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on American and South Korean forces along the DMZ. On the other hand, according to Kim (2003), it is unclear whether the hard-line policy towards the US aimed to raise tension and start war or, as North Korea asserts, to meet the US hard-line policies towards the North and its war provocations. In the author’s view, both explanations could be valid, but it is extremely unlikely that either party aimed to launch a new war, although in the MAC the North had accused the South of war preparations altogether 24 times throughout the 1960s. Kim also notes that throughout 1968, incidents involving the intrusion of armed spies and clashes along the MDL were more frequent than in any other year. On 186 days, serious incidents took place mainly within the DMZ. The death toll was 145 South Korean soldiers, 18 American soldiers and 35 civilians. The numbers of wounded were 240, 54 and 16 respectively. In addition, 312 armed North Korean intruders were killed. 118 Negative peace reached a peak. Lee (2001b) records that between 1966 and 1968, North Korea launched armed attacks on UNC/South Korean guard posts in the DMZ on 244 occasions, causing the deaths of 260 South Korean soldiers, 34 US military personnel, 58 South Korean civilians and 549 North Korean infiltrators. The number of the wounded was 4<strong>09</strong> South Korean soldiers, 105 US military personnel and 69 South Korean civilians. Lee (2001a) points out that when major incidents were raised in the MAC between 1966 and 1969, more than 70 percent of the North Korean speeches consisted of political propaganda (cf. p. 96). According to Downs (1999), between January 1966 and De- 118_ Kim, op. cit., 2003, pp. 184, 191; Mobley, Flash Point North Korea: The Pueblo and EC-121 Crises (Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2003), cover, pp. 11-12. 144 Peace-keeping in the Korean Peninsula
cember 1969, 75 US and 299 South Korean military personnel, 80 South Korean civilians and 647 North Korean infiltrators were killed in North Korean actions directed against the South. In addition, 111 US and 550 South Korean military personnel as well as 91 South Korean civilians were wounded at a time when North Korea had waged armed attacks against American and South Korean forces in and near the DMZ on more than 280 occasions. In fact, Mobley writes that the years 1967-69 are sometimes called the “Second Korean War.” Downs explains the escalation of violent acts against the UNC and South Korea by North Korea by its realization in the mid-1960s that its efforts to foment revolution in South Korea and force a withdrawal of American forces had failed miserably. The timing of the violence concurred with rising US involvement in the Vietnam War. Notably, Lee (2004) argues that the main reason for North Korea’s failure to achieve national re-unification by taking over South Korea, either militarily or politically, was the presence of the American forces. 119 The far higher level of negative peace in the 1960s is indisputable. Along with the expression “Second Korean War,” such a situation gives credibility to the opinion that an invisible war took place in the Korean peninsula, as quoted in the Introduction. However, it is virtually impossible to determine whether Lee’s opinion is correct or not, but the American forces were a very important factor. On April 13, 1968, North Korea proposed to hold the 266th MAC meeting on April 17 but without providing any agenda. On April 119_ Downs, op. cit., pp. 117-119; Lee, op. cit., 2001(a), p. 153: op. cit., 2001(b), p. 101: op. cit., 2004, p. 60; Mobley, ibid., p. 8. Original quotation marks. For casualties from North Korean armistice violations, 1953-1991, see Appendix IX, pp. 682-3. Rising Tensions on the Korean Peninsula during the 1960s 145
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KINU Research Monograph 09-15 Peace
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Peace-keeping in the Korean Peninsu
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CONTENTS Acronyms Preface Acknowled
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CONTENTS 4.3 North-South Dialogue a
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CONTENTS Appendix ········
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Acronyms AA Armistice Agreement ASM
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Preface This monograph is the resea
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Acknowledgements Firstly, I wish to
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Chapter 1 Introduction
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(DMZ): “An invisible war now cont
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formation takes place nonviolently.
