Nut culture in British Columbia - Ministry of Agriculture and Lands

NUT CULTURE
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
by
DR. M F. WELSH,
District Horticulturist (retired)
Ministry of Agriculture and Food,
Summerland, B.C.
and
W.S. PETERS
Provincial Berry and Nut Specialist,
Ministry of Agriculture and Food,
Abbotsford, B.C.
Ministry of Agriculture and Food
Victoria, B.C 1984

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data
Welsh, M. F. (Maurice Fitzwilliam), 1916 –
Nut Culture in British Columbia
Cover title.
Bibliography: p.
ISBN 0-7726-0055-4
1. Nuts – British Columbia. 2. Nut trees —
British Columbia. I. Peters, W. S. II. British Columbia
Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
III. Title.
SB401.A4W44 1984 634’.5’09711 C84-092117-9

Contents
Page
Introduction 3
The Gellatly Family 4
Walnuts 5
Walnut Poisoning 5
1) Carpathian Walnut 5
2) Eastern Black Walnut 7
3) utternut 8
4) Japanese Walnut 9
5) Heartnut 10
6) Buartnut 11
Filberts 12
Chestnuts 14
Hickories and Pecans 16
Almonds 17
Sweet—Kernelled Apricots 17
Other Tree Nuts 17
Peanuts 18
Establishing Nut Trees 18
− Location 18
Page
− Spacing 18
− Pollination 19
− Buying Planting Stock 19
− Planting and Early Care 19
− Irrigation 20
− Nutrition 20
− Rates of Application and
− Procedures 21
− Pruning 21
Harvesting and Drying 21
Storage 22
Propagation 22
− Walnut 22
− Butternuts, Heartnuts,
− Buartnuts 24
− Chestnuts 24
− Filberts 24
− Almonds 25
Diseases and Pests 25
Commercial Nut Growing 26
References 27

Mr. and Mrs. W.B. Gellatly of Gellatly Nut
Nursery, Westbank, B.C. have been most cooperative
in providing information on nut
varieties and selections suited to the British
Columbia Interior and have drawn on their
long experience in nut growing to suggest
cultural practices that could be
recommended.
The primary author, Dr. Maurice F.
Welsh, P.Ag., District Horticulturist (retired)
at Summerland is owed a debt of gratitude
for recording the findings and varietal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1
developments of the Gellatly family and
other interior nut growers.
John B. Price, P.Ag., District Horticulturist,
British Columbia Ministry of
Agriculture and Food, Vernon was
responsible for editing the manuscript
prepared by Dr. Welsh. Coastal information,
final compilation and editing are by W.S.
Peters P.Ag., Provincial Berry and Nut
Specialist, British Columbia Ministry of
Agriculture and Food, Abbotsford.

A number of different kinds and
varieties of nuts have been grown in the
more temperate areas of British
Columbia since the arrival of the early
settlers. In general, tree nuts can be
grown in areas where tree fruits can be
grown (southern Vancouver Island, the
Fraser Valley, the Okanagan-Similkameen
and West Kootenay areas).
However, filberts (hazelnuts) are the
hardiest of all the nut crops and selected
varieties are reportedly able to survive in
the Peace River area.
The most successful kinds of nuts that
can be grown in British Columbia include:
butternuts, buartnuts, chest-nuts,
filberts, heartnuts and walnuts (Carpathian,
Japanese and black). The
growing of almonds, hickory nuts, peanuts
and pecans is possible but insufficiently
demonstrated to date so
should be considered experimental.
Unfortunately, the full potential of tree
Introduction
3
nuts has not been exploited, especially
for growing near the home where they
can serve as shade trees producing a nut
crop as a bonus. Only filberts have been
demonstrated to be commercially viable
in British Columbia.
At the present time, production
approximates 230,000 kilos of filberts
annually from nut groves in the Fraser
Valley, primarily in the Chilliwack area.
While there are over 250 hectares
planted, only about one-half of the
plantings are mature so that the
production is expected to increase
significantly as the newer groves reach
maturity.
Early attempts at commercial walnut
production in the Fraser Valley, the
Okanagan and Kootenays were thwarted
by silver-thaws, winter injury,
competing land uses and the nonprecocious
nature of the walnut.

The Gellatly family deserves special
recognition for their outstanding
devotion to the development and
betterment of nut growing in British
Columbia. The late J.U. (Jack) Gellatly,
an early settler on the shores of
Okanagan Lake, near Westbank,
devoted most of his life experimenting
with the growing, breeding and
propagation of numerous nut crops
including filberts, walnuts and chestnuts.
Gellatly nut varieties are not only
being grown throughout southern British
Columbia but also in eastern Canada,
the United States and several
The Gellatly Family
European countries. To produce new
hardier varieties, Mr. Gellantly grew
trees from nuts gathered around the
world and crossed them with domestic
varieties which, while superior in many
ways, were often less hardy.
Currently, supplies of some Gellatly
varieties are still available from Mr. and
Mrs. William Gellatly who are now
operating the Gellatly Nut Nursery at
Westbank, B.C. However, efforts are
being made to also have a commercial
nursery propagate some of the best
Gellatly varieties so that a future supply
is anticipated.
Figure 1: The late J.U. Gellatly inspecting a heavy crop of hardy Broadview walnuts at his
home near Westbank, circa 1965.
4

