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CONCLUSION noble bandit is, in contrast, much less of a known quantity and, therefore, also a much more complex figure. That readers find the stories of Viriatus or Bulla Felix more interesting than those of Tacfarinas or Maternus derives from the counter-intuitive nature of the depiction of the ‘noble’ bandit. At the mention of ‘bandit’, ancient, like modern, readers anticipated grim exposés of the misdeeds of common, despicable thugs. It came as a shock to them to find that the noble bandit had such thuggish traits only superficially, if at all. In other words, the noble latro exploded the common preconception of the bandit, and it was this that made him such a fascinating figure. Under close examination, he even showed himself as the embodiment of the highest ideals of Roman society: as a warrior, valiant, strong and invincible; as a leader, wise, just and stern or merciful as the occasion demanded; as a patron, reliable, loyal and generous. He was the very quintessence of the ideal ruler – and showed himself openly as such when, as in the case of Bulla, he adopted the imperial title of felix. In this way he advertised and exploited qualities on which he, as a bandit, had no proper claim: qualities which his opponent should possess, but did not. This made him a threat to the current ruler, made him his rival. The strong features and dazzling aura of the noble bandit marked him out from his opponent, whom he faced with apparently limitless superiority. As long as his opponent fought fair, he was invulnerable. It was only when treachery was brought into play that he could be beaten. And even in the moment of defeat he showed himself to be his opponent’s moral superior. These opponents – always legitimate representatives of the state: in the case of Viriatus, Roman generals; in those of Bulla Felix or the false Agrippa Postumus, Roman emperors – fade into insignificance. In a world where the bandit is the embodiment of good, the state that of evil, traditional basic values are reversed. The ‘world turned upside down’ was another literary theme popular in Antiquity, 2 the characteristics of which have been concisely summarised by Gerhard Baudy: Elements change places; power is seized by false gods; in various cities and among various peoples illegitimate rulers establish reigns of terror; the natural relationships between masters and men, natives and foreigners, men and women, old and young are turned on their heads. But instead of the unwelcome opposite of hoped-for normality the ‘world turned upside down’ can also be used to express an opposing ideal, criticising contemporary society or just sketching out an escapist alternative to disagreeable reality. 3 The noble bandit fits all this like nothing else. As we have seen in numerous examples above, as ideal ruler, skilled general and benevolent patron he represents ‘an opposing ideal’. The notion of the just society of his band as the other, better, state is nothing less than ‘an escapist alternative 165
BANDITS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE to disagreeable reality’. This other, better state existed, of course, only in the imagination of Roman writers and their readers. And the latro was no more than an imaginary character in this imaginary state, a character who had never actually drawn breath, a myth. 166
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First published 1999 by Akademie de
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