systems, beginning with using the computers in manufacturing sector has turned<br />
into giant package programmes which is called as ERP at present time.<br />
Before the business use these package programmes, they definetely need to<br />
spend a good software selecti<strong>on</strong> process. When literature review and studies associated with<br />
this subject are analysed, it is seen that there is some selecti<strong>on</strong> methods the business need to<br />
use during the software selecti<strong>on</strong> process. Gorener (2011) used VIKOR technic and analytic<br />
net process (ANP) method during the ERP software selecti<strong>on</strong> in his study. There are two<br />
important phase in selecti<strong>on</strong> process. First <strong>on</strong>e is to determine the criterias; this phase is<br />
performed by usage of some methods such as Analitical Hierarchy, Analitical net process.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>on</strong>e is process of ordering the criterias according to their order of importance. The<br />
rating process is performed by some techniqes such as Vikor, Topsis, Promethee, Electre,<br />
Saw techniques. It is seen that am<strong>on</strong>g the sort techniques, Topsis and Vikor give optimum<br />
result in the study that Chu and the others carried out.<br />
The most important process about ERP systems is selecting process, thus<br />
Professi<strong>on</strong>al support must be taken. Business sometimes ignores this process cause of its<br />
costs, but it must be remembered that if the software being inexpedient is selected, the<br />
subsequent process will lead to greater financial loss.<br />
No matter how they are named, ERP, ERPII or e-Business , a corporate<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> system should produce soluti<strong>on</strong>s not <strong>on</strong>ly for business within business process,<br />
but also for all employees, suppliers, customers and business partners. In other words, it must<br />
manage bothbackoffice and fr<strong>on</strong>toffice resources (Bircan, 2009).<br />
This study presents ERP software development process and its beneficial<br />
aspects for business. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it c<strong>on</strong>tains the important points that business should give<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> and the techniques that are used in this process. Benefiting from ERP systems that<br />
have an expensive and complex structure depends <strong>on</strong> carrying out the process of selecting<br />
and setupprocess c<strong>on</strong>spiratorially and the attenti<strong>on</strong> the business paid.
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REFERANCES<br />
AYDOĞAN, E., (2008), “Kurumsal Kaynak Planlaması”, Türkiye Sosyal<br />
AraştırmalarDergisi, Yıl 12, Sayı 2, ss.107-118.<br />
ARIKBOĞA, D., Kaya, İ., (2000), “Ülkemizde Kurumsal Kaynak Planlaması veMuhasebe<br />
Eğitiminden Beklentiler”, XIX. Türkiye Muhasebe Eğitimi Sempozyumu, 18-20 Mayıs,<br />
İstanbul Üniversitesi İşletme Fakültesi Bildiriler Kitabı, ss.134-147.<br />
BALTALAR, H., (2008), “Analizitik ERP Seçimi”, ERP Akademi<br />
BAYRAKTAR, E., EFE,M., (2006), “Kurumsal Kaynak Planlaması(Erp) Ve YazılımSeçim<br />
Süreci”, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi: 689, Sayı 15, 2006<br />
BİRCAN Emre, (2009), “ERP’nin tarihçesi ve WORKCUBE”, www.cfcube.com, erişim<br />
tarihi: 23.04.2012<br />
CHU, M.T.,Shyu, J., Tzeng, G.-H., Khosla, R., (2007), “Comparis<strong>on</strong>Am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
ThreeAnalyticalMethodsFor Knowledge CommunitiesGroupDecisi<strong>on</strong> Analysis”.<br />
ExpertSystemswith Applicati<strong>on</strong>s, Vol.33, No.4, 1011-1024.<br />
CELİK,M.,(2011), “Kurumsal Kaynak Planlama Sistemlerinin Muhasebe SüreçlerineEtkisine<br />
Yönelik İMKB’de Bir Araştırma”, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi.<br />
GUPTA, M.,Kohli, A. (2006),<br />
“Enterpriseresourceplanningsystemsanditsimplicati<strong>on</strong>sforoperati<strong>on</strong>sfuncti<strong>on</strong>”, Technovati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
26.<br />
Gör, A, G., Güneri F., (2008), “ERP Yazılım Seçiminde ANP Tekniğinin Kullanılması”, 2.<br />
Ulusal Sistem Mühendisliği K<strong>on</strong>gresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 296-300.<br />
Heizeger, Jay - Render, Bary (2008), “Operati<strong>on</strong>s Management”, Ninth<br />
Editi<strong>on</strong>,Pears<strong>on</strong>PrenticeHall<br />
İLTER, H.,Bilgi,K., (2007),Sistemleri Perspektifinden KurumsalKaynak Planlaması: Etkiler<br />
Ve Degerler, İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Yıl:6 Sayı:11 Bahar<br />
2007/2s.1-20)<br />
Klaus, K.,Rosemann, M. ve Gable, G. G., (2000), “What is ERP?, Informati<strong>on</strong><br />
SystemsFr<strong>on</strong>tiers” 2:2, 141-162<br />
Kul, H (2009), “İşletmeler İçin Bilişim Sistemleri Temelleri ve Uygulamaları”, papatya<br />
yayıncılık, İstanbul.<br />
OnarÖ.Mustafa, (2008), “Erp Yolculuğuna Çıkacaklara Öneriler”, Bilişim zirvesi.<br />
V. Kumar, ve diğerleri, (2002), “Enterprise Resource Planning SystemsAdopti<strong>on</strong>Process: A<br />
Survey Of CanadianOrganizati<strong>on</strong>s” <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Journal of Producti<strong>on</strong>Reserch, Vol 40,<br />
No.3, s511.
