European Journal of Scientific Research (ISSN: 1450 ... - EuroJournals

© European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol 7, No 5, 2005 

European Journal of Scientific Research 

(ISSN: 1450-216X) 

Vol. 7, No: 5 

July, 2005 

1


© AMS Publishing, Inc. 2005 

Editor-In-Chief & Managing Editor: Adrian Marcus Steinberg, PhD 

Publisher: Lulu Press, Inc. Morrisville, USA



European Journal of Scientific Research is an international official journal of the AMS 

Publishing, Inc. (Austria) publishing high quality research papers, reviews, and short 

communications in the fields of biology, chemistry, physics, environmental sciences, business 

and economics, finance, mathematics and statistics, geology, engineering, computer science, 

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articles of high academic caliber. 

Editorial Board 

Prof. Adrian M. Steinberg Wissenschaftlicher Forscher, Austria 

Dr. Parag Garhyan Auburn University, USA 

Prof. Morteza Shahbazi Edinburgh University, UK 

Prof. Raj Rajagopalan National University of Singapore 

Prof. Sang-Eon Park Inha University, Korea 

Dr. Said Elnashaie Auburn University, USA 

Dr. Subrata Chowdhury University of Rhode Island, USA 

Dr. Raj Rajagopalan National University of Singapore, Singapore 

Prof. Ghasem-Ali Omrani Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran 

Prof Ajay K. Ray National University of Singapore, Singapore 

Dr. Mutwakil Nafi China University of Geosciences, China 

Prof. Abdel Rahman Al Tawaha McGill University, Canada 

Mr. Mete Feridun Cyprus International University, Cyprus 

Prof. Bansi Sawhney University of Baltimore, USA 

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Vol. 7, No: 5 

CONTENTS 

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CUTTING PRESSURES, DENSITY AND SURFACE 

QUALITIES OF SOME WOOD CONTAINING COMPOSITES 

A. ZERIZER, P. MARTIN 

PIXE MICROANALYSIS OF MUSCOVITE SAMPLES FROM TOURMALINE BEARING 

GRANITE PEGMATITES OF SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA 

O. A. IGE, S.O.OLABANJI, D. CECCATOB 

A COMPARATIVE APPROACH TO SECURITY: THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE 

GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL 

MAZEN K. GHARAIBEH 

VISUAL OUTCOME OF TRAUMATIC CATARACTS 

CO BEKIBELE, O FASINA 

COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF α-TOCOPHEROL AND γ-TOCOTRIENOL ON LIPID 

PEROXIDATION STATUS IN HEP G2 CELL LINE TRANSFECTED WITH CYP2E1 GENE 

SUZANA MAKPOL, SUHANA MAMAT, ZALINAH AHMAD, GAPOR MD. TOPB, AND WAN 

ZURINAH WAN NGAH 

TOTAL QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION: THE CASE OF CYPRUS 

BILGE ONEY 

SPATIAL/TEMPORAL MODEL FOR SURVIVABILITY OF PEA LEAFMINER 

(LIRIOMYZA HUIDOBRENSIS) IN WARM CLIMATES: A CASE STUDY IN SOUTH 

FLORIDA, USA 

KATHERINE MILLA, STUART REITZ 

FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERN AND HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY IN TWO 

COMMUNITIES IN IBADAN, OYO STATE. NIGERIA 

SANUSI RA, MANYONG VM, AKINYELE IO, BAMIRE ASA, OGINNI AB


CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CUTTING PRESSURES, DENSITY AND SURFACE 

QUALITIES OF SOME WOOD CONTAINING COMPOSITES 

A. Zerizer 1 , P. Martin 2 

1 

Laboratoire des Matériaux minéraux et composites, Département de Génie des Matériaux, 

Université A. BOUGARA, Tel-Fax 024-81-64-08, 35000 BOUMERDES, ALGERIE 

2 Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers, 4 rue Augustin Fresnel-METZ, Tel 03-87-37-54- 

30, Fax 03-87-37-54-70, 57078 METZ, France 

ABSTRACT 

Various samples of wood containing composites have been studied as to their behaviour to 

machining, of the quality of produced surfaces and their densitometric characteristics. It has been 

brought to the influence of the density and the cutting conditions through Em (average thickness 

of the chip) of these panels on the powers and cutting pressures, but also the connection of these 

efforts with the variation of the roughness of surface of area machined, represented by the 

average deviation Ra which takes account of the arithmetic mean of the roughnesses detected 

along a measured profile. 

Keywords: Machining. Roughness. Wood Composites. Density. Efforts of cut. Power of cut. 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Work undertaken called upon two techniques of studies of the properties of the composites, one 

mechanical, of simulation of milling (toupillage) and measurement of physical surface quality, 

the other of analysis of the density of the panels. 

The composites tested are: 

Medium: panels fibres 16 mm (MDF 16) 

Novoplac: panels particles 16 mm (16 1N P2) 

Barapan: panels particles 16 mm (16 2n L2) 

Novoplac: panels particles 16 mm codes P (16 3n P2) 

Novoplac: panels particles 14 mm (14 3c P2) 

Triply OSB: panels CH particles 10 mm code NP (CH 10NP). 

The main part of the results was given to us by these two methods used concurently, and we 

calculated the correlations between the sets of data of the one and the other method. The 

examined samples can only be of small dimensions (16 mm, 30 mm, 130 mm). 

This is why, this phase is called simulation of machining. 

5


2 . METHOD ANS MEANS 

2.1 Simulation of machining 

This part of the study was made on the bench of machining developed in the laboratory of 

machining of the E.N.S.T.I.B. (University of NANCY). 

Fig. 1 Devices for capturing cutting forces 

This device, not only simulates on samples of reduced size of milling operations (toupillage), but 

still makes it possible to measure and record powers and efforts caused by the tool on the samples 

tested. 

This device of milling can be regulated to simulate various conditions : types of tools, depth of 

cut, speed of transport, rotational frequency... and to determine the best adjustments to adopt. The 

samples (a total of 54 test-tubes were selected) having to be used for the tests were drawn from 

the panels quoted as a preliminary and machined with a carbide-tipped tool with a diameter 170 

mm for a rotational frequency of 6000 rpm for respective combinations speed of transport (17, 20 

and 23 m/mn) and depths of cut (2, 2.5 and 3 mm). 

2.2 MATERIAL OF MEASUREMENT 

2.2.1 Turntable of measurement 

The efforts following the three directions will be measured using a dynamometer of the type 

Kistler 9257A principle of which is based on the physical properties of pièzo-electric materials 

(surfaces of certain crystals are charged electrically when the crystal is subjected to mechanical 

activities work. The platform is designed for the measurement of the forces according to three 

components (X, Y, Z). All channels X, Y, Z are connected respectively in parallel and 

measurement is independent of the point of the application force.


2.2.2 Amplifiers 

The purpose of these apparatuses are to convert the electric charge delivered by the turntable into 

an electric tension proportional by taking account of the sensitivity of the sensor (N/V), justifying 

the choice of the range of measurement. 

2.2.3 The conversion chart PA300 

During the measurements, the amplifiers deliver an analogical signal. To be treated, then 

recorded, this signal will be sampled at an Eigen frequency insufficiently high and equal to 35 

KHZ on each way. 

Figure 1: Acquisition of the signal 

This chart is equipped with a connector for 62 poles to be directly inserted in a slot of the 

microcomputer. 

2.2.4 Reading of measurements 

The Reading of measurements was possible following a writing of a program facilitating the 

introduction of the following data : range used on amplifier charge, the depth of cut, length of 

the workpiece, width of the test-tube (thickness of the panels), type of tool used, rotational 

frequency of the tree, direction of cut, way of measurement (Fy in our case) opposed to the 

advancing movement of the sample. After each test of workability, the graphic visualization gives 

us the value of the average cutting pressure, the time of measurement, the number of peaks 

(figure 2). 

7


Figure 2: screen printing of a cutting pressure raised following Y and the direction of machining 

2.3 MEASURE DENSITY 

The density is a determining factor of the aptitude of wood for the cutting pressure and 

machining. A calculation of density and moisture was carried out and this in order to know the 

physical values distending the statement of the efforts of elbow. Table 1. 

Designation Average density Average moisture 

143CNF 0,695 8,98 

16 3N P2 0,577 8,61 

16 1N P2 0,661 8,32 

CH 10 NP 0,709 8,00 

MDF 16 0,711 7,57 

16 2N P2 0,716 8,27 

The presence of a profile of density within the various panels is an important parameter of 

heterogeneity which could influence the connections cutting pressures, density and surface 

qualities. 

2.4 MEASURE SURFACE QUALITIES 

2.4.1 Experimental procedure 

The control and the qualification of the surface quality become more and more a criterion of 

workability, thanks in particular, to the technological progress made in the field of the design of 

new machines to the advanced techniques of machining. 

According to [ 6 ], a part never corresponds exactly to the drawing which was used to define the 

geometrical form, even if it remains inside the geometrical tolerances imposed, it has defects of 

which it is advisable to limit the sizes. 

With regard to our step, the principal goal being to establish a relation between the parameters of


cut selected and surface qualities resulting from the profilometry and whose principle is described 

below : 

The samples are fixed on the mobile table XY whose displacement allows the statement of the 

work of palpation of the mechanical feeler whose ray of point is of 10mm. This latter follows a 

straight line on the surface of the area of the panel while following the irregularities of machined 

surface. The displacements are transmitted to a sensor and the variations detected by the stylus 

(depressions and peaks) are transcribed, enlarged on a graph. Table XY represents two 

displacements : one, in the direction of the statement of the profile and the other in a direction 

perpendicular to the first. The analysis of a profile raises indeed, by its very principle, a certain 

number of question : is this profile characteristic to the whole of surface ? 

2.4.2 Material of measurement 

The installation of the slotted measuring section of surface quality is as follows : 

- A microcomputer 

- A table with cross movements XY 

- A roughometer perthometer PRK 

- Electronics of order 

- Support of table and roughometer 

The displacements of the feeler whose exploring needle follows a profile to be studied, produce 

variations of tension being able to be simplified and recorded. 

The choice of the directions of measurement is dominating and the results which stem from the 

study of the profiles can give only one partial vision of the real state of the surface. 

3. RESULTS 

The results obtained, were sufficiently significant so that this type of study could be applied all 

the panels. Thanks to a software of statistics treatment of data " statitcf ", we sought the existing 

correlations between the cutting pressures, surface qualities and the variables of action : 

parameters of cut and density. We present hereafter the statement of the various curves whose 

comment will be developed a little further. 

Figure 3: influence Em on the cutting pressure and the average arithmetic variation. 

9


Figure 4: influence density on the average arithmetic variation and cutting pressure. 

Figure 5: influence average arithmetic variation on the cutting pressure. 

COMMENTS 

The weak correlation enters the average effort and the studied factors: average thickness of the 

chip and density (figures 3, 4, 5) is due to the preponderance of the heterogeneity of the panels 

compared to the constitution and density of the panels : the size of cut particles and their 

involuntary separation resulting from the vibrations during the transport of the cake during the 

composition of the panel. 

The profile of density not being symetrical on all the thickness of the panel involves during the 

machining variable cutting pressures, which explains the weak correlations resulting from the 

study. The influence of the effort compared to the average thickness of the chip is due to the 

weak range depths of cut used. This is why, it would be interesting for the rest of this work to 

extend the values by taking different cuts in order to better explain these parameters. As for the 

power, we will say that the force and the power of the tool during the work of removal of the chip 

are obviouly correlated. The variations of the results are explained by the vibrations produced at 

the time of the hold of the chip to which are added those generated by the mechanisms of the 

machine (figure 2) and the heterogeneity of material.


4. CONCLUSION 

In spite of the many difficulties which appeared during the study, and which prevented us from 

carrying out all planned measurements, it seems well that the results obtained are very 

encouraging. 

The variations of the density as well as the parameters of cut such as the speeds of transport, the 

depth of cut and the rotational frequency represented through Em (average thickness of the chip) 

play an important explanatory part as regards the quality of machining. 

Following this research, we can the necessity to use raw material the least heterogeneous 

possible, stress thus to favor the practices allowing to achieve this goal. The density has an action 

more marked on the efforts and the panels in terms of quality remain dependent on their 

composition, their hydroscopic balance and their stability. This is why, it would have been 

interesting to know the initial conditions of manufacture as well as possible facilitating at best the 

specific studies on workability. These studies constitute a necessary starting point for the 

identification of the best parameters of cut and the determination of the area of good functioning 

(concept of the couple tool matter) [ 9, 10 ]. 

11

5. REFERENCES 


[1] Zerizer A. , "Etude des efforts de coupe et de l'état de surface en toupillage", DEA Sciences 

du bois, LACN, Université de Nancy I, 1988. 

[2] Duong L., Saison R., "Travail mécanique du bois", Techniques de l'ingénieur. 

[3] Frantz F.C., "An analysis of wood cutting process", PHD Thesis, University of Michigan 

press an arbor, 1958. 

[4] Lambert P., "Réalisation d'un système de mesure d'état de surface pour le matériau bois", 

DEA Génie électrique, LACN, Université de Nancy I, 1985. 

[5] Movassaghi E., "Influence des paramètres microdensitométriques du bois sur les efforts de 

coupe et la qualité des placages de Douglas et Châtaignier obtenus par déroulage", Thèse de 

Doctorat Ingénieur, USTL Montpellier, 1985. 

[6] Weil R., "Techniques d'usinage", Editions Dunod. 

[7] Thomas C.E., "Etude bibliographique des facteurs influençant les efforts de coupe dans 

l'usinage du matériau bois", DEA Sciences du bois, LACN, Université de Nancy I, 1984. 

[8] Zerizer A., "Contribution à l'étude de l'usinabilité du MDF (Medium Density Fiberboard)", 

Thèse de Doctorat de l'université de Nancy I en Sciences du bois, 177p, 1991. 

[9] Aguilera A., "Optimisation des conditions de coupe pour l'usinage du bois. Application de la 

méthode du couple outil matière au défonçage des panneaux de fibres de densité moyenne", Ph.D 

Thesis in wood science, University de Nancy I, France, 2000. 

[10] AFNOR, "Domaine de fonctionnement des outils coupants. Couple Outil Matière. Partie 6 : 

mode d'obtention du couple Outil Matière en fraisage. Indice de classement NFE-520-6, 1995.


PIXE MICROANALYSIS OF MUSCOVITE SAMPLES FROM TOURMALINE 

BEARING GRANITE PEGMATITES OF SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA 

O. A. Ige a , S.O.Olabanji b , D. Ceccatob c 

a 

Natural History Museum, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

b 

National Institute for Nuclear Physics (INFN), National Laboratories of Legnaro (LNL), Viale 

dell’Università 2, 35020 Legnaro Padua, Italy. 

c 

ICTP – TRIL fellow on sabbatical leave from Centre for Energy Research and Development 

(CERD), Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. 

ABSTRACT 

Nearly pure muscovite samples from pegmatite bodies within two different geological 

environments have been characterised using an accelerator-based analytical technique of PIXE 

and Electronprobe microanalyser, in order to determine their major, minor and trace elements 

composition and possible industrial application. 17 elements were measured and result shows that 

the muscovites from the two localities are generally similar in composition with extensive 

substitution in the K and Al sites. Trace element differences such as Au are interpreted as 

reflecting the geological environments. 

