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Trade and Employment: From Myths to Facts in turn, contributes to and reinforces women’s weaker access to household resources and is instrumental in inter-generationally transmitting inequalities between men and women. Women have no/little formal asset ownership, less education and training than men, and in many societies women also have less access to health care than men, which results in poorer health outcomes. These household-level inequalities are, in turn, associated with a particular set of economic outcomes for women in the monetary economy, which have weak feedback effects to alter the intra-household status of women (figure 5.1, panel B). Development histories of several Asian and Latin American economies show that male workers constituted the first and main industrial workforce in the importsubstituting industrialization drives of the twentieth century (Berik et al., 2008). In this phase, women workers accounted for a small share of the industrial labour force and were concentrated in a few labour-intensive industries, such as food and clothing, which were deemed gender-appropriate extensions of women’s domestic work. Women, almost always young and unmarried, constituted a high share of workers in these industries. Married women were virtually absent from industrial wage work, consistent with gender norms and the actual division of labour in the household (figure 5.1, panel A). Within industries, gender norms likewise shaped occupational (vertical) segregation, whereby women staffed less-skilled, non-supervisory assembly line positions, while men filled managerial positions or jobs that were deemed skilled. Associated with this industrial and occupational segregation by gender was a wage differential that signalled and reinforced women’s dependence on men. Women’s lower wages were shaped by not only their lower education levels and fewer years of work experience compared to men but also their low aspirations, lack of options and employer perceptions of women as short-term labour market participants. Thus, wage inequalities by gender were based on both the actual and perceived lower skill levels of women relative to men and societal views of appropriate pursuits for women and men. The societal norms that devalue women’s labour and render them less deserving of wages paid to men were embedded in workplace practices (Elson, 1999). These were the stylized features of the gendered context of the urban labour market when many developing economies embarked on trade liberalization and began orienting their domestic production toward exports in the last quarter of the twentieth century. In addition, in rural communities women were scarce in cash-crop production or entrepreneurial activities, except as unpaid family workers. These gender inequalities in employment and wages are salient in evaluating the impacts of trade policy changes on women and men. Different outcomes by gender (and more adverse outcomes for women) are expected since trade policy is implemented in the context of gendered social structures of the economy that are marked by inequalities – the household, legal systems, the labour market. Figure 5.1 presents a stylized representation of the gender inequalities characteristic of this stage of economic development, and the linkages between household-level inequalities and inequalities in the labour market and the monetary economy. 174
Figure 5.1: Description of gender inequality in the economy A. Household-level inequalities B. Inequalities in labour market/monetary economy Women’s outcomes in paid work/cash economy are poorer than men’s: Low labour force participation and employment level Employment segregation by sector/occupation/job: • Short-term employment Women’s income-earning ability (and well-being) is lower than men’s due to: Gender division of labour Women in reproductive and/or subsistence work • Limited prospects for mobility • Low wages and gender wage inequality Participation in small-scale production (entrepreneurial activities or cash-crop) Less access to resources and services: education, healthcare, assets, credit, technologies, training/ business services Greater time constraint/time poverty Men in remunerative work + Gender ideology/norms Define and reinforce needs, appropriate behaviours, pursuits of women and men Chapter 5: Gender aspects of trade Women have weaker: • Breakdown (fallback) position • Perception of self-interest • Perception of their economic contribution State institutions (laws, policies) also reflect and reinforce gender ideology/norms, and inequalities Women have weaker bargaining power in the household Adapted from Beviglia Zampetti and Tran-Nguyen (2004), Ch.1, Figure 1; Sen (1990). 175
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Trade and Employment From Myths to
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Trade and Employment From Myths to
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PREFACE Trade negotiations -bilater
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Trade and Employment: From Myths to
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EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS EDITORS Ma
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors wish t
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NEW EVIDENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMEN
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Chapter 2: New evidence on trade an
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Region Annualized percentage change
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Region 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 200
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Figure 2.4.b: Long-run association
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20 See Harrison and Rodriguez-Clare
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ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF TRADE ON EM
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Chapter 3: Assessing the impact of
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APPPENDIX 3.A: TABLES Chapter 3: As
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