130<br />
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Does predefined ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology work for public companies in<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing country?<br />
Abstract<br />
Adnan Kraljić, Denis Delismajlović, Tarik Kraljić<br />
Informati<strong>on</strong> Technology Department,<str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burch University<br />
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />
E-mails: akraljic@ibu.edu.ba, tkraljic@ibu.edu.ba, ddelismajlovic@ibu.edu.ba<br />
The main objective of this paper is to answer a questi<strong>on</strong> “Does predefined ERP<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology work for state owned companies in transiti<strong>on</strong>ing countries?”<br />
The focus will be <strong>on</strong> state owned companies from Bosnia and Herzegovina, as it is typical<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing company. Paper will treat selected issues which could trouble ERP<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> trough predefined ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology for SAP ERP. This<br />
paper presents observati<strong>on</strong>s/remarks based <strong>on</strong> experience of authors in SAP ERP<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> projects in public sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Author’s goal is to<br />
provide useful insight into predefined ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology (in theory) and<br />
issues that arise in real life ERP projects. Also, it should provide structural knowledge for all<br />
stakeholders involved in the process of ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> in public sector.<br />
Keywords: enterprise resource planning (ERP), implementati<strong>on</strong>, state owned company, post<br />
socialist transiti<strong>on</strong>ing country, ASAP methodology<br />
1.Challenge known as ERP implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is a business management system which<br />
comprises integrated sets of comprehensive software, which can be used, when successfully<br />
implemented, to manage and integrate all the business functi<strong>on</strong>s within an organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These sets usually include a set of mature business applicati<strong>on</strong>s and tools for financial and<br />
cost accounting, sales and distributi<strong>on</strong>, materials management, human resource, producti<strong>on</strong><br />
planning and computer integrated manufacturing, supply chain, and customer informati<strong>on</strong>.[1]<br />
References<br />
1 Sheu, C., Yen, H.R., and Krumwiede D.W.: The effect of nati<strong>on</strong>al differences <strong>on</strong> multinati<strong>on</strong>al ERP<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>: an exploratory study. TQM & Business Excellence, Vol.14, Issue 6, August,<br />
pp.641657. (2003)
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So, the main feature of ERP is computer-based integrati<strong>on</strong> of the whole organizati<strong>on</strong> into <strong>on</strong>e<br />
system and database. It provides higher efficiency and real time reporting. Data entered in<br />
<strong>on</strong>e module of the system are immediately accessible for other organizati<strong>on</strong>’s functi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Figure 1. presents typical functi<strong>on</strong>al ERP architecture.<br />
Figure 1. Typical ERP system architecture<br />
People often c<strong>on</strong>template ERP as software provided out of box. We c<strong>on</strong>sider ERP more as a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept. Target of any ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> in organizati<strong>on</strong> is to provide benefits for all<br />
stakeholders by improving business operati<strong>on</strong>s and decisi<strong>on</strong> making process. It is important<br />
to state that ERP’s benefits are a direct result of effective preparati<strong>on</strong> and implementati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and appropriate use of system. This seems obvious, but nine out of 10 companies d<strong>on</strong>’t get it<br />
right the first time around. [2]<br />
Story about ERP implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> is set of activates, normally leading to the fully operating system. It<br />
mixes business, technical and clerks’ sides which should work harm<strong>on</strong>ized during the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>. Every employee in the company is involved in ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> process;<br />
either they are technical support in company (IT department) or end users of informati<strong>on</strong><br />
system. Obviously it is not easy to manage all of these project members. There are many<br />
examples of ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> failures.<br />
The world of IT and business c<strong>on</strong>sulting is full of stories of ERP projects g<strong>on</strong>e wr<strong>on</strong>g.<br />
Companies such as Whirlpool, Hershey Foods, and Allied Waste Industries have had exposed<br />
2 ( September 1998 issue of Midrange ERP “There Is No Magic in ERP Software: It’s in Preparati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the Process and People,” p. 8]).