Key words: Muscovites, PIXE, microprobe,trace element. 

INTRODUCTION 

The analysis of trace elements in industrial minerals holds the key to understanding ore metal 

pathways and ore formation processes. Proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) analysis and the 

Electron microprobe provide direct non-destructive methods for the determination of the 

composition of these trace elements with detection limits down to 20 ppm. Muscovite 

(Al1.788KMg.64O12Si3.572), often called white mica, is a rock-forming mineral that has a 

layered structure of sheets of aluminum silicate weakly bonded together by layers of potassium 

ions. Due to its perfect cleavage, elasticity, and low thermal conductivity, muscovite is often used 

for electrical and thermal insulation applications and also as a lubricant. Finely ground muscovite 

is sometimes used to make special surfaces in prints and paintings. It was also used in this 

fashion as furnace doors, but its use in this capacity is not as common today because of modern 

technology alternatives. 

Muscovite is a common mineral found all over the world, however most locations do not produce 

a high yield product. The largest and most important deposits of muscovite are found in the CIS, 

Pakistan, India, and Brazil. The United States produces only a small amount of high yield sheet 

13


mica, however, the United States leads the world in the production of scrap mica. High quality 

muscovite is characteristic of granite and granite pegmatites, associated with quartz and 

feldspars. The micas are often found in large crystal aggregates called books, which can be 

many feet in length. The low yield product that is in major production in the United States is 

used extensively in heat and electrical insulators. 

In recent times in Nigeria, there has been increasing exploration and exploitation of local raw 

material for industries in order to save foreign exchange and to ensure rapid industrialization. 

High quality muscovites occur in the granite pegmatite complex of Nigeria which occurs as a belt 

that extends from southwestern Nigeria to central Nigeria and covers a distance of over 

250kilometers. The pegmatites form isolated outcrops in the generally resistant granite gneiss 

complex that form the country rocks. The hosting pegmatites may be tabular, lensoidal or 

irregularly shaped generally trending N-S of the enclosing granitic country rocks. Both 

pegmatites and host granites are mineralogically similar. The muscovite deposits occur as pockets 

discontinuously along this belt. In some places however extensive and minable deposits are 

found. 

The samples which are the subject of this study were taken from deposits in Ijero-Ekiti and Ile-Ife 

southwestern Nigeria. The muscovites usually occur as sheets in the core and intermediate zones 

of the pegmatites and are oriented roughly perpendicularly to the borders, suggesting growth into 

the open space. 

Samples Ije – mc 1-2 series from Ijero are grayish, almost white muscovites associated with a 

quartz tourmaline pegmatite in Ijero. The Ijero pegmatite is a quartz-alkali feldspars-muscovite 

body with primary cassiterite, beryl and tourmaline in subordinate proportions. It is located in an 

extensively pegmatized belt in the migmatiitic gneisses of the basement complex outcropping 

about 2 kilometres northwest of Ijero, southwestern Nigeria on longitude 50 5’E and latitude 7 0 

50’N. Almandite is well developed in both the pegmatized belt and the surrounding gneisses. 

Economically, the pegmatite has yielded moderate amount of tin. 

Samples Ife - mc 3-5 series are whitish to brownish muscovites from a quarry along Ife-Ondo 

road. The host rock is a quartz potassium and biotite bearing granite pegmatite with subordinate 

tourmaline crystals. The pegmatite body occupies the middle portion of a 10 meter vertical face 

in the quarry and trends approximately in a north-south direction. It has an average width of


about 1.8meters and cuts obliquely across the lineation trends in surrounding amphibolites. 

There has been studies on muscovite as accessory (minute crystals associate minerals) in rocks 

[1,2] but there has been no attempt at analyzing the muscovite books for industrial uses. In both 

locations the muscovites are associated with tourmaline and electron microprobe analysis of the 

tourmalines indicate that their compositions fall within the dravite-schorl solid solution series 

defined by the substitution Mg and �Fe at the Y-site [3]. This paper is an attempt to evaluate the 

quality of the muscovite and should serve as a guide to exploration for more raw materials critical 

for the industrial take-off of a developing economy. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

Several samples of muscovite have been chosen from these two pegmatite bodies. These samples 

are parts of the study collection of the Natural History Museum, Obafemi Awolowo University, 

Ile-Ife Nigeria. The major elements were measured using an using a CAMECA SX 50 

electronprobe microanalyser and the mineralogical purity has been established using a Philip 

characterized X-ray diffractometer (Ige personal comm.). Five representative samples from the 

two pegmatite bodies were selected for PIXE measurement. Three specimens, about 13 mm by 

13 mm in size each were taken from each of the five representative muscovite samples and 

coated with 5 µg/cm2 to ensure good electrical contact. The coated samples were then mounted 

on the wheel for the target sample holders inside the scattering chamber. For the quality control, 

the geological standard reference materials GA, DVG and the IAEA SOIL-7 were used. About 

350 mg of each of the geological standards were taken and pelletized using the 15 ton Perkins 

Elmer pellet machine with a 13 mm die. The pellets were also coated with 5µg/cm2 carbon for 

the same purpose and mounted on the same wheel for sample holders together with the coated 

muscovite samples inside the scattering chamber. 

The muscovite samples coated with thin carbon layers and the coated geological standards were 

bombarded with a 1.8 MeV collimated proton beam of diameter 6mm from the 2.5 MV AN – 

2000 Van de Graaff accelerator at the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Laboratori 

Nazionali di Legnaro (LNL), Legnaro (Padova), Italy. A good vacuum of about 4 x 10-6 torr was 

maintained in the scattering chamber during measurements. The emitted X-rays were detected 

using a 80 mm2 X-ray Si (Li) detector with energy resolution of 160 eV at 5.9 keV. A PC 

15


controlled MCA coupled with a standard electronic chain was used for the data acquisition and 

the storage of the energy spectra. The other details of the experimental set up for routine PIXE 

analysis at this laboratory have been reported [4,5]. For the analysis, the recent approach of 

Balzan et al [6] was adopted where every sample was bombarded twice for the lower and higher 

energy sections of the spectrum without damaging the samples. An 80 µm thick aluminum 

absorber was placed in front of the Si (Li) detector to remove X-rays with low energies, thereby 

enhancing the sensitivity of the heavy elements. The beam currents of between 70 and 100 nA 

were conveniently used here without any negative effects on the performance of the detector due 

to high counting rates. This produced the high energy part of the spectrum. Similarly, for the low 

energy section of the spectrum, a 250 um thick Mylar funny filter with 3.3 % hole was used. Here 

the beam currents of 5 to 20 nA were used, and the dead time was generally below 10%. The 

stored X-ray energy spectra were later analyzed using the computer code GUPIX [7] leading to 

elemental concentrations of the muscovites. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The major element data and trace element data on the muscovites are presented in Tables 1 and 2. 

The results of PIXE analysis of the samples together with their corresponding standard deviations 

are presented in Table 2. Our results were in very good agreement with the certified values of the 

geological standards and hence establish the reliability of the data. Electronprobe data ( Ige 

unpublished Table 1) shows that the investigated white micas are phengites to nearly pure 

muscovites with compositions as shown by the following contents (in atoms per formula unit) Si 

= 6.15 - 6.18; Ti = 0.004 - 0.09; Al tot = 5.29 - 5.44; Fe tot =0.31 – 0. 32; Mg = 0.12 - 0.13, Na= 

0.25-0.32, whilst K= 1.44-1.61. The approximate muscovite calculated formula (Al1.9 K0.8 

Fe0.15Mg0.1 O12 Si3.1) and conforms with muscovites used as electrical insulator [7, 8]. 

The PIXE data on trace elements shows that concentration of elements are variable even within 

samples. K contents vary between 1.6 and 6.3% Ca content ranges between 97 and 510 ppm 

whilst V value ranges between 8 and 22ppm. Ti concentration ranges between 15 and 82ppm 

whilst V value generally ranges between 13 and 23 ppm. Mn ranges between 185 and 636 ppm 

with majority of the data falling in the 280 and 350 range. The Fe contents range between 0.78 

and 1.05%. More than half of the samples showed the concentration of cobalt between 18 and 26


ppm, three of the samples have the cobalt contents to be 59, 226 and 417 ppm respectively while 

the rest are below the detection limit. Cu values are generally less than 10ppm except two 

samples that contain 29 and 84ppm. The Zinc values are also variable ranging between 379 and 

1690ppm. Ga content is similar in samples from the two locations with majority falling in the 

range 169-186 except four samples containing 136,137,153 and 233ppm.Rubidium values are 

quite high but generally within 3000 and 5000ppm range. Sr values are generally low with 

majority of the samples below detection limit. Other trace elements such as Nb (113 - 237 ppm) 

and Sn (250 – 736 ppm) show unsystematic variation even within samples. Yb and W were 

detected in only two samples having 68 and134ppm and 29 and 72ppm respectively. A 

significant feature of the muscovite from Ife is the presence of gold in ppm range( 21-36 ppm). 

The Ife pegmatites intrudes the greenstones (amphibolite) which has been suggested as the 

ultimate source of the placer gold in this area. The data may suggest that trace element data on 

muscovites may be used as tracer for gold prospecting. This is however tentative as more work is 

necessary to ascertain the importance of this data. 

CONCLUSIONS 

PIXE analysis provides the non-destructive qualitative and quantitative data in the industrial 

mineral, muscovites, from the Ife and Ijero areas of the South Western Nigeria. The elemental 

composition in the muscovite samples allows the better evaluation of an industrial potentials of 

the mineral. The trace elements are from muscovites are generally similar. However, the two 

series of samples can be distinguished on the basis of Au contents. This result probably suggests 

that muscovite from different geological environments can be distinguished on the basis of trace 

element composition e.g. Au. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors acknowledge the support of AS-ICTP programme for training and research in Italian 

laboratories (TRIL), Trieste, Italy and Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The 

assistance of Mr. M. Loriggiola and Mr. G. Manente in sample preparation is highly appreciated. 

We are also grateful to the Director of the Natural History Museum Ife for permission to publish 

the data. 

17

REFERENCES 


[1] A.A Kayode, Quartz-sillimanite Nodules from Ijero-Ekiti cassiterite-bearing pegmatite J. 

Mining and Geology, 7 (1972)13. 

[2]. O. A. Ige and M.B Holness Paragenesis, conditions and timing of the metamorphism of the 

metapelitic rocks in the Ilesha Schist Belt, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geol.38 

( 2003)71 

[3] S.O. Olabanji, A. O. Ige, Claudio Mazzoli, Daniele Ceccato, J. A. Akintunde, Maria C. 

Buoso(g), Mario De Poli(h), Giuliano Moschini 2004. ECAART 8, PARIS 2004. Nucl. Instr. and 

Meth.B (in press). 

[4] S.O. Olabanji, O.V. Makanju, A.M.I. Haque, M.C. Buoso, D. Ceccato, R. Cherubini, Nucl. 

Instr. and Meth. B 109 -110 (1996) 258. 

[5] S.O. Olabanji, O.V. Makanju, D. Ceccato, M.C. Buoso, A.M. I. Haque, R. Cherubuni, G. 

Moschini Biological Trace Element Research 58 (1997) 223 – 236. 

[6] S. Balzan, M.C. Buoso, D. Ceccato, M. De Poli, V. Giaccone, G. Moschini, E. Novelli, S. O. 

Olabanji, P. Passi, V. Tepedino, Nucl. Instr. and Mth. B 219-220 (2004) 72-76. 

[7] J.A. Maxwell, W.J. Teesdale, J.L. Campbell, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B 95 (1995) 407. 

[8] C. Klein, and C. Hurlbut, Jr., (1993). Manual of Mineralogy N.Y. John Wiley and Sons 

(1993) 10. 

[9] Carr D.D (ed.) 1994 Industrial minerals and rocks 6th Edition. Society for Mining, and 

Metallurgy and Exploration( Inc.) pp1214


19


A COMPARATIVE APPROACH TO SECURITY: THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE 

GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL 

Mazen K. Gharaibeh 

Department of Political Science 

Kuwait University 

ABSTRACT 

This paper provides a comparative analysis of the European Union (EU) and the Gulf 

Cooperation Council (GCC). It compares and contrasts the history, development, organizational 

structure, function, successes and failures. Basis of similarities include and attempt to secure 

political and defense cooperation through economic integration, while differences include 

profound contrasts in members' structure, organizational designs as well as political and social 

traditions. 

Key Words: EU, GCC, Integration, Functionalism. 

INTRODUCTION 

Scholars consider integration as a successful approach to security and peace. One can't but be 

inspired with the European Union's (ED) multicultural integration transcending to the economy, 

politics, industry, citizens rights and foreign policy. Four decades after six Western European 

states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) Signed the 

Treaty of Rome and thereby created the EEC. (European Economic Community) or common 

Market, the much expanded group of nations (now 25) and known as the European Union (EU) 

have nearly completed their goal of economic, political, and social integration and has become 

the model for regional integration schemes (Caporaso, 1996). Nations around the world have 

looked to the EU as a model in formulating their own free trade areas, customs unions, common 

defense policies, and programs for regional integration. 

On the other hand, one tan observe another important, yet modest, attempt for integration 

presented by the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) with its six states calling for coordination and 

cooperation in various fields. In 1981, when the six nations in the Arabian Gulf - Bahrain, 

Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) - came together to 

form the Gulf Cooperation Council, they too, acknowledged inspiration from the experience of 

the European Community (Sandwick, 1987). And while the GCC, which is intended to be of 

much more limited scope than the EU, has encountered its own problems and barriers in pursuing 

its integration and cooperation program (e.g., territorial disputes amongst the members, domestic 

unrest, security threats, political conflicts in establishing a common defense strategy, etc.), 

scholars have nevertheless lauded the accomplishments of the GCC so far (Baabood, 2003). As 

John Duke Anthony, former President and CEO of the National Council on U. S. - Arab 

Relations noted a few years ago: 

It is widely acknowledged that in terms of measurable cooperation on region-wide issues of 

interest and concern to its members, the GCC has already achieved more than the European 

Economic Commission (EEC) did in its first decade... Beyond its political and economic


ramifications, the GCC stands as proof that regional accord among Arab countries on a host of 

developmental, strategic and security issues is possible... (Anthony, 1996) 

In this paper, I will provide a comparative analysis of the European Union (EU) and the Gulf 

Cooperation Council (GCC), defining and explaining the history and development of each group; 

comparing their respective organizational structures and institutional functions; and assessing the 

successes and failures of each bloc. The conclusion is a personal analysis of the reasons that may 

have limited the success of the GCC versus the EU. 

THE EUROPEAN UNION 

Signed in December 1991 by delegates from the then 12-member EC states in Maastricht, The 

Netherlands, the Treaty on European Union (or the "Maastricht Treaty), formally changed the 

name of the EC to the E.U (European Union). The opening paragraph of the, 250 - page Treaty 

reads: "By this Treaty; the High Contracting Parties establish among themselves. A European 

Union (Caporaso, 1996). 