WALNUTS
Nuts in the Juglans or walnut genus
that can be grown in British Columbia
include Carpathian walnuts (J. regia),
eastern black walnuts (J. nigra), butternuts
(J. cinerea), Japanese walnuts (J.
sieboldiana)*, heartnuts (J. sieboldiana
cordiformia)*, and buartnut (heartnut x
butternut hybrids).
The Carpathian walnut is vastly
superior to all other walnut types in
climates where it can be grown. It has a
larger nut size, higher percentage of
kernel plus a greater ease of cracking
and kernel extraction than the other
walnuts. It is the only walnut type with
commercial potential for a food crop.
Butternuts and buartnuts are considered
the most hardy of the walnut group.
Their flavor is milder and sweeter than
Carpathian walnuts.
Black walnut wood is the most highly
prized wood for lumber, wood-working
and wood carving but the wood of the
whole group is considered excellent.
All walnuts are large trees. When
mature they require a radius of 7 to 9
metres which severely limits their use in
home gardens. For large yards, streets
and parks they serve as attractive
trouble-free ornamentals.
Walnut Poisoning
There are various and confusing reports
of the toxic effects of walnut
species on interplanted or succeeding
crops.
Black walnuts have been demonstrated
to interfere with the growth of tomatoes,
potatoes, alfalfa and several species of
pine, although not with grasses. At least
part of the problem derives from
production of a toxic chemical called
“juglone” that occurs in leaves, nut
husks and roots. The chemical is
ersistent remaining in the soil after the
walnut trees are removed.
Toxicity from Carpathian and other
species of walnut is less well documented.
Certainly a variety of weeds and
cultivated plants have continued to grow
well in some British Columbia walnut
groves. However, it appears safer to
avoid using walnut leaves as mulches or
composts or planting valuable crops
within the dripline of walnut trees.
1) Carpathian Walnuts
The Carpathian walnut is also
known as the Persian, English, French
and soft-shelled walnut. It is believed
to have originated near the Caspian
Sea in what is now Iran but is now
found growing wild over a wide area
of Europe and Asia. Selected strains
were moved westward by the Greeks
and Ro-mans as they colonized
Europe. Eventually hardy strains
evolved in the Carpathian Mountains
which now form parts of Poland and
Czechoslovakia. Many of the walnuts
grown in Canada and in the northern
United States are selections from nuts
imported from the Carpathians and the
Ukraine.
Hardier varieties of Carpathian
walnuts can withstand temperatures as
low as -30 degrees C when fully
dormant. However, they are characterized
by a shallow dormancy and are
therefore most likely to suffer in-jury
during late winter or early spring cold
spells that follow periods of warmer
weather. In general, the hardier
Carpathian walnuts (Broad-view and
Manregian) can be grown where sour
cherries and the tender apple varieties
will survive.
* Note – Some Authorities refer to the Japanese walnut group as Juglans sieboldiana while others ue Juglans
ailantifolia. It is not clear at present which is the preferred species name as both are used in the literature.
5

Varieties: Manregian – A second generation seed-
Accurate varietal recommendations
and comparisons are difficult since
many of the trees growing in the
province are seedlings or the varietal
names have been lost with the passing of
time. However, the following varieties
are generally available from nurseries
and garden centres and the information
given is the best available.
Franquette – This variety, which originnated
in France, has been the most
widely available and planted walnut
since prior to World War II. It is
commercially grown in the mountain
districts of California and, to a lesser
extent, in Oregon. It is late blooming
and produces medium large elongated
pointed nuts that have fairly smooth
thin shells.
ling from northern China, it is considerably
more winter hardy than
Franquette. Nuts are large round thinshelled
but hard. Kernel quality is
excellent. It is sometimes used as a
hardy rootstalk for Franquette.
Idaho – A very hardy Carpathian x black
walnut seedling. Nuts are large but
branches are brittle. It is not
recommended except in very cold
areas where other varieties cannot be
grown satisfactorily.
Broadview – Introduced by J.U. Gellatly
who selected it from seedlings grown
from nuts originating in the Ukraine.
It is very hardy, starts spring growth
late and is very productive. Nuts are
oval, medium to large and the shells
are thin but well sealed. Kernel quality
is generally excellent but occasionally
may produce some bitter kernels.
Figure 2: In Interior valleys the Gellatly Broadview walnut variety and its seedlings are
widely grown in home gardens.
6

2) Eastern Black Walnut
This walnut is native to the
eastern half of the United States and
southern Ontario. It is hardy
surviving winter temperatures as
low as
- 40 degrees C. Where
growing seasons are short, it can be
damaged by late spring or early fall
frosts but it has a more extensive
climatic range than the Carpathian
walnut.
Black walnut is primarily valued
for timber with the nuts being of
minor value. The nuts do not shed
their hulls (which are the source of
walnut wood stain) and are ex-
tremely hard-shelled making cracking
almost impossible. The kernels
are small and have a distinctive
taste. The immature walnuts may be
used for pickling.
Varieties:
Since there is limited demand for
black walnuts, they are not readily
available from nurseries. Most black
walnuts are unnamed seedlings as
very little selection has ever been
undertaken. However, Northern
Black and Thomas Black are
varieties that may be encountered.
Figure 3: A black walnut showing typical roundish shells with prominent grooving.
7

3) Butternut
This nut tolerates a very wide
range of climates, being native to a
region extending from New
Brunswick to the Dakotas and south
to Arkansas. Selected seed-lings
have grown and cropped
satisfactorily in parts of the
Canadian prairies. It can survive - 45
degrees C. It has higher soil
moisture requirements than most
other species of nuts. The nuts
have thick ridged shells. Cracking
the shells and extracting the kernels
is difficult. The flavor is mild and
pleasing but butternuts have no
potential as a commercial food crop.
On deep moist soils the trees
become very large and are heavily
branched. The high-quality wood is
classed as white walnut to
distinguish it from wood of the
Eastern Black Walnut.
Figure 4: Butternuts have thick, ridged shells which are difficult to crack..
8

4) Japanese Walnut
This wild oriental species which
is also known as the Siebold Walnut
was widely cultivated in Japan from
early times. Japanese walnut and the
closely related heartnut are
considered more hardy than
Carpathian walnuts but cannot be
grown through the full range of
black walnut or butternut. Trees are
reputed to survive -40 degrees C in
mid-winter but tend to commence
growth in early spring and thus are
vulnerable to spring frost damage.
Figure 5: The Siebold or Japanese walnut.
9
The tree is large and widespreading
with light colored bark
and thus is useful and attractive as a
shade tree where adequate space can
be provided. The nuts are small and
egg shaped with shells that are hard
to crack. The flavor is milder than
that of butternut. As a food crop
they have no commercial potential
and for home use would only be
considered in areas where
Carpathian walnuts are not hardy.