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court cases against ERP software vendors (such as SAP A.G. and Oracle) because of their<br />
unsuccessful implementati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
It is interesting that according to a statement cited in an ITWorld.com article, Waste<br />
Management claims SAP deceived it by creating "fake software envir<strong>on</strong>ments" for product<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>s. The project went bad almost immediately after a sales agreement was signed<br />
in October of 2005. Though SAP promised a pilot versi<strong>on</strong> of the system would be up and<br />
running by Dec. 15, 2006, "it is not even close to being completed today." [3]<br />
Another famous story about SAP implementati<strong>on</strong> failure is Shane Co. The family-owned<br />
jewelry retailer that sought bankruptcy told a U.S. judge the company’s decline was triggered<br />
partly by delays and cost overruns for a $36 milli<strong>on</strong> SAP AG inventory-management system.<br />
SAP, the world’s biggest maker of business-management software, took almost three years to<br />
install and implement the system instead of <strong>on</strong>e year, while costs “ballo<strong>on</strong>ed” to $36 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
from a projected maximum of $10 milli<strong>on</strong>, Shane said in papers filed in U.S. Bankruptcy<br />
Court in Denver. [4]<br />
In general an implementati<strong>on</strong> is seen as successful if it is completed within budget and time<br />
frame; addressing all implementati<strong>on</strong> deliverables measured by ROI, KPIs etc. Lots of<br />
variables are involved in ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> such as; pers<strong>on</strong>nel (business side, technical<br />
side, support side, users), implementati<strong>on</strong> partner (for example local integrati<strong>on</strong> software<br />
PeopleSoft, JD Edwards, Salesforce.com etc.), and implementati<strong>on</strong> strategy. [5] With a<br />
number of issues that arise together, in a few m<strong>on</strong>ths or year for implementati<strong>on</strong>, it is<br />
important to address critical factors that shape an implementati<strong>on</strong>. Also, as we menti<strong>on</strong>ed, it<br />
is important not to underestimate the nature of public instituti<strong>on</strong> and all bureaucracy you have<br />
to cope with during the implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2. No <strong>on</strong>e is immune - country specific issues of public sector<br />
There is no industry or business activity that is not influenced by B&H’s social envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Complex picture of transiti<strong>on</strong>ing post c<strong>on</strong>flict country will be described in next few<br />
paragraphs. The stress will be <strong>on</strong> state owned companies.<br />
3 Whos to blame for failed ERP project that prompted lawsuit,<br />
http://www.itbusinessedge.com/cm/blogs/all/whos-to-blame-for-failed-erp-project-that-promptedsap-lawsuit/?cs=11588<br />
4 Shane Says SAP Costs Helped Cause Jeweler’s Decline,<br />
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awweg53wmmJw&refer=germany<br />
5 Bhagwani, A.: Critical Success Factors In Implementing SAP ERP Software, An EMGT Field Project<br />
report submitted to the Engineering Management Program and the Faculty of the Graduate School<br />
of The University of Kansas, (2009)
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In Bosnia and Herzegovina there are some big state owned companies that implemented an<br />
ERP or are in the process of implementati<strong>on</strong>. According to SAP User Community in B&H<br />
SAP ERP is the main ERP vendor for big public companies. It could be useful informati<strong>on</strong> so<br />
we will name those companies: EPBiH, BH Telecom, JP EPHZ HB, HT Mostar and Clinical<br />
center University of Sarajevo.<br />
One of the issues of public sector in B&H is very complex stakeholder structure due to<br />
political system as a result of post c<strong>on</strong>flict circumstances. (Dayt<strong>on</strong> and Paris political<br />
agreement resulted in four different levels of government – 14 governments, 180 ministers; 1<br />
prime minister per 300 000 people, <strong>on</strong>e the most complex and expensive governmental body<br />
in the world). According to the 2005 CMI report, this bloated public sector accounts for 54%<br />
of the annual GDP - more than in any other European country. [6] Another issue is widely<br />
spread corrupti<strong>on</strong> as <strong>on</strong>e of the comm<strong>on</strong> characteristics of post socialist developing country.<br />
After war in B&H and privatizati<strong>on</strong>, which was c<strong>on</strong>ducted doubtfully, hundreds of state<br />
owned companies finished in bankruptcy. However, still few state owned companies, mainly<br />
utility and telecom companies, are the backb<strong>on</strong>e of country’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Unfortunately, public<br />
sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina is very complex and due to the last surveys <strong>on</strong>e of the most<br />
corrupted in Europe, especially in its employment policy.<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed previously 54% of GDP is c<strong>on</strong>sisted of public sector what implies the<br />
importance of this sector and l<strong>on</strong>g term c<strong>on</strong>sequences if fraud is part of it. Same report states<br />
that corrupti<strong>on</strong> pattern in B&H is characterized by (a) high level of public c<strong>on</strong>cern with<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>, (b) low level of public trust in the governments, (c) state capture and c<strong>on</strong>flict of<br />
interest, (d) public administrati<strong>on</strong> inefficiencies reflected in widespread bribery in public<br />
offices, (e) distorted business envir<strong>on</strong>ment and (f) a significant burden <strong>on</strong> poor households,<br />
exacerbating poverty and inequality. Public tenders (defined by public procurement law)<br />
could provide opportunity for corrupti<strong>on</strong> if they are d<strong>on</strong>e with a lack of transparency. [7]<br />