Maastricht does not represent the birth of the European Union, but rather the final steps to a long 

process of European integration and regional cooperation. Scholars note that through the long 

process of creating the European Union, the member states and their leaders followed a 

"Functionalist" approach (Michael, 1989; Marks and Blank, 1996). While the pursuit of the 

functionalist approach has led to the accurate observation that European integration has 

developed over the course of forty-five years. As explained by Gavazza and Pelanda: 

For the functionalists, European integration is a process of transferring national powers to a 

supranational entity through measures called for, made necessary-in some sense, by economic 

interests and by the market. Three rules have usually guided this process. First to maintain the 

process of constructing the Community, the states of economic integration must follow each 

other without interruption. Second, every stage must be concluded with an enrichment of the 

array of powers available to the community. Third, no stage must ever be complete and perfect, 

in order that the next step is made inevitable (Caporaso, 1996). 

Thus, it was functionalist logic which motivated the passage of the Single European Act (the 

Single Market Act) bereft of any provisions related to a common currency or central bank. The 

Maastricht Treaty itself gives formal recognition to the use of the functionalist approach, noting 

in Paragraph 2 of Article A that the Treaty "marks a new stage in the process of creating an every 

closer union among the peoples of Europe." (Holms and Jenkins, 1996). 

EU: HISTORY-& DEVELOPMENT 

The development of the EU can be broken into three major stages: 1) an initial stage of policy 

development and consolidation; 2) a second stage of expansion, widening, and stagnation; and 3) 

a third stage of mote rapid movement toward complete integration, ending with the 1986 Single 

Market Act and the 1991 Maastricht Treaty (Rybezynski, 1993). 

The roots of the European Union can be found in the years following the end of World War II 

and the political ideals of Jean Monnet (a French civil servant), Robert Schuman (the French 

foreign minister), and Altiero, Spinelli (an Italian politician who argued in favor of the creation of 

a federalist Europe) (Michael, 1989). While they differed in their specific areas of emphasis and 

21


in their advocacy of specific institutional frameworks (e.g., Spinelli was a committed federalist, 

Monnet was chiefly interested in forging cooperative structures which would end the threat of 

war), these three men and other advocates of European Union argued that integration was 

necessary to prevent future European wars, to achieve economic efficiencies, and to stave off 

domination by either of the two Superpowers (USSR, USA). 

While some analysts cite the Benelux Economic Union (accomplished during WWII, this treaty 

integrated the economies of three small political units - Belgium, The Netherlands, and 

Luxembourg) as the first step in European integration, most analysts trace the history of the E U 

to the 1952creationbf the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The creation of Jean, 

Monnet and Robert Schuman, the main purpose of the ECSC was to bind Germany into peaceful 

Europe through t the use of a common market around a critical industry (Michael, 1989). 

Although France was the major promoter, the ECSC also included the three Benelux countries, 

along with West Germany and Italy- the core "six" of the future EC. The early experience with 

the ECSC highlighted -both the opportunities presented by and the pitfalls inherent in regional 

cooperative programs. March 25, 1957 is an important date in the history of European Union. It 

was on this date that the representatives of the six nations' signed the Treaty of Rome, 

establishing the EEC or Common Market (effective January 1, 1958) (Mainuddin, Aicher and 

Elliot, 1996). In a separate treaty, the six also established EUROTOM, the European Atomic 

Energy Community, with the goal of forming a common market for the development of nuclear 

energy for peaceful purposes. The Treaty of Rome established the basic institutional framework 

for the modem-day EU (e.g., setting up the European Commission, Parliament, and Council of 

Ministers) and formalized the aim to create an "ever closer union of the peoples of Europe" 

(Rybezynski, 1993). 

The specific objectives of the Treaty of Rome were to remove trade barriers, to establish a single 

trade policy toward nonmember countries, to coordinate transportation systems and agricultural 

policies; to ease the movement of capital and labor across borders; and to remove obstacles to 

competition. Focused on the basic economic interest of the six members, the EEC in these early 

years had a "Western European counterpart in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 

which was comprised of the UK, Ireland, the three Scandinavian countries, Austria and 

Switzerland. The EEC always aimed towards much deeper integration efforts than the EFT A - 

seeking a customs union, building a common external tariff; eliminating the cause of trade 

distortions at the source, and establishing a common agricultural policy, etc. Most analysts note 

that the EE C was quite successful in the economic field (making more rapid progress than 

planned in building the customs union and establishing a common external tariff) but had only 

limited success in the political arena. (Middlemas, 1995). 

The EU. went into its second stage of development in July of 1967, when the administration of 

the three original EU "communities" (the ECSC, the EEC and Eurotom) merged to form a single 

body, later called the European Community (EC). For the next fifteen years or so - until the early 

1980s – the principal focus of the EC was not so much on "deepening" the aspects of integration, 

but rather on "widening" its membership and dealing with problems of political differences and 

economic disparities among the member states. In 1973, Denmark, the UK and Ireland left the 

EFTA and became full members of the EC, Spain and Portugal was admitted in 1986. 

(Rybezynski, 1993).


The EC broke out of its economic and institutional stagnation in the mid-19 80s. The turning 

point was the 1985 release of the Commission's, White Paper, "Completing the Internal Market." 

Based on the White Paper findings (which emphasized the continued existence of significant 

internal trade barriers and the resulting economic inefficiencies), the EC passed the Single 

Market Act of 1986 which aimed at removing all the barriers to trade and foreign direct 

investment in the EU Even after an initial slaw start, the EC made rapid progress on the creation 

of the Single Market - at the time of the January, 1993 deadline, the twelve 'members had 

complied on average with more than 94% of the Single Market measures applying to them. 

The Single Market program was very important for the EG. It served as an economic catalyst for 

the EU as a whole and for individual member states, driving huge increases in intra-EU trade, 

boosting member GDP growth through increased trade and investment levels, and enhancing the 

EU's position in the global economy (Colchester, 1992). 

Another important element in the European unification is spelled out in the Maastricht Treaty. 

Written as an amendment to the' initial Treaty of Rome, the Maastricht Treaty calls for the 

completion of European unification, - renaming the EC the EU, establishing a program of 

monetary unification, working on the program of political unification and the creation of a truly 

supranational Europe. The Maastricht Treaty, which was finally ratified in 1993, calls for the 

completion of economic and monetary union, with the establishment of a European central bank, 

a common monetary policy, and a common currency (Holms and Jenkins, 1996). Maastricht also 

includes specific provisions on the establishment of a common social and labor policy, as well as 

the completion of a common foreign policy. 

EU: ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 

Although the EU, since the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, has a well-developed 

institutional framework and organizational structure, it is, as Caporaso notes, "a political entity 

that does not fit into any accepted category of government's (Caporaso, 1996). It is described as a 

"multi-level" government; the form of organization generally reflects the democratic political 

orientation and the reliance on Parliamentary, forms of government seen in most member states. 

The European Union has four main institutions: The "executive" body of EU government is the 

Brussels-based Commission, which is comprised of 20 Commissioners appointed by the EU 

countries for four- year terms, along 'With their respective" colleges" of civil servants. The 

President (who serves as the main public 'spokesperson for the Commission) of the Commission 

is appointed by the heads of the EU member governments. The Commission, which is designed 

as a relatively "transparent" organization (in terms of central governments, its organization and 

operations are very public), is charged with the duty of representing the interests of the larger 

European Community. (Middlemas, 1995). 

23


THE COMMISSION 

The Commission is specifically charged with the duties of guarding the Treaties, 

initiating legislation, and managing specific spheres directly assigned to it by the 

Treaties. While the Commission cannot be considered as the EU's main decision-maker 

(it must share that role with the Council and the Parliament), it is probably the most 

critical player in the policy initiation phase (Marks, Hooghe and Blank, 1996). The 

Commission has the responsibility for investigating the feasibility of new EU policies, 

and the some 200-300 reports, White Papers, Green Papers, etc. that it issues each year 

reflect this policy-initiation capacity. 

THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS 

The main legislative body of the EU is not the Parliament, but rather the Council of 

Ministers. Until the passage of the Single European Act (SEA), the council was the sole 

legislative authority- the SEA gave the Parliament more authority. Comprised of 

government ministers from the member countries (the specific ministerial composition 

changes with function) foreign ministers deal with foreign affairs and certain 

administrative functions, financial ministers attend to financial matters, etc., the Council 

is formally charged with the task of agreeing, amending or rejecting the Commission's 

proposals for legislation, as well as agreeing with6f.rejecting Parliament's amendments. 

Although the-Commission and the Council share the responsibility for making 

legislation, they differ markedly in their loyalties and methods of operation. While the 

Commission is charged with representing the Community as a whole, the Council's 

underlying responsibility is to the Member States, and hence, its main tasks often center 

on reconciling. the interests of the various Member States (Middlemas, 1995). And while 

the Commission is designed as a "transparent" organization, the Council frequently 

operates in secret. 

THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT 

The European Parliament is the one EU body directly elected by the union's citizens. The 

number of representatives differs according to the size of each country (e.g., Germany 

has 99, while Luxembourg has just six). When the Parliament sits; the representatives are 

grouped by political group or party, not by nation, which is really very symbolic of the 

integrative approach. Major-parties include the Socialists, Greens, European People's 

Party, European Democratic Alliance" and the Liberals (Middlemas, 1995). 

EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE 

The fourth major EU institution is the European Court of Justice (ECJ), which is based in 

Luxembourg. The Court, which is composed of judges from 15 member states and served 

by six Advocates General, reviews the' legality of the Acts of the Commission and the 

Council and makes decisions on enforcement and / or annulment. The ECJ, which has 

faced an impressive caseload since 1958 when it was first formed, was overwhelmed by 

the legalistic requirements and questions encompassed in the 286 different regulations 

within the Single Market Act. Under extreme pressure from businesses and investors; the 

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26 


Council in 1989 agreed to establish a new Court of First Instance (CFI) to relieve the ECJ 

of its more trivial decisions. Other important EU institutions are the Court of Auditors, 

the Economic and Social Committee, and the European Investment Bank. (Middlemas, 

1995). 

SUCCESSES, PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES 

The EU is widely regarded as ,the model for regional economic integration. The EU's 

success in establishing a customs union and removing internal trade barriers has brought 

significant economic benefit to both the individual member states and to the EU as a 

whole. Today, the EU ranks as the largest trader among all WTO members and as such, 

can rightly be viewed as a 'global economic power' (Pelkmanas and Carzaniga, 1996). 

While the EU is advancing in the aspects of economic integration, it has frequently 

stalled on political and social integration decisions on a common foreign policy have 

proved particularly problematic. In facing its future, the EU will need to deal with both 

philosophical / political challenges and divisions between the states. The first challenge 

relates to the reluctance of the Member States to surrender their national sovereignty to 

the supranational organization of the EV. The second challenge relates to major 

demographic, geographical, political, and economic differences between Members. The 

population gap between the largest state _ Germany before unification, and the smallest 

state, Luxembourg - was more than 60 million. Despite the fact that the voting of French 

and the Dutch against the European Constitution may constitute a challenge to European 

integration, I believe these challenges are minimal considering the successes EU has 

encountered. 

THE GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL 

In February 1981, the foreign ministers of the VAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman arid 

Saudi Arabia met in; Riyadh and unanimously agreed on the creation of the Gulf 

Cooperation Council (GCC) which aimed at fostering "cooperation and coordination 

among the six member states in all walks of life" (Furtig, 2004). The GCC Constitution 

establishes the "ultimate aim" of creating a confederal union amongst the six states and 

set the specific shorter-term (by the end of the 1980s) of establishing a customs union and 

forum for economic coordination. Thus, in its initial objectives, the GCC appears to be 

remarkably similar to the EU (as originally structured in the Treaty of Rome). There are 

also distinct parallels in the .way that the GCC states chose to focus on economic 

objectives as a means to achieve political and defense aims. On the other hand, if we 

examine the history and structure of the GCC, we see that it contrasts sharply with that of 

the EU. 

One critical contrast,' which should be made clear at the outset of this comparison, is the 

relative homogeneity of the GCC member states versus those in the European Union. 

While the twenty five members of the EU must cope with different languages, different 

religions, different demographic structures, and divisions 'based on economics and social 

systems, the six GCC members enjoy a broad range of similarities. Among the GCC 

members there is a common language - Arabic, a common religion - Islam, dominated by 

a single sect - Sunni, cornparable social structures (including demographics), very similar


systems of government, very similar standards of economic development, a collective 

culture, and a shared geography. 

Another crucial structural contrast between the EU and the GCC involves their respective 

sizes and relative share in the world economy. The EU encompasses a population of 

some 370 million - the combined population of the six GCC states is estimated at 35 

million, or less than one tenth the size of the EU. And while the GCC states are extremely 

wealthy compared to global averages, and although the GCC states are the economic 

linchpin of the global energy trade, the gap between their combined GDP and that of the 

EU's is quite large. (Middlemas, 1995). Thus, while the GCC is a vital union within the 

larger Arab and Middle Eastern region, and although GCC integration can (and does) 

certainly work to promote both the economic development of member states and the 

overall, role of the GCC within the global system, it is unlikely that - barring extensive 

expansion – the GCC's importance in the global economic system will ever approach the 

magnitude of the EU's impact. Yet another important distinction between the two groups 

concerns structural differences between the member states of the two groups. One 

significant difference is economic. Although the Gulf States have reduced their oil 

dependence during the past few years; their economies are still largely oil - based, with at 

least one-third of GDP in each state (Bahrain and UAE, which now relies' on tourism and 

business, are exceptions) originating from the energy sector. This is a marked contrast 

with the largely service- based, highly diversified developed economies of the EU 

member states. (Holms and Jenkins, 1996). While the diversification and sectoral 

differences among the EU member states promotes complementary trading, the relative 

economic homogeneity and energy-dependence of the GCC states limits the economic 

potential for complete economic integration. The economic homogeneity of the Gulf 

States also impacts trading patterns among the member states. 

Another significant structural difference in the member states of the two regional 

organizations is political / philosophical. For the most part the EU members share a 

commitment to democratic (including social-democratic) forms of governments. This 

bias is reflected in the multi-level institutional framework of the EU, which encompasses 

principles of balance of power and shared decision-making responsibilities. The GCC 

countries, on the other hand, very considerably in their political traditions; some 

governments still lacking democratic institutions and traditions. A more comprehensive 

understanding of the similarities and differences between the EU and the GCC will be 

clear through an examination of the history and structure of the GCC. 

The prospect for cooperation between the six Gulf States was rendered possible by the 

withdrawal of the British from the region and the perceived threat of either Soviet or U.S. 

military intervention. However, even before the British withdrawal, there was evidence 

that the Gulf states perceived the value of cooperation. For example, in 1953 - eight years 

before it achieved full independence Kuwait pioneered regional resource-sharing 

activities by creating the General Board of the South and Arab Gulf to provide cultural, 

scientific and health services to the nine lower Gulf Emirates (which, like, Kuwait, were 

then part of the British Empire) (Anthony, 1988). There were a number of efforts at 

cooperation during the: 1970s. In 1976, the foreign ministers of Iran, lraq, Kuwait, 

Bahrain, Qatar, the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Oman met in Muscat to discuss the Omani 

suggestion to develop a common regional security and defense policy. While this 

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28 


conference did' not bear any fruit, there were instances of economic and industrial 

cooperation. For example, in 1976, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman and 

Iraq formed the Gulf Ports Authority and in 1979, Bahrain, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia 

incorporated the Gulf Petrochemical Industries Company to establish a petroleum byproducts 

industry. 