5) Heartnut
A small proportion of Japanese
walnut seeds have produced trees
that bear thinner-shelled, heartshaped
nuts. These have been
propagated and given the name
“heartnut”. Improved strains developed
by Mr. Gellatly include
Calendar, Caloka, Gellatly, Canoka
and Nursoka. They were selected for
late spring development and a high
percentage of kernels. Calendar is
considered the best of the varieties
mentioned.
Figure 6: Calendar heartnut. Heartnuts are readily identified by their characteristic
heart-shaped shells.
10

6) Buartnut
Buartnuts are hybrids of heartnuts
and butternuts selected by Mr.
Gellatly to combine the hardiness
and flavor of the butternut with the
better kernel shape of the heartnut
and to gain greater ease of cracking
than that of butternut. The tree
resembles butternut in form and
size. Varieties of buartnuts include
Figure 7: Fioka buartnut.
11
Dunoka and Fioka; nuts of the
former are easier to crack.
As with the previous four kinds of
walnuts listed, buartnuts have little
to recommend them as a food crop
for home use. They should only be
considered where Carpathian
walnuts will not survive or as a
“collectors item” by a hobbyist.

FILBERTS
Filberts are also known as hazelnuts or
cobnuts. There are approximately sixteen
Corylus species native to the northern
hemisphere with C. californica native in
milder areas of the province, C. rostrata in
eastern B.C. and C. cornuta in the Peace
River. While most filberts are short bushy
trees or shrubs that grow in clumps, some
large, timber-type species are found in
Turkey, India and China. All domestic
varieties, however, are descended from the
European filbert, C. avellina. As a group
filberts are more winter hardy than the
other types of nuts listed.
The vast majority of the world’s filberts
are produced in the Medi-terranean region
(Turkey 70 per cent, Italy 22 per cent and
Spain 5 per cent) with most of the rest
originating in North America. Of the North
American crop about 97 per cent originates
from the Willamette Valley of Oregon, two
to three per cent from Washington and less
than one per cent from British Columbia.
The total northwest area exceeds 10,000 ha
with annual new plantings average over
300 ha. In British Columbia, there are over
250 hectares centered around Chilliwack
and the area is expanding but at a slower
rate than in Oregon.
Varieties:
Filberts are very long-lived trees (75 –
100 years or more) so it is imperative that
the nursery stock planted by selected with
care. Unfortunately there is a lack of
documentation on the relative hardiness
and productivity of filbert varieties in most
parts of the province. Current knowledge
has been extrapolated from information
supplied by the Gellatly family and others
in the interior as well as from observations
and research in the Fraser Valley and
Oregon. The following is a brief sum-mary
of the best available information for British
Columbia conditions.
12
Barcelona – It accounts for 85 per cent of
Oregon’s production but is not able to
withstand the severe winters in southern
B.C. It seems to perform best in warmer
growing seasons and is subject to
“brownstain” disorder in cool wet seasons.
Nuts are round, medium-large and have a
smooth kernel (42 per cent kernel by
weight). The nuts fall freely from the
husks. Flowering and harvesting seasons
are earlier than most varieties.
Bulter – A promising new variety from
Oregon. It is an excellent pollinizer for
Barcelona and other varieties, is moderately
productive and pre-cocious. The
nuts are oval medium-large and have a
smooth kernel (48 per cent kernels).
Daviana – Grown primarily as a pollinizer
for Barcelona and DuChilly. It is a very
light cropper with medium-sized oval
nuts and a smooth kernel (52 per cent
kernels). It is losing popularity as a
pollinator due to its poor yields.
DuChilly – The main variety grown in the
Fraser Valley due to its hardi-ness. It is a
heavy producer in alter-nate years and a
good pollinator for Barcelona. Nuts are
long and large with a characteristic
crease on the side of the shell. Nuts do
not always fall free of the husks. Kernels
rough (44 per cent kernels).
Ennis – A promising new variety from
Oregon; the trees are erect and hardy. It
is a heavy producer but not a good
pollinator. Nuts are large, round and the
kernels have some roughness (47 per
cent kernels).
Hall’s Giant – A moderately productive
variety and a good pollinizer for
Barcelona and Royal. It has mediumsized
round nuts and the kernels have
some roughness (42 per cent kernels).

Montebello – A moderately heavy cropper
that will not pollinate Barcelona. Shells
are round, of medium-small size and
kernels are smooth (42 per cent kernels).
Nooksack – A good pollinizer for
DuChilly and late bloom of Barcelona.
Trees are spreading, very hardy and
productive. Nuts drop free from the
husks, are large, long and similar to
DuChilly but with a higher percentage
of kernels.
Royal – Only a moderate cropper and
doesn’t pollinate Barcelona well, even
though it tends to flower at the same
season. The extremely large nuts are
oval, thin-shelled and early maturing.
The kernels are rough (40 per cent
kernels). The trees are hardier than
DuChilly.
Gellatly Varieties – A large number of
excellent varieties were developed by
Mr. Gellatly. While they are now
difficult to obtain they offer superior
winter hardiness making them ideal for
the interior valleys. Some of the filbert
varieties developed include Craig,
Gellatly and Holder. Crosses between
European filberts and the hardy hazels
from Manchuria and the wild Peace
River hazels (C. cornuta) produced
such “filazel” varieties as Petoka,
Myoka, Churoka and Manoka. Crosses
of European filberts with the Chinese
tree hazel (C. colurna), a tall, timbertype
tree, yielded varieties such as
Chinoka which are very hardy and
produce heavy crops of small nuts. Mr.
Gellatly classified these tree-type
filberts as “trazelnuts”.
Figure 8: Royal (left) is the largest sized filbert available locally but it is not a heavy yielder. Barcelona (right)
is the main filbert variety grown in Oregon, because the nuts are round they can readily be graded as to size
for specialty markets..
Figure 9: The new pollinizer variety Butler (left) produces squarish and somewhat flattened nuts which blend with
roundish nuts. DuChilly (right) nuts are long and grooved on the sides. It is a main Fraser Valley variety.
13