Also process of choosing the bid winner is complex with not strict definiti<strong>on</strong> of vendor<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> criteria. According to the World Bank report, in the most cases in B&H, tender<br />
policy is based <strong>on</strong> price, which weights for more than 70% of possible points which vendor<br />
could earn in selecti<strong>on</strong> procedure. This leads to artificially low price offered. It ensures<br />
wining the bid, but do not ensure the quality of service.<br />
3.How ERP vendors want to help implementati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
As menti<strong>on</strong>ed in previous chapter, ERP software vendor is <strong>on</strong>e to blame when expected<br />
results do not occur after ERP implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
ERP vendors believe that tracking of tested implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology is a prerequisite for<br />
successful ERP implementati<strong>on</strong>. All implementati<strong>on</strong> methodologies e.g. Oracle Applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong> Methodology (AIM), Accelerated SAP (ASAP) etc suggest at least five<br />
6 Corrupti<strong>on</strong> and Anti-Corrupti<strong>on</strong> in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H);<br />
www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/query.cfm?id=221<br />
7 Bosnia and Herzegovina Diagnostic Surveys of Corrupti<strong>on</strong>, World Bank;<br />
http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/Bosnianticorrupti<strong>on</strong>.pdf
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phases of ERP implementati<strong>on</strong>: Define; Design; Build; Transiti<strong>on</strong>; and Go Live & Support.<br />
[8]<br />
To avoid uncomfortable project situati<strong>on</strong>s ERP vendors developed predefined ERP<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> methodologies. One of the most famous is delivered by the biggest ERP<br />
vendor - SAP. It is ASAP methodology (ASAP – Accelerated SAP). In next few paragraphs<br />
we will describe ASAP methodology in details.<br />
Accelerated SAP (ASAP) is SAP’s standard implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology. It is c<strong>on</strong>sisted of 6<br />
phases, and those are: Project preparati<strong>on</strong>, Blueprint, Realizati<strong>on</strong>, Final preparati<strong>on</strong>, Go-Live<br />
Support and Run. It is serial relati<strong>on</strong>ship, so predecessor phase has to be completed in order<br />
to move <strong>on</strong> next phase. In figure 2. those phases are shown.<br />
This roadmap is a step-by-step guide that incorporates experience from many years of<br />
implementing R/3. Al<strong>on</strong>g with that, Accelerated SAP c<strong>on</strong>tains a multitude of tools,<br />
accelerators and useful informati<strong>on</strong> to assist all team members in implementing R/3. Quality<br />
checks are incorporated at the end of each phase to easily m<strong>on</strong>itor deliverables and critical<br />
success factors. ASAP is delivered as a PC-based package, so that – if required – an<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> project can begin prior to having an R/3 System installed. [9]<br />
We will give more details regarding each phase.<br />
3.1.Project Preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
Goal of this phase is to plan our project and lay the foundati<strong>on</strong>s for successful<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>. It is at this stage that we make the strategic decisi<strong>on</strong>s crucial to your project:<br />
define your project goals and objectives, clarify the scope of your implementati<strong>on</strong>, define<br />
your project schedule, budget plan, and implementati<strong>on</strong> sequence, establish the project<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong> and relevant committees and assign resources<br />
3.2.Business Blueprint<br />
During this phase we create a blueprint using the Questi<strong>on</strong> & Answer database (Q&Adb),<br />
which documents your enterprise’s requirements and establishes how your business processes<br />
and organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure are to be represented in the SAP System. We also refine the<br />
original project goals and objectives and revise the overall project schedule in this phase.<br />
3.3.Realizati<strong>on</strong><br />
In this phase, we c<strong>on</strong>figure the requirements c<strong>on</strong>tained in the Business Blueprint. Baseline<br />
8 Nazir, M. M.: ERP Implementati<strong>on</strong> in Oil Refineries, Daily Business Recorder, Karachi (2005)<br />
9 Miller, S.: Asap Implementati<strong>on</strong> at the Speed of Business: Implementati<strong>on</strong> at the Speed of<br />
Business, Computing Mcgraw-Hill (1998)
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c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong> (major scope) is followed by final c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong> (remaining scope), which can<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sist of up to four cycles. Other key focal areas of this phase are c<strong>on</strong>ducting integrati<strong>on</strong><br />
tests and drawing up end user documentati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
3.4.Final Preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
After project realizati<strong>on</strong> phase, we complete our preparati<strong>on</strong>s, including testing, end user<br />
training, system management, and cutover activities. We also need to resolve all open. At this<br />
stage we need to ensure that all the prerequisites for your system to go live have been<br />
fulfilled.<br />
3.5. Go Live & Support<br />
In this phase we move from a pre-producti<strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment to the live system. The most<br />
important elements include setting up producti<strong>on</strong> support, m<strong>on</strong>itoring system transacti<strong>on</strong>s. [8]<br />
3.6.Run<br />
Optimizing overall system performance and obtaining permanent business process<br />
optimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Phase objectives shown in Figure 3.<br />
Figure 3. Phase objectives<br />
.