The specific genesis of the GCC is generally traced to a 1976 proposal made by Sheikh 

Jaber Al Ahmad A Sabah who at the time was the crown prince and prime minister of 

Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Prime Minister toured the Gulf countries to discuss joint action to 

"preserve the region's security and stability in the face of political, economic and security 

challenges threatening this strategic area" and proposed the establishment of the Gulf 

Union with the main objective of "realizing cooperation in all economic, political, 

educational and informational fields" (Sandwich, 1987). While the representatives from 

the six states enthusiastically agreed in principle to the benefits and necessity of regional 

cooperation, negotiations proceeded for the next five years. 

In the period from 1979 to 1980, a number of forces in the external political and security 

environments slowed the momentum to form the Gee. First, the Iranian Revolution and 

Tehran's declared intention to export that revolution raised Gulf member's concerns over 

both external security and domestic stability. The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 

and U.S. pledge to apply force in the event of any foreign power's attempt to control the 

Gulf region further raised both external security concerns, and issues related to foreign 

domination: In 1980, the outbreak of war between Iran and Iraq formed yet another 

impetus for cooperation (Dunn, 1996). 

Although driven primarily by political and defense concerns and unlike the EU, the six 

member states of the GCC took care to focus their agreement on economic concerns. In 

constructing their Charter, the GCC members considered two contrasting proposals. One 

proposal from Oman emphasized security and defense needs and recommended a defense 

partnership with the United States; Another proposal from Kuwait, while stressing the 

need to defend their independence and territorial integrity, emphasized economic 

cooperation. In the end, the ministers adopted the Kuwaiti proposal with only minor 

modifications. There was a specific rejection of the Omani proposal to forge a militarydefense 

alliance with the U.S.; while the GCC founders readily acknowledged the 

impossibility of defending the Gulf without outside assistance, they resolutely stopped 

short of surrendering defense policy to a foreign power (Anthony, 1996). Thus, while 

clearly inspired by defense considerations, the GCC formed its alliance around principles 

of economic integration and cooperation. The basic objectives of the GCC, as set forth in 

Article 4 of the GCC Charter were as follows (Sandwich, 1987): 

To implement coordination, integration and interconnection among member states in all 

fields in order to achieve unity among them. 

To deepen and strengthen relations, links and scopes of cooperation in various fields now 

prevailing among their peoples. 

To formulate similar procedures, rules and regulations in various fields, including: 

a) Economic and financial affairs 

b) Commerce, customs and communications


c) Education and culture 

d) Social and health affairs 

e) Information and tourism 

f) Legislative and administrative affairs 

To stimulate scientific and technological progress in the fields of industry, mineralogy, 

agriculture, water and animal resources; to establish scientific research centers; to 

implement joint projects and encourage cooperation by the private sector for the good of 

their peoples. 

These general Charter Objectives were detailed and specified in the Unified Economic 

Agreement, signed by the GCC heads of state in November 1981, in the immediate 

aftermath of the creation of the GCC. The objectives of the Unified Economic Agreement 

are similar to those of the European Single Market Act. The Agreement calls for the 

establishment of a customs union, a common external tariff, harmonization of regulations 

and standards; coordination of oil prices; coordination of policies on labor, industry, and 

technology; a cooperative approach to transportation, investment, and monetary policy. 

Although there was an initial proposal to include the development of a common currency 

(made by Kuwait), this has thus far received little support (Anthony, 1988). 

Although there was initially no. mention of a common defense strategy in the GCC 

agreement, in 1983, the member states agreed to begin building a common defense force. 

In October of 1983, the GCC mel11bers announced the creation of its own "Rapid 

Deployment Force" (RDF). Called the "Peninsula Shield," and based in Saudi Arabia, the 

defense program included 10,000 troops and aimed at providing a sense (if not,. as many 

Gulf States recognized; a reality) of collective security in the face of multiple regional 

and international threats. The ultimate objective of the Peninsula Shield (which has since 

been expanded, in technology, if not in manpower) was t6 act as a deterrent against 

regional aggressors. (e.g., Iraq, Iran, and possibly Syria) and serve as notice to the 

Superpowers that the Gulf states preferred to leave the control of their defense system in 

the hands of nationals. Again, the Rapid Development Force proved ineffective during 

the Gulf war. 

GCC: ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 

In establishing the objectives and organizational framework for the GCC, its members 

benefited not only from the lessons (and successes) of Europe and the EU, but also the 

many failed past attempts at Arab integration (e.g., the United Arab Republic, the 

Maghreb Permanent Consultative Committee, and the Confederation of Arab Republics). 

From the former, the GCC learned the potential benefits of focusing on economic 

integration first and from the latter, the GCC learned the inherent dangers of attempting 

any type of rapid political integration (Anthony, 1996). 

The organizational structure and functions of the GCC are rooted in indigenous political 

values, the Islamic faith, and traditional local skills and approaches. The organizational 

structure reflects the bureaucratic, authoritarian construct of the member states national 

governments and the operational parameters reflect the cultural bias towards consultation, 

consensus building, gradual or little change, and respect for "individual" sovereignty and 

29

30 


formal leadership. Compared to the multi-level structure of the EU, the GCC structure is 

both hierarchical and undemocratic. 

THE SUPREME COUNCIL 

The highest authority of the GCC is the Supreme Council, comprised of the heads of state 

of each GCC member. .The Council's function is to set the domestic and foreign policies 

of the GCC and to (when necessary) amend the GCC's charter and rules. When 

necessary, the Supreme Council also functions as the Dispute Settlement Board. The 

presidency is rotated yearly. Each Council member has one equal vote and unanimous 

votes are required for approval of any major decision. The Supreme Council meets 

annually for a GCC Summit (usually in November). The Supreme Council also has 

primary authority over and responsibility for the Joint Strike Force. 

THE MINISTERIAL COUNCIL 

The Ministerial Council, which is comprised of the foreign ministers of each state, is the 

closest thing the GCC has to a legislative body although it may more properly be termed 

(because it lacks decision making authority) a "working, policy group". The-Ministerial 

Council meets quarterly and oversees a variety of Ministerial Committees and Expert 

Committees which together consider a wide variety of issues and policies. 

THE SECRETARIAT 

The Secretariat, headquartered in Riyadh, is the Administrative arm of the Gee. The 

Secretary General and two assistant secretaries-general are appointed by the Supreme 

Council. Divided into a half-dozen operational units, the Secretariat prepares studies 

related to cooperation and coordination, integrates plans and programs for common 

action, and over see the administrative and financial regulations of the GCC as a whole. 

ACCOMPLISHMENTS, PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES 

The GCC has in fact made impressive gains in fostering cooperation in economic policies 

and economic development among the member states. The members did establish. a 

nearly barrier-free internal market by the end of the 1980s. Most impressive on the 

economic front has been the development of a common oil policy, cooperation on 

domestic and regional economic development programs, and the establishment of the 

Gulf Investment Bank. While the GCC has done well at fostering the free movement of 

goods and services between member states, it has had more limited success in achieving 

the free movement of people because of the variations in policies on foreign labor and 

variations in capital because of different approaches to investment law. As with the EU, 

the GCC has found it difficult to establish common foreign and defense policies. In the 

EU, this difficulty can be attributed both to the desire to retain sovereignty among 

members and to distinctly different political and economic interests. In the Gulf; the 

difficulties also reflect individual state's desire to retain control over defense policy (this 

is particularly true of Saudi Arabia) (Bruce, 1996).


However, in the GCG, unlike the EU, the tensions between members more often relate to 

territorial disputes and to different orientations towards regional relations with. 

neighboring states. While the EU states have in recent years faced challenges related to 

economic recession and the potential absorption of the new "transition economies" of 

Eastern Europe, the GCC states have little concern related to expansion. The GCC states 

also face a number of challenges related to domestic stability; including rising Islamic 

fundamentalism; regional terrorist activity, and demographic pressures. Nevertheless, the 

GCC can be considered a success story for its ability to sustain coordination among 

member states, mainly in the economic field. 

CONCLUSION 

The EU and GCC are both important integration vehicles for peace and security; more so 

the former than the later. Yet, I personally believe that complete integration will be more 

difficult to attain with the GCC because of lack of democracy, civil society institutions 

and independent judiciary in these countries. As indicated earlier, integration is generally 

defined as a process by which political actors in several distinct national units are 

persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities towards a new 

center whose institutions demand jurisdiction over preexisting national states. 

The EU is simply a model example of this definition: Yet the GCC lacks the necessary 

requirements for true political and social integration - the real power remains in the hands 

of the leadership and the rulers with very-few existing supra national institutions. 

I think the GCC was only intended to be a "coordination" entity as stated in its mandate. 

Yet, stemming from a region that has been overtaken by conflicts, the GCC, with its 

limitations, could be considered a success story - but definitely falls short of being a 

complete model for integration. 

31

REFERENCES 

32 


Anthony, John Duke. "The Gulf Cooperation Council: A New Framework for Policy 

Coordination." In, HR. Sindelar &J.E. Peters on (Eds.), Crosscurrents in the Gulf. 

London: Rutledge, 1988. 

Anthony, John Duke. "The Sixteenth GCC Heads-of-State Summit: Insights and - 

'Indications." Middle East Policy, October 1996. 

Baabood, A. Dynamics and Determinants of the GCC Sates' Foreign Policy, with special 

reference to the EU, Review of the International Affairs, Vol.3, No.2, 2003. 

Bruce, James. "Qatari Exercise Opt-Out Deepens Rift with GCC." Jane's Defense 

Weekly, March 13, 1996. 

Burgess, Michael. Federalism and European Union, London: Rutledge, 1989. 

Caporaso, James A. "The European Union and Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory 

or Post-Modem?" Journal of Common Market Studies, March 1996. 

Colchester, Nico. "The European Community: Altered States." Economist, July 11, 1992. 

Dunn, Michael Collins. "Five Years after Desert Storm: Gulf Security, Stability and the 

U.S. Presence." Middle East Policy, March 1996. 

Evans, Kathy. "Discord and Disunity." Middle East, January 1997. 

Furtig H., GCC – EU Political Cooperation: Myth or Reality, British Journal of Middle 

Eastern Studies, Vol.31, No.1, 2004. 

Holmes, Garrick & Jenkins, Charles (Eds.). European Policy Analyst, 3rd Quarter 1996. 

London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 1996. 

Mainuddin, Rolin G., Aicher, Joseph R. & Elliot, Jeffrey M. "From Alliance to collective 

Security: Rethinking the Gulf Cooperation Council.". Middle East Policy, March 1996. 

Marks, Gary; Hooghe, Liesbet; & Blank, Kermit. "European Integration from the 1980s: 

State-Centric v. Multi-level Governance." Journal of Common Market Studies, 

September 1996. 

Middlemas, Keith. Orchestrating Europe. London: Fontana Press / Harper Collins 

Publishers, Ltd., 1995. 

Pelkmans, Jacques & Carzaniga, Antonia Giulia. "The Trade Policy Review of the 

European. Union." World Economy, Global Trade Policy 1996, Supplement. 

Rybezynski, T.M. "International Perspective: Structural Changes and the Integration of. 

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Sandwick, John A. (Ed.). The Gulf Cooperation Council: Moderation and Stability in an 

Interdependent World. Washington, D.C.: American-Arab Affairs Council; Westview 

Press, 1987.


VISUAL OUTCOME OF TRAUMATIC CATARACTS 

CO Bekibele MBBS(Ib), FWACS, FMCOphth 

O Fasina MBBS, FWACS 

Department of Ophthalmology, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria. 

SUMMARY 

Objective: To review cases of traumatic cataracts operated at the University College 

Hospital, Ibadan with the view to making recommendations for improved management. 

Methods: A retrospective review of all post traumatic cataracts operated at the University 

College Hospital Ibadan, Nigeria between May 1999 and April 2004 to determine visual 

outcome and main causes of poor visual outcome 6/18, 10 (32.2%) < 6/18-3/60, while 32.2% of the cases 

reviewed remained blind or had vision

34 


complications such as cystoid macular oedema, retinal detachment and glaucoma, which 

may influence the final visual outcome after surgery 6 . Thus patients with traumatic 

cataracts constitute a special group that require additional care during surgery for 

optimum results. The aim of this study was to examine cases of traumatic cataracts 

operated at the University College Hospital, Ibadan during the period under review with 

the aim of making recommendations for improvement in management. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Case notes of 32 patients with the diagnosis of traumatic cataracts, who had cataract 

extraction during a 5- year period, May 1999-April 2004 were identified retrospectively 

from the operating theatre register of the department of Ophthalmology, University 

College Hospital, Ibadan. Information collected and reviewed included age, sex, eye 

affected, nature and duration of injury before surgery, type of surgery, best corrected 

visual acuity and possible causes of poor visual outcome. 17 of the 32 patients (53.1%) 

had ECCE+ PCIOL, 10(31.3%) had ECCE alone and 4 (12.5%) had ICCE using vectis 

extraction without lens implantation. Indication for vectis extraction was subluxated 

cataract with vitreous in anterior chamber while ECCE with out IOL was done due to 

rupture in posterior capsule not allowing a posterior chamber lens insertion. Optic nerve 

and retinal functions of the patients were inferred from response to pupillary reaction to 

light and light projection test respectively. Slit lamp examination was done to determine 

corneal integrity as well as examination for evidence of previous trauma. Intra-ocular 

pressure measurement was done with Goldman applanation tonometer. Ultrasound scan 

was done for all cases. No biometric studies were done because the equipment was not 

available. Patients were admitted two to three days before the operation and were 

commenced on topical antibiotic Chloranphenicol or gentamycin, oral diazepam 5mg at 

night. On Morning of operation, the eyelashes were trimmed, 250mg acetazolomide 

tablet was given, the pupil was dilated with phenylephrine and topical tropicamide 

(phenylephrine was omitted in hytertensives). (Cases that failed to dilate due to synaechia 

had synaechialysis done intra-operatively). Pre-medication was omitted and local 

anaesthesia was used for all cases except for Children less than 15 years of age (they had 

general anaesthesia) and consisted of peribulbar injection of 3-4ml 2% xylocaine with 

adrenaline 1:100,000 without hyalase as well as facial anesthesia using O'brien method. 