Figure 10: Daviana (left) was a popular pollinator variety but a biennial bearer. Ennis (right) is a promising new
main crop variety from Oregon..
The edible chestnuts belong to the genus
Castanea and are closely related to oak and
beech. There are species native to eastern
North America, Europe and Asia. The only
species native to Canada (C dentata) has
all but been eliminated from its native
southern Ontario by Chestnut Blight, a
fungus disease introduced from Asia.
The European or Italian chestnut (C.
sativa) can be grown in the Lower
Mainland and in sheltered locations in the
southern interior. However, like the Native
American chestnut, the Euro-pean chestnut
is very susceptible to Chestnut Blight. The
disease has killed most chestnuts in eastern
North America and is gradually spreading
west. It would therefore not seem prudent
to plant European Chestnuts in British
Columbia. Since the Chinese chestnut (C.
mollissima) is resistant to blight, it is now
the most widely culti-vated chestnut in
North America.
The Gellatly family has developed
selections of the blight resistant Chinese
chestnut that bear nuts of good size and
quality. They can withstand winter
temperatures of - 30 degrees C and can
usually be grown where peaches and
apricots have proved to be hardy.
Chestnut wood is strong, rot resistant
and well suited to wood carving.
CHESTNUTS
14
Almost all chestnuts consumed in North
America are imported from Europe;
imports amount to five million kilograms
annually. In spite of an apparent ready
market, early attempts to grow the crop
commercially in the Fraser Valley were
unsuccessful. However, the climate of the
valley is obviously suited for chestnut
growing as they have “gone wild” in at
least one area. Chestnuts are very attractive
shade trees for landscaping and provided
there are two or more trees for cross pollination,
they can begin to produce nuts
when very young (four to six years old).
Varieties
The Gellatly selections of Chinese
chestnuts that have been named include
Layeroka, Skioka, Manoka, Nuoka and
Penoka. Layeroka matures its nuts two
weeks earlier than the other selections and
should be grown where the growing season
is short. In trials at the Horti-cultural
Research Institute of Ontario at Vineland
the variety layeroka has been rated as
exceptionally vigorous and heavy yielding.
The nuts are quite large (about 3 cm in
diameter) and mature in late September in
the Fraser Valley and Ontario.

Figure 11: Typical Chinese chestnuts.
Figure 12: Chinese chestnuts are born in spiney husks which open when the nuts are mature.
15

HICKORIES AND PECANS
Hickories (Carya species) are native
through the eastern and central North
American hardwood forests. It is among
the hardest, toughest and strongest
hardwoods grown in Canada and is
frequently used for tool handles. Of the
five native species, the nuts of all but the
bitternut hickory are sweet and edible.
However, the only species that is
commercially grown for nut production
is the pecan (Carya illinoenisis).
Most pecan varieties can only be
grown in southern parts of the United
States. There are, however, a few hardy
varieties and selections that can be grown
in more northerly climates. Several years
ago, 250 people in southern British
Figure 13: Hardy pecan nuts.
16
Columbia received seeds of these hardy
pecans from the Northern Nut Growers’
Association for testing. To date, there has
been no comprehensive assessment of
these plantings but trees at two locations
in the Okanagan Valley are known to be
growing well and survived the severe
1978-79 winter without injury. So far
they have not cropped. Northern pecans
usually begin to bear in the eighth to
tenth year with volume production
starting around the eleventh to sixteenth
year.
There are several hybrids between
hickories and pecans which are know as
hicans.

ALMONDS
The almond (Prunus amygdalus) is
closely related to the peach, plum and
apricot and has comparable tree hardi-ness.
Like the apricot, almonds flower
exceptionally early and are subject to crop
failure if grown in areas prone to spring
frosts. Almonds, unlike the other tree nuts
mentioned, require pollination by honey
bees. All commercial varieties are selfsterile
and require cross-pollination with a
different variety. The size and shape of the
trees varies between varieties from low
bushy trees to tall upright trees reaching up
to 7 – 10 metres in height. Almonds can
survive rather poor droughty soils but do
not do well in rainy humid climates due to
disease problems.
About one-half of the world’s almond
production is in the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Valleys of California. In that
region, even the latest blooming varieties
start to flower in late February or early
March.
There are hard-shelled almonds that can
be grown in milder parts of British
Columbia. Some serve as desirable
ornamentals but the nuts are small and
difficult to crack. Soft-shelled almond trees
have survived well in coastal and southern
interior districts but the blossoms or young
fruit are lost to frost injury in all or most
seasons. In several parts of the world, softshelled
varieties are being crossed with
peaches in an attempt to develop varieties
that will bloom late and yet produce
acceptable nuts. Several such almonds are
being established in the province for
testing.
At the present time, it is illegal for an
individual to import almonds into British
Columbia without first making arrangements
with the Plant Quarantine Division
of Agriculture Canada. The regulations
were imposed to prevent the importation of
serious virus diseases into British
Columbia which could destroy the stonefruit
industry.
SWEET-KERNELLED APRICOTS
The sweet kernels found in some apricot
varieties are used as a substitute for
almonds or for oil extraction in several
Asian countries. The taste and quality are
comparable, although yields are lower and
cracking of the stones is more difficult.
Tests in progress at the Agriculture Canada
Research Station at Summerland indicate
Macadamia nuts, cashews and
pistachios require long growing seasons
and semi-tropical climates. No varieties are
known that can be grown in even the
warmest parts of British Columbia. The
ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba), which is
hardy to about − 34 degrees C, is grown in
southern British Columbia as a specimen
shade tree. However, since its male and
OTHER TREE NUTS
17
that the varieties Sweetheart and Harcot
have suitably sweet kernels. In addition, a
number of seedlings from both the
Summerland and Harrow-Vineland,
Ontario breeding programs also produce
sweet kernels and may be available as
named varieties in the future.
female flowers are produced on separate
trees, its nuts are seldom seen. In the
Orient, roasted ginkgo nuts are considered
a delicacy. Beech trees (Fagus species) are
magnificent, huge trees that are best suited
to parks. However, their small three
cornered nuts are among the most
delectable of all nuts.