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the same criteria. The game theory
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News Agency, one article from a jou
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is the 1953 Armistice Agreement, wh
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1.6 Korean Names and Terminology Ko
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Chapter 2 The Foundation of the MAC
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pended, how the suspensions were en
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However, following strong pressure
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flag rank.” The other two “...
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secret designs or characteristics o
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hospital). To implement its tasks,
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cations themselves. In contrast, Sw
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as an “aide” and a soldier to c
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the way, reloading could freely be
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“Checks at the railway stations h
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the inspection teams did not work w
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fighter planes in transport contain
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Korea whether prisoners of war were
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armistice North Korea began to buil
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econnaissance flights by one airpla
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asserted that its investigation of
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On November 16, a North Korean comp
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taken photos. 41 The South admitted
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than at the plenary meetings. Howev
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ment rejected the proposal for pass
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the Korean issue should be transfer
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dispatched to investigate the incid
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At the 63rd MAC meeting proposed by
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Marshal General Headquarters. 52 Ar
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According to Weilenmann (2004), sin
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1953, was the first man to point ou
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Treaty that obligated the US to com
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were committed by North Korea and t
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without any harm to the armistice c
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ports of entry had reached a dead e
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earming South Korea in violation of
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the NNSC to work in North Korea and
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At the same time, the South Korean
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emaining teams became “subteams
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ment “... regulating the activiti
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violating Paragraph 13(d). The UNC/
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The UNC/MAC representative maintain
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Wigforss, pointed out the symbolic
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menting its provisions had become i
Page 111 and 112: to establish that the plane was arm
Page 113 and 114: The UNC informed the NNSC about its
Page 115 and 116: pointed out that the North abused t
Page 117 and 118: an informal meeting in the part of
Page 119 and 120: Swiss view was again that the issue
Page 121 and 122: alance. In a missive letter from th
Page 123 and 124: NNSC to reduce tension in the Far E
Page 125 and 126: Affairs that work was mainly routin
Page 127 and 128: 2.9 The Parties’ Views of the NNS
Page 129 and 130: were also invited to get some orien
Page 131 and 132: negative peace. The defection from
Page 133 and 134: existence of a neutral commission w
Page 135: the 1956-57 events a dissolution wa
Page 138 and 139: 3.1 Introduction As we saw in Chapt
Page 140 and 141: President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s
Page 142 and 143: Kim (2003) notes that since the sup
Page 144 and 145: The military build-up repeatedly ca
Page 146 and 147: illion in 1967. 106 This extraordin
Page 148 and 149: As in the late 1950s, the KPA/CPV u
Page 150 and 151: for about ten years but from the su
Page 152 and 153: When large-scale North Korean intru
Page 154 and 155: was foolish; the issue was an inter
Page 156 and 157: When the 227th meeting proposed by
Page 158 and 159: incidents had been fabricated by th
Page 160 and 161: data, that he was not a returning d
Page 164 and 165: 14, at about 11 P.M., shortly befor
Page 166 and 167: number of killed South Koreans fell
Page 168 and 169: woman who sold eggs in the village.