Ocular message was done as gentle as possible for between 5-10 minutes to ensure a soft 

eye before surgery or omitted if the anterior capsule was bridged or vitreous in anterior 

chamber. The surgical technique for ECCE with or with out IOL is as described in a 

previous publication 7 , synaechialysis where present was done with the aid of 2% methyl 

cellulose viscoelastic or the tip of the viscoelastic canular. Majority of the IOLs were 

from Aurolab, the rest were from Fred Hollows. They were mostly single piece 

polymethl metacrylate lenses. Power of IOL was determined from the patients’ refraction 

in the operated eye before the development of cataract or from the refraction of the other 

eye. Where neither was possible a power was chosen arbitrarily from a standard hospital 

stock of lenses that ranged from +19-+22 diopters. The incision was closed with five 8-0 

virgin silk sutures or 9-0 nylon. The wound was covered with conjuctival flap with or 

without suturing. Sub-conjuctival gentamycin 20mg, and methyl-prednisolone 20mg, 

were given, topical antibiotic was instilled and the eye was padded overnight. Post-


operative examination included daily slit lamp examination, intra-ocular pressure 

measurements and visual acuity using Snellens chart with and without pinhole. Patients 

were discharged as from the third postoperative day on topical dexamethasone steroid 

drops 2-6 hourly, antibiotic and tropicamide. 

Initial follow up was at two weeks. Subsequent visits were at 3 weeks intervals. 

Refraction was done after 8weeks of surgery. Follow up was for between 6months to 

5years. 

RESULTS 

A total of 32 eyes of 32 patients were reviewed. Age ranged from 2 years to 71years, 

mean 25.6 years. There were 22 males and 10 females (ratio 2.2:1). Figure 1 shows the 

age distribution of the studied subjects. 

The causes of trauma amongst subjects included wood /stick in 7 (21.9%), cane/ 

whiplash injury 6(18.8%), and propelled missile injuries, 5(15.6%), other details are as 

shown in Table 1. There was equal distribution of between the right and left eyes 

amongst the subjects affected. 

Other complications related to the preceding ocular trauma observed at time of surgery 

included cornea scar in 7, glaucoma 4, lens capsule rupture 4, subluxated lens 4 and iris 

damage in 2 subjects. Duration of post-operative inflammation ranged from 4 weeks to 

20 weeks (mean 7.1weeks). 12 (35.6%) of the patients had best corrected visual acuity of 

>6/18, 32.2% > 6/18-3/60, while 32.2% of the cases reviewed remained blind in the 

affected eye by WHO criteria. The cause of poor visual acuity (less than 6/18) in the 

subjects included cornea opacity 12.5%, posterior capsule opacity 12.5%, retinal 

detachment 9.4%, and glaucoma 6.9% other details are as shown in Table 2. 

Fifty percent of subjects who had cataract surgery within 6weeks of injury compared to 

30% of those who had surgery after 6weks had post op visual acuity better than 6/18, the 

difference was however not statistically significant (P>0.05). Vision was also better 

amongst those who had ECCE-IOL compared to the others (52.9% of ECCE-IOL, 20% 

of ECCE with out IOL and 0% of subjects who had vectis extraction had post op vision 

better than 6/18). This difference was statistically significant (P

36 


because of traumatic involvement of retina and posterior capsule opacity. However, a 

review of 15 patients who had traumatic cataract extraction in Germany 11 revealed that 

53% of the subjects had post-operative vision of 6/12 or better. Reason for poor outcome 

included accompanying macular pathology, central cornea opacities, posterior capsule 

opacity and retinal detachment. Use of additional intervention procedures such as YAG 

laser capsulotomy, pas plana vitrectomy/ retina detachment surgery and penetrating 

kerato plasty was responsible for improvement in final visual outcome of 6/24 in 80% of 

their subjects. 

Cornea opacities and posterior capsule opacities were responsible for 8 out of the 20 

subjects with visual acuity 6/18 and although sight limiting complications were common, 

they were mostly related to the severity of the trauma, post op inflammation and many 

are potentially treatable with further intervention. Although it is not clear why a large 

percentage of the patients developed retinal detachment post op, inflammation may have 

played a significant role, we therefore advocate surgery with intra ocular lens implant for 

cataracts resulting from trauma. A follow up randomised study on effect of a more 

generous use of steroids in traumatic cataracts is proposed. There is also need for good 

case selection through adequate preoperative diagnosis of associated posterior segment


complications that may prevent optimal post-operative visual acuity in all cases of 

traumatic cataract. 

Acknowledgement: The authors thank the authorities of the University College Hospital 

for allowing access to the case files used for the study and also the staff of the medical 

records department for their cooperation. 

37

REFERENCES 

38 


Sperdutor R., Hiller R. 1984: The prevalence of nuclear, cortical subcapsular lens 

opacities in a general population sample. Ophthalmology 91:815-8. 

Tasman W, Jaeger EA. 1997: Traumatic cataract. Duane’s clinical ophthalmology; 1:13- 

4. 

Kanski J.J. 1989:clinical Ophthalmology: A Systemic Approach 287. 

Bekibele CO, Ajayi BGK, Baiyeroju AM, Ayeni EA. 2003: Visual outcome of 

pressurized bottled drinks related eye injuries in Ibadan. Afr J Med. Sci 32: 85-88. 

Greven CM, Collins AS, Slusher MM, Grey Weaver C. 2002: Visual results, Prognostic 

indicators, and posterior segment findings following cataract surgery for cataract/lens 

subluxation – dislocation secondary to contusion injuries. Retina 22; 575- 580. 

Okhravis N, Lightman SL, Hamish MA. 1999: Assessment of Visual Outcome after 

Cataract Surgery in Patients with Uveitis. Ophthalmology. 106; 4: 710-722. 

Bekibele CO. Evaluation of the outcome of ECCE-IOL surgery at Ago-Iwoye, Ogun 

State, Nigeria. Nig J Ophthalmol 2001; 9:32-35. 

Synder A, Kobielska D, Omulecki W. Intra ocular lens implantation in traumatic cataract. 

Klin Oczna 1999; 101(5):343-6. 

Wos M, Mirkiecz-SieradzkaB. Traumatic cataracts treatment results. Lin Oczna. 2004; 

106(1-2):31-4. 

Lacmanovic Loncar V, Petric I. Surgical treatment, clinical outcomes, and complications 

of traumatic cataract: retrospective study. Croat Med J. 2004; 45(3):310-3. 

Weinand F, Plag M, Pavlovic S. Primary implantation of posterior chamber lenses after 

traumatic cataract penetration. Ophthalmologe. 2003; 100(10):843-6. 

Yorster D, Foster A. 1999: Audit of extra capsular cataract extraction and posterior 

chamber lens implantation as a routine treatment for age related cataract in East Africa. 

Br J Ophthalmol 83: 897-901. 

Ahmad B; Sadiq S; Singh A 1998: Intraocular lens implantation in traumatic cataract. JK 

Practitioner. 5(1): 41-3 

Hooper PL, Rao NA, Smith RE, 1990: Cataract extraction in uveitis patients. Surv 

Ophthalmol 35:120-44.


39

40 

© European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol 7, No 5, 2005


COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF α-TOCOPHEROL AND γ-TOCOTRIENOL ON 

LIPID PEROXIDATION STATUS IN HEP G2 CELL LINE TRANSFECTED 

WITH CYP2E1 GENE 

Suzana Makpol a (PhD), Suhana Mamat a (BSc), Zalinah Ahmad a (PhD), Gapor Md. Top b 

(MSc) and Wan Zurinah Wan Ngah a (PhD) 

a 

Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 

Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and b Dept. of Chemistry, 

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 43500 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 

ABSTRACT 

Hepatic cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) is a xenobiotic-metabolizing enzyme which is 

ethanol-inducible and actives in catalyzing lipid peroxidation than several other forms of 

cytochrome P450 enzymes. Vitamin E is well known for its antioxidative properties 

which protects against oxidative damage in cells. The objective of the study is to 

investigate the effect of palm oil vitamin E on lipid peroxidation status in Hep G2 cells 

transfected with CYP2E1 gene. Two cell lines were used as study model ie. E47 

(transfected Hep G2 cell line that expresses human CYP2E1) and C34 (Hep G2 cell line 

which does not express CYP2E1 enzyme) as control. Both cells were treated with 75 µM 

ethanol and palm oil α-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol. Five doses of α-tocopherol and γtocotrienol 

ie. 50, 100, 150, 200 and 300 µM were used. Lipid peroxidation status was 

determined by measuring the level of total malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4hydroxynonenal 

(4HNE) using lipid peroxidation assay kit. Results showed that in C34 

cells, ethanol did not cause any changes to the status of lipid peroxidation in the cells. 

However in E47 cells, the status of lipid peroxidation was significantly higher (p

42 


INTRODUCTION 

CYP2E1 is a very important member of CYP P450 which play an important role in 

xenobiotic metabolisme. This enzyme activates many toxicologically important 

substrates especially carcinogen with low molecular weight to more toxic products. 

CYP2E1 metabolizes more than 70 substrates including paracetamol, benzene, 

dimethylnitrosamine and ethanol (1). CYP2E1 is inducible by its substrates. Induction of 

CYP2E1 activity by its substrates such as ethanol can be more than ten-fold (2). Studies 

in animals showed that hepatic CYP2E1 exhibits enhanced NADPH oxidase activity and 

elevated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon reduction by NADPH (3). 

This reduction is not influenced by the presence of substrates (4). 

ROS is an atom or molecule that contain one or more unpaired electron (5). ROS initiate 

a process called lipid peroxidation. One radical species initiate a chain reaction that 

produce more radical species and consequently cause extensive damage to the lipid 

structure. Products of lipid peroxidation include short and long chain aldehyde, 

phospholipid and ester cholesterol that contain aldehyde and can be used to evaluate lipid 

peroxidation in a system (6). 4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) and malondialdehyde (MDA) 

are the most produced unsaturated aldehyde during this process and probably more 

harmful than ROS itself. HNE for instance is a reactive and stable metabolite that have 

longer half-life compare to ROS. Studies have shown that HNE involves in various 

biological activity including inhibition of protein and DNA synthesis, enzyme 

inactivation and promote neutrophile migration (7). Malondialdehyde can bind to 

proteins and cellular constituents (8) and contribute to a variety of pathological processes 

including malignant transformation (9) and fibrogenesis (10). 

CYP2E1 is part of microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (MEOS). Ethanol consumption 

has been shown to result in an induction of CYP2E1 activity in the liver about four- to 

ten-fold. Induction of CYP2E1 may have important consequences such as enhanced 

production of acetaldehyde, a highly reactive and toxic metabolite, as well as generation 

of free radicals such as hydroxyethyl radicals leading to oxidative stress (2). 

Vitamin E is a generic description for all tocopherol and tocotrienol derivatives. 

Tocopherols have a phytyl chain, while tocotrienols have a similar chain but with a three 

double bonds at positions 3’, 7’ and 11’. Vitamin E is a well known antioxidant which 

scavenge free radicals and protects against oxidative damage in cells (11). The 

antioxidant properties of vitamin E depends more on phenolic group and chromanol ring 

compared to the side chain (12). α-Tocopherol is the major vitamin E in vivo and exerts 

the highest biological activity (13). There are some conflicting reports on the antioxidant 

activities of tocopherols and tocotrienols. Previous study reported that α-tocotrienol 

possessed 40- to 60-fold higher antioxidant activity than α-tocopherol against lipid 

peroxidation in rat liver microsomes (14). But there are also other study which did not 

show significant difference in the antioxidant activities between tocopherol and 

tocotrienol (15, 16). 

Theoretically, synthetic vitamin E showed the same antioxidant activity as naturally 

occurring vitamin E. But classical rat foetal gestation-resorption assay showed that 

synthetic tocopherol showed a defect in the biological activity compared to naturally 

occurring vitamin E (17). It was proved that the structure of tocopherol is very important


and other factors that would affect the biological activity of vitamin E would be the 

presence of methyl group on the chromanol ring and saturation or branching on the side 

chain (18). Studies on human and laboratory animals showed that bioavailability of 

naturally occurring vitamin E isomers are three times higher compared to vitamin E 

acetate (19). These factors encourage us to use domestically produced vitamin E that 

comes from natural source which is the palm oil. 

To directly demonstrate the effect of CYP2E1 enzyme on oxidative stress in vitro, Hep 

G2 cells which was transfected with CYP2E1 gene was used. Two vitamin E derivatives 

α-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol derived from palm oil were used in this study as 

antioxidative agent. 

OBJECTIVES 

The goal of the current study was to evaluate the effects of vitamin E (α-tocopherol and 

γ-tocotrienol) on lipid peroxidation status in transfected Hep G2 cell line expressing 

human CYP2E1 enzyme and to compare these effects to control cells that do not express 

this enzyme. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

CHEMICALS 

Cell culture reagents such as L-glutamine, penicillin, streptomycin, geniticin, pnitrophenol 

and NADPH were purchased from Sigma, New York (USA), Fetal Calf 

Serum (FCS), Tripsin-EDTA from Flowlab (Australia) and EMEM from PAA Lab 

(Austria). Palm oil vitamin E (α-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol) was obtained from MPOB 

(Malaysia). Other chemicals and solvents were supplied by Sigma or Merck 

(Darmstadt,Germany). 

CELL CULTURE 

Transduced Hep G2 subclones that overexpress CYP2E1 enzyme (E47) and the control 

cell line (C34) were kindly provided by Prof. A.I. Cederbaum (Mount Sinai School of 

Medicine, New York, USA). Both cell lines were established with the use of transfection 

and limited dilution techniques (20). The E47 and C34 cell lines were cultured in MEM, 

supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum, 100 units of penicillin per milliliter, 100 mg/ml 

of streptomycin and 2 mM glutamine in a humidified atmosphere in 5% CO2 at 37°C. 

P-NITROPHENOL (PNP) OXIDATION ASSAY 

PNP assay was performed as described by Chen & Cederbaum (1998) (20) to determine 

the activity of CYP2E1 enzyme in transfected Hep G2 cell line. Cells were washed with 

PBS, harvested and sonicated on ice for 45 sec. Microsomes were prepared by 

differential centrifugation and resuspended in PBS. Oxidation of PNP was determined 

using 100 µg of microsomal protein in a reaction-system containing PBS, 0.4 mM PNP 

and 1 mM NADPH. All reactions were carried out in duplicate, initiated with NADPH, 

43

44 


incubated at 37°C and stopped after 60 min by addition of 30 µl of 30% trichloroacetic 

acid. Absorbance of the final product of the reaction was measured at 586 nm. 

VITAMIN E PREPARATION 

α-Tocopherol (ATF) and γ-tocotrienol (GTT) was prepared from 500 mM stock. 45 µl of 

500 mM vitamin E (ATF or GTT) was incubated with 60 µl fetal calf serum (FCS) for 

overnight at 37 o C. Then, 105 µl of absolute ethanol and 90 µl of complete culture 

medium (CCM) were added to make a solution with vitamin E concentration of 75 mM. 

Serial dilution was done to obtain the 50, 100, 150, 200 and 300 µM of vitamin E 

concentration for the cells treatment. 

VITAMIN E UPTAKE 

The method for vitamin E determination was as described by Meydani et al. (1987) (21) 

with slight modifications. The E47 and C34 cell lines were plated in a separate petri dish. 

After 48 hours, the cultured medium was replaced with new culture medium in control 

group and the culture medium that contain different concentrations of α-tocopherol and 

γ-tocotrienol. After 24-hour of treatment, the cells were collected and washed a few times 

with ice cold PBS by centrifugation. The pellets were resuspended in ice cold PBS, 

incubated with BHT followed by addition of hexane and mixed. The top layer of the 

solution was transferred into other tube and dried using the freeze dryer. The preparation 

was done on ice in the dark. Later hexane was added to the dried sample, followed by 

mixing and filtering process. HPLC was used to determine the concentration of vitamin E 

in each sample. Five different vitamin E isomers which were α-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol, 

γ-tocotrienol, γ-tocopherol and δ-tocotrienol were isolated according to the method. 