PEANUTS
The peanut (Arachis hypogaca) is not a
true nut but a legume closely related to
peas and beans.
Periodic efforts to grow peanuts crops
in several parts of Canada have had very
limited success. However, research in
Ontario begun in 1970, has demonstrated
that several varieties are suited to southern
Ontario conditions. Production of
commercial scale crops began in 1980.
The peanuts being grown in Ontario are
of the Spanish type (small, “redskins”) and
the Valencia type (usually roasted and sold
in the shell). The most suitable varieties,
both of which are Valencia types, are
McRan and New Mexico Valencia A.
Peanuts, like peas and beans are an
annual field crop. In Ontario, the seed is
sown in early May (5 cm between seeds,
60 cm between rows). By mid-June the
plants begin to bear two types of yellow
flowers. From the less showy flowers,
stem-like structures grow downward into
ESTABLISHING NUT TREES
Location
All kinds of nuts except almonds grow
best on deep, well drained loamy soils that
allow good root penetration. Filberts, being
smaller trees, can tolerate shallower soils
than those required for larger trees such as
walnuts and chestnuts. Almonds prefer
lighter soils, similar to those that are suited
to peach growing. For maximum kernel
development, the soil should be uniformly
well supplied with water throughout the
growing season. No nut species can
tolerate “wet feet”.
Avoid planting nuts, especially almonds,
in areas where late spring frosts can be
expected. Gentle slopes are among the best
locations as they usually have good air
movement.
18
the soil 5-7 cm and form pods. The nuts
continue to develop and mature until late
September or the first killing frost when
they must be dug promptly and dried (175
degrees C for 15-20 minutes).
The soils should be above 18 degrees C
for good seed germination. Peanuts grow
and mature best in warm, sandy soils and
can withstand intense heat and
considerable drought. Since they are
legumes and can fix their own nitrogen,
there is a minimal need for fertilizer
application but Rhizobium inoculum
should be used when seeding. Weed
control is essential. Few disease or insect
problems have been encountered.
So far, no recommendations can be
made for British Columbia, but the Ontario
varieties and methods merit testing.
Additional information on peanut growing
in Ontario can be obtained from the
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food
or from the University of Guelph.
Spacing
The space required by an individual
mature tree for the various kinds of nuts is:
Walnuts & Chestnuts 15–18 metres
Almonds 7– 9 metres
Filberts 6– 7 metres
These distances are excessive for young
trees and in commercial plantings it is
common to plant as close as one-half that
indicated above. The yields from younger
plantings are directly proportional to the
tree density so there is an economic
advantage to closer spacings. However,
once the trees begin to crowd, the “extra”
trees are removed to enable the remaining
trees to develop normally.

Pollination
Home garden nut growers are often
frustrated by sparse cropping of their trees
especially in the first 10 years. This is
usually the result of poor pollination.
Walnuts, chestnuts, pecans and filberts
bear separate male and female flowers on
the same trees. Pollen from the catkins or
male flowers is carried by the wind to the
female blossoms. Only almonds are insect
pollinated. Rains during the flowering
period wash the pollen from the air and
inhibit bee activity leading to only partial
crops developing.
Almonds and chestnuts are self-sterile
so cross pollination with another variety is
essential. Walnuts, pecans and filberts all
are at least partially self-fertile so they can
produce a crop on their own. However,
heavier and more consistent crops of larger
sized and better quality nuts will result
from cross-pollination. In some years or
with some varieties there is not always a
great enough overlap of flowering to enable
the setting of a full crop even where two or
more varieties are planted. Frost injury to
the flowers or developing young nuts can
also reduce yields in some years.
To improve cropping in the home
garden, especially on younger trees, it is
possible to assist natural pollination.
Catkins are collected from a pollinizer
variety when they are about to shed pollen.
They can be stored at 1 to 2 degrees C in
bags or boxes to prevent drying. When the
female flowers are mature, about 10 catkins
and a small weight are placed in a coarse
cheesecloth bag or nylon stocking. These
bags of catkins can be hung in a tree or if a
long string is attached they can be thrown
up into the upper parts of the tree and
secured by tying the strings to lower
branches.
Buying Planting Stock
Most nursery and garden centres
routinely stock walnuts and filberts while
pecans, chestnuts and heartnuts may only
be available on a special order basis.
19
Usually nut trees are sold in containers
or as “balled and burlaped” stock so that
they can be transplanted into the home
garden any time during the spring or
summer. Avoid planting in the autumn as
newly planted trees are more prone to
winter injury. When purchased in volume
for commercial or semi-commercial
plantings, bare-root trees are usually
bought directly from the propagators or
from wholesale nurserymen. Bare-root
trees must be purchased and transplanted in
the early spring, while still dormant.
Before purchasing determine whether the
tree is a named variety or a seedling and if
the tree is grafted or on its own roots. The
latter is especially important for filberts
that are to be grown as bushes or multiple
stem type trees. If the tree is not self-fertile
then a pollinator variety must either be
purchased or be in close proximity on an
adjacent property.
One year old trees are preferred as they
are usually cheaper to buy and they transplant
more readily. However, older trees
are quite acceptable for home garden
purposes.
Planting and Early Care
The greater the care given to trees during
planting and their first year the better the
results. As with any other tree, the hole
should be dug larger than what is actually
required. Topsoil, well rotted manure or
compost may be placed in the bottom of
the hole and incorporated with the soil.
While preparing the planting hole ensure
that the tree roots do not dry out. The tree
should be set at a depth close to that at
which it grew in the nursery. Cracked and
broken roots should be shortened to
remove the damaged areas. One or two
stakes can be driven into the ground so as
to miss all roots before the hole is filled
with soil. Place the best soil close to the
roots and work it in around them. When the
hole is half filled, tramp the soil to firm it
and add water before filling the hole to
ground level. Use the sub-soil to fill the
upper portion of the hole.