Page 170 and 171: October 21, 1966 armed ambush of a
Page 172 and 173: Before the UNC/MAC at the 289th mee
Page 174 and 175: harvest holiday) celebration. Accor
Page 176 and 177: demand was repeated at the followin
Page 178 and 179: As we have seen, in 1958 Joint Obse
Page 180 and 181: sequently removed the bodies from t
Page 182 and 183: to fish in territory that extended
Page 184 and 185: KPA/CPV convened on August 5, 1966,
Page 186 and 187: abductees were that North Korean au
Page 188 and 189: informed of the result when availab
Page 190 and 191: and kidnappings of fishermen had be
Page 192 and 193: was shot down close to the Swedish
Page 194 and 195: in the air. 143 At the 206th meetin
Page 196 and 197: North Korea over the East Sea 50 mi
Page 198 and 199: the words of Mobley (2003), a “ca
Page 200 and 201: outine training mission, with a cre
Page 202 and 203: lost and therefore flew into your t
Page 204 and 205: 3.6 The Work of the MAC and the NNS
Page 206 and 207: many armistice violations were comm
Page 208 and 209: His compatriot Chief of Staff, Majo
Page 210 and 211: een fighting an ideological war at
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parties, thereby easing tense relat
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among the armistice parties that th
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Nonetheless, the woodcutters report
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estimated its risks. His view is sh
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According to Downs (1999), on the a
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which had not suffered a seizure in
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aggressors.” The “South Korean
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etaliation. Considering the game th
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According to the Swedish NNSC Deleg
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Pak tried to draw out the complete
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North Korea without South Korea’s
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of the 661st Unit of the Korean Peo
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The general reiterated that the ass
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should refuse to abandon their pres
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discuss specific arrangements for t
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of 82 former crew members of the Pu
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Following the signing of the docume
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water zone claimed by North Korea a
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Offensive launched in late January,
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controversial at the top-political
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assassination attempt on President
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Chapter 4 North-South Dialogue and
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NNSC played during the crisis but i
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The October 9 incident was raised a
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side of it not had made a request.
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The outcome was two against and two
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ecorded in Chapter 2 of having an e
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On October 24, the NNSC had receive
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for the first time to acknowledge r
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was going on in Panmunjom.” He co
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South Korea that were a battle for
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Seoul by Yi Hu-rak, Head of the Kor
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egarded as a stronger indication of
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workers carrying out routine work f
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strengthened its war preparations b
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military exercises. The South denie
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y the KPA/CPV held on January 26, 1
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een brought into the JSA and reject
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command are responsible for enforci
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UNC control. North Korea asserted o
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that the UNC and South Korea should
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clumsy and collided with the North
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North Korea admitted that it had su
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none of the crew could be rescued.
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then requested identification but s
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y the UNC/MAC, repeated the “stri
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KPA/CPV Senior Member, Major Genera
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North Korea also proposed to hold t
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maintained quiet discipline, but th
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Assembly, Second Session, convened
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tree should be pruned. That the tre
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As a result of the axe murder, the
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latter’s request addressed to the
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On August 21, work to cut down the
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and made an important contribution
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prevent the provocation. Our side w
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on August 28, the US repeated its d
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Why did the axe murder take place?
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According to Downs (1999), Presiden
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Since on November 15, 1974 steam as
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North Korean defector Kim Pu-sông
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Korean War to protect them from Ame
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North Korea to destroy all tunnels,
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past 25 years had a restraining and
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quo formed a “positive symmetry
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Chapter 5 Continued Tension but Ren
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loped in 1984-85 when a dialogue wa
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areas from the rear of the northern
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in 1981 and accusations of war prep
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of Korea. At the 417th meeting call
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also been raised at two previous me
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secretary meeting held on March 23,
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ground forces which had crossed the
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vessel followed the boat that was e
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under UNC and South Korean control
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The UNC/MAC claimed that the men we
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photographical and physical evidenc
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The North regarded the intrusion on
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the US make this assessment plausib
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opportunity to introduce security-a
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the name of the North Korean Red Cr
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NNSC conference room, as were the f
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In 1987, North Korea forwarded to t
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Korea’s liberation from Japan in
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the UNC/MAC Senior Member called th
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counterpart to provide humanitarian
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6.1 Introduction Tension continued
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protest to the South Korean governm
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of terror by the amassing of armies
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and were authorized to have officia
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women were invited to Seoul to part
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6.3 Reactivation of Dialogue and th
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the military demarcation line speci
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1991 Joint Declaration. When in May
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eopening Team Spirit, deploying Pat
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February 1998 were working contacts
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According to Lee (2001b), if the ap
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had invited North Korea to observe
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According to Lee (2001a), since 195
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were informally invited to P’yôn
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Korean peninsula.” 307 In contras
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since November 1984 (cf. pp. 349-35
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the US in reality signed the Armist
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US participated in the war to help
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meeting requested by the North, had
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the new organization demonstrativel
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new peace regime. The UNC/MAC respo
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asked forgiveness for his “grave
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was regarded as a preparation for w
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Armistice Agreement in accordance w
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At the second round of talks reques
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ecurrence, punishment of those resp
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characterized not only the MAC secr
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claimed: “North Korea’s claim t
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6.6 North Korea Expels the Czech Re
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the NNSC expressed its unanimous op
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that it would withdraw on April 10.