DETERMINATION OF THE LEVEL OF TOTAL MDA AND 4HNE 

Lipid peroxidation status was determined by measuring the level of total MDA and 

4HNE. 6 x 10 6 cells were plated for 48 hours for each group of treatment. Then, the 

culture media was removed and replaced according to treatment (75 µM ethanol and 5 

doses of palm oil α-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol ie. 50, 100, 150, 200 and 300 µM were 

used). After 24 hours, cells were collected, washed a few times with PBS and assayed for 

the level of lipid peroxidation using Lipid Peroxidation Assay Kit (Calbiochem). 

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 

Results refer to mean ± standard deviation and are average of three values per experiment 

and each experiment was repeated three times. Student’s t test was used to analyze the 

difference between treatment groups and p


RESULTS 

Figure 2 shows the effects of ethanol, α-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol treatment on the 

level of total MDA and HNE in E47 and C34 cell lines. Comparison between the two cell 

lines used in this study showed that the level of total MDA and HNE in E47 cells was 

found to be higher in all treatment groups compared to C34 cells (p

46 


studies, elevated production of ROS contribute to a variety of adverse effects of ethanol 

including malignant transformation (9) and fibrogenesis (10). 

Treatment with different doses of palm oil α-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol caused a 

marked decrease (p


CYP4F2 also proved to be involved in vitamin E metabolisme (28). But the degradation 

activity of vitamin E by CYP2E1 is yet to be confirmed. 

There are other study that reported vitamin E activated pregnane X receptor (PXR) which 

involved in CYP P450 genes regulation. γ-Tocotrienol is the form that binds effectively 

to the receptor (29). Enhanced activity of CYP2E1 through PXR may results in enhanced 

lipid peroxidation, thus reduce the effect of γ-tocotrienol in E47 cells. 

CONCLUSION 

Hep G2 cells that express human CYP2E1 enzyme showed higher lipid peroxidation after 

ethanol induction. α-Tocopherol (ATF) and γ-tocotrienol (GTT) reduced the level of lipid 

peroxidation in Hep G2 cell line (C34 cells). However in Hep G2 cell line transfected 

with CYP2E1 gene (E47 cells), only α-tocopherol treatment at 150, 200 and 300 µM 

reduced the level of lipid peroxidation but γ-tocotrienol treatment did not show 

significant effect. Thus we concluded that the presence of CYP2E1 gene affects the level 

of lipid peroxidation with ethanol induction and vitamin E treatment protects against lipid 

peroxidation with α-tocopherol possessed higher antioxidant activity. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We would like to thank Prof. A.I. Cederbaum from Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 

New York for kindly providing the E47 and C34 cell lines and Mr. Gapor Md. Top for 

providing the palm oil vitamin E isomers. 

47

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6. Abuja, P.M., Albertini, R. (2001). Methods for monitoring oxidative stress, lipid 

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7. Esterbauer, H., ,Schauer, R.J., Zollner, H. (1991). Chemistry and biochemistry of 4hydroxynonenal, 

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Hepatology. 19: 367-372. 

9. Homann, N., Karkkainen, P., Koivisto, T., Novosa, T., Jokelainen, K., Salaspuro, M. 

(1997). Effects of acetaldehyde on cell regeneration and differentiation of the upper 

gastrointestinal tract mucosa. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 89: 1692-1697. 

10. Niemala, O., Parkkila, S., Yla-Herttuala, S., Villaneuva, J., Ruebner, B., Halsted, 

C.H. (1995). Sequential acetaldehyde production, lipid peroxidation and fibrogenesis in 

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11. Claycombe, K.J., Meydani, S.N. Vitamin E and genome stability. (2001). Mutat. Res. 

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12. Niki, E., Kawakami, A., Satio, M., Yamamoto, Y., Tsutchiya, J., Kamiya, Y. (1985). 

Effect of phytyl side chain of vitamin E on its antioxidant activity. J. Biol. Chem. 260: 

2191-2196. 

13. Xu, Z.M., Hua, N., Gadber, J.S. (2001). Antioxidant activity of tocopherols, 

tocotrienols, and γ-oryzaznol components from rice bran against cholesterol oxidation 

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14. Serbinova, E., Kagan, V., Han, D., Packer, L. (1991). Free radical recycling and 

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Nutr. 67: 669-684 

20. Chen, Q., Cederbaum, A.I. (1998). Cytotoxicity and apoptosis produced by P450 2E1 

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TOTAL QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION: THE CASE OF CYPRUS 

Dr. Bilge Oney 

Department of Banking and Finance 

Eastern Mediterranean University 

N. Cyprus 

Abstract: Total quality management (TQM) is a very general, long term concept as well 

as being a continuous improvement process, but very effective strategy. It is a structured 

system for creating organization-wide participation in planning and implementing a 

continuous improvement process. It begins with a clear understanding of the institution’s 

vision, mission, values and customers. The aim of the study is to figure out the strenghts 

and weaknesses of Eastern Mediterranean University (EMU), so that it will bring the 

university into the top leading institutions within Cyprus, Turkey and the Middle East in 

the field of quality education. 

Key words: Total quality management, university, students, teaching. 

I. INTRODUCTION 

Total quality management (TQM) is a very general, long term concept as well as 

being a continuous improvement process, but very effective strategy. It is a structured 

system for creating organization-wide participation in planning and implementing a 

continuous improvement process. It begins with a clear understanding of the institution’s 

vision, mission, values and customers. Cross-functional management is essential. It is the 

integration of team activities across divisions/departments to achieve organizational 

goals. The process of applying TQM to EMU is similar, as it would be in a business, i.e., 

generating a bill advising a student or client. Improving the timeliness of mail delivery 

etc. The students should be seen as an important learning for their own learning. Students 

should be made team members and encouraged to participate in their own learning. For 

example, the instructor tells students the purpose of the course, than asks each to write 

down and rank 3 things that they would like to do. More of students as customers can 

influence how they will learn, but the instructor still sets course direction and goals 

regarding what will be learned. We are planning to incorporate this into our teaching and 

development center. If parents, alumni and students are satisfied, they will recommend 

degree and other programs in EMU to others (word of mouth advertisement), likewise are 

satisfied with the graduates of the programs, they may continue to their relationships and 

support. Leadership of faculty, administrators and policy makers can also empower 

students as front-line workers in quality education. 

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II. THE ROLE OF TQM IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM 

TQM IN STUDENT SERVICES 

Recruitment, admissions, registration, advising and retention are among the most 

important student service functions of any institution. These areas depend on quick, 

efficient responses to students and their parents. Often, the quality of interaction 

determines where a student will apply, where he or she will enroll and whether the 

student will graduate. A large part of success in this area is dependent on service 

providers or staff. Improvement efforts, however, cannot be implemented without a shift 

in the way administrative managers approach the processes of identifying, attracting and 

enrolling students. Managers need to ask these questions: 

How do you motivate staff to participate in finding new and more efficient ways to 

identify and serve potential applicants? Staff buy-in is essential to success. 

How do you redesign work to support an efficient application process? Processes must be 

analyzed and inhibitors removed. 

How do you identify those students with the highest potential for success and retain those 

who are experiencing academic difficulties? Data are used to target specific groups and to 

track success. 

Most people work better when they understand how what they do affect desired 

outcomes. Unfortunately, workers who have a narrow focus often perform tasks. 

Compartmentalization of job performance inhibits the creation of a cooperative work 

culture. If the process and reasons for adopting new recruitment strategies are not well 

understood, for example, resistance to change can be expected to remain high. 

Acceptance of change requires management to match the appropriate skill sets with the 

job at hand. 

PROCESS OF RECRUITMENT AT WORK 

At a large public institution, the process of purchasing, sorting labels and compiling 

direct mail packages has the staff in a continuous state of crisis and over work. Mailings 

increase phone traffic with the result that staffs develop elaborate systems to avoid 

dealing with these prospects or their parents. Over-time expenses keep increasing. The 

team could decide to conduct an analysis of how effective the use of these lists has been 

over the past one to three years. A survey of prospective applicants asking them to rate 

the impact that their interaction with staff had on their decision-making process during 

the recruitment and admissions process could change staff perspective. The results may 

very well tell staff how their behavior contributes or detracts from the success of these 

efforts. Now, the team can manage the process of developing heightened awareness and 

paradigm shifts when interacting with students. The result will be an increase in 

conversion rates from purchased prospect lists, increased inquiry rates, and improved 

prospect pool profiles and application rates. 

ADMISSIONS AND TQM


Improvements in the admissions process can help to improve and stabilize enrollment. 

Students and their parents require a great deal of attention during the application process. 

Questions regarding financing, housing and academic guidance must be answered 

quickly and correctly. If staff do not view their roles as that of information providers, this 

can have a deleterious effect on recruitment and enrollment efforts since staff members 

operate as the first line of contact for an institution. To see how efficiently information is 

being handled, including mail and phone inquiries, a team could conduct a process 

analysis. They might identify which processes have a negative impact or are inefficient 

and redesign them. After experiencing a downturn in the conversion of inquiries to 

applications, staffs were still complaining about having to dispense information to 

applicants and their parents. Often the phone was not answered in a timely manner. Mail 

was left unopened and unsorted. This large public university decided to conduct an audit 

of current job descriptions. They analyzed the steps used to process applicants and 

available data to explain downturns. They reviewed the successful efforts of peer 

institutions. Job descriptions were rewritten to require performance criteria in areas of 

public relations and customer service. Then, they communicated the availability of new 

positions and designed training for those who aspired to these new customer service 

positions. The result was improved public relations and student services. An increase in 

the number of inquiries and applicants improved job performance, opportunity for 

professional development. 

TQM AND THE LEARNING PROCESS 

EMU should not only emphasize what is taught, but also how it is taught. To provide a 

better instructional environment, a pilot classroom must have constructed the IBM-TQ 

Teaching Theater, an electronically aided instructional environment. The theater includes 

20 personal computers, linked to each other and to the instructor’s computer. The facility 

supports multiple software applications including shared graphics. Word processing and 

group decision-making software, as well as software developed explicitly to support class 

note taking and feedback processes. Two large projection screens display information 

generated by the students. The classroom is also fully equipped as a teleconferencing 

facility linking learners to real life experiences that can range from the corporate 

boardroom to the shop floor of a factory. Classroom capacity is 40 students, each pair 

sharing a computer that is set up to recognize each student’s input. Classes conducted in 

this environment range from English literature, art and history to engineering information 

systems and measurement for quality. The pedagogical approaches used in the classroom 

can be applied in many disciplines. In addition, the university has found that the teaching 

theater offers several advantages: 

Equal opportunity for student involvement in ongoing classroom activities, irrespective 

of learning and communication styles; 

Multi-directional communication and feedback among students. Between professors and 

between students and professors; and 

A dramatic reduction in cycle time for all processes, enabling more and varied learning 

and feedback activities in any given class. 

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Some examples of TQM-Based learning and teaching processes used in the classroom 

include: 

“One-minute essays" at the end of each class, through which students take a few minutes 

to articulate the key points they learned in class that day and those points that remain 

unclear. This provides teachers with immediate feedback on teaching and learning 

effectiveness, which they follow up via e-mail, or during the next class period. 

A "student feedback meter" that acts as an anonymous. Ongoing pulse taker for teachers. 

Students can hit a key signaling that they "got it" or "didn't get it," which is displayed on 

the instructor's screen. This informs the instructor, in real time, about the effectiveness of 

teaching and learning. 

Group-based interactive software involves students in establishing the class agenda 

("Which of the many topics we might cover today reflect your top learning priorities?"), 

in uncovering difficulties in understanding the material ("What are the most important 

questions remaining in your mind from the material today?"), in processing cases ("How 

would you solve this problem?"), in gauging class opinion about a controversial topic 

("Do you agree or disagree with this decision?"), etc. Every student provides input, which 

can be displayed. 

Facilitation of student learning by providing electronic outlines and notes from the 

instructor, within which students can input their own notes electronically. 

Collaborative learning. Since students are involved in delivery of the material, and their 

input is readily shared. 

Among the lessons learned from this experience are: 

Students' involvement in, and ownership over, class activity increases, provided they are 

offered the opportunities. 

The range of pedagogical approaches is increased. 

Real time involvement of the entire class makes learning more exciting for everyone. 

Ongoing student feedback enables instructors to stay in touch with student reactions and 

to improve classroom processes immediately. 

CURRICULUM DESIGN 

When designing a curriculum for a new program, TQM puts together a crossfunctional 

team of faculty and academic administrators from several departments. Rather 

than follow the traditional course of designing a program and then asking for 

endorsement from potential employers of the graduates, they first sought customer 

requirements and then designed a program to meet those needs, involving customers all 

the way to completion. The team put together customer panels, focus groups of large and 

small businesses and an advisory board that they returned to periodically throughout the 

process. In the customer survey, the team gathered a broad range of knowledge and skills 

that potential employers wanted in graduates from a program. The team went on to define 

each requirement, and then grouped them into clusters of related items.


They returned to their advisory board to validate the definitions and clusters, and to reach 

consensus on the level of mastery needed in each area - from simple awareness, through 

operational knowledge, to full mastery of a skill or knowledge area. They were also asked 

to assign a measure of importance to each of the clusters to make sure it was given 

appropriate weight within the curriculum. Throughout this process, the team returned to 

the advisory board at each step to validate and fine-tune their design efforts. When they 

finally completed their curriculum, the result received "rave reviews' from business 

executives, potential students and faculty from peer institutions who reviewed the 

proposed program. The entire process is customer-driven from the outset, and the 

overwhelmingly positive response that team will receive for its efforts - not to mention 

customer commitment to use the new program - more than compensated for the 

expenditure of time and energy. The side benefits included a strong sense of teamwork 

and dedication to the new program among faculty and administrators who led the effort. 

Most importantly, the school now has a well-defined process that can be replicated and 

improved to address curricular needs in other areas. 

III. THE BENEFITS OF TQM IN HIGHER EDUCATION 

Several benefits were identified ; 

Giving people a voice. Almost every respondent mentioned that involving people in the 

improvement of their own work environment has positive effects. 

This empowerment deepens an institution's ability to be responsible and accountable for 

the services it provides. 

Less explaining, more listening. The focus on customers shifts the priorities of the 

institution and its employees from generating policies and rules to generating 

opportunities to learn about customer expectations and requirements. 

A change in climate. Respondents believe that attitudes change as a result of quality 

improvement efforts. "Improved morale" was cited frequently. 

Willingness to base decisions on facts. Many criticized decision making in higher 

education as relying too much on intuition, tradition and notions of "this is how we do 

things around here." Respondents saw the relevance and importance of data based 

decisions. 

Bringing people together. All too often, department structures and a rigid division 

between business, student and academic affairs contribute to a sense of disconnectedness. 