Immediately after planting, the tree
should be pruned back fairly heavily to
reduce the top growth and compensate for
root loss and damage that occurred in
transplanting. However, container grown
trees with a good undisturbed root system
need not be pruned back unless required to
shape the tree. Topping will encourage
unbranched one year old trees to branch
out in the area immediately below the cut.
The lowest side branches on large trees like
walnuts and chestnuts are normally about 1
to 1.5 metres in height while almonds and
trazels can be allowed to branch as low as
0.75 metres. Filberts may be shortened like
almonds if they are to be grown as single
stemmed trees. However, the preferred
method is to prune them less severely and
train them to a single stem until they begin
to crop. Subsequently, one or two
additional suckers can be retained each
year until a maximum of 10 to 12 stems
have developed.
Nut trees will grow poorly if they suffer
competition from grass and weeds during
their establishment years. The use of heavy
mulches of compost, grass clippings, old
mushroom compost or sawdust are recommended
as they will conserve moisture
while preventing weed growth. Once the
trees have a good root system established,
a lawn or closely mowed cover crop can be
allowed to develop. For ease of harvesting,
it is essential to keep the grass closely
mowed. If desired, herbicides such as
Casoron, simazine and paraquat can be
used at the rates and manner recommended
for apples. Information on
mulches, weed and other pest control are
given in the publication, “Pest Control for
the Home Garden”.
Irrigation
For nut trees of all kinds, adequate
moisture is essential in the first several
years when their root systems are becoming
established. Watering should be
frequent, sufficient to penetrate the depth
of the root system but should never over
saturate the soil.
20
Watering of older trees should be
adjusted to the type of soil. On sandy soils
watering should be frequent and only in
sufficient quantities to penetrate the root
zone. On soils with good moisture-holding
capacity the applications can be heavier
and less frequent. It is important to
remember that any moisture stress during
the growing season will result in poorly
filled nuts and reduced yields.
Nutrition
Nuts, like fruit trees, require appropriate
applications of manure and/or fertilizers in
order to produce a crop. Due to the wide
variety of soils and climates in British
Columbia it is difficult to make precise
recommendations for each kind of nut. The
best guide to fertilizer use is the tree itself.
Soil and leaf tissue analyses are used by
commercial producers but the practice is
not usually needed for hobby farmers or
gardeners. The following fertilizer
elements are required by nut trees:
Nitrogen – all kinds of nuts have high
nitrogen requirements. Trees that lack
nitrogen have short terminal growth and
pale green leaves. It can be supplied by
applications of manure or a nitrogen
fertilizer.
Phosphorous and Potash – many Interior
soils have adequate levels of these two
elements so it is not always necessary to
apply them to nut trees. However, most
coastal soils benefit from annual
applications of both phosphorous and
potassium fertilizers.
Calcium – in the wet coastal areas it is
necessary to broadcast lime over the soil
surface during the late winter or early
spring to replace the calcium leached
from the soil by the winter rains. A lack
of calcium will result in poorly developed
nut shells, poorly developed kernels and a
very acid soil. Interior soils seldom
require applications of lime.
Boron – in all regions boron deficiency
occurs commonly. It usually first
appears as a delayed leafing out of the
buds in the upper parts of the trees.

Later the leaves are very small and
lacking a healthy shiny appearance and
yields are reduced. Boron deficiency is
accentuated by dry soils. Dieback of the
terminal branches will occur with a
severe deficiency.
Magnesium – deficiency symptoms are
first observed late in the growing season
as light brown areas between the veins
and near the centres of the leaves. All
areas are subject to this deficiency
which can be controlled with foliar
sprays of epsom salts (magnesium
sulphate).
Zinc – deficiencies are most common on
alkaline soils in the interior valleys and
appear as crinkled, yellow-mottled
leaves. If the deficiency is more severe
the trees produce rosettes of small,
narrow leaves near the terminals.
Dieback can occur.
Manganese – usually only lacking in the
interior on soils laid down on old river
beds. A deficiency appears as mottled
yellow foliage.
Iron – like zinc, it is usually only deficient
in the interior on alkaline soils. If
deficient, the terminal leaves turn pale
green and yellow.
Rates of Application
and Procedures
A rough guide to nitrogen fertilizer use
for walnuts and chestnuts in the interior is
30 grams of 34-0-0 or ammonium nitrate
per centimeter of tree trunk diameter up to
15 cm and thereafter 80 g per cm to a
maxi-mum of 7 to 8 kilograms annually.
Filberts should receive proportionally less
as they are smaller trees – up to about 1.8
kg per mature tree. In coastal areas the use
of a complete fertilizer such as 4-10-10 or
6-8-6 is recommended.
The fertilizers should be applied in a ring
around the drip line of the tree. It may be
applied in late winter or early spring but
should never be applied during the summer
or autumn as it will delay hardening-off
and increase the risk of winter injury
21
Pruning
Except for the initial pruning to shape
the trees, they should receive only minimum
pruning to remove low or damaged
limbs. Walnuts are very prone to sap
bleeding if pruned in the early spring just
prior to leafing out. Bleeding can be minimized
by pruning when the trees are fully
dormant. However, no bleeding will occur
if pruning is carried out after the trees have
reached full leaf.
Filberts need light pruning to encourage
them to branch out evenly in the early
years as they have a tendency to be ‘vaseshaped’
and lopsided. After the original
trunk or stem has begun to produce a good
crop the trees can gradually be allowed to
produce additional stems as mentioned
previously. Once the original stem begins
to produce small clusters of nuts, it should
be sawn off at the ground level and a
sucker allowed to take its place. With this
renewal type pruning the above ground
portion of the tree remains young, vigorous
and productive.
Harvesting and Drying
All kinds of nuts should be harvested
promptly when mature to avoid
discolouration of the shells and meats.
Harvesting may sometimes be done in a
single operation after the nuts have fallen
or have been shaken from the tree.
Frequently the nuts must be gathered
several times as they fall. Frequently
gathering is the best way to prevent losses
to squirrels and birds. After nuts have been
gathered they must be suitably dried or
“cured”.
With Carpathian walnuts, filberts and
pecans the husks or hulls usually crack and
the nuts will fall free. If desired, the nuts
may then be washed to remove bits of the
husk and any mud. Most empty shelled
nuts will float and can be removed. To
remove any stains and reduce mold growth,
household bleach may be added to the final
rinse (15 ml or 1 tbsp/2 litres), but nuts
with shells that have cracked open should
not be given this treatment. After cleaning