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friendly gesture was later interpre
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On February 9, the Deputy Head of t
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On February 24, the South Korean Fo
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oth sides; North Korea’s unilater
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According to the Swedish officer Bo
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Lhotska (1997), for both Sweden and
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However, what Mueller-Lhotska (1997
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evidently with their own consent to
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incident “only serves to further
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As we have seen, North Korea had on
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northern side when they were appreh
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signed the 1994 Agreed Framework th
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Chapter 7 Expanding Relations but C
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with previous periods. The account
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835,838 cases, 832,260 of them on l
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settling serious incidents have hel
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Korean governments began in 1972 to
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from the UNC. The investigation of
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achieve improvements in contacts in
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Agreement should be the basis for o
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enforced. Ten paragraphs remained i
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was no demand for navigation in the
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epatriation of prisoners-of-war was
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were held because of the building o
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In September, four meetings were he
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In 2002 and 2003, joint exhumations
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firing by machine guns had taken pl
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“...to ensure an independent and
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Paengnyông only about 12 kilometre
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In February, Swedish and Swiss NNSC
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7.4 Expansion of Inter-Korean Excha
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Whether this is true or not, two ye
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General Thomas A. Schwartz, stated
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The two Koreas’ different positio
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with the US continue was published
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energy supplies and technical aid.
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335). While the sunshine policy was
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to Kaesông to take place on Decemb
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services from December 1 in protest
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ealize this.” 385 On March 2, the
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“The successful launch of the sat
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the Demilitarized Zone and to the l
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the DMZ and observing US-South Kore
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8.1 Contributions of the MAC and th
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enormous damage. Also, it is virtua
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peace-keeping took place in differe
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Otherwise, its mere presence has he
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will remain so until it is replaced
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progress in the military field in p
Page 548 and 549:
The axe murder is the only incident
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South Korea to the US. In the 1990s
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held in March 2009 is hard to asses
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Appendix Ⅰ Maps a) Map of the Kor
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) Map of the Joint Security Area be
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d) Buildings in the Joint Security
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Appendix Ⅱ Text of The Korean War
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Commission. Other personnel shall n
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(c) Cease the introduction into Kor
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prevent unnecessary delays, the use
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whom shall be appointed by the Comm
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33. The Joint Observer teams shall
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ment of its own as it may desire; p
Page 574 and 575:
Sinanju............................