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ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> in transiti<strong>on</strong>ing country in state owned companies –It is shown in table 1. Expected objectives for each ASAP phase and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints that occurs in practice<br />
Phase Excepted objectives C<strong>on</strong>straints in practice regarding the phase objects<br />
Project<br />
Preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
Defined your project goals and objectives<br />
Clarified the scope of your implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
Defined your project schedule, budget plan,<br />
and implementati<strong>on</strong> sequence<br />
Established the project organizati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
relevant committees and assign resources<br />
Blueprint Created blueprints using the Questi<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Answer database (Q&Adb)<br />
Mapped business processes<br />
Overview of all business process<br />
Realizati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>figured the requirements c<strong>on</strong>tained in<br />
the Business Blueprint<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted unit tests<br />
Unskilled project managers<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> in tendering procedure (inadequate tendering procedure)<br />
Poorly written tendering documentati<strong>on</strong><br />
Leak of project management knowledge (no clear goals and objectives)<br />
Poorly prepared project work break structure<br />
Employee does not care about resource spending - state m<strong>on</strong>ey.<br />
Budget and project schedule planned with no serious approach<br />
Too much / little time spent <strong>on</strong> blueprint preparati<strong>on</strong> due to lack of project<br />
management knowledge, and requirements set by political not business pers<strong>on</strong>s /<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s<br />
No localize ASAP documentati<strong>on</strong> for smaller countries (example Bosnian<br />
language)<br />
Leak of business process mapping skills<br />
Leak of professi<strong>on</strong>al business envir<strong>on</strong>ment in state owned companies, which<br />
support this extremely important phase<br />
Managers and supervisors mostly not centers of competence<br />
Leak of project management<br />
Leak of change management (Change management not c<strong>on</strong>sider as important)<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>sibility issue - “there is some<strong>on</strong>e else who will do it”
Go – Live<br />
Support<br />
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Prepared end users documentati<strong>on</strong><br />
Moved from a pre-producti<strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
to the live system<br />
Includes setting up producti<strong>on</strong> support,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itoring system transacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Run Optimizing overall system performance<br />
Permanent business process optimizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Integrati<strong>on</strong> test not taken seriously from end users<br />
Very slow internal knowledge and informati<strong>on</strong> transfer - several managers has<br />
to sign document to be approved .<br />
Help desk not established by the company<br />
Defined communicati<strong>on</strong> channels not respected<br />
Often, poor management decisi<strong>on</strong> made under huge pressureof Go Live phase<br />
Employees working habits- mistakes are there to be hidden<br />
No optimizati<strong>on</strong> and improvements<br />
Lack of understanding that the ERP system is “live” system<br />
After project is finished all ERP story ends.<br />
Problems with tendering procedure for support<br />
No competent support in country as Bosnia and Herzegovina - low spending <strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sultant educati<strong>on</strong>
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4. Most threatening c<strong>on</strong>straints in practice regarding ASAP methodology<br />
In next few paragraphs we will discuss the most prominent c<strong>on</strong>straints from the list above.<br />
Inadequate tendering procedure for state owned company - The Public Procurement Law<br />
adopted in 2004 generally complies with the main principles of the EU public procurement<br />
system. [10] However, in practice, procurement process for public companies still provides<br />
significant space for fraud. One of the most questi<strong>on</strong>able aspects of public tendering law is<br />
determining price as the most important factor in bidding. So winning the bid is based<br />
significantly, if not exclusively <strong>on</strong> price. This leads to artificially decreased price by some<br />
bidders. Other companies are in the risk to become uncompetitive if the price is set according<br />
to the real market price for the project scope. This provide space for risky system integrators<br />
who are not skilled to provide ASAP methodology and cannot provide skilled SAP<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sultants who can implement ASAP methodology in SAP ERP implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
No localizati<strong>on</strong> for ASAP documentati<strong>on</strong> for smaller countries (example Bosnian language) –<br />
ASAP methodology provides dozen of documents well written in English language. It is<br />
profound help for c<strong>on</strong>sultants and substantially accelerates the process of implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Unfortunately, this documentati<strong>on</strong> is not translated <strong>on</strong> local languages of small, transiti<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
B&H market.<br />
Time c<strong>on</strong>suming decisi<strong>on</strong> making flow process (from bottom to top) – Decisi<strong>on</strong> process in<br />
big, public companies can be very slow. It clearly does not support name of SAP standard<br />
methodology – Accelerated SAP. One of the reas<strong>on</strong>s could be very complex and complicated<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong> structure. Specific for some public companies is lack of modern informati<strong>on</strong><br />
infrastructure, like e-mails.<br />
Working habits of management and employees – Probably some<strong>on</strong>e would ask what<br />
communism has with ASAP. However, as former communist country, Bosnia and<br />
Herzegovina has kept some of the practices from that period (especially in state owned<br />
companies). These habits could include: no real authority of the management, work is not<br />