Because of its teamwork orientation, TQM brings people together allowing a more 

complete understanding of the entire work process. 

A common language. Because of the terminology and training involved with TQM, 

respondents say they had a set of universal principles that makes as much sense in an 

English department as they do in the admissions office or custodial services. As a result, 

communication across functions is easier. In the final analysis, to achieve the benefits of 

TQM in higher education, we will need to improve our communication skills (MIS). 

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TQM always says that "We'll need to talk to each other more and control one another 

less." 

V. QUALITY ASSURANCE 

The subject review method 

It is concerned with the student learning experience and student achievement; both the 

experience and the achievement should demonstrate that the aims and objectives set by 

the subject provider are achieved. For quality higher education, world class quality is the 

goal; this is quite a challenge for higher education institutions. Confidence in the 

achievement of the goal comes from the well-defined aims and objectives and the 

standards used. The aims express the subject providers broad educational purposes in 

providing the programs of study in the particular subject. The objectives set out the 

learning outcomes and experiences that demonstrate successful completion of program 

study. 

Main features of the subject review method are : 

Self-Assessment 

Peer-Review and The Review Visit. 

Graded profile 

The Overall Summative Judgement 

The Subject Review Method 

Monitoring and Evaluation 

Self-Assessment, is an evaluation by the subject provider. Clearly, the quality of the 

student learning experience and student achievement is measured against the aims and 

objectives that e subject provider set for the education of his/her students in that subject. 

The self-assessment is supported by the evidence and discusses both strengths and 

weaknesses in the provision. Consequently, the subject provider is expected to discuss 

further the steps taken to improve the quality in the weaknesses acknowledged. 

Peer Review, is carried out by a team of registered subject specialist reviewers. The team 

gathers evidence and makes judgements on the quality of education provided. To aid in 

the work of the subject provider and the Peer Review team, the institutions may nominate 

institutional facilitators. 

The Review Visit, is aimed at gathering and testing sufficient evidence on the provision in 

a subject so as to form a collective judgement on the quality of education and student 

achievement (measured against the subject providers aims and objectives). The visit is 

conducted in a spirit of dialogue and communication between the institution, the subject 

staff and the review team. It can be helpful if the institutional facilitator informs 

reviewers, upon their arrival to the institute, of any matters, from the institutional 

perspective, which may be, very important to their understanding of the subject reviewed. 

The visit establishes a graded profile giving an overall judgement on the quality of the 

provision. The overall summative judgement is derived from the profile. Each aspect has 

equal weight and positive result is reported as ‘quality approved’.


The subject review report is published after each review visit. It is the most important 

documented outcome of the review process. Off course, the Self-Assessment, if 

monitored properly, gives the institution the priority voice in the key aspects of the 

provision. The last but the least feature is due to continuous monitoring and evaluation. 

Quality of faculty, in fast growing fields is being upgraded through the development of 

post-graduate programs to drain the next generation of academic staff. Incentives for 

quality improvements at about the undergraduate levels will be introduced through 

competitive grants for program innovation and research. Most countries have introduced 

different types of institutions different lengths of study programs and varying modes of 

institutional delivery as ways to accommodate rapid enrollment expansion. 

VI. THE KEY CHALLENGES FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE 

With the international study, learning occurs at a different time and place and the 

institution has limited control over the circumstances in which it takes place. How is this 

learning monitored and how can the coherence of a program be assessed across different 

instructional, settings, including cultural and linguistic differences and in how 

educational programs are structured? In both circumstances, the critical evaluative task 

for quality assurance is to focus on what remains central, i.e., what students learn. 

Educators, as well as quality assurance agencies, must look to the actual results, or 

outcomes of an instructional process. Furthermore, as many quality assurance agencies 

have recognized, these same challenges also apply to study in traditional settings, 

especially when students enroll part-time, change field of study, interrupt their studies or 

transfer to a new institution. Whether a unit of learning takes place in a work place, in 

another country or university or over the internet, the instructor or assessor may not have 

the full range of knowledge about the student that is possible in a traditional classroom 

situation. 

63

REFERENCES 

64 


Bailey, G. (1996). “ Customer Care- Making It Work”, Managing Service Quality, 6 (3), 

36-38. 

Eastern Mediterranean University web site 

Kotler, P. (1972). Marketing Management, Prentice-Hall, USA. 

Porter, M.E. (1998). Competitive Strategy, The Free Press, New York. 

Porter, M.E. (1985). Competitive Advantage, The Free Press, New York. 

Smith, J.G. (1987). Business Strategy, Blackwell and The Economist Publications, 

Oxford. 

Thurow, L (2003). Fortune Favors The Bold, HarperCollins, New York.


SPATIAL/TEMPORAL MODEL FOR SURVIVABILITY OF PEA LEAFMINER 

(Liriomyza huidobrensis) IN WARM CLIMATES: A CASE STUDY IN SOUTH 

FLORIDA, USA 

KATHERINE MILLA 

FLORIDA A&M UNIVERSITY 

LABORATORY FOR REMOTE SENSING AND SPATIAL ANALYSIS 

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES, TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 

116A PERRY-PAIGE BLDG. 

TALLAHASSEE, FL 32307 

STUART REITZ 

USDA-ARS-CMAVE 

FLORIDA A&M UNIVERSITY CENTER FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 

Tallahassee, FL 32307 

ABSTRACT 

Due to a recently-developed resistance to broad spectrum pesticides, the highly invasive 

pea leafminer, Liriomyza huidobrensis, has become a polyphagous pest of vegetable and 

flower crops in many parts of the world, including most Latin American countries. 

Although L. huidobrensis is acclimated to cooler climates, the possibility exists that 

seasonal populations could survive and thus pose a risk during the cool seasons in warmclimate 

regions. This paper reports on a pilot project conducted in South Florida, USA, 

to test the possibility that L. huidobrensis can survive during cool season months in warm 

climates. Temporal and spatial analysis of temperature data from South Florida indicate 

that climatic conditions in the region are consistent with temperature requirements for 

seasonal development of L. huidobrensis. Favorable climatic conditions, combined with 

the existence of a major concentration of crop and nursery land uses in the vicinity of the 

Miami International Airport, a major entry point for potentially infested produce and cut 

flowers, present a risk of establishment of seasonal populations of L. huidobrensis. This 

pilot study demonstrates that the potential exists for L. huidobrensis to establish seasonal 

populations in warmer climates or to survive transport to cooler regions. This potential 

should raise quarantine concerns even for many parts of the world where year-round 

populations of L. huidobrensis probably do not pose a threat. 

Keywords: pea leafminer, Liriomyza huidobrensis 

INTRODUCTION 

The pea leafminer, Liriomyza huidobrensis, is a highly invasive pest of many vegetable 

and flower crops in both greenhouses and open fields. Leafminers inflict damage to 

leaves through punctures made by females to feed and lay eggs, and by mining in the leaf 

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mesophyll by larvae (Weintraub and Horowitz, 19957). Unlike L. trifolii and L. sativae 

larvae, which feed on the upper mesophyll, L. huidobrensis, feed in the lower mesophyll, 

which is more damaging to leaf photosynthesis (Heinz and Chaney, 1995). This can 

result in a severe yield reduction. Common crop and ornamental host plants of L. 

huidobrensis include lettuce, potato, celery, sweet and garden pea, broccoli, cauliflower, 

tomato, pepper, chrysanthemum, and carnation (Steck, 1996). 

L. huidobrensis is indigenous to cooler, mostly highland areas of South America but 

recently has invaded many other countries. Known occurrences include South America 

(Argentina, Brazil, Chile including Juan Fernandez Island, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela), 

Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, 

Panama), the Caribbean (Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe), North America (Ontario, 

Canada), Europe (Belgium, Netherlands, UK), Africa (Kenya, South Africa), the Middle 

East (Israel), and East Asia (China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan) (de Clerq and Casteels 

1992; Bartlett, 1993; Weintraub and Horowitz, 1995; Steck, 1996; Shiao and Wu, 2000; 

Scheffer and Lewis, 2001; Scheffer et al. 2001). Flies previously described as L. 

huidobrensis from the western US have recently been recognized as a separate, yet 

closely related species, Liriomyza langei (Scheffer, 2000; Scheffer and Lewis 2001), thus 

increasing quarantine concerns for the true L. huidobrensis in the US. 

Due to recently developed resistance to pesticides applied in the 1970’s against other pest 

species of potato (Chavez and Raman, 1987; Mason and Johnson, 1988), L. huidobrensis 

has become an important pest of various food crops and horticultural plants worldwide. 

In Peru, potato losses due to L. huidobrensis of more than 30% have been reported 

(Chavez and Raman, 1987). L. huidobrensis has caused complete crop losses in parts of 

Western Europe following its introduction (Bartlett 1993). Vegetable losses as high as 

60-70% have been reported in Indonesia (Rauf et al., 2000). 

The recent change in pest status of L. huidobrensis raises concerns about its potential 

survivability in warmer climates. Although L. huidobrensis is acclimated to cooler 

temperatures, the possibility exists that it could survive on infested plants or produce and 

spread or be transported during the cooler seasons of warm-climate regions. In this paper 

we report on a case study conducted in South Florida, USA, to test the possibility that 

seasonal conditions in a warm-climate region might be favorable to support L. 

huidobrensis. 

BIOLOGY 

Laboratory and greenhouse studies have determined that the egg stage lasts from 1.5 to 4 

days, depending on temperature and host plant, the larval feeding stage lasts from 3.6 to 

10 days, and the pupal stage lasts 7.9 to 12.6 days (Weintraub and Horowitz, 1995; 

Lanzoni et al., 2002). Adults are approximately 2 mm long. Females live up to 18 days, 

and males about 6. Mating begins at about 1 day of age and oviposition rate peaks at 4 to 

8 days after emergence (Steck, 1996). L. huidobrensis is acclimated to cooler 

temperatures. Lanzoni et al. (2002) reported a lower total development threshold of 

8.1oC (46.6oF), an upper total threshold of 29.5oC (85.1oF) and an optimum temperature 

of 25.0oC (77oF) (Table 1). Climatic chamber experiments using L. huidobrensis 

collected from greenhouse plantings of Gerber in southern Italy showed that development


time was inversely proportional to temperature for each stage between 15 and 25oC 

(trials in 5oC increments) and that at 30oC no adults emerged (Lanzoni et al., 2002) 

(Table 1). 

PEA LEAFMINER IN FLORIDA 

There is only one known confirmed field record of L. huidobrensis in Florida, reported by 

Poe and Montz (1981) from a field of Gypsophila in Lee Co. The infestation was 

assumed to have been transported on nursery stock from an infested area of California. 

The same site was repeatedly resampled, and no further L. huidobrensis were detected 

(Steck, 1996). A second published report (CABI/EPPO, 1992) stating that L. 

huidobrensis occurs in glasshouses in Florida was deemed to be an erroneous report 

based on a misreading of Poe and Montz (1981). We could find no documented field 

infestations of L. huidobrensis in Florida since 1981 (Steck, 1996). 

Steck (1996) speculated that the climate in Florida is not amenable to year-round viability 

of pea leaf miner populations, but noted that “the range of ambient and glasshouse 

conditions tolerated by L. huidobrensis has not been established, and it cannot be 

presumed that it will not establish under any Florida conditions.” 

Live larvae continue to enter Florida on various hosts imported from infested areas. 

Larvae-infested produce, especially snow peas and cut flowers, have been intercepted 

many times at Florida ports of entry (Steck, 1996; Florida Department of Agriculture and 

Consumer Services, 1998; Michael Shannon, USDA APHIS PPQ, pers. comm. 2005). 

Miami International Airport (MIA) is an especially important access point for potential 

importation of L. huidobrensis. It is by far Florida’s largest conduit for air cargo, 

handling 72 percent of airfreight entering Florida (FDOT Aviation Office). In 2004, 

MIA handled 82 percent of all air imports between the United States and Latin America 

and the Caribbean. Although air cargo is the most expensive way to ship goods, it is the 

only way to transport perishable goods such as flowers, seafood, fruits and vegetables 

from Latin American countries (Miami Herald, 5/26/05). 85 percent of the 165,000 tons 

of fresh-cut flowers imported into the United States every year pass through MIA, which 

handles 32,500 boxes of flowers a day. Major producers include Colombia, Ecuador, 

Costa Rica, and Mexico (Miami International Airport press release, 5/7/04, accessed on 

MIA airport website on 6/4/05). 

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METHODOLOGY 

This study is a pilot project that investigated the possibility that climatic conditions in 

South Florida may be favorable to support seasonal populations of L. huidobrensis. Data 

from 10 NOAA weather stations in South Florida weather stations for the years 1997- 

2001 were compiled and used to determine if temperature conditions at any time during 

the year are consistent with experimentally determined parameters for L. huidobrensis. 

Station sites were plotted on base maps, which were used to prepare temperature surfaces 

of monthly maximum temperatures. Using inverse distance weighting, temperature maps 

were created for each month delineating areas in which the temperature was below or 

exceeded the experimentally determined (Lanzoni et al., 2001) maximum temperature 

threshold of approximately 85 degrees F. Based on these maps, the cool season of 1997- 

1998 (November – April) was chosen for detailed study because large areas of the region 

had temperatures below the upper threshold (Figs. 1 and 2). 

Because insect development rates vary with temperature between upper and lower 

thresholds, growing degree days (GDD) were calculated for each cool season month and 

compared with experimentally determined GDD required for total development time of 

L. huidobrensis. Calculation of GDD is a method for predicting the development rate of 

an insect with respect to temperature fluctuations. GDD models calculate the number of 

GDD required for development of each stage of an insect. The number of GDD 

accumulated each day varies with temperature fluctuations. Daily GDD are calculated by 

the following formula: 

(GDD) = (Tmax + Tmin)/2 - Tlow 

where: 

Tmax = the daily maximum temperature 

Tmin = the daily minimum temperature 

Tlow = the lower temperature threshold for the insect 

If the daily maximum and minimum temperatures exceed the insect thresholds they are 

set equal to the thresholds in the calculation. 

The accumulated number of GDD required for an insect to complete a developmental 

stage is calculated by the following equation: 

GDD = (Experimental Temperature – Lower Development Threshold) x Development 

Time in days 

Calculated GDD required for total development times for L. huidobrensis are given in 

Table 1.


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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Monthly cumulative GDD and monthly average temperatures at the MIA weather station 

for the November 1997 through April 1998 season are presented in Table 2. Assuming 

that 480 to 490 GDD are required for total development of pea leafminer (see Table 1), 

results indicate that GDD requirements were met and exceeded in every month of the 

cool season. This indicates that, from a climatic perspective, conditions in the region, 

were favorable to sustain populations of L. huidobrensis. Although this pilot study did 

not investigate climatic parameters at other weather stations, monthly temperature surface 

plots suggest that similar temperature conditions tend to prevail along the Atlantic coastal 

region, with warmer temperatures in the central part of the state (see Fig. 1). A map 

depicting row crop, field crop and nursery land uses in South Florida (Fig. 3) shows that 

major areas for these agricultural uses lie along the Atlantic coastal region, with a 

concentration just south of MIA. Given the potential rapid growth and spread of L. 

huidobrensis populations (Shiao and Wu, 2000), even populations of L. huidobrensis that 

only become established seasonally could cause significant crop losses and export 

restrictions in Florida.