Page 576 and 577:
hand them over to the Neutral Natio
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and shall visit the prisoner-of-war
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prisoners of war shall be delivered
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Article Ⅳ. Recommendations to the
Page 584 and 585:
Appendix Ⅲ To the Stationmaster o
Page 586 and 587:
August 8 At the ninth MAC meeting,
Page 588 and 589:
November 16 At the 89th MAC secreta
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April 15 The UNC Commander in a let
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December 1 North Korea suggests a m
Page 594 and 595:
August 6 At the 63rd MAC meeting, t
Page 596 and 597:
armbands. July 1 The UNC Headquarte
Page 598 and 599:
December 11 At the 90th MAC meeting
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March 3 At the 115th MAC meeting, t
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584 Peace-keeping in the Korean Pen
Page 604 and 605:
June 24 At the 142nd MAC meeting, t
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October 22-23 Premier Kim Il Sung p
Page 608 and 609:
August 19 At 186th MAC plenary meet
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September 30 The “Freedom House
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July 22 At the 227th MAC meeting, t
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Page 616 and 617:
Page 618 and 619:
March 22 North Korea reports that t
Page 620 and 621:
December 30 At the 283rd MAC meetin
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October 23 At the 296th MAC meeting
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1971-1980 North Korea commits altog
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1972 January 26 At the 327th MAC me
Page 628 and 629:
March 12 At the 337th MAC meeting,
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November- January 1974 612 Peace-ke
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Page 634 and 635:
March 21 Defectors Kim Pu-sông and
Page 636 and 637:
August 5 At the 378th MAC meeting,
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1978 The Swiss NNSC delegation is r
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North rejects the accusation. Augus
Page 642 and 643:
Page 644 and 645:
Page 646 and 647:
October 31 At the 422nd MAC plenary
Page 648 and 649:
Page 650 and 651:
April 3 At the 437th MAC meeting, t
Page 652 and 653:
Page 654 and 655:
1991-99 310 corpses of American sol
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December 1991. October 1 South Kore
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January 19 North Korea declares tha
Page 660 and 661:
April Both parties cease to supply
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December 1 South Korea acquires ope
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March 2 At the MAC secretary meetin
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November 14 At the MAC secretary me
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June 26 At the MAC secretary meetin
Page 670 and 671:
June 22 At the seventh round of Gen
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2001 Six UNC/MAC Secretariat-KPA Se
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December The US cuts off oil suppli
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February 25-28 The second round of
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November 7 At the NNSC consultation
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August 8 North Korea blames the US
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Appendix Ⅴ Violations claimed by
Page 684 and 685:
Appendix Ⅵ Types of Violations of
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e) 1990-1993 1990 1991 1992 1993 Ai
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c) 1970-1979 1970 1971 1972 1973 19
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Appendix Ⅷ Types of Issues raised
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1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
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1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966
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1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
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1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
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Appendix Ⅸ Casualties from North
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Appendix Ⅹ Number of Proposed MAC
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Appendix XI KPA/CPV Senior Members,
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No Name Rank Mandate Period Number
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Appendix XIV Heads of Polish Delega
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Appendix XV Heads of Swedish Delega
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Appendix XVI Heads of Swiss Delegat
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Appendix XVII(a) The Neutral Nation
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Bibliography Ahlgren, Kjell. “Ins
Page 719 and 720:
Commission in Panmunjom (Korea) 195
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[KINU], 2006, pp. 17-22. . “Puk h
Page 723 and 724:
Europa Publications. The Far East a
Page 725 and 726:
. Månadsrapport, mars 1975: Bilaga
Page 727 and 728:
Harrison, William. Military Armisti
Page 729 and 730:
. Slurapport: Bilaga: Generalmajor
Page 731 and 732:
June 16, 2003. Accessed December 13
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Edition (2004-2006).] Hapch’am ch
Page 735 and 736:
Means of Firing Power.”] In Kim,
Page 737 and 738:
. “DMZ-nôn ôptta.” [“There
Page 739 and 740:
day. Lerner, Mitchell B. The Pueblo
Page 741 and 742:
Machiavelli, Nicoló. The Prince. C
Page 743 and 744:
Norlin, Per. “Lugnt hos svenskar
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[Ministry of Foreign Affairs.] Prom
Page 747 and 748:
Swedish Group NNSC. Slutrapport H:1
Page 749 and 750:
. “MAC Meet: UNC Hits Dispatching
Page 751 and 752:
Werner, Finn. Månadsrapport januar
Page 753 and 754:
Agreed Framework / 384-5, 452, 499,
Page 755 and 756:
408-409, 431, 456, 472, 522 Chinese
Page 757 and 758:
in, 240, 249-250, 297 Julin, Sven /
Page 759 and 760:
peace, 42, 186, 234, 258-9, 322-3,
Page 761 and 762:
North Korea / 2, 3, 16, 17, 18, 19,
Page 763 and 764:
P’yôngyang / 25, 89, 102, 111, 1
Page 765 and 766:
Ulchin-Samch’ôk area/incident /
Page 768:
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