valuated by achievement but pers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>s; there is no incentive by employees to make<br />
some effort and improve work envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Also, salary is determinate by salary coefficients<br />
for each working positi<strong>on</strong>. Coefficient is provided by legislati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Public companies are short of qualified employees. Most of employees are with lack of<br />
knowledge and practice in business domain they are hired for. The reas<strong>on</strong> for this could be
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corrupti<strong>on</strong> in employment process (some public companies advocate publicly that they prefer<br />
daughters and s<strong>on</strong>s of their current employees in hiring process.<br />
Leak of professi<strong>on</strong>al business envir<strong>on</strong>ment in state owned companies – ASAP methodology<br />
requires business educated professi<strong>on</strong>als who can follow ASAP predefined tasks. Very often<br />
employees in state owned companies do not have appropriate skills that can support ASAP<br />
activities. Even if the project managers deliver tasks to their employee the feedback is<br />
missing or is delivered in very poor manner.<br />
Leak of change management (Change management not c<strong>on</strong>sider as important) - Change<br />
management is a process which aim is to make easier implementati<strong>on</strong>, as well as transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
during ERP project. Since ERP project is usually very complex, change management can<br />
play significant role to improve employees to understand why the project has been<br />
implemented and to make organizati<strong>on</strong>al changes and BPR easier. These activities can be<br />
summed into 3 basic <strong>on</strong>es: educati<strong>on</strong> of employees, communicati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g stakeholders and<br />
involvement in project process. Lack of change management can affect quality of project<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>, and make results smaller.<br />
5. CONCLUSION<br />
As it is stated in abstract the main objective of this paper is to answer a questi<strong>on</strong> “Does<br />
predefined ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology work for state owned companies in<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing countries?” We tried to answer <strong>on</strong> this questi<strong>on</strong> with experience gained with<br />
several projects in state owned companies d<strong>on</strong>e in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We will call it<br />
“hands <strong>on</strong>” experience. As we are working as SAP c<strong>on</strong>sultants, we chose SAP Accelerated<br />
methodology as referent methodology for our paper. We found it relevant as it is provided by<br />
the biggest ERP vendor – SAP A.G. In general ASAP methodology is well developed with<br />
hundreds of well-structured documents which support all ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> activities.<br />
Unfortunately, in practice, this ERP implementati<strong>on</strong> methodology hardly works for state<br />
owned. As experienced SAP c<strong>on</strong>sultants we have impressi<strong>on</strong> that ASAP methodology is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structed for private companies with professi<strong>on</strong>al business envir<strong>on</strong>ment. At the end we will<br />
state the most remarkable c<strong>on</strong>strains we found during ASAP methodology implementati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Inadequate tendering procedure for state owned company<br />
No localizati<strong>on</strong> for ASAP documentati<strong>on</strong> for smaller countries (example Bosnian language)<br />
Time c<strong>on</strong>suming decisi<strong>on</strong> making flow process<br />
Working habits of management and employees
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Leak of professi<strong>on</strong>al business envir<strong>on</strong>ment in state owned companies<br />
Leak of change management (Change management not c<strong>on</strong>sider as important)<br />
We hope that this paper will be useful in further ERP implementati<strong>on</strong>s and ERP research.<br />
Abstract<br />
A Cross – Secti<strong>on</strong>al Analysis of Envir<strong>on</strong>metal Sustainability Practices<br />
Toksari Murat1, Uçan Okyay2<br />
1Nigde University, Department of Business,<br />
2Nigde University, Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics,<br />
E-mails: mtoksari@nigde.edu.tr, okyayu@hotmail.com<br />
In 1970s and 1980s the c<strong>on</strong>cept of sustainability developed as a process of protecti<strong>on</strong> for the<br />
elements that social, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and eceological systems need. During the Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and<br />
<strong>Development</strong> Summit held in 1992, decisi<strong>on</strong>s were made about the works to protect and<br />
improve the envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability with the help of objective policies. By revealing<br />
sustainability specifically focuses <strong>on</strong> the social, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and ecological target, Brountland<br />
report states that meeting Socia-Ec<strong>on</strong>omic needs is limited to the carrying capacity of ecosystem.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability is divided into three categories. They are resource management,<br />
energy management and product sustainability. While, solid waste and water c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
compose the resource managament, energy managament includes energy c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
renewable energy, GHG emissi<strong>on</strong> reducti<strong>on</strong>, energy sufficient. Finally, product sustainability<br />
involves product transportati<strong>on</strong>, supply chain audit, product stewardship and Life Cycle<br />
Program.<br />
In this c<strong>on</strong>text, envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability index and envir<strong>on</strong>mental performance index<br />
were prepared by the universities of Yale and Colombia. With envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability<br />
index, it is intented to reach perfecti<strong>on</strong> in the current and future envir<strong>on</strong>mental qualities of the<br />
countries. This index, is a tool when aiming to be qualified and is an important mechanism<br />
for testing the envir<strong>on</strong>mental performance. As for envir<strong>on</strong>mental performance index, it has<br />
been developed by using result-oriented indicators.