CONCLUSIONS 

Temporal and spatial analysis of temperature data from South Florida indicate that 

climatic conditions in the region are consistent with temperature requirements for 

seasonal development of L. huidobrensis. Favorable climatic conditions, combined with 

the existence of a major concentration of crop and nursery land uses in the vicinity of the 

Miami International Airport, an important entry point for potentially infested produce and 

cut flowers, present a risk of establishment of seasonal populations of L. huidobrensis. 

This pilot study demonstrates that the potential exists for L. huidobrensis to establish 

seasonal populations in warmer climates or to survive transport to cooler regions. This 

potential should raise quarantine concerns even for many parts of the world where yearround 

populations of L. huidobrensis probably do not pose a threat. 

71

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CABI/EPPO (1992). Data sheets on quarantine pests: Liriomyza huidobrensis, pp. 194- 

198, Quarantine pests for Europe. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK. 

Chaney, W. E. (1995). The pea leaf miner as a pest of vegetable crops, 4 pp. Monterey 

Co. Extension Office Crop Notes. 

Chavez, G. L. and K. V. Raman (1987). Evaluation of trapping and trap types to reduce 

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Heinz, K.M. and W.E. Chaney (1995). Sampling for Liriomyza huidobrensis (Diptera: 

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Lanzoni, A., G. Bazzocchi, G. Burgio, and M. Fiacconi (2002). Comparative Life 

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Mason G. A. and M. W. Johnson (1988). Tolerance to permethrin and fenvalerate in 

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Journal of Economic Entomology 81:123-126. 

Poe, S. L., and J. K. Montz (1981). Preliminary results of a leafminer species survey, pp. 

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Rauf, A., M. B. Shepard, and M. W. Johnson (2000). Leafminers in vegetables, 

ornamental plants and weeds in Indonesia: surveys of host crops, species composition 

and parasitoids. International Journal of Pest Management, 46, 257-266. 

Scheffer, S. J. (2000). Molecular evidence of cryptic species within the Liriomyza 

huidobrensis (Diptera: Agromyzidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 93: 1146-1151. 

Scheffer, S. J., and M. L. Lewis (2001). Two nuclear genes confirm mitochondrial 

evidence of cryptic species within Liriomyza huidobrensis (Diptera: Agromyzidae). 

Annals of the Entomological Society of America 94: 648-653. 

Scheffer, S. J., A. Wijesekara, D. Visser, and R. H. Hallett (2001). Polymerase chain 

reaction-restriction fragment-length polymorphism method to distinguish Liriomyza 

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invasions. Journal of Economic Entomology 94: 1177-1182.


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FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERN AND HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY IN 

TWO COMMUNITIES IN IBADAN, OYO STATE. NIGERIA 

*Sanusi RA,**Manyong VM, *Akinyele IO,***Bamire ASA, *Oginni AB. 

*Department of Human Nutrition, University of Ibadan, ** International Institute of 

Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. Nigeria and Department of Agricultural Economics, 

Obafemi Awolowo University. 

ABSTRACT 

Food consumption pattern and food security status of households were assessed in two 

communities (Akobo and Abadina) in Ibadan, Oyo State, Southwest, Nigeria. The 

objectives of the study were to determine the food consumption pattern of the 

households, to measure the prevalence of food insecurity and adequacy of dietary intake 

among the households. One hundred and six households were subjects for the study; 53 

households from each community. The households were chosen using a simple random 

sampling technique from the sampling frame of all households with at least a motherchild 

pair, the child being less than 60 months old. The prevalence of food insecurity was 

measured using the United State Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Security 

Module Questionnaires and Scale. The food consumption pattern of the households was 

determined by using food frequency questionnaires. Data obtained was subjected to 

descriptive statistical analysis and test of significance of differences between means and 

proportion in the two communities. The results of the study show that 10% of the 

households in these communities were food secure, thus, meaning that the prevalence of 

household food insecurity was very high. About 49% of the households in Akobo 

community were food insecure with hunger while 42% were food insecure without 

hunger in Abadina community. The frequently consumed foods among the households 

were carbohydrate foods such as rice, bread, pap, garri, and complemented by fish, 

moinmoin and beef. The frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables was low. In 

conclusion, the high consumption of carbohydrate foods, with low consumption of 

protein foods and a relatively low consumption of fruits and vegetables observed among 

the target households could be attributed to the high prevalence of household food 

insecurity in the two communities. 

Key words: Food consumption, Household, Food insecurity, 

INTRODUCTION 

Hunger and malnutrition prevalence is perceived to be high among households in 

Nigeria. Nutritional deficiencies have been found to be associated with the high rates of 

disability, morbidity and mortality in Nigeria, especially among infants and young 

children (NPC and UNICEF, 2001). Thus, the importance of adequate nutrition for 

women and children cannot be overemphasized and remains a great a concern in the


country (NDHS, 2003). The types, quantity, quality and frequency of food eaten is 

reported to have declined over recent years (Todd, 1995). 

In spite of this, the 2003 NDHS Report shows that one-fifth of Nigerian women weigh 

more than they should: 15% are overweight and 6% are obese. While about two-third of 

women (64%) have body mass index (BMI) in the normal range, 15% are thin, and 2% 

are severely thin. This therefore implies that both forms of malnutrition (undernutrition 

and overnutrition) coexist in the population. This has been described as a double burden 

of disease (Hawkes et al 2005). The implication of this on the health budget is ominous. 

The population of Nigeria is predominantly rural; approximately one-third live in urban 

areas (NDHS, 2003). Despite her wealth of human and natural resources, Nigeria is 

ranked among the 13 poorest countries in the world and two of every three Nigerians live 

below the poverty line of US$1 a day (World Bank, 2001). It is a paradox that Nigeria is 

rich but Nigerians are poor (World Bank, 1995). Poverty directly and indirectly affects 

dietary intake and food consumption is influenced by household food insecurity. While 

80% of Nigerians spend more than 80% of their income on food, the food insecurity level 

among the households is perceived to be high. The conclusion drawn from Federal Office 

of Statistics (FOS) surveys show that poor households face food insecurity before harvest 

time and are often limited to starch-based consumption, particularly such items as 

cassava products (World Bank, 1996). The high prevalence of poverty observed in the 

country is one of the basic factors responsible for the problem of food insecurity at the 

household level. Although studies conducted in recent times have been able to help 

determine and measure the prevalence of malnutrition in infants, young children and 

women populations, the magnitude of household food insecurity has not been adequately 

measured using a standard household food security scale. Therefore, the gap in 

knowledge in this area is undermining the evaluation various nutrition intervention 

programmes put in place to mitigate and control malnutrition in the country. Food-based 

approach has been identified as a cost effective means of reducing malnutrition. 

Biofortification of commonly consumed staples has been one of the proposed strategies 

to mitigate and control the problem of hidden hunger. However, the success of such 

programme is dependent on how well the staple foods are identified, the quantity and 

frequency of consumption are known, and the household food security status is measured. 

The Nigeria Food Consumption and Nutrition Survey (NFCNS) conducted in 2001 

identified the affordability and availability and frequency of consumption of major 

staples consumed in Nigeria. However, the findings of the survey were national in scope; 

hence its use in designing targeted intervention programme for a particular socioeconomic 

class is limited. It is therefore essential that the level of household food 

insecurity be determined using a standard scale, and the staple foods including the 

quantity and frequency of their consumption in different socioeconomic classes and 

geopolitical zones be identified. 

This present study is a response to the need to answer some questions arising from this 

trend. 

1. What is the prevalence of household food insecurity in the study communities?. 

2. Why are they food insecure? 

3. What do Nigerians especially of low income status consume as staple foods? 

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The objectives of the study therefore were to measure the level of household food 

insecurity and determine the food consumption pattern in two low income communities 

in Ibadan, Nigeria. 

METHODOLOGY 

The study was conducted between February and March, 2005, in two communities - 

Akobo and Abadina - in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. A total of 106 households were 

selected and representatives/respondents from each household were interviewed in a 

cross-sectional survey. 

The Akobo community is located in a peri-urban setting in Lagelu/Akinyele Local 

government area (LGA), while Abadina community is situated in the junior staff quarters 

of the University of Ibadan in Ibadan North LGA. The people living in the two 

communities exhibit low socio-economic status. 

The respondents were women and they were selected using the following criteria: 

1. Women in charge of purchasing and preparing meals in their households. 

2. Women who have been residents in each community for more than 3years. 

3. Married 

4. Women with children under the age of 5years. 

5. Willingness to participate in the survey. 

The sampling frame was made up of 250 mother/child pairs in Akobo and 300 

mother/child pairs in Abadina. The minimum sample size for the study was derived using 

the formulae below: 

n = (z-∞)2 ×p (1-p) 

d2 

Where n = minimum sample size, 

(z-∞) is a constant = 1.96, 

p is the prevalence assumed = 5% 

d is the level of error that can be tolerated = 5%. 

Therefore, n = (1.96)2 ×0.05 (1-0.05) 

0.052 

n = 73 . 

Of the total of 550 households, 106 households were selected using a simple random 

sampling technique. The main instrument of survey was a Questionnaire containing: (a) 

the USDA food security module (b) food frequency (c) socioeconomic status and (d) 24hour 

dietary recall. 

The weights of the respondents were measured using the UNICEF Bathroom scale using 

standard techniques. The heights of the subjects were measured using a metal tape rule


using standard techniques (WHO, 1983). The Food Security Questionnaire (FSQ) module 

was also processed using stated methods. 

Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics from SPSS version 12 to find the 

frequencies, means, and standard deviations and to test for significance of proportion and 

mean differences between the two communities. 

RESULTS 

The results from the study showed that women in Abadina on the average were older and 

heavier in weight than those in Akobo. With the exception of height, the differences in 

these parameters were statistically significant. The mean weight, age, height and body 

mass index (BMI) of the women in the two communities are shown in Table 1. 

The household characteristics of the communities were significantly different (p

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The frequencies of consumption of protein foods in both communities were not 

significantly different (p>0.05) except for moinmoin, which had higher frequency of 

consumption in Akobo than in Abadina(Table 7). The frequencies of consumption of 

fruits and vegetables in both communities were not significantly different (p>0.05) except 

for the consumption of leafy green vegetables, which were higher in Abadina than in 

Akobo (Table 8). The consumption pattern of some food drinks such as Food beverages, 

Tea/ Coffee and carbonated drinks were the same in both communities. 

DISCUSSION 

The socioeconomic characteristics of the households in the two communities studied 

differ, as expected, from the results of the 2003 NDHS and the Nigeria Food 

Consumption and Nutrition Survey of 2001. IITA (2004) reports that the major primary 

occupation of the household heads at national level was farming (40.0%) but the major 

primary occupation of the household heads for the two communities was civil service 

(45.6%), although most of the household heads in Akobo were artisans (37.3%). These 

two communities are in the peri-urban location, not rural where farming is the main 

occupation. The predominant source of energy at national level was electricity used by 

38.4% households (IITA, 2004), while almost all the households (99.0%) in the two 

communities used electricity as the primary energy source. The common source of water 

available to households nationally was the well (37%), however pipe borne water supply 

(48.6%) appeared to be the most common or primary source of water among these 

households. Next to this source was the well water (45.7%). The predominant method of 

refuse disposal among the households was refuse dump. This points to possible 

environmental hazard yet to be adequately addressed. 

The level of food security among the households in the two communities – Akobo and 

Abadina – was similar. This therefore implies that the prevalence of food insecurity 

among the low socioeconomic households was very high (about 90%) and the prevalence 

was far higher than the national value of 40% (IITA, 2004) and the prevalence of food 

insecurity (24.4%) reported by Furness et al. (2004) among the low-income households in 

Los Angeles County. In spite of the high prevalence of household food insecurity in the 

two communities, the degree or type of food insecurity in the households differ between 

the two communities; most households (42.3%) in Abadina were food insecure but 

without hunger while most households (49.1%) in Akobo were food insecure with 

moderate hunger. The reason for the disparity could be attributed to the differences 

observed between the two communities in the area of sociodemographic status such as 

the number of adults per households, children per households, and the occupation of the 

household heads. Although Quandt et al. (2004) found that food insecure households with 

children had significantly high prevalence of food insecurity than those without children, 

households in Abadina having more number of children per household than Akobo 

households still had less prevalence of food insecurity with hunger. Tingay (2003) had 

attributed the problem of food insecurity in UK to household income, claiming that food 

insecurity was negatively associated with household income and that experiences of food 

security may be common in households with income at the level of the UK national 

minimum. It must be pointed out that the food availability status of the UK or the USA is 

far different to that of Africa. However in the context of the two communities, household


income was difficult to verify and therefore may not be useful to assess the household 

food security status owing to diversified sources of income and poor record keeping. 

The nutritional status of the women in the households was a paradox to the food 

insecurity status of the households. The prevalence of overweight and obesity observed 

among the low socioeconomic households were higher than the national prevalence of 

14.2% and 5.7% for overweight and obesity respectively. The prevalence of underweight 

among the households was lower than the national value of 11.6%. This phenomenon 

implies the co-existence of overweight and underweight and it is an indication of a dual 

burden of malnutrition even among the low socioeconomic communities in spite of the 

high prevalence of household food insecurity. This is consistent with previous findings 

(Kaiser et al. 2004; Hawkes et al. 2005) 

The food consumption pattern of the households was such that the most frequently 

consumed staples foods were carbohydrate such as rice, bread, garri and Pap. These were 

often complemented with “moinmoin” (steamed cowpea paste), fish and beef. The level 

of fruit and vegetable intake was relatively low except for orange and green leafy 

vegetables, which were averagely consumed at three times per week. Gulliford (2003) 

had observed that food insecurity was associated with lower consumption of fruits and 

vegetables. Also, Hawkes et al. (2005) claimed that in poorer countries, diet quality has 

traditionally been equated with sufficient intake of energy, concentrated in sugars, 

saturated fats and salt while being low in fruits, vegetables and whole grain cereals. 

CONCLUSION 

The findings from these communities show that food insecurity is a public health 

problem among the low-income households and this is consistent with previous studies 

(Piaseu et al. 2004; Furness et al. 2004). Because it negatively affects the dietary intake 

and nutritional status of adults it leads to poor health and increased risk for the 

development of chronic diseases (Olson and Holben, 2002). It also affects human 

development and health throughout the life cycle, but can be particularly harmful during 

the early critical or vulnerable stages and later in life (Cook, 2002). Thus, the high 

prevalence of food insecurity observed among the low socioeconomic households 

requires an urgent intervention in order to forestall the resultant adverse health and 

development consequences. The food consumption pattern of the target households was 

dominated by consumption of cereal foods (rice, wheat and maize), cassava products 

(garri), and some protein foods such as cowpea, fish and beef. The need to carry out a 

nation-wide periodic household food security assessment is hereby identified to inform 

policy and intervention programmes. 

Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the following nutritionists who 

participated actively in data gathering: Adebolu OO, Akerele OA, Ajayi OO, Ekerette 

UN, Fasesin OB, Ogedengbe VO, Ogunleye OL. 

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