the nuts should be dried as soon as possible
by spreading them out in shallow trays or
in any dry well-ventilated area. If artificial
heat is applied it should never exceed about
35 degrees C or the nuts will develop a
roasted taste.
When the kernels are fresh, they are
plump and crisp but as they dry they shrink
and become quite rubbery. When properly
dry and ready for storing, the kernels again
become crisp. Drying must continue until
the second stage or the nuts will mold.
Black walnuts, heartnuts and buartnuts
do not shed their hulls. The hulls may be
allowed to partially rot and then be
removed by hammer blows or by
trampling. After hulling they must be
washed and cured as for Carpathian
walnuts. A cement mixer serves well for
dehulling and washing nuts.
Butternuts can be cured in the hulls and
the hulls crumbled off before cracking.
Rubber gloves should be worn especially
for the hulling and cleaning operations of
all kinds of walnuts, otherwise the brown
“walnut stain” gets on the hands and it is
very difficult to remove.
Chestnuts need mush less curing than
other nuts because if too much water is
lost, the kernels become dry and inedible.
They should be cured for only four or five
days.
Storage
Walnuts, filberts, heartnuts, etc. can
usually be stored for at least one year in a
cool, dry location. Warm temperatures
cause the nuts to develop a rancid taste
while moist conditions can lead to the
development of molds. If long-term storage
is planned, the nuts can be cracked and the
kernels stored in airtight glass jars or
plastic bags.
Chestnuts must be stored in closed
containers or sealed plastic bags at
temperature between 0 and 5 degrees C.
22
Propagation
All kinds of nuts except almonds are
more difficult to propagate than most other
tree crops. Propagation is best assigned to
specialist growers and nurserymen, although
some home gardeners enjoy limited
success. The following is a brief
description of the more successful
procedures.
Nuts can be propagated from seed or by
various vegetative techniques. Seedlings of
all nuts except peanuts vary from one
another and from their parents. Some nut
varieties such as Broadview walnut tend to
produce satisfactory seedlings, but as with
all nut seedlings, they will differ from one
another such characters as productivity, nut
size, shell thickness, ease of kernel extraction
and flavor. Seedling trees are often
satisfactory for home garden use but never
would be acceptable for commercial
purposes.
The object of vegetative propagation is
to obtain new trees that are genetically
identical with the parent tree. Propagation
methods include grafting, budding,
layering and rooting of cuttings. Nut trees
are most commonly propagated by budding
or grafting the desired variety on a
rootstock that has been grown from seed.
While filberts may be propagated by
budding and grafting, layering is the
preferred method. Not only are layered
trees cheaper to produce, they are essential
if the trees are to be grown as multiple
stemmed trees. Suckers from the grafted
rootstock will not produce nuts which are
the same as the scion variety.
Walnut – Rootstocks can be grown from
seed, purchased from specialist growers or
may sometimes be found growing under
established trees. In some regions, the
preferred rootstock is black walnut. In
British Columbia seedlings of Broadview
or Manregian varieties have proved to be
suitable.

Seed can be sown at the autumn harvest
period, either in the ground at 7 cm depth
or in a box of moist peat that is maintained
at temperatures close to 0 degrees C for the
winter. Seeds are removed from the peat in
spring and sown in nursery rows. Rodents
and birds will remove nuts from the
ground. For protection, seeds sown
outdoors should be covered with wire
screen and each seedling in the nursery
rows should be protected with a metal
sleeve, such as a juice can with the ends
removed.
Seedlings are patch-budded in August
(Figure 15). The leaf attached to the bud is
retained and the budded area is wrapped
firmly but not too tightly with rubber
budding bands or polythene strips leaving
only the bud uncovered. A polythene bag
Figure 14: Greenwood or Patch budding or walnuts.
23
should be secured over the budded
seedling for about ten days to help the bud
“take”. Polythene stripping must be
removed after three to four weeks. The
rootstock should be pruned back to the
inserted bud early in the following spring.
Walnuts can also be grafted or budded
in spring, using scionwood cut late in the
dormant season from the bases of strong
one year shoots. The budwood should be
stored at 0 to 4 degrees C until grafting
season. This must be delayed until early
June because wound healing and
callousing of walnuts require higher
temperatures than those needed for other
crops. An alter-native is to bud or graft
potted trees in a warm greenhouse or some
type of growth chamber.

Grafting is usually by the modified cleft
graft technique (Figure 16). Great care
must be taken to fully cover the wound
with grafting wax. Sap flow from the cut
stems can be troublesome but can be
reduced by cutting back the rootstocks to a
few centimeters above the intended graft
cut ten days before grafting. An alternative
is to make several saw cuts at the base of
the stem ten days before grafting.
Butternuts, Heartnuts, Buartnuts – These
nuts are somewhat more difficult to bud
or graft than are Carpathian walnuts but
the methods are similar. Black walnut is
the rootstock usually used.
Chestnuts – Late spring grafting has been
more successful than summer budding.
Figure 15: Greenwood Modified cleft graft.
24
Splice grafting and whip grafting have
proved effective. Bleeding of sap is
seldom a problem. Heat requirements are
lower than for walnuts so chestnuts may
be grafted soon after bud break. Graft
take is most likely if the rootstock are
seedlings of the variety being topworked
on them.
Filberts – These nuts can be topworked by
whip and tongue, cleft, or side grafting.
Callus growth is unusually slow and
requires daytime temperatures over 20
degrees C. The timing for grafting is
similar to that for walnuts. If Turkish
Tree Hazel seedlings are used for
rootstock, they will produce a nonsuckering
tree form. For bush-type trees,
multiplication is more commonly by
layering. There are several variations of
the layering technique. For smaller