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In this study, the countries whose performances enter the scope of the envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
performance index were compared, 142 countries in 2002 and 146 countries in 2005 were<br />
included in this index.<br />
Keywords: Sustainability, envir<strong>on</strong>mental performance index, envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability<br />
index, Turkey<br />
1.INTRODUCTION<br />
Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary meaning of the c<strong>on</strong>cept of sustainable is “today's needs without<br />
compromising the ability of future generati<strong>on</strong>s to meet their own needs met unless otherwise<br />
indicated”. The c<strong>on</strong>cept of sustainability in the final report in 1987 by the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and <strong>Development</strong> is defined as follows: "Humanity, without<br />
compromising the ability to resp<strong>on</strong>d to the needs of future generati<strong>on</strong>s, by providing the daily<br />
needs, has the ability to make development sustainable”.<br />
The term “sustainability” was coined by the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s appointed Brundland<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> and later refined by the UN Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and <strong>Development</strong> held<br />
in Rio de Janeiro (Blackburn, 2007). The best – known definiti<strong>on</strong> of sustainability, as<br />
established by the UN Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and <strong>Development</strong>, states that<br />
“development is sustainable where it meets the needs of the present without compromising<br />
the ability of future generati<strong>on</strong>s to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>cept of sustainability <strong>on</strong> different topics in the discipline of ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
stability, debt sustainability in order to be able to express the ability of being able to c<strong>on</strong>tinue,<br />
such as sustainable growth around the macro-ec<strong>on</strong>omic definiti<strong>on</strong>s are used extensively.<br />
However, the c<strong>on</strong>cept of sustainability in all areas, especially in the field of ec<strong>on</strong>omics<br />
Brundland by the World Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and <strong>Development</strong> Report, has<br />
expanded the definiti<strong>on</strong> of sustainable development.<br />
Since the 1980s, the development of internati<strong>on</strong>al envir<strong>on</strong>mental discussi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
sustainable development, applied science, envir<strong>on</strong>mental and internati<strong>on</strong>al policy areas<br />
examined as a multi-faceted c<strong>on</strong>cept that has become the focal point of development<br />
strategies (Carvalho, 2001: 62; Bakırtaş ve Bakırtaş, 2007: 223).<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Development</strong>, briefly, to meet the demands and needs of future<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s without restricting the ability and facilities, can be expressed as the present needs<br />
are met.<br />
This defines the extent of development menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, under six headings<br />
summaries spreadable. These are can be expressed as the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, the future, quality of<br />
life, justice, precauti<strong>on</strong>ary principles, and holistic thinking. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there are 3
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dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of the sustainability of the development which are indisputable and can not<br />
distinguish between each other (Arzu Özyol, http://hydra.com.tr/uploads/kutup9.pdf):<br />
Social Dimensi<strong>on</strong>: C<strong>on</strong>tinuing educati<strong>on</strong> for the public "quality of life will provide increasing<br />
benefits for themselves and the whole of the next generati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
The Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Dimensi<strong>on</strong>: Due to limited resources, these resources can improve people's<br />
quality of life and how the fairest way to determine what is the most effective way to<br />
distribute<br />
The Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Dimensi<strong>on</strong>: Recycled or not, the use of any determinati<strong>on</strong> as to ensure<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>tinuity of natural resource<br />
In this c<strong>on</strong>text, <strong>on</strong>e of the dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of the envir<strong>on</strong>mental dimensi<strong>on</strong> of sustainable<br />
development for envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability are discussed for the first time in the capital of<br />
Brazil, Rio De Janeiro <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and <strong>Development</strong> Summit held in 1992. In this<br />
summit, the objective of envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability is necessary for the protecti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
development policies, c<strong>on</strong>cluded that the aid. The most important work in this area of<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Sustainability Index (CSI) 's prepared. This index is prepared jointly by Yale<br />
University and Columbia University. Index has 21 indicators is entegrated to 76 data. This 21<br />
quality indicators provide to compare five different subjects: the peripheral system, stress<br />
levels of this system, the human populati<strong>on</strong> sensitivity to envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental stress and instituti<strong>on</strong>al capacity and global resposibility (Global Leaders,<br />
2001:9).<br />
The paper organized as follows. Secti<strong>on</strong> 2 discusses the theoretical background.<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 3 summarizes the literature.The methodology is presented in Secti<strong>on</strong> 4. The overall<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> and result are in the final secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND<br />
Although sustainability is important for ensuring the future Quality of the global<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment, it can also be viewed as a business opportunity, an investment in the future and<br />
a pathway to innovati<strong>on</strong> and creative thinking (Satterfield et al. 2009; H<strong>on</strong>tou et al. 2006;<br />
Cowan et al. 2010).<br />
Today business, now more sensitivity towards envir<strong>on</strong>mental activities as a cost item<br />
or to see the threat of competiti<strong>on</strong> as an oppurtunity rather than <strong>on</strong>e have to see (Lee et al.,<br />
2006: 292). For this reas<strong>on</strong>, envir<strong>on</strong>mental innovati<strong>on</strong> can be stated as envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> or more generally as a c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to sustainable development goals, new ideas,<br />
attitudias, development and implemntati<strong>on</strong> of products and process (Rennizgs, 2000: 322).<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental product innovati<strong>on</strong> in the producti<strong>on</strong> and even the destructi<strong>on</strong> of the product<br />
until they begin to become waste throughout the product life cycle to eliminate or reduce the
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negative effects <strong>on</strong> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment includes the innovative activities (Büyükkeklik et al.,<br />
2010: 375).<br />
3. LITERATURE<br />
Author Year Method Result<br />
Robert Goodland<br />
and Herman Daly<br />
1996 Distinguishing development from<br />
sustainability and from growth, the paper<br />
describes the c<strong>on</strong>cept of natural capital and<br />
uses the c<strong>on</strong>cept to present four alternative<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong>s of envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability.<br />
Gregory Theyel 2000 There are discernible differences in the<br />
enviromental innovati<strong>on</strong> and performance of<br />
US chemical firms that can be explained by<br />
differences in the management practices and<br />
characteristics of the firms.<br />
Smita B.<br />
Brunnermeier<br />
and Mark A.<br />
Cohen<br />
2003 Panel data models to study how<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability by Us<br />
manufacturing ındustries resp<strong>on</strong>ded to<br />
changes in polluti<strong>on</strong> abadement<br />
expenditures and regulatory enforcement<br />
during the period 1983 through 1992.<br />
Sergio et. al. 2003 This paper anayses and discusses the<br />
potenti<strong>on</strong>al role of evoluti<strong>on</strong>ary theories in<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental innovati<strong>on</strong> with emphasis <strong>on</strong><br />
sustainability.<br />
The final secti<strong>on</strong> describes<br />
how <strong>on</strong>e large development<br />
agency, the World Bank, is<br />
endeavoring to incorporate<br />
these new principle into its<br />
operai<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Firms in the chemical industry<br />
and in other industries can<br />
learn from the leading firms in<br />
this research. Firms that do<br />
mak envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
management part of producti<strong>on</strong><br />
management are likely to be<br />
leaders in innovati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental performance.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental innovati<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded to increases in<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> abatement<br />
expenditures. Also find some<br />
emprical evidence that<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental innovati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
more likely to occur in<br />
industries that are<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ally competitive.<br />
The study c<strong>on</strong>cludes that eco –<br />
evoluti<strong>on</strong> is efficient when<br />
identifying n<strong>on</strong> – optimal<br />
technological trajectories and<br />
sustainable opti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
innovati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the base of<br />
existent knowledge.
Allen S. Bellas<br />
and Nancy F.<br />
Nentl<br />
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2007 Following their introducti<strong>on</strong> in the mid -<br />
1970s, fabric filters, a new type of industrial<br />
scrubber, experineced aggressive growth,<br />
and by 1990, this new technology (EIA)<br />
form 767, using t tests, cross tabulati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
binominal regressi<strong>on</strong> to identify the<br />
characteistics of those boilers, plants and<br />
utilities that installed fabric filters from the<br />
alte 1970s to 1990.<br />
David Hillier 2008 An opini<strong>on</strong> piece, that presents the view of<br />
four authors <strong>on</strong> the current state of the<br />
depate in this field.<br />
Dallas M. Cowan<br />
Et. Al.<br />
4. METHODOLOGY<br />
2010 Benchmark analysis, They have collected<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the sustainability programs<br />
of the largest US companies in each of the<br />
26 industrial sectors.<br />
Anslysis indicates that there<br />
are spesific characteristics of<br />
early adopters of fabric filter<br />
tech<strong>on</strong>ology such as the<br />
capacity and age of the<br />
associates boiler, the capacity<br />
and size of the utility, and<br />
whether the utility was<br />
privately or publicly owned.<br />
There are those who believe<br />
that marketing and<br />
sustainability simply be<br />
rec<strong>on</strong>ciled, while there are<br />
others who argue that<br />
marketing can c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the<br />
development of sustainable<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Thes have called product<br />
sustainability <strong>on</strong>e in which<br />
toxicologist and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
scientist can play a vital role<br />
helping to ensure that a&