numbers, probably the simplest is tip
layering, as follows: in early spring, long
one-year-old shoots are buried 15 to 20
cm deep and each held in place with a
wire clip. The tip of the shoot is bent up
vertically to continue growing. Roots
form at the bend of the shoot. The rooted
layer can sometimes be detached and
DISEASE AND PESTS
Nuts have been relatively free from
disease and pest problems in British
Columbia so far. The following are among
those that may be encountered in some
seasons or in some regions of the province.
Control recommendations for these pests
and diseases are described in “Pest Control
for the Home Garden” under apples and
pears or under ornamentals. For more
extensive plantings suitable insect and mite
controls can be adapted from those
recommended for apples in the “Tree Fruit
Production Guide for Commercial
Growers”.
Walnuts
Codling Moth – Especially in southern
interior valleys where walnuts are
growing in orchard districts, codling
moth may sometimes become serious
enough to justify sprays. Eggs are laid in
the young nuts. In early season this can
result in destruction of the kernel. In
later season the damaged hulls cause
discoloration of shells.
Aphids – They feed on the underside of the
leaves especially at the growing tips of
branches. While the aphids are small and
inconspicuous, their presence becomes
apparent because the leaves become
covered with a sticky “honey dew”. In
heavy infestations the crop is reduced.
Frequently natural predators are able to
control outbreaks of aphids but
occasionally control sprays may be
required.
25
planted in the following spring but may
have to be left in place for two seasons.
Almonds – Almonds are propagated in the
same manner as peaches – by August
budding in the nursery. Rootstocks
commonly used are seedlings of almond
or peach.
Mites – European red and two-spotted
mites infest walnuts in most seasons in
the interior but are not usually a problem
in the coastal areas. Moderate
populations can be tolerated, especially
because there are natural predators that
usually prevent excessive population
increases. These predators are vulnerable
to sprays that may be applied. However,
sprays may be necessary if serious leaf
damage becomes evident.
Caterpillars – Several caterpillars attack
walnut foliage and sometimes the bud
clusters. The most common are several
kinds of leafrollers, which appear in
early spring and sometimes a second
generation in late June or early July.
Walnut Blight – Blight commonly causes
serious damage in the moister regions of
the province. Symptoms include reddishbrown
spots on the leaves, black spots on
twigs, blackening of newly opening buds
and slimy decay of nuts. Control requires
two to three sprays in the pre-bloom to
post-bloom period.
Filberts
Caterpillars – Several types of caterpillars
can attack filberts but on young trees
leafrollers are the most common. They
are usually only serious enough to
warrant control measures when attacking
young fast growing new plantings.

Aphids – Occasionally aphid populations
may build up to serious levels. As with
walnuts, they are often detected as a
result of the “honey dew” excreted by
the black sooty fungus that subsequently
grows on it. If population becomes
heavy, control sprays may be necessary.
Lecanium Scale – This pest can build up in
old poorly pruned trees. Natural predators
and regular pruning usually keep
them under control. Summer sprays as
recommended for fruit trees are effective
but dormant oil sprays are risky as the
catkins may be injured.
Eastern Filbert Blight – This disease has
not been seen in British Columbia
although it is present in Washington and
Oregon. First symptoms are darkening
and girdling of the bark on new shoots.
Later, conspicuous rows of pustules
break through the infected bark. If symptoms
of this disease are seen, contact
your local Ministry of Agriculture and
Food offices.
Chestnuts
Mites and Aphids – These are the only
commonly occurring pests.
Chestnut Blight – It is the most serious
disease on chestnuts in North America.
Although not yet reported in British
Columbia, it is slowly moving westward.
There are no effective controls for the
disease so all new plantings should be
made using the resistant Chinese
chestnut. Importation of susceptible
species is prohibited.
Almonds
Brown Rot – Almonds are a stone fruit
susceptible to the same diseases and
insects as peaches, cherries, plums and
apricots. Brown rot blossom blight is the
most serious disease requiring sprays
during the bloom period.
COMMERCIAL NUT GROWING
Filbert have been grown commercially in
the Fraser Valley and on Vancouver Island
for about 50 years. Expansion of plantings
in these areas is continuing and there
appears to be scope for plantings in the
Okanagan and Kootenays. However, it is
essential that suitable mechanical
harvesting equipment be available to
handle the crop. Hand raking and
gathering, as was formerly practiced, is
totally out of reason in today’s labor
market. Provisions must also be made for
washing, grading, drying and storage
facilities. Thus, in order to justify the
equipment and facilities any new groves
should be at least 10 and preferably 20
hectares in size.
A number of homeowners and hobby
farmers on Vancouver Island, in the Fraser
Valley and the Southern Interior have trees
which produce sufficient nuts to warrant
marketing them at the farm gate or through
other local outlets. The extent of this trade
is very difficult to assess but is not great.
No firm recommendations can be made
for extensive planting of filberts in other
26
regions of the province, or for commercial
growing of other kinds of nuts anywhere in
the province, until further research and
testing of varieties can be implemented.
Walnuts and chestnuts were once planted
commercially in the Fraser Valley but they
proved to be uneconomical under the
prevailing market and climatic conditions.
However, that does not prove that new
varieties and methods could not be
successful.
Extensive commercial plantings of nuts
can only be considered speculative or
experimental until the following conditions
have been met:
1) a suitable site is located
2) the most promising kinds and
varieties have been tested in the area
3) studies on the cost of production and
market opportunities have been
completed.
4) sufficient financing has been secured
to cover the development costs of the
grove, together with machinery and
processing facility costs.

A useful reference textbook for the
devoted nut hobbyist or others interested in
more detailed information on tree nuts is,
“Nut Tree Culture in North America,”
edited by Richard A. Jaynes, 1979.
Northern Nut Growers’ Association Inc.,
Broken Arrow Road, Hamden,
Connecticut, 06518, U.S.A.
A Factsheet,, “Peanuts for the Home
Garden” by J.W. Tanner and R.C. Roy is
available from Ontario Ministry of
Agriculture and Food – Order Number
78-034.
REFERENCES
Printed in Canada
Queen’s Printer for British Columbia
Victoria, 1965 ©
27
Information on other nut varieties is
available in the publication “Uncultivated
Nuts of the United States,” U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Agriculture Information bulletin No. 450,
1982.
All other references listed in the text are
publications of Province of British
Columbia, Ministry of Agriculture and
Food, Parliament Buildings, Victoria,
BC. V8W 2Z7 or from local offices of
the Ministry.